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= Amanita abrupta = Amanita abrupta , commonly known as the American abrupt @-@ bulbed Lepidella , is a species of fungus in the Amanitaceae family of mushrooms . Named for the characteristic shape of its fruit bodies , this white Amanita has a slender stem , a cap covered with conical white warts , and an " abruptly enlarged " swollen base . This terrestrial species grows in mixed woods in eastern North America and eastern Asia , where it is thought to exist in a mycorrhizal relationship with a variety of both coniferous and deciduous tree species . = = Taxonomy = = Amanita abrupta was first described by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck in 1897 , based on a specimen he found in Auburn , Alabama . Because the remains of the volva are not present on the bulb in dried , mature , specimens , Peck thought that the species should be grouped with Amanita rubescens and A. spissa . Synonyms include binomials resulting from generic transfers by Jean @-@ Edouard Gilbert to Lepidella in 1928 , and to Aspidella in 1940 . Both of these genera have since been subsumed into Amanita . A. abrupta is the type species of the section Lepidella of the genus Amanita , in the subgenus Lepidella , a grouping of related Amanita mushrooms characterized by their amyloid spores . Other North American species in this subgenus include A. atkinsoniana , A. chlorinosma , A. cokeri , A. daucipes , A. mutabilis , A. onusta , A. pelioma , A. polypyramis , A. ravenelii , and A. rhopalopus . European and Asian species ( also in section Lepidella ) that are phylogenetically related — close to it in the evolutionary family tree — include A. solitaria , A. virgineoides , and A. japonica . The specific epithet abrupta refers to the shape of the swollen base , which is abruptly enlarged rather than gradually tapering . The species ' common name is the " American abrupt @-@ bulbed Lepidella " . = = Description = = In Amanita abrupta , as with most mushrooms , the bulk of the organism lies unseen beneath the ground as an aggregation of fungal cells called hyphae ; under appropriate environmental conditions , the visible reproductive structure ( fruit body ) is formed . The cap has a diameter of 4 to 10 centimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) , and has a broadly convex shape when young , but eventually flattens . The central portion of the cap becomes depressed in mature specimens . The cap surface is verrucose — covered with small angular or pyramidal erect warts ( 1 – 2 mm tall by 1 – 2 mm wide at the base ) ; the warts are smaller and more numerous near the margin of the cap , and small fragments of tissue may be hanging from the margin of the cap . The cap surface , the warts , and the flesh are white . The warts can be easily separated from the cap , and in mature specimens they have often completely or partly disappeared . The white gills are placed moderately close together , reaching the stem but not directly attached to it . The stem is 6 @.@ 5 to 12 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 to 4 @.@ 9 in ) tall , and slender , with a diameter of 0 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 6 in ) . It is white , smooth ( glabrous ) , solid ( that is , not hollow internally ) , and has an abruptly bulbous base with the shape of a flattened sphere ; it may develop longitudinal splits on the sides . The base is often attached to a copious white mycelium — a visual reminder that the bulk of the organism lies unseen below the surface . The ring is membranous , and persistent — not weathering away with time ; the ring may be attached to the stem with white fibers . The mushroom has no distinct odor . The edibility of the mushroom is unknown ; however , it is generally not recommended to consume Amanita mushrooms of questionable edibility . = = = Microscopic characteristics = = = When collected in deposit , such as with a spore print , the spores appear white . Viewed with a microscope , the spores are broadly elliptical or roughly spherical , smooth , thin @-@ walled , and have dimensions of 6 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 5 by 5 @.@ 5 by 8 @.@ 5 µm . Spores are amyloid ( meaning they take up iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent ) The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells on the edges of gills ) are four @-@ spored and measure 30 – 50 by 4 – 11 µm . The bases of the basidia have clamp connections — short branches connecting one cell to the previous cell to allow passage of the products of nuclear division . The cap cuticle comprises a layer of densely interwoven , sightly gelatinized , filamentous hyphae that are 3 – 8 µm in diameter . The stem tissue is made of sparse , thin , longitudinally oriented hyphae measuring 294 by 39 µm . = = = Similar species = = = The fruit bodies of Amanita kotohiraensis , a species known only from Japan , bears a superficial resemblance to A. abrupta , but A. kotohiraensis differs in having scattered floccose patches ( tufts of soft woolly hairs that are the remains of the volva ) on the cap surface , and pale yellow gills . A. polypyramis fruit bodies have also been noted to be similar to A. abrupta ; however , it tends to have larger caps , up to 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) in diameter , a fragile ring that soon withers away , and somewhat larger spores that typically measure 9 – 14 by 5 – 10 µm . The amyloidity and size of the spores are reliable characteristics to help distinguish A. abrupta specimens with less prominently bulbous bases from other lookalike species . Mycologists Tsuguo Hongo and Rokuya Imazeki suggested in the 1980s that the Japanese mushroom A. sphaerobulbosa was synonymous with the North American A. abrupta . However , a 1999 study of Amanita specimens in Japanese herbaria concluded that they were closely related but distinct species , due to differences in spore shape and in the microstructure of the volval remnants . Another similar species , A. magniverrucata , is differentiated from A. abrupta by a number of characteristics : the universal veil is clearly separated from the flesh of the cap ; the volval warts disappear more quickly because the surface of the cap cuticle gelatinizes ; the partial veil is more persistent ; the spores are smaller and roughly spherical ; on the underside of the partial veil , the stem has surface fibrils that are drawn upward so as to somewhat resemble a cortina ( a cobweb @-@ like protective covering over the immature spore bearing surfaces ) ; A. magniverrucata has a known distribution limited to the south western coast of North America . = = Habitat , distribution , and ecology = = The fruit bodies of A. abrupta grow on the ground , typically solitary , in mixed conifer and deciduous forests , usually during autumn . The frequency with which fruit bodies appear depends on several factors , such as season , location , temperature , and rainfall . The mushroom has been described as common in the Southeastern United States ; in Texas , it has been called both infrequent , and common in the Big Thicket National Preserve . Like most other Amanita species , A. abrupta is thought to form mycorrhizal relationships with trees . This is a mutually beneficial relationship where the hyphae of the fungus grow around the roots of trees , enabling the fungus to receive moisture , protection and nutritive byproducts of the tree , and affording the tree greater access to soil nutrients . Amanita abrupta is widely distributed throughout eastern North America , where it has been found as far North as Quebec , Canada , and as far south as Mexico . Orson K. Miller claims to have found it in the Dominican Republic where it appeared to be growing in a mycorrizhal association with pine trees . Kuo also mentions a mycorrhizal relationship with both hardwoods and conifers , while Tulloss lists additional preferred tree hosts such as beech , birch , fir , tsuga , oak , and poplar . However , A. abrupta has been shown experimentally to not form mycorrhizae with Virginia Pine . = = = Cited books = = = Jenkins DB . ( 1986 ) . Amanita of North America . Eureka , California : Mad River Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 916422 @-@ 55 @-@ 0 . Metzler V , Metzler S ( 1992 ) . Texas Mushrooms : A Field Guide . Austin , Texas : University of Texas Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 292 @-@ 75125 @-@ 7 .
= Datalore = " Datalore " is the 13th episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , originally aired on January 18 , 1988 , in broadcast syndication . The story was created by Robert Lewin and Maurice Hurley , and turned into a script by Lewin and the creator of the show , Gene Roddenberry . It was Roddenberry 's final script credit on a Star Trek series . The director was originally to be Joe Scanlan , but following delays in pre @-@ production caused by script re @-@ writes , it was reassigned to Rob Bowman . Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise @-@ D. In this episode , the Enterprise crew discover and reassemble Data 's " brother " , Lore ( both Brent Spiner ) , who is in league with the entity that destroyed the colony on his home world . The story underwent significant changes prior to filming , with it originally meant to be a romance episode for Data with a female android . It was then altered to an " evil twin " plot at the suggestion of Spiner and elements of Data 's origin were introduced , first as an alien creation and then at the hands of Dr. Noonien Soong . Soong was named by Roddenberry after a friend in the Second World War . Edits to the script continued to be made during filming , and while the look of the episode was praised by cast and crew , the characterisations in the script were not . Ratings for the episode came in at 10 @.@ 3 million for the first broadcast , which was lower than both the previous and subsequent episodes . Critical reception has been mixed , with criticism directed mostly at the quality of the script and Spiner praised for his dual role . = = Plot = = While on the way to Starbase Armus IX for computer maintenance , the Enterprise arrives at the planet Omicron Theta , the site of a vanished colony where the starship Tripoli originally found the android Data ( Brent Spiner ) . An away team travels to the surface and finds that what had been farmland is now barren with no trace of life in the soil . The team also finds a lab which they discover is where Dr. Noonien Soong , a formerly prominent but now discredited robotics designer , built Data . The team also find a disassembled android nearly identical to Data and return with it to the ship . As the course to the Starbase is resumed , the crew reassemble and reactivate Data 's " brother " ( also played by Brent Spiner ) in sickbay . He refers to himself as Lore , and explains that Data was built first and he himself is the more perfect model . He feigns naiveté to the crew , but shows signs of being more intelligent than he is letting on . Later , in private , he tells Data that they were actually created in the opposite order , as the colonists became envious of his own perfection . He also explains that a crystalline space entity capable of stripping away all life force from a world was responsible for the colony 's demise . Lore then incapacitates Data , revealing that he plans to offer the ship 's crew to the entity . When a signal transmission is detected from Data 's quarters , Wesley Crusher ( Wil Wheaton ) arrives to investigate . He finds Lore , now impersonating Data , who explains that he had to incapacitate his brother after being attacked . Wesley is doubtful , but pretends to accept the explanation . Soon after , the same crystalline entity that had attacked the colony approaches the ship . Lore , still pretending to be Data , enters the bridge as the object hovers before the Enterprise and explains that he incapacitated his brother by turning him off , causing Doctor Beverly Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) to be suspicious , since Data had previously treated the existence of such a feature as a closely guarded secret . Lore then explains that he can communicate with the crystalline entity and suggests to Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) that he should show a demonstration of force by beaming an object toward the entity and then destroying it with the ship 's phasers . Lore 's attempts to imitate Data are imperfect , though , arousing Picard 's suspicion , especially when Lore does not recognize Picard 's usual command to " make it so " . Although Picard sends a security detachment to tail him , Lore disables Lt. Worf ( Michael Dorn ) and evades pursuit . Meanwhile , the suspicious Dr. Crusher and her son , Wesley , reactivate the unconscious Data , and the three of them race to the cargo hold to find Lore plotting with the entity to defeat the Enterprise . When Lore discovers them , he threatens Wesley with a phaser and orders Dr. Crusher to leave . Data quickly rushes Lore and a brawl ensues . Data manages to knock Lore onto the transporter platform , and Wesley activates it , beaming Lore into space . With its conspirator no longer aboard , the crystalline entity departs , and the Enterprise resumes their journey to the starbase . = = Production = = The original story for this episode featured a non @-@ lookalike female android who was intended to be a love interest for Data . The new android was intended to have been created as something that could be deployed into dangerous or hazardous situations , described in the premise as something along the lines of a female android version of Red Adair , the fire fighter . The " evil twin " story was suggested by Brent Spiner instead , and was originally developed to include the creation of Data by an alien race . This was instead dropped and Dr. Noonian Soong was introduced . Soong was named by Gene Roddenberry after his Second World War friend , Kim Noonien Singh , who the character Khan Noonien Singh was also named after . It would be Roddenberry 's final script credit on a Star Trek series . The script made mention of Isaac Asimov and the Laws of Robotics , something which had been suggested should be included at some point in the show as a spoken credit in a memo dated October 28 , 1986 from executive producer Bob Justman . The episode suffered delays during pre @-@ production caused by re @-@ writes to the script , resulting in the script being switched with " The Big Goodbye " , which meant that director Joe Scanlan went on to direct that episode instead . Rob Bowman , who had previously been told by Justman that he was going to direct " The Big Goodbye " after his work on " Too Short a Season " , was instead assigned to direct " Datalore " . He took the new episode on as a challenge , in the belief that the producers didn 't think the episode would work well , which caused him to become determined to put out a good episode . He had numerous discussions with Brent Spiner , Justman , and Rick Berman on aspects of the episode and the technical requirements and effects required an additional day of filming . Bowman credited Spiner for making the episode work , giving one example , " He did the one scene in his own office with Brent sitting down and Lore discussion what it 's like to be human . He did one side , we shot through a double , then turned around , read it the other way and shot the other half of it . Those two characters in those scenes are different people ... he really painted those characters differently . " Edits were still being made to the script during filming , as the writers wanted to introduce a new element to Data , in order to further distinguish him from Lore : an inability to use contractions . Data had used contractions during earlier episodes , and Spiner refused to shoot the scene until a final decision was reached ; production stopped while there was a meeting on this subject between Gene Roddenberry , the producers , and the writers , in the middle of the bridge set . The music for the episode was composed by Ron Jones , and was later released on the second disc of the album Star Trek : The Next Generation : The Ron Jones Project . For this episode , Jones created a six @-@ note theme to represent Lore . The crystalline entity was given a theme of three notes which played through two pieces entitled Crystal Entity and Crystal Attacks . The music played when the away team explore Omicron Theta was similar to that created by Jerry Goldsmith for the 1979 film Alien . Jones acknowledged that link saying that , " I was playing with the stuff like Jerry ’ s music at the beginning of Alien , Bowman was like our Ridley Scott — he was like Ridley Scott Jr. and I was Jerry Goldsmith Jr . " Executive producer Maurice Hurley was pleased with the outcome of the episode , saying " The sets , the design of it and the look of that show was brilliant , I thought that might have been the best @-@ looking show of the first season " . However , he felt that the characterisations weren 't quite right . This was the same opinion as that put forward by actor Brent Spiner , who portrayed both Data and Lore , who thought that Data 's actions were not in line with his expectations of the character . This episode was the second and last appearance of Biff Yeager as Chief Engineer Argyle . He was the only one of the Chief Engineers introduced during the first season to appear twice , with Geordi La Forge ( LeVar Burton ) gaining the role in season two . Wil Wheaton later recalled that the stand @-@ in actor used in this episode really irritated Spiner , and was never used again . He described the stand @-@ in as looking like " a break dancer doing the Robot " whenever he had to portray Data or Lore , and said that " I think the guy was really into playing an android , and his enthusiasm got cranked up to eleven , but by the end of the week , pretty much everyone wanted to deactivate him and sell him to the nearest Jawa . " The events of the episode would be followed up in later seasons , with the crystalline entity returning in the fifth @-@ season episode " Silicon Avatar " . Brent Spiner reprised the role of Lore in the episodes " Brothers " and " Descent " . = = Reception = = " Datalore " was first broadcast on January 18 , 1988 , in broadcast syndication . The episode received Nielsen ratings of 10 @.@ 3 million on the first broadcast , which was a dip between " The Big Goodbye " which received ratings of 11 @.@ 5 in the previous week , and " Angel One " which gained ratings of 11 @.@ 4 million in the next week . Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Keith DeCandido reviewed the episode for Tor.com in June 2011 . He summed it up by saying " What a dreadful episode . While it 's important in the grand scheme of things in what it establishes about Data 's background , the episode itself is horrendously bad , from the clumsy script to the embarrassingly inept body @-@ double work . " He thought the ending was anticlimactic , and that the characters all acted " as dumb as posts " in the episode . The most positive thing he said of the episode was that " Spiner 's teeth marks are all over the scenery when he 's onscreen as Lore " . DeCandido gave " Datalore " a score of four out of ten . Cast member Wil Wheaton watched the episode for AOL TV in December 2007 . While he credited the art direction of the episode , he criticised the story , saying that " it comes down to lazy writing that has things happen because they 're supposed to happen , rather than having them happen organically . The characters are credulous when they should be skeptical , the audience isn 't surprised by anything after the second act , and there are story problems that should have never gotten past the first draft . " He remembered really enjoying the episode as a child , but felt that it didn 't hold up on repeat watchings as an adult , and stated that Spiner 's " fantastic job creating distinctly different characters in Data and Lore " wasn 't enough to remedy the other faults in the episode . He gave it a D grade . Michelle Erica Green , who reviewed the episode for TrekNation in May 2007 , thought she might be more forgiving in hindsight as she knows that the follow @-@ ups to " Datalore " were great episodes . She thought it was reminiscent of the evil twin of Captain James T. Kirk in The Original Series episode " The Enemy Within " and the mirror universe version of Spock seen in " Mirror , Mirror " . She felt that Lore lacked any motivation for what he was intending to do , and that the crew were made to look " pretty stupid " by their inaction to the Lore threat . She thought that the ending was shocking , as transporting the villain into space would never have occurred if they were human , and " a moment of utter inconsistency " as Lore had only just told the entity to attack when the shields drop following a transporter activation . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " valued the episode for providing backstory to Data , but said that " no one is smart enough to realize the obvious . None of the crew except Boy Wesley realizes that Lore is impersonating Data — and when Wesley ( who is always somehow more observant than the silly adults ) brings this to their attention , we get helpful lines like , " Shut up , Wesley , " which lead to even more helpful lines of would @-@ be teenage rebellion when Wesley complains about the officers not listening to him . Quite simply , this is annoying material , continuing in season one 's trend of Wesley 's child status as a plot device . Meanwhile , all the adults look terminally clueless . " He gave the episode a score of three out of four . Zack Handlen watched " Datalore " for The A.V. Club in April 2010 . Whilst he thought that Data 's origins had significant plotholes , saying that the ship which originally found Data didn 't think it was unusual that the farming colony had been wiped out and hadn 't even searched the planet for Soong 's lab which La Forge finds " after roughly three minutes of looking aimlessly around " . He thought that the role of Lore was a chance for Spiner to showcase his abilities , but felt that the story only scratched the surface of the possible routes that could have been taken . He thought the contraction issue was a problem , as despite saying that Data could not use them , he promptly used them throughout the episode including immediately after Lore was beamed off the ship which caused confusion as it " punishes you for paying attention , because now you 'll be half @-@ convinced that the wrong robot was beamed away , and that Lore somehow won out in the end . " He disliked the response of the crew to Wesley and thought that he was being mistreated , and gave the episode an overall grade of B- . = = Home media and theatrical release = = The most recent release was as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 . In order to celebrate the 25th anniversary of Star Trek : The Next Generation and promote the release of the first season on Blu @-@ ray , the episodes " Datalore " and " Where No One Has Gone Before " received a theatrical release in the United States on July 23 , 2012 , in nearly 500 cinemas . " Datalore " was chosen by Star Trek experts Mike and Denise Okuda because of the fan favourite status of Brent Spiner .
= The Reporter ( Parks and Recreation ) = " The Reporter " is the third episode of the first season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 23 , 2009 . The episode was written by Daniel J. Goor and directed by Jeffrey Blitz . In the episode , Leslie enlists a local reporter to write an article about the park , but the interviews go poorly , and the problem escalates after Mark gets romantically involved with the journalist . The episode featured actress and comedian Alison Becker in a guest appearance as Pawnee Journal reporter Shauna Malwae @-@ Tweep . " The Reporter " received generally mixed reviews , with some commentators still comparing it unfavorably to The Office , another comedy series created by the Parks and Recreations co @-@ creators . According to Nielsen Media Research , it was watched by 5 @.@ 23 million households in its original airing , continuing a downward trend in ratings since the pilot episode . " The Reporter " and the rest of the first season of Parks and Recreation was released on DVD in the United States on September 8 , 2009 . = = Plot = = Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) announces she has invited a reporter from the local Pawnee Journal newspaper to write a story about the construction pit that she plans to turn into a park . Leslie meticulously prepares for the interview , instructing the members of her subcommittee to " stay on message . " Over lunch with Mark Brendanawicz ( Paul Schneider ) , Leslie seeks advice on how to deal with the press . Leslie once again tells the documentary crew like she did in the pilot that she previously had sex with Mark and seems to still harbor feelings for him . The reporter , Shauna Malwae @-@ Tweep ( Alison Becker ) arrives the next day to interview Leslie , along with Ann ( Rashida Jones ) and Andy ( Chris Pratt ) . During the interview , Andy reveals he was drunk when he fell in the pit , much to the horror of Leslie and Ann , who were not previously aware of it . Leslie calls Mark for assistance in dealing with the reporter and Mark , seemingly attracted to Shauna , ends up leaving the parks department office with her . The next morning , Leslie waits at the pit for an interview with Shauna . Leslie is surprised when Mark drops Shauna off at the site and , when she sees Shauna is wearing the same dress as the previous day , she realizes Mark and Shauna have had sex . Leslie is standoffish and irritable during the interview , and she later confronts Mark , who says that it is a private matter and tells Leslie she is acting like a " huge dork . " When Leslie says she cannot have this type of behavior from members of her subcommittee , Mark resigns from the committee . Leslie asks for another interview with Shauna , attributing her behavior during their last interview due to food poisoning from a burrito . During the interview , Shauna reads a number of quotes claiming the park will never be built , and that the existence of unicorns , leprechauns and talking monkeys are more likely . Leslie is disappointed to learn Mark provided the quotes . Later , Ann tells Mark about the upcoming story and the negative quotes , which Mark thought was off the record . The two confront Shauna and ask her not to use the quotes . Shauna says that she will not use the quotes since the two are " romantically involved , " but when Mark disputes the idea that they are romantically involved , Shauna appears visibly annoyed . Later , Mark apologizes to Leslie and asks to be reinstated to the committee , to which Leslie happily agrees . Later , Leslie reads the story , which is not entirely positive , but her enthusiasm remains strong . In a B story , Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) deliberately loses at online Scrabble against his boss Ron ( Nick Offerman ) , and is horrified when intern April ( Aubrey Plaza ) plays on his account and beats Ron . Tom insists to Ron that he is the " Scrabble king . " Ron later reveals he knows Tom loses on purpose , but doesn 't mind because Tom is his idea of a model employee : unproductive , lacking initiative and a poor team player . = = Production = = " The Reporter " was written by Daniel J. Goor and directed by Jeffrey Blitz . Blitz previously directed episodes of The Office , a comedy series created by Parks and Recreation co @-@ creator Greg Daniels . Michael Schur , who created Parks along with Daniels , said of Blitz , " He 's such a great director , and it made us feel , launching this new show , safe and happy to have him . " It was originally supposed to be the second episode shown in the series , but the broadcast schedule was changed and " Canvassing , " the original third episode , was shown second instead . Goor was very upset with the switch so , as a prank , the Parks and Recreation producers sent him an e @-@ mail message claiming NBC was going to be further held until the second season because it was preempted by " a sports thing . " The episode was filmed only two weeks after filming wrapped on the pilot episode , which Schur said he regretted because , " Normally , you 'd like to have the usual three months or so to sit back , look at what you made , draw conclusions , tinker , and rewrite . " During " The Reporter , " Parks and Recreation editor Dean Holland developed an editing technique that would be used throughout the rest of the series . During the scene in which Leslie reacts to quotes read to her by the reporter , Amy Poehler improvised a number of jokes , many of which were not going to be used . Holland thought they were all funny , so he created a brief montage inter @-@ cutting several of the lines into the same scene . Like most episodes of Parks and Recreation , many of the scenes in " The Reporter " were improvised by the actors . For example , Chris Pratt changed the original line about Mark , " He 's thinking with his wiener instead of his brain , " to " He 's thinking with the head of his wiener , instead of the head of his brain . " Aziz Ansari also improvised the line about Mark , " That dude has stuck it in some crazy chicks . " Schur was surprised NBC censors allowed either of the lines to stay in the episode . The clip of Leslie trying to confront a raccoon loose in the city hall building was originally filmed for a Parks and Recreation commercial , but was later included into this episode . The scene was filmed to establish a running gag that Pawnee has a terrible raccoon infestation problem . The J.J. ' s Diner eatery featured in the episode was named after Goor 's wife . Poehler speedily eats tremendous amounts of whipped cream on her waffles . This was inspired by Parks and Recreation story editor Rachel Axler , who producer Morgan Sackett said is " a tiny , bird @-@ like woman " who eats enormous amounts of whipped cream . " The Reporter " featured actress and comedian Alison Becker in a guest appearance as Pawnee Journal reporter Shauna Malwae @-@ Tweep . Leslie calls the local Pawnee Journal newspaper " our town 's Washington Post , one of the largest circulation newspaper in the country . A PDF copy of the Pawnee Journal newspaper page from the episode was posted on NBC 's official Parks and Recreation website about Pawnee , Indiana ; it included an article written by Shauna Malwae @-@ Tweep with a photo of Leslie in front of the pit , and references to portions of the article mentioned by Leslie in the episode . = = Reception = = In its original American broadcast on April 23 , 2009 , " The Reporter " was watched by 5 @.@ 23 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research , continuing a downward trend in ratings since the pilot episode . " The Reporter " received a 2 @.@ 4 rating / 8 share among viewers aged between 18 and 34 , and a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 7 share among viewers between 18 and 49 . The episode received mixed reviews . The London Free Press listed it as one of the " best bets " to watch the evening it originally aired . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said the small @-@ town government setting and story lines of the show were working , but felt the writing for the Leslie character has been uneven and that individual situations involving her in " The Reporter " were not funny or effective . Matt Fowler of IGN said the Leslie character was funny , particularly when she talks about her failure to remove graffiti penises from a city wall . ( " To this day , I am haunted by those remaining penises . " ) But Fowler said the Scrabble subplot between Tom and Ron was " silly , " and said the Ron character is too one @-@ note and unfunny . Scott Tobias of The A.V. Club said the faux @-@ documentary style of the show , and Leslie 's naive faith about her project and department in this episode , draw unflattering comparisons to The Office , which was also made by the Park and Recreation creators . Tobias said the Scrabble subplot brought " the few good laughs " in the episode . Jason Hughes of TV Squad said he was having trouble connecting to the Leslie character , but felt " The Reporter " allowed for further development of supporting characters like Ron , Tom and Mark , who is portrayed as self @-@ absorbed and " a bit of a douche . " Brigid Brown of Cinema Blend said he believes Rashida Jones is being underutilized by the show . = = DVD release = = " The Reporter , " along with the five other first season episode of Parks and Recreation , was released on a one @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on September 8 , 2009 . The DVD included cast and crew commentary tracks for each episodes , as well as about 30 minutes of deleted scenes . The deleted scenes included on the DVD were originally featured on the official Parks and Recreation website after the episode aired . They included clips of Ann voicing excitement about the pit committee , Leslie asking everyone to " stay on message " with the reporter , and Mark expressing shock about Shauna Malwae @-@ Tweep quoting him .
= Bart 's Comet = " Bart 's Comet " is the 14th episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . The episode originally aired on Fox in the United States on February 5 , 1995 . In the episode , Bart Simpson accidentally discovers a comet , which is heading towards Springfield . The show 's writing staff saw an issue of Time magazine which presented the threat of comets hitting Earth on its cover , and decided to create an episode in a similar vein . John Swartzwelder wrote the script , while Bob Anderson directed . " Bart 's Comet " contains references to Where 's Waldo ? and The Twilight Zone , and received positive commendations from reviewers . = = Plot = = After Bart sabotages Principal Skinner 's weather balloon by adding a Skinner @-@ shaped flag that reads " Hi , I 'm Big Butt Skinner " to it , Skinner decides to punish him by having him help with his amateur astronomy , which he engages in at 4 AM before school starts . Skinner dreams of finding something in the sky and having it named after him . When the weather balloon drifts by the playground , Skinner runs off to catch it , leaving Bart unattended with the telescope . Bart accidentally locates a comet which is named after him , much to the consternation of Skinner , who loses both his chance at having a celestial body named after him , and the grip on the weather balloon , causing it to fly off again . Scientists soon discover that the comet is heading straight for Springfield . Professor Frink plans to launch a missile at the comet , dispelling everyone 's fears ( save only by Lisa , who knows that this plan can backfire , and Moe , because in any circumstance , his tavern will be destroyed anyway ) . However , the missile flies past the comet , instead blowing up the only bridge out of town , dooming the people . After a Congressional bill to evacuate Springfield is defeated due to a congressman attaching a bill to help fund " the perverted arts " to the evacuation bill , Homer decides that they should stay in the bomb shelter that Ned Flanders built . Anticipating this , Ned had built it large enough for both families . One hour before Springfield is destroyed , the rest of the townspeople arrive , demanding a place in the bunker . Homer is unable to close the door and someone has to leave . Homer decides that the only thing the " world of the future " will not need is left @-@ handed stores and tells Ned to go . Ned tells Rodd Flanders to shoot him if he tries to come back in before leaves the bomb shelter , Moe decided that they should play a barnyard noise guessing game to pass the time ; however , it causes a huge argument . Eventually , Homer feels guilty and leaves as well , followed by the other townspeople and they all converge on a hill with Ned to await death . As the comet enters the atmosphere , it burns up in the thick layer of pollution over Springfield , popping Skinner 's weather balloon and destroying Ned 's bunker on the way . The town decides to burn down the observatory to prevent a similar incident from ever happening again . The Simpsons , however , are more worried at the fact Homer correctly predicted the fate of the comet---that it would burn up and fall to earth as a rock no bigger than a Chihuahua 's head ( it even lands next to an actual Chihuahua for comparison ) . = = Production = = The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Bob Anderson . After seeing an issue of Time magazine , which presented the threat of comets hitting Earth on its cover , the writing staff decided to have an episode based on the concept of a comet hitting Springfield . They fleshed out the episode 's plot over several days and Swartzwelder then set about writing the details of the script . According to showrunner David Mirkin , examples of " Swartzwelder humor " in the episode include the American fighter pilots mistaking Groundskeeper Willie for an Iraqi jet and cutting to Grampa and Jasper outside a 1940s General store . For the bomb shelter scene , the mass of townspeople was constructed on multiple layers so that it was easier to animate . Kent Brockman 's list of gay people is composed of the show 's production staff , who had to sign legal agreements that they would not sue their own show . As a result , according to Groening , many of the staff appear on lists of gay people on the Internet . The episodes marks the first appearance of Database , a character show creator Matt Groening dislikes if he is used for anything more than one line . Mirkin considers the episode to be one of his all time favorites , calling it a " perfect Simpsons episode " due to the size of the plot , emotion and observational humor . = = Cultural references = = The couch gag is a reference to the animation of Fleischer Studios . The constellation of the Three Wise Men is a drawing of the The Three Stooges . The townspeople yanking their collars after the rocket destroys the only bridge out of town is a reference to Charles Nelson Reilly 's performance in The Ghost & Mrs. Muir . Waldo from Where 's Waldo ? appears near the top @-@ left of frame during the first group shot in the bomb shelter , imitating the style of the Where 's Waldo ? books . The bomb shelter scenes were based on The Twilight Zone episodes " The Shelter " and " The Monsters Are Due on Maple Street " . The episode makes references to Back to the Future , including when Professor Frink accidentally sets his town model on fire , just like Doc Brown . The Super Friends are named after the 1970s cartoon of the same name and as the comet approaches Springfield , the townspeople sing " Que Sera Sera " , a song originally recorded by Doris Day for Alfred Hitchcock 's 1956 film The Man Who Knew Too Much . = = Reception = = In its original American broadcast , " Bart 's Comet " finished joint 33rd ( with The X @-@ Files and Hangin ' with Mr. Cooper ) in the ratings for the week of January 3 to February 5 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 3 . It was the fourth highest rated show on the Fox network that week . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , called it an " excellent episode " and praised the " great moment when the ever @-@ pious Maude Flanders happily sacrifices her Neddy . " Mikey Cahill of the Herald Sun picked the episode 's chalkboard gag " Cursive writing does not mean what I think it does " as one of his favorite chalkboard gags in the history of the show . Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide said in a review of the sixth season DVD that he did not " share the same level of enthusiasm for it " as Mirkin , concluding : " I think it provides a consistently strong show . It stretches reality a bit , but that ’ s not a problem – or unusual for the series – and the program ends up as a positive one . " Ryan Keefer of DVD Verdict gave the episode a B- . In the July 26 , 2007 issue of Nature , the scientific journal 's editorial staff listed " Bart 's Comet " among " The Top Ten science moments in The Simpsons " .
= Michael Bourtzes = Michael Bourtzes ( Greek : Μιχαήλ Βούρτζης , Arabic : Miḥā ’ īl al @-@ Burdjī ; ca . 930 / 35 – after 996 ) was a leading Byzantine general of the latter 10th century . He became notable for his capture of Antioch from the Arabs in 969 , but fell into disgrace by the Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas . Resentful at the slight , Bourtzes joined forces with the conspirators who assassinated Phokas a few weeks later . Bourtzes re @-@ appears in a prominent role in the civil war between Emperor Basil II and the rebel Bardas Skleros , switching his allegiance from the emperor to the rebel and back again . Nevertheless , he was re @-@ appointed as doux of Antioch by Basil , a post he held until 995 , when he was relieved because of his failures in the war against the Fatimids . = = Biography = = = = = Career under Nikephoros II and John Tzimiskes = = = Michael Bourtzes was the first prominent member of the Bourtzes family , originating in the upper Euphrates region , which went on to become one of the major clans of the Byzantine military aristocracy during the 11th century . The name has been proposed as deriving either from the Arabic burdj , " tower " , or from the placename Bourtzo or Soterioupolis near Trebizond . Likewise the ethnic origin of the family is disputed among scholars : Vitalien Laurent and Jean @-@ Claude Cheynet suggested an Arab origin , while Peter Charanis and Nicholas Adontz advocated an Armenian origin . The date of Michael Bourtzes 's birth is unknown , but must be placed sometime between 930 and 935 . He is first mentioned in late 968 , when he was appointed by Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas ( reigned 963 – 969 ) as patrikios and strategos of the small theme of Mauron Oros ( " Black Mountain " ) , on the southern outliers of the Amanus Mountains . With his base on the newly built fortress of Pagras , Bourtzes and his thousand men were tasked with controlling the northern approaches to the Arab @-@ held city of Antioch . Acting against Nikephoros 's orders not to assault the city in his absence , in the late autumn of 969 , Bourtzes persuaded a traitor inside the city to surrender one of the wall 's main towers , which he then promptly occupied on 28 October . He then defended this post against repeated attacks of the city 's defenders for three days , until the reinforcements led by the stratopedarches Peter arrived and secured the city for the Byzantines . Despite his major role in this success , Bourtzes 's reward was distinctly lacking : angry at him for disobeying his orders , or , according to another account , for laying fire and destroying much of the city , Emperor Nikephoros dismissed him from his post and appointed a kinsman of his , Eustathios Maleinos , as the first governor of Antioch . Angered by this treatment , Bourtzes joined a conspiracy involving a number of other prominent generals who were discontent at Nikephoros , chief amongst them John Tzimiskes . On the night of 10 / 11 December 969 , a group of these conspirators , including Tzimiskes and Bourtzes , managed to gain access to the imperial Boukoleon Palace by sea , and proceeded to murder the emperor and install Tzimiskes as his successor . Despite his prominent role in the assassination of Nikephoros II , the historical sources barely mention Bourtzes for the duration of Tzimiskes 's reign ( 969 – 976 ) . Only Yahya of Antioch records that in summer 971 , with 12 @,@ 000 men , he oversaw the repairs carried out to the walls of Antioch following an earthquake and executed one of the murderers of Patriarch Christopher , but it is not certain whether he had been placed in command there as governor . Rather , at the time of Tzimiskes 's death in January 976 , he is stated by John Skylitzes to have commanded the elite tagma of the Stratelatai in the army of Bardas Skleros . = = = Career under Basil II = = = At the point of Tzimiskes 's death , imperial power reverted to the legitimate emperors , the young brothers Basil II ( r . 976 – 1025 ) and Constantine VIII ( co @-@ emperor until 1025 , sole emperor in 1025 – 28 ) . In view of their youth and inexperience , however , government essentially continued to be exercised by the powerful parakoimomenos , Basil Lekapenos . Almost immediately , the parakoimomenos moved to forestall any moves by one of the powerful Anatolian magnates to seize the throne and reign as a supposed " guardian " of the two young emperors , like Phokas and Tzimiskes had done . A general reshuffle of the most important army posts in the East followed , interpreted by later historians like Skylitzes as a move to weaken the position of over @-@ powerful strategoi . At this point , Bourtzes was appointed commander of the troops in northern Syria , with his seat at Antioch ; indeed , he seems to have been the first to be titled doux of Antioch . According to Skylitzes , this move was designed by the parakoimomenos to wean him away from his close relationship with Skleros , who as one of the Empire 's senior generals and de facto second @-@ in @-@ command under his relative Tzimiskes , was a prime candidate for usurping the throne . Almost immediately after his appointment , Bourtzes set out in a deep raid into Fatimid @-@ controlled Syria , reaching Tripolis and returning with much booty . In spring , however , Bardas Skleros , now appointed doux of Mesopotamia , rose in revolt and proclaimed himself emperor at his base in Melitene . Bourtzes was commanded by Constantinople to lead his force north , join the army of Eustathios Maleinos , now governor of Cilicia , and block the rebel from crossing the Antitaurus Mountains . Leaving his son in control of Antioch , Bourtzes complied and marched north . In the ensuing battle at the fortress of Lapara in the province of Lykandos ( autumn 976 ) , however , the combined loyalist force was routed , with Bourtzes being the first to retreat according to the chroniclers . As Skylitzes pointedly comments , Bourtzes ' conduct during the battle was attributed either to cowardice or to malice ; certainly soon after , he deserted the imperial camp and joined Skleros . According to the contemporary Yahya of Antioch , Bourtzes at first fled to a fortress in the Anatolic Theme , but was followed by Skleros and persuaded to come over to his side . Bourtzes 's defection brought Skleros control of Antioch as well : Bourtzes commanded his son Constantine to join him , and the city was left in the hands of the Arab Kulayb , who was soon overthrown by another Arab , Ubaydallah , who also joined Skleros . In the summer of 977 , Boutzes was deployed , along with Romanos Taronites , in command of Skleros 's forces shadowing the operations of the imperial army advancing from Kotyaion to Ikonion . The presence of the tribute caravan from Aleppo entangled the two forces in an impromptu fight at Oxylithos , which ended in a bloody defeat for the rebels . After this , Bourtzes again switched sides and rejoined the imperial army , now led by Bardas Phokas . Nothing is known of Bourtzes 's career for the next twelve years . Uniquely amongst the military leaders who had revolted against him , Basil II continued to rely on Bourtzes and entrusted him again with the critical position of doux of Antioch in 989 , in the aftermath of another rebellion , this time of Bardas Phokas . In November 989 , Bourtzes took the city over from Leo Phokas , the son of Bardas , who himself had submitted to the emperor only months earlier . From this position , over the next few years Bourtzes led the defence of the imperial frontier in a renewed bout of fighting with the Fatimids , as the two empires disputed control over the Hamdanid emirate of Aleppo . In 991 he provided military assistance to the Hamdanid emir of Aleppo , Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla , which enabled the latter to defeat the rebel Bakjur , who with Fatimid help tried to seize Aleppo . Early in the next year , a Fatimid army under Manjutakin advanced on Aleppo . Manjutakin sent a messenger to Bourtzes , claiming that his conflict was with Aleppo , and did not involve the Byzantines , but Bourtzes had the messenger arrested . After defeating the Hamdanids in battle near Apamea , Manjutakin laid siege to Aleppo for 33 days , after which he left part of his forces behind and led the rest to confront Bourtzes , who was marching to the city 's aid . At the ensuing battle at Siderophygon ( Arabic Jisr al @-@ Hadith ) Bourtzes and his men were defeated . Manjutakin followed up his success by capturing the fortress of Imm , commanded by Bourtzes ' nephew , and taking him and 300 troops prisoner , before embarking on a plundering raid through Byzantine territory as far as Germanikeia ( Ar . Mar 'ash ) . The Fatimid general returned to Aleppo , but was unable to take it and withdrew later in the year . At about the same time , the Muslim population of Laodicea , Antioch 's seaport , rose in revolt , but Bourtzes was able to put it down and deported the populace to the interior of Byzantine territory in Asia Minor . In the late summer of 993 , Manjutakin launched yet another expedition , capturing Apamea and Larissa ( Ar . Shayzar ) and continuing his raids in the Byzantine province around Antioch , before returning safely to Damascus . In spring 994 , Manjutakin once more moved against Aleppo . Responding to the calls for aid by the Hamdanids , Basil II ordered Bourtzes to come to their aid , and sent the magistors Leo Melissenos with reinforcements to Syria . The Byzantine army however was surprised and heavily defeated when attacked on two flanks by Manjutakin in a battle at the banks of the Orontes , on 15 September 994 . Manjutakin went on to capture Azaz and continued his siege of Aleppo until the personal intervention of Basil II in a lightning campaign the next year . These failures , as well as accusations that he had exacerbated the conflict by imprisoning the Fatimid ambassador in 992 , brought Basil 's displeasure upon Bourtzes , who was replaced with Damian Dalassenos . Nothing more is known of Michael Bourtzes after that , and it may be that he died sometime around the autumn of 995 . He did , however , have at least three sons , Michael , Theognostos , and Samuel , known because they conspired against Constantine VIII after he blinded Michael 's son , named Constantine , in 1025 / 26 .
= Farm River State Park = Farm River State Park is a 61 @-@ acre state park on Long Island Sound in the town of East Haven . The undeveloped park is located alongside part of Farm River . The land was acquired by the State of Connecticut and designated a Connecticut state park in 1998 before developers began the construction of luxury condominiums along the river . The land contains marshland , tidal wetlands and a rocky shore that hosts a number of bird species including ducks , gulls , snowy egrets , and blue herons . The unique geology of the uplands and bedrock outcrops provide the landscape diversity and allow the tidal marsh flooding to separate the park into an upper and lower portions . Park activities include picnicking , hiking , bicycling , fishing , crabbing , bird watching , and car @-@ top boating . Public access to the park is limited and boating is restricted to those with passes obtained from Quinnipiac University , who manages the park for the state . = = History = = Farm River State Park covers 61 acres located on the western shoreline of the Farm River . According to local historian Joseph Leary , the Farm River competes with the Housatonic River for the most names , with at least 15 different known names , complicating identification of the river with different native and colonial names . One of these names , Deborah River , named for Deborah Chidsey relates to an incident in which she left Governor Gurdon Saltonstall stranded upon a rock in the river whilst waiting for the tide to recede . The land surrounding the river has been dominated by summer homes as since the early 1970s , when land was inexpensive and available . The land was obtained by the State of Connecticut and designated a state park in 1998 before the construction of luxury condominiums . The State of Connecticut in conjunction with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Trust for Public Lands to create the park with the purchase of a 57 @-@ acre parcel and another 15 acre parcel on Mansfield Grove Road for a total of $ 1 @.@ 75 million . Though it only has 61 acres , the park has remarkable diversity according to the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection . The land contains marshland , tidal wetlands and a rocky shore that hosts a number of bird species including ducks , gulls , snowy egrets , and blue herons . The unique geology of the uplands and bedrock outcrops allow the tidal marsh flooding to separate the park into an upper and lower portions . In 2006 , Quinnipiac University received $ 86 @,@ 000 to install a wireless network communication system in the park , making it the first state park in Connecticut to have Wi @-@ fi capability . Also in 2006 , a vacant and soon to be demolished house was destroyed by arson . The house was going to be demolished to create parking for the park . In 2012 , more than a mile of trail from the D.C. Moore School to Farm River State Park and Short Beach Road was cleared by Boy Scout Troop 401 . = = Activities = = The Farm River State Park is undeveloped , but it does contain two access point trails that leads to scenic vistas . Quinnipiac University , which manages the park , offers passes to the public to launch canoes and kayaks at the site through its Community Boating Program , but the docks are only to be used by those with the pass . In 2004 , Leary referred to a possible development plan to create more parking , install a boardwalk and provide a proper entrance to the Farm River State Park . Park activities include picnicking , hiking , bicycling , fishing , crabbing , bird watching , and car @-@ top boating . The park is described as not being fully operational and only a portion of the park is accessible to the general public . There is access off Connecticut Route 142 ( Short Beach Road ) via an electrically @-@ controlled gate off Mansfield Grove Road . Parking is limited to six cars before the park entrance gate , and a .3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) walk on a gravel access road leads to the park 's waterfront . For a fee of $ 20 , visitors can obtain a season pass to access the park 's marina . In 2006 , access to the park was the subject of debate with Attorney General Richard Blumenthal stating , " ... it is wrong for the university to close a parking lot on a state park to the general public and there may be and should be some way to accommodate the renters of slips without effectively barring the general public , which , after all , owns it . "
= Haywood S. Hansell = Haywood Shepherd Hansell Jr . , ( September 28 , 1903 – November 14 , 1988 ) was a general officer in the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) during World War II , and later the United States Air Force . He became an advocate of the doctrine of strategic bombardment , and was one of the chief architects of the concept of daylight precision bombing that governed the use of airpower by the USAAF in the war . Hansell played a key and largely unsung role in the strategic planning of air operations by the United States . This included drafting both the strategic air war plans ( AWPD @-@ 1 and AWPD @-@ 42 ) and the plan for the Combined Bomber Offensive in Europe ; obtaining a base of operations for the B @-@ 29 Superfortress in the Mariana Islands ; and devising the command structure of the Twentieth Air Force , the first global strategic air force and forerunner of the Strategic Air Command . He made precision air attack , as both the most humane and effective means of achieving military success , a lifelong personal crusade that eventually became the key tenet of American airpower employment . Hansell also held combat commands during the war , carrying out the very plans and doctrines he helped draft . He pioneered strategic bombardment of both Germany and Japan , as commander of the first B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress combat wing in Europe , and as the first commander of the B @-@ 29 force in the Marianas . = = Childhood = = Hansell was born in Fort Monroe , Virginia , on September 28 , 1903 , the son of First Lieutenant ( later Colonel ) Haywood S. Hansell , an Army surgeon , and Susan Watts Hansell , both considered members of the " southern aristocracy " from Georgia . His great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandfather John W. Hansell served in the American Revolution , his great @-@ great @-@ grandfather William Young Hansell was an officer in the War of 1812 , and his great @-@ grandfather Andrew Jackson Hansell was a general in the Confederate States Army and Georgia 's adjutant general . His grandfather , William Andrew Hansell , graduated from Georgia Military Institute and also served as an officer in the Confederate Army , first in the 35th Alabama , then as a topographical engineer . Shortly after his birth , the family was stationed in Beijing , China , then in the Philippines , and Hansell learned both Chinese and Spanish at an early age . Captain Hansell was next stationed at Fort McPherson , Georgia , in 1913 , and then at Fort Benning . His father , a firm disciplinarian , sent Hansell to live on a small , family @-@ owned ranch in New Mexico because of a perceived lack of discipline in his schooling . There he learned horsemanship , shooting , and studied with a tutor . = = Education = = Hansell entered Sewanee Military Academy , near Chattanooga , Tennessee , in 1916 , where he acquired the lifelong nickname " Possum . " Although his biographers offer a number of explanations behind the nickname , the most likely is that his facial features gave him the appearance of a possum . At Sewanee he developed a fondness for English literature . As a senior Hansell rose to cadet captain and developed a reputation as a martinet . His harshness with the Corps of Cadets , combined with an excessive number of demerits acquired while the school was temporarily quartered in Jacksonville , Florida , following a fire , led to his reduction to cadet private . Partly as a result of this humiliation , Hansell declined an appointment to the United States Military Academy to attend the Georgia School of Technology , where he was a member of Sigma Nu . Despite problems understanding differential equations , and twice attempting to transfer to another school ( which his father would not permit ) , he overcame his difficulties with complex mathematics and graduated in 1924 with a Bachelor of Science degree in mechanical engineering . While at Georgia Tech he participated in varsity football as a walk @-@ on substitute , and boxing . Hansell was awarded Georgia Tech 's highest individual recognition , membership in the ANAK Society . From 1924 to 1928 he attempted without success to find employment as a civil engineer in California , where his father was now stationed . Instead he worked as an apprentice and journeyman boilermaker with the Steel Tank and Pipe Company in Berkeley , California . Advances in aviation in the 1920s led Hansell to undertake a career in aeronautical engineering , and to gain flying experience , he decided to join the United States Army Air Corps . = = Personality and family = = Short in stature and slightly built , Hansell worked at being an athlete , becoming proficient in tennis , polo , and squash . Socially , he was a noted dancer , and acquired a reputation as " the unofficial poet laureate of the Air Corps . " He was fond of Gilbert and Sullivan , Shakespeare , and Miguel Cervantes ’ Don Quixote . General Ira C. Eaker described him as " nervous and high strung , " and one biographer noted several incidents of imperious temper in social situations . However his correspondence secretary during World War II , T / Sgt. James Cooper , described him as " pleasant and diplomatic , " and an aviation historian described him as " a forward @-@ looking optimist with a sense of humor . " While stationed at Langley Field , Virginia , Hansell met his wife , Dorothy " Dotta " Rogers , a teacher from Waco , Texas , where they were married in 1932 . He fathered three children , son " Tony " ( Haywood S. Hansell III , born in 1933 ) , daughter Lucia ( 1940 ) , and son Dennett ( 1941 ) . While frequent absences , long working hours , and Hansell ’ s autocratic nature severely stressed their marriage during World War II , they remained married for 56 years until his death in 1988 . Hansell 's eldest son continued the family military tradition , graduating from the United States Military Academy in 1955 , becoming a colonel in the United States Air Force , and marrying Olivia Twining , the daughter of General Nathan F. Twining . = = Early Air Corps career = = = = = Pursuit pilot = = = On February 23 , 1928 , Hansell was appointed a flying cadet . He completed primary and basic flying schools at March Field , California , then advanced flight training in pursuit flying at Kelly Field , Texas . He graduated from pilot training on February 28 , 1929 , and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Army Reserve . He received a regular commission as a second lieutenant , Air Corps , on May 2 , 1929 . Hansell 's first duty assignment was with the 2nd Bombardment Group at Langley Field , testing repaired aircraft . In June 1930 , he spent three months temporary duty with the 6th Field Artillery at Fort Hoyle , Maryland . In September 1930 , he returned to Langley Field and was detached to the Air Corps Tactical School as armament officer . While stationed at Langley , Hansell was involved in two minor accidents in aircraft he was piloting , and in early 1931 was forced to parachute to safety when his Boeing P @-@ 12 stalled during a test flight , going into an unrecoverable spin . He was found at fault for the accident and initially charged $ 10 @,@ 000 by the Air Corps for the expense of the aircraft , but the cost was eventually written off . In August 1931 , Hansell was transferred to Maxwell Field , Alabama , as assistant operations officer , with flying duties in the 54th School Squadron , to support the ACTS , which had located to Maxwell from Langley in July . During that tour of duty he met Captain Claire L. Chennault , an instructor at the Tactical School , and joined " The Men on the Flying Trapeze , " an Air Corps aerobatic and demonstration team . The team performed at the National Air Races at Cleveland , Ohio , in September 1934 . Hansell also worked with Captain Harold L. George , chief of the Tactical School ’ s bombardment section , where his military interest shifted from pursuits to bombers . The friendship that developed from the working relationship led to George becoming both Hansell ’ s mentor and patron . = = = Disciple of strategic airpower = = = Hansell was promoted to first lieutenant on October 1 , 1934 and entered the Air Corps Tactical School at Maxwell Field as a student in the comprehensive 845 @-@ hour , 36 @-@ week course , studying not only air tactics and airpower theory , which comprised more than half of the curriculum , but also tactics of other services , combined ( joint ) warfare , armament and gunnery , logistics , navigation and meteorology , staff duties , photography , combat orders , and antiaircraft defenses . Among his instructors was Captain George , now director of the Department of Air Tactics and Strategy . George 's classes were half lecture , half free discussion and conceptualizing , with George or his assistant Capt. Odas Moon expounding theories and having the students critically examine them for flaws and alternative ideas , debates that continued beyond the classroom as well . Making up the 59 members of his class were five majors , 40 captains , 13 first lieutenants including himself , and one second lieutenant . In addition to 49 Air Corps officers were four Army officers , one from each of that service 's combat arms , two Turkish Army aviators , one Mexican captain , and three Marine Corps aviators , including two future major generals . Among Hansell 's Air Corps classmates were future generals Muir S. Fairchild , Barney Giles , Laurence S. Kuter , and Hoyt S. Vandenberg ; test pilot Lester J. Maitland ; and aviation pioneer Major Vernon Burge , who as a corporal in June 1912 had been the first certified enlisted military pilot . Hansell graduated in June 1935 and was invited to become an instructor at ACTS , one of nine in his class to become ACTS instructors , and the youngest in its history . He served on the faculty from 1935 – 1938 in the Department of Air Tactic 's all @-@ important Air Force Section , first under George , then Major Donald Wilson ( another strategic bombing advocate ) , and lastly Fairchild . Hansell became a member of a group known as the " Bomber Mafia , " ACTS instructors who were both outspoken proponents of the doctrine of daylight precision strategic bombardment and advocates for an independent Air Force . Among the students instructed by Hansell were Eaker , Twining , Elwood R. Quesada , Earle E. Partridge , Kenneth Wolfe , Orvil A. Anderson , John K. Cannon , and Newton Longfellow , all of whom became general officers and strategic airpower advocates during World War II . During this time , Hansell also had a permanent falling out with Chennault after Chennault tried to recruit him to go to China to fly fighters for the Kuomintang government . In September 1938 , still a first lieutenant , Hansell entered the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , from which he was graduated in June 1939 , shortly after promotion to captain . He then was assigned to the Office , Chief of Air Corps ( OCAC ) , under General Henry H. Arnold , working a series of assignments as Arnold assembled an Air Staff to plan and execute a massive expansion of the Air Corps . After duty in the Public Relations Section , OCAC from July 1 to September 5 , 1939 , he became assistant Executive Officer , OCAC to Ira Eaker from September 6 to November 20 , 1939 . In November 1939 he created , with Major Thomas D. White , the Intelligence Section , Information Division , OCAC . Hansell was its Officer in Charge , Air Corps Intelligence from November 21 , 1939 to June 30 , 1940 ; and its Chief , Operations Planning Branch , Foreign Intelligence Section from July 1 , 1940 to June 30 , 1941 . He was promoted to major on March 15 , 1941 . In the Air Intelligence Section , Hansell became responsible for setting up strategic air intelligence and analysis operations , creating three sections : analysis of foreign air forces and their doctrines , analysis of airfields worldwide including climate data , and preparation of target selection for major foreign powers . Much of the work was accomplished despite hindrance from the War Department ’ s G @-@ 2 office , which felt that such analysis was not " proper military intelligence . " Development of sources of information for such analyses also was primitive , and he used his assignment to OPB to recruit a number of civilian economic experts who had recently been commissioned in the military . Hansell also created contacts among Royal Air Force officers stationed in Washington , D.C. to enhance his sources . On July 7 , 1941 , Hansell went to London , England , as a special observer attached to the military attaché , where he was privy to the inner workings of RAF intelligence and their target folders on the German industrial infrastructure . In his memoir , Hansell stated that in the exchange of information , the AAF received nearly a ton of material , shipped back to the United States in a bomber . = = AWPD @-@ 1 = = On July 12 , 1941 , Hansell , just returned from London , was recruited by Harold George to join the Air War Plans Division of the newly created AAF Air Staff in Washington , D.C. , as its Chief of European Branch . There a strategic planning team of former " bomber mafia " members ( himself , George , Kuter , and War Plans Group chief Lt. Col. Kenneth N. Walker ) , put together an estimate for President Franklin D. Roosevelt of the numbers of aircraft and personnel needed to win a war against the Axis Powers , well beyond the scope requested of it by the War Plans Division of the General Staff . Hansell ’ s responsibility in the plan , designated AWPD – 1 , was information on German targets . Arnold had given George nine days to write the plan , which would be " Annex 2 , Air Requirements " to " The Victory Program , " a plan of strategic estimates involving the entire U.S. military . Beginning on August 4 , 1941 , they drew up the plan in accordance with strategic policies promulgated earlier that year , outlined in the ABC @-@ 1 agreement with the British Commonwealth , and Rainbow 5 , the U.S. war plan . The group completed AWPD @-@ 1 in the allotted nine days and carefully rehearsed a presentation to the Army General Staff . Its forecast figures , despite planning errors from lack of accurate information about weather and the German economic commitment to the war , were within 2 percent of the units and 5 @.@ 5 percent of the personnel ultimately mobilized , and it accurately predicted the time frame when the invasion of Europe by the Allies would take place . Hansell ’ s contribution to the plan was based on a serious flaw , however . As had most observers , Hansell assumed that the Nazi economy was working at maximum capacity , when in fact it was still at 1938 levels of production , an error that led to an underestimation of the numbers of sorties , bomb tonnage , and time required for bombing to have a decisive effect . However , a more significant error in planning , the omission of long @-@ range fighter escorts for the bombers , seriously impacted the strategic bombing campaign that later took place . Hansell deeply regretted the omission but noted that it reflected the best available information at the time on fighter aircraft capabilities , which was that any means then available to extend range would also seriously degrade a fighter 's air combat performance . Hansell wrote , " Failure to see this issue through proved one of the Air Corps Tactical School 's major shortcomings . " A lack of knowledge about the capability of radar to create an effective centralized early warning system also contributed to the over @-@ reliance on the self @-@ defense capabilities of bombers . However Hansell also argued that ignorance of radar was fortuitous in the long run . He surmised that had radar been a factor in making doctrine , many theorists would have reasoned that massed defenses would make all strategic air attacks too costly , inhibiting if not entirely suppressing the concepts that proved decisive in World War II and essential to the creation of the United States Air Force . = = World War II service = = = = = Planning duties = = = Following the entry of the United States into World War II , Hansell received a rapid series of promotions , to lieutenant colonel on January 5 , 1942 , colonel on March 1 , 1942 , and brigadier general on August 10 , 1942 . In January 1942 , he assisted George and Walker in presenting an organizational plan to the War Department for maintaining the Air Corps as part of the Army during World War II , while dividing the Army into three autonomous branches , a reorganization adopted on March 9 , 1942 , with the creation of the Army Air Forces , Army Ground Forces and Services of Supply . On March 10 , 1942 , Hansell was transferred from AWPD to the Strategy and Policy Group , Operations Division of the War Department General Staff and served on the eight @-@ member Joint Strategy Committee as the USAAF representative . Hansell , at the request of Major General Dwight D. Eisenhower , was assigned on July 12 , 1942 as Officer in Charge , Air Section , ETOUSA headquarters , and simultaneously as deputy theater air officer for Major General Carl A. Spaatz , commander of the Eighth Air Force . His duties were to mold Eisenhower ’ s opinion on the use of airpower , guided by Spaatz , but there is little indication that he succeeded . He also flew combat in a B @-@ 17 to gain first @-@ hand experience with daylight precision bombing , attacking the Longueau marshalling yard at Amiens , France , on August 20 , 1942 . During the mission he developed frostbite on his hands and spent several days recovering from the effects . On August 26 , 1942 he was recalled to USAAF Headquarters to head the planning team for AWPD – 42 , a revision of the air strategy plan in light of ongoing crises in the war , completing it in 11 days . Even though the Navy rejected the plan outright ( because it did not participate in its writing ) and the Joint Chiefs of Staff did not accept it , presidential advisor Harry Hopkins recommended to Roosevelt that he follow the precepts unofficially , which was done . Hansell then returned to England , where he was ironically tasked with diverting a large portion of the strategic bomber force to the Twelfth Air Force to support Operation Torch . = = = Combat wing commander in Europe = = = On December 5 , 1942 Hansell received his first combat command , the 3rd Bombardment Wing . Originally one of the three wings of General Headquarters Air Force , the 3rd was now part of the Eighth Air Force in England , planned as a Martin B @-@ 26 Marauder unit with the mission of supporting the Eighth 's heavy bomber operations by bombing Luftwaffe fighter airfields . However the wing had no aircraft or units yet assigned , and on January 2 , 1943 , Hansell was shifted to command the 1st Bomb Wing , the B @-@ 17 component of VIII Bomber Command . Hansell flew his first mission with his new command the next day to bomb the submarine pens at Saint @-@ Nazaire , France . He saw first hand the effectiveness of German interceptors , as both wingmen of Hansell 's bomber were shot down . Later that month , on a January 13 mission to Lille , France , the pilot of the B @-@ 17 in which he flew was killed in action and the plane nearly shot down on . Hansell commanded the 1st Wing during six critical months when the B @-@ 17 force , with only four inexperienced groups , struggled to prove itself . Among the combat doctrines that Hansell developed himself or approved were use of the defensive combat box formation , detailed mission Standard Operating Procedures , and all aircraft bombing in unison with the lead bomber , each designed to improve bombing accuracy . Hansell recognized the most serious flaws in the daylight precision bombardment theory , that : radar early warning and the lack of long @-@ range escort fighters made deep penetration raids by massed bombers too costly to achieve strategic goals until a means of air superiority was attained , and that German industry , rather than being fragile and fixed , proved to be resilient and mobile . These factors later influenced his planning of similar daylight raids against Japan . On March 23 , 1943 , he headed up a committee of USAAF and RAF commanders to draw up a plan for the Combined Bomber Offensive ( CBO ) . Despite the fact that it altered the target system priorities outlined in AWPD @-@ 42 , and changed the overall goal of the offensive from knocking Germany out of the war using airpower to one of preparing for the invasion of Europe , Hansell approved the designation of the German aircraft industry as its most important target and the destruction of the German Luftwaffe as its top priority . Hansell wrote the final draft of the CBO plan himself . Although Hansell did not personally participate in later strategic bombing operations against Germany , he had been instrumental in setting in motion the plans and policies that led to the near total destruction of German war industry . He continued to fly combat missions at the same rate as his group commanders , with his final mission to Antwerp on May 4 , 1943 , the date that the Joint Chiefs approved the CBO plan . On June 15 , 1943 , noting signs of fatigue and stress , Eaker decided to replace Hansell in command of the 1st Wing with veteran commander Brigadier General Frank A. Armstrong , but retained him as a staff officer , first as an air planner in the COSSAC ( Chief of Staff Supreme Aliied Commander ) headquarters until August 1 , 1943 , when Eisenhower named him deputy commander of the Allied Expeditionary Air Force . He conjointly was part of the Tactical Air Force Planning Committee , where he oversaw the planning for Operation Tidal Wave , the low @-@ level bombing of oil refineries at Ploieşti , Romania , on August 1 , 1943 , and recommended approval of the Schweinfurt @-@ Regensburg mission . While in Washington on this task , he was " captured " by Arnold and accompanied him to the Quadrant Conference in August , where he personally briefed President Roosevelt on strategic bombing to that point . = = = B @-@ 29 operations planning = = = In October 1943 , General Hansell was appointed chief of the Combined and Joint Staff Division , in the Office of the Assistant Chief of Air Staff for Plans , located at Headquarters USAAF . As such he became Air Planner on the Joint Planning Staff . He immediately had an impact on planning of strategic air attacks on Japan . The JPS draft outline denigrated strategic bombing and declared that an invasion of the home islands was the only means of defeating Japan , but Hansell successfully argued that an invasion should only be a contingency if bombing and a sea blockade of Japan failed to compel a surrender . Hansell accompanied President Roosevelt and the Joint Chiefs aboard the USS Iowa to the Sextant Conference in November , then was appointed Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in December , working directly with Arnold . His main responsibility was developing the operational plans for the B @-@ 29 Superfortress , and he succeeded in gaining three key decisions from the JCS : there would be no diversion of B @-@ 29s to General Douglas MacArthur , the schedule for Operation Forager was moved forward more than a year to secure bases for the B @-@ 29 in the Mariana Islands , and Twentieth Air Force operations would be entirely independent of control by all three Pacific theater commanders ( MacArthur , Chester W. Nimitz , and Joseph Stillwell ) , reporting directly to the JCS . Hansell drew up the tactical doctrine , SOPs , and the table of organization and equipment of the Twentieth Air Force , which was to be commanded by Arnold personally , including use of AAF Air Staff as the staff of the Twentieth . In addition to his own Air Staff duties , Hansell became chief of staff of the Twentieth Air Force on April 6 , 1944 . When Arnold was incapacitated by a heart attack in May , Hansell acted as de facto commander of the Twentieth Air Force . = = = B @-@ 29 commander = = = On August 28 , 1944 , Arnold made Hansell commander of the XXI Bomber Command , despite misgivings among several senior leaders that while a superb staff officer , he did not have the " temperament " to be a combat commander . Aware of Arnold ’ s legendary impatience , deputy AAF commander General Barney Giles , who was doubtful that Hansell could accomplish the task given him — setting up an effective air campaign in a brief period using an untried aircraft — obtained a commitment from Arnold that he would not relieve Hansell in only a few months . However Hansell ’ s tenure was threatened from the start because his replacement on the Air Staff , Major General Lauris Norstad , did not support the concept of daylight precision bombing , instead advocating massive destruction of Japanese cities by firebombing , a tactic that had been promoted in AAF planning circles as early as November 1943 . Fire raids on Japan were rapidly gaining widespread acceptance among AAF leaders , including Arnold , both to defeat Japan before an invasion was mounted and to satisfy a perception that the American public wanted revenge for three bloody years of war . Hansell , however , opposed the tactic as both morally repugnant and militarily unnecessary . XXI Bomber Command arrived on Saipan on October 12 , 1944 , and from the start Hansell was beset by a host of serious command problems , the worst of which were continued teething problems with the B @-@ 29 , tardy delivery of aircraft , aircrews untrained in high altitude formation flying , primitive airfield conditions , lack of an air service command for logistical support , no repair depots , a total absence of target intelligence , stubborn internal resistance to daylight operations by his sole combat wing , subordinates in the XXI Bomber Command who lobbied for his removal , and Hansell ’ s inferiority in rank in dealing with other AAF commanders in the theater . Furthermore , Hansell was soon prohibited from flying combat missions with his command , possibly because of limited knowledge of the atomic bomb or the perception that he knew the existence of Ultra . High altitude daylight B @-@ 29 raids against the Japanese aircraft industry began November 24 , 1944 with operation San Antonio I , despite misgivings about high losses by both combat crews and Arnold . They were hampered by bad weather and jet stream winds , and as a result , appeared unproductive . Pressured by Arnold ( through Norstad as an intermediary ) for results , Hansell subjected his command to intensive corrective measures that caused more resentment among his aircrews . At the same time commanders in China were strongly recommending removal of XX Bomber Command to another theater as soon as possible , making Major General Curtis E. LeMay , now superior to Hansell in rank , available for command . On January 6 , 1945 , Norstad visited Hansell ’ s headquarters and abruptly relieved him of command , replacing him with LeMay . Hansell was offered the option of commanding XX Bomber Command while it transitioned to Guam , then becoming LeMay ’ s deputy . Although he and LeMay were friends , LeMay had been Hansell ’ s subordinate in England , and Hansell declined the offer . While all the command problems factored into his relief , the main reasons were Hansell ’ s persistence in daylight precision attacks , reluctance to night firebombing , Norstad 's view that Hansell was an impediment to instituting incendiary attacks , and a perception by Arnold and Norstad that the public relations effort by XXI Bomber Command had been unsatisfactory in preparing the American public for such attacks . Hansell left Guam on January 21 , 1945 . Unknown at the time , his precision daylight attacks had succeeded , first in Japan 's immediate and inefficient dispersion of its aircraft engine industry , and later in terms of actual destruction caused by the final raid under his command . A more immediate legacy of his command was his creation , in conjunction with the U.S. Navy , of an effective air @-@ sea rescue system that saved half of all B @-@ 29 crews downed at sea in 1945 . = = Impact on strategic doctrine = = Hansell outlined an alternate strategy for defeating Japan , using precision bombing as its basis , that he believed would have also succeeded by November 1945 while obviating the need for area bombing using incendiaries or the atomic bomb . He did not find fault with the incendiary strategy per se , but rather with the premise that fire @-@ bombing was necessary because otherwise Japan could not be defeated except by invasion of her home islands . Historian Michael Sherry concluded that the case he presented was " powerful " . Arnold by implication had erred in changing AAF strategy , especially taking into account the " deep and pervasive revulsion among the American people against strategic bombing of all sorts " that was a consequence . Historian and Hansell biographer Dr. Charles Griffith concluded that Hansell sacrificed his command of the B @-@ 29 force and his later career on principle , adhering to the idea that precision rather than area bombing was not only more moral , but more effective as a strategy . His dismissal , Griffith argues , was a pivotal event in U.S. airpower doctrine , as the Air Force moved toward a strategy of bombing civilian populations , which led to an increasing dependence on the more potentially devastating , inflexible , and " Douhetian " doctrine of nuclear warfare that lasted for decades . Conrad Crane took a somewhat different stance , arguing that despite the firebombing campaign in Japan , American air commanders throughout World War II and thereafter placed an emphasis on precision bombing and avoiding civilian casualties . The use of precision guided weapons in the Gulf War and beyond , he wrote , demonstrated " continued adherence to precision @-@ bombing doctrine and ... significant progress toward the ideal ... first envisioned " by Hansell and the other Air Corps Tactical School theorists . Hansell lectured on the theory of precision air attack throughout his life , particularly at the United States Air Force Academy and the Air War College . He authored three books on air strategy : The Air War Plan That Defeated Hitler ( 1972 ) , The Strategic Air War Against Japan ( 1980 ) , and Strategic Air War Against Germany and Japan : A Memoir ( 1986 ) . Hansell continued to study modern weapons systems , becoming an advocate of the Strategic Defense Initiative and the B @-@ 2 Spirit bomber . However his main focus was in promoting technical advances in precision guided weapons to make precision bombing more practical and therefore more desirable as a military strategy . = = Retirement = = Following his removal from command on Guam , Hansell at his own request received a B @-@ 29 training assignment on February 15 , 1945 , command of the 38th Flying Training Wing at Williams Field , Arizona . In June 1945 , he was transferred to Air Transport Command under his old mentor Lieutenant General Harold George , commanding the Caribbean Wing at West Palm Beach , Florida , from September 30 , 1945 to January 14 , 1946 , and the North Atlantic Wing at Westover Field , Massachusetts , from July 1 , 1946 to August 18 , 1946 . Hansell took early retirement due to a loss @-@ of @-@ hearing disability , retiring with the rank of brigadier general on December 31 , 1946 . He held positions as vice president of Peruvian International Airlines until Peru nationalized the airline in 1949 , and vice president of South Atlantic Gas Company from 1949 until his recall to the military . He was recalled to active duty on July 15 , 1951 , by Air Force Chief of Staff Hoyt S. Vandenberg and assigned as Chief , Military Assistance Program Headquarters , USAF , acting as a senior program manager and advisor to the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff . On September 5 , 1952 , he was promoted to major general . In April 1953 , Hansell was appointed the senior Air Force representative to the Weapons Systems Evaluation Group in the Research and Development Office of the Secretary of Defense , Washington , D.C. He retired a second time from the USAF in 1955 . Hansell worked for General Electric , becoming head of its subsidiary in the Netherlands until 1967 , when he retired to Hilton Head , South Carolina . He died on November 14 , 1988 , in Hilton Head , of heart failure and pulmonary edema , as he was preparing to leave for a lecture in Canada . He was interred with full military honors at the United States Air Force Academy Cemetery .
= Guitar Hero 5 = Guitar Hero 5 ( initially referred to as Guitar Hero V ) is a music rhythm game and the fifth main entry in the Guitar Hero series . The game was developed by Neversoft and published by Activision , and released internationally in September 2009 for the Xbox 360 , PlayStation 2 , 3 and Wii consoles . Similar to the preceding title , Guitar Hero World Tour , Guitar Hero 5 is geared towards playing in a four @-@ person band experience , including lead and bass guitar , drums , and vocals . The game is available as a standalone title , allowing players to use existing compatible instrument controllers , and as a bundle that provides these controllers . Guitar Hero 5 adds several new features , such as drop @-@ in / drop @-@ out play , bands composed of any combination of available instruments , a Rockfest competitive mode consisting of several various scoring mechanisms , and both song @-@ specific and general Challenges to unlock new avatars , clothing , and other extras in the game . Many of these changes were added to make the game a more social experience , allowing players across a range of skill levels to be able to play cooperatively and competitively against each other both locally and online . Guitar Hero 5 's track list contains 85 songs by 83 separate artists , and like previous Guitar Hero games , several musicians with works in the game have been modeled through motion capture for playable characters in the game , including Johnny Cash , Carlos Santana , Shirley Manson , Matthew Bellamy , and Kurt Cobain . Players can also create their own character and instrument to play with . The game continues to support the user @-@ created music studio introduced in World Tour through GHTunes , and additional downloadable content for the game was also made available . A majority of existing downloadable tracks from World Tour are forward @-@ compatible with Guitar Hero 5 , along with selected on @-@ disc tracks from World Tour and Guitar Hero Smash Hits , and songs from the game could also be exported for a fee to play in its sequel , Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock , and spin @-@ off game Band Hero . The game was well received by reviewers , who appreciated the improvements in the accessibility of the game , allowing players to immediately jump in and play without spending excessive time in the game 's menus . The game also sold well , however , it sold about less than 50 percent of Guitar Hero : World Tour 's sales , specifically selling 1 @.@ 2 million copies across all platforms . Improvements to both the Career and competitive multiplayer modes were also highlights of the game . However , the game 's track list was considered to be too broad , and controversy arose over the ability to use the avatar of Kurt Cobain to perform in any other song within the game . = = Gameplay = = Gameplay in Guitar Hero 5 is similar to previous games in the series . Using a special game controller , players attempt to match scrolling notes as they appear on screen along a note track to mimic the playing of rock music and other songs . Hitting correct notes in time with the music increases the player 's score and builds up the performance meter , while missing notes will cause the meter to drop . Should the meter fall below a certain threshold , the song will end prematurely with the player booed off the stage by a virtual audience . Correctly hitting ten consecutive notes will add to the player 's score multiplier by one , up to a maximum of four times the original multiplier . Specially marked sections of the song , if completed correctly , help to build up Star Power , which can then be activated through an action with the controller to further double the current multiplier ( up to 8x ) . As with Guitar Hero World Tour , Guitar Hero 5 supports the playing of lead and bass guitar through guitar controllers , drums through a drum controller , and vocals through a microphone . Players can also play in groups of up to four local or remote players to form a band , co @-@ operatively playing through a song . Whereas in World Tour , a band could only have one of each instrument , Guitar Hero 5 allows players to arrange for any combination of instruments , including all four players on the same instrument if they so choose . While playing in a band , Star Power is now tracked separately for each player , as opposed to collectively for the band as in World Tour . A new play mechanic called " Band Moments " will require all members of the band to play sections of a song successfully to gain rewards , both in a temporary scoring multiplier and visual effects on screen . The Band Revival meter will appear when a player fails out of the song , requiring the other band members to play well as a group together in order to bring the failed player back into the game . Failing to do so will end the song prematurely . = = = Game Modes = = = Guitar Hero 5 allows players to start in a Band Lobby from where they can then launch into any of the game 's modes , add other local and remote players to a party , and switch between the game modes without having to leave the party or lobby , a significant change in response to the difficulties players found in World Tour . The game supports a Career mode ( described below ) , a Quickplay mode , where players can create a set list of numerous songs and play through them . All songs on disc and through downloadable content are immediately available to play in this mode . The game also carries over the competitive modes from previous Guitar Hero games . Two new multiplayer modes are in the game . The first is a " Party Play " mode , which is immediately launched once the game is started . During " Party Play " , the game will automatically play randomly through the available songs . At any time , players can jump in with any instrument and start playing that song after selecting their difficulty and handedness ; additional players can also jump in , drop out , or change their difficulty levels once someone is playing in this mode . The second feature is a " RockFest " mode , which can be played by four players locally or eight online , with several sub @-@ modes that influence how the game is played and scored . In general , each song is divided into roughly 30 @-@ second long sections , and players earn points for their performance over that section based on the specific mode . These points are shown to all players to know how they are faring against the others . Players are able to create a playlist in Rockfest and assign a different mode to each song . The RockFest submodes include : " Momentum " : Starting at Medium difficulty , players can increase their difficulty and score more points by hitting twenty consecutive notes , but will fall back in difficulty if they miss three notes in a row . " Streakers " : Points are awarded for making " streaks " a series of consecutive notes , with the value further increasing for longer streaks . " Perfectionist " : For each section of a song , players are ranked by the percentage of correct notes hit , with the top player getting the most points . " Do or Die " : A player is forced to wait out until the next section if they miss three notes in the current section of the song . " Elimination " : After each section of a song , the lowest scoring player is eliminated . However if the scoring player decided to stay in , they may do so . " Pro Face @-@ Off " : A standard score attack mode , with the highest score winning points . = = = Career mode and Challenges = = = Guitar Hero 5 features a combined single- and multi @-@ player ( both off- and on @-@ line ) Career mode similar to Guitar Hero : Metallica . Songs in the game are distributed across 13 venues , with all but the first locked at the start . Each venue contains 5 or more specific songs and 1 or more special sponsored gigs , each with Challenges that can be completed along with playing through the song . To unlock the other venues , the players must collect a number of stars based on their performance playing individual songs , with each song offering up to 9 stars : up to 5 for the general scoring performance , an additional star for a perfect performance , and up to 3 for completing the song 's Challenge . Players share the benefits of earning stars for their own respective profiles , thus , a player that may have difficulty completing one song on their own could join with a band that is able to complete it , benefiting from the gain in stars should they then play by themselves or with another group . Guitar Hero 5 introduces Career mode Challenges , that are either tied to specific songs , or allow players to select a song to meet the Challenge requirement in " open gigs " . These were created by Neversoft to allow the developers to take advantage of unique features of many of songs and provide another layer of gameplay , according to Neversoft 's Brian Bright . Each Challenge features three possible completion levels — Gold , Platinum , and Diamond , mimicking the music recording sales certification levels — with Diamond being the most difficult to complete . The song @-@ specific challenges include both instrument @-@ specific challenges , such as correctly vocalizing the repeated " Fame " lyric at the end of David Bowie 's " Fame " as it moves down in pitch , and more general scoring or performance challenges on either specific instruments or for the whole band . Open gig Challenges are presented by sponsors within the game , and are based on performance aspects such as scoring a certain amount of points using Star Power or using the guitar controller 's whammy bar continuously for a length of time . These allow the player to select any song to complete , with some songs potentially being better suited for completing that challenge . The progress towards these Challenges is shown in @-@ game by a record meter that appears when the challenge is active , and fills up similarly to the overall scoring meter as the player successfully completes towards the challenge . Higher completion levels , particularly Diamond , may only be possible by playing the Expert difficulty of a song , but players can take advantage of the mid @-@ song difficulty adjustment feature to complete these if needed . All players are awarded for completing a challenge if one of the members is able to do so , and will be reflected in the individual players ' career progress. in addition , players can unlock new avatars , outfits , and other content by completing challenges . The rewards of the challenges are used to replace the previous in @-@ game money reward in previous Guitar Hero games . However , the PlayStation 2 version does not include this challenge feature . Rather than doing the challenges to unlock avatars / content , all one must do is complete the gig by successfully completing all songs . Not all gigs have content to unlock , rather just those to which a particular unlockable applies ( for example the Johnny Cash gig allows Johnny Cash to be unlocked as a playable avatar ) . = = = Music studio = = = The Music Studio feature , which allows players to create their own songs and distribute them through the " GHTunes " music service , has been improved . The GHMix2.0 mode allows one to precisely create songs up to 10 min , and includes pre @-@ defined sample tracks that can be modified on a note @-@ by @-@ note basis as desired . The new Jam mode lets the players select one of several standard pre @-@ set rhythms and then play along with it on the instrument controllers in a free @-@ form mode ; however , players can then capture any segment of this music and move it to the Mix mode to compile a song . User songs are then uploaded and downloaded through the GHTunes mode of the Music Studio . While songs that violate copyright will still be removed from the service , Neversoft will be less aggressive about this and will rely more on user feedback on such issues . The PS2 version does not support this feature . = = = Characters and customization = = = Avatars of famous musicians are part of the game , performing for songs by that artist and available as unlockable characters . Notably , Kurt Cobain of Nirvana is a playable avatar ; Activision had sought to gain permission to use Cobain 's image for the game for three years , including obtaining the necessary agreements with Courtney Love , who controls Cobain 's estate , and Dave Grohl and Universal Publishing , who control Nirvana 's catalog . Cobain 's avatar was designed with input from Love , who provided photos and videos for the design team to use , and emphasized how she would like Cobain to appear , starting from his appearance in " Smells Like Teen Spirit " and modifying it from there . The avatar includes the T @-@ shirt design based on Daniel Johnston 's " Frog " that Cobain had popularized . Johnny Cash is also a playable character , with tribute artist Terry Lee Goffee helping to provide motion capture for his character . Carlos Santana , Shirley Manson ( of Garbage ) , and Matthew Bellamy ( of Muse ) are also playable avatars , all of whom performed motion capture for their own avatars . There are also unlockable fictional characters like Skeleton , Golden God , Shadow , Frankenrocker , and Gerald Contest Winner . Though Activision approached Jon Bon Jovi to appear in the game , Bon Jovi turned down the offer . While the standard character creator is available for all versions of the game , the Xbox 360 version allows players to import their Xbox Live Avatar into the game , while the Freestyle mode on the Wii version of the game allows use of the players ' Miis in the game . Nine of the characters from previous installments return in this game . They all have a costume that they start with and 3 more can be unlocked by completing challenges . Doing this will unlock also new pieces of clothing for the costume to use for user generated rockers . Also , while Gibson no longer sponsors the game , other guitar manufacturers , like Ibanez , ESP , Paul Reed Smith and Schecter , lent the likenesses of their instruments , allowing for new combinations on assembling custom guitars and basses . For the first time , also , sponsored clothing pieces can be used in customization ( these being shoes from Vans , Dr. Martens and Converse ) There is no money in the game leaving everything available to use , including unlockables . Instruments can also be unlocked to use . Also some clothing now can be changed in style . There are four styles for each ; the one shown , two others that were separate items in previous games ( with exceptions ) , and one new one ( with exceptions ) . Pregenerated characters outfits can only be changed and users can only decide which outfit they wear . However they can still edit their instruments . Virtual avatars of the real life rockers can also not be changed in any way , including instruments . = = = Console @-@ specific variations = = = The Wii version of the game , developed by Vicarious Visions , is " full feature parity " with the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions , including support for up to eight players online , each possibly on their own console . Guitar Hero 5 is the first Wii game to support high capacity SD cards , allowing up to about 800 songs to be stored on a 32 GB card . While existing Wii Guitar Hero games allow players to purchase downloadable content one song at a time , Guitar Hero 5 includes the ability to download complete albums and song packs . Players are also able to manage the content of their Wii memory cards through the game 's interface . The game does not require players to enter game @-@ specific Friends Codes , but instead uses the global Wii address book to locate friends . The " Mii Freestyle " mode , introduced in World Tour , is also present , and with changes to address some of the issues with less @-@ skilled players trying to play well together . A " Guitar Hero Nintendo Ecosystem " is introduced in Guitar Hero 5 , letting the Wii version communicate with the Nintendo DS , including a stage manager / video editor DS controller feature in conjunction with the Mii Freestyle mode , and a new game mode called " Roadie Battle " . In Roadie Battle , four players play as two teams ; each team has one player performing on an instrument through the Wii , while the other player uses a DS to connect to the Wii and act as the roadie . During play , the roadie players attempt to sabotage the other team by completing mini @-@ games on the DS that affect the other team 's music performance in a manner similar to Guitar Hero III 's Battle Mode . These can only be cleared by the other DS player performing another mini @-@ game . The PlayStation 2 version of the game , developed by Budcat Creations , features less functionality in comparison to other versions . Besides lacking online play or downloadable content , the game does not include drop @-@ in / drop @-@ out play , multiplayer " RockFest " , nor song challenges . A multitap cannot be used to expand the number of controller ports , limiting the game to two guitars , one drum set and one microphone . = = Development = = The fifth main entry to the Guitar Hero series was announced in December 2008 , with confirmation of its release by the end of 2009 coming in May 2009 , along with the announcement of other new Guitar Hero titles . The Party Play mode was inspired by recognizing that past Guitar Hero games made it difficult to jump into without maneuvering through a number of menus and selection screens . The mode was designed to be used at social gatherings , and was adopted to use whatever instrument controllers that players already had available , thus allowing for various other combinations beyond the standard four @-@ person band . This aspect of the game was then brought to the other band modes to allow the game to remain flexible . A new guitar controller was developed for Guitar Hero 5 , sold with bundles with the game though the option for standalone versions has not yet been determined . Like other Guitar Hero controllers , the guitar @-@ shaped unit features five colored fret buttons on the neck of the guitar , a strum bar to mimic the act of strumming , a whammy bar to alter the pitch of a note , and additional buttons specific to the game console for maneuvering through the game 's menus . The unit is mostly a redesign of the World Tour model with a new red finish and includes the touchpad that is farther up the neck of the controller , allowing the player to play notes via tapping or to slide along its surface for specially marked sections on the note track . The Guitar Hero 5 unit features a more accurate and responsive touchpad due to it being tracked digitally and with added tactile responses , a more accurate strum bar , and a controller finish that makes it easier to handle with sweaty hands . The game remains compatible with previous Guitar Hero game controllers as well as those from Rock Band and selected other rhythm games . = = = Promotion = = = As part of the game 's early promotion , a scavenger hunt contest was announced in the last week of May 2009 . Players would need to search for articles on specific game @-@ related sites to find information on the bands that are to be in Guitar Hero 5 , and then enter those bands at the game 's official website for a chance to win a series of concert tickets in their area . Through this promotion , a large number of artists in the final track list were revealed . A viral video in late July 2009 announced the last handful of songs for the game features four naked women walking down a public street , with black censor bars used to cover their bodies but also used to announce the song names . The video attracted the anger of Bill O 'Reilly , calling the video " shameless " and the models as " pinheads " . For the month of September 2009 , players in the US that purchase Guitar Hero 5 would be able to redeem a code with the game to receive a free copy of Guitar Hero : Van Halen prior to its retail release with the packaging 's offer sticker ( printable if lost ) , a copy of the receipt and a barcode received upon registration . Also in the UK , when pre @-@ ordering Guitar Hero 5 on various websites you would receive a free copy of Guitar Hero World Tour when requested . A television commercial was filmed at the Playboy Mansion and was featured in the 29 November 2009 episode of The Girls Next Door . = = Soundtrack = = Guitar Hero 5 features 85 songs by 83 different artists . Tracks from 30 artists represent their " music @-@ rhythm video game debut " . Brian Bright , project director for the game , has called the track list " fresh " , with 25 % of the songs released in the last 18 months , and more than 50 % from the current decade . Unlike previous versions of the Guitar Hero series , where players must work through a career mode to unlock all the songs in the game , all songs in Guitar Hero 5 are unlocked and available to play in any mode from the start , Bright noted that previously , while " Under Pressure " by Queen and David Bowie was always a song they wanted in Guitar Hero , they could not find the masters for it . However , for Guitar Hero 5 , the masters have since " magically appeared " and are part of the game 's tracklist . For Nirvana 's " Lithium " , the master recordings did not have the appropriate tracks to build the note track from , and they opted to use the live version of the song from the 1992 Reading Festival , notably famous for Cobain appearing on a wheelchair at first amid rumors of his failing health , but shown to be a ruse as Cobain took the stage and celebrated the recent birth of his daughter Frances Bean . The song " You and Me " by Attack ! Attack ! was a result of the band winning a competition to be included in the game . In addition to on @-@ disc songs , Guitar Hero 5 is the first game in the series to reuse content from previous games . All but 6 ( the Jimi Hendrix songs ) of the 158 World Tour downloadable content songs can be imported into Guitar Hero 5 at no cost . Additionally , 35 songs from World Tour , 21 songs from Guitar Hero Smash Hits , and 61 songs from Band Hero can be imported into the game after paying a small transferring fee ; more songs from these games may be made available to Guitar Hero 5 at a later date ( including World Tour tracks . ) The importing process for World Tour and Smash Hits content requires downloading of the content , as these tracks have been recreated with support for Guitar Hero 5 's new gameplay features such as Band Moments . All such imported songs are also be playable in Band Hero . Sixty @-@ nine of the Guitar Hero 5 tracks can be imported into Band Hero . In addition , 39 of the tracks from Guitar Hero : Metallica are importable into Guitar Hero 5 and Band Hero . Since the September 2010 release of the sequel Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock , no additional songs have been made available for DLC and it is unlikely any additional songs will ever be offered for Guitar Hero 5 . = = Reception = = Guitar Hero 5 was well received upon release . Seth Schiesel of The New York Times called Guitar Hero 5 " the most enjoyable Guitar Hero game in several years " and " generally well @-@ tuned , often exhilarating rock ’ n ’ roll experience " . Keza MacDonald of Eurogamer commented that there is " just nothing wrong " with Guitar Hero 5 , given the various stumbling blocks the developers had made from previous iterations of the game , and the way the developers have continued to find new additions to the game . Reviewers greatly appreciated the new features in the game to make it easier to jump in and play music , from the simplification of the menu system to the availability of every song in all the game modes from the start . Erik Brudvig of IGN considers the menu change to be " one of the best things that Neversoft has done " , although the menus are a minor part of the game , it removes much of the frustration with the World Tour and other previous Guitar Hero games ' menu systems . Arthur Gies of GameSpy noted that by simplification of the interface , " Neversoft stripped Guitar Hero down to what works and built up from there " . Reviewers appreciated the immediate launch of the game 's Party Mode once the player put the disk in the system and the ability to jump right into that song through the new menus , and considered this to help make the game enjoyable for social gatherings . Chris Watters of GameSpot considered this mode to be " accessible , welcoming , and delightfully low key " . The changes in Career mode , in which the players need not stick to the same instrument or difficulty throughout , was well appreciated . Brudvig appreciated how this allows the player to complete the Career mode without getting stuck on a song , having to go back to replay the Career mode on other instruments , and that with the addition of song Challenges , provides enough incentive to return to the songs to improve one 's performance . The new multiplayer modes in Rockfest , which replaced more " arcadey " competitive modes , were considered a welcome replacement , as it allowed players of various skill levels to compete fairly against each other , making the game more friendly to the multiplayer experience . However , Matt Helgeson of Game Informer noted that despite the various RockFest modes , it " all comes down to hitting the notes correctly " . The track list , while well received for the most part , was found to be one of the weaker features . While Helgeson and others noted that the track list was " extremely diverse and for the most part well selected " , this diversity was found to work against the game as well . Justin Haywald of 1UP.com noted that with the diverse track list , there would be a good chance players would find songs they liked , but at the same time , would also find songs they loathed . Brudvig noted that while " the goal was to include a bit of everything " , the diversity of the track list ensures " that nobody will like everything on the disc " . Gies noted that while the guitar difficulty progression in the Career mode was strong and better than in previous games , it leaves the vocals and drummer progression " all over the place " , while Schiesel considered the vocals parts " somewhat rough " in comparison to The Beatles : Rock Band . Haywald noted that the singing portions of the game were still weak , with poor indicators to help the player 's performance , and with the possibility of multiple vocalists performing at the same time , would make it hard for a player to keep track of his pitch . While reviews appreciated Activision 's efforts to allow the importing of songs from previous games , the small amount of tracks that were available at launch felt at odds with the impression that Activision had made of the process prior to the game 's release . The improvements made in GHTunes were seen as " leaps and bounds " above the original offering in World Tour , though was still considered to be too unwieldy for average players . On its week of release in the United Kingdom , Guitar Hero 5 was the most purchased title across all game systems , beating The Beatles : Rock Band which was also released during that same week in the country . United States sales of Guitar Hero 5 for the Xbox 360 reached 210 @,@ 800 units on its first month of release , making it the 9th best selling title for the month , and 499 @,@ 000 units total across all platforms were sold , comparable to World Tour 's first month sales of 534 @,@ 000 units . The total revenue for United States sales in September 2009 was $ 33 million , driving primarily by sales of the standalone copy of the game . The game sold just under 1 million copies worldwide by the end of 2009 . Guitar Hero 5 has been nominated for the " Best Family Game " Interactive Achievement Award from the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences . = = = Kurt Cobain controversy = = = The inclusion of Kurt Cobain as a playable character in the game has been considered a " strange concept " by some reviewers , reflecting on the possible influence of commercialization pressures that played into Cobain 's suicide . Shortly after the game 's release , it was discovered that once players unlocked the Kurt Cobain Character Pack ( as well as that for any other of the included famous musicians ) , they could use that character for any other song on disc , leading to what some have considered to be awkward virtual performances of Cobain singing songs from completely different genres ; user @-@ created videos of these performances that had attracted the attention to this issue have since been removed from video @-@ sharing sites like YouTube by Activision . Previous games in the series that feature known musicians also allow for the use of their characters , once unlocked , in other songs , except for the case of Jimi Hendrix in Guitar Hero World Tour , the only posthumous artist to appear in the series prior to Guitar Hero 5 . Some have seen this as a scar on Cobain 's legacy ; Jeff Gerstmann of Giant Bomb commented that " it 's the near @-@ mythic legacy he left behind and the way the Nirvana catalog has been protected from commercial interests over the years that makes this stuff so harsh " on his observation of such performances . Tim Walker of The Independent contrasted Cobain 's " posthumous humiliation " to the appearance of virtual characters based on living artists that have appeared in rhythm music games , noting that deceased artists do not have the same fair consideration as live artists that can opt to license their images for such rhythm games . Seth Schiesel of The New York Times countered these arguments , noting that as long as no legal contracts were broken , Cobain and the other artists in the game " are too big and too important to be damaged in a cultural sense by mere inclusion in a video game " . On her Twitter account , Courtney Love expressed her anger at Cobain 's representation in the game and threatened legal action alongside other companies that represent Cobain 's intellectual property . Love further stated that she received no monetary arrangements for Cobain 's appearance , in response to comments that believe Love had " sold out " to Activision and from a statement by Activision CEO Dan Rosensweig claiming that the Cobain estate has " cashed the cheque " . Both Dave Grohl and Krist Novoselic have made statements disapproving the inclusion of Cobain as an unlockable character in the game and have requested that he be locked to only Nirvana songs , and Jon Bon Jovi , who had denied Activision 's offer to include him in the game , supports their concerns about having his image be used to sing other artists ' songs . In response to these statements , Activision claims it had secured all the proper publication rights for Cobain 's image for the game . However , according to attorneys for Love , the contract was not meant to allow Activision to " denigrate his image " . Joystiq noted that the crux of the legal issues revolve around the " right of personality " , which is defined at the state level within the United States ; these rights are presently held by Love due to her ownership of Cobain 's estate , but may have been overridden in the contract with Activision . Band Hero suffered a similar issue , as the group No Doubt , avatars in that game , filed a lawsuit against Activision due to having their avatars be usable to play or sing any song in the game . Love stated to the magazine NME that she will be joining No Doubt in their lawsuit against Activision .
= Old Man of Hoy = The Old Man of Hoy is a 449 @-@ foot ( 137m ) sea stack on the island of Hoy , part of the Orkney archipelago off the north coast of Scotland . Formed from Old Red Sandstone , it is one of the tallest stacks in Britain . The Old Man is popular with climbers , and was first climbed in 1966 . Created by the erosion of a cliff through hydraulic action some time after 1750 , the stack is no more than a few hundred years old , and may soon collapse into the sea . = = Geography = = The Old Man stands close to Rackwick Bay on the west coast of the island of Hoy , in the Orkney Islands , Scotland , and can be seen from the Scrabster to Stromness ferry . From certain angles it is said to resemble a human figure . Winds are faster than 8 metres per second ( 18 mph ) for nearly a third of the time , and gales occur on average for 29 days a year . Combined with the depth of the sea , which quickly falls to 60 metres ( 200 ft ) , high @-@ energy waves on the western side of Hoy lead to rapid erosion of the coast . = = Geology = = The Old Man of Hoy is a red sandstone stack , perched on a plinth of basalt rock , and currently the tallest sea stack in Britain . It is separated from the mainland by a 60 @-@ metre ( 200 ft ) chasm strewn with debris , and has nearly vertical sides with a top just a few metres wide . The rock is composed of layers of soft , sandy and pebbly sandstone and harder flagstones of Old Red Sandstone , giving the sides a notched and slab @-@ like profile . = = History = = The Old Man is probably less than 250 years old , and may soon collapse . The stack is not mentioned in the Orkneyinga saga , written c.1230 , and on the Blaeu map of 1600 , a headland exists at the point where the Old Man is now . The McKenzie map of Hoy of 1750 similarly shows a headland but no stack , but by 1819 the Old Man had been separated from the mainland . William Daniell sketched the sea stack at this time as a wider column with a smaller top section and an arch at the base , from which it derived its name . Sometime in the early nineteenth century , a storm washed away one of the legs leaving it much as it is today , although erosion continues . By 1992 a 40 @-@ metre ( 130 ft ) crack had appeared in the top of the south face , leaving a large overhanging section that will eventually collapse . = = Climbing = = The stack was first climbed by mountaineers Chris Bonington , Rusty Baillie and Tom Patey in 1966 . From 8 – 9 July 1967 , an ascent featured in The Great Climb , a live BBC three @-@ night outside broadcast , which had around 15 million viewers . This featured three pairs of climbers : Bonington and Patey repeated their original route , whilst two new lines were climbed by Joe Brown and Ian McNaught @-@ Davis and by Pete Crew and Dougal Haston . Red Szell became the first blind person to climb the Old Man , despite suffering from retinitis pigmentosa that left him with 5 per cent vision . With assistance from Martin Moran and Nick Carter , he scaled the stack in 2013 . There are seven routes up the stack , the most commonly used of which is the original landward facing E1 ( Extremely Severe ) . A log book in a Tupperware container is buried in a cairn on the summit , as an ascensionists ' record . As many as fifty ascents of the stack are made each year . = = = BASE jump = = = Roger Holmes , Gus Hutchinson @-@ Brown and Tim Emmett made the first BASE jump from the stack on 14 May 2008 . Hutchinson @-@ Brown died 11 days later during a jump in Switzerland .
= Meermin ( VOC ship ) = The Meermin ( Dutch pronunciation : [ ˈmeːrmɪn ] ) was an 18th @-@ century Dutch cargo ship of the hoeker type , one of many built and owned by the Dutch East India Company . She was laid down in 1759 and fitted out as a slave ship before her maiden voyage in 1761 , and her career was cut short by a mutiny of her cargo of Malagasy people . They had been sold to Dutch East India Company officials on Madagascar , to be used as company slaves in its Cape Colony in southern Africa . Half her crew and almost 30 Malagasy lost their lives in the mutiny ; the mutineers deliberately allowed the ship to drift aground off Struisbaai , now in South Africa , in March 1766 , and she broke up in situ . As of 2013 , archaeologists are searching for the Meermin 's remains . = = Construction and use = = The Meermin was laid down in 1759 in a shipyard belonging to the Dutch East India Company ( Vereenigde Oost @-@ Indische Compagnie , abbreviated to " VOC " ) in the port of Amsterdam in the Netherlands . The Meermin was a 480 @-@ ton Dutch hoeker , square rigged with three masts . The hoeker originated in the 15th century as a type of fishing vessel with one or two masts in response to the growing Dutch trade in herring , and was known in English as a hoy . Equipped with guns , hoekers were employed as defensive escorts for fishing fleets , or Buisconvoyers , in the Second Anglo @-@ Dutch War of the 1660s . They came to be used more widely in trade with the Dutch East Indies via the Cape of Good Hope in southern Africa , as their rounded sterns proved to be more resistant to warping and springing than square sterns , which were prone to " catastrophic leaking when exposed to strong sun . " Larger than most hoekers , the Meermin was unusual for her type in that she was built of oak and had a beakhead , a feature not normally present in smaller merchant vessels . The Meermin was built for use as a slave ship in the VOC 's African trade ; between 1658 and 1799 the VOC acquired and transported 63 @,@ 000 slaves to its Cape Colony , now part of South Africa . The ship began her maiden voyage at Texel , an island off the coast of what is now the Netherlands , on 21 January 1761 , with a crew of 62 under the command of Captain Hendrik Worms ; she arrived at the Cape of Good Hope on 15 June . Although fitted out as a slave ship , vessels such as the Meermin routinely carried other goods when not transporting slaves . = = Mutiny and destruction = = From December 1765 , the Meermin was working the coastline of Madagascar , collecting Malagasy men , women and children for use as slaves in the Cape Colony , under Captain Gerrit Muller and a crew of 56 . Carrying about 140 Malagasy , she set sail from the north @-@ western coast of Madagascar on 20 January 1766 . Two days into the voyage a " large party of [ Malagasy ] " was allowed on deck , the men to assist the crew , and the women to provide entertainment by dancing and singing . This was to prevent death and disease among the Malagasy , so avoiding loss of profit . On 18 February 1766 , the ship 's supercargo ordered some assegais , or African spears , and some swords , to be brought on deck for the Malagasy to clean . When the weapons were clean and the Malagasy were ordered to return them , they attacked the ship 's crew , and took control of the ship . A truce ensued , the terms of which were that if the Malagasy would spare the lives of the remaining crew the ship would be sailed back to Madagascar , but taking advantage of the Malagasy 's lack of navigational skills , the crew instead set sail for the coast of southern Africa . On sighting land , the crew persuaded the Malagasy that what they saw was a part of Madagascar the mutineers were unfamiliar with : after further subterfuge by the crew , the Malagasy set the Meermin to drift towards the shore at Struisbaai . But the sea was rough , and one of the ship 's masts was cut down to improve her balance . The Meermin eventually grounded on a sandbank , by which time a militia consisting of local farmers and burghers had been formed onshore , who had observed that the ship was flying no flags , which they recognised as a distress signal . The militia killed or captured those of the Malagasy who ventured ashore , and then organised the removal into custody of all Malagasy remaining on the ship , under the command of a magistrate from Stellenbosch . The Meermin was assessed as beyond recovery , and left to break up where she grounded . = = Salvage and archaeology = = The VOC authorities salvaged as much as possible from the Meermin , recovering 286 muskets , 12 pistols , 5 bayonets , gunpowder , musket balls and compasses ; cables , ropes and other items from the ship were auctioned on the shore . The ship 's logbook has not survived . In 2004 , Iziko Museums started a maritime archaeology project to find and recover the wreck of the Meermin , with supporting historical and archaeological research funded by the South African National Lottery . Jaco Boshoff of Iziko Museums , who is in charge of the research , retrieved the Meermin 's plans from the Netherlands , to help identify this wreck among the numerous ships reputed to have run aground in the Struisbaai area . The search for the Meermin has employed an airborne magnetometer survey , as a marine magnetometer survey proved to be impractical owing to the shallowness of the waters . Magnetometer surveys can readily pick out wreck sites , as iron items from the ships can be detected by their recognisable signatures . Of 22 new , possible wrecks identified , 11 were identified as candidates for the wreck of the Meermin . Six are on what is now land , but have been ruled out as they are wrecks of pine @-@ built ships , whereas the Meermin was built of oak . In 2011 , the Iziko Museums ' travelling exhibition " Finding Meermin " included updates on the progress of Jaco Boshoff 's work with the archaeological research team . In November 2013 it was reported that , while the ship had not yet been found , lack of funding was holding up completion of the search , with four target areas remaining to be examined .
= Bizenghast = Bizenghast is a debut gothic graphic novel series written and illustrated by M. Alice LeGrow . The first seven volumes were published by Tokyopop , with the final volume released in late April 2012 . After placing in Tokyopop 's Rising Stars of Manga competition with her short story " Nikolai " , LeGrow successfully pitched the series to Tokyopop 's editors . She worked on the series from 2004 to 2011 . Set in the haunted New England town of Bizenghast , the story follows Dinah , an orphaned teenager who is tasked with returning each night to an ancient mausoleum to free the ghosts within the building . Several adaptations of Bizenghast have been released , including a novel by Shawn Thorgersen , animated episodes , and a tabletop roleplaying game . Critics praised Bizenghast for the gothic atmosphere and art , but noted the traditional elements and varying quality of the series . = = Plot = = Set in the fictional New England town of the same name , Bizenghast focuses on fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Dinah Wherever . Her parents ' car crash leaves her orphaned at a young age , and as a result , she moves in with her aunt . Dinah can see the ghosts which haunt her aunt 's house , which was a hospital and later a boarding school ; however , her aunt and doctor believe that she suffers from schizophrenia . One day , she and her only friend , Vincent Monroe , sneak out of her aunt 's house to search for materials for his garden . They stumble across an ancient mausoleum , and after Dinah reads aloud from a plaque , she discovers that her name is written on a contract which binds her to return to the mausoleum every night to free the ghosts . If she succeeds , she will win her freedom and a reward . If she fails , she will die and stay in the mausoleum as a corpse . For every ten ghosts appeased , Dinah and Vincent get a tower guard to help with their task . Over the course of the series , they meet two of the guards : Edaniel , a grinning cat @-@ like creature , and his brother Edrear , who secretly likes Dinah . Vincent dies while in one of the vaults , causing Dinah to become depressed . Later , the hooded angel , which normally guards the entrance to the mausoleum , appears as two stones that talk to Dinah and help her overcome the depression which resulted from Vincent 's death . Dinah continues searching the vaults and discovers that Edaniel and Edrear 's sister , Eniri , is missing , and that the seed of the mausoleum — its link to the Host in the afterlife — has been stolen . Additionally , Edaniel and Edrear 's other sister , Elala , is found dead . After Edaniel and Edrear lock down the mausoleum , they send Dinah home and she discovers that Maphohetka , a girl hanged for witchcraft and who now as a ghost can control minds in the real world , is manipulating Eniri and the townspeople . Unsuccessful in her attempt to stop her , Dinah flees to the mausoleum and receives a special outfit melted from the gold tolls that she and Vincent paid to gain access to the mausoleum . Returning , she confronts Maphohetka , who then orders Edaniel to kill her . In the ensuing battle , Dinah faces off against her former friend , accidentally decapitating Edaniel in the process . An enraged Edrear attempts to kill her , but eventually halts when Dinah points out that he 's crying for his brother , something that he 's normally unable to do and that 's being caused by Maphohetka 's influence . Knowing that he 's been compromised , Edrear stabs himself with his own sword , leaving Dinah to mourn him and share one kiss . Maphohetka , taking the opportunity , destroys Dinah 's scythe ( the only thing she had that could potentially kill her ) and ends up mutating into a large monster . After Dinah is captured in Maphohetka 's body , she happens upon the entity 's core , which is Maphohetka 's decayed corpse . Using Eniri 's bracelet to see into the monster , she finds that a piece of the cross Maphohetka was stabbed with during her hanging is still lodged in her chest , allowing Dinah to conclude that the piece is what keeps the evil spirit anchored in the living world . Dinah removes the cross shard , causing Maphohetka to fade away . Wanting to seek help , Dinah stabs herself with the cruifix piece , allowing her to temporarily ascend into the afterlife . There , she encounters her mother , who gives her another mausoleum seed that Dinah takes back to the living world . Dinah uses the seed to revive everyone killed in the incident and her armor melts into coins that flow out of the fountain . But in the end , Dinah opts to remove the crucifix piece , killing her . Dinah walks through her own funeral , bidding her mourning aunt goodbye before wandering outside . On the way , she encounters Vincent , but the two don 't recognize each other until they find the hidden graveyard . Dinah and Vincent become two mausoleum guards alongside a revived Edaniel and Edrear ( two young women who happened onto the graveyard having been contracted to the mausoleum ) . The series closes with Dinah on top of one of the towers beside Vincent , commenting how " she 's starting to like this town . " = = Development = = As a young girl , Mary Alice LeGrow was not interested in comics since she grew up in Weisbaden , Germany where comics were not readily available . In her freshman year of high school , she discovered comics and anime . She heard about Tokyopop 's Rising Stars of Manga competition from a friend at the 2003 Otakon , an anime convention in Baltimore , Maryland ; the stort story LeGrow submitted won a runner @-@ up place in the competition and was published in the 2003 Rising Stars of Manga anthology . She successfully pitched Bizenghast to the Tokyopop editors , and became the second Rising Stars of Manga winner to have an original series published by Tokyopop . LeGrow worked on the series from 2004 to 2011 . She began Bizenghast when , for an art class assignment , she drew an open door and added the hooded angel statue in another class . In her initial designs , Dinah had simple features and short black hair , and Vincent was one of Dinah 's friends . LeGrow later removed the other friends from the story . She later lengthened Dinah 's hair and depicted her dressed in Lolita fashion — clothing influenced by the Rococo and Victorian eras . Other changes included Dinah 's hair being altered from straight to curly and the addition of an exoskeleton @-@ like armour to Edrear . Tired of thin female characters in comics , LeGrow designed Edaniel 's girlfriend , Nareesha as " super full @-@ figured " . When deciding on names for her protagonist , LeGrow considered Molly , Charlotte , Moira , Sally , and Diana before choosing Dinah — a reference to the pet cat of the protagonist of Lewis Carroll 's novel Alice in Wonderland ; the 1984 comedy film Johnny Dangerously inspired her last name , Wherever . Vincent Monroe takes his name from Vincent Price and the actress Marilyn Monroe . Jane , Dinah 's aunt , shares her name with LeGrow 's sister . Edaniel takes his name from the name Daniel in a middle school yearbook which LeGrow picked at random ; she noted that the editors let her keep him in the story although he appeared a risky character to them . Edrear was initially named Mordred after the character from Arthurian myths . The name of his sister Elala comes from the character Lala Orange of Rainbow Brite , an animated television series . The minor character Prince Ironbound takes his name from the city Ironbound , New Jersey , while Lalibela , a holy town in northern Ethiopia , inspired Bali Lali 's . Another minor character , Dr. Morstan , takes his name from Mary Morstan , Dr. Watson ’ s wife . " марионетка " , the Russian word for marionette , inspired the name of the antagonist Maphohetka . LeGrow comments that the series " is about life , death and fabulous outfits ( not in that order ) " and notes that there are " a lot of religious themes " present . The town of Bizenghast " represents a world cut off from that sort of constant access [ of technology ] . " The series was initially written to span about fourteen volumes and be divided into three seasons : the first seven volumes would make up the first story arc ; the second season , volumes eight through eleven , would center on the mausoleum 's relationship with the other guilds ; and season three would focus on the afterlife and consist of the last three volumes . LeGrow also considered writing a spin @-@ off based on Bizenghast with a guest artist , after she finished the first story arc of Bizenghast . The spin @-@ off would contain chapters not present in the original series , and after her other series was completed , she would continue Bizenghast . LeGrow concluded Bizenghast at eight volumes . = = = Minor controversy = = = A minor controversy occurred over a statement published in the July 2007 issue of the Tokyopop publication Takuhai and in the back of the first Bizenghast volume written by a former Tokyopop editor and not authorized by LeGrow . It read : Meet M. Alice LeGrow , and please call her Marty . And while you 're at it , call your best friend and tell her that if she 's going to cosplay any of Marty 's characters with you , both of you better do your research , or Marty 's going to be pissed . Because that 's Marty . She doesn 't like sloppiness . Especially when it comes to anime and cosplay . She especially won 't tolerate it if you 're dressing up like Dinah from Bizenghast , because Dinah is her first big market character . Not only that , Dinah 's fabulous . Do Dinah right , or don 't Dinah at all . Understand ? LeGrow called it " worded in a way that I felt was offensive to me and to cosplayers " and noted that " none of it reflects my opinions . " Fan reaction to learning that the statement was inaccurate was generally relief since " they felt it didn 't mesh with [ her ] personality . " She stated : I love cosplayers and I 'm flattered that anyone would cosplay my characters . I certainly wouldn 't want to deter anyone from doing so ... I 'm very open to any kind of cosplay . I 'm afraid the person who authored that piece felt they were doing me a favor and putting an edgy spin on my persona , but had I known about it prior to printing , I would have never allowed it to go into the book . = = Media = = = = = Graphic novels = = = Written and illustrated by M. Alice LeGrow , Bizenghast is published in North America by Tokyopop . As of July 2010 , seven volumes have been released . The first was released on 9 August 2005 ; the most recent was published 1 July 2010 . However , Tokyopop 's North American branch stopped publishing on 31 May , 2011 ; because of it , the final volume of the series is being released through a print @-@ on @-@ demand agreement with RightStuf.com. The series is also distributed in New Zealand and Australia by Madman Entertainment , in Hungary by Mangattack , in Germany by Tokyopop Germany , in Finland by Pauna Media Group , and in Russia by Comix @-@ art . = = = Books = = = Three books based on Bizenghast have been released . On 13 February 2007 , Tokyopop also released a 72 @-@ page limited @-@ edition art book , Bizenghast : Falling into Fear ( ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 59816 @-@ 748 @-@ 1 ) , which included stickers and pinup pages . Running Press published a coloring book based on the series , Color Me Manga : Bizenghast ( ISBN 978 @-@ 0762431311 ) on 12 November 2007 . On 13 August 2008 , Tokyopop published a novel adaption , Bizenghast : The Novel ( ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4278 @-@ 1030 @-@ 4 ) , written by Shawn Thorgersen and with illustrations by LeGrow . = = = Other = = = Menfond Electronic Art adapted Bizenghast into animated short episodes or " iManga " . The iManga episodes featured music by Divine Madness and Kissing Violet , and premiered on My Space in summer 2007 . Overall , LeGrow praised the adaption . She liked the " kooky " background effects and Edaniel 's voice actor , but disliked Dinah 's " high @-@ pitched " voice which she had imagined as " deeper ... with a slight edge to it . Sort of like Mandy from The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy , but without the sarcasm . " The episodes were also available on Verizon 's V CAST . The television network iaTV acquired the seventeen two- to three @-@ minute @-@ long episodes as part of a " program acquisition deal and strategic ad sales partnership with Tokyopop . " A tabletop roleplaying game based on the series was created by Clint Krause . Other merchandise included posters , scarves , playing cards , a plushie , postcards , a signed puzzle kit , and T @-@ shirts . Additionally , a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ hour DVD commentary about the first Bizenghast volume , with Tokyopop editor interviews and bonus material , was planned to be released in mid @-@ August 2010 . = = Reception = = Bizenghast was well received by English @-@ language readers . The first volume debuted at the 79th spot on a list of the top 100 best @-@ selling graphic novels of August 2005 with an estimated 1 @,@ 434 copies sold . Daily Variety named Bizenghast one of Tokyopop 's top ten biggest titles . In June 2010 , the seventh volume sold 425 copies , ranking 294th on the list of the top 300 best @-@ selling graphic novels . Bizenghast received positive reviews from critics . The September 2005 issue of Teen People listed Bizenghast as the Hot Book of the Month . Sheena McNeil of Sequential Tart praised the first volume as " a highly enjoyable read " . Coolstreak Cartoons 's Leroy Douresseaux described the series as " belong [ ing ] to a fantasy subgenre sometimes referred to as ' pop Gothic ' " and relying on atmosphere and looks . Critics praised the art of Bizenghast as detailed , but did not see it as manga @-@ styled . Anime Jump 's Chad Clayton called the series " heavily steeped in the gothic tradition " and commented that the series " successfully develops an inventive visual style all its own . It seems to owe more to classical art , gothic comics , and even artists like Edward Gorey than it does to manga . " Johanna Draper Carlson , a longtime reviewer for Publishers Weekly , found the art reminiscent " of classic fantasy indy comics " and noted " stock elements " in the story . Reviewers found Dinah 's character design " striking " and with the potential to appeal to fans of the Gothic Lolita fashion . Criticism focused on the writing , " uneven pacing " , flat characters , and the varying quality of the art . Anime News Network 's Zac Bertschy heavily criticized Bizenghast for the " slightly modified generic monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week cliché " plot , one @-@ dimensional characters , and art . David Welsh compared Bizenghast to " a cosplay of a horror manga " , and wrote : " It ’ s got a handle on the cosmetics , but central elements of story and character are vague and underdeveloped . " In his review of the novel adaption , Mania Entertainment 's Greg Hackmann disliked the large amount of description , the " inconsistent " narration , and felt that the novel was more of a " novelization in the most literal sense of the word , reading much less like an adaptation in the spirit of LeGrow 's work than a 1 @-@ to @-@ 1 copy of the source material . " Conversely , Sabrina Fritz wrote that the novel adaption was " well @-@ written , [ and ] engaging " and called it " one of the best light novels on the market " . Another reviewer for Mania Entertainment , Danielle Van Gorder , enjoyed " [ t ] he detail and perspective in the architectural drawings " and " incredibly detailed costumes " of the art book Falling into Fear .
= Yugoslav minelayer Zmaj = The Yugoslav minelayer Zmaj ( Dragon ) was built in Germany as a seaplane tender for the Royal Yugoslav Navy in 1928 – 30 . She does not appear to have been much used in that role and was converted to a minelayer in 1937 . Captured by the Germans in 1941 , she was renamed Drache ( Dragon ) and redesignated as an aircraft tender and later as a troop transport , before she was rebuilt as a minelayer in 1942 . She laid one minefield in 1943 that sank two Allied destroyers and badly damaged a third in the Aegean Sea . Drache was also used by the Germans to evaluate the shipboard use of helicopters for reconnaissance purposes . She was sunk by Allied aircraft in 1944 at Samos and scrapped in place after the end of World War II . = = Description = = = = = Background = = = The Royal Yugoslav Navy operated a series of seaplane bases on the Dalmatian Coast before World War II and decided that it needed a ship to transport seaplanes between them and to rescue downed aircraft after operations as had been common during World War I. It decided on the smallest possible ship that could carry supplies and spare parts for ten seaplanes . = = = General characteristics = = = Zmaj was 83 meters ( 272 ft 4 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 13 meters ( 42 ft 8 in ) and , at full load , a draft of 4 meters ( 13 ft 1 in ) . She displaced 1 @,@ 870 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 840 long tons ) at standard load . Her two propellers were powered by a pair of eight @-@ cylinder , four @-@ stroke MAN Diesel engines that had a maximum output of 3 @,@ 260 shaft horsepower ( 2 @,@ 430 kW ) . This was enough to propel her to a speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . She carried a total of 140 tonnes ( 140 long tons ) of fuel which gave her a range of 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 km ; 4 @,@ 600 mi ) . She lacked a traditional funnel as her engine uptakes were taken up through the lattice mainmast . The ship was fitted with two single 55 @-@ caliber 83 @.@ 5 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 29 in ) Škoda anti @-@ aircraft guns , mounted on the forecastle and the stern . They had a maximum elevation of 85 ° and fired a 10 @-@ kilogram ( 22 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 800 m / s ( 2 @,@ 625 ft / s ) . They had a rate of fire of 12 rounds per minute and had a maximum ceiling of 11 @,@ 300 m ( 37 @,@ 100 ft ) . Four 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) 67 @-@ caliber Škoda AA guns were mounted between the bridge and the mainmast in a twin @-@ gun mount on each side of the ship abreast the aircraft hold . They fired a 0 @.@ 95 @-@ kilogram ( 2 @.@ 1 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 950 m / s ( 3 @,@ 117 ft / s ) . After her 1937 conversion to a minelayer , Zmaj carried 100 mines . A single disassembled de Havilland DH.60 Moth floatplane was stored in the aircraft hold between the forward superstructure and the mainmast . Its components would be moved from the hold by the aircraft crane to the after deck where it could be assembled . Then the aircraft would be swayed over the side where it could be launched . = = Construction = = Zmaj was built by Deutsche Werft in Hamburg , Germany . Due to the restrictions of the Versailles Treaty , she had to be built as an unarmed auxiliary . Her keel was laid down in 1928 and she was launched on 22 June 1929 . While en route to Yugoslavia she had a severe engine fire on 9 September 1929 off Flushing , Netherlands and was forced to return to Hamburg for repairs . These took almost a year and she was accepted by the Royal Yugoslav Navy on 20 August 1930 . She was finally commissioned in 1931 after she was armed and finished fitting @-@ out in Kotor . = = Service = = Zmaj appears to have been little used in her intended role ; only her salvage of an upside @-@ down Dornier Wal in the Bay of Kotor in 1936 has been confirmed . This may be why she was converted to a minelayer the following year . Following her conversion she made port visits to Piraeus and Istanbul , accompanied by the destroyer Dubrovnik and the submarines Hrabri and Smeli . Zmaj served as the fleet flagship in 1939 and witnessed the new destroyer Ljubljana run aground and sink in January 1940 at the narrow entrance to Sebenico harbor . Shortly before the German invasion of Yugoslavia on 6 April 1941 Zmaj laid defensive minefields along the Dalmatian Coast and off the main ports . These minefields may have caused the loss of the Yugoslav passenger ships SS Karađorđe and SS Prestolonaslednik Petar off Zlarin . Zmaj was captured in Split by the Germans on 17 April . Renamed as Drache ( Dragon ) by the Germans she was initially used in support of Luftwaffe seaplane units , but was redesignated as an aircraft rescue ship ( German : Flugzeugbergungsschiff ) on 7 August 1941 . Her armament was increased by two 2 @-@ centimeter ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) and one 1 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns as well as racks for a dozen depth charges . She was transferred on 27 December to the Aegean and reclassified as a troop transport . Drache was modified at Trieste between April and August 1942 for service as a minelayer . Her existing armament was replaced by two 10 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) , five 3 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) and six 2 cm AA guns . She was equipped with four mine rails on her after deck that could accommodate up to 120 mines and another 120 mines could be carried internally . Her crane was replaced by two derricks and the lattice mainmast was plated over and resembled a funnel . A 20 @-@ by @-@ 5 @-@ meter ( 65 ft 7 in × 16 ft 5 in ) platform was built behind the funnel above the main deck . Drache was recommissioned on 20 August 1942 and she was renamed Schiff 50 on 6 November . She conducted a number of minelaying operations in the Aegean as well as some of the west coast of Greece . After the surrender of Italy in September 1943 she was used to carry troops to reconquer the island of Kos on 2 – 3 October ( Operation Eisbär ) . On 8 October she was unsuccessfully attacked by the British submarine HMS Unruly although her companion , the German minelayer Bulgaria , was sunk . Drache 's most successful operation was a mine barrage laid just east of the islands of Pserimos and Kalymnos to protect German troops during the Battle of Leros . The British destroyer HMS Hurworth and the Greek destroyer Adrias , carrying supplies and reinforcements for the British forces on Leros , ran into this minefield on the evening of 22 October . Adrias had her bow blown off and Hurworth was sunk attempting to come to the aid of Adrias . Adrias , however , was eventually able to make it back to Alexandria . Two nights later the destroyer HMS Eclipse encountered the same minefield while carrying reinforcements to Leros . She hit a mine , broke in two , and sank in five minutes . Drache was also used for shipboard trials with the Flettner Fl 282 Kolibri ( Hummingbird ) helicopter . She embarked the V6 and V10 prototypes for a period in 1942 and in January – February 1943 . They used the small platform abaft the funnel to take @-@ off and land . The Kriegsmarine ( German navy ) wished to evaluate their potential for anti @-@ submarine warfare and mine reconnaissance , but visual detection proved to be possible only in clear weather . The ship was attacked by Allied aircraft several times in 1943 and early 1944 , but she was only lightly damaged on two occasions . Nonetheless her anti @-@ aircraft armament was augmented during 1944 . One quadruple 2 cm Flakvierling 38 mount was installed on each side of the bridge and she carried a total of thirteen 2 cm guns . Her 10 @.@ 5 cm guns were exchanged for lighter 8 @.@ 8 @-@ centimeter ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns to compensate for the increased top weight . However this proved to be insufficient to save Drache when she was attacked by several British Bristol Beaufighters on the afternoon of 22 September 1944 while anchored in Vathy harbor on the Greek island of Samos . She was set on fire , exploded and sank two hours later ; eleven of her crew , including the commander Joachim Wünning , died during the attack . She was not salvaged and remained in place to be scrapped after the end of the war .
= William Shakespeare = William Shakespeare ( / ˈʃeɪkspɪər / ; 26 April 1564 ( baptised ) – 23 April 1616 ) was an English poet , playwright , and actor , widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world 's pre @-@ eminent dramatist . He is often called England 's national poet , and the " Bard of Avon " . His extant works , including collaborations , consist of approximately 38 plays , 154 sonnets , two long narrative poems , and a few other verses , some of uncertain authorship . His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright . Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon , Warwickshire . At the age of 18 , he married Anne Hathaway , with whom he had three children : Susanna , and twins Hamnet and Judith . Sometime between 1585 and 1592 , he began a successful career in London as an actor , writer , and part @-@ owner of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlain 's Men , later known as the King 's Men . He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613 , at age 49 , where he died three years later . Few records of Shakespeare 's private life survive , which has stimulated considerable speculation about such matters as his physical appearance , sexuality , and religious beliefs , and whether the works attributed to him were written by others . Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613 . His early plays were primarily comedies and histories , and these are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres . He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608 , including Hamlet , Othello , King Lear , and Macbeth , considered some of the finest works in the English language . In his last phase , he wrote tragicomedies , also known as romances , and collaborated with other playwrights . Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and accuracy during his lifetime . In 1623 , however , John Heminges and Henry Condell , two friends and fellow actors of Shakespeare , published a more definitive text known as the First Folio , a posthumous collected edition of his dramatic works that included all but two of the plays now recognised as Shakespeare 's . It was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson , in which Shakespeare is hailed , presciently , as " not of an age , but for all time " . In the 20th and 21st centuries , his works have been repeatedly adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship and performance . His plays remain highly popular , and are constantly studied , performed , and reinterpreted in diverse cultural and political contexts throughout the world . = = Lifeပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = = = = Early lifeပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = = William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare , an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield , and Mary Arden , the daughter of an affluent landowning farmer . He was born in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564 . His actual date of birth remains unknown , but is traditionally observed on 23 April , Saint George 's Day . This date , which can be traced back to an 18th @-@ century scholar 's mistake , has proved appealing to biographers , because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 . He was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son . Although no attendance records for the period survive , most biographers agree that Shakespeare was probably educated at the King 's New School in Stratford , a free school chartered in 1553 , about a quarter @-@ mile ( 400 m ) from his home . Grammar schools varied in quality during the Elizabethan era , but grammar school curricula were largely similar : the basic Latin text was standardised by royal decree , and the school would have provided an intensive education in grammar based upon Latin classical authors . At the age of 18 , Shakespeare married 26 @-@ year @-@ old Anne Hathaway . The consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582 . The next day , two of Hathaway 's neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage . The ceremony may have been arranged in some haste , since the Worcester chancellor allowed the marriage banns to be read once instead of the usual three times , and six months after the marriage Anne gave birth to a daughter , Susanna , baptised 26 May 1583 . Twins , son Hamnet and daughter Judith , followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585 . Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596 . After the birth of the twins , Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592 . The exception is the appearance of his name in the " complaints bill " of a law case before the Queen 's Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589 . Scholars refer to the years between 1585 and 1592 as Shakespeare 's " lost years " . Biographers attempting to account for this period have reported many apocryphal stories . Nicholas Rowe , Shakespeare 's first biographer , recounted a Stratford legend that Shakespeare fled the town for London to escape prosecution for deer poaching in the estate of local squire Thomas Lucy . Shakespeare is also supposed to have taken his revenge on Lucy by writing a scurrilous ballad about him . Another 18th @-@ century story has Shakespeare starting his theatrical career minding the horses of theatre patrons in London . John Aubrey reported that Shakespeare had been a country schoolmaster . Some 20th @-@ century scholars have suggested that Shakespeare may have been employed as a schoolmaster by Alexander Hoghton of Lancashire , a Catholic landowner who named a certain " William Shakeshafte " in his will . Little evidence substantiates such stories other than hearsay collected after his death , and Shakeshafte was a common name in the Lancashire area . = = = London and theatrical careerပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = = It is not known definitively when Shakespeare began writing , but contemporary allusions and records of performances show that several of his plays were on the London stage by 1592 . By then , he was sufficiently known in London to be attacked in print by the playwright Robert Greene in his Groats @-@ Worth of Wit : ... there is an upstart Crow , beautified with our feathers , that with his Tiger 's heart wrapped in a Player 's hide , supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you : and being an absolute Johannes factotum , is in his own conceit the only Shake @-@ scene in a country . Scholars differ on the exact meaning of Greene 's words , but most agree that Greene is accusing Shakespeare of reaching above his rank in trying to match such university @-@ educated writers as Christopher Marlowe , Thomas Nashe and Greene himself ( the so @-@ called " university wits " ) . The italicised phrase parodying the line " Oh , tiger 's heart wrapped in a woman 's hide " from Shakespeare 's Henry VI , Part 3 , along with the pun " Shake @-@ scene " , clearly identify Shakespeare as Greene 's target . As used here , Johannes Factotum ( " Jack of all trades " ) refers to a second @-@ rate tinkerer with the work of others , rather than the more common " universal genius " . Greene 's attack is the earliest surviving mention of Shakespeare 's work in the theatre . Biographers suggest that his career may have begun any time from the mid @-@ 1580s , to just before Greene 's remarks . After 1594 , Shakespeare 's plays were performed only by the Lord Chamberlain 's Men , a company owned by a group of players , including Shakespeare , that soon became the leading playing company in London . After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603 , the company was awarded a royal patent by the new King James I , and changed its name to the King 's Men . In 1599 , a partnership of members of the company built their own theatre on the south bank of the River Thames , which they named the Globe . In 1608 , the partnership also took over the Blackfriars indoor theatre . Extant records of Shakespeare 's property purchases and investments indicate that his association with the company made him a wealthy man , and in 1597 he bought the second @-@ largest house in Stratford , New Place , and in 1605 , invested in a share of the parish tithes in Stratford . Some of Shakespeare 's plays were published in quarto editions beginning in 1594 , and by 1598 , his name had become a selling point and began to appear on the title pages . Shakespeare continued to act in his own and other plays after his success as a playwright . The 1616 edition of Ben Jonson 's Works names him on the cast lists for Every Man in His Humour ( 1598 ) and Sejanus His Fall ( 1603 ) . The absence of his name from the 1605 cast list for Jonson 's Volpone is taken by some scholars as a sign that his acting career was nearing its end . The First Folio of 1623 , however , lists Shakespeare as one of " the Principal Actors in all these Plays " , some of which were first staged after Volpone , although we cannot know for certain which roles he played . In 1610 , John Davies of Hereford wrote that " good Will " played " kingly " roles . In 1709 , Rowe passed down a tradition that Shakespeare played the ghost of Hamlet 's father . Later traditions maintain that he also played Adam in As You Like It , and the Chorus in Henry V , though scholars doubt the sources of that information . Throughout his career , Shakespeare divided his time between London and Stratford . In 1596 , the year before he bought New Place as his family home in Stratford , Shakespeare was living in the parish of St. Helen 's , Bishopsgate , north of the River Thames . He moved across the river to Southwark by 1599 , the same year his company constructed the Globe Theatre there . By 1604 , he had moved north of the river again , to an area north of St Paul 's Cathedral with many fine houses . There he rented rooms from a French Huguenot named Christopher Mountjoy , a maker of ladies ' wigs and other headgear . = = = Later years and deathပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = = Rowe was the first biographer to record the tradition , repeated by Johnson , that Shakespeare retired to Stratford " some years before his death " . He was still working as an actor in London in 1608 ; in an answer to the sharers ' petition in 1635 Cuthbert Burbage stated that after purchasing the lease of the Blackfriars Theatre in 1608 from Henry Evans , the King 's Men " placed men players " there , " which were Heminges , Condell , Shakespeare , etc . " . However it is perhaps relevant that the bubonic plague raged in London throughout 1609 . The London public playhouses were repeatedly closed during extended outbreaks of the plague ( a total of over 60 months closure between May 1603 and February 1610 ) , which meant there was often no acting work . Retirement from all work was uncommon at that time . Shakespeare continued to visit London during the years 1611 – 1614 . In 1612 , he was called as a witness in Bellott v. Mountjoy , a court case concerning the marriage settlement of Mountjoy 's daughter , Mary . In March 1613 he bought a gatehouse in the former Blackfriars priory ; and from November 1614 he was in London for several weeks with his son @-@ in @-@ law , John Hall . After 1610 , Shakespeare wrote fewer plays , and none are attributed to him after 1613 . His last three plays were collaborations , probably with John Fletcher , who succeeded him as the house playwright of the King 's Men . Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 , at the age of 52 . He died within a month of signing his will , a document which he begins by describing himself as being in " perfect health " . No extant contemporary source explains how or why he died . Half a century later , John Ward , the vicar of Stratford , wrote in his notebook : " Shakespeare , Drayton and Ben Jonson had a merry meeting and , it seems , drank too hard , for Shakespeare died of a fever there contracted " , not an impossible scenario , since Shakespeare knew Jonson and Drayton . Of the tributes from fellow authors , one refers to his relatively sudden death : " We wondered , Shakespeare , that thou went 'st so soon / From the world 's stage to the grave 's tiring room . " He was survived by his wife and two daughters . Susanna had married a physician , John Hall , in 1607 , and Judith had married Thomas Quiney , a vintner , two months before Shakespeare 's death . Shakespeare signed his last will and testament on 25 March 1616 ; the following day his new son @-@ in @-@ law , Thomas Quiney was found guilty of fathering an illegitimate son by Margaret Wheeler , who had died during childbirth . Thomas was ordered by the church court to do public penance , which would have caused much shame and embarrassment for the Shakespeare family . Shakespeare bequeathed the bulk of his large estate to his elder daughter Susanna under stipulations that she pass it down intact to " the first son of her body " . The Quineys had three children , all of whom died without marrying . The Halls had one child , Elizabeth , who married twice but died without children in 1670 , ending Shakespeare 's direct line . Shakespeare 's will scarcely mentions his wife , Anne , who was probably entitled to one third of his estate automatically . He did make a point , however , of leaving her " my second best bed " , a bequest that has led to much speculation . Some scholars see the bequest as an insult to Anne , whereas others believe that the second @-@ best bed would have been the matrimonial bed and therefore rich in significance . Shakespeare was buried in the chancel of the Holy Trinity Church two days after his death . The epitaph carved into the stone slab covering his grave includes a curse against moving his bones , which was carefully avoided during restoration of the church in 2008 : ( Modern spelling : Good friend , for Jesus ' sake forbear , / To dig the dust enclosed here . / Blessed be the man that spares these stones , / And cursed be he that moves my bones . ) Sometime before 1623 , a funerary monument was erected in his memory on the north wall , with a half @-@ effigy of him in the act of writing . Its plaque compares him to Nestor , Socrates , and Virgil . In 1623 , in conjunction with the publication of the First Folio , the Droeshout engraving was published . Shakespeare has been commemorated in many statues and memorials around the world , including funeral monuments in Southwark Cathedral and Poets ' Corner in Westminster Abbey . = = Playsပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = Most playwrights of the period typically collaborated with others at some point , and critics agree that Shakespeare did the same , mostly early and late in his career . Some attributions , such as Titus Andronicus and the early history plays , remain controversial , while The Two Noble Kinsmen and the lost Cardenio have well @-@ attested contemporary documentation . Textual evidence also supports the view that several of the plays were revised by other writers after their original composition . The first recorded works of Shakespeare are Richard III and the three parts of Henry VI , written in the early 1590s during a vogue for historical drama . Shakespeare 's plays are difficult to date , however , and studies of the texts suggest that Titus Andronicus , The Comedy of Errors , The Taming of the Shrew and The Two Gentlemen of Verona may also belong to Shakespeare 's earliest period . His first histories , which draw heavily on the 1587 edition of Raphael Holinshed 's Chronicles of England , Scotland , and Ireland , dramatise the destructive results of weak or corrupt rule and have been interpreted as a justification for the origins of the Tudor dynasty . The early plays were influenced by the works of other Elizabethan dramatists , especially Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe , by the traditions of medieval drama , and by the plays of Seneca . The Comedy of Errors was also based on classical models , but no source for The Taming of the Shrew has been found , though it is related to a separate play of the same name and may have derived from a folk story . Like The Two Gentlemen of Verona , in which two friends appear to approve of rape , the Shrew 's story of the taming of a woman 's independent spirit by a man sometimes troubles modern critics and directors . Shakespeare 's early classical and Italianate comedies , containing tight double plots and precise comic sequences , give way in the mid @-@ 1590s to the romantic atmosphere of his most acclaimed comedies . A Midsummer Night 's Dream is a witty mixture of romance , fairy magic , and comic lowlife scenes . Shakespeare 's next comedy , the equally romantic Merchant of Venice , contains a portrayal of the vengeful Jewish moneylender Shylock , which reflects Elizabethan views but may appear derogatory to modern audiences . The wit and wordplay of Much Ado About Nothing , the charming rural setting of As You Like It , and the lively merrymaking of Twelfth Night complete Shakespeare 's sequence of great comedies . After the lyrical Richard II , written almost entirely in verse , Shakespeare introduced prose comedy into the histories of the late 1590s , Henry IV , parts 1 and 2 , and Henry V. His characters become more complex and tender as he switches deftly between comic and serious scenes , prose and poetry , and achieves the narrative variety of his mature work . This period begins and ends with two tragedies : Romeo and Juliet , the famous romantic tragedy of sexually charged adolescence , love , and death ; and Julius Caesar — based on Sir Thomas North 's 1579 translation of Plutarch 's Parallel Lives — which introduced a new kind of drama . According to Shakespearean scholar James Shapiro , in Julius Caesar " the various strands of politics , character , inwardness , contemporary events , even Shakespeare 's own reflections on the act of writing , began to infuse each other " . In the early 17th century , Shakespeare wrote the so @-@ called " problem plays " Measure for Measure , Troilus and Cressida , and All 's Well That Ends Well and a number of his best known tragedies . Many critics believe that Shakespeare 's greatest tragedies represent the peak of his art . The titular hero of one of Shakespeare 's most famous tragedies , Hamlet , has probably been discussed more than any other Shakespearean character , especially for his famous soliloquy which begins " To be or not to be ; that is the question " . Unlike the introverted Hamlet , whose fatal flaw is hesitation , the heroes of the tragedies that followed , Othello and King Lear , are undone by hasty errors of judgement . The plots of Shakespeare 's tragedies often hinge on such fatal errors or flaws , which overturn order and destroy the hero and those he loves . In Othello , the villain Iago stokes Othello 's sexual jealousy to the point where he murders the innocent wife who loves him . In King Lear , the old king commits the tragic error of giving up his powers , initiating the events which lead to the torture and blinding of the Earl of Gloucester and the murder of Lear 's youngest daughter Cordelia . According to the critic Frank Kermode , " the play @-@ offers neither its good characters nor its audience any relief from its cruelty " . In Macbeth , the shortest and most compressed of Shakespeare 's tragedies , uncontrollable ambition incites Macbeth and his wife , Lady Macbeth , to murder the rightful king and usurp the throne , until their own guilt destroys them in turn . In this play , Shakespeare adds a supernatural element to the tragic structure . His last major tragedies , Antony and Cleopatra and Coriolanus , contain some of Shakespeare 's finest poetry and were considered his most successful tragedies by the poet and critic T. S. Eliot . In his final period , Shakespeare turned to romance or tragicomedy and completed three more major plays : Cymbeline , The Winter 's Tale and The Tempest , as well as the collaboration , Pericles , Prince of Tyre . Less bleak than the tragedies , these four plays are graver in tone than the comedies of the 1590s , but they end with reconciliation and the forgiveness of potentially tragic errors . Some commentators have seen this change in mood as evidence of a more serene view of life on Shakespeare 's part , but it may merely reflect the theatrical fashion of the day . Shakespeare collaborated on two further surviving plays , Henry VIII and The Two Noble Kinsmen , probably with John Fletcher . = = = Performancesပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = = It is not clear for which companies Shakespeare wrote his early plays . The title page of the 1594 edition of Titus Andronicus reveals that the play had been acted by three different troupes . After the plagues of 1592 – 3 , Shakespeare 's plays were performed by his own company at The Theatre and the Curtain in Shoreditch , north of the Thames . Londoners flocked there to see the first part of Henry IV , Leonard Digges recording , " Let but Falstaff come , Hal , Poins , the rest ... and you scarce shall have a room " . When the company found themselves in dispute with their landlord , they pulled The Theatre down and used the timbers to construct the Globe Theatre , the first playhouse built by actors for actors , on the south bank of the Thames at Southwark . The Globe opened in autumn 1599 , with Julius Caesar one of the first plays staged . Most of Shakespeare 's greatest post @-@ 1599 plays were written for the Globe , including Hamlet , Othello and King Lear . After the Lord Chamberlain 's Men were renamed the King 's Men in 1603 , they entered a special relationship with the new King James . Although the performance records are patchy , the King 's Men performed seven of Shakespeare 's plays at court between 1 November 1604 and 31 October 1605 , including two performances of The Merchant of Venice . After 1608 , they performed at the indoor Blackfriars Theatre during the winter and the Globe during the summer . The indoor setting , combined with the Jacobean fashion for lavishly staged masques , allowed Shakespeare to introduce more elaborate stage devices . In Cymbeline , for example , Jupiter descends " in thunder and lightning , sitting upon an eagle : he throws a thunderbolt . The ghosts fall on their knees . " The actors in Shakespeare 's company included the famous Richard Burbage , William Kempe , Henry Condell and John Heminges . Burbage played the leading role in the first performances of many of Shakespeare 's plays , including Richard III , Hamlet , Othello , and King Lear . The popular comic actor Will Kempe played the servant Peter in Romeo and Juliet and Dogberry in Much Ado About Nothing , among other characters . He was replaced around 1600 by Robert Armin , who played roles such as Touchstone in As You Like It and the fool in King Lear . In 1613 , Sir Henry Wotton recorded that Henry VIII " was set forth with many extraordinary circumstances of pomp and ceremony " . On 29 June , however , a cannon set fire to the thatch of the Globe and burned the theatre to the ground , an event which pinpoints the date of a Shakespeare play with rare precision . = = = Textual sourcesပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = = In 1623 , John Heminges and Henry Condell , two of Shakespeare 's friends from the King 's Men , published the First Folio , a collected edition of Shakespeare 's plays . It contained 36 texts , including 18 printed for the first time . Many of the plays had already appeared in quarto versions — flimsy books made from sheets of paper folded twice to make four leaves . No evidence suggests that Shakespeare approved these editions , which the First Folio describes as " stol 'n and surreptitious copies " . Nor did Shakespeare plan or expect his works to survive in any form at all ; those works likely would have faded into oblivion but for his friends ' spontaneous idea , after his death , to create and publish the First Folio . Alfred Pollard termed some of the pre @-@ 1623 versions as " bad quartos " because of their adapted , paraphrased or garbled texts , which may in places have been reconstructed from memory . Where several versions of a play survive , each differs from the other . The differences may stem from copying or printing errors , from notes by actors or audience members , or from Shakespeare 's own papers . In some cases , for example Hamlet , Troilus and Cressida and Othello , Shakespeare could have revised the texts between the quarto and folio editions . In the case of King Lear , however , while most modern editions do conflate them , the 1623 folio version is so different from the 1608 quarto that the Oxford Shakespeare prints them both , arguing that they cannot be conflated without confusion . = = Poemsပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = In 1593 and 1594 , when the theatres were closed because of plague , Shakespeare published two narrative poems on erotic themes , Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece . He dedicated them to Henry Wriothesley , Earl of Southampton . In Venus and Adonis , an innocent Adonis rejects the sexual advances of Venus ; while in The Rape of Lucrece , the virtuous wife Lucrece is raped by the lustful Tarquin . Influenced by Ovid 's Metamorphoses , the poems show the guilt and moral confusion that result from uncontrolled lust . Both proved popular and were often reprinted during Shakespeare 's lifetime . A third narrative poem , A Lover 's Complaint , in which a young woman laments her seduction by a persuasive suitor , was printed in the first edition of the Sonnets in 1609 . Most scholars now accept that Shakespeare wrote A Lover 's Complaint . Critics consider that its fine qualities are marred by leaden effects . The Phoenix and the Turtle , printed in Robert Chester 's 1601 Love 's Martyr , mourns the deaths of the legendary phoenix and his lover , the faithful turtle dove . In 1599 , two early drafts of sonnets 138 and 144 appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim , published under Shakespeare 's name but without his permission . = = = Sonnetsပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = = Published in 1609 , the Sonnets were the last of Shakespeare 's non @-@ dramatic works to be printed . Scholars are not certain when each of the 154 sonnets was composed , but evidence suggests that Shakespeare wrote sonnets throughout his career for a private readership . Even before the two unauthorised sonnets appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim in 1599 , Francis Meres had referred in 1598 to Shakespeare 's " sugred Sonnets among his private friends " . Few analysts believe that the published collection follows Shakespeare 's intended sequence . He seems to have planned two contrasting series : one about uncontrollable lust for a married woman of dark complexion ( the " dark lady " ) , and one about conflicted love for a fair young man ( the " fair youth " ) . It remains unclear if these figures represent real individuals , or if the authorial " I " who addresses them represents Shakespeare himself , though Wordsworth believed that with the sonnets " Shakespeare unlocked his heart " . The 1609 edition was dedicated to a " Mr. W.H. " , credited as " the only begetter " of the poems . It is not known whether this was written by Shakespeare himself or by the publisher , Thomas Thorpe , whose initials appear at the foot of the dedication page ; nor is it known who Mr. W.H. was , despite numerous theories , or whether Shakespeare even authorised the publication . Critics praise the Sonnets as a profound meditation on the nature of love , sexual passion , procreation , death , and time . = = Styleပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = Shakespeare 's first plays were written in the conventional style of the day . He wrote them in a stylised language that does not always spring naturally from the needs of the characters or the drama . The poetry depends on extended , sometimes elaborate metaphors and conceits , and the language is often rhetorical — written for actors to declaim rather than speak . The grand speeches in Titus Andronicus , in the view of some critics , often hold up the action , for example ; and the verse in The Two Gentlemen of Verona has been described as stilted . Soon , however , Shakespeare began to adapt the traditional styles to his own purposes . The opening soliloquy of Richard III has its roots in the self @-@ declaration of Vice in medieval drama . At the same time , Richard 's vivid self @-@ awareness looks forward to the soliloquies of Shakespeare 's mature plays . No single play marks a change from the traditional to the freer style . Shakespeare combined the two throughout his career , with Romeo and Juliet perhaps the best example of the mixing of the styles . By the time of Romeo and Juliet , Richard II , and A Midsummer Night 's Dream in the mid @-@ 1590s , Shakespeare had begun to write a more natural poetry . He increasingly tuned his metaphors and images to the needs of the drama itself . Shakespeare 's standard poetic form was blank verse , composed in iambic pentameter . In practice , this meant that his verse was usually unrhymed and consisted of ten syllables to a line , spoken with a stress on every second syllable . The blank verse of his early plays is quite different from that of his later ones . It is often beautiful , but its sentences tend to start , pause , and finish at the end of lines , with the risk of monotony . Once Shakespeare mastered traditional blank verse , he began to interrupt and vary its flow . This technique releases the new power and flexibility of the poetry in plays such as Julius Caesar and Hamlet . Shakespeare uses it , for example , to convey the turmoil in Hamlet 's mind : After Hamlet , Shakespeare varied his poetic style further , particularly in the more emotional passages of the late tragedies . The literary critic A. C. Bradley described this style as " more concentrated , rapid , varied , and , in construction , less regular , not seldom twisted or elliptical " . In the last phase of his career , Shakespeare adopted many techniques to achieve these effects . These included run @-@ on lines , irregular pauses and stops , and extreme variations in sentence structure and length . In Macbeth , for example , the language darts from one unrelated metaphor or simile to another : " was the hope drunk / Wherein you dressed yourself ? " ( 1 @.@ 7 @.@ 35 – 38 ) ; " ... pity , like a naked new @-@ born babe / Striding the blast , or heaven 's cherubim , hors 'd / Upon the sightless couriers of the air ... " ( 1 @.@ 7 @.@ 21 – 25 ) . The listener is challenged to complete the sense . The late romances , with their shifts in time and surprising turns of plot , inspired a last poetic style in which long and short sentences are set against one another , clauses are piled up , subject and object are reversed , and words are omitted , creating an effect of spontaneity . Shakespeare combined poetic genius with a practical sense of the theatre . Like all playwrights of the time , he dramatised stories from sources such as Plutarch and Holinshed . He reshaped each plot to create several centres of interest and to show as many sides of a narrative to the audience as possible . This strength of design ensures that a Shakespeare play can survive translation , cutting and wide interpretation without loss to its core drama . As Shakespeare 's mastery grew , he gave his characters clearer and more varied motivations and distinctive patterns of speech . He preserved aspects of his earlier style in the later plays , however . In Shakespeare 's late romances , he deliberately returned to a more artificial style , which emphasised the illusion of theatre . = = Influenceပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = Shakespeare 's work has made a lasting impression on later theatre and literature . In particular , he expanded the dramatic potential of characterisation , plot , language , and genre . Until Romeo and Juliet , for example , romance had not been viewed as a worthy topic for tragedy . Soliloquies had been used mainly to convey information about characters or events ; but Shakespeare used them to explore characters ' minds . His work heavily influenced later poetry . The Romantic poets attempted to revive Shakespearean verse drama , though with little success . Critic George Steiner described all English verse dramas from Coleridge to Tennyson as " feeble variations on Shakespearean themes . " Shakespeare influenced novelists such as Thomas Hardy , William Faulkner , and Charles Dickens . The American novelist Herman Melville 's soliloquies owe much to Shakespeare ; his Captain Ahab in Moby @-@ Dick is a classic tragic hero , inspired by King Lear . Scholars have identified 20 @,@ 000 pieces of music linked to Shakespeare 's works . These include two operas by Giuseppe Verdi , Otello and Falstaff , whose critical standing compares with that of the source plays . Shakespeare has also inspired many painters , including the Romantics and the Pre @-@ Raphaelites . The Swiss Romantic artist Henry Fuseli , a friend of William Blake , even translated Macbeth into German . The psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud drew on Shakespearean psychology , in particular that of Hamlet , for his theories of human nature . In Shakespeare 's day , English grammar , spelling and pronunciation were less standardised than they are now , and his use of language helped shape modern English . Samuel Johnson quoted him more often than any other author in his A Dictionary of the English Language , the first serious work of its type . Expressions such as " with bated breath " ( Merchant of Venice ) and " a foregone conclusion " ( Othello ) have found their way into everyday English speech . = = Critical reputationပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = Shakespeare was not revered in his lifetime , but he received a large amount of praise . In 1598 , the cleric and author Francis Meres singled him out from a group of English writers as " the most excellent " in both comedy and tragedy . The authors of the Parnassus plays at St John 's College , Cambridge numbered him with Chaucer , Gower and Spenser . In the First Folio , Ben Jonson called Shakespeare the " Soul of the age , the applause , delight , the wonder of our stage " , though he had remarked elsewhere that " Shakespeare wanted art " . Between the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the end of the 17th century , classical ideas were in vogue . As a result , critics of the time mostly rated Shakespeare below John Fletcher and Ben Jonson . Thomas Rymer , for example , condemned Shakespeare for mixing the comic with the tragic . Nevertheless , poet and critic John Dryden rated Shakespeare highly , saying of Jonson , " I admire him , but I love Shakespeare " . For several decades , Rymer 's view held sway ; but during the 18th century , critics began to respond to Shakespeare on his own terms and acclaim what they termed his natural genius . A series of scholarly editions of his work , notably those of Samuel Johnson in 1765 and Edmond Malone in 1790 , added to his growing reputation . By 1800 , he was firmly enshrined as the national poet . In the 18th and 19th centuries , his reputation also spread abroad . Among those who championed him were the writers Voltaire , Goethe , Stendhal and Victor Hugo . During the Romantic era , Shakespeare was praised by the poet and literary philosopher Samuel Taylor Coleridge ; and the critic August Wilhelm Schlegel translated his plays in the spirit of German Romanticism . In the 19th century , critical admiration for Shakespeare 's genius often bordered on adulation . " That King Shakespeare , " the essayist Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1840 , " does not he shine , in crowned sovereignty , over us all , as the noblest , gentlest , yet strongest of rallying signs ; indestructible " . The Victorians produced his plays as lavish spectacles on a grand scale . The playwright and critic George Bernard Shaw mocked the cult of Shakespeare worship as " bardolatry " , claiming that the new naturalism of Ibsen 's plays had made Shakespeare obsolete . The modernist revolution in the arts during the early 20th century , far from discarding Shakespeare , eagerly enlisted his work in the service of the avant @-@ garde . The Expressionists in Germany and the Futurists in Moscow mounted productions of his plays . Marxist playwright and director Bertolt Brecht devised an epic theatre under the influence of Shakespeare . The poet and critic T.S. Eliot argued against Shaw that Shakespeare 's " primitiveness " in fact made him truly modern . Eliot , along with G. Wilson Knight and the school of New Criticism , led a movement towards a closer reading of Shakespeare 's imagery . In the 1950s , a wave of new critical approaches replaced modernism and paved the way for " post @-@ modern " studies of Shakespeare . By the 1980s , Shakespeare studies were open to movements such as structuralism , feminism , New Historicism , African @-@ American studies , and queer studies . In a comprehensive reading of Shakespeare 's works and comparing Shakespeare literary accomplishments to accomplishments among leading figures in philosophy and theology as well , Harold Bloom has commented that , " Shakespeare was larger than Plato and than St. Augustine . He encloses us , because we see with his fundamental perceptions . " = = Worksပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = = = = Classification of the playsပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = = Shakespeare 's works include the 36 plays printed in the First Folio of 1623 , listed according to their folio classification as comedies , histories and tragedies . Two plays not included in the First Folio , The Two Noble Kinsmen and Pericles , Prince of Tyre , are now accepted as part of the canon , with today 's scholars agreeing that Shakespeare made major contributions to the writing of both . No Shakespearean poems were included in the First Folio . In the late 19th century , Edward Dowden classified four of the late comedies as romances , and though many scholars prefer to call them tragicomedies , Dowden 's term is often used . In 1896 , Frederick S. Boas coined the term " problem plays " to describe four plays : All 's Well That Ends Well , Measure for Measure , Troilus and Cressida and Hamlet . " Dramas as singular in theme and temper cannot be strictly called comedies or tragedies " , he wrote . " We may therefore borrow a convenient phrase from the theatre of today and class them together as Shakespeare 's problem plays . " The term , much debated and sometimes applied to other plays , remains in use , though Hamlet is definitively classed as a tragedy . = = Speculation about Shakespeareပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = = = = Authorshipပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = = Around 230 years after Shakespeare 's death , doubts began to be expressed about the authorship of the works attributed to him . Proposed alternative candidates include Francis Bacon , Christopher Marlowe , and Edward de Vere , 17th Earl of Oxford . Several " group theories " have also been proposed . Only a small minority of academics believe there is reason to question the traditional attribution , but interest in the subject , particularly the Oxfordian theory of Shakespeare authorship , continues into the 21st century . = = = Religionပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = = Some scholars claim that members of Shakespeare 's family were Catholics , at a time when practicing Catholicism in England was against the law . Shakespeare 's mother , Mary Arden , certainly came from a pious Catholic family . The strongest evidence might be a Catholic statement of faith signed by his father , John Shakespeare , found in 1757 in the rafters of his former house in Henley Street . The document is now lost , however , and scholars differ as to its authenticity . In 1591 the authorities reported that John Shakespeare had missed church " for fear of process for debt " , a common Catholic excuse . In 1606 , the name of William 's daughter Susanna appears on a list of those who failed to attend Easter communion in Stratford . As several scholars have noted , whatever his private views , Shakespeare " conformed to the official state religion " , as Park Honan put it . Also , Shakespeare 's will uses a Protestant formula , and he was a confirmed member of the Church of England , where he was married , his children were baptized , and where he is buried . Other authors argue that there is a lack of evidence about Shakespeare 's religious beliefs . Scholars find evidence both for and against Shakespeare 's Catholicism , Protestantism , or lack of belief in his plays , but the truth may be impossible to prove . = = = Sexualityပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = = Few details of Shakespeare 's sexuality are known . At 18 , he married 26 @-@ year @-@ old Anne Hathaway , who was pregnant . Susanna , the first of their three children , was born six months later on 26 May 1583 . Over the centuries , some readers have posited that Shakespeare 's sonnets are autobiographical , and point to them as evidence of his love for a young man . Others read the same passages as the expression of intense friendship rather than romantic love . The 26 so @-@ called " Dark Lady " sonnets , addressed to a married woman , are taken as evidence of heterosexual liaisons . = = = Portraitureပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = = No written contemporary description of Shakespeare 's physical appearance survives , and no evidence suggests that he ever commissioned a portrait , so the Droeshout engraving , which Ben Jonson approved of as a good likeness , and his Stratford monument provide perhaps the best evidence of his appearance . From the 18th century , the desire for authentic Shakespeare portraits fuelled claims that various surviving pictures depicted Shakespeare . That demand also led to the production of several fake portraits , as well as mis @-@ attributions , repaintings and relabelling of portraits of other people .
= The Erlenmeyer Flask = " The Erlenmeyer Flask " is the 24th episode and the first season finale of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . Written by executive producer Chris Carter , and directed by R. W. Goodwin , the episode continues with the mythology story arc which started with " Pilot " . The episode first aired in the United States on May 13 , 1994 on the Fox network . With 8 @.@ 3 million households turning in during its initial broadcast , the episode was the most @-@ viewed episode of the show 's first season . The episode received an Edgar Award nomination in the Best Episode in a TV Series category , and has , since broadcast , received positive responses from both critics and crew members . The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully discover evidence of a secret government experimentation with alien DNA , but the evidence and everyone who has seen it are quickly targeted for elimination . " The Erlenmeyer Flask " introduced several new plot elements which would continue in later seasons and featured the death of recurring character " Deep Throat " ( Jerry Hardin ) . Carter described the inspiration for the episode as " the result of a year @-@ long learning experience " . = = Plot = = In Ardis , Maryland , a high @-@ speed police chase unfolds at a waterfront . The driver of the car , Dr. William Secare , is cornered by officers but fights them off with surprising ease . Secare is shot as he runs up a gangplank and leaps off a ship into the water . The police fail to locate him but discover that his blood is green . Soon afterwards , Deep Throat ( Jerry Hardin ) approaches Fox Mulder with Secare 's case , saying he is of major importance to revealing the truth . When investigating the case , Mulder and Dana Scully visit Dr. Terrance Berube ( Ken Kramer ) , a scientist working in Gaithersburg , Maryland , whose car was being driven by Secare . That night , Deep Throat meets a second time with Mulder and insists he continue , despite Mulder 's uncertainty on what he should be looking for . That night , Berube is confronted by the " Crew Cut Man " ( Lindsey Ginter ) , who kills him and makes the death look like a suicide . While investigating the crime scene , Mulder finds an Erlenmeyer flask labeled " Purity Control . " Scully takes the flask to Georgetown University , where Dr. Anne Carpenter ( Anne De Salvo ) helps her analyze its contents . Meanwhile , Mulder heads to Berube 's home and finds keys for a storage facility . Secare calls Berube 's home office and Mulder answers , pretending to be Berube . Secare tells who he believes to be Berube that he 's been in the water for three days , and is hurt . Meanwhile , the Crew Cut Man eavesdrops on the conversation . Secare collapses due to blood loss before he can tell Mulder where he is . While he is driven away in an ambulance , a poisonous gas emits from Secare 's body when the paramedics perform a needle decompression . Secare recovers and flees from the ambulance . Mulder arrives at the storage facility and finds five men suspended in tanks , as well as a sixth empty tank . Mulder is pursued when he leaves the facility but escapes . Carpenter reveals that the " Purity Control " flask contains a sample of bacteria that doesn 't exist anywhere in nature and can only be described as extraterrestrial . Upon revisiting the storage facility the next day with Scully , Mulder discovers the room to be completely empty . Deep Throat arrives , revealing that Berube was experimenting on humans with extraterrestrial viruses . Six terminally ill volunteers were experimented on , and all had begun recovering . When it was ordered that they be destroyed , Berube helped Secare escape . Scully learns that Carpenter and her entire family have been killed in an automobile accident . Mulder returns to Berube 's home and finds Secare , who is killed by the Crew Cut Man . Mulder passes out from exposure to the gas escaping from Secare 's wound and is captured . Deep Throat meets Scully outside of Mulder 's apartment and says that he may be able to make a deal with Mulder 's captors . He gives Scully the credentials necessary to enter the High Containment Facility at Fort Marlene , where Scully finds an alien fetus contained within liquid nitrogen . At an exchange on a freeway overpass , Deep Throat presents the fetus to the Crew Cut Man , who shoots him seconds later . Mulder is thrown out of the Crew Cut Man 's van as he drives off . Scully tends to Deep Throat , whose last words before dying are , " Trust no one " . Several weeks later , a despondent Mulder calls Scully to inform her that the X @-@ Files have been shut down . Meanwhile , in a scene mirroring the conclusion to the pilot , the Smoking Man stores the alien fetus in the massive evidence room within the Pentagon . = = Production = = = = = Development = = = Chris Carter wrote the teleplay for the episode , which he described as " the result of an year @-@ long learning experience " . Carter tried to firmly establish the mythology of the series , " where we explored the different avenues of government conspiracy , and turning it into more than just flying saucers " , and having what the writer called a " defining moment " for Scully , where the agent would hear from a fellow scientist that she was dealing with truly extraterrestrial material . The scene where poisonous fumes were emitted by Dr. Secare was inspired by the case of Gloria Ramirez , which occurred in California in February 1994 ; Carter remembered this when writing the script , and it became an established aspect of the mythology in subsequent seasons . The writers killed off the recurring character " Deep Throat " to give audiences the impression that anyone outside of Fox Mulder and Dana Scully were expendable . The decision to shut down the X @-@ Files was done to separate Mulder and Scully , allowing the producers to work around Gillian Anderson 's pregnancy ( which contributed to an important plot development in the second season and affected the rest of the series ) . Fox initially opposed the idea , fearing that closing down the X @-@ Files would lead viewers to believe that the show had been cancelled . The ending of this episode mirrors that of the " Pilot " , including Mulder calling Scully at 11 : 21 pm and the " Cigarette Smoking Man " storing evidence in The Pentagon . The tagline for this episode is " Trust No One " , replacing the usual phrase " The Truth is Out There " and referencing " Deep Throat " ' s last words . Executive producer R. W. Goodwin decided to make his directorial debut with the episode , as he considered it " the best script by far " , offering " a combination of elation and stark terror " . = = = Filming and effects = = = The opening car chase was shot by crew member J.P. Finn , who was the lone producer and directed much of the second unit . It was shot at an abandoned shipyard in North Vancouver known as Versatal Shipyard . Goodwin went so far as saying that the location " was perfect " for them to shoot in ; it would be reused in the third season episode " 2Shy . " The scene with Fox Mulder and Dana Scully visiting Doctor Berube ( Ken Kramer ) was a " big challenge " due to the use of monkeys ; Goodwin wanted the monkeys to all act " crazy " at the same time on cue when filming . When looking back , he said they did a " pretty good job " . The location used for the warehouse where Mulder finds the tanks had the address " 1616 Pandora " , which the producers decided to incorporate into the episode itself as a symbol of Mulder " opening Pandora 's box " . The scene where Mulder has entered in the warehouse and searched for the room number utilizes an in @-@ camera dolly zoom effect . The shot of Dr. Secare resurfacing out of the water was created by the visual effects unit . Actor Simon Webb was raised up on a crane under the water , which had been levered so that he could " actually " be raised out of the bay . According to Goodwin , the timing was not quite right , but that failed shot " worked " on a different level and proved to be a " fascinating shot " . The scene had to be re @-@ shot later , however . When filming the episode the production crew did not know that Webb had a phobia towards water . The first test shot of Scully removing the alien fetus doll from liquid nitrogen went right , but under the hot studio lights the model started falling apart , leading the following take to flash the lighting in another direction . = = Reception = = This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 , with a 16 share . It was viewed by 8 @.@ 3 million households , making it the most viewed episode of the first season . The Mystery Writers of America nominated " The Erlenmeyer Flask " for an Edgar Award in the Best Episode in a TV Series category ; the eventual recipient of the award was " Simone Says " of NYPD Blue . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode 9 out of 10 , saying it was " the perfect ending to the first season " and a good introduction to The X @-@ Files mythology . Manuel Medoza from The Dallas Morning News said the episode was able to blend " absolutely chilling " moments with " completely silly " moments " at the same time " . Entertainment Weekly writer Bruce Fretts concluded that the death of " Deep Throat " made the character " very real " . Crew members have also reacted positively towards the episode . Carter said of the episode : " The Erlenmeyer Flask brings back nothing but good memories . It just has terrific images in it ; it really brought the series in its first year full circle . It was successful in doing what we wanted to do , which was to close down the X @-@ Files . It shocked a lot of people " . Goodwin commented : " Everything about that episode is absolutely first class . The acting , the art direction , the camera work . There 's nothing in it that isn 't the best you can get , and that 's really a credit to a lot of very talented people " . The episode introduced many concepts and themes that would appear in the mythology episodes for the show throughout the years including genetic experiments , alien @-@ human hybrids , toxic alien blood , government conspiracies , alien fetuses and deadly assassins .
= Warfarin = Warfarin , also known by the brand names Coumadin among others , is an anticoagulant normally used in the prevention of thrombosis and thromboembolism , the formation of blood clots in the blood vessels and their migration elsewhere in the body , respectively . It was initially introduced in 1948 as a pesticide against rats and mice , and is still used for this purpose , although more potent poisons such as brodifacoum have since been developed . In the early 1950s , warfarin was found to be effective and relatively safe for preventing thrombosis and thromboembolism in many disorders . It was approved for use as a medication in 1954 , and has remained popular ever since . Warfarin is the most widely prescribed oral anticoagulant drug in North America . Despite its effectiveness , treatment with warfarin has several shortcomings . Many commonly used medications interact with warfarin , as do some foods ( particularly leaf vegetable foods or " greens , " since these typically contain large amounts of vitamin K1 ) and its activity has to be monitored by blood testing for the international normalized ratio ( INR ) to ensure an adequate yet safe dose is taken . A high INR predisposes patients to an increased risk of bleeding , while an INR below the therapeutic target indicates the dose of warfarin is insufficient to protect against thromboembolic events . Warfarin and related 4 @-@ hydroxycoumarin @-@ containing molecules decrease blood coagulation by inhibiting vitamin K epoxide reductase , an enzyme that recycles oxidized vitamin K1 to its reduced form after it has participated in the carboxylation of several blood coagulation proteins , mainly prothrombin and factor VII . Despite being labeled a vitamin K antagonist , warfarin does not antagonize the action of vitamin K1 , but rather antagonizes vitamin K1 recycling , depleting active vitamin K1 . Thus , the pharmacologic action may always be reversed by fresh vitamin K1 . When administered , these drugs do not anticoagulate blood immediately . Instead , onset of their effect requires about two to three days before remaining active clotting factors have had time to naturally disappear in metabolism , and the duration of action of a single dose of warfarin is 2 to 5 days . Reversal of warfarin 's effect by discontinuing its use , or by administering vitamin K1 , requires a similar period of time . Warfarin is a synthetic derivative of dicoumarol , a 4 @-@ hydroxycoumarin @-@ derived mycotoxin anticoagulant originally discovered in spoiled sweet clover @-@ based animal feeds . Dicoumarol , in turn , is derived from coumarin , a sweet @-@ smelling but coagulation @-@ inactive chemical found naturally in " sweet " clover ( to which it gives its odor and name ) , tonka beans ( also known as " cumaru " from which coumarin 's name derives ) , and many other plants . The name ' warfarin ' stems from its discovery at the University of Wisconsin , incorporating the acronym for the organization that funded the key research , " WARF " for the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation and the ending " -arin " , indicating its link with coumarin . = = Medical uses = = Warfarin is used to decrease the tendency for thrombosis or as secondary prophylaxis ( prevention of further episodes ) in those individuals who have already formed a blood clot ( thrombus ) . Warfarin treatment can help prevent formation of future blood clots and help reduce the risk of embolism ( migration of a thrombus to a spot where it blocks blood supply to a vital organ ) . Warfarin is best suited for anticoagulation ( clot formation inhibition ) in areas of slowly running blood ( such as in veins and the pooled blood behind artificial and natural valves ) and in blood pooled in dysfunctional cardiac atria . Thus , common clinical indications for warfarin use are atrial fibrillation , the presence of artificial heart valves , deep venous thrombosis , and pulmonary embolism ( where the embolized clots first form in veins ) . Warfarin is also used in antiphospholipid syndrome . It has been used occasionally after heart attacks ( myocardial infarctions ) , but is far less effective at preventing new thromboses in coronary arteries . Prevention of clotting in arteries is usually undertaken with antiplatelet drugs , which act by a different mechanism from warfarin ( which normally has no effect on platelet function ) . = = = Alternative anticoagulants = = = In some countries , other coumarins are used instead of warfarin , such as acenocoumarol and phenprocoumon . These have a shorter ( acenocoumarol ) or longer ( phenprocoumon ) half @-@ life , and are not completely interchangeable with warfarin . Several types of anticoagulant drugs offering the efficacy of warfarin without a need for monitoring , such as dabigatran , apixaban , edoxaban and rivaroxaban , have been approved in a number of countries for classical warfarin uses like the more common types of atrial fibrillation , and others in the same drug classes are under development . However , reversal agents for these alternative anticoagulants are currently not available . = = = Dosing = = = Dosing of warfarin is complicated because it is known to interact with many commonly used medications and certain foods . These interactions may enhance or reduce warfarin 's anticoagulation effect . To optimize the therapeutic effect without risking dangerous side effects such as bleeding , close monitoring of the degree of anticoagulation is required by a blood test measuring an INR . During the initial stage of treatment , INR is checked daily ; intervals between tests can be lengthened if the patient manages stable therapeutic INR levels on an unchanged warfarin dose . Newer point @-@ of @-@ care testing is available and has increased the ease of INR testing in the outpatient setting . Instead of a blood draw , the point of care test involves a simple finger prick . When initiating warfarin therapy ( " warfarinization " ) , the doctor will decide how strong the anticoagulant therapy needs to be . The target INR level varies from case to case depending on the clinical indicators , but tends to be 2 – 3 in most conditions . In particular , target INR may be 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 ( or even 3 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 5 ) in patients with one or more mechanical heart valves . In addition , for the first three days of " warfarinization " , the levels of protein C and protein S ( anticoagulation factors ) drop faster than procoagulation proteins such as factor II , VII , IX , and X. Therefore , bridging anticoagulant therapies ( usually heparin ) are often used to reverse this temporary hypercoagulable state . = = = = Maintenance dose = = = = Recommendations by many national bodies , including the American College of Chest Physicians , have been distilled to help manage dose adjustments . The maintenance dose of warfarin can fluctuate significantly depending on the amount of vitamin K1 in the diet . Keeping vitamin K1 intake at a stable level can prevent these fluctuations . Leafy green vegetables tend to contain higher amounts of vitamin K1 . Green parts of members of the family Apiaceae , such as parsley , cilantro , and dill , are extremely rich sources of vitamin K ; cruciferous vegetables such as cabbage and broccoli , as well as the darker varieties of lettuces and other leafy greens , are also relatively high in vitamin K1 . Green vegetables such a peas and green beans do not have such high amounts of vitamin K1 as leafy greens . Certain vegetable oils have high amounts of vitamin K1 . Foods low in vitamin K1 include roots , bulbs , tubers , and most fruits and fruit juices . Cereals , grains and other milled products are also low in vitamin K1 . = = = = Self @-@ testing = = = = Patients are making increasing use of self @-@ testing and home monitoring of oral anticoagulation . International guidelines on home testing were published in 2005 . The guidelines stated : " The consensus agrees that patient self @-@ testing and patient self @-@ management are effective methods of monitoring oral anticoagulation therapy , providing outcomes at least as good as , and possibly better than , those achieved with an anticoagulation clinic . All patients must be appropriately selected and trained . Currently available self @-@ testing / self @-@ management devices give INR results that are comparable with those obtained in laboratory testing . " A 2006 systematic review and meta @-@ analysis of 14 randomized trials showed home testing led to a reduced incidence of complications ( thrombosis and major bleeding ) and improved the time in the therapeutic range . = = Contraindications = = Warfarin is contraindicated in pregnancy , as it passes through the placental barrier and may cause bleeding in the fetus ; warfarin use during pregnancy is commonly associated with spontaneous abortion , stillbirth , neonatal death , and preterm birth . Coumarins ( such as warfarin ) are also teratogens , that is , they cause birth defects ; the incidence of birth defects in infants exposed to warfarin in utero appears to be around 5 % , although higher figures ( up to 30 % ) have been reported in some studies . Depending on when exposure occurs during pregnancy , two distinct combinations of congenital abnormalities can arise . = = = First trimester of pregnancy = = = Usually , warfarin is avoided in the first trimester , and a low molecular weight heparin such as enoxaparin is substituted . With heparin , risk of maternal haemorrhage and other complications are still increased , but heparins do not cross the placental barrier , so do not cause birth defects . Various solutions exist for the time around delivery . When warfarin ( or another 4 @-@ hydroxycoumarin derivative ) is given during the first trimester — particularly between the sixth and ninth weeks of pregnancy — a constellation of birth defects known variously as fetal warfarin syndrome ( FWS ) , warfarin embryopathy , or coumarin embryopathy can occur . FWS is characterized mainly by skeletal abnormalities , which include nasal hypoplasia , a depressed or narrowed nasal bridge , scoliosis , and calcifications in the vertebral column , femur , and heel bone , which show a peculiar stippled appearance on X @-@ rays . Limb abnormalities , such as brachydactyly ( unusually short fingers and toes ) or underdeveloped extremities , can also occur . Common nonskeletal features of FWS include low birth weight and developmental disabilities . = = = Second trimester and later = = = Warfarin administration in the second and third trimesters is much less commonly associated with birth defects , and when they do occur , are considerably different from fetal warfarin syndrome . The most common congenital abnormalities associated with warfarin use in late pregnancy are central nervous system disorders , including spasticity and seizures , and eye defects . Because of such later pregnancy birth defects , anticoagulation with warfarin poses a problem in pregnant women requiring warfarin for vital indications , such as stroke prevention in those with artificial heart valves . According to the American College of Chest Physicians ( ACCP ) , warfarin may be used in lactating women who wish to breast @-@ feed their infants . Available data does not suggest that warfarin crosses into the breast milk . Similarly , INR levels should be checked to avoid adverse effects . = = Adverse effects = = = = = Hemorrhage = = = The only common side effect of warfarin is hemorrhage ( bleeding ) . The risk of severe bleeding is small but definite ( a median annual rate of 1 @-@ 3 % has been reported ) and any benefit needs to outweigh this risk when warfarin is considered as a therapeutic measure . All types of bleeding occur more commonly , but the most catastrophic ones are those involving the brain ( intracerebral hemorrhage / hemorrhagic stroke ) and the spinal cord . Risk of bleeding is increased if the INR is out of range ( due to accidental or deliberate overdose or due to interactions ) . This risk increases greatly once the INR exceeds 4 @.@ 5 . A number of risk scores exists to predict bleeding in people using warfarin and similar anticoagulants . A commonly used score ( HAS @-@ BLED ) includes known predictors of warfarin @-@ related bleeding : uncontrolled high blood pressure ( H ) , abnormal kidney function ( A ) , previous stroke ( S ) , known previous bleeding condition ( B ) , previous labile INR when on anticoagulation ( L ) , elderly as defined by age over 65 ( E ) , and drugs associated with bleeding ( e.g. aspirin ) or alcohol misuse ( D ) . While their use is recommended in clinical practice guidelines , they are only moderately effective in predicting bleeding risk and do not perform well in predicting hemorrhagic stroke . Bleeding risk may be increased in patients on hemodialysis . Another score used to assess bleeding risk on anticoagulation , specifically Warfarin or Coumadin , is the ATRIA score , which uses a weighted additive scale of clinical findings to determine bleeding risk stratification . The risks of bleeding are increased further when warfarin is combined with antiplatelet drugs such as clopidogrel , aspirin , or nonsteroidal anti @-@ inflammatory drugs . = = = Warfarin necrosis = = = A rare but serious complication resulting from treatment with warfarin is warfarin necrosis , which occurs more frequently shortly after commencing treatment in patients with a deficiency of protein C. Protein C is an innate anticoagulant that , like the procoagulant factors that warfarin inhibits , requires vitamin K @-@ dependent carboxylation for its activity . Since warfarin initially decreases protein C levels faster than the coagulation factors , it can paradoxically increase the blood 's tendency to coagulate when treatment is first begun ( many patients when starting on warfarin are given heparin in parallel to combat this ) , leading to massive thrombosis with skin necrosis and gangrene of limbs . Its natural counterpart , purpura fulminans , occurs in children who are homozygous for certain protein C mutations . = = = Osteoporosis = = = After initial reports that warfarin could reduce bone mineral density , several studies have demonstrated a link between warfarin use and osteoporosis @-@ related fracture . A 1999 study in 572 women taking warfarin for deep venous thrombosis , risk of vertebral fracture and rib fracture was increased ; other fracture types did not occur more commonly . A 2002 study looking at a randomly selected selection of 1523 patients with osteoporotic fracture found no increased exposure to anticoagulants compared to controls , and neither did stratification of the duration of anticoagulation reveal a trend towards fracture . A 2006 retrospective study of 14 @,@ 564 Medicare recipients showed that warfarin use for more than one year was linked with a 60 % increased risk of osteoporosis @-@ related fracture in men ; there was no association in women . The mechanism was thought to be a combination of reduced intake of vitamin K , which is necessary for bone health , and inhibition by warfarin of vitamin K @-@ mediated carboxylation of certain bone proteins , rendering them nonfunctional . = = = Purple toe syndrome = = = Another rare complication that may occur early during warfarin treatment ( usually within 3 to 8 weeks of commencement ) is purple toe syndrome . This condition is thought to result from small deposits of cholesterol breaking loose and causing embolisms in blood vessels in the skin of the feet , which causes a blueish purple colour and may be painful . It is typically thought to affect the big toe , but it affects other parts of the feet as well , including the bottom of the foot ( plantar surface ) . The occurrence of purple toe syndrome may require discontinuation of warfarin . = = = Calcification of valves and arteries = = = Several studies have also implicated warfarin use in valvular and vascular calcification . No specific treatment is available , but some modalities are under investigation . = = Overdose = = The major side effect of warfarin use is bleeding . Risk of bleeding is increased if the INR is out of range ( due to accidental or deliberate overdose or due to interactions ) . Many drug interactions can increase the effect of warfarin , also causing an overdose . For people who need rapid reversal of warfarin and have serious bleeding or who are having emergency surgery , the effects of warfarin can be reversed with vitamin K with prothrombin complex concentrate or fresh frozen plasma in addition to intravenous vitamin K. Blood products should not be routinely used to reverse warfarin when vitamin K could work alone . Details on reversing warfarin are provided in clinical practice guidelines from the American College of Chest Physicians . For patients with an international normalized ratio ( INR ) between 4 @.@ 5 and 10 @.@ 0 , a small dose ( about 1000 mcg = one milligram ) of oral vitamin K is sufficient . When warfarin is being given and INR is in therapeutic range , simple discontinuation of the drug for five days is usually enough to reverse the effect and cause INR to drop below 1 @.@ 5 . = = Interactions = = Warfarin interacts with many commonly used drugs , and the metabolism of warfarin varies greatly between patients . Some foods have also been reported to interact with warfarin . Apart from the metabolic interactions , highly protein bound drugs can displace warfarin from serum albumin and cause an increase in the INR . This makes finding the correct dosage difficult , and accentuates the need of monitoring ; when initiating a medication that is known to interact with warfarin ( e.g. simvastatin ) , INR checks are increased or dosages adjusted until a new ideal dosage is found . When taken with NSAIDS ( non @-@ steroidal anti @-@ inflammatory medications ) , warfarin increases the risk for gastrointestinal bleeding . This increased risk is due to the anti @-@ platelet effect of NSAIDS as well as the possible damage to the gastrointestinal mucosa . Many commonly used antibiotics , such as metronidazole or the macrolides , will greatly increase the effect of warfarin by reducing the metabolism of warfarin in the body . Other broad @-@ spectrum antibiotics can reduce the amount of the normal bacterial flora in the bowel , which make significant quantities of vitamin K1 , thus potentiating the effect of warfarin . In addition , food that contains large quantities of vitamin K1 will reduce the warfarin effect . Thyroid activity also appears to influence warfarin dosing requirements ; hypothyroidism ( decreased thyroid function ) makes people less responsive to warfarin treatment , while hyperthyroidism ( overactive thyroid ) boosts the anticoagulant effect . Several mechanisms have been proposed for this effect , including changes in the rate of breakdown of clotting factors and changes in the metabolism of warfarin . Excessive use of alcohol is also known to affect the metabolism of warfarin and can elevate the INR and thus increase the risk of bleeding . The U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) product insert on warfarin states that alcohol should be avoided . Warfarin also interacts with many herbs and spices , some used in food ( such as ginger and garlic ) and others used purely for medicinal purposes ( such as ginseng and Ginkgo biloba ) . All may increase bleeding and bruising in people taking warfarin ; similar effects have been reported with borage ( starflower ) oil or fish oils . St. John 's Wort , sometimes recommended to help with mild to moderate depression , reduces the effectiveness of a given dose of warfarin ; it induces the enzymes that break down warfarin in the body , causing a reduced anticoagulant effect . Between 2003 and 2004 , the UK Committee on Safety of Medicines received several reports of increased INR and risk of haemorrhage in people taking warfarin and cranberry juice . Data establishing a causal relationship is still lacking , and a 2006 review found no cases of this interaction reported to the FDA ; nevertheless , several authors have recommended that both doctors and patients be made aware of its possibility . The mechanism behind the interaction is still unclear . = = Chemistry = = X @-@ ray crystallographic studies of warfarin show that it exists in tautomeric form , as the cyclic hemiketal , which is formed from the 4 @-@ hydroxycoumarin and the ketone in the 3 @-@ position substituent . However , the existence of many 4 @-@ hydroxycoumadin anticoagulants ( for example phenprocoumon ) that possess no ketone group in the 3 @-@ substituent to form such a structure , suggests that the hemiketal must tautomerise to the 4 @-@ hydroxy form in order for warfarin to be active . = = Pharmacology = = = = = Pharmacokinetics = = = Warfarin consists of a racemic mixture of two active enantiomers — R- and S- forms — each of which is cleared by different pathways . S @-@ warfarin is 2 @-@ 5 times more potent than the R @-@ isomer in producing an anticoagulant response . Both the enantiomers of warfarin undergo CYP @-@ mediated metabolism by many different CYPs to form 3 ' , 4 ' , 6 @,@ 7 @,@ 8 and 10 @-@ hydroxy warfarin metabolites , major being 7 @-@ OH warfarin formed from S @-@ warfarin by CYP2C9 and 10 @-@ OH warfarin from R @-@ warfarin by CYP3A4 . Warfarin is more slowly acting than the common anticoagulant heparin , though it has a number of advantages . Heparin must be given by injection , whereas warfarin is available orally . Warfarin has a long half @-@ life and need only be given once a day . Heparin can also cause a prothrombotic condition , heparin @-@ induced thrombocytopenia ( an antibody @-@ mediated decrease in platelet levels ) , which increases the risk for thrombosis . It takes several days for warfarin to reach the therapeutic effect since the circulating coagulation factors are not affected by the drug ( thrombin has a half @-@ life time of days ) . Warfarin 's long half @-@ life means that it remains effective for several days after it was stopped . Furthermore , if given initially without additional anticoagulant cover , it can increase thrombosis risk ( see below ) . For these main reasons , hospitalised patients are usually given heparin with warfarin initially , the heparin covering the 3 – 5 day lag period and being withdrawn after a few days . = = = Mechanism of action = = = While warfarin is one of several drugs popularly referred to as a " blood thinner ; " this is a misnomer since it does not affect the viscosity of blood . Warfarin inhibits the vitamin K @-@ dependent synthesis of biologically active forms of the calcium @-@ dependent clotting factors II , VII , IX and X , as well as the regulatory factors protein C , protein S , and protein Z. Other proteins not involved in blood clotting , such as osteocalcin , or matrix Gla protein , may also be affected . The precursors of these factors require gamma carboxylation of their glutamic acid residues to allow the coagulation factors to bind to phospholipid surfaces inside blood vessels , on the vascular endothelium . The enzyme that carries out the carboxylation of glutamic acid is gamma @-@ glutamyl carboxylase . The carboxylation reaction will proceed only if the carboxylase enzyme is able to convert a reduced form of vitamin K ( vitamin K hydroquinone ) to vitamin K epoxide at the same time . The vitamin K epoxide is in turn recycled back to vitamin K and vitamin K hydroquinone by another enzyme , the vitamin K epoxide reductase ( VKOR ) . Warfarin inhibits epoxide reductase ( specifically the VKORC1 subunit ) , thereby diminishing available vitamin K and vitamin K hydroquinone in the tissues , which inhibits the carboxylation activity of the glutamyl carboxylase . When this occurs , the coagulation factors are no longer carboxylated at certain glutamic acid residues , and are incapable of binding to the endothelial surface of blood vessels , and are thus biologically inactive . As the body 's stores of previously produced active factors degrade ( over several days ) and are replaced by inactive factors , the anticoagulation effect becomes apparent . The coagulation factors are produced , but have decreased functionality due to undercarboxylation ; they are collectively referred to as PIVKAs ( proteins induced [ by ] vitamin K absence / antagonism ) , and individual coagulation factors as PIVKA @-@ number ( e.g.PIVKA @-@ II ) . The end result of warfarin use , therefore , is to diminish blood clotting in the patient . When warfarin is newly started , it may promote clot formation temporarily . This is because the level of protein C and protein S are also dependent on vitamin K activity . Warfarin causes decline in protein C levels in first 36 hours . In addition , reduced levels of protein S lead to a reduction in activity of protein C ( for which it is the co @-@ factor ) and therefore reduced degradation of factor Va and factor VIIIa . Although loading doses of warfarin over 5 mg also produce a precipitous decline in factor VII , resulting in an initial prolongation of the INR , full antithrombotic effect does not take place until significant reduction in factor II occurs days later . The haemostasis system becomes temporarily biased towards thrombus formation , leading to a prothrombotic state . Thus , when warfarin is loaded rapidly at greater than 5 mg per day , it is beneficial to co @-@ administer heparin , an anticoagulant that acts upon antithrombin and helps reduce the risk of thrombosis , with warfarin therapy for four to five days , in order to have the benefit of anticoagulation from heparin until the full effect of warfarin has been achieved . = = = Pharmacogenomics = = = Warfarin activity is determined partially by genetic factors . Polymorphisms in two genes ( VKORC1 and CYP2C9 ) play a particularly large role in response to warfarin . VKORC1 polymorphisms explain 30 % of the dose variation between patients : particular mutations make VKORC1 less susceptible to suppression by warfarin . There are two main haplotypes that explain 25 % of variation : low @-@ dose haplotype group ( A ) and a high @-@ dose haplotype group ( B ) . VKORC1 polymorphisms explain why African Americans are on average relatively resistant to warfarin ( higher proportion of group B haplotypes ) , while Asian Americans are generally more sensitive ( higher proportion of group A haplotypes ) . Group A VKORC1 polymorphisms lead to a more rapid achievement of a therapeutic INR , but also a shorter time to reach an INR over 4 , which is associated with bleeding . CYP2C9 polymorphisms explain 10 % of the dose variation between patients , mainly among Caucasian patients as these variants are rare in African American and most Asian populations . These CYP2C9 polymorphisms do not influence time to effective INR as opposed toVKORC1 , but does shorten the time to INR > 4 . Despite the promise of pharmacogenomic testing in warfarin dosing , its use in clinical practice is controversial . In August 2009 the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services concluded that " the available evidence does not demonstrate that pharmacogenomic testing of CYP2C9 or VKORC1 alleles to predict warfarin responsiveness improves health outcomes in Medicare beneficiaries . " A 2014 meta @-@ analysis showed that using genotype @-@ based dosing did not confer benefit in terms of time within therapeutic range , excessive anticoagulation ( as defined by INR greater than 4 ) , or a reduction in either major bleeding or thromboembolic events . = = History = = In the early 1920s , there was an outbreak of a previously unrecognized cattle disease in the northern United States and Canada . Cattle were haemorrhaging after minor procedures , and on some occasions , spontaneously . For example , 21 out of 22 cows died after dehorning , and 12 out of 25 bulls died after castration . All of these animals had bled to death . In 1921 , Frank Schofield , a Canadian veterinary pathologist , determined that the cattle were ingesting moldy silage made from sweet clover , and that this was functioning as a potent anticoagulant . Only spoiled hay made from sweet clover ( grown in northern states of the USA and in Canada since the turn of the century ) produced the disease . Schofield separated good clover stalks and damaged clover stalks from the same hay mow , and fed each to a different rabbit . The rabbit that had ingested the good stalks remained well , but the rabbit that had ingested the damaged stalks died from a haemorrhagic illness . A duplicate experiment with a different sample of clover hay produced the same result . In 1929 , North Dakota veterinarian Dr L.M. Roderick demonstrated that the condition was due to a lack of functioning prothrombin . The identity of the anticoagulant substance in spoiled sweet clover remained a mystery until 1940 . In 1933 Karl Paul Link and his lab of chemists working at the University of Wisconsin set out to isolate and characterize the haemorrhagic agent from the spoiled hay . It took five years for Link 's student Harold A. Campbell to recover 6 mg of crystalline anticoagulant . Next , Link 's student Mark A. Stahmann took over the project and initiated a large @-@ scale extraction , isolating 1 @.@ 8 g of recrystallized anticoagulant in about 4 months . This was enough material for Stahmann and Charles F. Huebner to check their results against Campbell 's and to thoroughly characterize the compound . Through degradation experiments they established that the anticoagulant was 3 @,@ 3 ' -methylenebis- ( 4 @-@ hydroxycoumarin ) , which they later named dicoumarol . They confirmed their results by synthesizing dicoumarol and proving in 1940 that it was identical to the naturally occurring agent . Dicoumarol was a product of the plant molecule coumarin ( not to be confused with Coumadin , a later tradename for warfarin ) . Coumarin is now known to be present in many plants , and produces the notably sweet smell of freshly cut grass or hay and plants like sweet grass ; in fact , the plant 's high content of coumarin is responsible for the original common name of " sweet clover " , which is named for its sweet smell , not its bitter taste . They are present notably in woodruff ( Galium odoratum , Rubiaceae ) , and at lower levels in licorice , lavender , and various other species . However , coumarins themselves do not influence clotting or warfarin @-@ like action , but must first be metabolized by various fungi into compounds such as 4 @-@ hydroxycoumarin , then further ( in the presence of naturally occurring formaldehyde ) into dicoumarol , in order to have any anticoagulant properties . Fungal attack of the damaged and dying clover stalks explained the presence of the anticoagulant only in spoiled clover silages ; dicoumarol is considered to be a fermentation product and mycotoxin . Over the next few years , numerous similar chemicals ( specifically 4 @-@ hydroxycoumarins with a large aromatic substitutent at the 3 position ) were found to have the same anticoagulant properties . The first drug in the class to be widely commercialized was dicoumarol itself , patented in 1941 and later used as a pharmaceutical . Karl Link continued working on developing more potent coumarin @-@ based anticoagulants for use as rodent poisons , resulting in warfarin in 1948 . The name " warfarin " stems from the acronym WARF , for Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation + the ending -arin indicating its link with coumarin . Warfarin was first registered for use as a rodenticide in the US in 1948 , and was immediately popular . Although warfarin was developed by Link , the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation financially supported the research and was assigned the patent . After an incident in 1951 , where a US Army inductee unsuccessfully attempted suicide with multiple doses of warfarin in rodenticide and recovered fully after presenting to a hospital , and being treated with vitamin K ( by then known as a specific antidote ) , studies began in the use of warfarin as a therapeutic anticoagulant . It was found to be generally superior to dicoumarol , and in 1954 was approved for medical use in humans . An early recipient of warfarin was US president Dwight Eisenhower , who was prescribed the drug after having a heart attack in 1955 . The exact mechanism of action remained unknown until it was demonstrated , in 1978 , that warfarin inhibits the enzyme epoxide reductase and hence interferes with vitamin K metabolism . It has been posited that Lavrenty Beria , Nikita Khrushchev and others conspired to use warfarin to poison Soviet leader Joseph Stalin . Warfarin is tasteless and colourless , and produces symptoms similar to those that Stalin exhibited . = = Use as a rodenticide = = Coumarins ( 4 @-@ hydroxycoumarin derivatives ) are used as rodenticides for controlling rats and mice in residential , industrial , and agricultural areas . Warfarin is both odorless and tasteless , and is effective when mixed with food bait , because the rodents will return to the bait and continue to feed over a period of days until a lethal dose is accumulated ( considered to be 1 mg / kg / day over about six days ) . It may also be mixed with talc and used as a tracking powder , which accumulates on the animal 's skin and fur , and is subsequently consumed during grooming . The LD50 is 50 – 500 mg / kg . The IDLH value is 100 mg / m3 ( warfarin ; various species ) . The use of warfarin itself as a rat poison is now declining , because many rat populations have developed resistance to it , and poisons of considerably greater potency are now available . Other 4 @-@ hydroxycoumarins used as rodenticides include coumatetralyl and brodifacoum , which is sometimes referred to as " super @-@ warfarin " , because it is more potent , longer @-@ acting , and effective even in rat and mouse populations that are resistant to warfarin . Unlike warfarin , which is readily excreted , newer anticoagulant poisons also accumulate in the liver and kidneys after ingestion . However , such rodenticides may also accumulate in birds of prey and other animals that eat the poisoned rodents or baits . = = Occupational safety = = People can be exposed to warfarin in the workplace by breathing it in , swallowing it , skin absorption , and eye contact . The Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) has set the legal limit ( Permissible exposure limit ) for warfarin exposure in the workplace as 0 @.@ 1 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) of 0 @.@ 1 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday . At levels of 100 mg / m3 , warfarin is immediately dangerous to life and health . It is classified as an extremely hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right @-@ to @-@ Know Act ( 42 U.S.C. 11002 ) , and is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce , store , or use it in significant quantities . = = Brandnames = = Brand names include Coumadin , Jantoven , Marevan , Uniwarfin , Lawarin and Waran .
= Action of 23 August 1967 = The Action of 23 August 1967 was a major air battle which involved elements of the Vietnam People 's Air Force ( VPAF ) and the United States Air Force ( USAF ) . The air battle took place over the skies of North Vietnam as part of Operation Rolling Thunder , during the Vietnam War . On 2 January 1967 , the United States Air Force launched Operation Bolo with the aim of luring North Vietnamese MiG fighters into an air battle , where they could be destroyed in an ambush . The operation , led by Colonel Robin Olds , turned out to be a major success after five North Vietnamese MiG @-@ 21 fighters of the VPAF 921st Fighter Regiment were shot down . Stung by that devastating defeat , the North Vietnamese Air Force grounded their fighter force several times between June and August 1967 , in order to work on their training and tactics . On 23 August 1967 , the North Vietnamese Air Force employed their newly devised tactic against a U.S. strike formation , while it was conducting raids against a rail yard . The air battle concluded with the USAF losing three F @-@ 4D fighters . = = Background = = On 2 March 1965 , the United States Government launched Operation Rolling Thunder , a major bombing campaign , with several objectives . Firstly , the operation was supposed to retaliate against North Vietnam for their military activities inside South Vietnam , thereby raising the morale of the South Vietnamese people , especially the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) . Secondly , it aimed to impede North Vietnam ’ s ability to wage war by reducing , if not stopping , the flow of men and material into South Vietnam . Thirdly , the overall objective was to persuade the North Vietnamese Government to find a compromise through negotiations . Originally the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff submitted a list of 94 targets to be hit over a period of 16 days , but U.S. President Lyndon Johnson decided to include military targets in order to gradually apply pressure on the North Vietnamese Government , so the list of targets grew to 427 by the end of the campaign . In the first phase of the operation , which lasted from spring to summer of 1965 , American airpower mainly targeted the North Vietnamese capital of Hanoi and its limited industrial base . However , by the end of the year , the United States had failed to achieve the objectives of Rolling Thunder , because North Vietnam continued to send its troops and military supplies down the Ho Chi Minh Trail , which demonstrated that the North Vietnamese Government was not ready to quit the war . In response to domestic political pressure to do more , President Johnson shifted priority of the campaign to interdiction . From summer 1965 to the winter period of 1966 – 67 , the campaign was aimed at degrading North Vietnam ’ s capability to infiltrate and send men into South Vietnam . Again , America ’ s shift towards interdiction also failed , and the Johnson administration was forced to change the priority of the bombing campaign . For the third phase of Rolling Thunder , which occurred from spring 1967 to early 1968 , bombing operations were focused on industrial and transportation targets in and around Hanoi , Hai Phong and the buffer zone near the Chinese border . The third phase of the campaign was heavily favored by U.S. commanders , because it allowed them to destroy rather than just threaten Hanoi ’ s nascent industrial infrastructures . Furthermore , the new targets approved by the Johnson administration enabled U.S. airpower to be used against the primary war @-@ making capabilities of North Vietnam , by striking at military targets that were previously denied to the fighter @-@ bombers of the U.S. Navy and Air Force . Thus , in 1967 the United States also introduced more aircraft into the operation equipped with new technology , which gave American air units the assets to make a significant difference . However , as American bombers moved closer to Hanoi and Hai Phong , they were aggressively challenged by North Vietnamese MiG fighters . = = Prelude = = The year of 1967 started badly for the Vietnam People 's Air Force ( VPAF ) . During the early years of the war , the rules of engagement prevented U.S. fighter @-@ bombers from hitting North Vietnamese air bases , and that allowed North Vietnamese fighter pilots to attack American bomber formations as they were approaching their targets , thereby forcing U.S. pilots to jettison their bomb loads before they even reached their target . Then , instead of dueling with U.S. strike aircraft , North Vietnamese pilots would normally retreat to the safety of their bases . To preempt further attacks on U.S. bomber formations by the North Vietnamese Air Force , the United States Air Force became interested in luring North Vietnamese MiG fighters up against a decoy target , and shoot them down in the air using missile @-@ armed fighter aircraft . By 1967 , the North Vietnamese Air Force had become more aggressive towards U.S. strike formations , and it indicated to U.S. commanders that it was the right time to launch a decoy operation . In what became known as Operation Bolo , the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing ( 8th TFW ) — under the command of Colonel Robin Olds — based at Ubon in Thailand , was entrusted with the task of leading an operation which aimed to lure the North Vietnamese Air Force into an ambush . Accordingly , the F @-@ 4 Phantoms of the 8th TFW would fly in the same profile as an F @-@ 105 strike formation , by flying at the same time , altitudes , speed and routes . For the first time , the F @-@ 4 Phantoms would be equipped with the QRC @-@ 160 jamming pods so they would appear on North Vietnamese radars as F @-@ 105 bombers . To prepare for the operation , U.S. aircrews spent several days studying weapons envelopes , pod operation , and all aspects of air @-@ to @-@ air tactics . On 2 January 1967 , a total of 56 F @-@ 4C Phantom II from the 8th and 366th Tactical Fighter Wings flew in a formation which resembled an F @-@ 105 strike force , towards the VPAF ’ s Phuc Yen Air Base . There were four flights of F @-@ 104 fighters flying in escort , to simulate the F @-@ 4s . When the U.S. fighter formations were detected by North Vietnamese radar , MiG @-@ 21 fighters of the VPAF 921st Fighter Regiment based at Phúc Yên Air Base and Kép Air Base were immediately placed on category one red alert , which was the highest state of alert . However , unknown to the U.S. pilots at the time , the VPAF High Command forbade their pilots from taking off until U.S. fighters were 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) away from Noi Bai . Apart from the late reaction of the VPAF High Command , weather conditions over North Vietnam also favored U.S. aircrews ; North Vietnamese bases at Noi Bai and Kep were covered by 10 / 10th cloud , which started at a height of 1 @,@ 500 meters ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) and cleared at 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) . By the time the first wave of North Vietnamese MiG fighters had taken off , two additional flights of F @-@ 4C fighters from the 8th TFW had already flown into the area undetected . Due to their lack of radar equipment , North Vietnamese MiG @-@ 17 fighters were restricted to flying at cloud base , so they failed to detect the presence of U.S. fighters that were flying at a higher altitude . From above 10 @,@ 000 meters ( 33 @,@ 000 ft ) U.S. F @-@ 4 fighters had a greater energy level over North Vietnamese MiG @-@ 17 and MiG @-@ 21 fighters , and U.S. pilots had no trouble seeing or identifying North Vietnamese fighters flying up from below . Furthermore , weather conditions on the day allowed radar and missile systems on the F @-@ 4 fighters to perform at their maximum level , an advantage which U.S. pilots fully exploited as North Vietnamese MiG fighters flew up to engage them . Just after 3 : 00 pm North Vietnamese MiG @-@ 21 fighters appeared through the clouds and began attacking U.S. fighters circling above . One by one the MiG @-@ 21 fighters were picked off by AIM @-@ 7 and AIM @-@ 9 missiles launched by U.S. pilots . The USAF suffered no losses and they claimed to have shot down seven MiG @-@ 21 fighters , but only five were confirmed by the North Vietnamese . All North Vietnamese pilots who were hit ejected safely , while the survivors managed to return to the safety of their home bases . = = Engagement = = On 8 January 1967 , the VPAF High Command convened a meeting to examine what had gone wrong . The actions of 2 January had exposed the flawed tactics employed by MiG @-@ 21 pilots ; they broke through the clouds too quickly , and they did not join up with each other before they attacked the U.S. fighters waiting above them . The VPAF High Command then devised a new tactic which required the deployment of between two or four aircraft for each attack , with a maximum of ten aircraft for each mission to perform guerrilla @-@ style attacks on U.S. bomber formations . Furthermore , after they had examined U.S. air tactics , North Vietnamese commanders decided that MiG @-@ 17 pilots should attack U.S. formations from either side , while MiG @-@ 21 pilots would strike from above . Before the North Vietnamese Air Force could implement their new tactics , however , the VPAF 921st Fighter Regiment was withdrawn from combat for several months to recover from the bloody defeat it had suffered as a result of Operation Bolo . In April , North Vietnamese MiG fighters were back in the air to challenge U.S. Navy and Air Force fighter @-@ bombers again , but they only experienced mixed results with heavy losses . As a result , between late June and early August 1967 , North Vietnamese Air Force fighters were grounded several times , so their pilots could work on their training and new tactics . While the North Vietnamese pilots were undergoing training , American airpower was concentrated on striking at Hanoi ’ s line of communications , especially the rail lines running north @-@ east and north @-@ west into China , and the transportation network which linked North Vietnam ’ s capital with Hai Phong . To minimize the effects of U.S. strikes , North Vietnamese authorities constructed several alternate rail yards on the north @-@ eastern train line , including the Yen Vien rail yard which located 58 kilometers ( 36 mi ) north of Hanoi and ran through Thai Nguyen , and linked up with the main line at Kep close to China . In response , the Seventh Air Force launched repeated strikes on the Yen Vien rail yard and other infrastructures which linked Hanoi with the China buffer zone . On 21 August 1967 , a formation of twenty F @-@ 105 Thunderchiefs and eight F @-@ 4 Phantoms raided Yen Vien , which contained about 150 boxcars . The Americans claimed to have damaged more than half of the boxcars and trapped the remainder in the rail yard , so they returned two days later to destroy the rest . On the afternoon of 23 August 1967 , a flight of sixteen F @-@ 4s from the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing escorted a formation of thirty @-@ six F @-@ 105 strike aircraft from the 355th and 388th Tactical Fighter Wings based in Thailand , for the second attack on Yen Vien . The 555th Tactical Fighter Squadron provided two flights of F @-@ 4 Phantoms , ‘ Ford ’ flight and ‘ Falcon ’ flight . The mission was led by Colonel Nicholas J. Donelson with Olds , who spearheaded Operation Bolo back in January , as the leader of the escort formation . At 1 : 45 pm on 23 August , North Vietnamese radars detected a flight of 40 U.S aircraft approaching Hanoi from Sam Neua , in neighboring Laos . The VPAF High Command immediately scrambled two flights of four MiG @-@ 17 fighters from the VPAF 923rd Fighter Regiment , followed by two MiG @-@ 21 fighters from the VPAF 921st Fighter Regiment at 2 : 51 pm . The MiG @-@ 21 force was led by Nguyen Nhat Chieu with Nguyen Van Coc , who had participated in the VPAF 's disastrous mission during Operation Bolo , as the wingman . The first and second MiG @-@ 17 flights were commanded by Cao Thanh Tinh and Nguyen Van Tho respectively . Once airborne , North Vietnamese pilots maneuvered their aircraft into positions to deploy their new tactic which required the MiG @-@ 17 fighters to act as bait , while the MiG @-@ 21 fighters attacked from the rear . After Chieu and Coc had departed from Phuc Yen Air Base , they flew at low level and stayed in the ground clutter to avoid detection by airborne radars employed by U.S aircraft . However , the MiG @-@ 21 ’ s transponders were detected by an orbiting EC @-@ 121 airborne early warning radar surveillance aircraft , and their positions were relayed to the F @-@ 4 fighters that were escorting the strike formation , but they did not respond . Initially the first MiG @-@ 17 flight fell behind the U.S. strike formation , so Tinh and his formation climbed with full afterburner and they immediately played their part in the attack , by attacking the F @-@ 105 formation with their cannons . Meanwhile , as North Vietnamese ground controllers saw their fighter aircraft abeam the strike flight and outside the radar range of the F @-@ 4 formation , they ordered the MiG @-@ 21 fighters to climb up to 8 @,@ 500 meters ( 27 @,@ 900 ft ) . Chieu and Coc then dived out from an overcast and swept down on ‘ Ford ’ flight and the strike formation ; Chieu fired a missile at an F @-@ 105 and Coc fired an R @-@ 3S Atoll missile which successfully destroyed ‘ Ford 4 ’ ( 66 @-@ 0238 , 8th TFW ) , piloted by Major Charles R. Tyler . Shortly afterwards , Chieu turned his aircraft around and fired a missile at another F @-@ 4 , but it missed . Coc also tried to score another kill , but he strayed into Chieu ’ s line of fire as the latter was diving down from above firing his 20mm cannon . As a result , Coc ’ s MiG @-@ 21 was damaged but the controls were still working properly , so he requested to carry on with the mission . However , ground controllers ordered him to return to base , and the MiG @-@ 21 could only fly at a speed of 600 kilometers per hour ( 370 mph ) due to the damage . After the U.S. strike formation had fallen into the ambush , MiG @-@ 17 pilots radioed their control center and requested to continue with their air patrol . Over the skies of Yen Vien , ‘ Ford 1 ’ piloted by Captain Larry E. Carrigan ( 66 @-@ 0247 , 8th TFW ) was shot down by a MiG @-@ 17 fighter from Tho ’ s formation . Meanwhile , ‘ Falcon 3 ’ ( 65 @-@ 0726 , 8th TFW ) piloted by Major Robert R. Sawhill was shot down by anti @-@ aircraft artillery . Against those losses , F @-@ 105 pilot First Lieutenant David B. Waldrop , ‘ Crossbow 3 ’ , claimed that he had destroyed one MiG @-@ 17 in the air battle . On the return trip , ‘ Ford 3 ’ piloted by Major C.B. Demarque ( 66 @-@ 0260 ) ran out of fuel as the aircraft tried to reach a tanker ; the pilot and his Weapons Systems Officer were forced to eject from the aircraft as it malfunctioned over Thailand . = = Aftermath = = The battle concluded as the worst day for the United States Air Force in Vietnam since 2 December 1966 , when they had lost five aircraft over the skies of North Vietnam in a single day . Consequently , the actions of 23 August became known as ‘ Black Wednesday ’ amongst U.S. pilots who participated in air operations over Hanoi on that particular day . The USAF officially confirmed the loss of three F @-@ 4D fighters during the raid against the Yen Vien rail yard , which resulted in the deaths of Weapon Systems Officers Captain Ronald N. Sittner ( 66 @-@ 0238 , 8th TFW ) and First Lieutenant Charles Lane ( 66 @-@ 00247 , 8th TFW ) . Major Charles R. Tyler , Captain Larry E. Carrigan , Major Robert R. Sawhill and First Lieutenant Gerald L. Gerndt ejected safely from their aircraft , but they were captured alive and became prisoners of war . Major C.B. Demarque and his Weapons System Officer , First Lieutenant J.M. Piet were rescued shortly after they ejected from their malfunctioned aircraft over Thai airspace . In contrast to the misery suffered by their opponents , the action of 23 August gave the North Vietnamese Air Force their first major victory since Operation Bolo . The USAF ’ s confirmation of the loss of ‘ Ford 4 ’ to a MiG aircraft gave Nguyen Van Coc his second air @-@ to @-@ air victory , and he eventually became the leading ace pilot of the war with nine kills . Earlier in the engagement , flight leader Nguyen Nhat Chieu claimed to have destroyed an F @-@ 105 with a missile , but the USAF have not confirmed that claim . Nonetheless , Chieu also became a ranking ace pilot with six kills attributed to his name . The USAF also claimed one victory against a MiG @-@ 17 fighter , attributed to First Lieutenant David B. Waldrop , but the claim was not confirmed by the North Vietnamese because all their MiG fighters returned to base safely . Following their defeat at the hands of the North Vietnamese Air Force , Colonel Robin Olds learned that Seventh Air Force intelligence had watched North Vietnamese MiG fighters practicing their new tactics for ten days prior to the battle of 23 August , but had not passed that information on to the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing and other units . Thus , it soon became clear to U.S commanders that the reason the North Vietnamese repeatedly stood down their fighter force was because they were working on their new tactic . In the first half of 1967 , the North Vietnamese had realized they could not directly confront U.S. fighters in air @-@ to @-@ air combat , so they changed their procedures for the deployment of their numerically inferior MiG units . To take advantage of the MiG @-@ 21 ’ s speed and small size , pilots flying the type were instructed to intercept targets only at high speed behind or above U.S. strike formations . Then , as they approached their target , the MiG @-@ 21 pilots would make a supersonic diving pass against trailing or isolated flights , so they could position themselves for a missile kill . The action of 23 August demonstrated that the North Vietnamese Air Force had successfully executed their new procedure , which was helped by more skilful ground controllers who directed the MiG fighter towards their targets . Indeed , the new procedure gave North Vietnamese MiG pilots the ingredient they needed to achieve a kill over their U.S. opponents ; between August 1967 and February 1968 , the North Vietnamese Air Force achieved a kill ratio of 1 @.@ 1 : 1 against the USAF , with the loss of 20 aircraft for 22 victories . In the same period of time , Operation Rolling Thunder had cost the United States approximately $ 900 million ( $ 5 @,@ 640 million at 2010 prices ) with the loss of more than 700 aircraft . The bombing campaign continued until 31 October 1968 , when it was abandoned by the U.S. Government .
= Mise of Amiens = The Mise of Amiens was a settlement given by King Louis IX of France on 23 January 1264 in the conflict between King Henry III of England and his rebellious barons , led by Simon de Montfort . Louis ' one @-@ sided decision for King Henry led directly to the hostilities of the Barons ' War . The conflict between king and magnates was caused by dissatisfaction with the influence of foreigners at court , and Henry 's high level of taxation . In 1258 Henry was forced to accept the Provisions of Oxford , that essentially left royal government in the hands of a council of magnates , but this document went through a long series of revocations and reinstatements . In 1263 , as the country was on the brink of civil war , the two parties agreed to submit the matter to arbitration by the French king . Louis was a firm believer in the royal prerogative , and decided clearly in favour of Henry . The outcome was unacceptable for the rebellious barons , and war between the two parties broke out almost immediately after the announcement of the settlement . After a victory at the Battle of Lewes in May 1264 , Montfort took over control of government , but the success was short @-@ lived . Henry 's oldest son Edward – the later King Edward I – started a military campaign that ended in the Battle of Evesham in August 1265 , where Montfort was defeated and killed . Parts of the baronial resistance still held out , but by the end of 1266 the final garrison at Kenilworth Castle surrendered . The rebels were given pardons according to terms set out in the Dictum of Kenilworth . = = Background = = By 1264 , the reign of Henry III was deeply troubled by disputes between the king and his nobility . The conflict was caused by several factors . One source of discontent was the influence two groups of royal favourites enjoyed at court : the Savoyards , relatives of Queen Eleanor of Provence , and the king 's half @-@ brothers , known as Poitevins or Lusignans . The native nobility were offended by the great political influence held by these foreigners . Secondly , the king had in 1254 accepted Pope Innocent IV 's offer of the crown of Sicily for his younger son Edmund . The offer involved repelling the current Hohenstaufen rulers of the island , and proved to be very expensive . Lastly , there was a personal dispute between King Henry and one of his subjects , Simon de Montfort , Earl of Leicester . Montfort , a foreigner himself , was initially on good terms with Henry , and had in 1238 married the king 's sister Eleanor . The two fell out , however , and Montfort became the leader of the opposition , together with Richard de Clare , Earl of Gloucester . In 1258 , Henry was forced to accept the so @-@ called Provisions of Oxford , whereby he effectively surrendered control of royal government to a council of magnates . In 1259 the baronial program of reform was further elaborated upon in the Provisions of Westminster . The provisions remained in effect for three years ; at one point Henry 's oldest son Edward – the later King Edward I – even joined forces with Montfort . It was not until 1261 that Henry was able to move against the opposition . Receiving a papal annulment of the provisions , he reassumed control of government . Over the next two years , however , Henry 's governing deteriorated the situation once more . He failed to reconcile with Montfort , and alienated Gloucester 's son and heir Gilbert . In April 1263 Montfort returned to England after a long stay in France , and reignited the reform movement . On 16 July Henry was surrounded by rebel forces in the Tower of London , and once more forced to accept the conditions of the provisions . Prince Edward , now firmly on the side of his father against Montfort , now took control of the situation . In October Edward took Windsor Castle , and the baronial alliance started to break up . Cornered , Montfort had to accept a truce and agree to submit the issue to arbitration by the French king Louis IX . = = Arguments and settlement = = On 28 December 1263 Henry left for France to present his case to King Louis . Montfort was prevented from attending by an accident , and he was represented by Peter de Montfort and others . Henry had already tried once before , in September , to appeal to the French king . That time Louis had been sympathetic to Henry 's cause , but decided in favour of maintaining the provisions . At Amiens Henry argued that his right to appoint his own ministers and officials had been denied him , in violation of the royal prerogative . He also accused his opponents of destroying royal castles and laying waste to royal lands . For his injuries he demanded a compensation of the barons of £ 300 @,@ 000 and 200 @,@ 000 marks . Referring to the papal writ of annulment , Henry asked the French king to free him from observing the provisions forced upon him by the barons . Two documents survive of the barons ' complaints . In the first of these , the barons reiterated the background of the conflict , and stressed the fact that the king himself had accepted the conditions of the provisions . Henry had in fact , in an effort to gain public support , pledged to uphold the provisions , a fact that was now made the most of . The document further goes on to explain the reform instituted by the baronial council . In order to restore law and peacekeeping to the country , the council had installed a new Chief Justiciar and Chancellor . They had also appointed new sheriffs in the counties , who were to be directly accountable to the government and be replaced annually . The king had violated these conditions , it was argued , when he had appointed his own chancellor and a number of sheriffs . He had also taken over custody of Winchester Castle , which had been given over to Montfort by the provisions . Furthermore , there were accusation made against individual royal adherents , such as Roger Mortimer for his military raids in the Welsh Marches . The second document goes into more detail on the king 's alleged transgressions . By extortionate taxation , it was claimed , Henry had impoverished the land . He had also infringed the liberties of the Church , violated Magna Carta , and corrupted justice . When Louis IX made his decision on 23 January 1264 , it was entirely in favour of Henry III . The settlement starts out by reiterating the declarations of the two parties , where they place the decision fully in the hands of the French king . Louis invoked the difficulties England had suffered over the previous years , and stressed the importance of a resolution . Since the pope had already invalidated the provisions , Louis decided to " ... quash and invalidate all these provisions , ordinances , and obligations , or whatever else they may be called ... " , and absolved the king from any adherence to them . Castles that were handed over to the barons as part of the agreement were to be given back to the king , and Henry should be free to appoint his own ministers . The only concession made to the barons was a general pardon extended to those involved in the conflict . The financial demands of King Henry were not mentioned . Louis was a firm believer in the royal prerogative , and was never likely to embrace the precedents set by the barons ' infringement of Henry 's authority . There was also the papal annulment to take into account , which the deeply pious Louis was not going to ignore . At the same time , Henry 's wife Eleanor of Provence – who was Louis ' sister @-@ in @-@ law – had worked hard to procure a favourable decision for her husband . It was clear from the start though , that the French king had gone too far in his partisan decision , and that the settlement was little more than a dead letter . = = Aftermath = = The settlement did not present a solution to the conflict , but rather a recipe for further problems . The one @-@ sided decision for the king and against the barons left Montfort with little choice but armed rebellion . Hostilities started already in February , when Montfort 's sons , Henry and another Simon , attacked the possessions of Roger Mortimer in the Marches . Henry summoned the feudal army , and the royal forces won an important victory at Northampton , where the younger Simon was captured . Montfort was still in control of London , as Henry regained control over Kent and Sussex . Montfort marched out of London to negotiate , but the terms – involving maintaining the provisions – were rejected by the king . The only option remaining was to fight , and the two forces met at Lewes on 14 May 1264 . In spite of inferior numbers , the baronial forces led by Simon de Montfort won the battle . Edward , commanding the right wing , quickly defeated the London forces . When he set out in pursuit of the fleeing soldiers , however , he left the rest of the royal army open to attack by the baronial forces , who soon won the day . By the settlement called the Mise of Lewes , the provisions were reinstated and Edward was given over as hostage . The government led by Montfort soon ran into problems . He negotiated a treaty with Llywelyn ap Gruffudd , the Prince of Wales , an act that made him unpopular with the English Marcher lords . In May Edward escaped captivity , with the help of Gilbert de Clare , Earl of Gloucester , who had now come over to the royal side . Edward started on a campaign of re @-@ conquest , while Montfort was forced to suppress a rebellion in the Marches . He succeeded only by making large concessions to Llewelyn , and then moved east to join forces with his son Simon . Edward , however , routed the younger Simon at Kenilworth Castle , and on 4 August 1265 Montfort found himself trapped at Evesham , forced to give battle with a much smaller army than the royals . The battle soon turned into a massacre ; Montfort himself was killed and mutilated on the field . Even with Montfort dead resistance remained , particularly at the virtually impregnable Kenilworth Castle . In October 1266 the Dictum of Kenilworth set down terms by which the rebels could obtain pardons , and by the end of the year the garrison surrendered .
= Prenton Park = Prenton Park is an association football stadium in Birkenhead , England . It is the home ground of the non @-@ league Tranmere Rovers F.C. and Liverpool F.C. Reserves . The club moved to the current Prenton Park in 1912 . The ground has had several rebuilds , with the most recent occurring in 1995 in response to the requirement of the Taylor Report to become all @-@ seater . Today 's stadium holds 16 @,@ 567 in four stands : the Kop , the Johnny King Stand , the Main Stand and the Cowshed ( for away supporters ) . Attendances at the ground have fluctuated over its hundred @-@ year history . Its largest @-@ ever crowd was 24 @,@ 424 for a 1972 FA Cup match between Tranmere and Stoke City . In 2010 , an average of 5 @,@ 000 fans attended each home game . = = History = = Tranmere Rovers F.C. were formed in 1884 ; they played their first matches at Steeles Field in Birkenhead but , in 1887 , they bought a new site from Tranmere Rugby Club . The ground was variously referred to as the " Borough Road Enclosure " , " Ravenshaw 's Field " and " South Road " . The name " Prenton Park " was adopted in 1895 as a result of a suggestion in the letters page of the Football Echo . Not strictly within Prenton , it is likely that the name was chosen as the area was regarded as more upmarket than nearby Tranmere . Because the land was required for housing and a school , Tranmere were forced to move and the name went with them . The present Prenton Park was opened by the Mayor of Birkenhead , Councillor George Proudman , on 9 March 1912 . Their first match was played against Lancaster Town in the Lancashire Combination . There were stands ( also known as bleachers ) on both sides of the pitch , a paddock and three open terraces , the general format which remained until 1994 . Floodlights were installed in the ground in September 1958 . The supporters ' association raised the £ 15 @,@ 000 cost of the new lights . When manager Dave Russell joined the club in 1961 , one of his many influential changes was to take advantage of the lights , playing regular home games on Friday nights rather than the usual Saturday afternoon . This allowed supporters to watch Tranmere on Fridays and First Division sides Everton or Liverpool on Saturdays . The idea was successful and continued until the 1990s . Over the years , various upgrades and repairs have been made to the stadium . By 1968 , the old wooden Main Stand was in poor condition and in need of replacement . At a cost of £ 80 @,@ 000 , today 's Main Stand was erected and opened by Minister for Sport and former referee Denis Howell . In 1979 , the terracing on the Cowshed and Paddock was concreted . The Tranmere suite was added to the Main Stand in 1988 , with further bars and executive suites added soon after . Many improvements to the ground were driven by changes in legislation . In 1985 , the Safety of Sports Grounds Act led to a reduction in capacity from 18 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 . The Kop End was closed , and the Main Stand capacity was reduced by 3 @,@ 000 , because there were insufficient access points . £ 50 @,@ 000 was spent on safety work to maintain a capacity of 8 @,@ 000 , and the club were unable to afford any further refurbishment . But the biggest change of all took place during 1994 and 1995 . The Taylor Report suggested that all stadia in the top two divisions of English football should no longer permit standing . The club 's response was to redevelop three sides of the ground with entirely new all @-@ seater stands created – the Borough Road Stand , the Cowshed and the new Kop . Capacity in the ground thus increased from 14 @,@ 200 to the 16 @,@ 567 of today . On 11 March 1995 , the new ground was officially opened at a cost of £ 3 @.@ 1 million . In 2009 , Liverpool F.C. Reserves moved from the Racecourse Ground to Prenton Park . This ground continued to be their home for the 2011 – 12 season . = = Stands = = = = = Main Stand = = = The Main Stand is the oldest in Prenton Park , having been opened in December 1968 . It is also the largest , with a capacity of 5 @,@ 957 . A two tier stand , it is generally divided into three main sections . The lower tier consists of the Bebington End paddock ( capacity 1 @,@ 150 ) and the Town End paddock ( capacity 1 @,@ 209 ) , either side of the halfway line . The upper tier is simply referred to as the Main Stand ( capacity 3 @,@ 598 ) . The Main Stand houses the VIP area , directors box and various suites . The Tranmere suite was added to the Main Stand in 1988 , with the Dixie Dean suite , Bunny Bell bar and Dave Russell restaurant added soon after . The 40 @-@ year @-@ old structure is becoming increasingly expensive to repair . = = = Kop = = = The Bebington Kop , simply referred to as the Kop , is a large single @-@ tier , all @-@ seater stand with a capacity of 5 @,@ 696 . Completed in 1995 , it replaced the earlier open terrace ( also called the Kop ) which had stood behind the goal at the Bebington End . The Bebington Kop is also the biggest Kop stand in Non league football . Originally the Kop housed both home and away fans , split down the middle , and occasionally was handed entirely to the away fans . However , following the 2000 League Cup semi @-@ final against Bolton , when the Kop was given entirely to the home fans , a campaign was begun to claim the Kop as a home end . From the 2000 @-@ 01 season this became the case , with away fans housed in the Cowshed . = = = Johnny King Stand = = = Built in 1995 and formerly known as the Borough Road Stand , it was renamed in 2002 to recognise former Rovers manager John King . The stand runs along the Borough Road side of the pitch , and is a low @-@ rise seated stand with a capacity of 2 @,@ 414 . = = = Cowshed = = = The Cowshed houses away fans at Prenton Park , and has a capacity of 2 @,@ 500 . It has a slanted seating arrangement , caused by the main road running behind it . It historically housed the more vocal home fans , but was switched to away supporters around the start of the 21st century . Since the change , a bar and TV screens have been added to the stand . = = Attendances = = Prenton Park has seen the number of supporters rise and fall considerably over its hundred @-@ year history . Around 8 @,@ 000 visitors watched the first game at the stadium on 11 March 1912 , as Tranmere beat Lancaster Town 8 – 0 . Early attendances varied from 5 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 , though , on Boxing Day 1921 , 11 @,@ 137 supporters came to see Tranmere take on Bolton Wanderers Reserves . Tranmere entered The Football League the next season , and 7 @,@ 011 watched their first game against Crewe Alexandra F.C .. There was an average of 6 @,@ 000 in attendance at home games , before the Football League was suspended as a result of the Second World War . After the war , the number of supporters rose , and by the early 1960s this number had increased to highs of 12 @,@ 000 . Attendances began to fall towards the end of the 1960s ; this trend continued through the 1970s , though the decade did give Tranmere its largest @-@ ever crowd : 24 @,@ 424 on 5 February 1972 , for a fourth @-@ round FA Cup match against Stoke City . With today 's capacity of under 17 @,@ 000 , it is unlikely that this record attendance will ever be broken . The 1980s saw the number of supporters falling to some of the ground 's lowest levels . The lowest ever attendance at Prenton Park was on 20 February 1984 , when only 937 supporters watched a 2 – 0 victory over Halifax Town . However , the decade also saw a high number of supporters in the ground for other reasons . In the Hillsborough disaster , 96 Liverpool F.C. fans lost their lives and , on 15 April 1989 , 12 @,@ 000 people attended a memorial service at Prenton Park . Tranmere 's success in the 1990s led to improved attendances , rising to around 9 @,@ 000 per game . By 2010 , this had fallen to around 5 @,@ 000 per game ; however , 12 @,@ 249 supporters took advantage of an offer of free admission to watch a replayed match against Notts County F.C. , on 19 April 2011 . In the season 2011 – 2012 , there were two £ 5 administration offers available ; one of them was on a Bank Holiday and the other was for a celebration of 100 years of Prenton Park 1912 – 2012 with an attendance of 6 @,@ 824 , with many events on before and after the game and at half time . = = Record games = = = = = Tranmere v Oldham , 1935 = = = On Boxing Day 1935 , Tranmere faced Oldham Athletic at Prenton Park in the Third Division North . Oldham had beaten Tranmere 4 – 1 the previous day , but Tranmere won 13 – 4 in the return fixture , including nine goals by Bunny Bell . At the time Bell 's feat was an individual record , but it stood for only four months before Joe Payne netted ten for Luton Town , on his debut against Bristol Rovers . However , the aggregate of 17 goals in one game remains a league record . = = = Women 's FA Cup finals = = = The only major finals to take place at Prenton Park were the Women 's FA Cup in 1991 and 1992 . The 1991 final was contested by Millwall Lionesses and Doncaster Belles . Millwall won the game 1 – 0 in front of a crowd of 4 @,@ 000 . The game was broadcast live on Channel 4 . In 1992 , Doncaster Belles returned to beat Red Star Southampton 4 – 0 . = = = Shelbourne v Rangers , 1998 = = = The only UEFA European Fixture to take place at Prenton Park was a UEFA Cup first qualifying round tie between Irish team Shelbourne and Scottish team Rangers , on 22 July 1998 . Due to fears of sectarian violence , and after discussions between the two clubs and UEFA , Prenton Park was chosen as the venue for the first leg , with Shelbourne as the home team . The match finished 3 – 5 in favour of Rangers after Shelbourne ( at the time an amateur side ) had earlier taken a 3 – 0 lead . As a result of this game , Rangers were fined 25 @,@ 000 Swiss Francs and warned by UEFA for their fans ' behaviour at the game .
= HMS Bulldog ( H91 ) = HMS Bulldog ( H91 ) was a B @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy ( RN ) from 1929 to 1931 . Initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , she was transferred to the Home Fleet in 1936 . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 , the ship spent considerable time in Spanish waters , enforcing the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict . Bulldog saw service throughout World War II on convoy escort duty during the Battle of the Atlantic and in the Arctic . Her most notable actions were the capture of a complete Enigma machine and codebooks from the German submarine U @-@ 110 in 1941 , and sinking another German submarine in 1944 . The surrender of the German garrisons of the Channel Islands was signed on 9 May 1945 aboard Bulldog . Redundant after the war , she was broken up for scrap in 1946 . = = Description = = Bulldog displaced 1 @,@ 360 long tons ( 1 @,@ 380 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 790 long tons ( 1 @,@ 820 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 32 feet 3 inches ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 3 inches ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . Bulldog carried a maximum of 390 long tons ( 400 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 134 officers and enlisted men , which increased to 142 during wartime . Bulldog mounted four 45 @-@ calibre quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . She was briefly fitted with a C XIII mount capable of 60 @-@ degree elevation for testing purposes . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Bulldog had two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on a platform between her funnels . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began . The ship was fitted with a Type 119 ASDIC set to detect submarines through sound waves beamed into the water that would reflect off the submarine . By April 1941 , the ship 's AA armament had been increased when the rear set of torpedo tubes was replaced by a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ( 12 @-@ pounder ) AA gun . In late 1941 , the ship was converted to an escort destroyer with the replacement of her ' A ' gun by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar . By April 1943 , the ' Y ' gun had been removed to compensate for the increase to 70 depth charges . Additional depth charge stowage later replaced the 12 @-@ pounder high @-@ angle gun . The 2 @-@ pounder mounts were replaced by 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon autocannon and two additional Oerlikon guns were also added in the forward superstructure . To combat German E @-@ boats , a QF 6 @-@ pounder gun was mounted at the very tip of the bow in 1944 . = = Construction and service = = The ship was ordered on 22 March 1929 from Swan Hunter at Wallsend , under the 1928 Naval Programme . She was laid down on 10 August 1929 , and launched on 6 December 1930 , as the sixth RN ship to carry this name . Bulldog was completed on 8 April 1931 at a cost of £ 221 @,@ 408 , excluding items supplied by the Admiralty such as guns , ammunition and communications equipment . After her commissioning , she was assigned to the 4th Destroyer Flotilla with the Mediterranean Fleet until September 1936 , when it was transferred to the Home Fleet . Bulldog aided survivors of the 1932 Ierissos earthquake and patrolled southern Spanish waters during the first month of the Spanish Civil War . During her time in the Mediterranean , the ship was refitted at Gibraltar in 1932 and 1935 and in Malta in 1936 . Once she returned to Britain , Bulldog was almost continuously under repair or refitting at Chatham Dockyard until 9 January 1937 . She remained with the 4th Flotilla until January 1939 , and made multiple deployments off the coast of Spain enforcing the embargo until 31 March 1938 , when she was refitted , this time at Sheerness Dockyard . The ship escorted the battleship Resolution to Scapa Flow in September during the Munich Crisis . Bulldog was briefly assigned to the Gibraltar Local Flotilla in January 1939 , until she became plane guard for the aircraft carrier Glorious in the Mediterranean in March . In October she was deployed with Glorious , the battleship Malaya and the destroyer Daring as part of a Hunting Group in the Indian Ocean , based at Socotra . She sailed to Malta with Glorious in January 1940 to refit , returning to plane guard duty in March , this time for Ark Royal . In April Bulldog had repairs made to her feed water heater at Devonport , that lasted until 3 May . Bulldog joined the Home Fleet at Scapa Flow and sailed on 9 May , with a force consisting of the cruiser Birmingham and thirteen destroyers , to search off the mouth of the Skagerrak for German minelayers . The British force was spotted by German E @-@ boats and the minelayers returned to base before they could be intercepted . One of the E @-@ boats torpedoed the destroyer Kelly the next day and seriously damaged her . Bulldog towed Kelly to Hebburn for repairs , sustaining damage to her stern structure during the tow , which was repaired by Swan Hunter from 13 to 21 May . The ship damaged her propellers on 27 May and was under repairs at Chatham Dockyard until 4 June , when she was transferred to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla . She sailed for Le Havre , France on 9 June , to assist in the evacuation of British troops before advancing German troops ( Operation Cycle ) . The next afternoon , she was severely damaged by three hits from German aircraft that knocked out her steering gear . Bulldog 's crew was able to temporarily repair the steering gear and the ship reached Portsmouth Dockyard early the following morning . Whilst under repair , she was further damaged by splinters during an air raid on 24 August . Bulldog rejoined the flotilla after her repairs were completed on 2 September . She was refitted at Cammell Laird from 2 January to 18 February 1941 , and was assigned to the 3rd Escort Group for convoy escort duties to and from Iceland . Commander Joe Baker @-@ Cresswell was the ship 's captain as well as the commander of the group . Together with the destroyer Amazon and the sloop Rochester , she damaged U @-@ 94 on 7 May , while escorting Convoy OB 318 off Iceland . Two days later , the corvette Aubretia depth @-@ charged U @-@ 110 , forcing her to the surface . Bulldog and the destroyer Broadway fired on , and then closed on the U @-@ boat , whose crew were abandoning the boat . Sub @-@ Lieutenant David Balme of Bulldog led a boarding party that removed the Enigma coding machine and various codebooks . This was of immense help to the Government Code and Cypher School in breaking German naval codes . She took the submarine in tow , but it sank the following morning . Bulldog remained on Atlantic convoy duties until October , when she sailed to Fairfields in Govan , Glasgow , for conversion into an escort destroyer , a process that lasted until February 1942 . As part of the conversion , a Type 271 target indication radar was installed above the bridge , that replaced her director @-@ control tower and rangefinder . By 1944 a Type 290 short @-@ range surface search radar was also fitted . Bulldog was an unattached ship assigned to Western Approaches Command from 10 February 1942 , and aided the destroyer Richmond after she had collided with the American merchant ship SS Francis Scott Key on 31 March whilst escorting Convoy PQ 14 from Eban , Scotland to Reykjavík , Iceland . On 12 April , she rejoined the convoy en route to Murmansk , where they arrived a week later . Beginning on 28 April , she escorted the returning Convoy QP 11 with the same ships . Two days later the light cruiser Edinburgh joined the convoy . Whilst taking position ahead of the convoy later that day , Edinburgh was hit by two torpedoes fired by U @-@ 456 . The cruiser , heavily damaged and with her steering gear wrecked , was taken in tow for the voyage back to Murmansk . On 1 May the convoy was attacked by the German destroyers Z7 Hermann Schoemann , Z24 , and Z25 which had been searching for Edinburgh . Commander Maxwell Richmond , Bulldog 's captain and commander of the escorts , interposed his four destroyers between the Germans and the merchantmen and drove off the Germans in a three @-@ hour battle during which Bulldog was lightly damaged by shell splinters . She was repaired from 2 June to 14 August , after which she was assigned to the Greenock Special Escort Division . In November she escorted British ships participating in the Allied landings in North Africa ( Operation Torch ) , before returning to Greenock for repairs from 23 November to 14 December . Bulldog was assigned to the escort for Convoy JW 51B on 20 December , but had to return home for weather repairs on 28 December . After repairs were completed on 16 January 1943 , she escorted convoys between Iceland and the UK for the next two months . The ship was under repair at Greenock from 29 March to 22 April , after which she sailed to Freetown for escort duties between Lagos , Nigeria , Freetown and Gibraltar . Bulldog returned home in October for a lengthy refit at Portsmouth Dockyard that lasted from 8 November to 24 May 1944 . In June she began escort duties between the River Clyde and the Faeroe Islands , and sank U @-@ 719 on 26 June . On 20 August , her hull was badly damaged after a collision with the frigate Loch Dunvegan in Gourock Bay . After repairs at Ardrossan that lasted until 4 September , she resumed local convoy duties between the Faeroes , the Clyde and Scapa Flow until she required major machinery repairs in November . Upon their completion on 30 January 1945 , Bulldog escorted convoys between Plymouth and various ports in the Irish Sea for the rest of the war . On 9 May 1945 she sailed to Guernsey and the German forces in the Channel Islands formally surrendered to British representatives aboard the ship . The ship was placed in Category ' B ' reserve on 27 May at Dartmouth . She was transferred to Rosyth on 27 November and was reduced to Category ' C ' reserve on 13 December . Bulldog was approved for scrapping on 22 December and turned over to Metal Industries , Limited on 17 January 1946 .
= Paper Clip = " Paper Clip " is the second episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on September 29 , 1995 . It was directed by Rob Bowman , and written by series creator Chris Carter . " Paper Clip " featured guest appearances by Sheila Larken , Melinda McGraw and Nicholas Lea . The episode is one of those that explored the overarching mythology , or fictional history of The X @-@ Files . " Paper Clip " earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 1 , being watched by 17 @.@ 2 million people in its initial broadcast . " Paper Clip " has received highly positive reviews from critics ; it is generally considered by both critics and cast / crew as being among the best episodes of the series . The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate information gleaned from secret government records , finding that a Nazi scientist working as part of Operation Paperclip may have been responsible for creating a race of human @-@ alien hybrids . " Paper Clip " concludes a three @-@ episode storyline , carrying on from the second season finale " Anasazi " and the third season premiere " The Blessing Way " . The creators of the series likened themes of the episode to the Star Wars trilogy , referring to the revelations about Mulder 's father , and Sophie 's Choice , referring to how the Mulders were forced to choose Fox or Samantha to be taken . = = Plot = = Continuing from the previous episode , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) hold each other at gunpoint . Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) , the person lingering outside his apartment , bursts in and forces Skinner to put his gun down . He also demands that Skinner surrender the digital tape . Skinner insists on keeping the tape , saying it is their only leverage in exposing the conspiracy . The agents visit The Lone Gunmen , showing them an old photo featuring Bill Mulder , The Smoking Man , Deep Throat , and other members of the Syndicate . The Lone Gunmen also recognize Victor Klemper , a notorious Nazi scientist who was brought to the United States under Operation Paperclip . Melvin Frohike informs Scully of her sister Melissa 's condition . Mulder persuades Scully not to visit Melissa at the hospital , since she could be targeted there . Furious that the wrong person was murdered , the Syndicate demands that the Smoking Man produce the tape . The Smoking Man promises to do so the following day . Meanwhile , Mulder and Scully visit Klemper , who says that the photo was taken at a former mining facility in West Virginia . After the agents leave , Klemper calls the Well @-@ Manicured Man and informs him that Mulder is alive . The news causes the Syndicate to further mistrust the Smoking Man . Meanwhile , at the hospital , Albert Hosteen visits Melissa while a suited man loiters nearby . Mulder and Scully arrive at the mining facility and , using the code for Napier 's constant given to them by Klemper , unlock one of the reinforced doors inside . The agents discover a large complex of filing cabinets containing smallpox vaccination records and tissue samples . Mulder finds his sister 's file and finds that it was originally meant for him . Meanwhile , Skinner tells the Smoking Man that he may have found the digital tape . The Smoking Man is agitated at this , insisting that he will not make a deal with Skinner and tacitly threatening his life . Hearing noise , Mulder heads outside and witnesses a UFO flying overhead ; inside , small beings run past Scully . Cars full of armed soldiers arrive , forcing the agents to flee . The agents meet with Skinner at a diner in rural Maryland . Skinner wants to turn over the tape in exchange for their reinstatement and safety . After initially objecting , Mulder agrees to let Skinner turn the tape over . Skinner heads to see Melissa in the hospital and is told by Albert of the mysterious blue @-@ suited man outside . Skinner chases the man to a stairwell where he is attacked by Alex Krycek and Luis Cardinal , who beat him unconscious and steal the tape . Krycek narrowly escapes an attempt on his life when his car explodes . He subsequently phones the Smoking Man , telling him that he has the tape and will make its contents public should anyone come after him . The Smoking Man lies to the rest of the Syndicate , telling them that Scully 's would @-@ be assassin was killed in the car bombing and that the tape has been destroyed with him . Mulder and Scully return to Klemper 's greenhouse , finding the Well Manicured Man there . He admits to knowing Mulder 's father and states that he helped gather genetic data for post @-@ apocalyptic identification , data Klemper used to work on alien @-@ human hybrids . Samantha was taken to ensure Bill Mulder 's silence after he learned of the experiments . Mulder confronts his mother , who tells him that his father chose that Samantha be taken . At FBI headquarters , Skinner once again meets with the Smoking Man about the tape . The Smoking Man calls Skinner 's bluff , knowing he no longer has the tape , but Skinner reveals that Albert and twenty other Navajo have memorized the contents of the tape and are ready to reveal it if either Mulder or Scully are harmed . Mulder meets with Scully at the hospital , who reveals that her sister died a few hours before . Mulder tells Scully that he believes that the truth is still in the X @-@ Files . Scully tells him that she 's heard the truth , and now what she wants are the answers . = = Themes = = Jan Delasara , in the book ' " PopLit , PopCult and The X @-@ Files " argues that episodes like " Paper Clip " , or the later episodes like " Nisei " and " 731 " , show the public 's trust in science " eroding " , Delasara proposes that " arrogated " scientists who are " rework [ ing ] the fabric of life " are causing the public 's faith in science to fade drastically , " a concern " , she notes , " that is directly addressed by X @-@ Files episodes " . Moreover , she notes that almost all of the scientists portrayed in The X @-@ Files are depicted with a " connection to ancient evil " , with the lone exception being Agent Scully . In " Paper Clip " one of the main scientists is an ex @-@ Nazi . As the episode proceeds , his scientific pursuits soon begin to paint him as the archetypical scientist who " goes too far " , a serious factor Delasara argues " ' alienates ' [ the public ] further from science and its practitioners " . = = Production = = The aliens in this episode who run past Scully in the mining facility were portrayed by children aged eight and nine . The spacecraft spotted by Mulder was achieved by using a crane to lift lights over the building Mulder was outside . Napier 's constant is used as a code to access the mining facility in the episode , though the code used is in error . Scully and Mulder use the code " 27828 " to unlock the door when in fact the first five digits of Napier 's Constant are 27182 . The mining facility is named for Dr. Hubertus Strughold , a real @-@ life German scientist who was employed by the United States after World War II . The fictional Victor Klemper is based on Strughold , who was accused of conducting similar experiments on humans . Interestingly , the name is almost identical to a Victor Klemperer who was a German Jew that escaped persecution during World War II by fleeing to American @-@ controlled territory . The Strughold Mining Facility was filmed at the B.C. Museum of Mining , in Britannia Beach , British Columbia , Canada . This episode was dedicated in memoriam to Mario Mark Kennedy , an internet fan of the show who had died in a car accident in 1995 . Story editor Frank Spotnitz said of the episode , " I love ' Paper Clip ' . I was thrilled with the plot . I know it moved very fast for some people , but I actually think that for some of these shows you don 't need to understand everything . I think it is more exciting to go at rocket speed . Everybody was on the mark in that one ; David and Gillian 's performances , Rob Bowman 's direction , Chris Carter 's writing - everything was just terrific in that show " . Bowman said " When I finished ' Paper Clip ' , I thought , ' I don 't know what else I am going to do this year to top this ' " In 1996 Mitch Pileggi called the episode one of the show 's finest , particularly enjoying the line where he tells The Smoking Man to " pucker up and kiss my ass " . Pileggi claims that is one of his favorite lines . The scene was used frequently to introduce him at X @-@ Files conventions . The creators likened themes of the episode to the Star Wars trilogy , referring to the revelations about Fox Mulder 's father , and Sophie 's Choice , referring to how the Mulders were forced to choose Fox or Samantha to be taken . Carter included the motif of the white buffalo after reading a news story about the birth of a white buffalo calf , feeling that the image was so potent he did not mind that it did not entirely fit with the Navajo beliefs used elsewhere in the episode . = = Broadcast and reception = = " Paper Clip " premiered on the Fox network on September 29 , 1995 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on September 19 , 1996 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 1 with a 20 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 20 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 17 @.@ 2 million viewers watched this episode during its original airing . " Paper Clip " has received highly positive reviews from critics , who generally consider it among the best of the series . In an overview of the third season in Entertainment Weekly , " Paper Clip " was rated as A- . It was called an " outstanding episode " , although Scully 's unwillingness to accept the paranormal after making contact was seen as " exacerbat [ ing ] a maddening trend " . Writing for The A.V. Club , Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode an A + . He felt that its strengths came from its parallels with real world history , such as its handling of Operation Paperclip and the actions of the West during the Cold War , noting that " the compromises the United States and other Western nations made to survive the onslaught of communism in the Cold War were ones that should have made more of those nations ' citizens take pause , stop to think about the cost of living free , but they almost never did " . The episode , along with both other parts of the story arc , were listed concurrently as the second @-@ best episode of the series by Den of Geek 's Nina Sordi . Sordi noted that the plotline " laid the groundwork for the mythology arc for the rest of the series " , adding that it " brought much more significance to what is to come " .
= Iris Cummings = Iris C. Cummings ( born December 21 , 1920 ) , also known by her married name Iris Critchell , is an American aviator and former competition swimmer who represented the United States at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin , Germany . After an active athletic career in swimming , which included a reign as U.S. national 200 @-@ meter breaststroke champion from 1936 to 1939 , she was accepted into the University of Southern California 's first Civilian Pilot Training Program in 1939 . After graduation , she worked as a flight instructor prior to being selected to serve her country during World War II as a member of the Women Airforce Service Pilots ( WASPs ) . Following the conflict , she returned to California , where she developed and taught a curriculum on civilian flight for veterans returning from the war at the University of Southern California . After racing airplanes competitively during the 1950s , Cummings and her husband , Howard Critchell , helped found the Bates Aeronautics program at Harvey Mudd College in 1962 . They ran it together until he retired in 1979 , at which point Iris continued alone until the program 's end in 1990 . A long @-@ time certified FAA Pilot Examiner , she is the recipient of several international aviation awards and is a member of the National Flight Instructors Hall of Fame . In her later years , she has remained active as a lecturer , consultant , and curator of the Aeronautical Library Special Collections at Harvey Mudd . = = Early life and athletic career = = Cummings was born in Los Angeles in 1920 and attended Redondo Union High School . Her father possessed a Doctor of Medicine from Tufts University School of Medicine and also worked as an athletics coach at the start of the 20th century at Columbia University and as the athletic director at Swarthmore College from 1902 through 1908 . Her mother was a Greek and Latin teacher . Iris attended the 1932 Summer Olympics as a spectator and began competing in swimming the following year , winning numerous local and regional tournaments . When it was too cold to swim , she remained athletically active through cycling . She was not a member of any club during her first year of competition , but nonetheless placed first in several meets in addition to her participation at the 1933 Southern Pacific Amateur Athletic Union and Pacific Coast championships . Cummings joined the Los Angeles Athletic Club ( LAAC ) in 1934 and received her first financial support in 1935 , helping her attend that year 's Far Western Championships . She captured the American national 200 @-@ meter breaststroke championship in 1936 , which led to her participation in that year 's Olympic trials and her selection as a member of the United States delegation to the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin . She was required , however , to raise her own funds for travel to the Games and spent much of her time leading up to the tournament collecting money rather than training . In the women 's 200 @-@ meter breaststroke , she placed fourth in her heat in the opening round and was eliminated . Despite this , she remained as national champion in the event through 1939 , although she left the LAAC in 1937 . She placed second at the 1939 National Championships and retired from active competition shortly after , deciding that the 1940 Summer Olympics were unlikely to occur . In 1941 , she earned a degree in physical sciences and math from the University of Southern California . = = World War II = = Cummings was among the first people accepted into USC 's Civil Pilot Training Program in 1939 . She completed an advanced aerobatics course and earned her pilot 's license in 1940 and , by her 1941 graduation , had acquired enough training to begin work as an instructor . Having been recruited by Jacqueline Cochran , Cummings joined the Women 's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron in 1942 , which soon became the Women Airforce Service Pilots ( WASP ) . After graduating from training in Houston in May 1943 , she served in World War II until the organization 's deactivation in December 1944 . During this time , she was a member of the 6th Ferrying Group out of Long Beach , California , eventually reaching the rank of First Lieutenant , and flew 18 different types of military aircraft . In the same month as her unit 's deactivation , she married fellow military pilot Howard Critchell , whom she had a met at a base that was used as a ferry stop for the WASP . = = Later life = = Following the war , Cummings was called back to USC to develop and teach a curriculum on civilian aviation for returning veterans . She spent much of the 1950s as a housewife , raising her children , but remained active as a part @-@ time flight instructor , as well as helping develop curricula for Federal Aviation Administration institutions . She also raced airplanes competitively during this period and won the 1957 Powder Puff Derby , capturing the first prize pot of $ 800 ( approximately $ 6740 in present @-@ day terms ) . In 1962 , she joined Harvey Mudd College and , in association with the Bates Foundation , founded the school 's Bates Aeronautics Program . She ran the program with her husband until he retired in 1979 , and continued alone until the program ended with her 1990 retirement . She continued teaching classes on aeronautics , however , until 1996 . Her students include astronauts George Nelson and Stanley G. Love . She also served as an FAA Pilot Examiner for over two decades and was named the organization 's Flight Instructor of the Year for the Ontario district in 1972 . Cummings was inducted into the National Flight Instructors Hall of Fame in 2000 . She was awarded the Federal Aviation Administration 's Wright Brothers Master Pilot Award in 2006 for her dedication to airplane safety and the Nile Gold Medal of the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale in 2007 for her lifetime of dedication to aviation . Since her official retirement , she has remained active on several faculty projects at Harvey Mudd College , in addition to working as a lecturer , consultant , and curator of the Aeronautical Library Special Collections at the university 's Sprague Library . She has been a member of the Ninety @-@ Nines , an organization dedicated to the support of women pilots , since 1952 .
= Nirmala ( novel ) = Nirmala ( Hindi : निर ् मला ( virtuous or pure ) or The Second Wife ) is a Hindi fiction novel written in Hindi and Urdu writer Munshi Premchand . The melodramatic novel is centered on Nirmala , a young girl who was forced to marry a widower of her father 's age . The plot unfolds to reveal her husband ’ s suspicion of a relationship between her and his eldest son , a suspicion that leads to the son ’ s death . A poignant novel first published in 1927 , Nirmala 's reformist agenda is transparent in its theme which deals with the question of dowry , and consequently mismatched marriages and related issues . The story uses fiction to highlight an era of much needed social reform in 1920s Indian society . Nirmala was serialized in 1928 in Chand , a women ’ s magazine in which the novel ’ s feminist character was represented . Nirmala is somewhat like Godaan ( published in 1936 ) in that it deals with the exploitation of the village poor , and was translated by multiple scholarly translators . It was first translated in 1988 as The Second Wife by David Rubin , and in 1999 as Nirmala by Alok Rai , Premchand 's grandson . = = Plot = = Udayabhanu Lal , a lawyer by profession , arranged to marry off his 15 @-@ years @-@ old daughter Nirmala to Bhuvanmohan Sinha , son of Bhalchadra Sinha . Lal was later murdered by his rival Mathayi , who was once tried in court by Lal and sentenced to jail . The death of Lal caused Bhuvanmohan and Bhalchadra to withdraw from the arranged marriage since there was no longer a large dowry as anticipated prior to Lal 's death . Financial hardship forced Nirmala 's mother , Kalyani , to marry her off to Totaram , a lawyer 20 years her senior . Totaram tried his best to seduce his beautiful young wife but to no avail . She had no feelings for him other than respect and a sense of duty , which fell short of the love he expected to receive from his wife . Totaram had 3 sons from his first marriage . His eldest son Mansaram was only a year older than Nirmala . It wasn 't long before Totaram grew suspicious of Nirmala and her relationship with his son Mansaram . Jealousy and suspicion caused him to send Mansaram away to live in a hostel , a decision they all soon came to regret . Mansaram 's health soon deteriorated in the hostel environment . It was Bhuvanmohan who treated Mansaram at the hospital . When Bhuvanmohan learned about Nirmala , he arranged for his brother to marry Nirmala 's sister , Krishna , as penance . Bhuvanmohan was haunted by his thoughts of Nirmala and her distress . Mansaram eventually died of tuberculosis . Totaram was heartbroken and guilt ridden over his role in his son 's death . It wasn 't long thereafter when his second son Jiyaram absconded with Nirmala 's jewels and fled from Totaram 's house . He later committed suicide . Totaram 's third son Siyaram also fled , having been lured away by a false saint . Depressed over the loss of his sons , Totaram set off on a mission to find his only living son , Siyaram . Meanwhile , Bhuvanmohan was back in Nirmala 's life as the husband of her friend , Sudha . He tried to seduce Nirmala , but his wife learned of it and criticized him harshly . Bhuvanmohan became emotionally distressed , and out of sorrow and his love for her , he committed suicide . Depressed by the sad turn of events and her own failing health , Nirmala gave her daughter Asha to Rukhmini , Totaram 's widowed sister , and died . A much older Totaram returned home to discover Nirmala had died . = = Characters = = Nirmala , the protagonist ; a 15 @-@ year @-@ old girl , married off to Totaram who is 20 years her senior . ( Munshi ) Totaram , Nirmala 's husband , a lawyer of 35 . Mansaram , Totaram 's eldest son from his first wife ; his father suspects him of having a relationship with Nirmala , and forces him out of the house to live in a hostel where he eventually dies . Jiyaram , Totaram 's second son from his first wife ; he blames his father for the death of his older brother and flees from home after absconding with Nirmala 's jewelry . He eventually commits suicide . Siyaram , Totaram 's third son from his first wife ; he is lured away from his father 's house by a false saint . Bhuvanmohan Sinha , former fiance of Nirmala . After the death of Nirmala 's father , he learns there won 't be a dowry and withdraws from the marriage . Sudha is Bhuvanmohan 's wife and the companion of Nirmala . It is through her , Bhuvan comes to know about Nirmala ; that it is the same girl whom he has earlier left off . Her criticism sends him into commit suicide . Udayabhanu Lal is Nirmala 's father . Kalyani , Nirmala 's mother , who was forced by circumstances to marry Nirmala to Totaram . Bhalchandra Sinha is the father of Bhuvanmohan Sinha . Pandit Motaram , a man of wisdom , as a priest . Rukhmini , Totaram 's widowed sister . Bhungi , maid in Totaram 's house . Asha , Totaram 's daughter from his second wife Nirmala . = = Background = = Set against a background of pre @-@ independent India , Nirmala depicts a realistic and picturesque portrait of the 1920s , the language and milieu of the era . It characterizes the evils of the dowry system , and in doing so reflects the author 's desire to bring about social reform and raise the status of women in society . The author 's words illustrate his country 's poor , and paints a picture of rural India consisting largely of a static society , the clashes of castes , its poverty and exploitation , and the rich character of its people . The novel covers a time span of about six years during which time Nirmala transitions from student to wife and thereafter , a mother . It was an era when self @-@ respect and public image were of fundamental importance in the society . Eating meals was observed with an extreme ritualistic importance . In traditional homes , women did not eat with the men , and waited for them to finish before they were permitted to eat . There was also a fear of hospitals [ and also of blood transfusion ] which explains the hesitation of the character Totaram and his guilt over sending his son to a hospital . The generations that have passed since the novel was first written have seen dramatic changes in " attitude , sensibility and aspiration . " Nirmala is a reflection of a time in Indian society when a young girl 's " greatest sin was to require a husband who would accept her without a dowry . " = = Publication = = Nirmala was one of Premchand 's most popular novels of its time in India , a time of oppression for women in Indian society that drew increasing attention from writers and poets . Prior to being published in its entirety , Nirmala was serialised in the magazine Chand over the course of a year , beginning in November 1925 . It was during the time when Premchand first embarked on writing fiction based on contemporary social issues . Unlike his other works , Nirmala has a darker tone and ending , and its characters are less idealised . It was translated into English for the first time in 1988 . = = Legacy = = Francesca Orsini called it a prime example of Premchand ’ s combination of social realism and drama . Gulzar believed the novel was a little outstretched , and had a tendency to repeat many emotions , but also had its diversions and contradictions . He further explained that Premchand specialised in subjects that revolved around a young girl under 18 years old who suddenly becomes a woman after marrying a man who is much older . Many films based on the story 's theme were also produced , such as Tehreer Munshi Premchand Ki directed by Gulzar and shown in Doordarshan . Nirmala 's role was played by the Marathi actress Amruta Subhash who received many accolades .
= Gladstone , Oregon = Gladstone is a city located in Clackamas County , Oregon , United States . The population was 11 @,@ 497 at the 2010 census . Gladstone is an approximately 4 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 10 km2 ) suburban community , 12 miles ( 19 km ) south of Portland , the largest city in Oregon , and located at the confluence of the Clackamas and Willamette rivers . Gladstone has held several important cultural and social events , hosting both the inaugural Clackamas County Fair and the Oregon State Fair , before both were moved to more spacious locations . Both Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan and presidential candidate Theodore Roosevelt have given public speeches in the city . = = History = = = = = Clackamas Indians = = = Prior to European settlement , there were several Native American groups living in the area that was to become Gladstone . In 1804 , President Thomas Jefferson commissioned the Lewis and Clark expedition to explore the Louisiana Territory and beyond . Although the expedition passed only near the Gladstone – Oregon City locality on their way to and from the Pacific Ocean , via the Columbia River , natives such as the Kalapuya and the Clackamas people told them about the area . In the subsequent years , successive waves of explorers and traders would introduce epidemics of cholera and smallpox , which would take a heavy toll on the native peoples and contributed to a substantial reduction in population . As Oregon City was founded and European settlers began moving to the area , they petitioned their governments to remove the local natives from the land , so that the settlers could use it for farming and housing . The government allocated a reservation for the natives and re @-@ appropriated Gladstone for redevelopment . As of 2014 , the only extant remnant of the bygone natives is a large maple tree called the " Pow Wow Tree " , which is listed as an Oregon Heritage Tree . The tree still stands at Clackamas Boulevard , and is said to have marked the place where the different native tribes , mainly Clackamas and Multnomahs , met to make trading agreements , settle community affairs , and conduct wedding ceremonies . In 1860 , the Pow @-@ Wow Tree was the location set for the first Clackamas County Fair . The following year , it was used as a parade ring for the first Oregon State Fair and marked the entrance . In 1937 , the tree itself was celebrated with the Gladstone Pow @-@ Wow Festival . = = = Early homesteaders = = = The earliest homesteads in the area were recipients of the Donation Land Claim Act . The Cason and the Rinearson families were the first settlers to receive their donation land claims in Gladstone . Peter M. Rinearson and his family owned the land between Jennings Lodge and the Clackamas River , and between the Willamette River and Portland Avenue . Fendal Cason , who came to Oregon in 1843 and would go on to serve on in the Oregon Territorial Legislature , owned an area of equal in size east of Portland Avenue . = = = Unsuccessful early townships = = = Before Gladstone was formally founded , several small settlements were established in its vicinity . However , due to various natural disasters , such as fires and floods , few survived to become incorporated cities of today . One such community was Linn City ( originally named Robin ’ s Nest ) . Settled in 1843 by Robert Moore , Robert himself built four flour and lumber mills along the banks of the Willamette . Warehouses , homes , and mills were steadily added until 1861 , when a fire destroyed several of the buildings . Efforts at rebuilding the small town entirely ceased when the Great Flood of 1862 struck , wiping out the remaining buildings . Another such ill @-@ fated settlement was Canemah , located near the Willamette Falls . Canemah prospered until 1861 , when the same great flood swept most of the town over the falls . Even after reconstruction , much of the town 's importance to river commerce ended in 1873 with completion of the Willamette Falls Locks . Ships no longer needed to dock and unload goods and passengers for portage around the falls . The remaining town officially survived until 1929 , when it was annexed to Oregon City . = = = Founding of Gladstone = = = Gladstone was founded by Judge Harvey Cross in 1889 , and formally incorporated on January 10 , 1911 . It was named after the British statesman William Ewart Gladstone . Judge Cross laid out the city 's first streets . Cross ' home was built in the late 1840s by Fendal Cason , and Cross purchased it in 1862 . The Cason @-@ Cross House later became Cochran Mortuary . Currently , Mr. Rooter , a plumbing service , occupies the space . There is also a small park named after Cross , located at the same place one of the Indian tribes made its camp . = = = Chautauqua movement = = = In 1894 , the Chautauqua movement made its way to Gladstone . Judge Cross established a fifty @-@ year lease of Gladstone Park for this event after he was convinced by Oregon City author Eva Emery Dye that doing so would be a boon to the city and its people . Beginning on July 24 – 26 , 1894 , the newly formed Willamette Valley Chautauqua Association held an annual summer assembly that offered performances , lectures , and concerts . This event would reoccur annually , until Gladstone 's Chautauqua Park grew to be the third @-@ largest permanent Chautauqua assembly park in the United States . In 1896 , William Jennings Bryan drew a crowd of 6 @,@ 000 to Gladstone ’ s then 78 @-@ acre Chautauqua park to hear him give his popular lecture , “ The Prince of Peace ” , which stressed that Christian theology , through both individual and group morality , was a solid foundation for peace and equality . With the advent of radio , improved transportation and the appearance of traveling vaudeville acts in Portland , attendance at the Chautauqua began to dwindle . In 1927 , the Willamette Valley Chautauqua Association went bankrupt . Judge Cross died on August 7 , 1927 , and shortly thereafter , Gladstone Park , including its buildings and Chautauqua Lake , were sold to the Western Oregon Conference of Seventh @-@ day Adventists . = = Geography = = According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has an official area of 2 @.@ 48 square miles ( 6 @.@ 42 km2 ) . = = = Adjacent communities = = = The city of Gladstone is immediately bordered by the following communities , listed in descending order of population : Oregon City , the county seat of Clackamas County , sits to the south , almost entirely separated by the Clackamas River West Linn , to the west , is delineated by the Willamette River . Oak Grove , a census @-@ designated place and unincorporated area , abuts Lake Oswego to the west , Milwaukie to the north , and Jennings lodge to the south . Jennings Lodge , a census @-@ designated place and unincorporated area , runs between Oak Grove and Gladstone . Oatfield , a census @-@ designated place and unincorporated area similar to Jennings Lodge , exists between Milwaukie , to the north , and Gladstone , to the south . Clackamas , to the northeast , an unincorporated area and former census @-@ designated place , resides within greater Clackamas County . Johnson City , a very small incorporated city of approximately 500 residents , is northeast of Gladstone . ( See also the similar city of Maywood Park , Oregon . ) In 1968 , the 45 @-@ acre ( 18 ha ) city tried unsuccessfully to annex to Gladstone . Although the above cities are generally considered part of the much larger Portland metropolitan area , Gladstone , Oregon City , West Linn , and Milwaukie each possess the population and production of a micropolis in their own right and this relatively dense sub @-@ region contains a combined population exceeding 100 @,@ 000 people . Despite the Gladstone 's proximity to the city of Milwaukie , at no point do the two share political boundaries . = = = Major thoroughfares and street grid = = = Being bordered by rivers on two sides , there are only two primary thoroughfares to and from the city . Interstate 205 runs north @-@ south along the eastern edge of the city , while McLoughlin Boulevard ( Oregon Route 99E ) runs north @-@ south through the western side . Taken at the suggestion of surveyor Sidney Smyth , Judge Harvey Cross decided to name a number of Gladstone streets after American colleges ( e. g . University of California , Berkeley , Cornell University ) and a number of United Kingdom dukes , earls , and universities ( .e.g. University of Exeter , Earl of Dartmouth , Earl of Clarendon ) . Portland Avenue , Gladstone ’ s main street , is the only divergence from this naming convention . Named for the 1893 Interurban Electric Streetcar line that once traversed the street , it once transported passengers to and from Gladstone to Portland . = = = Climate = = = The annual average temperature for Gladstone is 54 @.@ 4 ° F ( 12 @.@ 4 ° C ) , while the annual average precipitation is 46 @.@ 3 inches ( 1 @,@ 180 mm ) . According to the Köppen Climate Classification system , Gladstone has a warm @-@ summer Mediterranean climate , abbreviated " Csb " on climate maps . = = Demographics = = As of the census of 2010 , there were 11 @,@ 497 people , 4 @,@ 540 households , and 3 @,@ 009 families residing in the city . The population density was 4 @,@ 790 @.@ 4 inhabitants per square mile ( 1 @,@ 849 @.@ 6 / km2 ) . There were 4 @,@ 779 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 991 @.@ 3 per square mile ( 768 @.@ 8 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 89 @.@ 2 % White , 0 @.@ 9 % African American , 1 @.@ 0 % Native American , 1 @.@ 6 % Asian , 0 @.@ 4 % Pacific Islander , 3 @.@ 4 % from other races , and 3 @.@ 6 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8 @.@ 7 % of the population . = = Arts and culture = = The annual Gladstone Cultural Festival and parade in early August commemorates Gladstone 's former status as a popular Chautauqua destination . The festival is held in Max Patterson Memorial City Park . Despite its relatively small geographic size , The city of Gladstone recognizes 17 separate parks and recreational areas . KRYP is a Spanish language FM radio station that broadcasts from the city . = = Public services = = = = = Public safety and quality of life = = = Some polling data suggests that Gladstone citizens are satisfied with city services they receive and a large majority consider Gladstone a particularly " good / excellent " place to live . Perhaps reflecting this support , the police , fire , and medical services levy renewal measures were overwhelmingly approved by voters in November 2012 . = = = Education = = = = = = = Schools = = = = Gladstone is served by the Gladstone School District , which includes John Wetten Elementary School , Kraxberger Middle School , and Gladstone High School . In 2006 , a bond was passed to allow approximately $ 40 million worth of construction on the three schools . The majority ( approx . 26 million ) of the money was applied towards a remodel of the high school . The district later refinanced the bond , saving taxpayers over 5 percent on its total ( $ 805 @,@ 040 ) , with savings to begin in the 2024 tax year . = = = = Library = = = = The city operates a library that is part of the Library Information Network of Clackamas County . In 2012 , the city council approved plans for a new $ 10 million library , but ballot measures backed by the group Save Gladstone blocked the financing and construction pending specific voter approval . The city then placed a new measure on the November 2014 ballot for a $ 6 @.@ 4 million option . = = = = Public transit = = = = Gladstone is within the TriMet transportation district , and transit service in the city is provided by TriMet bus routes 32 @-@ Oatfield , 33 @-@ McLoughlin / King Road , 34 @-@ Linwood / River Road , and 79 @-@ Clackamas / Oregon City , as well as rush @-@ hour express route 99 @-@ Macadam / McLoughlin . = = Notable people = = American labor activist Liz Shuler grew up in Gladstone . She went on to become Secretary @-@ Treasurer of the AFL @-@ CIO . She is the first woman and ( as of 2009 ) the youngest person to hold the position of Secretary @-@ Treasurer .
= Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai = The Mongol Empire conquered the Qara Khitai in the years 1216 – 1218 AD . Prior to the invasion , war with the Khwarazmian dynasty and the usurpation of power by the Naiman prince Kuchlug had weakened the Qara Khitai . When Kuchlug besieged Almaliq , a city belonging to the Karluks , vassals of the Mongol Empire , Genghis Khan dispatched a force under command of Jebe to pursue Kuchlug . After his force of 30 @,@ 000 was defeated by Jebe at the Khitan capital Balasagun , Kuchlug faced rebellions over his unpopular rule , forcing him to flee to modern Afghanistan , where he was captured by hunters in 1218 . The hunters turned Kuchlug over to the Mongols , who beheaded him . Upon defeating the Qara Khitai , the Mongols now had a direct border with the Khwarazmian Empire , which they would soon invade in 1219 . = = Background = = After Genghis Khan defeated the Naimans in 1204 , Naiman prince Kuchlug fled his homeland to take refuge among the Qara Khitai . The Gurkhan Yelü Zhilugu welcomed Kuchlug into his empire , and Kuchlug became an advisor and military commander , eventually marrying one of the daughters of Zhilugu . However , during a war with the bordering Khawarzmian dynasty , Kuchlug initiated a coup d 'état against Zhilegu . After Kuchlug took power , he allowed Zhilegu to rule the Qara Khitai in name only . When the Gurkhan died in 1213 , Kuchlug took direct control of the khanate . Originally a Nestorian , once among the Khitai Kuchlug converted to Buddhism and began persecuting the Muslim majority , forcing them to convert to either Buddhism or Christianity , a move which alienated Kuchlug from most of the population . When Kuchlug besieged the Karluk city of Almaliq , the Karluks , vassals of the Mongol Empire , requested aid from Genghis Khan . = = Invasion = = In 1216 , after requesting Muhammad II of Khwarazm not to aid Kuchlug , Genghis Khan dispatched general Jebe with two tumens ( 20 @,@ 000 soldiers ) to deal with the Qara Khitai threat , while sending Subutai with another two tumens on a simultaneous campaign against the Merkits . The two armies traveled alongside each other through the Altai and Tarbagatai Mountains until arriving at Almaliq . At that point , Subutai turned southwest , destroying the Merkits and protecting Jebe 's flank against any sudden attacks from Khwarazm . Jebe relieved Almaliq , then moved south of Lake Balkash into the lands of the Qara Khitai , where he besieged the capital of Balasagun . There , Jebe defeated an army of 30 @,@ 000 troops and Kuchlug fled to Kashgar . Taking advantage of the unrest fomenting under Kuchlug 's rule , Jebe gained support from the Muslim populace by announcing that Kuchlug 's policy of religious persecution had ended . When Jebe 's army arrived at Kashgar in 1217 , the populace revolted and turned on Kuchlug , forcing him to flee for his life . Jebe pursued Kuchlug across the Pamir Mountains into Badakhshan in modern Afghanistan . According to Ata @-@ Malik Juvayni , a group of hunters caught Kuchlug and handed him over to the Mongols , who promptly beheaded him . = = Aftermath = = With the death of Kuchlug , the Mongol Empire secured control over the Qara Khitai . Another segment of the Qara Khitai , from a dynasty founded by Buraq Hajib , survived in Kirman as vassals of the Mongols , but ceased to exist as an entity during the reign of the Mongol Ilkhanid ruler Öljaitü . The Mongols now had a firm outpost in Central Asia directly bordering the Khwarazm Empire . Relations with the Khwarazms would quickly break down , leading to the Mongol invasion of that territory .
= The Love Club EP = The Love Club EP is the debut extended play ( EP ) by New Zealand singer Lorde . At the age of 12 , she was discovered by Universal Music Group scout Scott MacLachlan , and began writing songs . In December 2011 , MacLachlan paired Lorde with producer Joel Little , and within three weeks , the pair had co @-@ written and produced all 5 songs on the EP . In November 2012 , Lorde self @-@ released the EP for free download via SoundCloud . On 8 March 2013 the record was commercially released by Universal Music Group and Virgin Records . An indie rock @-@ influenced electronica album , The Love Club EP was well received by music critics , who praised its production and compared its style to works by Sky Ferreira , Florence and the Machine and Lana Del Rey . The release peaked at number two in New Zealand and Australia , and was certified platinum and septuple platinum in those two countries respectively . In the US , the record charted at number twenty @-@ three on the Billboard 200 chart and have sold 60 @,@ 000 copies as of August 2013 . To promote The Love Club EP , Lorde performed during various concerts , and " Royals " was released as a single . = = Background and production = = Lorde was discovered by A & R representative Scott MacLachlan of Universal Music Group ( UMG ) at the age of 12 , when MacLachlan saw footage of Lorde performing at a school talent show in Auckland , New Zealand . At the age of 13 , Lorde started writing songs herself . MacLachlan unsuccessfully tried to set up Lorde with several songwriters and producers to help her with production . Ultimately , he paired Lorde with Joel Little in December 2011 , when she had just turned 15 . Little was impressed by Lorde 's vocal performance and songwriting abilities , and he built songs with musical structures based on Lorde 's lyrics . The pair recorded songs at Little 's Golden Age Studios in Morningside , Auckland . Lorde took inspiration from hip hop @-@ influenced music artists , such as Lana Del Rey , during the writing process , yet criticised their " bullshit " references to " expensive alcohol , beautiful clothes and beautiful cars " . Within a week , Lorde had finished recording the tracks " Royals " , " Bravado " and " Biting Down " during a school break . The pair also recorded two other songs for the EP : " Million Dollar Bills " and " The Love Club " . Lorde wrote the lyrics , while Little composed the melodies and played all the instruments , including drums , guitars and synthesisers . In total , the pair took three weeks to finish The Love Club EP . = = Composition = = The Love Club EP consists of five songs , written by Lorde ( credited to her birth @-@ name Ella Yelich @-@ O 'Connor ) and Little . The Nelson Mail 's Nick Ward described the EP as " indie @-@ flavoured electronica " and detailed Lorde 's voice as " smoky " . Meanwhile , Chris Schulz from The New Zealand Herald said Lorde 's voice " seems to come from someone twice her age " . Critics compared the EP 's musical style to works by Sky Ferreira , Florence and the Machine and Lana Del Rey . Editor Jim Pinckney from New Zealand Listener opined that Lorde 's songs are structured like short stories . The Love Club EP opens with the chamber pop song " Bravado " . Inspired by Kanye West 's song " Dark Fantasy " , it talks about Lorde 's feigned confidence as she prepared to enter the music industry . " Royals " and " Million Dollar Bills " are two tracks that criticise the glamorous lifestyle of the rich ; the former combines subgenres of pop , including art pop and electropop , and also incorporates R & B , while the latter is a hybrid of pop and alternative rock with hip hop influences . The title track of the EP , " The Love Club " , discusses the befriending of " a bad crowd " . The Love Club EP concludes with the trip hop @-@ influenced drum and bass number " Biting Down " , featuring " futuristic war drum thump " . For the US iTunes Store September 2013 edition of The Love Club EP , " Royals " was replaced by " Swingin Party " , a cover version of The Replacements ' song . = = Release and promotion = = In November 2012 , Lorde self @-@ released The Love Club EP through her SoundCloud account for free download . After 60 @,@ 000 downloads , UMG decided to commercially release the EP . On 8 March 2013 , The Love Club EP was released digitally in Australia , New Zealand , the Netherlands , and the United States . The CD edition of the record was released in New Zealand on 10 May , in Australia a week later , and in the United States on 9 July . In the United Kingdom , Virgin Records released a 10 @-@ inch vinyl edition on 10 June 2013 . On 30 September 2013 , the track listing of the US iTunes Store version of The Love Club EP changed , with " Royals " replaced by " Swingin Party " . " Royals " was released as the only single from the EP . On 3 June 2013 , Lava and Republic Records sent the track to US adult album alternative ( AAA ) radio . The single was made available for digital download worldwide in August 2013 . The song was subsequently included in Lorde 's first studio album Pure Heroine , released in September 2013 . On 27 July 2013 , Lorde replaced Frank Ocean at the Splendour in the Grass festival in Byron Bay , Australia . On 6 August 2013 , she held a concert at Le Poisson Rouge in New York — her first US show . Two days later , she performed " The Love Club " and " Royals " on Santa Monican radio station KCRW . In September 2013 , she headlined the Decibel Festival in Seattle , Washington , and held a concert at Webster Hall in New York City . On 3 October 2013 , Lorde held a concert at the Warsaw Venue in Brooklyn , New York to promote The Love Club EP and her debut studio album Pure Heroine . On 13 November 2013 , she performed six songs on Live on Letterman , including " Bravado " and " Royals " . In early 2014 , Lorde embarked on a concert tour in North America to promote The Love Club EP and Pure Heroine . = = Critical reception = = An editor of AllMusic called the album " evocative " and praised its " sultry , sinewy " sound . Writing for The New Zealand Herald , Chris Schulz labelled the EP " the start of something very special " and applauded Lorde 's vocals . Nick Ward from The Nelson Mail praised the extended play 's lyrical content and characterised Lorde as " definitely one to watch " . In an article for New Zealand Listener , Jim Pinckney opined that the music " may not yet quite match the individuality of [ Lorde 's ] vocals and lyrics " , but praised her songwriting ability , " which combines unmistakably teenage confusion , curiosity and confidence with word skills beyond her years " . On behalf of Manawatu Standard , a reviewer complimented on the EP 's production , songwriting and " the right edge to appeal to a mainstream audience " , saying the EP was " [ what ] a good pop debut should be " . In a review of The Love Club EP for The Dominion Post , Tom Cardy deemed the songs on the record as " sharp , refreshing and smart " . Additionally , he viewed the EP as the best album he had heard by a New Zealand artist that year and lauded Lorde 's lyrics and performance as " simply incredible " . As a music reviewer for mX , Nick Mason lauded the EP as a " strong " debut release for displaying Lorde 's maturity beyond her years , as well as impressive and inventive musical style . By the end of 2013 , Allan Raible from ABC News ranked The Love Club EP as well as Pure Heroine as the third best records of the year . At the 2013 New Zealand Music Awards , Lorde won Breakthrough Artist of the Year for the EP and Single of the Year for " Royals " . With " Royals " , Lorde and Joel Little won the APRA Silver Scroll award in 2013 . At the 56th Annual Grammy Awards ( 2014 ) , " Royals " was nominated for Record of the Year , and won Song of the Year and Best Pop Solo Performance . The song won Top Rock Song at the 2014 Billboard Music Awards . At the 2014 World Music Awards , the EP was nominated for Best Album , which went to Coup d 'Etat by G @-@ Dragon . = = Commercial performance = = The Love Club EP debuted and peaked on the New Zealand Albums Chart at number two on 18 March 2013 . It stayed on the chart for a total of 41 weeks . The EP became the fifth best @-@ selling album of the year in New Zealand was certified platinum by the Recorded Music NZ ( RMNZ ) for shipping more than 15 @,@ 000 units in the country . In Australia , the record appeared on the ARIA Singles Chart at number two . The Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) certified The Love Club EP septuple platinum for shipments of more than 490 @,@ 000 copies in Australia . In the US , the record peaked at number 23 on the Billboard 200 and had sold 60 @,@ 000 copies by August 2013 ; it became the 182nd best @-@ selling album of the year in the US . = = Track listing = = All songs written and composed by Joel Little and Ella Yelich @-@ O 'Connor ( Lorde ) , except " Swingin Party " , written by Paul Westerberg . = = Charts = = = = Sales and certifications = = = = Release history = =
= Azati Prime = " Azati Prime " is the seventieth episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , the eighteenth of season three . The episode was written by Manny Coto from a story developed by Coto , Rick Berman and Brannon Braga . It was directed by Allan Kroeker , his second of the season . The episode featured several guest actors , including those playing members of the Xindi Council , as well as Matt Winston who reprised his role of Temporal Agent Daniels for the second time this season . Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . Season three of Enterprise features an ongoing story following an attack on Earth by previously unknown aliens called the Xindi . In this episode , the crew track a Xindi superweapon down to a planet and Captain Jonathan Archer ( Scott Bakula ) seeks to destroy the weapon in a suicide attack . He is captured , and the Enterprise is seriously damaged after an attack by four Xindi vessels . The USS Enterprise @-@ J appeared in this episode , based on designs by Doug Drexler . The ship was from 400 years in the future from the timeframe that the series is set in , and the bridge set was created mostly using green screen . John Eaves also created several designs of aquatic Xindi vessels for this episode . " Azati Prime " received Nielsen ratings of 2 @.@ 6 / 4 percent . Critical reaction was mostly positive , with praise directed at the pacing of the episode and the plotting of the overall arc . = = Plot = = Enterprise approaches Azati Prime where the Xindi are constructing their superweapon . Captain Archer sends Commander Tucker and Ensign Mayweather on board a Xindi shuttle they had just captured to investigate the planet . Working their way past security , they approach the weapon , which is being built underwater . Meanwhile , Archer orders Enterprise to destroy a Xindi detection facility on the planet 's moon to prevent it from signalling the ship 's presence . The shuttle returns with scans of the weapon , and Archer designates himself to pilot a suicide mission to destroy it . The crew try to talk him out of it but he is resolute . Archer then suddenly finds himself 400 years in the future on board the USS Enterprise @-@ J , alongside Temporal Agent Daniels . They are at the battle where the Sphere Builders ( the alien species first seen in episode " Harbinger " ) are defeated , and Daniels gives Archer an initiation medal from a Xindi who had joined Starfleet as temporal evidence . Back on his Enterprise , Archer rejects the notion of a Human @-@ Xindi détente , and leaves on the shuttle . He arrives at the superweapon construction site but finds it gone , and is rapidly captured by the Xindi Commander Dolim . The Reptilians begin to interrogate Archer , who then asks to speak to Degra , the Primate scientist from episode Stratagem . Using Daniels ' medal , Archer tries to convince Degra that the Reptilians cannot be trusted , but Dolim arrives with armed colleagues and takes the Primates away . Meanwhile , Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol , now in command of Enterprise , displays signs of an emotional breakdown . She also decides to go on a mission , to negotiate a peace , and reacts angrily when Tucker tries to stop her . An attack from four Xindi ships follows , and as the episode concludes , Enterprise is left severely damaged . = = Production = = " Azati Prime " was the first episode of Enterprise to be filmed in 2004 , starting on January 5 . Filming took eight days , concluding on January 14 . The eighth day overlapped with the production of the following episode , " Damage " . The story was developed by Manny Coto alongside Rick Berman and Brannon Braga . Coto developed it into a script , his third of the series . The director of the episode was Allan Kroeker , who also directed " The Xindi " earlier in the season as well as the final episodes of both Star Trek : Deep Space Nine and Star Trek : Voyager . The episode featured a number of guest stars , including Smallwood , Oglesby , MacDonald and Worthy who appeared in their recurring roles on the Xindi council . Winston appeared as Daniels for the second time during season three , having made his debut in season one 's " Cold Front " . The Xindi shuttle set had been constructed for " Hatchery " , while a new set was constructed for the bridge of the Enterprise @-@ J which consisted mostly of a green screen . The future Enterprise was designed by Doug Drexler , who drew the first design only two days prior to the production meeting for the episode . The computer generated model was created in a few hours , and Drexler later said that they would have finished it differently . He imagined that the vessel was so large that there would be universities and entire parks on board , with the turbolifts replaced by short range transporters . More than one design was created , with the final version created with elements from different designs . One of the elements incorporated into the version seen on screen was a reduction in the size of the warp nacelle supports as Drexler said that he didn 't like that they had increased in size . John Eaves also created a number of designs for aquatic Xindi vessels for use in the episode , as well as a rejected design for the superweapon . = = Reception and home media release = = " Azati Prime " was first aired in the United States on UPN on March 3 , 2004 . It received a 2 @.@ 6 / 4 percent share among adults . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 6 percent of all households , and 4 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast . Enterprise was the sixth most watched program in the timeslot , behind Smallville on The WB . It was estimated that " Azati Prime " was watched by 4 @.@ 02 million viewers , which was less than recent episodes had received . Michelle Erica Green of TrekNation compared elements of the episode to the Star Wars franchise , such as the Xindi superweapon standing in for the Death Star . She found the pacing made the episode " engrossing " and thought that the action sequences would qualify it for technical Emmy Awards . She said that the one flaw in the episode was the characterisation of Archer and T 'Pol , as she felt that some of their actions were implausible . Jamahl Epsicokhan on his website " Jammer 's Reviews " , gave " Azati Prime " a rating of three and a half out of four . He thought it was compelling and was impressed with how elements of earlier episodes were brought together , also saying that it was " possibly the most entertaining episode of Enterprise yet this season " . Film and television critic Jordan Hoffman gave the episode four out of five , saying that the Xindi storyline was reaching a peak . The only home media release of " Azati Prime " has been as part of the season three DVD box set , released in the United States on September 27 , 2005 . The Blu @-@ ray release of Enterprise was announced in early 2013 and season three is expected to be released in January 2014 .
= Persoonia lanceolata = Persoonia lanceolata , commonly known as lance @-@ leaf geebung , is a shrub native to New South Wales in eastern Australia . It reaches 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) in height and has smooth grey bark and bright green foliage . Its small yellow flowers grow on racemes and appear in the austral summer and autumn ( January to April ) , followed by green fleshy fruits ( known as drupes ) which ripen the following spring ( September to October ) . Within the genus Persoonia , P. lanceolata belongs to the lanceolata group of 58 closely related species . It interbreeds with several other species found in its range . The species is usually found in dry sclerophyll forest on sandstone @-@ based nutrient @-@ deficient soil . It has adapted to a fire @-@ prone environment ; plants lost in bushfires can regenerate through a ground @-@ stored seed bank . Seedlings mostly germinate within two years of fires . Several species of native bee of the genus Leioproctus pollinate the flowers . Swamp wallabies are a main consumer of its fruit , and the seeds are spread in wallaby faeces . Its lifespan ranges from 25 to 60 years , though difficulties in propagation have seen low cultivation rates . = = Taxonomy = = Persoonia lanceolata was officially described in 1799 by Henry Charles Andrews from a plant grown from seeds by L. Wilson in Islington . Andrews also described some plants which he had grown from seed in a nursery in Hammersmith as P. latifolia , which turned out to be the same species . The specific epithet is the Latin word lanceolata , meaning " spear @-@ shaped " , and refers to the shape of the leaves . Lance @-@ leaf geebung is the common name . The term geebung is derived from the Dharug language word geebung . German botanist Otto Kuntze coined the binomial name Linkia lanceolata in 1891 , from Cavanilles ' original description of the genus description Linkia , but the name was eventually rejected in favour of Persoonia . The horticulturist Joseph Knight described this species as the privet @-@ like persoonia ( Persoonia ligustrina ) in his controversial 1809 work On the cultivation of the plants belonging to the natural order of Proteeae , but the binomial name was declared an illegitimate name as it postdated Andrews ' description and name . Robert Brown used Andrews ' name in his 1810 work Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen . In 1870 , George Bentham published the first infrageneric arrangement of Persoonia in Volume 5 of his landmark Flora Australiensis . He divided the genus into three sections , placing P. lanceolata in P. sect . Amblyanthera . The genus was reviewed by Peter Weston for the Flora of Australia treatment in 1995 , and P. lanceolata gave its name to the lanceolata group , a group of 58 closely related species with similar flowers but very different foliage . These species often interbreed with each other where two members of the group occur , and hybrids of P. lanceolata with P. katerae , P. levis , P. linearis , P. stradbrokensis and P. virgata have been recorded . The glaucous @-@ leaved P. glaucescens was formerly considered a subspecies of P. lanceolata , but no intermediate forms have been recorded from where the two taxa grow together near Hill Top in the Southern Highlands . P. lanceolata has seven chromosomes , as do most other members of the genus , and they are large compared to those of other proteaceae . = = Description = = Persoonia lanceolata is a shrub which ranges from 0 @.@ 5 – 3 m ( 1 @.@ 6 – 9 @.@ 8 ft ) high . The grey bark is smooth , and the new growth is hairy . Arranged alternately on the stems , the thick leathery leaves are oblanceolate or obovate in shape , and measure 3 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) in length , and around 0 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 16 – 1 @.@ 3 in ) wide . Hairy when young , they are smooth and featureless . Bright green in colour with a yellowish tint at times , the leaves are concolorous , that is both leaf surfaces are the same colour . The finely hairy yellow flowers appear mainly from January to April , but may be encountered at any time of year . They are arranged in leafy racemes , and each stem may bear 4 to 54 flowers . P. lanceolata is described as auxotelic , which means each stalk bears an individual flower that is subtended by a leaf at its junction with the stem . On 0 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) stalks , the flowers may reach 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) in dimensions , and are typical for the genus . Each individual flower consists of a cylindrical perianth which splits into four segments or tepals , and contains both male and female parts . Within this , the central style is surrounded by the anther , which splits into four segments ; these curl back and resemble a cross when viewed from above . They provide a landing area for insects attending to the stigma , which is located at the tip of the style . The smooth fleshy drupes are green and more or less round , measuring 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) by 0 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) in diameter . Containing two seeds , they weigh around 1 @.@ 3 g ( 0 @.@ 05 oz ) and become partly red as they ripen and fall to the ground the following spring ( September to October ) . Once fallen to the ground , the drupes soften and become a dark red over two to three weeks before shrivelling and blackening . The drupes are edible and were eaten by the local aboriginal people . The firm bark and lanceolate leaves of P. lanceolata distinguish it from P. levis , with which it can be confused ; the latter species has flaky bark and asymmetrical leaves . = = Distribution and habitat = = Persoonia lanceolata is found along coastal and near @-@ coastal areas of New South Wales east of the Great Dividing Range , from Trial Bay on the Mid North Coast to Sassafras Morton National Park in the south . Its habitat extends to dry sclerophyll forest and heathland on sandstone @-@ based soils low in nutrients , particularly on the tops of ridges and slopes . Examples in more sheltered areas are often taller than those in more exposed areas . P. lanceolata is found from sea level to an altitude of 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) , and the annual rainfall of the area it occurs in the Sydney Basin is 900 – 1 @,@ 400 mm ( 35 – 55 in ) . The species is considered adequately protected in the Sydney region and is found in Bouddi , Brisbane Water , Marramarra , Ku @-@ ring @-@ gai Chase , Lane Cove , Sydney Harbour and Botany Bay National Parks . In heathland habitats , P. lanceolata grows with such species as Banksia ericifolia , B. oblongifolia and Darwinia fascicularis . In more forested areas it is an understory shrub alongside Lambertia formosa , Leptospermum trinervium , Daviesia corymbosa , Banksia serrata and B. ericifolia under such trees as Eucalyptus sclerophylla , E. piperita , E. sieberi , E. sparsifolia , E. punctata and Corymbia gummifera . = = Ecology = = The swamp wallaby ( Wallabia bicolor ) feeds on the fallen fruit of P. lanceolata and disperses the seed through its scat ( dung ) . A field study in Ku @-@ ring @-@ gai Chase National Park found that 88 % of seeds in the scat were still viable although dormant . The red @-@ necked wallaby ( Macropus rufogriseus ) feeds on drupes and is a likely seed dispersal agent . Animals can convey seed for one or two kilometres from where they have fed . Rodents such as the bush rat ( Rattus fuscipes ) and black rat ( Rattus rattus ) eat the drupes but chew the seed so that only fragments leave their digestive system . Foxes have been reported to eat the fruit , and kangaroos and large birds such as currawongs are thought to as well . Colletid bees of the genus Leioproctus , subgenus Cladocerapis , forage exclusively on and pollinate flowers of many species of Persoonia . Bees of the subgenus Filiglossa in the same genus also feed only on Persoonia flowers but do not appear to be effective pollinators . Recorded species include the longtongue bees Leioproctus ( Cladocerapis ) carinatifrons , L. incanescens , and L. speculiferus , as well as Leioproctus filamentosa and Exoneura species . The European honeybee ( Apis mellifera ) is a common visitor to flowers , although its effectiveness as a pollinator is unclear . Persoonia lanceolata is an obligate outcrosser , that is , flowers need to be pollinated by pollen from other plants , and honeybees tend to forage more on different flowers of the same plant than between plants , as native bees do . Their abundance might be impacting the pollination success of native bees in this and other Persoonia species . Infection by the fungal species Anthracostroma persooniae and Camarosporula persooniae results in leaf spot disease . P. lanceolata shrubs destroyed by bushfire regenerate through seedlings surviving through seedbank in the soil . The Ku @-@ ring @-@ gai Chase study found that seedlings germinated within two years of a 1994 bushfire , although some appeared up to six years afterwards , while germination was not related to any particular season . Plants take six years to reach maturity . Thus , more frequent bushfires prevent recruitment and hence endanger populations . However , plants in Lane Cove National Park were recorded maturing three years after an especially intense bushfire . What triggers germination is unknown , and seedlings have also arisen from areas disturbed by sand mining , sometimes growing in higher concentrations than before the disturbance . The natural lifespan of a plant appears to range from 25 to 60 years . = = Cultivation and uses = = Persoonia lanceolata is rarely seen in cultivation , mainly due to difficulties in propagation ; seed germination is unpredictable , and cuttings have proven difficult to strike . Nevertheless , its bright green hue is considered an attractive horticultural feature . Well drained sandy soils in sun or part shade are needed for this plant in a garden setting . Once established , it tolerates moderate frosts and dry spells , and grows fairly readily in suitable conditions . Plantsmen in England were able to germinate seed there in 1791 . Drupes were eaten by indigenous people on the Beecroft Peninsula , and were preferred over those of P. laurina .
= Forgive Me ( Leona Lewis song ) = " Forgive Me " is a song by British singer Leona Lewis featured on the North American version and on the international deluxe edition of her debut album Spirit ( 2008 ) . It was released as the fourth single of the album in the United Kingdom on 3 November 2008 . The song was written by Aliaune " Akon " Thiam , Claude Kelly and Giorgio Tuinfort , and produced by the former . Musically , " Forgive Me " is a R & B , dance @-@ pop and soul track written in A minor . Its lyrics address a girl who has found a new love and asks her old love for forgiveness . The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , however some of them criticised Lewis 's voice for being very similar those of Whitney Houston and Mariah Carey voice . Lewis has performed it on some television shows , such as GMTV and The National Lottery Live . The music video — inspired by Broadway musicals , including Carousel and West Side Story — was released in September 2008 . It also features the Jabbawockeez dance crew . " Forgive Me " reached number five on the British and Irish charts , thus making it Lewis 's fourth single to peak within the top ten in the UK . It peaked atop the Slovakia singles chart and reached the top ten in Italy and Sweden . Lewis performed the song during her tour The Labyrinth . = = Background and composition = = " Forgive Me " was written by Claude Kelly , Giorgio Tuinfort and Aliaune Thiam , and produced by the latter . The single was pressed with one B @-@ side , " Myself " , written by Justin E. Boykin , Graham N. Marsh , Lewis and Alonzo Stevenson . " Forgive Me " is an R & B , soul and dance @-@ pop song written in A minor . It moves at 120 beats per minute and is set in common time . On it , Lewis performs her highest pitch ( G5 ) in falsetto during the final chorus , and her lowest pitch ( A3 ) during each verse . The song refers to a protagonist in a one @-@ sided relationship who leaves her boyfriend and eventually finds someone to reciprocate her love . Though she has found love from someone else , she defends herself and asks her ex @-@ boyfriend for forgiveness . In an interview with Digital Spy , Lewis explained why she decided in change the musical genre of her previous singles , from contemporary R & B to dance @-@ pop . She said : " I wanted to do something a bit different and the chance to work with Akon came about . I 'm really pleased with how it 's turned out and it 's great that it 's different , rather than what I always do . " There are two versions of the song , the " album version " ( 3 : 41 ) and the " single mix " ( 3 : 25 ) , which was used in the music video . The album version repeats the bridge two times , = = Release and promotion = = The single cover was released on 17 September 2008 , whilst the song was released in the UK on 3 November 2008 as the fourth single . Originally , the song was featured only in the North American version of the album Spirit , launched in 2008 . Despite this , it was not released as a single in the region . Later , " Forgive Me " was added in the deluxe edition of the album , which was released internationally in the same year . Lewis performed the song on the television programmes The National Lottery Live on 29 October 2008 , and GMTV on 31 October 2008 . Outside of the UK , she also performed the song on the Italian television show Carramba Che Sorpresa and on the Swedish talent show Idol . In May 2010 , the song was added to the setlist of her tour The Labyrinth , performed as the eighth song of the show . A live performance from The O2 Arena was included on the live album 's DVD The Labyrinth Tour Live from The O2 . In 2013 , Lewis added " Forgive Me " to the setlist of her Glassheart Tour . = = Critical reception = = " Forgive Me " received generally positive reviews from music critics . The BBC review of the single called " Forgive Me " a " danceable funky pop song " . Gavin Martin of The Mirror said , " [ the song ] showcases her voice of fire and honey . No apologies necessary " . Nick Levine , Digital Spy music critic , gave the song three out of five stars , comparing it with Whitney Houston 's song " I 'm Your Baby Tonight " saying that after her previous three ballad singles , " it 's a nice change " . However , he also said , " the adultery @-@ themed lyrics are a poor match for the sweet , unassuming Hackney girl " . Chad Grischow noted that with the song Lewis " will not go down as a glorified one @-@ hit wonder " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine described " Forgive Me " , and another song ( " Misses Glass " ) from the album as " just slightly glitzier than the rest of Spirit . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine called the single ' bouncy and youthful ' . The New York Times criticised Lewis for being " a second @-@ tier Mariah " on the song . = = Chart performance = = " Forgive Me " debuted and peaked at number five in the United Kingdom on 15 November 2008 , becoming Lewis 's third single in debut within the top ten , after " A Moment Like This " and " Bleeding Love " . In Ireland , before its official release as a single , it was the second highest debut of the week of the Irish Singles Chart , at number five . In the Slovak Airplay Chart , it debuted at number seventy @-@ six and in its tenth week the song peaked at number one . Also , in the European Singles Chart the song reached the number 11 . In Italy , " Forgive Me " debuted at number nine , but fell off the chart next week . Elsewhere in Europe , the song reached number seven in Sweden , twelve in Switzerland , and fifteen in both Austria and Germany . The song entered the Australian charts at number fifty on 19 October 2008 , and next week peaked at forty @-@ nine . Later , " Forgive Me " dropped out of the chart , but on 10 November 2009 , it re @-@ entered at number fifty . In the 2008 UK year @-@ end chart , compiling the best @-@ selling singles of the year , " Forgive Me " was eighty @-@ fifth . = = Music video = = The music video for the song was filmed in May 2008 and directed by Wayne Isham . It premiered on 16 September 2008 . It starts out with Lewis receiving a text message from her boyfriend saying he is just a minute away from meeting up with her . The video then turns into a dream @-@ like sequence with Lewis dancing in four set @-@ ups inspired by the Hollywood musicals West Side Story , The Rocky Horror Show , Singin ' in the Rain and Carousel . The video ends with Lewis coming back to reality after a drop of rain lands on her hand and her boyfriend sent a message saying " Hurry ! Looks like there could be rain " . The Jabbawockeez dance crew also make an appearance in the Rocky Horror scene in the video , dancing behind Lewis . = = Track listing and formats = = = = Credits and personnel = = = = Charts = = = = = Weekly charts = = = = = Release history = =
= Chicado V = Chicado V ( 1950 – February 1972 ) was a Champion Quarter Horse race horse foaled ( born ) in 1950 , and considered one of the outstanding broodmares of her breed . She was bred by Frank Vessels of Los Alamitos , California , and trained by Earl Holmes . Chicado V started only six times because knee problems cut short her racing career . However , she won her first two starts while breaking or equaling track records , and was given the title of co @-@ Champion Quarter Running Two @-@ Year @-@ Old Filly by the American Quarter Horse Association ( AQHA ) in 1952 . The next year she ran her last four races , winning once and setting one more speed record . After her last race , in December 1953 , she was retired from the track to become a broodmare , and had nine foals . Two of her offspring were named Champion Quarter Running Horses , and all her foals had a total of seven stakes race wins . One of her daughters , Table Tennis , went on to become a noted broodmare herself , as did Table Tennis ' daughter Rapid Volley and granddaughter Perks . However , three of Chicado V 's sons — Triple Chick , Three Chicks , and The Ole Man — were her best known offspring ; all three became leading sires and are the main cause of her fame . She was inducted into the AQHA 's American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame in 2006 . = = Early life = = Chicado V was bred by Frank Vessels of Los Alamitos , California and foaled in 1950 . She was a member of the Quarter Horse breed , and the AQHA registered her in their stud book as number 29 @,@ 689 . She was a daughter of Chicaro Bill out of the broodmare Do Good , herself a member of the AQHA Hall of Fame . Chicado V was a full sister to Senor Bill , an outstanding racehorse and breeding stallion , as well as a half @-@ sister to Clabber II and Do Win , two other outstanding racehorses . Chicaro Bill 's dam , or mother , was a mare named Verna Grace , who was known as Fair Chance when she raced . Through Chicaro Bill , Chicado V was a descendent of the AQHA Hall of Fame member Traveler as well as the Thoroughbred Hall of Fame member Peter Pan . On her dam 's side , she traced to Louisiana Quarter Horse bloodlines as well as to the AQHA Hall of Famer Peter McCue . When mature , Chicado V stood 15 @.@ 0 hands ( 60 inches , 152 cm ) tall . She was a brown mare , with a connected star , stripe , and snip on her face as her only markings , or identifying marks . Earl Holmes , a longtime trainer who started his racing career as a groom for Vessels , had the care of Chicado V after she was born , and said of her that she " was gentle , real gentle — in everything . She was born broke [ n ] . " When she stood in a starting gate for a race , Holmes said she looked like a rabbit , because " she had big ears and that 's all you could see , she was so little " . She also had a body defect , or conformation fault , in that she had calf @-@ knees . = = Racing career = = Chicado V was sent out for race training as a two @-@ year @-@ old , at first to her owner 's trainer , Farrell Jones , who liked neither her calf @-@ knees nor her habit of running poorly in training . She consistently hung behind the other horses in group training runs , and Jones sent her back to Vessels , who then sent her to trainer Eddie Moreno . Moreno finished her training and sent her to the track for her first race , a 350 @-@ yard ( 320 m ) contest that she won while setting a new track record for a two @-@ year @-@ old of 18 @.@ 1 seconds . Her performance persuaded Jones to relent , and he took her back to his training barn . Her knees would not allow her to be raced often , and she only started once more as a two @-@ year @-@ old , a 220 @-@ yard ( 200 m ) race at Bay Meadows Racetrack that she won while equaling the track record of 17 @.@ 2 seconds for the distance . After an 11 @-@ month break , Chicado V returned to the track as a three @-@ year @-@ old , but her legs continued to create problems . She started four times during her three @-@ year @-@ old year , winning once , with one second and one third place . In her win at Pomona , the site of her first win , she lowered the track record for the 350 @-@ yard ( 320 m ) distance from 18 @.@ 1 to 17 @.@ 9 seconds . Her knees continued to be a problem , and although she never broke down , or became unable to run , she was retired in December 1953 . As a racehorse , Chicado V ran up a record of three wins , one second , and one third , in six starts over two years . She earned a Race Register of Merit in 1952 from the AQHA , the lowest level racing award given by the AQHA , as well as the highest possible speed rating of AAAT , a measure of how fast she was able to run . She was a stakes race winner , or winner of a race run by the higher quality horses , and was given the title of co @-@ Champion Quarter Running Two @-@ Year @-@ Old Filly by the AQHA in 1952 . Her race earnings were $ 5 @,@ 215 ( approximately $ 46 @,@ 100 as of 2016 ) , although the official race record from the AQHA does not list any stakes wins . Many of the early racing records did not make it into the AQHA 's computers , so the lack of stakes wins on the record does not mean that other records recording them are incorrect . = = Broodmare career = = As a broodmare , Chicado V gave birth to nine foals , or babies , between 1955 and 1968 , seven stallions and two mares . Seven earned their Race Register of Merit with the AQHA . Four of her foals — Triple Chick , Three Chicks , The Ole Man , and Chicado Chick — were sired by Three Bars ( TB ) , a member of the AQHA Hall of Fame . Her other five foals were sired by five different stallions , respectively War Bam , Spotted Bull , Anchor Watch , Double Bid , and fellow Hall of Famer Go Man Go . In a 1959 interview , Vessels felt that Chicado V was the best broodmare he owned . Vessels further stated that he " wouldn 't part with her " and that he " would be crazy to sell her " . Chicado V 's first foal was Triple Chick , who was fathered by Three Bars , a 1955 brown stallion . Triple Chick was unraced , but he remains number 48 on the AQHA 's All Time Leading Broodmares Sire List By Winners , a listing of maternal grandsires of race horses arranged by the number of wins their grandget , or grandchildren , have won as of the end of 2007 . Her next foal was War Chic , a 1956 sorrel stallion , who was rated AAAT on the racetrack . He was also a stakes winner , and won 12 out of 21 starts with earnings of $ 35 @,@ 453 ( approximately $ 280 @,@ 700 as of 2016 ) . War Chic was named Champion Two @-@ Year Old Colt in 1958 . Chicado V 's next foal was a mare , named Table Tennis , who won two stakes races , as well as eight other races , out of 35 starts , with an AAAT rating and $ 35 @,@ 197 ( approximately $ 278 @,@ 700 as of 2016 ) . She was named Champion Three Year Old Filly in 1960 . Chicado V 's fourth foal was Three Chicks , a 1959 brown stallion , and a full sibling to Triple Chick . Three Chicks won two stakes races , along with one other race in ten starts . He was rated AAAT on the track as well as earning an AQHA Champion award in the show ring after his racing career was over . His total race earnings were $ 22 @,@ 625 ( approximately $ 174 @,@ 900 as of 2016 ) . Three Chicks remains number 42 on the AQHA 's All Time Leading Broodmare Sires By Winners . In 1960 , Chicado V foaled Chicado Chick , a bay stallion , another full sibling to Three Chicks and Triple Chick . Chicado Chick started 11 times on the track , winning twice for $ 1 @,@ 752 ( approximately $ 13 @,@ 200 as of 2016 ) in race earnings along with an AAA speed rating , the second highest speed rating possible at the time . He also earned a Performance Register of Merit and an AQHA Championship from the AQHA as a show horse after his racing career was over . The 1961 foal was Anchor Chic , a bay stallion . Anchor Chic started 16 times , with three wins for total earnings of $ 2 @,@ 126 ( approximately $ 16 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) and an AAAT speed rating . Chicado V had no foal in 1962 , but in 1963 , she foaled The Ole Man , a sorrel stallion and another full sibling to Triple Chick , Three Chicks and Chicado Chick . The Ole Man won two stakes races as well as 6 other races in 33 starts . He earned an AAAT speed rating and $ 20 @,@ 657 ( approximately $ 150 @,@ 700 as of 2016 ) total race winnings . The Ole Man remains number 55 on the All Time Leading Broodmare Sires By Winners . Chicado V 's penultimate foal was Successor , a bay stallion who started seven times , but never won a race ; he was rated AA on the track . Chicado V 's last foal , Alisal , was a 1968 bay mare who never raced . Chicado V 's foals won seven stakes races for a total prize money of $ 118 @,@ 107 ( approximately $ 803 @,@ 700 as of 2016 ) , and two earned AQHA Championships . Table Tennis went on to become an outstanding broodmare herself , foaling Rapid Volley by Three Bars ( TB ) , among others . Rapid Volley produced Perks by Easy Jet . Perks was another outstanding broodmare who continued the maternal family success , but it was as a dam of stallions that Chicado V is best known ; three of her sons — Triple Chick , Three Chicks , and The Ole Man — became leading race sires . Triple Chick not only sired race horses , but show horses as well , including Boston Mac and Triple 's Image . Three Chicks sired the All American Futurity winner Three Oh 's and the racehorse stallion Azure Three . The Ole Man sired 1 @,@ 876 foals , including 15 stakes winners and 10 AQHA Champions . = = Death and legacy = = Chicado V died in February 1972 , while in foal to Alamitos Bar . A stakes race at Los Alamitos Race Course was named in her honor , starting in 1960 . In 2006 , she was inducted into the AQHA Hall of Fame . = = Pedigree = =
= Adam Eckfeldt = John Adam Eckfeldt ( June 15 , 1769 – February 6 , 1852 ; usually Adam Eckfeldt ) was a worker and official in the early days of the United States Mint . A lifelong Philadelphian , Eckfeldt served as the second chief coiner of the Mint , from 1814 until 1839 . Eckfeldt 's father owned a large smithy and involved himself in early attempts at American coinage . Adam Eckfeldt built early presses for the Mint , engraved some of its early dies , and was responsible for the designs of early American copper coinage , as well as the 1792 half disme which some authorities consider the first United States coin . He was appointed assistant coiner of the Mint in 1796 , and became chief coiner on his predecessor 's death in 1814 . Eckfeldt served a quarter century as chief coiner , during which time the Philadelphia Mint moved to new premises . As he set aside unusual coins brought in as bullion , he started the Mint 's coin cabinet , which evolved into the National Numismatic Collection . Even after his 1839 retirement , Eckfeldt continued to perform the duties of chief coiner ; his death in 1852 caused his replacement , Franklin Peale , to seek an assistant . = = Early life = = John Adam Eckfeldt was born in Philadelphia on June 15 , 1769 , the son of John Jacob Eckfeldt , a large @-@ scale manufacturer of edge @-@ tools and implements . At the time , it was common for those of German descent to bear the name " John " but be referred to by middle name . The elder Eckfeldt and his wife Maria Magdalena had immigrated from Nuremberg , Bavaria , around 1764 . John Jacob Eckfeldt , in his large smithy , made dies for the 1783 coinage under the Articles of Confederation authorized by Philadelphia financier Robert Morris . Adam was his father 's apprentice , and was skilled in iron work and machinery . = = Coin designer and Mint official = = During Eckfeldt 's childhood , the thirteen British colonies along the Atlantic coast of what is now the United States revolted , and so the United States of America secured its independence . After the United States Constitution was ratified , Congress and many government offices came to be housed in Philadelphia , including the newborn Mint of the United States . Adam Eckfeldt built the first screw press for the new facility in 1792 , the same year that the Mint Act of 1792 was passed by Congress authorizing a mint , and cut the obverse die for the experimental Birch cent of that year . He also built other machinery for the Mint , and helped superintend the early coining . In 1792 , the Mint acquired three balances from Eckfeldt , who also lent the Mint his lathe ( used for turning dies ) . Eckfeldt is believed to have made the die from which the 1792 half disme , considered by some the first official U.S. coin , was struck — in 1829 , a visitor to the Mint met Eckfeldt and later described him as " an artist [ who ] made the first die used in it " . Other later accounts document Eckfeldt 's role in this striking : an 1863 auction sold a half disme supposedly given by Eckfeldt to demonstrate his work . Eckfeldt is given as the source for the tradition that the half dismes were struck at the request of President George Washington to be used as presents . Eckfeldt operated his screw press to strike these roughly 1 @,@ 500 pieces on July 13 , 1792 . Since the first Philadelphia Mint was still under construction at the time , these coins were produced in the cellar of John Harper , saw maker , at Sixth and Cherry Streets in Philadelphia . In his annual message to Congress late that year , Washington noted the ongoing construction of a mint building and stated : " There has also been a small beginning in the coinage of half dismes , the want of small coins in circulation calling the first attention to them . " Eckfeldt also produced a pattern disme , of which only a few were struck . When the Mint 's first cents ( produced in 1793 ) were found to be excessively crude and attracted public ridicule , Eckfeldt was called upon to design replacements . He placed a wreath on the back of the cent instead of the original chain , and placed a trefoil under Liberty 's head on the obverse . He also engraved the first half cent dies later the same year . Eckfeldt continued to work intermittently for the Philadelphia Mint ; in 1793 , he built a device for automatically feeding planchets into the die collar and ejecting the struck coins , and the mint 's records reveal that he did piecework there in July 1795 . By October 1795 he was on the mint 's payroll , as a die forger and turner , at a salary of $ 500 per year . On January 1 , 1796 , Mint Director Elias Boudinot appointed him as assistant coiner , with the consent of President Washington . His duties in that capacity were broad . In 1805 , at Boudinot 's request , Eckfeldt eliminated a security problem for the Mint by renting two houses adjacent to its operations , allowing it to shut an internal alley to public access . The following year , new Mint Director Robert Patterson requested a pay increase of $ 200 for Eckfeldt , writing to President Thomas Jefferson that Eckfeldt had " the management of the whole coining department " . When the dies used proved too brittle and cracked easily , Eckfeldt came up with the idea of spraying water on the face of the die so the steel would temper evenly . As a boy , inventor George Escol Sellers knew Eckfeldt ; as Sellers 's father was partner in a firm which sold machinery to the Mint Bureau , Eckfeldt often dined at his house . In the final years both of the 19th century and of Sellers 's life , he published his memoirs , including memories of the first Philadelphia Mint . He recalled in 1812 peering through a window to see cents coined , and Eckfeldt coming into the room to stop the work at the end of the day . Seeing the young Sellers , he had the boy come in , had him place a cent planchet on the press , and struck it for him . Sellers nearly dropped it because it was so hot , and Eckfeldt reminded him it had been cold when placed in the press . Eckfeldt bade him keep the coin until he learned why the cent had become hot , and then he could spend it on candy . = = Chief coiner = = On the death of the first chief coiner , Henry Voigt , in early 1814 , Eckfeldt was appointed by President James Madison as successor . He served in that capacity for a quarter century . During his tenure , he continued to improve the machinery at the Philadelphia Mint . Eckfeldt set aside " master coins " — coins struck with extra care using new dies and polished planchets . He also put aside interesting foreign coins sent to the mint as bullion . These pieces became the Mint 's Cabinet , or coin collection . To fill gaps in this collection , he used old dies to strike postdated coins . Specialists have discovered that some dies he chose for this purpose had not been used together to strike coins for commerce , thus creating unique specimens . Among the pieces acquired for the Mint was a Brasher doubloon , of which only six are known today . Eckfeldt often spent from his own funds to acquire the coins for the Mint . The collection eventually evolved into the Smithsonian Institution 's National Numismatic Collection . In 1828 , Eckfeldt again became involved in the real estate transactions to expand operations at the Philadelphia Mint . For $ 1 @,@ 000 , he purchased one of the lots he had rented in 1805 . After the mint moved to new premises in the 1830s , Eckfeldt discovered that the lot he had purchased had a cloud , or irregularity , on its title ; he was able to clear it and sold it in 1837 for the same sum for which he had bought it . The new mint building was at Juniper and Chestnut Streets , only six blocks from Eckfeldt 's home at Juniper and Vine . Sellers , in his memoirs , described Eckfeldt as " a man of staunch integrity , a cautious , careful , orderly and painstaking man ; he was not one of the dashing , pushing , inventive mechanics , though under his care many apparently slight improvements were gradually adopted that in the aggregate amounted to a great deal in the economy of working . He was by no means deficient in inventive ability . " Nevertheless , as Eckfeldt aged in the service of the Mint in the late 1820s and into the 1830s , he was reluctant to adopt the innovations being proposed by his fellow Mint officer , Melter and Refiner Franklin Peale . Peale , like Eckfeldt of a mechanical bent , had many suggestions for improvements to the coinage machinery , some of which Eckfeldt adopted . Eckfeldt stated to Sellers , " If Mr. Peale had full swing he would turn everything upside down " . According to Sellers , " the giving up of almost life @-@ long pets that had been Mr. Eckfeldt 's constant care would naturally go hard , and still harder coming from another department , but as improvements gradually crept in and proved their efficiency Mr. Eckfeldt gave full credit where it belonged , and I remember him becoming quite enthusiastic over the labor saving [ in the use of the Contamin portrait lathe ] in duplicating working dies " . In 1833 , Peale was sent on a tour of European mints and came home with ideas for new machines and innovations , including the introduction of steam power , used at Britain 's Royal Mint since 1810 on equipment purchased from the firm of Boulton & Watt . Although Eckfeldt would have preferred to apply steam to the existing coin presses , a new one was built for steam power , and commemorative medals were the first pieces struck by steam at the Philadelphia Mint , in early 1836 . In 1839 , Eckfeldt retired after 25 years as chief coiner and over forty as a Mint employee . His fellow officers at the Mint presented him with a gold medal , with silver and bronze duplicates also struck . The obverse was designed by Philadelphia engraver Moritz Fuerst , who sometimes did work for the Mint ; the reverse may be by Fuerst or by Peale . Eckfeldt recommended Peale as his successor , and Peale was appointed . Nevertheless , Eckfeldt continued to perform the functions of chief coiner without pay until a few days before his death on February 6 , 1852 . After Eckfeldt 's death , Peale , wrote what Taxay terms a " frantic letter " to Mint Director George N. Eckert , seeking the appointment of an assistant . Peale had spent the freed @-@ up time designing and selling medals for private gain . = = Private and family life = = Eckfeldt married twice . No children were born of his brief first marriage in 1792 to Maria Hahn , which ended with her death ; his second marriage to Margaretta Bausch produced six children . Among them were his daughter Susanna , who married William Ewing DuBois , first curator of the Mint 's coin collection . Jacob Reese Eckfeldt , one of Adam 's sons , was for forty years ( 1832 – 1872 ) Assayer of the United States Mint . Jacob 's son Jacob Branch Eckfeldt exceeded both forebears in time of service , working at the Mint for 64 years , from 1865 to 1929 . Adam Eckfeldt had a taste for horticulture and owned rural property in Upper Darby , Pennsylvania , which was inherited by his two sons after his death . He was the first president of the Good Will Fire Company , holding that office for nearly all of his adult life , and designed a system of levers for use in fire engines . A member of Concordia Lodge No. 67 of the Masonic Order from 1795 to 1806 , he served as lodge master in 1803 ; a Chinese export porcelain punch bowl with his name and Masonic symbols survives in the Philadelphia Museum of Art . A biographical sketch of Eckfeldt , published in 1897 , describes him : He was a man of large information on many subjects , possessed an inventive genius , and was enabled to introduce some excellent improvements in minting processes . He was singularly industrious and energetic , and for his social qualities and uprightness was universally respected , and , indeed , beloved by the officers associated with him and the extended circle of his acquaintance .
= John Brooks ( governor ) = John Brooks ( baptized May 4 , 1752 – March 1 , 1825 ) was a doctor , military officer , and politician from Massachusetts . He served as the 11th Governor of Massachusetts from 1816 to 1823 , and was one of the last Federalist officials elected in the United States . Trained as a doctor , Brooks was an officer of the Reading , Massachusetts militia when the American Revolutionary War broke out , and led his troops in the Battles of Lexington and Concord . He served under George Washington in the New York and New Jersey campaign of 1776 , although he missed the Battle of Trenton due to illness . In 1777 he was part of the relief force for the Siege of Fort Stanwix , and led a successful assault against British positions in the key Second Battle of Saratoga . He played a significant role in the 1783 Newburgh Conspiracy , in which he helped quash ideas of mutiny in the Continental Army . After the war he returned to medical practice , but continued to be active in the state militia , helping to put down Shays ' Rebellion in 1787 . He served in the militia during the War of 1812 , after which he was elected governor . Brooks was popular and politically moderate , and came to personify the " Era of Good Feelings " that followed the war . He retired in 1823 , and died two years later . = = Early years = = John Brooks was born in Medford , Massachusetts , the son of Caleb and Ruth Albree Brooks , who were local farmers , and was baptized on May 4 , 1752 . After education in the local schools , Brooks studied medicine with Dr. Simon Tufts alongside Benjamin Thompson . In his free time he engage in military drills with other local boys and carefully watched the maneuvers of British Army troops stationed in nearby Boston . When his apprenticeship with Dr. Tufts ended Brooks established a medical practice in Reading , where he was active in the local militia . = = Revolutionary War service = = When Paul Revere gave the alarm that sparked the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19 , 1775 , Brooks , then 22 and a major in the Reading militia , marched with his unit in response . His troops were among the first to reach Concord as the British took the road back to Boston , and are credited with beginning the running battle that took place . Brooks later described that day as the most difficult of his life . He then joined the Continental Army in May 1775 as a major in Bridge 's Regiment , and was among the troops sent to fortify Breed 's Hill on the night of June 16 – 17 . He missed the next day 's Battle of Bunker Hill , because he was sent by Colonel William Prescott to request reinforcements . He continued to serve in the Siege of Boston , transferring to the 19th Continental Regiment on January 1 , 1776 . One of Brooks ' subordinates in this unit was William Hull , with whom he formed a fast friendship . After the British withdrawal from Boston , Brooks ' regiment next saw action in the October 1776 Battle of White Plains , and was in General George Washington 's retreat across New Jersey afterward . Brooks was ill in camp when the army engaged in the Battle of Trenton on December 26 . On November 1 , 1776 he transferred to the 8th Massachusetts Regiment , where he was promoted to lieutenant colonel . The 8th Massachusetts was among the forces Benedict Arnold led in relief of the Siege of Fort Stanwix in upstate New York , and was present at the Battles of Saratoga . In the second battle on October 7 , 1777 , Brooks gained a reputation for fearlessness in the assault and capture of Hessian fortifications on the British right . In the winter of 1777 – 78 Brooks was at Valley Forge , where he served as a leading drill master under Baron von Steuben . Brooks was temporarily named adjutant to General Charles Lee when the army followed the British across New Jersey in 1778 , engaging them in the Battle of Monmouth . He was transferred to the 7th Massachusetts in November 1778 , and was its lieutenant @-@ colonel commandant until June 12 , 1783 when he resigned . His regiment was involved in garrison duty in New England and the New York City area until the end of his service . Brooks was a Freemason and in 1781 was elected master of Washington Lodge under the Grand Lodge of Massachusetts . Washington Lodge was a " Travelling Lodge " which travelled with the Continental Army . In 1783 Brooks played a prominent role in events concerning army pay arrears and pensions that became known as the Newburgh Conspiracy . He was one of three officers who delivered to the Continental Congress a letter drafted by discontented officers , and participated in hearings in which the army delegation outlined serious issues among the officers at Newburgh , New York . He then carried letters back to the army headquarters , and took part in actions orchestrated by Washington supporters to put down any ideas of mutiny . He was accused , apparently falsely , of informing Washington of the conspiracy ( Washington was tipped off by Alexander Hamilton to anticipate unrest . ) Historian Richard Kohn writes that details are lacking of Brooks ' actions and motivations in the critical days of the conspiracy in February and March 1783 , but describes his role in the affair as " crucial " . In 1783 Brooks became an Original Member of the Massachusetts Society of the Cincinnati and served as its first secretary from 1783 to 1786 . In 1810 he became president of the Massachusetts society and in 1811 he became vice president of the national society . He served both offices until his death in 1825 . = = Post @-@ Revolution and War of 1812 = = After the war Brooks returned to medical practice , taking over the office of Dr. Tufts in Medford . He was the first member elected to the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company when it was revived after the Revolution in 1786 . In the militia he rose to the position of major general in command of the Middlesex Division . He commanded the division under Major General Benjamin Lincoln when the Massachusetts Militia put down Shays ' Rebellion in 1787 . That same year , he was elected to a one @-@ year term as captain of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company . He was elected to the state convention that ratified the United States Constitution in 1788 . In 1792 Secretary at War Henry Knox offered Brooks a position as brigadier general in the Legion of the United States , a reorganization of the United States Army headed by General Anthony Wayne . Brooks refused the appointment , which went instead to his friend William Hull . He was elected to a second one @-@ year term as captain of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company in 1794 . He was offered a position as brigadier general in the United States Army by George Washington when war was threatened with France in 1797 , but refused . During the War of 1812 Brooks was the state militia 's adjutant general with the rank of major general . = = Governor of Massachusetts = = Brooks , politically a Federalist , served in the state legislature for a number of years . In 1816 Governor Caleb Strong announced his retirement . The Federalist caucus first chose Harrison Gray Otis as its candidate , but he categorically refused the nomination . The nomination was next offered to Lieutenant Governor William Phillips , Jr . , but he also turned the nomination down because he was not the first choice . The caucus then cast about for other candidates ; Brooks was proposed by House Speaker Timothy Bigelow . He also initially refused the nomination , but was convinced by a committee from the caucus to accept , and won the election . He won reelection annually until 1823 , when he retired from public service . The politics of the state was dominated by Federalists , despite their general decline elsewhere in the nation , in part because Brooks adopted moderate positions that denied the opposition Democratic @-@ Republicans opportunities for vigorous opposition . He included Republicans in patronage appointments , courted Republican politicians on the national level , including President James Monroe , and minimized his association with the Federalist leadership in Massachusetts . Historian Ronald Formisano writes that Brooks " came to personify the non @-@ partisan Era of Good Feelings in Massachusetts . " The Panic of 1819 and the granting of statehood to Maine ( which was until 1820 part of Massachusetts ) introduced fractures in the strong Federalist party system in the state . Dissident Federalists such as Josiah Quincy III joined Republicans in calls for a constitutional convention , citing the state constitution 's requirement that Maine be allocated representation in the legislature as a reason . Brooks lobbied against the idea , arguing that the legislature could draft proposed amendments , but a convention was held despite his efforts . Nine amendments produced by the convention were eventually approved , but Federalist leaders managed to block most of the substantive reforms that had been sought . One of the consequences of the panic was the rise , particularly in Boston , of a political faction known as the " Middling Interest " . This group was composed of primarily working class men who were unhappy with the state party 's elitist leadership . Led by Josiah Quincy , the split would eventually lead to the final collapse of Federalism in the state . Brooks announced in 1822 that he would not seek reelection in 1823 . The 1823 election saw the victory of Republican William Eustis over Federalist party leader Harrison Gray Otis . Otis almost did not carry Boston , and lost other Federalist strongholds in the state . Brooks was a leading member of the Massachusetts Medical Society for many years , serving as its president after his retirement from politics , and was also president of the Bible Society of Massachusetts . He was also president of the Society of the Cincinnati for many years , and was involved in the Washington Monument Association and the Bunker Hill Monument Association . Governor Brooks died in Medford on March 1 , 1825 , and was buried in Medford 's Salem Street Burying Ground , where the family grave is marked by a large obelisk erected in his honor . = = Family and legacy = = In 1774 Brooks married Lucy Smith , with whom he had five children ; two of them died young . His two sons were both active in the United States military . One his sons , Marine Corps First Lieutenant John Brooks , Jr . , was killed in action at the Battle of Lake Erie in 1813 . His other son , Alexander Scammel Brooks , was a lieutenant colonel in the Army and was killed in steamboat explosion in Florida in 1836 . The Maine towns of Brooks , established in 1816 , and Brooksville , founded in 1817 , were named for him .
= A215 road = The A215 is an A road in South London , from Elephant and Castle to Shirley . It runs through the London Boroughs of Lambeth , Southwark and Croydon . Beginning as Walworth Road , the A215 becomes Camberwell Road — much of which is a conservation area — after entering the former Metropolitan Borough of Camberwell . Crossing the A202 , the A215 becomes Denmark Hill , originally known as Dulwich Hill , but renamed in 1683 to commemorate the marriage of Princess Anne ( later Queen Anne ) to Prince George of Denmark . After passing Herne Hill railway station the road becomes Norwood Road , Knights Hill , and then Beulah Hill at its crossroads with the A214 . Beulah Hill was the site of Britain 's first independent television transmitter , built by the Independent Television Authority in 1955 . Descending towards South Norwood the A215 becomes South Norwood Hill and then Portland Road , just after crossing the A213 . A short section starting at the junction with Woodside Green is known as Spring Lane , leading to Shirley Road , the final section into Shirley , Croydon . The A215 is Britain 's most crash @-@ prone A @-@ road , having had 2 @,@ 836 crashes over its 10 mile length between 1999 and 2010 . = = Walworth Road = = At its northernmost point at Elephant & Castle in Newington , the A215 begins as Walworth Road , which runs between Elephant and Castle and Camberwell Road . It runs through Walworth and is the major shopping street of the area . East Street Market is especially busy on Fridays , Saturdays and Sundays . Other attractions include the Cuming Museum , Newington Reference Library and John Smith House , a former Labour Party headquarters which is now used by the local education authority . Charles Babbage , the Victorian mathematician and computer pioneer , was probably born at 44 Crosby Row , now Larcom Street , Walworth Road on 26 December 1791 . A commemorative blue plaque is displayed on the Sexual Health Clinic at the junction of Larcom Street and Walworth Road . Just off the Walworth Road was Walworth Road railway station on the London , Chatham and Dover Railway that was opened in 1863 and shut in 1916 due to wartime constraints . = = Camberwell Road = = Walworth Road transitions into Camberwell Road where the A215 enters the former Metropolitan Borough of Camberwell . The road runs adjacent to the railway between Elephant & Castle tube station and Loughborough Junction railway station . Much of Camberwell Road is a conservation area , due to its well preserved large houses from the early 19th century . By the time of the Domesday Book , Camberwell was already a significant settlement . The town remained a popular resort for Londoners due to its believed medicinal wells . In 1685 , John Evelyn 's Diary mentions a Roman urn filled with bones which was uncovered intact during repairs to the road and exhibited at the Royal Society . Camberwell Green , at the junction of Camberwell Road and Camberwell Church Street , was the traditional site of Camberwell Fair , an annual fair held every August . Following complaints about the noise and high crime levels generated by the fair , a group of residents bought the fairground in 1855 , converting it into the park which remains today . In Victorian times Camberwell Road was a focal point of South London 's Music hall scene , with a number of music halls opening from the 1850s onwards . Following the advent of the cinema and later of television , the music halls fell into decline , with the last closing in 1956 . Nearby Orpheus Street marks the site of the Metropole Music Hall . Since the New Works Programme of the 1930s , London Transport and its successors have planned to extend the Bakerloo line south to a station on Camberwell Road . The original plans were abandoned due to the war before much construction had been completed . Construction again began in the 1950s and 1970s , but was abandoned each time . Transport for London still intend to build this extension but no date has been set for this . = = Denmark Hill = = After the A215 crosses the A202 it becomes Denmark Hill . This road was originally known as Dulwich Hill , and was renamed in 1683 to commemorate the marriage of Princess Anne ( later Queen Anne ) to Prince George of Denmark . The road runs between Kings College Hospital and The Maudsley Hospital before going alongside Ruskin Park . Further south the road passes the Denmark Hill Estate . The Victorian art critic , author and social critic John Ruskin lived at 163 Denmark Hill from 1842 to 1871 . The house no longer stands and is now the site of a block of council flats . Ruskin Park , immediately south of the twin hospitals , is named in his honour . Denmark Hill is home to two of London 's largest hospitals , the general King 's College Hospital ( part of King 's College London ) which moved to the site from its original central London location in 1913 , and the Maudsley psychiatric hospital . It is believed by historians that 168 , 170 and 172 Denmark Hill were designed by noted architect and prison designer William Blackburn due their similarity in architectural style to his other buildings . However , as the original documentation relating to the construction of these houses has been lost or destroyed , it has proved impossible to confirm this . Immediately south of the Maudsley Hospital is Denmark Hill railway station , built in 1866 and rebuilt following fire in 1980 , on the South London Line . This station forms part of the East London Line westward extension to Clapham Junction as part of the London Overground network . = = Herne Hill = = The road continues southwest into Herne Hill , a short stretch of road running through the area of the same name . The origin of the name is disputed but possibly derives from herons nesting on the ( now buried ) River Effra . The earliest known usage of the name " Herne Hill " dates from 1798 . St Paul 's church was rebuilt in dramatic style by the gothic architect George Edmund Street in 1858 . Herne Hill railway station is at the southern end of Herne Hill , on a busy six @-@ road junction . It opened in 1862 and was initially the southern terminus of the London , Chatham and Dover Railway = = Norwood Road = = Norwood Road begins after Herne Hill railway station . It runs alongside Brockwell Park and then south to Tulse Hill . A manor house known as " Brockholle " or " Brockhalle " ( the origin of the name " Brockwell " ) was built on Norwood Road , on what is now a part of Brockwell Park , in the mid @-@ 15th century . In 1809 the building was bought by wealthy merchant and Sheriff of London John Blades . Blades demolished the building , and built Brockwell Hall as a replacement at the top of the hill in the park ; this building still stands today . Tulse Hill railway station is on this road . After passing the station , Norwood Road continues south past West Norwood Cemetery ( home of 65 Listed Monuments ) to West Norwood and the Norwood Triangle . Norwood Road is home to St Luke 's Church , a Grade II listed building designed by Francis Octavius Bedford in 1823 – 5 and rebuilt by GE Street in 1870 . The Regal Cinema opened on Norwood Road in January 1930 ; it was unusual in that it also staged live stage shows to accompany films ( including performances by animals from circuses visiting the nearby park ) . It was home to the Regal Redheads , a troupe of dancing girls who performed in the interval . = = Knights Hill and Norwood High Street = = Knights Hill starts in the north at West Norwood in the Norwood Triangle one @-@ way system , and runs through a council ward also named as Knight 's Hill . It ends in the south at a junction with the A214 at Crown Lane and Crown Dale . Knights Hill becomes Beulah Hill here at Crown Point . To the north , south of Knight 's Hill is the part of the Crystal Palace area with no name home to a large parade of competing large super markets along the A215 Norwood Road including Tesco , Cooperative , Iceland and ( by Summer 2009 ) Sainsbury ( ex Woolworth 's site ) . West Norwood railway station is on this road . Knights Hill contains the Knights Hill Nature Reserve , one of the last remaining vestiges of the Great North Wood which once covered the area . The 1647 Parliamentary Survey described Knights Hill as " a small common wood containing 40 pollard oaks and two elms " . = = Beulah Hill = = Beulah Hill ( originally " Gravel Pit Road " ) begins at a crossroads where the A215 crosses the A214 and Knights Hill becomes Beulah Hill . The road makes a sharp turn to the east where it continues through the neighbourhoods of Upper Norwood . On the sharp bend is the ornamental Beulah Hill Pond . Formerly " Big Pond " , it was intended as a watering stop for horses and cattle using the road , and still contains a railing to prevent animals straying into deep water . The " Conquering Hero " pub was built next to the pond for the use of people stopping to allow livestock to use the pond , and remains today . Nearby is St Joseph 's College founded in 1855 , one of the first Catholic educational institutions to be opened in England following the restoration of the Catholic hierarchy . Beulah Hill was the site of Britain 's first independent television transmitter , built by the Independent Television Authority in 1955 . Beulah Hill ends at a junction with the A212 ( Church Road ) . From this junction , the A215 is called South Norwood Hill . = = South Norwood Hill = = South Norwood Hill descends sharply towards South Norwood . It becomes Portland Road at the crossroads with the A213 road . No longer hidden from view by the Esso petrol station , which was demolished in 2009 , is the famous Spurgeon 's College , a theological college which since 1923 has been located in a mansion built in 1890 and known as Falkland Park . The former porter 's lodge of the Falkland Park estate still stands along South Norwood Hill as no . 217 , " Falkland Lodge " . Otherwise this section is mainly residential . = = Portland Road = = Portland Road begins at a crossroads where the A215 crosses the A213 on South Norwood High Street and South Norwood Hill becomes Portland Road . The road then travels down a hill with many shops ( mainly takeaways , newsagents ) . It passes South Norwood Leisure Centre , a new leisure centre which includes a creche , cafe , gym , swimming pool etc . Portland Road ends with a left turn to stay on the A215 at Spring Lane or straight on to change onto the B243 , Woodside Green . From June 2010 , the road will be the site of a station on the new London Overground network . = = = Early history = = = The northern section of the road was historically known as " Cholmerden " or " The Goat House " . The Minister 's of Bailiffs Account of the Chauntry of St Nicholas show that an annual rent of 33 shillings and four pence was paid on the land between 1442 – 1483 ; this is the earliest recorded reference to the area . The road at the time ran through an ancient woodland known as the North Wood ( the origin of the modern place name Norwood ) . The area was cleared for farmland in the 16th and 17th centuries . Industrial development began in the early 19th century following construction of the Grand Surrey Canal , linking the area to Surrey Commercial Docks and the River Thames in 1809 . This section of the canal was closed in 1836 , with the London and Croydon Railway built along the canal bed ; modern housing development began in the mid @-@ 19th century following the opening of the railway . = = = Jolly @-@ sailor station and the London & Croydon Railway = = = In 1839 the London and Croydon Railway opened Jolly @-@ sailor station ( sic ) — listed as " Jolly @-@ sailor near Beulah Spa " on fares lists and timetables — at the north end of the street . The station was renamed Norwood in 1846 . The station was immediately adjacent to a level crossing over Portland Road . In 1844 , the London and Croydon Railway was given parliamentary authority to test an experimental pneumatic propulsion system on the railway ( referred to at the time as the atmospheric @-@ propulsion system ) . A pumping station was built on Portland Road ; this created a vacuum in a pipe paralleling the railway tracks . A piston extended downwards from the trains into a slit in the pipe , meaning that trains were literally sucked towards the pumping station or blown away from it . The pumping station was built in a Gothic style , with a very tall ornate tower which served both as a chimney and as an exhaust vent for air pumped from the propulsion pipe . As part of the construction works for the atmospheric @-@ propulsion system , the world 's first railway flyover was constructed at the north end of Portland Road , to carry the new atmospheric line over the conventional steam line below . In 1847 , the atmospheric propulsion experiment was abandoned . Following construction of new lines , the station closed on 1 June 1859 and was replaced by a new station on the south side of the road , Norwood Junction , which is still in use , now part of the newly @-@ extended East London Line of the London Overground which was opened on 23 May 2010 . = = = Places of interest = = = One of the earliest cinemas in South London , the Electric Picture Palace , opened on Portland Road in 1910 . The cinema was renamed the Central Cinema shortly afterwards , and closed in 1956 , and no trace of it now remains . Portland Road is also home to the " Gold Coast " , the only Ghanaian public house in London ; this is a focal point for London 's Ghanaian community and serves Ghanaian beer , wine and food . Roots , Routes , Roots ( also known as the " Portland Road Mosaic " ) , an 11 @-@ metre ( 36 ft ) long mosaic depicting the history of the Norwood area , is under the railway bridge . The mosaic was designed by artists Gary Drostle and Rob Turner , and built by children from a number of local schools . = = Spring Lane = = Spring Lane is a short road that starts at the junction with Woodside Green . It lies entirely within Woodside . St Luke 's Church , Ashburton Park , Ashburton Primary School and Woodside tram stop are on this road . Spring Lane was notable for many years in having one of the few Ancient lights notices in London outside central London , on a private house immediately opposite the station . The sign was taken down in 2005 . = = = Woodside tram stop = = = Woodside railway station was built in 1871 to serve Croydon Racecourse ( see below ) . The station was unusual in being designed for horses , with access ramps instead of steps and with unusually high entrances designed to accommodate a horse and rider . In 1997 the railway was replaced by Tramlink ; the station is now Woodside tram stop . = = Shirley Road = = Shirley Road is the final road on the A215 . It is home to Ashburton Community School and Trinity School of John Whitgift . It ends in Shirley , Croydon . Shirley Road skirts the nearby suburb of Addiscombe . The town is named after the historic manor of Adscomb ( " Edge of the valley " ) , the country seat of the Heron family , which was situated on Shirley Road . The building no longer exists . = = = Ashburton Playing Fields = = = Ashburton Playing Fields are just off Shirley Road , behind the school . The fields were first dedicated as a public horse racing course by James I in the early 17th century . Following the opening of the nearby Woodside railway station in 1871 large numbers of Londoners began travelling to the racecourse . Following pressure from the Mayor of Croydon , concerned about the large crowds , the racecourse was closed in 1890 and replaced with a golf course ; this was bought by the council in 1942 and given to public use as playing fields .
= Clint Eastwood = Clinton " Clint " Eastwood Jr . ( born May 31 , 1930 ) is an American actor , film director , producer , musician , and political figure . He rose to international fame with his role as the Man with No Name in Sergio Leone 's Dollars trilogy of spaghetti Westerns during the 1960s , and as antihero cop Harry Callahan in the five Dirty Harry films throughout the 1970s and 1980s . These roles , among others , have made Eastwood an enduring cultural icon of masculinity . For his work in the Western film Unforgiven ( 1992 ) and the sports drama Million Dollar Baby ( 2004 ) , Eastwood won Academy Awards for Best Director and Best Picture , as well as receiving nominations for Best Actor . Eastwood 's greatest commercial successes have been the adventure comedy Every Which Way But Loose ( 1978 ) and its sequel , the action comedy Any Which Way You Can ( 1980 ) , after adjustment for inflation . Other popular films include the Western Hang ' Em High ( 1968 ) , the psychological thriller Play Misty for Me ( 1971 ) , the crime film Thunderbolt and Lightfoot ( 1974 ) , the Western The Outlaw Josey Wales ( 1976 ) , the prison film Escape from Alcatraz ( 1979 ) , the action film Firefox ( 1982 ) , the suspense thriller Tightrope ( 1984 ) , the Western Pale Rider ( 1985 ) , the war film Heartbreak Ridge ( 1986 ) , the action thriller In the Line of Fire ( 1993 ) , the romantic drama The Bridges of Madison County ( 1995 ) , and the drama Gran Torino ( 2008 ) . In addition to directing many of his own star vehicles , Eastwood has also directed films in which he did not appear , such as the mystery drama Mystic River ( 2003 ) and the war film Letters from Iwo Jima ( 2006 ) , for which he received Academy Award nominations , and the drama Changeling ( 2008 ) . The war drama biopic American Sniper ( 2014 ) set box office records for the largest January release ever and was also the largest opening ever for an Eastwood film . Eastwood received considerable critical praise in France for several films , including some that were not well received in the United States . Eastwood has been awarded two of France 's highest honors : in 1994 he became a recipient of the Commandeur of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres , and in 2007 he was awarded the Légion d 'honneur medal . In 2000 , Eastwood was awarded the Italian Venice Film Festival Golden Lion for lifetime achievement . Since 1967 , Eastwood has run his own production company , Malpaso , which has produced all except four of his American films . From 1986 – 88 , Eastwood served as Mayor of Carmel @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea , California , a non @-@ partisan office . = = Early life = = Eastwood was born in San Francisco , California , the son of Clinton Eastwood Sr. ( 1906 – 1970 ) and his wife , Margaret Ruth ( née Runner ) Eastwood ( 1909 – 2006 ) . He was nicknamed " Samson " by the hospital nurses because he weighed 11 pounds 6 ounces ( 5 @.@ 2 kg ) at birth . He has a younger sister , Jeanne ( born 1934 ) . Eastwood 's widowed mother later married a retired lumber executive , John Belden Wood ( 1913 – 2004 ) , who became stepfather to Clint and Jeanne . Eastwood is of English , Irish , Scottish , and Dutch ancestry and was raised in a working class environment . Eastwood is descended from Mayflower passenger William Bradford and through this line is the 12th generation of his family born in North America and the 13th generation to live in North America . His family moved often as his father worked at jobs along the West Coast . They finally settled in Piedmont , California , where Eastwood attended Piedmont Junior High School . Shortly before he was to enter Piedmont High School , he rode his bike on the school 's sports field and tore up the wet turf ; this resulted in his being asked not to enroll . Instead , he attended Oakland Technical High School , where the drama teachers encouraged him to take part in school plays . However , Eastwood was not interested . He worked at a number of jobs , including lifeguard , paper carrier , grocery clerk , forest firefighter , and golf caddy . In 1951 , Eastwood enrolled at Seattle University but was then drafted into the United States Army and assigned to Fort Ord in California , where he was appointed as a lifeguard and swimming instructor . While returning from a weekend visit to his parents in Seattle , Washington , he was a passenger on a Douglas AD bomber that ran out of fuel and crashed into the ocean near Point Reyes . Escaping from the sinking aircraft , he and the pilot swam 3 miles ( 5 km ) to safety . = = Career = = = = = 1950s : Early career struggles = = = According to the CBS press release for Rawhide , the Universal ( known then as Universal @-@ International ) film company was shooting in Fort Ord when an enterprising assistant spotted Eastwood and invited him to meet the director . According to Eastwood 's official biography , the key figure was a man named Chuck Hill , who was stationed in Fort Ord and had contacts in Hollywood . While in Los Angeles , Hill became reacquainted with Eastwood and managed to sneak Eastwood into a Universal studio , where he showed him to cameraman Irving Glassberg . Glassberg arranged for an audition under Arthur Lubin , who , although very impressed with Clint 's appearance and stature at 6 ' 4 " ( 193 cm ) , disapproved initially of his acting skills , remarking , " He was quite amateurish . He didn 't know which way to turn or which way to go or do anything " . Lubin suggested that he attend drama classes and arranged for Eastwood 's initial contract in April 1954 , at $ 100 per week . After signing , Eastwood was initially criticized for his stiff manner and delivering his lines through his teeth , a lifelong trademark . In May 1954 , Eastwood made his first real audition for Six Bridges to Cross but was rejected by Joseph Pevney . After many unsuccessful auditions , he was eventually given a minor role by director Jack Arnold in Revenge of the Creature , a sequel to the recently released The Creature from the Black Lagoon . In September 1954 , Eastwood worked for three weeks on Arthur Lubin 's Lady Godiva of Coventry , won a role in February 1955 , playing " Jonesy " , a sailor in Francis in the Navy and appeared uncredited in another Jack Arnold film , Tarantula , where he played a squadron pilot . In May 1955 , Eastwood put four hours ' work into the film Never Say Goodbye and had a minor uncredited role as a ranch hand ( his first western film ) in August 1955 with Law Man , also known as Stars in the Dust . Universal presented him with his first television role on July 2 , 1955 , on NBC 's Allen in Movieland , which starred Tony Curtis and Benny Goodman . Although he continued to develop as an actor , Universal terminated his contract on October 23 , 1955 . Eastwood joined the Marsh Agency , and although Lubin landed him his biggest role to date in The First Traveling Saleslady ( 1956 ) and later hired him for Escapade in Japan , without a formal contract Eastwood was struggling . Upon the advice of Irving Leonard , his financial advisor , he changed talent agencies to the Kumin @-@ Olenick Agency in 1956 and Mitchell Gertz in 1957 . He landed several small roles in 1956 as a temperamental army officer for a segment of ABC 's Reader 's Digest series , and as a motorcycle gang member on a Highway Patrol episode . In 1957 , Eastwood played a cadet in West Point series , played a suicidal gold prospector in Death Valley Days . In 1958 , he played a Navy lieutenant in a segment of Navy Log and in early 1959 made a notable guest appearance on Maverick opposite James Garner as a cowardly villain intent on marrying a rich girl for money . Eastwood had a small part as an aviator in the French picture Lafayette Escadrille and played a major role as an ex @-@ renegade of the Confederacy in Ambush at Cimarron Pass , a film which Eastwood viewed disastrously and professes to be the lowest point of his career . In 1958 , Eastwood was cast as Rowdy Yates for the CBS hour @-@ long western series Rawhide , the breakthrough in his career he had long been searching for . However , Eastwood was not especially happy with his character ; Eastwood was almost 30 , and Rowdy was too young and too cloddish for Clint to feel comfortable with the part . Filming began in Arizona in the summer of 1958 . It took just three weeks for Rawhide to reach the top 20 in TV ratings and although it never won an Emmy , it was a major success for several years , and reached its peak at number six in the ratings between October 1960 and April 1961 . The Rawhide years ( 1959 – 65 ) were some of the most grueling of Eastwood 's career , often filming six days a week for an average of twelve hours a day , yet he still received criticism by some directors for not working hard enough . By late 1963 Rawhide was beginning to decline in popularity and lacked freshness in the script ; it was canceled in the middle of the 1965 – 66 television season . Eastwood made his first attempt at directing when he filmed several trailers for the show , although he was unable to convince producers to let him direct an episode . In the show 's first season Eastwood earned $ 750 an episode . At the time of Rawhide 's cancellation , he received $ 119 @,@ 000 an episode as severance pay . = = = 1960s = = = In late 1963 , Eastwood 's co @-@ star on Rawhide , Eric Fleming , rejected an offer to star in an Italian @-@ made western called A Fistful of Dollars , to be directed in a remote region of Spain by the then relatively unknown Sergio Leone . Richard Harrison suggested Eastwood to Leone because Harrison knew Eastwood could play a cowboy convincingly . Eastwood thought the film would be an opportunity to escape from his Rawhide image . Eastwood signed a contract for $ 15 @,@ 000 in wages for eleven weeks ' work , with a bonus of a Mercedes automobile upon completion . Eastwood later spoke of the transition from a television western to A Fistful of Dollars : " In Rawhide I did get awfully tired of playing the conventional white hat . The hero who kisses old ladies and dogs and was kind to everybody . I decided it was time to be an anti @-@ hero . " Eastwood was instrumental in creating the Man with No Name character 's distinctive visual style and , although a non @-@ smoker , Leone insisted Eastwood smoke cigars as an essential ingredient of the " mask " he was attempting to create for the loner character . A Fistful of Dollars proved a landmark in the development of spaghetti Westerns , with Leone depicting a more lawless and desolate world than traditional westerns , and challenging American stereotypes of a western hero with a morally ambiguous antihero . The film 's success made Eastwood a major star in Italy and he was re @-@ hired to star in For a Few Dollars More ( 1965 ) , the second of the trilogy . Through the efforts of screenwriter Luciano Vincenzoni , the rights to For a Few Dollars More and the final film of the trilogy ( The Good , the Bad and the Ugly ) were sold to United Artists for about $ 900 @,@ 000 . In January 1966 , Eastwood met producer Dino De Laurentiis in New York City and agreed to star in a non @-@ Western five @-@ part anthology production named Le Streghe ( " The Witches " ) opposite De Laurentiis ' wife , actress Silvana Mangano . Eastwood 's nineteen @-@ minute installment took only a few days to shoot , but his performance did not please the critics , one writing that " no other performance of his is quite so ' un @-@ Clintlike ' . " Two months later Eastwood began work on the third Dollars film , The Good , the Bad and the Ugly , again playing the mysterious Man with No Name . Lee Van Cleef returned as a ruthless fortune seeker , with Eli Wallach portraying the cunning Mexican bandit Tuco Ramirez . The storyline involved the search for a cache of Confederate gold buried in a cemetery . During the filming of a scene in which a bridge was blown up , Eastwood urged Wallach to retreat to a hilltop . " I know about these things , " he said . " Stay as far away from special effects and explosives as you can . " Minutes later confusion among the crew over the word " Vaya ! " resulted in a premature explosion that could have killed Wallach . I wanted to play it with an economy of words and create this whole feeling through attitude and movement . It was just the kind of character I had envisioned for a long time , keep to the mystery and allude to what happened in the past . It came about after the frustration of doing Rawhide for so long . I felt the less he said , the stronger he became and the more he grew in the imagination of the audience . The Dollars trilogy was not released in the United States until 1967 , when A Fistful of Dollars opened in January , followed by For a Few Dollars More in May , and The Good , the Bad and the Ugly on December 29 , 1967 . All the films were commercially successful , particularly The Good , the Bad and the Ugly , which eventually earned $ 8 million in rental earnings and turned Eastwood into a major film star . All three films received bad reviews , and marked the beginning of a battle for Eastwood to win American film critics ' respect . Judith Crist described A Fistful of Dollars as " cheapjack , " while Newsweek considered For a Few Dollars More as " excruciatingly dopey . " Renata Adler of The New York Times said The Good , the Bad and the Ugly was " ... the most expensive , pious and repellent movie in the history of its peculiar genre . " Time magazine drew attention to the film 's wooden acting , especially on the part of Eastwood , though a few critics such as Vincent Canby and Bosley Crowther of The New York Times praised Eastwood 's coolness in playing the tall , lone stranger . Leone 's cinematography was widely acclaimed , even by critics who disparaged the acting in the film . Stardom brought more roles for Eastwood . He signed to star in the American revisionist western Hang ' Em High ( 1968 ) , featured alongside Inger Stevens , Pat Hingle , Dennis Hopper , Ed Begley , Alan Hale , Ben Johnson , Bruce Dern , and James MacArthur , playing a man who takes up a Marshal 's badge and seeks revenge as a lawman after being lynched by vigilantes and left for dead . The film earned Eastwood a fee of $ 400 @,@ 000 and 25 percent of its net box @-@ office takings . Using money earned from the Dollars trilogy , accountant and Eastwood advisor Irving Leonard helped establish Eastwood 's own production company , Malpaso Productions , named after Malpaso Creek on Eastwood 's property in Monterey County , California . Leonard arranged for Hang ' Em High to be a joint production with United Artists ; when it opened in July 1968 , it had the largest opening weekend in United Artists ' history . Hang ' Em High was widely praised by critics , including Archer Winsten of the New York Post , who described it as , " a western of quality , courage , danger and excitement . " Before the release of Hang ' Em High , Eastwood had already begun working on Coogan 's Bluff , about an Arizona deputy sheriff tracking a wanted psychopathic criminal ( Don Stroud ) through the streets of New York City . He was reunited with Universal Studios for it after receiving an offer of $ 1 million — more than double his previous salary . Jennings Lang arranged for Eastwood to meet Don Siegel , a Universal contract director who later became Eastwood 's close friend , forming a partnership that would last more than ten years and produce five films . Shooting began in November 1967 , before the script had been finalized . The film was controversial for its portrayal of violence . Coogan 's Bluff also became the first collaboration with Argentine composer Lalo Schifrin , who would later compose the jazzy score to several Eastwood films in the 1970s and 1980s , including the Dirty Harry films . Eastwood was paid $ 750 @,@ 000 in 1968 for the war epic Where Eagles Dare , about a World War II squad parachuting into a Gestapo stronghold in the alpine mountains . Richard Burton played the squad 's commander , with Eastwood as his right @-@ hand man . Eastwood was also cast as Two @-@ Face in the Batman television show , but the series was canceled before filming began . Eastwood then branched out to star in the only musical of his career , Paint Your Wagon ( 1969 ) . Eastwood and Lee Marvin play gold miners who buy a Mormon settler 's less favored wife ( Jean Seberg ) at an auction . Bad weather and delays plagued the production , while the film 's budget eventually exceeded $ 20 million , which was extremely expensive for the time . The film was not a critical or commercial success , although it was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy . = = = 1970s = = = In 1970 , Eastwood starred with Shirley MacLaine in the western Two Mules for Sister Sara , directed by Don Siegel . The film follows an American mercenary , who gets mixed up with a prostitute disguised as a nun , and ends up helping a group of Juarista rebels during the reign of Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico . Eastwood once again played a mysterious stranger — unshaven , wearing a serape @-@ like vest , and smoking a cigar . Although it received moderate reviews , the film is listed in The New York Times Guide to the Best 1 @,@ 000 Movies Ever Made . Later the same year , Eastwood starred as one of a group of Americans who steal a fortune in gold from the Nazis , in the World War II film Kelly 's Heroes , with Donald Sutherland and Telly Savalas . Kelly 's Heroes was the last film Eastwood appeared in that was not produced by his own Malpaso Productions . Filming commenced in July 1969 on location in Yugoslavia and in London . The film received mostly a positive reception and its anti @-@ war sentiments were recognized . In the winter of 1969 – 70 , Eastwood and Siegel began planning his next film , The Beguiled , a tale of a wounded Union soldier , held captive by the sexually repressed matron ( played by Geraldine Page ) of a Southern girl 's school . Upon release the film received major recognition in France and is considered one of Eastwood 's finest works by the French . However , it grossed less than $ 1 million and , according to Eastwood and Lang , flopped due to poor publicity and the " emasculated " role of Eastwood . Eastwood 's career reached a turning point in 1971 . Before Irving Leonard died , he and Eastwood had discussed the idea of Malpaso producing Play Misty for Me , a film that was to give Eastwood the artistic control he desired , and his debut as a director . The script was about a jazz disc jockey named Dave ( Eastwood ) , who has a casual affair with Evelyn ( Jessica Walter ) , a listener who had been calling the radio station repeatedly at night , asking him to play her favorite song – Erroll Garner 's Misty . When Dave ends their relationship , the unhinged Evelyn becomes a murderous stalker . Filming commenced in Monterey in September 1970 and included footage of that year 's Monterey Jazz Festival . The film was highly acclaimed with critics , such as Jay Cocks in Time magazine , Andrew Sarris in the Village Voice , and Archer Winsten in the New York Post all praising the film , as well as Eastwood 's directorial skills and performance . Walter was nominated for a Golden Globe Best Actress Award ( Drama ) , for her performance in the film . I know what you 're thinking – " Did he fire six shots or only five ? " Well , to tell you the truth , in all this excitement , I 've kinda lost track myself . But , being as this is a .44 Magnum , the most powerful handgun in the world and would blow your head clean off , you 've got to ask yourself one question : " Do I feel lucky ? " Well , do you , punk ? Dirty Harry ( 1971 ) , written by Harry and Rita Fink , centers on a hard @-@ edged New York City ( later changed to San Francisco ) police inspector named Harry Callahan who is determined to stop a psychotic killer by any means . Dirty Harry has been described as being arguably Eastwood 's most memorable character , and the film has been credited with inventing the " loose @-@ cannon cop " genre . Author Eric Lichtenfeld argues that Eastwood 's role as Dirty Harry established the " first true archetype " of the action film genre . His lines ( quoted right ) are regarded by firearms historians , such as Garry James and Richard Venola , as the force that catapulted the ownership of .44 Magnum revolvers to new heights in the United States ; specifically the Smith & Wesson Model 29 carried by Harry Callahan . Dirty Harry achieved huge success after its release in December 1971 , earning $ 22 million in the United States and Canada alone . It was Siegel 's highest @-@ grossing film and the start of a series of films featuring the character Harry Callahan . Although a number of critics praised Eastwood 's performance as Dirty Harry , such as Jay Cocks of Time magazine who described him as " ... giving his best performance so far , tense , tough , full of implicit identification with his character , " the film was also widely criticized as being fascistic . Following Sean Connery 's announcement that he would not play James Bond again , Eastwood was offered the role but turned it down because he believed the character should be played by an English actor . He next starred in the loner Western Joe Kidd ( 1972 ) , based on a character inspired by Reies Lopez Tijerina , who stormed a courthouse in Tierra Amarilla , New Mexico in June 1967 . During filming , Eastwood suffered symptoms of a bronchial infection and several panic attacks . Joe Kidd received a mixed reception , with Roger Greenspun of The New York Times writing that it was unremarkable , with foolish symbolism and sloppy editing , although he praised Eastwood 's performance . In 1973 , Eastwood directed his first western , High Plains Drifter , in which he also starred . The film had a moral and supernatural theme , later emulated in Pale Rider . The plot follows a mysterious stranger ( Eastwood ) who arrives in a brooding Western town where the people hire him to protect them against three soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ released felons . There remains confusion during the film as to whether the stranger is the brother of the deputy , whom the felons lynched and murdered , or his ghost . Holes in the plot were filled with black humor and allegory , influenced by Leone . The revisionist film received a mixed reception , but was a major box office success . A number of critics thought Eastwood 's directing was " as derivative as it was expressive , " with Arthur Knight of the Saturday Review remarking that Eastwood had " ... absorbed the approaches of Siegel and Leone and fused them with his own paranoid vision of society . " John Wayne , who had declined a role in the film , sent a letter to Eastwood soon after the film 's release in which he complained that , " The townspeople did not represent the true spirit of the American pioneer , the spirit that made America great . " Eastwood next turned his attention towards Breezy ( 1973 ) , a film about love blossoming between a middle @-@ aged man and a teenage girl . During casting for the film Eastwood met Sondra Locke for the first time , an actress who would play major roles in six of his films over the next ten years and would become an important figure in his life . Kay Lenz got the part of Breezy because Locke , at age 29 , was considered too old . The film , shot very quickly and efficiently by Eastwood and Frank Stanley , came in $ 1 million under budget and was finished three days ahead of schedule . Breezy was not a major critical or commercial success and it was only made available on video in 1998 . Once filming of Breezy had finished , Warners announced that Eastwood had agreed to reprise his role as Callahan in Magnum Force ( 1973 ) , a sequel to Dirty Harry , about a group of rogue young officers ( among them David Soul , Robert Urich and Tim Matheson ) in the San Francisco Police Department who systematically exterminate the city 's worst criminals . Although the film was a major success after release , grossing $ 58 @.@ 1 million in the United States ( a record for Eastwood ) , it was not a critical success . The New York Times critic Nora Sayre panned the often contradictory moral themes of the film , while the paper 's Frank Rich called it " the same old stuff " . In 1974 , Eastwood teamed up with Jeff Bridges and George Kennedy in the buddy action caper Thunderbolt and Lightfoot , a road movie about a veteran bank robber Thunderbolt ( Eastwood ) and a young con man drifter , Lightfoot ( Bridges ) . On its release , in spring 1974 , the film was praised for its offbeat comedy mixed with high suspense and tragedy but was only a modest success at the box office , earning $ 32 @.@ 4 million . Eastwood 's acting was noted by critics , but was overshadowed by Bridges who was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor . Eastwood reportedly fumed at the lack of Academy Award recognition for him and swore that he would never work for United Artists again . Eastwood 's next film The Eiger Sanction ( 1975 ) was based on Trevanian 's critically acclaimed spy novel of the same name . Eastwood plays Jonathan Hemlock in a role originally intended for Paul Newman , an assassin turned college art professor who decides to return to his former profession for one last " sanction " in return for a rare Pissarro painting . In the process he must climb the north face of the Eiger in Switzerland under perilous conditions . Mike Hoover taught Eastwood how to climb during several weeks of preparation at Yosemite in the summer of 1974 before filming commenced in Grindelwald , Switzerland on August 12 , 1974 . Despite prior warnings about the perils of the Eiger the film crew suffered a number of accidents , including one fatality . Despite the danger , Eastwood insisted on doing all his own climbing and stunts . Upon release in May 1975 The Eiger Sanction was a commercial failure , receiving only $ 23 @.@ 8 million at the box office , and was poorly received by most critics . Joy Gould Boyum of the Wall Street Journal dismissed the film as " brutal fantasy " . Eastwood blamed Universal Studios for the film 's poor promotion and turned his back on them to make an agreement with Warner Brothers , through Frank Wells , that has lasted to the present day . The Outlaw Josey Wales ( 1976 ) , a western inspired by Asa Carter 's 1972 novel of the same name , has lead character Josey Wales ( Eastwood ) as a pro @-@ Confederate guerilla who refuses to surrender his arms after the American Civil War and is chased across the old southwest by a group of enforcers . Eastwood 's costars were Locke ( for the first time ) and Chief Dan George . Director Philip Kaufman was fired by producer Bob Daley under Eastwood 's command , resulting in a fine reported to be around $ 60 @,@ 000 from the Directors Guild of America — who subsequently passed new legislation reserving the right to impose a major fine on a producer for discharging and replacing a director . The film was pre @-@ screened at the Sun Valley Center for the Arts and Humanities in Idaho during a six @-@ day conference entitled Western Movies : Myths and Images . Invited to the screening were a number of esteemed film critics , including Jay Cocks and Arthur Knight ; directors such as King Vidor , William Wyler , and Howard Hawks ; and a number of academics . Upon release in the summer of 1976 The Outlaw Josey Wales was widely acclaimed , with many critics and viewers seeing Eastwood 's role as an iconic one that related to America 's ancestral past and the destiny of the nation after the American Civil War . Roger Ebert compared the nature and vulnerability of Eastwood 's portrayal of Josey Wales with his Man with No Name character in the Dollars westerns and praised the film 's atmosphere . The film would later appear in Time 's " Top 10 Films of the Year " . Eastwood was then offered the role of Benjamin L. Willard in Francis Coppola 's Apocalypse Now , but declined as he did not want to spend weeks on location in the Philippines . He also refused the part of a platoon leader in Ted Post 's Vietnam War film , Go Tell the Spartans and instead decided to make a third Dirty Harry film , The Enforcer . The film had Callahan partnered with a new female officer ( Tyne Daly ) to face a San Francisco Bay area group resembling the Symbionese Liberation Army . The film , culminating in a shootout on Alcatraz island , was considerably shorter than the previous Dirty Harry films at 95 minutes , but was a major commercial success grossing $ 100 million worldwide to become Eastwood 's highest @-@ grossing film to date . In 1977 , he directed and starred in The Gauntlet opposite Locke , Pat Hingle , William Prince , Bill McKinney , and Mara Corday . Eastwood portrays a down @-@ and @-@ out cop assigned to escort a prostitute from Las Vegas to Phoenix to testify against the mafia . Although a moderate hit with the viewing public , critics had mixed feelings about the film , with many believing it was overly violent . Ebert , in contrast , gave the film three stars and called it " ... classic Clint Eastwood : fast , furious , and funny . " The following year , he starred in Every Which Way But Loose in an uncharacteristic offbeat comedy role . He played Philo Beddoe , a trucker and brawler who roams the American West searching for a lost love ( Locke ) accompanied by his brother ( played by Geoffrey Lewis ) and an orangutan called Clyde . The film proved surprisingly successful upon its release and became Eastwood 's most commercially successful film up to that time . Panned by critics , it ranked high among the box office successes of his career and was the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 1978 . Eastwood starred in Escape from Alcatraz in 1979 , the last of his films directed by Siegel . It was based on the true story of Frank Lee Morris who , along with John and Clarence Anglin , escaped from the notorious Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary in 1962 . The film was a major success ; Stanley Kauffmann of The New Republic praised it as " crystalline cinema " and Frank Rich of Time described it as " cool , cinematic grace " . = = = 1980s = = = In 1980 , Eastwood directed and played the title role in Bronco Billy alongside Locke , Scatman Crothers , and Sam Bottoms . Eastwood has cited Bronco Billy as being one of the most relaxed shoots of his career and biographer Richard Schickel has argued that Bronco Billy is Eastwood 's most self @-@ referential character . The film was a rare commercial disappointment in Eastwood 's career , but was liked by critics . Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that film was " ... the best and funniest Clint Eastwood movie in quite a while " , and praised Eastwood 's directing , intricately juxtaposing the old West and the new West . Later that year , Eastwood starred in Any Which Way You Can , the sequel to Every Which Way But Loose . The film received a number of bad reviews from critics , although Maslin described it as " funnier and even better than its predecessor " . Released over the Christmas season of 1980 , Any Which Way You Can was a major box office success and ranked among the top five highest @-@ grossing films of the year . In 1982 , Eastwood directed and starred in Honkytonk Man , based on the eponymous Clancy Carlile 's depression @-@ era novel . Eastwood portrays a struggling western singer Red Stovall who suffers from tuberculosis , but has finally been given an opportunity to make it big at the Grand Ole Opry . He is accompanied by his young nephew ( played by real @-@ life son Kyle ) to Nashville , Tennessee , where he is supposed to record a song . Only Time gave the film a good review in the United States , with most reviewers criticizing its blend of muted humor and tragedy . Nevertheless , the film received critical acclaim in France , where it was compared to John Ford 's The Grapes of Wrath , and it has since acquired the very high rating of 93 percent on Rotten Tomatoes . In the same year Eastwood directed , produced , and starred in the Cold War @-@ themed Firefox . Based on a 1977 novel with the same name written by Craig Thomas , the film was shot before but released after Honkeytonk Man . Russian filming locations were not possible due to the Cold War , and the film had to be shot in Vienna and other locations in Austria to simulate many of the Eurasian story locations . With a production cost of $ 20 million , it was Eastwood 's highest budget film to date . People magazine likened Eastwood 's performance to " Luke Skywalker trapped in Dirty Harry 's Soul " . Eastwood directed and starred in the fourth Dirty Harry film , Sudden Impact , which was shot in the spring and summer of 1983 and is considered the darkest and most violent of the series . By this time Eastwood received 60 percent of all profits from films he starred in and directed , with the rest going to the studio . Sudden Impact was his final on @-@ screen collaboration with Locke . She plays an artist who , along with her sister , was gang @-@ raped a decade before the story takes place and seeks revenge for her sister 's now @-@ vegetative state by systematically murdering the rapists . The line " Go ahead , make my day " ( uttered by Eastwood during an early scene in a coffee shop ) has been cited as one of cinema 's immortal lines . It was quoted by President Ronald Reagan in a speech to Congress , and used during the 1984 presidential elections . The film was the second most commercially successful of the Dirty Harry films , after The Enforcer , earning $ 70 million . It received very positive reviews , with many critics praising the feminist aspects of the film through its explorations of the physical and psychological consequences of rape . Tightrope ( 1984 ) had Eastwood starring opposite Geneviève Bujold in a provocative thriller , inspired by newspaper articles about an elusive Bay Area rapist . Set in New Orleans to avoid confusion with the Dirty Harry films , Eastwood played a divorced cop drawn into his target 's tortured psychology and fascination for sadomasochism . Tightrope was a critical and commercial hit and became the fourth highest @-@ grossing R @-@ rated film of 1984 . Eastwood next starred in the crime comedy City Heat ( 1984 ) alongside Burt Reynolds , a film about a private eye and his partner who get mixed up with gangsters in the prohibition era of the 1930s . The film grossed around $ 50 million domestically , but was overshadowed by Eddie Murphy 's Beverly Hills Cop . Westerns . A period gone by , the pioneer , the loner operating by himself , without benefit of society . It usually has something to do with some sort of vengeance ; he takes care of the vengeance himself , doesn 't call the police . Like Robin Hood . It 's the last masculine frontier . Romantic myth , I guess , though it 's hard to think about anything romantic today . In a Western you can think , Jesus , there was a time when man was alone , on horseback , out there where man hasn 't spoiled the land yet . Eastwood made his only foray into TV direction with the 1985 Amazing Stories episode Vanessa in the Garden , which starred Harvey Keitel and Locke . This was his first collaboration with Steven Spielberg , who later co @-@ produced Flags of Our Fathers and Letters from Iwo Jima . He would revisit the Western genre when he directed and starred in Pale Rider ( 1985 ) , a film based on the classic 1953 western Shane and follows a preacher descending from the mists of the Sierras to side with the miners during the California Gold Rush of 1850 . The title is a reference to the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse , as the rider of the pale horse is Death , and shows similarities to Eastwood 's 1973 western High Plains Drifter in its themes of morality and justice as well as its exploration of the supernatural . Pale Rider became one of Eastwood 's most successful films to date . It was hailed as one of the best films of 1985 and the best western to appear for a considerable period , with Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune remarking , " This year ( 1985 ) will go down in film history as the moment Clint Eastwood finally earned respect as an artist " . In 1986 , Eastwood co @-@ starred with Marsha Mason in the military drama Heartbreak Ridge , about the 1983 United States invasion of Grenada . He portrays an aging United States Marine Gunnery Sergeant and Korean War veteran . Production and filming were marred by internal disagreements between Eastwood and long @-@ time friend and producer Fritz Manes , as well as between Eastwood and the United States Department of Defense who expressed contempt for the film . At the time , the film was a commercial rather than a critical success , and has only come to be viewed more favorably in recent times . The film grossed $ 70 million domestically . Eastwood starred in The Dead Pool ( 1988 ) , the fifth and final film in the Dirty Harry series . It co @-@ starred Patricia Clarkson , Liam Neeson , and a young Jim Carrey who plays Johnny Squares , a drug @-@ addled rock star and the first of the victims on a list of celebrities drawn up by horror film director Peter Swan ( Neeson ) who are deemed most likely to die , the so @-@ called " Dead Pool " . The list is stolen by an obsessed fan who , in mimicking his favorite director , makes his way through the list killing off celebrities , of which Dirty Harry is also included . The Dead Pool grossed nearly $ 38 million , relatively low receipts for a Dirty Harry film . It is generally viewed as the weakest film of the series , though Roger Ebert thought it was as good as the original . Eastwood began working on smaller , more personal projects and experienced a lull in his career between 1988 and 1992 . Always interested in jazz , he directed Bird ( 1988 ) , a biopic starring Forest Whitaker as jazz musician Charlie " Bird " Parker . Alto saxophonist Jackie McLean and Spike Lee , son of jazz bassist Bill Lee and a long time critic of Eastwood , criticized the characterization of Charlie Parker remarking that it did not capture his true essence and sense of humor . Eastwood received two Golden Globes for the film , the Cecil B. DeMille Award for his lifelong contribution , and the Best Director award . However , Bird was a commercial failure , earning just $ 11 million , which Eastwood attributed to the declining interest in jazz among black people . Carrey would appear with Eastwood again in the poorly received comedy Pink Cadillac ( 1989 ) . The film is about a bounty hunter and a group of white supremacists chasing an innocent woman ( Bernadette Peters ) who tries to outrun everyone in her husband 's prized pink Cadillac . The film failed both critically and commercially , earning barely more than Bird and marking a low point in Eastwood 's career . = = = 1990s = = = Eastwood directed and starred in White Hunter Black Heart ( 1990 ) , an adaptation of Peter Viertel 's roman à clef , about John Huston and the making of the classic film The African Queen . Shot on location in Zimbabwe in the summer of 1989 , the film received some critical attention but with only a limited release earned just $ 8 @.@ 4 million . Later in 1990 , Eastwood directed and co @-@ starred with Charlie Sheen in The Rookie , a buddy cop action film . Critics found the film 's plot and characterization unconvincing , but praised its action sequences . An ongoing lawsuit , in response to Eastwood allegedly ramming a woman 's car , resulted in no Eastwood films being shown in cinemas in 1991 . Eastwood won the suit and agreed to pay the complainant 's legal fees if she did not appeal . ... if possible , he looks even taller , leaner and more mysteriously possessed than he did in Sergio Leone 's seminal Fistful of Dollars a quarter of a century ago . The years haven 't softened him . They have given him the presence of some fierce force of nature , which may be why the landscapes of the mythic , late 19th @-@ century West become him , never more so than in his new Unforgiven . ... This is his richest , most satisfying performance since the underrated , politically lunatic Heartbreak Ridge . There 's no one like him . In 1992 , Eastwood revisited the western genre in his film Unforgiven , which he directed and in which he starred as an aging ex @-@ gunfighter long past his prime . Scripts existed for the film as early as 1976 under titles such as The Cut @-@ Whore Killings and The William Munny Killings but Eastwood delayed the project because he wanted to wait until he was old enough to play his character and to savor it as the last of his western films . Unforgiven was a major commercial and critical success ; Jack Methews of the Los Angeles Times described it as " the finest classical western to come along since perhaps John Ford 's 1956 The Searchers . The film was nominated for nine Academy Awards , ( including Best Actor for Eastwood and Best Original Screenplay for David Webb Peoples ) and won four , including Best Picture and Best Director for Eastwood . In June 2008 Unforgiven was ranked as the fourth @-@ best American western , behind Shane , High Noon , and The Searchers , in the American Film Institute 's " AFI 's 10 Top 10 " list . Eastwood played Frank Horrigan in the Secret Service thriller In the Line of Fire ( 1993 ) , directed by Wolfgang Petersen and co @-@ starring John Malkovich and Rene Russo . Horrigan is a guilt @-@ ridden Secret Service agent haunted by his failure to save John F. Kennedy 's life . The film was among the top 10 box office performers in that year , earning $ 102 million in the United States alone . Later in 1993 , he directed and co @-@ starred alongside Kevin Costner in A Perfect World . Set in the 1960s , Eastwood plays a Texas Ranger in pursuit of an escaped convict ( Costner ) who hits the road with a young boy ( T.J. Lowther ) . Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that the film marked the highest point of Eastwood 's directing career , and the film has since been cited as one of his most underrated directorial achievements . At the May 1994 Cannes Film Festival Eastwood received France 's Ordre des Arts et des Lettres medal , and on March 27 , 1995 , he was awarded the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award at the 67th Academy Awards . His next film appearance was in a cameo role as himself in the 1995 children 's film Casper . Later that same year he expanded his repertoire by playing opposite Meryl Streep in The Bridges of Madison County . Based on the novel by Robert James Waller , the film relates the story of Robert Kincaid ( Eastwood ) , a photographer working for National Geographic , who has an affair with a middle @-@ aged Italian farm wife , Francesca ( Streep ) . Despite the novel receiving unfavorable reviews and a subject deemed potentially unsuitable for film , The Bridges of Madison County was a commercial and critical success . Roger Ebert wrote , " Streep and Eastwood weave a spell , and it is based on that particular knowledge of love and self that comes with middle age . " The film was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Picture and won a César Award in France for Best Foreign Film . Streep was also nominated for an Academy Award and a Golden Globe . In 1997 , Eastwood directed and starred in the political thriller Absolute Power , alongside Gene Hackman ( with whom he had appeared in Unforgiven ) . Eastwood played the role of a veteran thief who witnesses the Secret Service cover up of a murder . The film received a mixed reception from critics . Later in 1997 , Eastwood directed Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil , based on the novel by John Berendt and starring John Cusack , Kevin Spacey , and Jude Law . The film met with a mixed critical response . The roles that Eastwood has played , and the films that he has directed , cannot be disentangled from the nature of the American culture of the last quarter century , its fantasies and its realities . Eastwood directed and starred in True Crime ( 1999 ) . He plays Steve Everett , a journalist and recovering alcoholic , who has to cover the execution of murderer Frank Beechum ( played by Isaiah Washington ) . True Crime received a mixed reception , with Janet Maslin of The New York Times writing , " his direction is galvanized by a sense of second chances and tragic misunderstandings , and by contrasting a larger sense of justice with the peculiar minutiae of crime . Perhaps he goes a shade too far in the latter direction , though . " The film was a box office failure , earning less than half its $ 55 million budget and was Eastwood 's worst @-@ performing film of the 1990s aside from White Hunter Black Heart , which had a limited release . = = = 2000s = = = In 2000 , Eastwood directed and starred in Space Cowboys alongside Tommy Lee Jones , Donald Sutherland and James Garner . Eastwood played one of a group of veteran ex @-@ test pilots sent into space to repair an old Soviet satellite . The original music score was composed by Eastwood and Lennie Niehaus . Space Cowboys was critically well received and holds a 79 percent rating at Rotten Tomatoes , although Roger Ebert wrote that the film was , " too secure within its traditional story structure to make much seem at risk . " The film grossed more than $ 90 million in its United States release , more than Eastwood 's two previous films combined . In 2002 , Eastwood played an ex @-@ FBI agent chasing a sadistic killer ( Jeff Daniels ) in the thriller Blood Work , loosely based on the 1998 novel of the same name by Michael Connelly . The film was a commercial failure , grossing just $ 26 @.@ 2 million on an estimated budget of $ 50 million and received mixed reviews , with Rotten Tomatoes describing it as , " well @-@ made but marred by lethargic pacing " . Eastwood did , however , win the Future Film Festival Digital Award at the Venice Film Festival for the film . Clint is a true artist in every respect . Despite his years of being at the top of his game and the legendary movies he has made , he always made us feel comfortable and valued on the set , treating us as equals . Eastwood directed and scored the crime drama Mystic River ( 2003 ) , a film dealing with themes of murder , vigilantism and sexual abuse and starring Sean Penn , Kevin Bacon and Tim Robbins . The film was praised by critics and won two Academy Awards – Best Actor for Penn and Best Supporting Actor for Robbins – with Eastwood garnering nominations for Best Director and Best Picture . The film grossed $ 90 million domestically on a budget of $ 30 million . In 2003 Eastwood was named Best Director of the Year by the National Society of Film Critics . The following year Eastwood found further critical and commercial success when he directed , produced , scored and starred in the boxing drama Million Dollar Baby , playing a cantankerous trainer who forms a bond with a female boxer ( Hilary Swank ) , whom he is persuaded to train by his longtime friend and employee ( Morgan Freeman ) . The film won four Academy Awards for Best Picture , Best Director , Best Actress ( Swank ) and Best Supporting Actor ( Freeman ) . At age 74 Eastwood became the oldest of eighteen directors to have directed two or more Best Picture winners . He also received a nomination for Best Actor , as well as a Grammy nomination for his score , and won a Golden Globe for Best Director , which was presented to him by daughter Kathryn , who was Miss Golden Globe at the 2005 ceremony . A. O. Scott of The New York Times lauded the film as a " masterpiece " and the best film of the year . In 2006 , Eastwood directed two films about World War II 's Battle of Iwo Jima . The first , Flags of Our Fathers , focused on the men who raised the American flag on top of Mount Suribachi and featured the film debut of Eastwood 's son Scott . This was followed by Letters from Iwo Jima , which dealt with the tactics of the Japanese soldiers on the island and the letters they wrote home to family members . Letters from Iwo Jima was the first American film to depict a war issue completely from the view of an American enemy . Both films received praise from critics and garnered several nominations at the 79th Academy Awards , including Best Director , Best Picture , and Best Original Screenplay for Letters from Iwo Jima . At the 64th Golden Globe Awards Eastwood received nominations for Best Director in both films . Letters from Iwo Jima won the award for Best Foreign Language Film . Eastwood next directed Changeling ( 2008 ) , based on a true story set in the late 1920s . Angelina Jolie stars as a woman reunited with her missing son only to realize he is an impostor . After its release at several film festivals the film grossed over $ 110 million , the majority of which came from foreign markets . The film was highly acclaimed , with Damon Wise of Empire describing Changeling as " flawless " . Todd McCarthy of Variety magazine described it as " emotionally powerful and stylistically sure @-@ handed " and that the film 's characters and social commentary were brought into the story with an " almost breathtaking deliberation " . For the film Eastwood received nominations for Best Original Score at the 66th Golden Globe Awards , Best Direction at the 62nd British Academy Film Awards and director of the year from the London Film Critics ' Circle . Eastwood ended a four @-@ year " self @-@ imposed acting hiatus " by appearing in Gran Torino , which he also directed , produced and partly scored with his son Kyle and Jamie Cullum . Biographer Marc Eliot called Eastwood 's role " an amalgam of the Man with No Name , Dirty Harry , and William Munny , here aged and cynical but willing and able to fight on whenever the need arose " . Gran Torino grossed almost $ 30 million during its opening weekend release in January 2009 , the highest of his career as an actor or director . Gran Torino eventually grossed over $ 268 million in theaters worldwide , becoming the highest @-@ grossing film of Eastwood 's career so far ( without adjustment for inflation ) . Eastwood 's 30th directorial outing came with Invictus , a film based on the story of the South African team at the 1995 Rugby World Cup , with Morgan Freeman as Nelson Mandela , Matt Damon as rugby team captain François Pienaar and Grant L. Roberts as Ruben Kruger . The film met with generally positive reviews ; Roger Ebert gave it three and a half stars and described it as a " ... very good film ... with moments evoking great emotion , " while Variety 's Todd McCarthy wrote , " Inspirational on the face of it , Clint Eastwood 's film has a predictable trajectory , but every scene brims with surprising details that accumulate into a rich fabric of history , cultural impressions and emotion . " For the film Eastwood was nominated for Best Director at the 67th Golden Globe Awards . = = = 2010s = = = In 2010 , Eastwood directed Hereafter , again working with Matt Damon , who portrayed a psychic . The film had its world premiere on September 12 , 2010 at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival and had a limited release later in October . Hereafter received mixed reviews from critics , with the consensus at Rotten Tomatoes being , " Despite a thought @-@ provoking premise and Clint Eastwood 's typical flair as director , Hereafter fails to generate much compelling drama , straddling the line between poignant sentimentality and hokey tedium . " In the same year , Eastwood served as executive producer for a Turner Classic Movies ( TCM ) documentary about jazz pianist Dave Brubeck , Dave Brubeck : In His Own Sweet Way , to commemorate Brubeck 's 90th birthday . In 2011 , Eastwood directed J. Edgar , a biopic of FBI director J. Edgar Hoover , with Leonardo DiCaprio in the title role . The film received mixed reviews , although DiCaprio 's performance as Hoover was widely praised . The Rotten Tomatoes consensus was , " Leonardo DiCaprio gives a predictably powerhouse performance , but J. Edgar stumbles in all other departments " . Roger Ebert wrote that the film is " fascinating , " " masterful , " and praised DiCaprio 's performance . David Edelstein of New York Magazine , while also praising DiCaprio , wrote , " It 's too bad J. Edgar is so shapeless and turgid and ham @-@ handed , so rich in bad lines and worse readings " . In January 2011 , it was announced that Eastwood was in talks to direct Beyoncé Knowles in a third remake of the 1937 film A Star Is Born ; however , the project was delayed due to Beyoncé 's pregnancy . Eastwood then starred in the baseball drama Trouble with the Curve ( 2012 ) , as a veteran baseball scout who travels with his daughter for a final scouting trip . Robert Lorenz , who worked with Eastwood as an assistant director on several films , directed the film . Everybody wonders why I continue working at this stage . I keep working because there 's always new stories . ... And as long as people want me to tell them , I 'll be there doing them . During Super Bowl XLVI , Eastwood narrated a halftime advertisement for Chrysler titled " It 's Halftime in America " . The advertisement was criticized by several U.S. Republicans , who claimed it implied that President Barack Obama deserved a second term . In response to the criticism , Eastwood stated , " I am certainly not politically affiliated with Mr. Obama . It was meant to be a message about job growth and the spirit of America . " Eastwood next directed Jersey Boys , a musical biography based on the Tony Award @-@ winning musical Jersey Boys . The film told the story of the musical group The Four Seasons , and was released on June 20 , 2014 . Eastwood directed American Sniper , a film adaptation of Chris Kyle 's eponymous memoir , following Steven Spielberg 's departure from the project . The film was released on December 25 , 2014 . American Sniper has grossed more than $ 350 million domestically and over $ 547 million globally , making it one of Eastwood 's biggest movies commercially . = = = Directing = = = Beginning with the thriller Play Misty for Me , Eastwood has directed over 30 films , including Westerns , action films , and dramas . He is one of few top Hollywood actors to have also become a critically and commercially successful director . The New Yorker wrote that , unlike Eastwood , John Ford appeared in just a few silent films ; Howard Hawks never acted in movies . Clark Gable , Gary Cooper , Spencer Tracy , James Stewart , Cary Grant , Humphrey Bogart , William Holden , Steve McQueen , and Sean Connery never directed a feature . John Wayne directed only twice , and badly ; ditto Burt Lancaster . Paul Newman , Jack Nicholson , Warren Beatty , Robert Redford , Robert De Niro , and Sean Penn have directed a few movies each , with mixed commercial and artistic success . From the very early days of his career Eastwood was frustrated by directors ' insistence that scenes be re @-@ shot multiple times and perfected , and when he began directing in 1970 , he made a conscious attempt to avoid any aspects of directing he had been indifferent to as an actor . As a result , Eastwood is renowned for his efficient film directing and ability to reduce filming time and control budgets . He usually avoids actors ' rehearsing and prefers to complete most scenes on the first take . Eastwood 's rapid filmmaking practices have been compared to those of Woody Allen , Ingmar Bergman , Jean @-@ Luc Godard , and the Coen brothers . When acting in others ' films he sometimes takes over directing , such as for The Outlaw Josey Wales , if he believes production is too slow . In preparation for filming Eastwood rarely uses storyboards for developing the layout of a shooting schedule . He also attempts to reduce script background details on characters to allow the audience to become more involved in the film , considering their imagination a requirement for a film that connects with viewers . Eastwood has indicated that he lays out a film 's plot to provide the audience with necessary details , but not " so much that it insults their intelligence . " According to Life magazine , " Eastwood 's style is to shoot first and act afterward . He etches his characters virtually without words . He has developed the art of underplaying to the point that anyone around him who so much as flinches looks hammily histrionic . " Interviewers Richard Thompson and Tim Hunter note that Eastwood 's films are " superbly paced : unhurried ; cool ; and [ give ] a strong sense of real time , regardless of the speed of the narrative " while Ric Gentry considers Eastwood 's pacing " unrushed and relaxed . " Eastwood is fond of low @-@ key lighting and back @-@ lighting to give his movies a " noir @-@ ish " feel . Eastwood 's frequent exploration of ethical values has drawn the attention of scholars , who have explored Eastwood 's work from ethical and theological perspectives , including his portrayal of justice , mercy , suicide and the angel of death . = = Personal life = = = = = Relationships = = = Eastwood married Margaret Neville " Maggie " Johnson ( then working for an auto parts suppliers company ) on December 19 , 1953 in Pasadena . They had met six months earlier on a blind date in Los Angeles , although Eastwood subsequently had a serious relationship with a young woman in Seattle that summer , before Johnson announced her engagement to him in October . The marriage would not prove altogether smooth , Eastwood telling biographer Richard Schickel in the only authorized book ever written about him that he was " too young , not well enough established . " A decade later , an ongoing affair Eastwood was involved in ( said to have lasted 14 years ) with dancer and Rawhide stuntwoman Roxanne Tunis ( who was also married yet separated ) produced his earliest confirmed child , daughter Kimber Eastwood ( born Kimber Tunis ; June 17 , 1964 ) , whose existence was kept secret from the public until July 1989 , when the National Enquirer revealed her identity . Biographer Marc Eliot wrote of Johnson , " It is difficult to say for sure that she actually knew about the baby , although it would have been nearly impossible for her not to . Everyone on the set knew ... and it is simply too difficult to keep a secret like that when the mother and the illegitimate child live in the same small town , especially when that small town is Hollywood . " Actress Barbara Eden , a onetime Rawhide guest star and witness to the affair with Tunis , said of Eastwood 's relationship with Johnson : " They conducted a somewhat open marriage . " According to biographer Patrick McGilligan , Eastwood had many other affairs , including with co @-@ stars Inger Stevens ( Hang ' Em High ) , Jean Seberg ( Paint Your Wagon ) and Jo Ann Harris ( The Beguiled ) , as well as actresses Jill Banner , Catherine Deneuve , and Susan St. James , columnist Bridget Byrne , competitive swimmer Anita Lhoest , and singer Keely Smith during his marriage to Johnson , who , after a trial separation and lingering bout of hepatitis in the mid @-@ 1960s , expressed her desire to reconcile and start a family . They had two children together : Kyle Eastwood ( born May 19 , 1968 ) and Alison Eastwood ( born May 22 , 1972 ) . At some point in 1972 , Eastwood met married actress ( later director ) Sondra Locke . The two began living together while filming The Outlaw Josey Wales in the autumn of 1975 , by which time , according to Locke , " He had told me that there was no real relationship left between him and Maggie . " Locke wrote in her autobiography , " Clint seemed astonished at his need for me , even admitting that he 'd never been faithful to one woman — because he 'd " never been in love before , " he confided . He even made up a song about it : " She made me monogamous . " That flattered and delighted me . I would never doubt his faithfulness and his love for me . " Locke moved into the Sherman Oaks house Eastwood had once shared with Johnson ( who by then lived full @-@ time in Pebble Beach ) , but felt uncomfortable there because " psychologically , it would always be Maggie 's . " " Finally I told Clint that I couldn 't live there any longer , " writes Locke . The couple moved to Bel @-@ Air in a fixer @-@ upper Locke spent three years renovating . She underwent two abortions and a tubal ligation in the late 1970s and was most reluctant about the second abortion , noting " I couldn 't help but think that that baby , with both Clint 's and my best qualities , would be extraordinary . " Johnson made no secret of her dislike for Locke , even though the two women never met . " Maggie placed severe rules on my relationship with the kids . Apparently , she never forgave me ... After she learned that Clint had taken me onto her property to show me a baby deer that had just been born there , she laid down a rule that I was never to be allowed there again . I was not even allowed to phone the Pebble Beach house . " In 1978 Johnson filed for legal separation from Eastwood , but did not officially divorce him until May 1984 , receiving a reported cash settlement of $ 25 million . Locke never divorced her legal husband , homosexual sculptor Gordon Anderson , who resided with his male companion in a West Hollywood home purchased by Eastwood . Eastwood and Locke went on to star in The Gauntlet , Every Which Way But Loose , Bronco Billy , Any Which Way You Can and Sudden Impact . According to former longtime associate Fritz Manes , as quoted by author McGilligan , Eastwood was devoted to her between 1976 and 1980 at the least , but discreetly kept up several " maintenance relationships " ( such as with Tunis ) during that period . McGilligan claims Eastwood returned to his " habitual womanizing " in the early 1980s , becoming involved with story analyst Megan Rose , actress Jamie Rose ( who played a bit part in Tightrope ) , animal rights activist Jane Brolin ( who had intermittent liaisons with Eastwood between the early 1960s and late 1980s ) and Jacelyn Reeves , a stewardess he met at the Hog 's Breath Inn , among others . He was still living with Locke when he conceived two children with Reeves : a son Scott Eastwood ( born Scott Reeves ; March 21 , 1986 ) and daughter Kathryn Eastwood ( born Kathryn Reeves ; February 2 , 1988 ) , whose birth certificates both said " Father declined . " The affair with Reeves was not reported anywhere until an exposé article was published in the Star tabloid in 1990 , though the children still went unmentioned by mainstream news sources for more than a decade thereafter . Eastwood 's relationship with Locke ( at the time unaware of his infidelities ) ended acrimoniously in April 1989 , and the post @-@ breakup litigation dragged on for years . Locke filed a palimony lawsuit against him after he changed the locks on their home and moved her possessions into storage when she was away filming her second directorial effort Impulse . In court , Eastwood downplayed the intensity of their relationship . He described Locke as a " roommate " before quickly redescribing her as a " part @-@ time roommate . " Locke 's estranged brother told The Tennessean that Eastwood still truly loved her , but could no longer take her " addiction " to husband Gordon Anderson . Anticipating that Eastwood was going to misrepresent the marriage , Locke asked Anderson to surrender all claims on any of her assets that as her legal spouse he was entitled to . " In an extraordinary gesture of love and faith in me , Gordon signed away everything without hesitation . " During the trial , an investigative journalist contacted Locke and informed her of Eastwood 's other family . " I spoke with the nurse in the delivery room , and she confirmed that they are Clint 's children . I 'll send copies of the birth certificates to you and a photo of Jacelyn , if you want them , " Locke quotes the informant . " My mind was still searching to get all his actions lined up . For at least the last four years of our relationship , Clint had been living this double life , going between me and this other woman , and having children with her . Two babies had been born during the last three years of our relationship , and they weren 't mine . " Locke dropped the suit in 1990 in exchange for a directing deal at Warner Bros. , but sued Eastwood again for fraud in 1994 when she became convinced the deal was a sham , finally settling out of court in September 1996 . Since then , Locke has made discrediting comments about Eastwood . In 1990 , actress Frances Fisher , whom Eastwood had met on the set of Pink Cadillac in late 1988 , moved in with him . Fisher said of dating Eastwood , " I simply felt that this was it , the big one . I had no idea that every woman he meets probably feels as I did . " They co @-@ starred in Unforgiven , and had a daughter , Francesca Eastwood ( born Francesca Fisher @-@ Eastwood ; August 7 , 1993 ) . The birth of Francesca marked the first time Eastwood was present for one of his children being born . Eastwood and Fisher ended their relationship in early 1995 , after which Fisher said it took two years to complete what she called the grieving process for her shattered dreams . Before she had moved out of Eastwood 's home , he was said to already be dating Dina Ruiz , a television news anchor 35 years his junior whom he had first met when she interviewed him in 1993 . They married on March 31 , 1996 , when Eastwood surprised her with a private ceremony at a home on the Shadow Creek Golf Course in Las Vegas . The marriage was noted for the fact that it was only Eastwood 's second legal union in spite of his many long @-@ term romances over the decades . Eastwood said of his bride , " I 'm proud to make this lady my wife . She 's the one I 've been waiting for . " Ruiz commented , " The fact that I 'm only the second woman he has married really touches me . " The couple has one daughter , Morgan Eastwood ( born December 12 , 1996 ) . Ruiz made cameos in two of Eastwood 's films , Blood Work and True Crime ( in which Fisher even appeared ) . In the summer of 2012 , Dina , Morgan and Francesca starred with the band Overtone in a reality show for the E ! network titled Mrs. Eastwood & Company , on which Eastwood appeared only occasionally . In August 2013 , Dina Eastwood announced that she and her husband had been living separately for an undisclosed length of time . On October 23 , 2013 , Dina filed for divorce after she withdrew her request for legal separation , citing irreconcilable differences . She asked for full custody of their 16 @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Morgan , as well as spousal support . The divorce was finalized in December 2014 . Eastwood has since been publicly linked with photographer Erica Tomlinson @-@ Fisher ( no relation to Frances ) , 41 years his junior , and restaurant hostess Christina Sandera , 33 years his junior . He and Sandera went public with their relationship at the 87th Academy Awards in February 2015 . = = = Leisure = = = Despite smoking in some of his films , Eastwood is a lifelong non @-@ smoker , has been conscious of his health and fitness since he was a teenager , and practices healthful eating and daily Transcendental Meditation . He opened an old English @-@ inspired pub called the Hog 's Breath Inn in Carmel @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea , California in 1971 . Eastwood sold the pub and now owns the Mission Ranch Hotel and Restaurant in Carmel @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea . He is an avid golfer and owns the Tehàma Golf Club . He is an investor in the world @-@ renowned Pebble Beach Golf Links west of Carmel and donates his time to charitable causes at major tournaments . Eastwood is a certified pilot and often flies his helicopter to the studios to avoid traffic . = = Politics = = Eastwood registered as a Republican to vote for Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952 and endorsed Richard Nixon 's 1968 and 1972 presidential campaigns . However , during the subsequent Watergate scandal , Eastwood criticized Nixon 's morality and later his handling of the Vietnam War , calling it " immoral " . Eastwood has disapproved of America 's wars in Korea ( 1950 – 1953 ) , Vietnam ( 1964 – 1975 ) , Afghanistan ( 2001 – present ) , and Iraq ( 2003 – 2011 ) , believing that the United States should not be overly militaristic or play the role of global policeman . He has referred to himself as " ... too individualistic to be either right @-@ wing or left @-@ wing , " describing himself in 1974 as " a political nothing " and " a moderate " and in 1997 as a libertarian . " I don 't see myself as conservative , " Eastwood has stated , while noting in the same breath that he isn 't " ultra @-@ leftist , " either . At times , he has supported Democrats in California , including Senator Dianne Feinstein in 1994 , liberal United States House of Representatives member Sam Farr in 2002 , and Governor Gray Davis , whom he voted for in 1998 and 2002 and hosted pricey fundraisers for in 2002 and 2003 . A self @-@ professed " liberal on civil rights , " Eastwood has stated that he is pro @-@ choice on abortion . He has endorsed same @-@ sex marriage and contributed to groups supporting the Equal Rights Amendment for women , which failed to receive ratification in 1982 . In 1992 , Eastwood acknowledged to writer David Breskin that his political views represented a fusion of Milton Friedman and Noam Chomsky and suggested that they would make for a worthwhile presidential ticket . In 1999 , Eastwood stated , " I guess I was a social liberal and fiscal conservative before it became fashionable . " Ten years later , in 2009 , Eastwood said that he was now a registered Libertarian . Despite being heavily associated with firearms in his Westerns and cop movies , Eastwood has publicly endorsed gun control since at least 1973 . In the April 24 , 1973 , edition of The Washington Post , the star said " I 'm for gun legislation myself . I don 't hunt . " Two years later , in 1975 , Eastwood told People magazine that he favors " gun control to some degree " . About a year later , Eastwood remarked that " All guns should be registered . I don 't think legitimate gun owners would mind that kind of legislation . Right now the furor against a gun law is by gun owners who are overreacting . They 're worried that all guns are going to be recalled . It 's impossible to take guns out of circulation , and that 's why firearms should be registered and mail @-@ order delivery of guns halted . " In 1993 , he noted that he " ... was always a backer " of the Brady Bill , with its federally mandated waiting period . In 1995 , Eastwood questioned the purpose of assault weapons . Larry King , the television host and newspaper columnist , wrote in the May 22 , 1995 , edition of USA Today that " My interview with Eastwood will air on ' Larry King Weekend ' ... I asked him his thoughts on the NRA and gun control and he said that while people think of him as pro @-@ gun , he has always been in favor of controls . ' Why would anyone need or want an assault weapon ? ' he said . " As a politician , Eastwood has made successful forays into both local and state government . In April 1986 , he won election as mayor ( a nonpartisan position ) of his adopted hometown , Carmel @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea , California – a small , wealthy village and artists ' community on the Monterey Peninsula . During his two @-@ year term , Eastwood supported small business interests while advocating environmental protection and constructing a library annex , along with public restrooms , beach walkways , and a tourists ' parking lot . In 2001 Eastwood was appointed to the California State Park and Recreation Commission by Governor Davis , then reappointed in 2004 by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger . As the vice chairman of the commission , in 2005 along with chairman Bobby Shriver , he led the movement opposed to a six @-@ lane 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) extension of California State Route 241 , a toll road that would cut through San Onofre State Beach . Eastwood and Shriver supported a 2006 lawsuit to block the toll road and urged the California Coastal Commission to reject the project , which it did in February 2008 . In March 2008 Eastwood and Shriver 's non @-@ reappointment to the commission on the expiry of their terms prompted the Natural Resources Defense Council ( NRDC ) to request a legislative investigation into the decision . Governor Schwarzenegger appointed Eastwood to the California Film Commission in April 2004 . He was a spokesman for Take Pride in America , an agency of the United States Department of the Interior which advocates taking responsibility for natural , cultural , and historic resources . During the 2008 United States presidential election , Eastwood stated that he would be voting for John McCain , citing the fact that he had known McCain since he returned to the US in 1973 as a recently released POW . Eastwood said of McCain : " I met him years ago when he first came back from Vietnam . This was back when ( Ronald ) Reagan was the governor of California and he had a big function for all of the prisoners of war who were released . I thought he was a terrific guy , a real American hero . " Nevertheless , Eastwood wished Barack Obama well upon his subsequent victory saying , " Obama is my president now and I am going to be wishing him the very best because it is what is best for all of us . " Eastwood stated in 2010 of President Obama : " I think he 's a nice fella and I enjoyed watching him come along and I enjoyed watching him campaign and win the job . But I 'm not a fan of what he 's doing at the moment . ... I just don 't think he 's governing . I don 't think he 's surrounded himself with the people he could have surrounded himself with . " In August 2010 , Eastwood wrote to the British Chancellor of the Exchequer , George Osborne , to protest the decision to close the UK Film Council , warning the closure could result in fewer foreign production companies choosing to work in Great Britain . In January 2011 , Eastwood told the UK 's Daily Mail that " I loved the fact that Obama is multi @-@ racial . I thought that was terrific , as my wife is the same racial make @-@ up . But I felt he was a greenhorn , and it turned out he didn 't have experience in decision @-@ making . " As for McCain , Eastwood reflected , " I voted for McCain , not because he was a Republican , but because he had been through war ( in Vietnam ) and I thought he might understand the war in Iraq better than somebody who hadn 't . I didn 't agree with him on a lot of stuff . " On August 3 , 2012 , he attended a fundraiser for Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney , suggesting that Romney would boost the country and " restore a decent tax system ... so that there 's a fairness and people are not pitted against one another as [ to ] who 's paying taxes and who isn 't . " During a speech at the 2012 Republican National Convention , Eastwood talked to an empty chair as if President Barack Obama were sitting in it . The speech was met with a huge response by the media with both praise and criticism . Eastwood , who said he came up with the speech 5 seconds before he gave it , said that if he could do it again he would say something different . " My only message was [ that ] I wanted people to take the idolizing factor out of every contestant out there . Just look at the work , look at the background , and then make a judgment on that . I was just trying to say that , and did it in kind of a roundabout way which took a lot more time , I suppose , than they would have liked . I 'd probably say something else but I 'd try to get the same message across so that people don 't have to kiss up to politicians . No matter what party they 're in , you should evaluate their work and make your judgments accordingly . That 's the way to do it in life and every other subject , but sometimes in America we get gaga , we look at the wrong values . " Based on his appearance and comments at the 2012 Republican National Convention , some see him as a right @-@ wing poster boy . However , Eastwood said he has always opposed war , and is a pragmatic Libertarian rather than a red @-@ meat Republican . Eastwood further explained his anti @-@ war stance by saying " I was a child growing up during World War II . That was supposed to be the one to end all wars . And four years later , I was standing at the draft board being drafted during the Korean conflict , and then after that there was Vietnam , and it goes on and on forever … I just wonder … does this ever stop ? And no , it doesn 't . So each time we get in these conflicts , it deserves a lot of thought before we go wading in or wading out . Going in or coming out . It needs a better thought process , I think . " Furthermore , Eastwood 's 2014 movie American Sniper was met with strong critical praise , especially from many Republicans who called it a Pro @-@ War on Terror , Pro @-@ Republican and a patriotic film ; Eastwood responded by saying it was a " stupid analysis " and that the movie had nothing to do with political parties . Eastwood responded to critics of American Sniper by saying his film was " the biggest anti @-@ war statement any film can make " and that " the fact of what [ war ] does to the family and the people who have to go back into civilian life like Chris Kyle did " and " what it ( war ) does to the people left behind . " = = Music = = Eastwood favors jazz ( especially bebop ) , blues , classic rhythm and blues , classical , and country @-@ and @-@ western music ; his favorite musicians include saxophonists Charlie Parker and Lester Young , pianists Thelonious Monk , Oscar Peterson , Dave Brubeck , and Fats Waller , and Delta bluesman Robert Johnson . He is also a pianist and composer . Jazz has played an important role in Eastwood 's life from a young age and , although he never made it as a professional musician , he passed on the influence to his son Kyle Eastwood , a successful jazz bassist and composer . Eastwood developed as a boogie @-@ woogie pianist early on and had originally intended to pursue a career in music by studying for a music theory degree after graduating from high school . In late 1959 he produced the album Cowboy Favorites , released on the Cameo label . Eastwood has his own Warner Bros. Records @-@ distributed imprint Malpaso Records , as part of his deal with Warner Brothers , which has released all of the scores of Eastwood 's films from The Bridges of Madison County onward . Eastwood co @-@ wrote " Why Should I Care " with Linda Thompson and Carole Bayer Sager , which was recorded by Diana Krall . Eastwood composed the film scores of Mystic River , Million Dollar Baby , Flags of Our Fathers , Grace Is Gone , Changeling , Hereafter , J. Edgar , and the original piano compositions for In the Line of Fire . He wrote and performed the song heard over the credits of Gran Torino . The music in Grace Is Gone received two Golden Globe nominations by the Hollywood Foreign Press Association for the 65th Golden Globe Awards . Eastwood was nominated for Best Original Score , while the song " Grace is Gone " with music by Eastwood and lyrics by Carole Bayer Sager was nominated for Best Original Song . It won the Satellite Award for Best Song at the 12th Satellite Awards . Changeling was nominated for Best Score at the 14th Critics ' Choice Awards , Best Original Score at the 66th Golden Globe Awards , and Best Music at the 35th Saturn Awards . On September 22 , 2007 , Eastwood was awarded an honorary Doctor of Music degree from the Berklee College of Music at the Monterey Jazz Festival , on which he serves as an active board member . Upon receiving the award he gave a speech claiming , " It 's one of the great honors I 'll cherish in this lifetime . " = = Awards and honors = = Eastwood has been recognized with multiple awards and nominations for his work in film , television , and music . His widest reception has been in film work , for which he has received Academy Awards , Directors Guild of America Awards , Golden Globe Awards , and People 's Choice Awards , among others . Eastwood is one of only two people to have been twice nominated for Best Actor and Best Director for the same film ( Unforgiven and Million Dollar Baby ) the other being Warren Beatty ( Heaven Can Wait and Reds ) . Along with Beatty , Robert Redford , Richard Attenborough , Kevin Costner , and Mel Gibson , he is one of the few directors best known as an actor to win an Academy Award for directing . On February 27 , 2005 , he became one of only three living directors ( along with Miloš Forman and Francis Ford Coppola ) to have directed two Best Picture winners . Aged 74 , he was the oldest to date recipient of the Academy Award for Best Director . Eastwood has directed five actors in Academy Award – winning performances : Gene Hackman in Unforgiven , Tim Robbins and Sean Penn in Mystic River , and Morgan Freeman and Hilary Swank in Million Dollar Baby . On August 22 , 1984 , Eastwood was honored at a ceremony at Grauman 's Chinese theater to record his hand and footprints in cement . Eastwood received the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1996 , and received an honorary degree from AFI in 2009 . On December 6 , 2006 , California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver inducted Eastwood into the California Hall of Fame located at The California Museum for History , Women , and the Arts . In early 2007 , Eastwood was presented with the highest civilian distinction in France , Légion d 'honneur , at a ceremony in Paris . French President Jacques Chirac told Eastwood that he embodied " the best of Hollywood . " In October 2009 , he was honored by the Lumière Award ( in honor of the Lumière Brothers , inventors of the Cinematograph ) during the first edition of the Lumière Film Festival in Lyon , France . This award honors his entire career and his major contribution to the 7th Art . In February 2010 , Eastwood was recognized by President Barack Obama with an arts and humanities award . Obama described Eastwood 's films as " essays in individuality , hard truths and the essence of what it means to be American . " Eastwood has also been awarded at least three honorary degrees from universities and colleges , including an honorary degree from the University of the Pacific in 2006 , an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from the University of Southern California on May 27 , 2007 , and an honorary Doctor of Music degree from the Berklee College of Music at the Monterey Jazz Festival on September 22 , 2007 . On July 22 , 2009 , Eastwood was bestowed by Emperor Akihito of Japan with the Order of the Rising Sun , 3rd class , Gold Rays with Neck Ribbon for his contributions to the enhancement of Japan – United States relations . Eastwood won the Golden Pine lifetime achievement award at the 2013 International Samobor Film Music Festival , along with Ryuichi Sakamoto and Gerald Fried . = = Filmography = = Eastwood has contributed to over 50 films over his career as actor , director , producer , and composer . He has acted in several television series , including his starring role in Rawhide . He started directing in 1971 , and made his debut as a producer in 1982 , with Firefox , though he had been functioning as uncredited producer on all of his Malpaso Company films since Hang ' Em High in 1968 . Eastwood also has contributed music to his films , either through performing , writing , or composing . He has mainly starred in western , action , and drama films . According to the box office – revenue tracking website Box Office Mojo , films featuring Eastwood have grossed a total of more than $ 1 @.@ 68 billion domestically , with an average of $ 37 million per film .
= 1928 Fort Pierce hurricane = The 1928 Fort Pierce hurricane devastated areas of Florida and the Southeastern United States in August 1928 . The first tropical cyclone and hurricane of the annual hurricane season , the storm developed from a tropical wave first identified on August 3 , 1928 , north of the Virgin Islands . Slowly intensifying as it moved west @-@ northwest , the system paralleled the Greater Antilles throughout much of its early existence . On August 5 , the tropical storm strengthened to the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane , while positioned over The Bahamas . The hurricane continued to intensify , and after reaching Category 2 hurricane strength , attained its peak intensity on August 7 with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 971 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 70 inHg ) . Shortly after , the hurricane made landfall as a slightly weaker storm just southeast of Fort Pierce , Florida at 0700 UTC on August 8 . Weakening as it moved across the Florida peninsula over the course of the next day , the storm briefly moved over the Gulf of Mexico before recurving northwards . Thus , it made a second landfall on the Florida Panhandle on August 10 as a tropical storm . Once inland , the system continued to weaken , degenerating to tropical depression strength before transitioning into an extratropical storm later that day . The extratropical remnants progressed outwards into the Atlantic Ocean before entirely dissipating by August 14 . In its early developmental stages north of the Greater Antilles , the storm caused minor damage to shipping in The Bahamas and generated rough seas offshore Cuba . At its first landfall on Fort Pierce , the hurricane caused extensive property damage , particularly in coastal regions , where numerous homes were unroofed . Central Florida 's citrus crop was hampered by the strong winds and heavy rain . Several of Florida 's lakes , including Lake Okeechobee , rose past their banks , inundating coastal areas . Damage to infrastructure was less in inland regions than at the coast , though power outages caused loss of communication statewide . At the hurricane 's second landfall , wind damage was relatively minor , though torrential rainfall , aided by orthographic lift , caused extensive flooding as far north as the Mid @-@ Atlantic states . Overall , the hurricane caused $ 235 @,@ 000 in damages , primarily in Florida , and two deaths . = = Meteorological history = = A tropical disturbance was first identified north of the Leeward Islands near the Virgin Islands at 0000 UTC on August 3 . Due to a lack of conclusive weather reports from nearby areas at the time , the origins of the tropical storm were initially unknown , but listed the system as forming near Trinidad and Barbados in the HURDAT — the database listing all tropical cyclones in the Atlantic basin since 1851 . However , the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project analyzed the storm to have formed north of the Leeward Islands based on reports from San Juan , Puerto Rico , and as such revised the storm 's HURDAT listing . Moving to the west @-@ northwest , the tropical storm maintained its intensity without any intensification early in its existence . Ships in the region reported tropical storm @-@ force winds and low barometric pressures . The ship S.S. Sixaola sent a telegraphic report of the storm 's location and existence west of Acklins Island on August 5 , the first ship to explicitly do so . Beginning to accelerate as it paralleled the Cuban Atlantic coast the following day , the storm intensified to reach an intensity equivalent to a modern @-@ day Category 1 hurricane at 1200 UTC . The hurricane continued to intensify , and attained Category 2 hurricane intensity by 0600 UTC on August 7 . At around the same time , the S.S. Lempira reported a minimum pressure of 971 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 70 inHg ) , while 30 miles ( 50 km ) southeast of Jupiter , Florida . At the time , maximum sustained winds were estimated at 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) ; this would be the hurricane 's peak intensity . The hurricane weakened slightly before making landfall on central Florida , just southeast of Fort Pierce , Florida , at 0700 UTC the following day . Winds at landfall were estimated at 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , with a minimum central pressure of 977 mbar ( 28 @.@ 85 inHg ) recorded in Fort Pierce within the hurricane 's eye . At the time , the system 's maximum winds extended up to 10 mi ( 15 km ) from the center of circulation . The storm then slowly crossed the Florida peninsula , before entering the Gulf of Mexico the next day near Tampa , Florida , after having weakened down to tropical storm strength . Despite remaining over water , its close proximity to the continent prevented further strengthening . The tropical storm recurved to the north in the gulf , before making a second landfall near Apalachicola , Florida at 0400 UTC on August 10 with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Moving inland , the system rapidly weakened as it continued to recurve to the northeast , further degenerating to tropical depression strength at 0000 UTC on August 11 while situated over Georgia . Based on weather station observations , the storm was analyzed to have transitioned into an extratropical cyclone later that day . The extratropical storm strengthened slightly over the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , before exiting into the Atlantic Ocean near the Virginia Capes . The storm system progressed eastward across the ocean before dissipating at 1800 UTC on August 14 . = = Preparations and impact = = = = = The Bahamas and Cuba = = = Passing through The Bahamas on August 6 – 7 , the tropical storm caused minor damage on the islands . Due to the rough seas , ships were taken to Nassau Harbor to ride out the storm . The storm passed without any disruption of shipping services . However , the flying boat Topsy Fish , containing two people , became lost over Bahamian waters on August 8 . The plane and crew were later found north of Andros Island by a Miami relief plane and a boat from Nassau three days later . Cuba , located south of the storm throughout its duration , reported minimal effects from the hurricane , other than a lowering of barometric pressures as reported by José Carlos Millás , then @-@ chief of the Cuban National Observatory . However , occasional thunderstorm activity fueled by the hurricane dropped rainfall over the island , and the storm generated heavy seas at the Cuban coast . = = = Florida = = = Upon notification that a newly formed tropical cyclone was approaching the Florida coast , the Weather Bureau posted storm warnings for coastal areas between Key West and West Palm Beach , Florida . Later on August 6 , warnings were lowered in Key West , but the warning area was extended north to Titusville , Florida . Vessels and small craft located offshore north of Miami , Florida were notified to advise caution for the oncoming tropical disturbance . As the storm approached the coast , more accurate forecasts allowed vessels to be cautioned as far north as Hatteras , North Carolina . Storm warnings between Jupiter and Daytona , Florida were upgraded to hurricane warnings on August 7 , in accordance with the storm 's upgrade to hurricane intensity . After moving inland , hurricane warnings were lowered , but emergency warnings for the storm 's potential effects were posted for the interior of the Florida peninsula north of 28 ° N the following day . Northwest storm warnings were issued in Tampa , while northeast storm warnings were issued from Tampa north to Apalachicola , Florida . All warnings were eventually lowered following the storm 's dissipation . Approaching the Floridian coast as an intensifying hurricane , the storm initially turned away from the peninsula for a short period of time on August 7 , after nearly making landfall on West Palm Beach . Strong gusts of at least 30 mph ( 50 km / h ) and squally weather impacted the city , but did not cause any damage . However , telecommunications in the city were temporarily disrupted due to the storm . In Jupiter , stronger gusts reaching 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) were reported , but did not cause any damage as well . However , the hurricane 's recurvature offshore was short lived , and the system eventually made its landfall near Fort Pierce , Florida early on August 8 . Offshore , the USAHS Algonquin , a cruise ship belonging to the Clyde @-@ Mallory cruise line , was caught in the storm , but managed to reach its destination of New York , New York without any major problems . The Hondruan freighter Lempira , which had also recorded the lowest barometric pressure associated with the hurricane , experienced considerable damage due to the strong seas . The ship lost all of its lifeboats , and as a result the United Fruit Company line was sent to accompany the damaged ship . Inland , damage was concentrated in an area extending from Jupiter to the border between Florida and Georgia . The hurricane 's landfall on the peninsula was attended by torrential rainfall , which damaged crops , particularly citrus . Rainfall peaked at 14 @.@ 5 in ( 370 mm ) in St. Cloud over a five @-@ day period from August 7 – 12 . There , the nearby East Lake Tohopekaliga began to overflow , threatening property and crops . Losses to the citrus crop were estimated by the Florida Citrus Exchange to be equivalent to 1 million boxes of citrus . However , damage to citrus in the Kissimmee area was comparatively less , and was limited to unripe fruit . Lake Okeechobee 's water level rose by 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) as a result of floodwater rushing into the lake . Damage along the lake 's shores mostly occurred to the north . To the south , in Clewiston , minor damage was confined to trees and windows . Two deaths occurred in the vicinity of the Indian River ; these were the only deaths associated with the hurricane in the state . Numerous highways were also washed out by the rains , especially on Florida 's south @-@ central east coast . Portions of State Road 4 were covered in debris strewn by strong winds . Damage to the state 's road systems was estimated at $ 100 @,@ 000 by the former Florida State Highway Commission . Bridges were also badly damaged , with some needing replacement . Alongside the heavy rainfall , strong winds were reported . Large live oak trees were uprooted , especially in Osceola , Brevard , Orange , and Marion counties in Florida . Initial estimates of property damage in several cities on Florida 's mid @-@ eastern coast reached $ 5 million , though this was later drastically scaled down . In Sebastian , winds were estimated at 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . Due to the high winds , rail service on the Florida East Coast Railway was halted 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of Jupiter after winds became unsuitable for continued travel . Portions of the railway were also flooded in water . The train station in Fort Pierce was later unroofed . Many of the state 's coastal beaches suffered from window damage and damage to vegetation caused by strong winds . An estimated 75 % of structures in Fort Pierce and 50 % of structures in Vera were estimated to have been damaged by the strong winds , particularly in the form of torn roofs . A report suggested that damage from those two cities reached at least $ 1 million . The strong winds also hampered telephone and telegraph networks across the state , with losses as a result in excess of $ 1 @,@ 000 . Power transmission lines belonging to the Florida Power & Light Company were downed , causing a widespread power outage along the coast from Titusville to West Palm Beach . Thus , services requiring electric power were postponed until power was later restored . In Stuart , failure of the electric pumps led to loss of telecommunications and the local water supply . In Melbourne , additional power lines were downed , and buildings experienced awning damage . Portions of Central Florida also saw considerable damage . In Winter Haven , winds were reported to have reached 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , before power was cut . A hotel in the city collapsed , and numerous houses were unroofed . Property damage in Kissimmee and Haines City was severe , with many collapsed buildings . In Haines City , a large garage collapsed , destroying automobiles parked within . Nearby in Lakeland , there was less damage , though winds estimated at 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) tore signs and awnings . Effects of the storm in Tampa were comparatively less , though a lack of communications between the city and other locations led to speculation that Tampa had been severely hit . At nearby Clearwater , Florida , boats were run aground at the harbor , causing some damage . Similar conditions were felt in Ocala , though in some suburban areas trees were felled by the strong winds . Bus service in the area was delayed due to debris covering roadways . = = = Elsewhere in the United States = = = Upon the hurricane 's second landfall on the Florida Panhandle on August 10 , wind effects were much less significant , though the storm dropped widespread rainfall throughout its remaining path . Aided by orthographic lift from the Appalachian Mountains , the rainfall caused numerous reports of flood damage across the Southeast and Mid @-@ Atlantic states . For any given 50 @,@ 000 sq mi ( 130 @,@ 000 km2 ) area of land affected by the storm , the maximum average rainfall was 6 @.@ 4 in ( 160 mm ) . In southern and central Georgia , flood warnings were issued due to the potential for flood impacts late on August 10 . In Macon , Georgia , 8 @.@ 5 in ( 216 mm ) of rain was recorded in a 16 @-@ hour period . The Ocmulgee River , which runs through Macon , began to rise past flood stage as a result , causing the lower areas of the city to be inundated . Trees were also downed due to strong winds . Portions of the Central of Georgia Railway were washed out , forcing trains to be redirected . In Thomasville , Georgia , highways leading to Florida were rendered impassable due to blocking debris . In Valdosta , Georgia , a torn roof cut through several power lines , causing electrical disruptions in the city . Similar impacts were felt in Augusta , Georgia , where strong winds toppled trees , damaged cottages , and severed telecommunication lines . Five people there were injured . In addition , a tornado occurred nearby , damaging houses and flattening trees . Further east in the Carolinas , five people were killed in the Piedmont region due to floods caused by the passing storm . Torrential rainfall in the area resulted in disruption of power , communications , and traffic . Precipitation in those two states peaked at 9 in ( 230 mm ) in western North Carolina . In South Carolina , the heavy rainfall forced the issuance of flood warnings on the rising Santee River and its tributaries . The Broad and Congaree Rivers in South Carolina later set high water level records due in part to the saturated soils caused by the storm . The storm reached Virginia by August 12 , resulting in additional flooding . A weather station in Richmond , Virginia recorded a minimum barometric pressure of 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) . There , the James and Rivanna Rivers exceeded their respective flood stages , washing out peripheral crops . Offshore the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , over 100 people were rescued after rough waves swept them away . Moderate gales associated with the storm were reported as far north as New York .
= Wind shear = Wind shear , sometimes referred to as windshear or wind gradient , is a difference in wind speed and / or direction over a relatively short distance in the atmosphere . Atmospheric wind shear is normally described as either vertical or horizontal wind shear . Vertical wind shear is a change in wind speed or direction with change in altitude . Horizontal wind shear is a change in wind speed with change in lateral position for a given altitude . Wind shear is a microscale meteorological phenomenon occurring over a very small distance , but it can be associated with mesoscale or synoptic scale weather features such as squall lines and cold fronts . It is commonly observed near microbursts and downbursts caused by thunderstorms , fronts , areas of locally higher low @-@ level winds referred to as low level jets , near mountains , radiation inversions that occur due to clear skies and calm winds , buildings , wind turbines , and sailboats . Wind shear has a significant effect during take @-@ off and landing of aircraft due to its effects on control of the aircraft , and it has been a sole or contributing cause of many aircraft accidents . Wind shear is sometimes experienced by pedestrians at ground level when walking across a plaza towards a tower block and suddenly encountering a strong wind stream that is flowing around the base of the tower . This phenomenon is a concern for architects . Sound movement through the atmosphere is affected by wind shear , which can bend the wave front , causing sounds to be heard where they normally would not , or vice versa . Strong vertical wind shear within the troposphere also inhibits tropical cyclone development , but helps to organize individual thunderstorms into longer life cycles which can then produce severe weather . The thermal wind concept explains how differences in wind speed at different heights are dependent on horizontal temperature differences , and explains the existence of the jet stream . = = Definition = = Wind shear refers to the variation of wind over either horizontal or vertical distances . Airplane pilots generally regard significant wind shear to be a horizontal change in airspeed of 30 knots ( 15 m / s ) for light aircraft , and near 45 knots ( 22 m / s ) for airliners at flight altitude . Vertical speed changes greater than 4 @.@ 9 knots ( 2 @.@ 5 m / s ) also qualify as significant wind shear for aircraft . Low level wind shear can affect aircraft airspeed during take off and landing in disastrous ways , and airliner pilots are trained to avoid all microburst wind shear ( headwind loss in excess of 30 knots ) . The rationale for this additional caution includes : ( 1 ) microburst intensity can double in a minute or less , ( 2 ) the winds can shift to excessive cross wind , ( 3 ) 40 @-@ 50 knots is the threshold for survivability at some stages of low @-@ altitude operations , and ( 4 ) several of the historical wind shear accidents involved 35 @-@ 45 knot microbursts . Wind shear is also a key factor in the creation of severe thunderstorms . The additional hazard of turbulence is often associated with wind shear . = = Where and when it is strongly observed = = Weather situations where shear is observed include : Weather fronts . Significant shear is observed when the temperature difference across the front is 5 ° C ( 9 ° F ) or more , and the front moves at 30 knots or faster . Because fronts are three @-@ dimensional phenomena , frontal shear can be observed at any altitude between surface and tropopause , and therefore be seen both horizontally and vertically . Vertical wind shear above warm fronts is more of an aviation concern than near and behind cold fronts due to their greater duration . Upper @-@ level jet streams . Associated with upper level jet streams is a phenomenon known as clear air turbulence ( CAT ) , caused by vertical and horizontal wind shear connected to the wind gradient at the edge of the jet streams . The CAT is strongest on the anticyclonic shear side of the jet , usually next to or just below the axis of the jet . Low @-@ level jet streams . When a nocturnal low @-@ level jet forms overnight above the Earth 's surface ahead of a cold front , significant low level vertical wind shear can develop near the lower portion of the low level jet . This is also known as nonconvective wind shear since it is not due to nearby thunderstorms . Mountains . When winds blow over a mountain , vertical shear is observed on the lee side . If the flow is strong enough , turbulent eddies known as " rotors " associated with lee waves may form , which are dangerous to ascending and descending aircraft . Inversions . When on a clear and calm night , a radiation inversion is formed near the ground , the friction does not affect wind above the top of the inversion layer . The change in wind can be 90 degrees in direction and 40 kt in speed . Even a nocturnal ( overnight ) low level jet can sometimes be observed . It tends to be strongest towards sunrise . Density differences cause additional problems to aviation . Downbursts . When an outflow boundary forms due to a shallow layer of rain @-@ cooled air spreading out near ground level from the parent thunderstorm , both speed and directional wind shear can result at the leading edge of the three dimensional boundary . The stronger the outflow boundary is , the stronger the resultant vertical wind shear will become . = = Horizontal component = = = = = Weather fronts = = = Weather fronts are boundaries between two masses of air of different densities , or different temperature and moisture properties , which normally are convergence zones in the wind field and are the principal cause of significant weather . Within surface weather analyses , they are depicted using various colored lines and symbols . The air masses usually differ in temperature and may also differ in humidity . Wind shear in the horizontal occurs near these boundaries . Cold fronts feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather , and may be preceded by squall lines and dry lines . Cold fronts are sharper surface boundaries with more significant horizontal wind shear than warm fronts . When a front becomes stationary , it can degenerate into a line which separates regions of differing wind speed , known as a shear line , though the wind direction across the front normally remains constant . In the tropics , tropical waves move from east to west across the Atlantic and eastern Pacific basins . Directional and speed shear can occur across the axis of stronger tropical waves , as northerly winds precede the wave axis and southeast winds are seen behind the wave axis . Horizontal wind shear can also occur along local land breeze and sea breeze boundaries . = = = Near coastlines = = = The magnitude of winds offshore are nearly double the wind speed observed onshore . This is attributed to the differences in friction between land masses and offshore waters . Sometimes , there are even directional differences , particularly if local sea breezes change the wind on shore during daylight hours . = = Vertical component = = = = = Thermal wind = = = Thermal wind is a meteorological term not referring to an actual wind , but a difference in the geostrophic wind between two pressure levels <formula> and <formula> , with <formula> ; in essence , wind shear . It is only present in an atmosphere with horizontal changes in temperature ( or in an ocean with horizontal gradients of density ) , i.e. baroclinicity . In a barotropic atmosphere , where temperature is uniform , the geostrophic wind is independent of height . The name stems from the fact that this wind flows around areas of low ( and high ) temperature in the same manner as the geostrophic wind flows around areas of low ( and high ) pressure . The thermal wind equation is <formula> , where the <formula> are geopotential height fields with <formula> , <formula> is the Coriolis parameter , and <formula> is the upward @-@ pointing unit vector in the vertical direction . The thermal wind equation does not determine the wind in the tropics . Since <formula> is small or zero , such as near the equator , the equation reduces to stating that <formula> is small . This equation basically describes the existence of the jet stream , a westerly current of air with maximum wind speeds close to the tropopause which is ( even though other factors are also important ) the result of the temperature contrast between equator and pole . = = = Effects on tropical cyclones = = = Tropical cyclones are basically heat engines that are fueled by the temperature gradient between the warm tropical ocean surface and the colder upper atmosphere . Tropical cyclone development requires relatively low values of vertical wind shear so that their warm core can remain above their surface circulation center , thereby promoting strengthening . Vertical wind shear tears up the " machinery " of the heat engine causing it to break down . Strongly sheared tropical cyclones weaken as the upper circulation is blown away from the low level center . The vertical wind shear in a tropical cyclone 's environment is very important . When the wind shear is weak , the storms that are part of the cyclone grow vertically , and the latent heat from condensation is released into the air directly above the storm , aiding in development . When there is stronger wind shear , this means that the storms become more slanted and the latent heat release is dispersed over a much larger area = = = Effects on thunderstorms and severe weather = = = Severe thunderstorms , which can spawn tornadoes and hailstorms , require wind shear to organize the storm in such a way as to maintain the thunderstorm for a longer period of time . This occurs as the storm 's inflow becomes separated from its rain @-@ cooled outflow . An increasing nocturnal , or overnight , low level jet can increase the severe weather potential by increasing the vertical wind shear through the troposphere . Thunderstorms in an atmosphere with virtually no vertical wind shear weaken as soon as they send out an outflow boundary in all directions , which then quickly cuts off its inflow of relatively warm , moist air and kills the thunderstorm . = = = Planetary boundary layer = = = The atmospheric effect of surface friction with winds aloft force surface winds to slow and back counterclockwise near the surface of the Earth blowing inward across isobars ( lines of equal pressure ) , when compared to the winds in frictionless flow well above the Earth 's surface . This layer where friction slows and changes the wind is known as the planetary boundary layer , sometimes the Ekman layer , and it is thickest during the day and thinnest at night . Daytime heating thickens the boundary layer as winds at the surface become increasingly mixed with winds aloft due to insolation , or solar heating . Radiative cooling overnight further enhances wind decoupling between the winds at the surface and the winds above the boundary layer by calming the surface wind which increases wind shear . These wind changes force wind shear between the boundary layer and the wind aloft , and is most emphasized at night . = = = = Effects on flight = = = = = = = = = Gliding = = = = = In gliding , wind gradients just above the surface affect the takeoff and landing phases of flight of a glider . Wind gradient can have a noticeable effect on ground launches , also known as winch launches or wire launches . If the wind gradient is significant or sudden , or both , and the pilot maintains the same pitch attitude , the indicated airspeed will increase , possibly exceeding the maximum ground launch tow speed . The pilot must adjust the airspeed to deal with the effect of the gradient . When landing , wind shear is also a hazard , particularly when the winds are strong . As the glider descends through the wind gradient on final approach to landing , airspeed decreases while sink rate increases , and there is insufficient time to accelerate prior to ground contact . The pilot must anticipate the wind gradient and use a higher approach speed to compensate for it . Wind shear is also a hazard for aircraft making steep turns near the ground . It is a particular problem for gliders which have a relatively long wingspan , which exposes them to a greater wind speed difference for a given bank angle . The different airspeed experienced by each wing tip can result in an aerodynamic stall on one wing , causing a loss of control accident . = = = = = Parachuting = = = = = Wind shear or wind gradients are a threat to parachutists , particularly to BASE jumping and wingsuit flying . Skydivers have been pushed off of their course by sudden shifts in wind direction and speed , and have collided with bridges , cliffsides , trees , other skydivers , the ground , and other obstacles . Skydivers routinely make adjustments to the position of their open canopies to compensate for changes in direction while making landings to prevent accidents such as canopy collisions and canopy inversion . = = = = = Soaring = = = = = Soaring related to wind shear , also called dynamic soaring , is a technique used by soaring birds like albatrosses , who can maintain flight without wing flapping . If the wind shear is of sufficient magnitude , a bird can climb into the wind gradient , trading ground speed for height , while maintaining airspeed . By then turning downwind , and diving through the wind gradient , they can also gain energy . It has also been used by glider pilots on rare occasions . Wind shear can also create wave . This occurs when an atmospheric inversion separates two layers with a marked difference in wind direction . If the wind encounters distortions in the inversion layer caused by thermals coming up from below , it will create significant shear waves that can be used for soaring . = = = = = Impact on passenger aircraft = = = = = Strong outflow from thunderstorms causes rapid changes in the three @-@ dimensional wind velocity just above ground level . Initially , this outflow causes a headwind that increases airspeed , which normally causes a pilot to reduce engine power if they are unaware of the wind shear . As the aircraft passes into the region of the downdraft , the localized headwind diminishes , reducing the aircraft 's airspeed and increasing its sink rate . Then , when the aircraft passes through the other side of the downdraft , the headwind becomes a tailwind , reducing lift generated by the wings , and leaving the aircraft in a low @-@ power , low @-@ speed descent . This can lead to an accident if the aircraft is too low to effect a recovery before ground contact . As the result of the accidents in the 1970s and 1980s , most notably following the 1985 crash of Delta Air Lines Flight 191 , in 1988 the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration mandated that all commercial aircraft have on @-@ board wind shear detection systems by 1993 . Between 1964 and 1985 , wind shear directly caused or contributed to 26 major civil transport aircraft accidents in the U.S. that led to 620 deaths and 200 injuries . Since 1995 , the number of major civil aircraft accidents caused by wind shear has dropped to approximately one every ten years , due to the mandated on @-@ board detection as well as the addition of Doppler weather radar units on the ground ( NEXRAD ) . The installation of high @-@ resolution Terminal Doppler Weather Radar stations at many U.S. airports that are commonly affected by wind shear has further aided the ability of pilots and ground controllers to avoid wind shear conditions . = = = = Sailing = = = = Wind shear affects sailboats in motion by presenting a different wind speed and direction at different heights along the mast . The effect of low level wind shear can be factored into the selection of sail twist in the sail design , but this can be difficult to predict since wind shear may vary widely in different weather conditions . Sailors may also adjust the trim of the sail to account for low level wind shear , for example using a boom vang . = = = = Sound propagation = = = = Wind shear can have a pronounced effect upon sound propagation in the lower atmosphere , where waves can be " bent " by refraction phenomenon . The audibility of sounds from distant sources , such as thunder or gunshots , is very dependent on the amount of shear . The result of these differing sound levels is key in noise pollution considerations , for example from roadway noise and aircraft noise , and must be considered in the design of noise barriers . This phenomenon was first applied to the field of noise pollution study in the 1960s , contributing to the design of urban highways as well as noise barriers . The speed of sound varies with temperature . Since temperature and sound velocity normally decrease with increasing altitude , sound is refracted upward , away from listeners on the ground , creating an acoustic shadow at some distance from the source . In the 1862 , during the American Civil War Battle of Iuka , an acoustic shadow , believed to have been enhanced by a northeast wind , kept two divisions of Union soldiers out of the battle , because they could not hear the sounds of battle only six miles downwind . = = = = Effects on architecture = = = = Wind engineering is a field of engineering devoted to the analysis of wind effects on the natural and built environment . It includes strong winds which may cause discomfort as well as extreme winds such as tornadoes , hurricanes and storms which may cause widespread destruction . Wind engineering draws upon meteorology , aerodynamics and a number of specialist engineering disciplines . The tools used include climate models , atmospheric boundary layer wind tunnels and numerical models . It involves , among other topics , how wind impacting buildings must be accounted for in engineering . Wind turbines are affected by wind shear . Vertical wind @-@ speed profiles result in different wind speeds at the blades nearest to the ground level compared to those at the top of blade travel , and this in turn affects the turbine operation . This low level wind shear can create a large bending moment in the shaft of a two bladed turbine when the blades are vertical . The reduced wind shear over water means shorter and less expensive wind turbine towers can be used in shallow seas .
= Operation Southern Move = Operation Southern Move ( Croatian : Operacija južni potez ) was the final Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) and Croatian Defence Council ( Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO ) offensive of the Bosnian War . It took place in western Bosnia and Herzegovina on 8 – 11 October 1995 . Its goal was to help the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Armija Republike Bosne i Hercegovine – ARBiH ) whose positions around the town of Ključ , captured by them during Operation Sana , were endangered by a counteroffensive by the Army of Republika Srpska ( Vojska Republike Srpske – VRS ) . The objectives of Operation Southern Move included the capture of the town of Mrkonjić Grad and positions on the Manjača Mountain which would allow the HV and the HVO to directly threaten Banja Luka , the largest Bosnian Serb city . Finally , the offensive was also aimed at capturing the Bočac Hydroelectric Power Station , the last significant source of electricity under VRS control in western Bosnia and Herzegovina . The combined HV and HVO forces were under the overall command of HV Major General Ante Gotovina . The offensive achieved its objectives , and significantly contributed , along with Operations Sana and Maestral 2 to forcing the Bosnian Serb leadership to serious peace negotiations . A country @-@ wide ceasefire came into effect on 12 October , one day after the offensive ended , and was soon followed by negotiations which produced the Dayton Agreement , ending the Bosnian War . = = Background = = As the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA ) withdrew from Croatia following the acceptance and start of implementation of the Vance plan , its 55 @,@ 000 officers and soldiers born in Bosnia and Herzegovina were transferred to a new Bosnian Serb army , which was later renamed the Army of Republika Srpska ( Vojska Republike Srpske – VRS ) . This re @-@ organisation followed the declaration of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992 , ahead of the referendum on the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina that took place between 29 February and 1 March 1992 . This declaration would later be cited by the Bosnian Serbs as a pretext for the Bosnian War . Bosnian Serbs began fortifying the capital , Sarajevo , and other areas on 1 March 1992 . On the following day , the first fatalities of the war were recorded in Sarajevo and Doboj . In the final days of March , Bosnian Serb forces bombarded Bosanski Brod with artillery , resulting in a cross @-@ border operation by the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) 108th Brigade . On 4 April 1992 , JNA artillery began shelling Sarajevo . There were other examples of the JNA directly supported the VRS , such as during the capture of Zvornik in early April 1992 , when the JNA provided artillery support from Serbia , firing across the Drina River . At the same time , the JNA attempted to defuse the situation and arrange negotiations elsewhere in the country . The JNA and the VRS in Bosnia and Herzegovina faced the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Armija Republike Bosne i Hercegovine – ARBiH ) and the Croatian Defence Council ( Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO ) , reporting to the Bosniak @-@ dominated central government and the Bosnian Croat leadership respectively , as well as the HV , which occasionally supported HVO operations . In late April 1992 , the VRS was able to deploy 200 @,@ 000 troops , hundreds of tanks , armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) and artillery pieces . The HVO and the Croatian Defence Forces ( Hrvatske obrambene snage – HOS ) could field approximately 25 @,@ 000 soldiers and a handful of heavy weapons , while the ARBiH was largely unprepared with nearly 100 @,@ 000 troops , small arms for less than a half of their number and virtually no heavy weapons . Arming of the various forces was hampered by a United Nations ( UN ) arms embargo that had been introduced in September 1991 . By mid @-@ May 1992 , when those JNA units which had not been transferred to the VRS withdrew from Bosnia and Herzegovina to the newly declared Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , the VRS controlled approximately 60 percent of Bosnia and Herzegovina . The extent of VRS control was extended to about 70 percent of the country by the end of 1992 . = = Prelude = = By 1995 , the ARBiH and the HVO had developed into better @-@ organised forces employing comparably large numbers of artillery pieces and good defensive fortifications . The VRS was not capable of penetrating their defences even where its forces employed sound military tactics , for instance in the Battle of Orašje in May and June 1995 . After recapture of the bulk of the Republic of Serb Krajina ( the Croatian Serb @-@ controlled areas of Croatia ) in Operation Storm in August 1995 , the HV shifted its focus to western Bosnia and Herzegovina . The shift was motivated by a desire to create a security zone along the Croatian border , establish Croatia as a regional power and gain favours with the West by forcing an end to the Bosnian War . The government of Bosnia and Herzegovina welcomed the move as it contributed to their goal of gaining control over western Bosnia and the city of Banja Luka — the largest city in the Bosnian Serb @-@ held territory . In the final days of August 1995 , NATO launched Operation Deliberate Force — an air campaign targeting the VRS . This campaign was launched in response to the second Markale massacre of 28 August , which came on the heels of the Srebrenica massacre . Airstrikes began on 30 August , initially targeting VRS air defences , and striking targets near Sarajevo . The campaign was briefly suspended on 1 September and its scope was expanded to target artillery and storage facilities around the city . The bombing resumed on 5 September , and its scope extended to VRS air defences near Banja Luka by 9 September as NATO had nearly exhausted its list of targets near Sarajevo . On 13 September , the Bosnian Serbs accepted NATO 's demand for the establishment of an exclusion zone around Sarajevo and the campaign ceased . Following a relative lull in fighting in western Bosnia , the HV , HVO and ARBiH renewed their joint offensive against the VRS in the region . The HV and HVO component of the offensive , codenamed Operation Maestral 2 , was launched on 8 September with the aim of capturing the towns of Jajce , Šipovo and Drvar . The ARBiH 7th Corps advanced on the right flank of the HV and the HVO towards Donji Vakuf . As Operation Maestral 2 neared its objectives , the ARBiH 5th Corps launched Operation Sana in the Bihać area , aimed at pushing the VRS back to the Sana River to the east . The ARBiH achieved significant territorial gains , advancing 70 kilometres ( 43 miles ) to capture the town of Ključ , and approaching Sanski Most and Novi Grad by 18 – 19 September — before being halted by significant VRS reinforcements . A VRS counteroffensive , launched on the night of 23 / 24 September from Novi Grad , Sanski Most and Mrkonjić Grad gradually pushed the 5th Corps back towards Bosanska Krupa and Ključ , despite gradual arrival of reinforcements dispatched by the ARBiH 7th Corps . The VRS had approached within 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 feet ) of Ključ by 6 October , and ARBiH control of the town was under threat . In response , the ARBiH requested HV and HVO assistance . = = Order of battle = = The HV and the HVO forces earmarked for the offensive comprised 11 @,@ 000 – 12 @,@ 000 troops , organised into two groups , under the overall command of HV Major General Ante Gotovina . The primary group consisted of the 4th Guards and the 7th Guards Brigades , the 1st Croatian Guards Brigade ( 1 @.@ hrvatski gardijski zdrug – 1st HGZ ) of the HV , while the second group was spearheaded by the 1st , 2nd and 3rd Guards Brigades of the HVO , and included the 126th Home Guard Regiment of the HV . The VRS units facing the combined HV / HVO force were elements of Operational Group @-@ 2 and the 30th Division , under the command of Colonel Milenko Lazić . They were deployed around Mrkonjić Grad , and comprised the 7th Motorised , 3rd Serbian and 11th Mrkonjić Light Infantry brigades . The three brigades , numbering approximately 5 @,@ 500 troops , were tasked to cover the rear of the VRS force counterattacking the ARBiH force in Ključ . = = Timeline = = Operation Southern Move was to be carried out in two stages . The first stage involved the capture of Mrkonjić Grad and the surrounding Podrašnica Valley . In the second phase of the operation , the force would seize the last significant source of electricity in the VRS @-@ controlled part of western Bosnia and Heregovina — the Bočac Hydroelectric Power Station . The whole operation was planned to take four days , immediately preceding a country @-@ wide ceasefire scheduled to take effect on the morning of 12 October 1995 . According to Brigadier Ante Kotromanović , then commander of the 126th Home Guard Regiment , the offensive was approved by the United States , and U.S. warplanes attacked VRS positions near Banja Luka in preparation of the offensive . = = = Phase one : 8 – 9 October = = = The offensive began on 8 October with an attack launched by the HV 126th Home Guard Regiment and the HVO 1st Guards Brigade from a starting line 15 to 20 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 to 12 @.@ 4 miles ) west of Mrkonjić Grad , against positions held by the 11th Mrkonjić Light Infantry Brigade . This effort was intended as a diversion aimed at misleading the VRS defences regarding the main axis of the offensive . It was hampered by poor weather which prevented the effective use of artillery fire . The main HV force committed to the offensive , comprising the 4th Guards and the 7th Guards brigades and the 1st HGZ , began their advance on 9 October . Poor weather and heavy fog forced the HV to postpone the attack from 6 : 00 until 8 : 50 . The advance was supported by strong artillery fire support and two Mil Mi @-@ 24s of the Croatian Air Force . The HV 7th Guards Brigade struggled to advance against the VRS positions southeast of Mrkonjić Grad around the villages of Liskovica , Bjelajci and Šehovci , manned by the 7th Motorised Brigade . The 4th Guards Brigade and the 1st HGZ faced the defences southwest of the town , manned by the 3rd Serbian Brigade . By the end of the day , the HV had advanced by about 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 miles ) partially enveloping Mrkonjić Grad . The town itself was hit by about 200 artillery shells fired by the HV and HVO . = = = Phase two : 10 – 11 October = = = On 10 October , the 4th Guards Brigade broke through and outflanked the 7th Motorised Brigade positions , forcing the VRS to withdraw from Mrkonjić Grad . The move also placed the Podrašnica Valley and Čađavica junction under HV control , completing the objectives of the first stage of the operation . The HVO 2nd Guards Brigade was deployed on the right flank of the 7th Guards Brigade and the two units advanced north towards Bočac . At the same time , the 4th Guards Brigade advanced onto Manjača mountain . The HV units were replaced by HVO elements on 11 October . The HVO 1st Guards and 2nd Guards brigades took over the northward advance from the HV 4th Guards and 7th Guards brigades , while the HVO 3rd Guards Brigade relieved the 1st HGZ and the 126th Home Guard Regiment . The VRS defence was disorganised , and they were gradually pushed north , while maintaining effective artillery fire support for their retreating troops . By the end of the day , the HVO had captured the Bočac Hydroelectric Power Station . The final objective was achieved when the force reached a line 25 kilometres ( 16 miles ) south of Banja Luka . The advance reportedly came within 14 kilometres ( 9 miles ) of Banja Luka , whose electrical power supply was interrupted , and where a curfew was imposed in response to the deteriorating situation . Operation Southern Move ended on the night of 11 / 12 October . = = Aftermath = = The offensive captured an area 40 kilometres ( 25 miles ) wide and 20 kilometres ( 12 miles ) deep . The defeat of the VRS also made it clear to the Bosnian Serb leadership that they had to commit to ending the war through negotiations or risk the capture of Banja Luka . In addition , the offensive proved decisive in halting the VRS counteroffensive against the ARBiH near Ključ and Bosanska Krupa , and allowing the ARBiH to mount a successful advance against the VRS 1st Krajina Corps defending Sanski Most . Finally , the outcome of the battle brought the VRS to a position where it was forced to choose between defending Prijedor , Banja Luka or the Doboj – Brčko route . This route had been vital for the resupply of both Banja Luka and Doboj since the VRS secured it in Operation Corridor 92 three years earlier . According to a Central Intelligence Agency analysis , the ground offensives of the HV , HVO and ARBiH in western Bosnia and Herzegovina , including Operation Southern Move , were a more significant contributor to bringing of the Bosnian Serbs to the negotiation table than the NATO airstrikes . A country @-@ wide ceasefire went into effect on 12 October , followed by negotiations which produced the Dayton Agreement on 21 November and ended the Bosnian War . The offensive displaced 10 @,@ 000 Serb refugees from Mrkonjić Grad , adding to a growing humanitarian crisis as another 30 @,@ 000 Serbs fled Sanski Most before the ARBiH captured it in the final days of Operation Sana . Approximately 6 @,@ 000 non @-@ Serbs forced to flee their homes in Prijedor and Novi Grad by Bosnian Serb forces . Bosnian Serb sources claim that 480 Serbs died or went missing in the fighting in the area of Mrkonjić Grad . The figure includes 181 bodies recovered in a mass grave at the town 's Serbian Orthodox cemetery . According to the Republika Srpska police who investigated the scene and interviewed witnesses , most of the dead were VRS prisoners of war or civilians who were killed by soldiers of the HV 4th Guards Brigade in retribution for death of the brigade 's deputy commander , Colonel Andrija Matijaš . Results of the investigation were forwarded to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) , but the ICTY did not pursue the matter . As of December 2013 , an investigation by the Bosnia and Herzegovina authorities against 27 high @-@ ranking HV and HVO officers and Croatian officials is ongoing . In 2013 , the trial of an officer and two soldiers of the 7th Guards Brigade charged with killing of four Serb civilians near Mrkonjić Grad ended in acquittals , pending an appeal by the prosecution .
= Prism ( Katy Perry album ) = l Prism is the fourth studio album by American singer Katy Perry . It was released by Capitol Records on October 18 , 2013 . While the album was initially planned to be " darker " than her previous material , Prism ultimately became a prominently dance @-@ inspired record . The singer worked with several past collaborators , while enlisting new producers and guest vocals . Much of Prism revolves around the themes of living in the present , relationships , and self @-@ empowerment . Many critics praised the album 's lyrical content for being more " mature " while others considered Prism to be more formulaic than her previous material . The album debuted atop the US Billboard 200 with 286 @,@ 000 copies sold , becoming Perry 's best opening week to date . The album also peaked at number one in Australia , Canada , Ireland , New Zealand , and the United Kingdom . Prism became Perry 's fastest @-@ selling album , the second best @-@ selling album in Australia in 2013 , and the second best @-@ selling album released by a woman in the United States in 2013 . The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) reported that Prism was the sixth best @-@ selling album in the world in 2013 , the best @-@ selling album in the world in 2013 released by a woman , and labeled Perry " a global phenomenon . " It has globally sold 4 million copies as of August 2015 . The album 's success continued throughout 2014 , ranking within the top 10 of the annual charts for 2014 in the United States , Canada , Australia , and New Zealand , and earned Perry a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards . The release of the album was preceded by the release of two singles . " Roar " was released on August 10 , 2013 as the album 's lead single . It became a commercial success and topped the Billboard Hot 100 . " Unconditionally " debuted on October 16 , 2013 as the record 's second single and was a moderate commercial success worldwide . In between the release of these two tracks were the releases of promotional singles " Dark Horse " on September 17 and " Walking on Air " on September 30 , 2013 . " Dark Horse " was released as the album 's third single three months later on December 17 , 2013 , and also reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 . " Birthday " and " This Is How We Do " were the fourth and fifth singles , respectively . Prism was further promoted through The Prismatic World Tour . = = Background = = After ending her California Dreams Tour , Perry stated that she intended to " live a little " before recording any new material that was " worth listening to " . When ex @-@ husband Russell Brand left her on December 30 , 2011 , she felt devastated and contemplated suicide . Perry revealed to Vogue in June 2012 that she planned to record a " darker " album than her previous records . She stated : " It was inevitable , after what I went through . If I had a time machine and could go back in time , I would . But I can 't , so , you 'll discover another part of me . " To Interview , she mentioned that she aspired to include a more acoustic vibe to the record . Perry also said that her music would be getting " real fucking dark " , though also stated that her fans would be able to relate to it . " I imagine that maybe my next record would be a little bit more of an artistic venture , " she said . " Not that I 'm going to self @-@ sabotage either and be like , ' I 'm going to make a crazy record that nobody really understands . ' " That fall , she later told Billboard about her plans for the album , saying she already envisioned several aspects of it . Perry told the magazine that she already had songs and ideas , and knew the type of record she would make next . She also said that although she had not started recording yet , she already knew how the artwork , coloring and tone of the album would turn out . Perry further detailed : " I have to let the music take shape first . I even know what type of tour I 'm doing next . I 'll be very pleased if the vision I have in my head becomes a reality . But I have to honor the music . " = = Recording = = The development of Prism started when Perry was embarking on the California Dreams Tour . She began with a process she deemed " slow cooking " , which consisted of recording random " fragments of ideas " into her mobile phone 's dictaphone application . A member of Direct Management Group , Ngoc Hoang , then transcribed the audio files , which he inserted into what Perry described as a " treasure chest " ; such object was consulted by Perry later on during the album 's recording sessions . While Perry started recording the album officially in November 2012 , accompanied by Greg Wells and Greg Kurstin , she noted she was still in a " dark place " , and that she had not " let the light in " . The sessions began again in March 2013 , following a trip to Madagascar which Perry credited as having " put [ her ] priorities in perspective " , thus leading her to " do more work on [ her ] self " . Perry also viewed a video made by Eckhart Tolle , which discusses loss . She commented : " When you lose something , all your foundations crumble — but that also leaves a big hole that 's open for something great to come through . " After feeling prepared to record again , she reunited with her team from Teenage Dream — Dr. Luke , Bonnie McKee , and Cirkut — in Perry 's hometown of Santa Barbara , California , where they spent a month recording at Playback Recording Studio among others . After those sessions , she went to Stockholm , where she worked with Scandinavian record producer Max Martin , to do what Perry called " put [ ting ] the ice on the cake " . She also recruited other collaborators , such as Norwegian team Stargate , Bloodshy , Benny Blanco , Jonatha Brooke and Sia Furler . By April 2013 , recording for the album was halfway complete , and Perry revealed to ASCAP how was working with such collaborators . She affirmed that Wells allowed her to " vomit words " ; with Martin , she picked the melodies of the songs ; Luke mostly helmed the production and she worked with " topline and melody " . Perry described writing sessions with McKee as " emotional abuse " , adding that they argue over the " best lyric " , as if they were fighting in a boxing ring . McKee , who wrote four songs for Prism , spoke with MTV on the effort , describing it as " a little bit more grown up " and " interesting " . = = Composition = = The album opens with " Roar " , a midtempo synth @-@ driven power pop track . Musically , it contains elements of arena rock and glam rock , while lyrically it is an empowerment anthem . Comparisons were established between " Roar " and " Brave " by Sara Bareilles . " Legendary Lovers " , a bhangra @-@ based song , deals with the ideas of karma and infinity . " Birthday " was described by Perry as her own attempt at " writing something Mariah Carey would have put on her first record " . Musically , it is a " fluffy " pop song that is primarily styled in the genre of disco . " Walking on Air " , the album 's second promotional single , is an early 1990s @-@ inspired deep house @-@ Eurodance @-@ disco song , inspired heavily by CeCe Peniston and Crystal Waters . It was produced by Klas Åhlund and Max Martin . " Unconditionally " , Perry 's personal favorite song on the album and second official single , is a " soaring " power ballad with an " epic chorus " . Jason Lipshutz from Billboard noted that the song includes a " woodblock percussion " as well as " a dramatic bass line " and deemed it the album 's " most mature offering " . Furthermore , he called it " an ode to love that looks past all flaws " and stated that the song acts as a " compellingly grounded predicate " to the title track from Teenage Dream . Perry herself described the song as a song about unconditional love that could come in all forms , including those from relationships , from parent @-@ to @-@ child , and from sibling @-@ to @-@ sibling . " Dark Horse " is a song with ample influences of trap , grime , hip hop , and " Southern rap @-@ techno mashup " genres . " This Is How We Do " , produced by Max Martin and Klas Ahlund , was described as being the possible " song of summer " for 2014 . Shirley Halperin from The Hollywood Reporter described " This Is How We Do " as " a sunny 80s throwback " , while Edna Gundersen from USA Today described it as a " buoyant pop blast with hip @-@ hop underpinnings " and praised the song 's recurring refrain ( " It 's no big deal ! " ) . James Montgomery from MTV News called the song a " cocksure , club @-@ ready banger " . With " Double Rainbow " , produced by Greg Kustin and co @-@ writer Sia Furler , Perry was allowed to " dump pent @-@ up emotions " and " get things off her chest " . The song was described as a " massive ballad " . Lipshutz deemed it as a " breathy love track " with a " powerful chorus that explodes upon impact " with lyrics that include " One man 's trash is another man 's treasure / so if it 's up to me , I 'm gonna keep you forever " . He added that " Kurstin brings the pop sensibility he 's flashed with artists like Kelly Clarkson and P ! nk , while Sia 's presence connects this sleek , shimmering pop track to [ her David Guetta collaboration ] ' Titanium ' " . Elijah Sarkesian felt that " Some of Katy 's finest vocals of the album are on this song " . Perry described " Love Me " as a song " about loving yourself the way you want to be loved " . Gundersen called it " irresistibly catchy and energetic " . The song was produced by Bloodshy . Sarkesian called it " an interesting mix – the lyrics are dark , but the music is very dance @-@ centric . At the very least , it 'll do well in clubs " . Montgomery stated that " Love Me " and " International Smile " both " seem destined for the dance floors " . The latter was inspired by Perry 's friend Mia Moretti , and was compared to the songs on Perry 's previous album . Lipshutz called it a " straightforward pop @-@ rock offering " and described its guitar hook as " kicky " , adding that the song also includes a " Melting Daft Punk @-@ esque vocoder breakdown " . Halperin stated that in the song , Perry sings the " hooky " line : " Please fasten your seat belts and make sure your champagne glasses are empty " . Halperin described " This Moment " and " Ghost " as " mid @-@ tempo ballads that are closest in DNA to Perry 's previous smashes " . Perry stated that she was inspired to write " This Moment " after she heard the audio book of The Power of Now ; the song 's lyrics talk about " living in the present " ; with Perry " add [ ing ] a romantic spin " to it . Gary Trust described " Ghost " as a " mesmerizing ballad " , while Gundersen described it as " powerful , dark , and haunting " . Lipshutz felt that " Ghost " and " By the Grace of God " contain the album 's " most somber moments " . While talking about each Prism track , Perry mentioned that " By the Grace of God " was the first song she wrote and recorded for the album back in November 2012 while she was in her " dark " phase . Jody Rosen from Vulture described bonus track " Spiritual " as an inspirational song . Kevin Fallon of The Daily Beast described " It Takes Two " as a " sweeping ballad " which allowed Perry to " show off a full @-@ throated belt that so many of her more bubbly tracks mask " . In " Choose Your Battles " , Perry " pounds her chest and spews venom at the man she cannot understand " . = = Release and promotion = = On July 29 , 2013 , a golden truck driving in Los Angeles revealed the album 's title as Prism and that it would be released on October 22 , 2013 . On August 9 , the truck was hit by a drunk driver in Pennsylvania , but none of the involved in the accident were injured . On August 20 , Pepsi revealed a partnership with Perry , in which fans were given the opportunity to unlock song titles , lyrics , and snippets from Prism by tweeting the hashtag # KATYNOW . Additionally , Pepsi provided previews of the songs " Dark Horse " and " Walking on Air " , and fans could vote for which song they wanted to have an early release on iTunes . The former song was declared the winner and was released onto iTunes on September 17 , 2013 . Three listening parties for Prism were hosted : on September 5 , 2013 , one was hosted in New York , open exclusively to an audience of 100 industry insiders and journalists , where twelve tracks were played . A second Prism listening party took place the next day in Atlanta , while a third took place September 12 in Los Angeles at the Hammer Museum . The release of two promotional singles via iTunes preceded the release of Prism : " Dark Horse " , which features vocals from Juicy J , was released on September 17 and debuted at number 17 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , and inside the top ten at number ten on the New Zealand Singles Chart . Perry first performed " Dark Horse " three days later at the iHeartRadio Music Festival . " Walking on Air " was released as the second promotional single on September 30 . The album was released on October 18 , 2013 . Its album cover , unveiled in a Jumbotron during Good Morning America on September 6 , 2013 , was shot by American photographer Ryan McGinley . For the deluxe edition , 300 @,@ 000 copies with an iridescent digipak package were printed , and came with the album 's logo printed onto seed paper . Perry began The Prismatic World Tour on May 7 , 2014 , at the Odyssey Arena in Belfast , Northern Ireland . The first leg of the tour also featured performances in Scotland and England that month . The second leg was announced on January 15 , 2014 , consisting of concerts in Canada , Mexico , and the United States . The leg ran from June to October 2014 . = = Singles = = " Roar " was serviced to mainstream radio stations on August 10 , 2013 as the album 's lead single , and its digital release followed two days later . It received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive commentary from music critics , who commended its " easy " and " poppy " beat , while some were ambivalent towards its clichéd lyrics . Commercially , it was a success , topping the Billboard Hot 100 and charts in Australia , Canada , New Zealand , and the United Kingdom . The song was nominated for the Song of the Year and the Best Pop Solo Performance awards at the 56th Grammy Awards . " Unconditionally " was released as the album 's second single on October 16 , 2013 . It received generally favorable reviews from critics , who praised it for being " soaring " and " effortless " . A lyric video for the song was released two days after its debut , and its official music video was released on November 19 , 2013 . To promote the single , Perry has performed on various occasions , including a geisha @-@ themed performance of it on the American Music Awards of 2013 , which attracted negative press , controversy and accusations of racism . " Unconditionally " has peaked at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 and has charted moderately worldwide , reaching the top 30 in the single charts of Canada and Germany and the Top 10 in Italy . " Dark Horse " was released on December 17 , 2013 as the album 's third official single . It had previously been released as the album 's first promotional single exactly three months prior to its single release . The following week , the song leaped to number four due to topping the Hot Digital Songs , selling 243 @,@ 000 copies . With " Dark Horse " topping the Hot Digital Songs chart , it became Perry 's 10th digital number @-@ one single . The song topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart on January 29 , 2014 , becoming Perry 's 9th number one single in the United States . On April 3 , 2014 , " Birthday " was announced as the album 's fourth official single . It debuted at number 91 on the Billboard Hot 100 and impacted Top 40 / Mainstream radio in the U.S. on April 21 , 2014 . This single has peaked at number 17 on the Billboard Hot 100 and become her fifteenth top @-@ twenty hit in United States , although it was her third single not to reach the top 10 on the chart . " This Is How We Do " served as the fifth official single from the album . A lyric video of the song was released on July 24 , 2014 , meanwhile the official music video was released a week later . The song was later sent to radio on August 12 , 2014 . The song debuted at number 88 on the Billboard Hot 100 on August 9 , 2014 and has since peaked at number 24 . = = Critical reception = = Upon release , Prism received generally positive reviews from music critics . Jon Dolan from Rolling Stone gave the album three out of five stars , writing that " Perry and her longtime collaborators Dr. Luke and Max Martin often go for a darker , moodier intimacy à la high @-@ end Swedish divas Robyn and Lykke Li . Perry has always done a great job of letting us know she 's in on the joke of pop stardom . Sadly , she doesn 't always bring that same sense of humor and self @-@ awareness to the joke of pop @-@ star introspection . The album 's raft of ripe @-@ lotus ballads is larded with Alanis @-@ ian poesy she can 't pull off " . Nick Catucci from Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B + and stated that " Katy 's superpower , now more than ever , is minting songs so relatable that their insights quickly scale up to inspirational ..... Now she grasps that she 's making the mainstream , not just swimming in it " . Helen Brown from The Daily Telegraph gave the album five out of five stars , stating Perry " sounds like a woman , and an artist , who 's finally found herself " and praised the " vulnerability " of the album . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic , Alexis Petridis from The Guardian , and Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine all also gave the album three out of five stars . Erlewine dubbed Prism " a tighter , cleaner record than its predecessors " . Petridis called it " Katy Perry 's most spiritual album to date " . Mesfin Fekadu from ABC News deemed the tracks " likable " , but felt the album lacked " some of the fiery fierceness and excitement that dominated Teenage Dream " . James Reed from The Boston Globe felt Perry " always seemed like the pop star who knows precisely what she does best " and called the album " an unabashedly fun listen " . Chris Bosman from Consequence of Sound gave the album three and a half out of five stars , calling Perry " a champion of choruses " . Greg Kot from Chicago Tribune gave the album 2 out of 4 stars , commenting " Though not exactly spiritual , Prism does come off as a more serious — if no less formulaic — album than its predecessor " . Marah Eakin from The A.V. Club gave the album a C + , commenting " A lot of Prism is simply forgettable " , though praised the tracks " Roar " , " Birthday " , and " This Is How We Do " . Rob Harvilla from Spin gave the album a 5 / 10 rating , and felt some of the material was not " all that desirable " . Elysa Gardner from USA Today gave the album a 3 / 4 rating and found the album to be " genuine and endearing " . Trent Wolbe from The Verge gave an overall 4 / 4 rating and praised Perry 's ability to " wrapping hyper @-@ specific emotions into a new format that everyone can relate to " . He particularly praised the tracks " International Smile " and " Birthday " , declaring the chorus of " Birthday " to be " fucking perfect " . Jody Rosen from Vulture was disappointed with every track on the album except for " Roar " . Randall Roberts of Los Angeles Times gave the album a 3 / 4 rating , calling it " a shimmering , dynamic , heavy @-@ duty modern pop album " . At the 57th Annual Grammy Awards , Prism was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album , but lost against Sam Smith 's In the Lonely Hour . = = Commercial performance = = Prism made its official debut in Ireland , where it charted atop the charts . In the United States , the album opened at the top spot on the US Billboard 200 , becoming her second consecutive number one album in the country . The album sold 286 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Prism acquired the largest first week sum by a female artist for 2013 , surpassing Miley Cyrus ' Bangerz ( 270 @,@ 000 copies ) . However , this feat was surpassed by Beyoncé 's self @-@ titled fifth album , Beyoncé ( 617 @,@ 213 digital copies ) , released in December 2013 . At the time of its release Prism had the fourth highest first week sales of the year for a pop record , trailing behind Daft Punk 's May 2013 album Random Access Memories , which sold 339 @,@ 000 copies and Justin Timberlake 's The 20 / 20 Experience which debuted to 968 @,@ 000 copies and its follow @-@ up The 20 / 20 Experience – 2 of 2 which debuted to just 350 @,@ 000 copies . The first week sales also marks Perry 's highest weekly sales , with her previous album Teenage Dream selling 192 @,@ 000 copies in its first week in August 2010 . Prism has the highest first week sales for a female pop artist since Madonna 's twelfth studio album , MDNA . Prism sold 92 @,@ 000 copies during its second week of availability , falling to number two on the Billboard 200 . This represented the smallest sales dip for a number one album in the United States since the August 2013 release of The Civil Wars . Prism has spent 17 weeks so far in the top @-@ ten on the chart . The album has been certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , and as of August 2015 , it has sold 1 @.@ 65 million copies in the United States . In June 2014 , Billboard announced its Mid Year Top 20 Best @-@ selling albums with Prism coming in at number 9 with sales of 453 @,@ 000 in 2014 alone . Pharrell Williams and Perry were the only two people in to have an album and a single in the Mid Year Top 10 charts . Due to the album 's success throughout 2014 , Perry topped eight of Billboard 's 2014 Year @-@ End charts : Top Female Artist , Hot 100 Artist , Radio Songs Artist , Streaming Songs , Streaming Songs Artist , Pop Songs , Pop Songs Artist , and Dance Club Songs Artist . Perry also topped the list of Canadian Hot 100 Artists . In February 2015 , following Perry 's performance at the Super Bowl XLIX halftime show , sales for the album increased by 85 % and the album rebounded back into the Top 50 . In New Zealand , the album became Perry 's second consecutive number one album , and was certified gold by Recorded Music NZ , selling over 7 @,@ 500 copies in its first week sales . Prism was certified platinum in Australia during its second week of release . The album has sold a total of 179 @,@ 000 copies in Australia as of December 2013 . In Europe , the album was a moderate success . In Switzerland , the album debuted at two , just behind James Blunt 's Moon Landing and was certified Gold shortly after . In Austria , the album debuted at number three and was certified Gold in its first week , achieving Platinum certification a month later . In France , Prism debuted in the Top 10 , spending a dozen weeks in the Top 40 , and has sold over 130 @,@ 000 copies according to SNEP . In The Netherlands , it debuted inside the top ten and spent seven weeks in the Top 40 , later rebounding back into the Top 40 with the success of " Dark Horse " . In Denmark , the album became her highest charting album since One of the Boys , debuting at number four . As of August 2015 , Prism has sold over 4 million copies worldwide . = = Track listing = = Credits adapted from the liner notes of Prism . = = Credits and personnel = = The following people contributed to Prism : = = Charts = = = = Certifications = =
= Goodbye , Toby = " Goodbye , Toby " is the fourth season hour @-@ long finale of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's seventy @-@ first and seventy @-@ second episodes overall . Written by Paul Lieberstein and Jennifer Celotta , and directed by Paul Feig , the episode first aired in the United States on May 15 , 2008 on NBC . " Goodbye , Toby " guest starred Amy Ryan as Holly Flax , Melora Hardin as Jan Levinson , and Robert R. Shafer as Bob Vance . The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Toby Flenderson ( Lieberstein ) spends his last day at Dunder Mifflin before moving to Costa Rica . Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) develops feelings for the new Human Resources Representative Holly Flax ( Ryan ) , who makes her first appearance in this episode . Jim Halpert 's ( John Krasinski ) plan to propose to Pam Beesley ( Jenna Fischer ) gets ruined after Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) makes a proposal of his own . Elsewhere , Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) is fired as Vice President of the company for misleading the shareholders and sent to prison . " Goodbye , Toby " introduced the character of Holly Flax , played by Amy Ryan , whose presence would drastically affect the office in the series ' fifth and seventh seasons . The episode received largely positive reviews from critics , with many applauding the introduction of Amy Ryan 's character , as well as the ending between Jim and Pam . The episode received 4 @.@ 1 Nielsen rating and was watched by 8 @.@ 07 million viewers . = = Plot = = Dunder Mifflin 's Scranton branch is planning a going @-@ away party for Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) before he leaves for Costa Rica . Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) is extremely happy that Toby is leaving , but when Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) balks at his unreasonable party demands , Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) accepts the duty of planning the party . She does fantastically , ordering carnival rides and hiring a band . Michael 's hatred of Toby has been transferred to the new human resources representative , Holly Flax ( Amy Ryan ) , and he and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) plan to haze her . When she playfully affects disdain for Toby , Michael takes her seriously , and suddenly falls in love with her . Taking advice from Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) , Michael succeeds in warming Holly up with small talk and jokes , and even tempers Toby 's exit interview , which he had originally planned to be brutally insulting , because Holly attends . Dwight , however , continues the hazing , telling Holly that Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) is mentally challenged , and putting a raccoon in her car . When Michael catches Dwight trying to release a raccoon into Holly 's car , he loudly proclaims his esteem for Holly . Holly gives special attention to Kevin throughout the episode due to her belief that he is mentally challenged , but Kevin believes her attention is a sexual interest in him . Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) reveals that she is spending the summer studying graphic design at Pratt Institute in New York City . Meanwhile , Jim calls Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) about a huge sale that he has recently made . Patronizing as ever , Ryan instructs him to enter the sale on the company 's website before abruptly hanging up . Jim takes this as another sign that Ryan is trying to push him out of the company , and leaves Ryan a voice mail proclaiming that he will fight Ryan 's attempts to fire him . Shortly afterward , Creed Bratton ( Creed Bratton ) and Jim find a video on YouTube of Ryan being arrested for fraud in the full presence of his peers who are all recording his arrest on their cell phones and interrupt Toby 's exit interview to show Michael , Toby , Pam , and Holly . It is revealed that Ryan 's website was floundering , so he double @-@ counted office sales as website sales , fraudulently inflating the firm 's figures . Although Michael is deeply concerned for Ryan , Jim is pleased and leaves Ryan a second voice mail mockingly telling Ryan to disregard the last because he had his " hands tied . " Michael discovers that Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) has artificially inseminated herself from a sperm bank when Kevin runs into her at the grocery store . She explains that she did this while she was dating Michael , but still wants him to be involved in the pregnancy . He initially is indecisive , but eventually calls and agrees to attend Lamaze class with her . Jim contributes several hundred dollars to the party @-@ planning fund in order to buy fireworks , later revealing that he has decided to propose to Pam , going back to their " first date " . Pam notices the purchase and guesses his intentions ; however , at the party , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) ruins the moment by proposing to Angela , who bitterly accepts . Pam is visibly disappointed that Jim didn 't propose to her . Michael has security escort Toby out of the office as a parting insult . Dwight is crushed that his ex @-@ girlfriend is marrying someone else . In the last scene of the episode , Phyllis returns to the office , pleased at the success of her party , where she and the camera crew walk in on Angela and Dwight having sex on one of the desks . = = Production = = " Goodbye , Toby " was written by Paul Lieberstein and Jennifer Celotta . Lieberstein is also the actor who plays Toby Flenderson . It took Lieberstein and Celotta four or five days to write this episode . Writer Anthony Farrell said that the idea for Dunder Mifflin Infinity to fail was inspired by the days that he was an administrative assistant for Countrywide Home Loans . Farrell recalled watching the company try new online initiatives and seeing them all be unsuccessful . The talking head interview wherein Michael compares Holly to a baker came after what the writers call " blitzes " , in which all the writers write a talking head on a specific topic , such as " Michael 's feelings to Holly " . Then they all read all of them out loud and see which one gets the biggest reaction . The YouTube video of Ryan being arrested was set on a private account . After " Goodbye , Toby " aired , the video was released to the public . When writing the story for the episode , the show originally planned on having Dwight put a badger in Holly 's car , but after finding out that it was difficult to get a badger , it was switched to a raccoon . The script also called for the raccoon to attack Meredith , but that was decided against for safety reasons . During one of the takes wherein Michael is singing his parody songs , Carell grabbed a guitar and played an Eddie Van Halen guitar solo , but that scene was cut because it did not match Michael 's character . After filming , the editors had about 72 minutes of material that they needed to cut down into 40 minutes . " Goodbye , Toby " introduced Holly Flax , played by Amy Ryan , who would go on to become Michael 's main love interest . In fact , her return to the series in the seventh season was used by the writers as a way to write Steve Carell out of the series after his contract ended . Ryan gained prominence with her role as Beadie Russell on the HBO series The Wire . The writers of The Office , who were fans of the series , then approached Ryan about appearing in their show . Ryan , feeling that a comedy series would " keep [ her ] a couple steps ahead of people [ and ] surprise people " agreed . Holly 's character was developed by the writers awhile before the episode was scripted . However , once Ryan began acting on set , Lieberstein explained that " we started to see this really silly side that Amy brought to the character , and [ we ] found almost like a junior Michael in her . And we all saw it and knew what we had . " After the filming of " Goodbye , Toby " , the writers were hoping that Ryan would return for the fifth season ; the crew had not made a deal with her to film more episodes , but Lieberstein noted that " we knew that she would stay around , or we hoped . " The episode also guest starred Melora Hardin , and Robert R. Shafer . The members of Darryl 's band are the actual members of actor Craig Robinson 's band : Chris Rob played bass , Asa Watkins played drums , and David Sampson played guitar . " Goodbye , Toby " was the seventh episode of the series directed by Paul Feig . Feig had previously directed " Office Olympics " , " Halloween " , " Performance Review " , " E @-@ mail Surveillance " , " Survivor Man " and " Dinner Party " . Feig was tasked with shooting many of the shots that would hide Angela Kinsey 's pregnant stomach . To do this , he " looked for places around the office that could conceal her belly " . Notably , the ending of the episode was shot in such a way that the audience could see that Dwight and Angela were having sex , but that Kinsey 's stomach would not be seen . The Season Four DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Michael comparing Toby to the flu , Toby giving his going @-@ away speech and then being interrupted by Michael , Holly asking Pam if Kevin just ate before jumping in the bounce castle , Jim not sure whether Ryan is going to downsize him , Jim and Pam browsing for apartments online , the revelation that Kevin 's band Scrantonicity played 30 full Police songs , all out of tune and off @-@ beat , during Phyllis 's wedding , Kelly watching Ryan 's YouTube arrest video over and over again at Jim 's desk , Jim asking about the website , Troy ( Noel Potek ) — Ryan 's drug dealer — showing up in Scranton . = = Cultural references = = Michael offers to make Holly a mixtape , which is a personalized compilation of songs recorded onto any audio format . Michael and Holly trade off comments , speaking as if they were Yoda , the diminutive Jedi master from the Star Wars universe . Michael sings a parody of " Goodbye Stranger " by Supertramp entitled " Goodbye , Toby " . He also mentions two other parodies that he wrote , the titles of two of his songs , " Beers in Heaven " and " Total Eclipse of the Fart " , parodies of " Tears in Heaven " by Eric Clapton and " Total Eclipse of the Heart " by Bonnie Tyler . = = Reception = = " Goodbye , Toby " first aired on May 15 , 2008 on NBC . The episode received 4 @.@ 1 / 10 in the 18 – 49 demographic in the Nielsen ratings . This means that 4 @.@ 1 percent of all households with an 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old living in it watched the episode , and ten percent had their televisions tuned to the channel at any point . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 07 million viewers . " Goodbye , Toby " was generally well @-@ received by critics . TV Squad 's Jay Black said that " The Office is at its best when its exposing the dramas that take [ sic ] place at every workplace " . Black went on to say that Angela 's rudeness to Phyllis " was a small thread throughout the show , but a hilarious one " . Kelly West of Cinemablend.com wrote that even though the episode did not play @-@ out " the way [ she ] expected " , she was " definitely not complaining " . Alan Sepinwall , a writer for The Star @-@ Ledger , was critical of the proposal scenario , saying that " I really , really , really hope the writers aren 't going to be foolish enough to try to create real strife in the PB & J ( Pam Beesly and Jim ) relationship over how long it 's going to take Jim to propose . " Furthermore , Sepinwall felt that " Goodbye , Toby " might have been , up until that point in the series , the show 's " best hour @-@ long ' Office ' ever " . Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club noted that " Goodbye , Toby " felt like " the season finaleiest of all season finales " , largely because the series " cramm [ ed ] three or four episodes worth of revelations and big plot twists and turns into one jam @-@ packed , over @-@ stuffed , incidentriffic mega @-@ super @-@ double @-@ extended episode . " Rabin was pleased with Ryan 's performance , noting that it proved she could play more than an " unfit , coke @-@ crazed , borderline feral Boston shit @-@ kickers " , a reference to her Academy Award nominated performance in Gone Baby Gone . Furthermore , he was also complimentary towards the Jim and Pam plot . However , he felt that the episode 's " overstuffed " qualities were a weakness , and he ultimately awarded it a " B + " . The episode was nominated for an Emmy at the Primetime Emmys in the " Best Direction for a Comedy Series " category in 2008 .
= Prince George 's County Sheriff 's Office = The Prince George 's County Sheriff 's Office ( PGSO ) , officially the Office of the Sheriff , Prince George 's County ( PGOS ) , provides law enforcement services in Prince George 's County , Maryland in the United States . Its headquarters are located in Upper Marlboro , near the Depot Pond . The sheriff is the chief law enforcement officer of Prince George 's County and is elected every four years . There are no term limits for the sheriff . Created in 1696 , the traditional duties of the sheriff are keeper of the public peace and the enforcement arm of the county court , analogous to the U.S. Marshals Service . The PGSO has a relatively long history compared to other police departments and sheriff 's offices in Maryland . The PGSO was involved with events that occurred during the burning of Washington and affected the writing of the " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " . Prior to 1931 , the PGSO was the sole law enforcement organization of the county . Today , the duties of the sheriff include service of court @-@ ordered warrants , writs , protective orders , and other injunctions . The Domestic Violence Unit has expanded its role in the county to include responding to calls for service that are domestic @-@ related . The creation of the School Resource Deputy division has placed a deputy sheriff at all of the local high schools , replacing the County Police . All other law enforcement services of the county are provided by multiple agencies but mostly left to the separate Prince George 's County Police Department ( PGPD ) , though some responsibilities are shared by both agencies . The PGSO , like most other county @-@ level law enforcement agencies in the United States , is a progressive agency with an array of services in tom a Specialized Services Team dealing with high @-@ risk arrest warrants and barricaded situations to community services aiding the county 's citizens in safety education . Although the agency is not nationally accredited , it has working for over fifteen years towards achieving accreditation , as of January 2015 . = = Authority = = The sheriff is the chief law enforcement official of Prince George 's County per Maryland common law . All deputy sheriffs are certified , sworn law enforcement officials with full power of arrest . All sworn members of the sheriff 's office are agents of the U.S. state of Maryland and thus have authority throughout the entire state , although direct jurisdiction is limited to the Seventh Judicial Circuit of Maryland , which includes Calvert County , Charles County , Prince George 's County , and St. Mary 's County . = = History = = = = = 1690s – 1720s : Founding and British rule = = = The Sheriff 's Office was founded April 22 , 1696 . The governor of Maryland , Sir Francis Nicholson , appointed Thomas Greenfield as the first sheriff . The St. Paul 's Church in Charlestown held the headquarters for the Sheriff 's Office until the 1720s when it was relocated to the town of Upper Marlboro . At the time of the 18th century , there was no set salary for the sheriff , but he was often paid in tobacco . = = = 1810s : War of 1812 = = = During the War of 1812 , which lasted from 1812 to 1815 , an incident occurred at the time of the Burning of Washington , D.C. , when the sheriff 's office became involved in an occurrence that led to the writing of the U.S. national anthem . As the British Army marched from Washington they passed through Prince George 's County . Because the residents had cooperated with the British , the commander ensured that minimal damage was inflicted upon the local residents and their property . After the Battle of Bladensburg , the British Army returned to the area of Upper Marlboro . However , this time some of the British soldiers looted local farms . A sheriff 's posse subsequently arrested the offending soldiers and placed them in the county jail . Upon learning about the arrest of his soldiers , the British commander ordered the arrest of the sheriff and the posse in turn . One of the posse members was Dr. William Beam . Beam was ultimately arrested and held for ransom on a British warship . Beam 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Francis Scott Key , went to Baltimore Harbor in search of him . He witnessed the British fleet under attack which was the inspiration of " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " . During the war , an incident occurred involving the Prince George 's County jail , when local resident Dr. William Beanes , ( 1775 – 1824 ) captured several marauding British Army deserters from the passing army of General General Robert Ross ( 1766 – 1814 ) and Vice Admiral , Sir George Cockburn , ( 1772 – 1853 ) , and held them in the County Jail , after he had treated several wounded " Redcoat " soldiers in their march on to Washington and the disastrous Battle of Bladensburg on the Eastern Branch stream of the Anacostia River in August 1814 . Later he was arrested along with several others including Robert Bowie , former 11th Governor of Maryland ( 1803 – 06 , 1811 – 12 ) by retreating British cavalry on orders from Ross who had stayed in his home as headquarters . Later Francis Scott Key ( 1779 – 1843 ) , a Georgetown and Frederick lawyer with Col. John S. Skinner , U.S. Prisoner @-@ of @-@ War and Parole Agent went to Baltimore secured a small sailing ship , the Minden , and sailed down the Patapsco River and the Chesapeake Bay to find the British Royal Navy fleet after leaving the Patuxent River , beating up the Bay from their base on Tangier Island , Virginia heading for their attack on the hated " nest of pirates " - Baltimore . After being received and negotiating with General Ross , Admiral Cockburn and their superior , Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane , ( 1758 – 1832 ) , and showing him some letters written by captured British wounded soldiers testifying to the fair treatment Beanes had given them and tended to them , they agreed to free him but that would be held up until they could celebrate after the Burning of Baltimore following their attack on Fort McHenry and landing troops to the east at North Point . Well , the famous story has been told , how the general was killed prior to the skirmishing at the Battle of North Point on September 12 , how the advancing British under successor , Colonel Arthur Brooke led the British regiments to face the 20 @,@ 000 drafted and volunteer citizens and militia under the command of Major General Samuel Smith , ( 1752 – 1839 ) , of the Maryland Militia on the eastern heights of " Loudenschlager 's Hill " ( later known as " Hampstead Hill " in modern Patterson Park , between Highlandtown and Canton neighborhoods ) whose dug @-@ in fortifications and dragged cannon were so numerous that the " Redcoats " halted in their tracks and decided to await the shelling of the fort which guarded the entrances to the Harbor to pass into the inner port and the waterfront of Fells Point . Following the failure of the fort to fall to two days of " the rockets ' red glare and the bombs bursting in air " and their flanking troop @-@ loaded barge attack around the west end but driven back by alert artillery seamen at Forts Covington and Babcock in a driving night rainstorm , the British fleet turned about and set sail . Key and his companions Beanes and Skinner who were startled , amazed and emotionally overcome to see a huge 30 by 42 foot banner being raised in the light of the early morning with the distant booming of the morning 's gun salute , knew that the fort and the city had held . When they landed at " The Basin " ( modern " Inner Harbor " ) and Key finished up his draft of a new poem " The Defence of Fort McHenry " at the Indian Queen Hotel at West Baltimore and Hanover Streets , ( later to be set to music in a few days ) and sung lustily through the city , performed on the stage at the famed Holliday Street Theatre , and then soon throughout the state and soon the nation as " The Star Spangled Banner " . = = = 1929 : Sheriff and police split = = = In 1929 , due to an increase in population and crime , Prince George 's County created a separate police department . Prior to this time , laws allowed detectives to be used on loan from the Baltimore City Police Department . The newly created police department allowed the Sheriff 's Office to focus its manpower on enforcing orders of the court . = = = 1994 – 2000 : Funding cuts and vacancies = = = From December 12 , 1994 , to January 2000 , the PGSO did not hire any new deputies or civilian employees , leaving the agency with 92 vacant positions that needed to be filled . Over that period , 66 deputies left the agency , some retiring routinely , others leaving due to increased workloads caused by vacant positions . In some cases , deputies worked sixteen hours in one day , eight in courtrooms , and eight serving warrants . In December 1994 , the agency had 248 deputies , whereas on January 20 , 2000 , it only had 192 deputies , with 20 leaving from November 1998 to January 2000 . In July 1996 , the county government decreased the amount of funding the PGSO was receiving . Unlike the PGPD at the time , the PGSO was not nationally accredited and still is not , as of January 2015 . Computers were also in short supply , and the few that were in use were outdated and obsolete . In 1996 , the Southern Management Company , a firm responsible for managing residential apartments complexes , filed a lawsuit against the sheriff and the county government , with the plaintiffs alleging that they lost revenue due to the sheriff 's office inability to evict tenants who were not paying their rent costs . In January 2000 , it was revealed that the PGSO held seized money inside of a safe and did not report it to higher authorities . In response to the news , the county council responded that they did not object to the PGSO 's actions . In February 2000 , the county government attempted to gain 57 million dollars from the state government at a courthouse in Charles County , to cover the costs of having sheriff 's deputies providing security at a district court since 1971 . The state countered that the county was responsible for any of the costs incurred . In March 2000 , the county executive announced 1 @.@ 4 billion dollar budget for the county 's government in the 2001 fiscal year , which included funding increases for the sheriff 's office . = = = 2000 – 2002 : Intradepartmental politics = = = On August 23 , 2002 , dozens of members from the Deputy Sheriff 's Association issued a vote of no confidence in the incumbent sheriff during a meeting at the county 's courthouse . The vote , they claimed , was issued due to allegations that the sheriff made against members of the agency , in which he said they were deliberately malingering in order to reflect badly on him . The sheriff rejected the allegations as unfounded and voiced his displeasure over the vote , calling them politically motivated due to their proximity to the primary elections , which was only weeks away at the time . = = = 2002 : Deputies killed in the line of duty = = = On the evening of Thursday , August 29 , 2002 , two PGSO sheriff 's deputies , Corporal James Victor " Jim " Arnaud , aged 53 , and Deputy Elizabeth " Liz " Licera Magruder , aged 30 , were killed in the line of duty while trying to serve an Emergency Petition Service ( EPS ) , a court @-@ ordered psychological evaluation , on James Ramiah Logan , a 23 @-@ year @-@ old part @-@ time computer technician , drug dealer , and High Point High School graduate . = = = = Background = = = = At approximately 9 : 30 p.m. , on the night of August 29 , 2002 , Corporal Arnaud and Deputy Magruder arrived at the residence of James Ramiah Logan , a 23 @-@ year @-@ old man who lived at his parents ' single @-@ story rambler house at 9332 Lynmont Drive in Adelphi , Maryland , near the Buck Lodge Middle School . According to departmental protocol , they were to arrive at the house with a third deputy , however , none were available at the time . They were to serve a petition to have an emergency psychiatric evaluation performed on Logan . Earlier in the day , Logan 's wife , Valencia Flood , fearing for her safety and the safety of her children , filed the petition with the judicial system to have her husband receive treatment , saying that Logan was " paranoid " and that he " needs to be hospitalized immediately " as " his condition was worsening " . The petition entailed the deputies taking Logan to a hospital , where he would have his psychiatric health examined by medical personnel . A few days earlier , on August 26 , Logan had been examined by a psychiatrist , who diagnosed him with paranoid schizophrenia and recommended that he be admitted to a medical institution to receive treatment for his mental health . Logan adamantly believed that he was in sound mental health and refused to consent to any such treatment , and as such , he was not admitted to such an institution and was released . After the deputies arrived at the man 's house , Logan 's father , James Logan , Sr. , a television repairman , led them inside the residence , where Logan was in the basement conducting a Bible study with Anthony Antwan Kromah , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old man from Hyattsville , Maryland . Earlier in the month , Logan was released from a St. Mary 's County detention center after posting a $ 25 @,@ 000 bond . He had been arrested by a Maryland state trooper who had found cocaine , marijuana , and a .38 caliber handgun in Logan 's automobile after stopping him as he was driving with Kromah and another man in St. Mary 's County , being charged with possession of an illegal controlled substance with the intent to distribute . Logan had also been using cocaine and smoking marijuana earlier in the day . After the deputies went into the basement , he was asked by Arnaud to come with him . However , Logan adamantly refused , saying " I told you , I 'm not going with you anywhere " . Logan then ran up the staircase and went into his former bedroom , now used as a guest bedroom , and closed the door . Arnaud and Magruder followed him to the room and stood outside the door . Arnaud tried to convince Logan to come out of the room , as Logan 's parents and Magruder , who had joined the department in February 2001 , stood by , watching . After Logan 's parents left the scene and went to the house 's master bedroom , Logan became belligerent and uncooperative . Partially hidden behind a closet door , Logan retrieved a semi @-@ automatic 9mm @-@ chambered handgun and fired at Arnaud , where a bullet struck him in the throat and severed his carotid artery . Logan then shot Arnaud fatally in the chest . Seeing Arnaud felled by gunfire , Magruder , who was wearing body armor , stepped back and drew her sidearm . However , before she could return fire , Logan then shot six bullets at her , one of which struck her in the head , mortally wounding her . Logan then went over to Arnaud and , while standing over his body , shot him four more times , injuring his liver and inducing severe internal bleeding . Arnaud would die from severe gunshot @-@ induced blood loss at the scene , but the mortally wounded Magruder was able to call for assistance over her radio at 9 : 34 p.m. Logan 's father , who was in the house 's master bedroom , had heard the gunshots , and thinking that the deputies had shot him , went over to see what had happened . Instead , he saw Logan leaving the house with a firearm in hand , and saw that the two deputies had been shot . Logan 's father then called 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 via telephone at 9 : 39 p.m. to report the shooting to authorities . Emergency medical technicians arrived and removed Arnaud and Magruder were removed from the house via stretchers , with Magruder being airlifted via medical helicopter to the Prince George 's Hospital Center , with CPR being applied on her while en route . However , she would be pronounced dead at the hospital before midnight . = = = = Manhunt = = = = After shooting Magruder and killing Arnaud , Logan then fled the scene with Kromah in a silver @-@ painted Dodge Charger with Maryland license plates , with Kromah driving the vehicle . After leaving the house , Kromah took the weapon from Logan and attempted to wipe off any residual evidence , such as fingerprints , from it . The two then disposed of the murder weapon by burying it at a nearby forested cemetery and abandoned the getaway vehicle . Kromah was captured and charged as an accomplice to the murder ; he pleaded guilty on April 24 , 2003 to being an accessory after the fact to a murder . In the meantime , Logan stayed briefly at the residence of Twyla James , a woman who lived in Largo , Maryland . James would later be arrested and charged as an accessory to murder as she transported Logan , whom she had known was a murder suspect and fugitive sought by legal authorities , to her residence and allowed him to stay there . Logan was apprehended two days after the murder , on August 31 , 2002 , at a shed near the Quebec Arms Apartments in Hyattsville , Maryland , on the 8200 block of 14th Avenue . He was spotted there by undercover policemen , who had received information that it had been an area that Logan was known to frequent in the past . Logan was found hiding in the shed by policemen , who then used a police canine and a taser to subdue and apprehend him . After his capture , Logan was taken to the Prince George 's Hospital Center , where he received stitches and sutures , being treated for canine bites on his ankle and arms . After receiving medical treatment for his injuries , Logan was taken to a police station , where he was interrogated for approximately three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours by Vincent " Vince " Canales , a PGPD detective , where he admitted to the murders . When asked by the detective why he had murdered the deputies , rather than fleeing without killing them , Logan said " I wanted to annihilate them , I couldn 't leave them alive " . The interrogation was recorded via camera and stored onto a VHS cassette tape and DVD , the contents of which would later be used in his murder trial as evidence to assist in convicting him . In November 2002 , Logan 's attorney , Fred Warren Bennett , claimed that Logan could not be held criminally responsible for the murders , due to mental deficiencies and poor psychiatric health . In response , the judiciary mandated that Logan undergo a psychiatric evaluation . = = = = Trial = = = = At his trial in late October 2003 , Logan 's attorney , Fred Warren Bennett , argued that although Logan did kill the deputies , he was not criminally responsible for the killings due to mental illness , and thus , should be acquitted by reason of insanity . However , the state 's prosecution argued that any mental decencies Logan had were brought about by his usage of illegal narcotics , such as cocaine and marijuana , and as such , he would be legally responsible for the murders . Ultimately , the jury did not agree with the arguments put forth by Logan 's defense attorney and Logan was convicted of second @-@ degree murder on November 10 , 2003 , after jurors deliberated for ten hours over the span of three days over his fate . A few weeks later , on December 12 , 2003 , Logan was sentenced by the trial 's judge , E. Allen Shepherd , to one hundred years of imprisonment , without the possibility of parole . Before he was sentenced , Logan apologized to the relatives and comrades of his victims , and asked Shepherd to show mercy in his sentencing him . Shepherd rebuked Logan 's pleas for mercy , citing the heinous nature of the crime , which he remarked as being the most callous one that he had ever encountered as a member of the judiciary , saying " I 've never experienced a case of a murder more cold @-@ blooded than those that occurred in this case " and " You decided you were going to annihilate those two people " . = = = = Retrial = = = = Despite his conviction , Logan 's attorneys tried to appeal to the courts , with the one @-@ hundred year prison sentence being unanimously upheld by a three @-@ judge judicial panel on June 15 , 2004 . However , in their decision , the panel granted him the possibility of paroled release after fifty years . However , more than a year later , on September 7 , 2005 , the conviction was overturned by the Maryland Court of Appeals and Logan was awarded a second trial . The judiciary determined that the investigators had acted with impropriety in the process of obtaining of Logan 's confession to the murders by violating Logan 's Miranda rights , and by deliberately misleading him in order to obtain a confession . The court also determined that the judiciary 's selection process of jurors for the trial had not been rigorous enough and had thus been conducted improperly . Logan 's retrial began in June 2007 , with the prosecution unable to use Logan 's confession to present its case for conviction , for the judiciary had ruled that it had been obtained with impropriety . In the retrial , the prosecution used the same argument it had used in the original trial back in 2003 , arguing that Logan 's insanity defense was illegitimate due to his usage of illegal controlled substances . The state 's prosecution argued that Logan himself was solely responsible for any deficiencies in his mental health , saying that they were brought about through his consumption of illegal narcotics , such as cocaine and marijuana , two illegal controlled substances which he had used on the day of the murders . Ultimately , the first attempt at a retrial ended in June 2007 with a mistrial after jurors couldn 't come to a verdict after ten hours of deliberations . On July 1 , 2007 , Logan 's attorney died after being involved in an automobile collision on Route 10 in Glen Burnie , further complicating matters . However , a few months later , he was subsequently convicted again after pleading guilty and sentenced to thirty years imprisonment on October 24 , 2007 , with credit for the five years he had already served , much to the disappointment of the victims ' surviving family members , who felt he deserved a lifelong imprisonment for his crime . = = = = Legacy = = = = The murders occurred eleven days before the Maryland Democratic Party 's primary election to determine its candidate for the Prince George 's County sheriff . As there were no candidates running for sheriff in any other parties , the winner of the primary election would automatically run unopposed in the general election itself . The incumbent sheriff lost reelection to the union president , who vowed to implement new measures to prevent a similar incident from occurring in the future . Arnaud was posthumously promoted to sergeant , and Magruder was posthumously promoted to deputy first class . Arnaud is survived by his wife , Theresa , and several children . Magruder is survived by her husband Derwinn and her three @-@ year @-@ old son Devinn . In September 2002 , Arnaud and Magruder were posthumously honored before the U.S. House of Representatives by U.S. Representative Steny H. Hoyer of Maryland 's 5th congressional district . The killings helped to spur the passage of a new Maryland state law pertaining to the treatment of the mentally ill , which went into effect on October 1 , 2003 . The law 's creation and passage were spurred in part by testimony from Logan 's parents , James Logan , Sr. and Karen Logan . The law allows a judge to order a mandatory psychiatric evaluation of a person , if the person presented a threat to themselves or to others . = = = 2008 : Deputy wounded in Laurel = = = On February 16 , 2008 , at approximately 3 : 30 a.m. , a PGSO SWAT team member was shot and critically wounded while serving a warrant as part of a task force with Deputy U.S. Marshals . The suspect , Aaron M. Lowry , was wanted for the shooting of a Washington , D.C. police officer . The injured deputy was flown to Baltimore Shock Trauma Center where he had surgery and was upgraded to serious but stable condition , and survived . = = = 2008 : Berwyn Heights mayor 's residence raid = = = On July 29 , 2008 , the PGPD and PGSO raided the home of Cheye Calvo , the mayor of the Town of Berwyn Heights . The raid team did not coordinate their action with the local police department as required by mutual agreement , nor did they did not obtain a warrant or knock on the door to announce their presence . They raided the house with explosive devices and with firearms drawn . During the course of the raid , they shot and killed the Calvo family 's two pet Labrador retriever dogs . No charges were filed against the family . A PGSO internal investigation stated that the PGSO 's actions were justified . In 2010 , Sheriff Michael A. Jackson , defended the actions taken during the raid , saying : " Quite frankly we 'd do it again tonight . " = = = 2012 : Courthouse misconduct = = = In June 2012 , Deputy Lamar McIntyre was charged with having coitus with a woman that was in custody at the county courthouse . In 2014 , He pleaded guilty and was sentenced to three years in custody , with all but one @-@ year suspended . He was mandated to be required to submit to eighteen months of supervised probation . = = = 2012 – present : Accreditation = = = Although it has been working for over fifteen years towards achieving accreditation , since 2000 , the PGSO , as of January 2015 , has still not been nationally accredited . In late 2015 , the PGSO received Ford Taurus Police Interceptors for use in its vehicular fleet . = = Organization = = The sheriff is elected by the citizens of Prince George 's County . The rank structure of the remaining members of the Sheriff 's Office is , like many U.S. law enforcement agencies , modeled after the U.S. military . The ranks of student deputy through corporal are non @-@ competitive. sergeant through captain are competitive . The ranks of lieutenant colonel ( Assistant Sheriff ) and colonel ( Chief Assistant Sheriff ) are appointed by , and serve at the disrections of the sheriff . The PGSO is divided into three bureaus : = = = Headquarters = = = The Prince George 's County Sheriff 's Office 's headquarters was located at the county seat of Upper Marlboro until 2000 , when Sheriff Alonzo D. " Al " Black II , moved it to the nearby town of Largo where it remained until August 2008 . His successor , Sheriff Michael A. Jackson returned the office headquarters to Upper Marlboro , near the Depot Pond , where it remains today . He was succeeded by Sheriff Melvin C. High in 2010 , who was subsequently re @-@ elected in 2014 . = = = Bureau of Court Services = = = The PGSO 's Bureau of Court Services is based out of the court complex located within the municipality of Upper Marlboro and is responsible for the safety and security of the circuit court in Upper Marlboro , transportation of inmates , and to provide assistant security and law enforcement services to the District Court in Upper Marlboro and Hyattsville , as well as domestic violence liaison services . The Bureau of Court Services is subdivided into four sections : Circuit Court , District Court , Transportation , and Building Security . Specifically , the bureau is responsible for the safety and security of the 7th Judicial Circuit for the State of Maryland and the District Court for Prince George 's County located within the court complexes and adjacent property in Upper Marlboro and Hyattsville . Yearly , between the Circuit Court , District Court , Transportation , and Building Security Sections , the bureau transports an average of 31 @,@ 000 prisoners , effects 700 warrant and warrantless arrests , and interviews over 8 @,@ 000 victims of domestic violence . = = = Bureau of Field Operations = = = The PGSO 's Bureau of Field Operations was based out of the Largo Substation and is charged with : Civil / Landlord & Tenant , Domestic Violence Intervention Unit ( DVIU or DV Unit ) , Warrant / Fugitive Squad , and Child Support Enforcement . The Civil section is responsible for service of criminal and civil summonses , and other court @-@ ordered writs . The Landlord and Tenant ( L & T ) Section is responsible for notification of delinquent rent and / or mortgage payments / foreclosures , and court @-@ ordered evictions . The section receives approximately 10 @,@ 000 writs for non @-@ payment each month . The Domestic Violence Intervention Unit 's primary responsibility is response to domestic @-@ related 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 calls , court @-@ ordered psychiatric commitments , and ex parte protective order service . The Prince George 's DV Unit was the first in the State of Maryland and the first to operate on a 24 @-@ hour basis , and is considered a nationally recognized model . The unit receives on average over 1 @,@ 200 orders per month , the highest in the state . = = = Bureau of Administration = = = The PGSO 's Bureau of Administration is based out of the main headquarters located in Upper Marlboro and contains the School Resource , Public Information Office ( PIO ) , Recruiting , Training , and Internal Affairs . The Public Information Office ( PIO ) also operates an Explorers Post , Prince George 's County Sheriff 's Office Explorer Post # 1696 for Prince George 's County youths between the ages of 15 ( or 14 , provisionally ) and 20 . The sheriff and his command staff operate out of the Sheriff 's Office complex located in Upper Marlboro . Most of the civilian support personnel also work out of this facility providing administrative duties such as NCIC monitoring , teletype ( TTY ) , uniform and supply , criminal warrant research and organization , as well as other administrative duties as directed . = = = Special Operations Division = = = The PGSO 's Special Operations Division ( SOD ) is responsible for specialized and specific services . The division is commanded by an assistant bureau chief and has different teams specifically responsible for : SST ( SWAT ) -response , executive and witness protection , riot control , crisis negotiations , intelligence gathering , motorcycle escort , and ceremonial duties . = = = = Specialized units = = = = Specialized Services Team ( SST ) VIP / Witness Protection Team ( VIPER ) Civil Disturbance Unit ( CDU ) K @-@ 9 Motorcycle Unit D.A.R.E. Hostage Negotiation Homeland Security and Intelligence = = = Union representation = = = Sworn PGSO personnel below the rank of captain , along with all civilian employees , are represented by the Deputy Sheriffs ' Association / Fraternal Order of Police , Maryland Lodge 112 ( DSA ) . The DSA is a labor union that provides , among other things , collective bargaining and legal assistance for its members . The current president of the union is William R. Milam . = = Sheriffs = = = = Line of duty deaths = = There have been two PGSO deputy sheriffs killed in the line of duty , both in August 2002 . = = Rank structure = = = = Fleet = = The Prince George 's County Sheriff 's Office currently operates a fleet consisting primarily of sixth @-@ generation Ford Taurus Police Interceptors , ninth generation Chevrolet Impalas and Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptors . It also operates the Ford Police Interceptor Utility . The PGSO 's transportation unit uses specialized Chevrolet and Dodge vans , whereas the motorcycle unit uses Harley @-@ Davidson Police Edition motorcycles . The PGSO also has a Freightliner FS @-@ 65 bus . In the past , the PGSO used eight generation Chevrolet Impalas , first generation Ford Crown Victorias , fifth generation Pontiac Grand Prix sedans , Jeep Cherokees , as well as a few 1999 to 2001 Chevrolet Luminas . The current paint scheme of the PGSO 's marked cruisers is a white base paint with brown and gold striping with the word " SHERIFF " emblazoned on the side doors . In the past , the PGSO 's horizontal vehicular stripe decals were green and gold , with a simple PGSO patch door decal being used before that , along with black " SHERIFF " lettering written in a sans @-@ serif typeface . The light bars used on the PGSO 's cars are a slim Whelen Generation II LED version , with red and blue lighting . The Domestic Violence Intervention Unit has all marked vehicles with Panasonic Toughbook computers assigned to the cars .
= Max ( The X @-@ Files ) = " Max " is the eighteenth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on March 23 , 1997 . It was directed by Kim Manners , and written by Frank Spotnitz and series creator Chris Carter . " Max " featured guest appearances by Joe Spano , Tom O 'Brien and Scott Bellis , and saw the final appearance of Brendan Beiser as special agent Pendrell . The episode helped to explore the overarching mythology , or fictional history of The X @-@ Files . " Max " earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 6 , being watched by 18 @.@ 34 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics . The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Following the airplane crash that killed alien abductee Max Fenig , Mulder is pursued by an assassin looking to recover an alien artifact . " Max " is a two @-@ part episode , with the plot continuing from the previous episode , " Tempus Fugit " . Manners praised the large cast of extras used during production , concluding that they were the best he had worked with . " Max " featured scenes filmed at Vancouver International Airport and in a studio water tank , as well as using the custom @-@ built Boeing 737 set constructed for " Tempus Fugit " . Dialogue in the episode was inspired by the 1949 film The Third Man . = = Plot = = = = = Background = = = Max Fenig ( Scott Bellis ) , a Mutual UFO Network member , has been repeatedly abducted by aliens throughout his life . After meeting with FBI agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) , Fenig was abducted once again , and thought to have been lost entirely . Several years later , Fenig is found dead amongst the victims of an airplane crash . Investigating the disaster , Mulder and his partner Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) learn that the airplane crashed after being intercepted by a military jet — and possibly by an alien spacecraft . Mulder 's search for evidence of such a craft leads to him diving to the bottom of Great Sacandaga Lake to find it ; while Scully is ambushed by an assassin seeking to kill a military witness , leading to her colleague Pendrell ( Brendan Beiser ) being shot . = = = Events = = = Mulder is caught by a group of commandos after swimming to shore . In Washington , Scully tends to the critically wounded Pendrell while Man in Black Garrett escapes . Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) arrives shortly afterwards and tells Scully that the orders to protect Frish have been countermanded and he is being arrested for providing false testimony . Scully releases Mulder from confinement and tells him the " official " explanation for the crash , that Frish and Gonzales caused the crash by mistakenly vectoring a military fighter craft with the plane , and that Frish has been lying to cover it up . Mulder is skeptical of this latest explanation and thinks the crashed UFO he found underwater is really what was involved in the crash . Scully tells Mulder that Sharon is not really Max 's sister , but rather an unemployed aeronautical engineer who met Max in a mental institution . She also tells him that Agent Pendrell died from his wounds . Mulder and Scully visit Max 's trailer , and watch a tape of him where he talks about finding proof of alien existence . The military recovers the crashed UFO from the lake , including the alien body . The agents visit Millar , whose investigation has been unable to prove or disprove the military 's cover story . Mulder tells Millar what he believed really happened . Mulder believes that Max boarded the plane with proof of alien life and that a UFO stopped the plane , abducting him . A military aircraft intercepted the two however , with orders to attack the UFO . While Max was being returned , the military aircraft struck , causing both the UFO and plane to crash . Mulder visits Max 's trailer again and looks through his mail , finding a luggage claim ticket . Scully visits Sharon , now in a mental institution , who tells Scully that she stole technology from her employer that Max believed was alien . The device was in three parts , one which she had , one that he brought on the plane and a third one . Mulder uses the claim ticket to obtain the third device at a New York airport and heads on a plane to return to Washington . Garrett , who is also aboard , sits next to him . Mulder soon realizes who Garrett is and holds him at gunpoint . Garrett does not care , telling Mulder that if he shoots him the plane will depressurize and he will be able to escape with a parachute he has with him . Mulder imprisons Garrett in the airplane bathroom but Garrett soon emerges with a zip gun and orders him to hand over the device . Suddenly the plane starts shaking and bright lights shine in through the windows . When the plane touches down and Mulder gets out both Garrett and the device are gone and Mulder is missing nine minutes , having no memory of what happened . The agents visit Sharon one last time in Max 's trailer and say goodbye . = = Production = = The writers decided to kill off agent Pendrell in this episode . Actor Brendan Beiser portrayed the character in eight other episodes , first appearing in the third season episode " Nisei " . Val Steffof , the assistant director of the filming crew , wanted a part , telling director Kim Manners " you know , I can act " ; this led to Steffof being cast as a bartender . The song " Unmarked Helicopters " by Soul Coughing can be heard playing in Max Fenig 's trailer ; the song also appeared on the 1996 compilation album Songs in the Key of X : Music from and Inspired by the X @-@ Files . The very first scene was shot in a small tank across the street from North Shore Studios in Vancouver . Wide @-@ angle lenses were used to film the scene as the actors did not actually have much room for swimming . This made it look like the actors are actually covering some ground , while in reality they only swam 10 to 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 7 m ) . On the set of the following scene in which Fox Mulder reaches the shore , it was raining and very cold . Manners commented that the acting crew was more tired than usual because of it — during filming , Duchovny struggled to run from the actors playing his pursuers , but had previously been able to run from two horses when filming the episode " Tunguska " . It took several days to film the alien abduction scene . Internal shots of the airplane 's cockpit were filmed in a real flight simulator , separate from the airplane set used for the rest of the interior shots . The exterior scenes were filmed at Vancouver International Airport . Executive producer John Shiban was asked to write a speech for Garrett in the scene in which Mulder encounters him on the airplane . Inspired by a speech given by Orson Welles in The Third Man , Shiban wrote the monologue as an homage to the film . The scenes of the airplane 's final airborne moments included eighty extras who Manners felt were " eighty of the best extras I 've ever worked with in my life " . Several extras were as young as four years old , leading series creator Chris Carter to note that the scene would benefit from showing younger children , though these were represented by dolls as a safety precaution . The beam of light seen shining from beneath the UFO in the episode was achieved by compositing several shots together , with elements including a crane carrying a spotlight — borrowed from the Canadian Coast Guard — and the spray from an aerosol combined to create the final shot . = = Broadcast and reception = = " Max " premiered on the Fox network on March 23 , 1997 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on January 21 , 1998 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 6 with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 18 @.@ 34 million viewers watched this episode during its original airing . The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Todd VanDerWerff , writing for The A.V. Club , rated " Max " an A − . VanDerWerff was unconvinced that the episode , along with " Tempus Fugit " , merited being stretched over two parts ; however , he felt that the character of Fenig was " a simultaneous paean to the many , many lives lost in this fictional war and a very real story about someone who could very well live on the edges of our society , driven mad by visions that are only real to himself , visions the rest of us would immediately disregard as unbelievable and surreal " . Paula Vitaris , writing for Cinefantastique , rated " Max " one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . Vitaris praised the episode 's visual effects ; however , she felt that the two parts of the story would have better served as " a taut one @-@ hour episode " . Vitaris also felt that the episode 's final act , featuring Mulder on an airplane , saw Mulder uncharacteristically putting civilians at risk and was an example of " out and out bad writing " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five , describing it as " tighty , satisfying , witty and touching " . Shearman noted that the second half of two @-@ part episodes in the series tended to " drop the ball " , but felt that the story arc of " Tempus Fugit " and " Max " was " very solid " , calling them " the most satisfying " event " multiparter that The X @-@ Files has ever done " .
= Augustus Owsley Stanley = Augustus Owsley Stanley I ( May 21 , 1867 – August 12 , 1958 ) was a politician from the US state of Kentucky . A Democrat , he served as the 38th Governor of Kentucky and also represented the state in both the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate . From 1903 to 1915 , Stanley represented Kentucky 's 2nd congressional district in the House of Representatives , where he gained a reputation as a progressive reformer . Beginning in 1904 , he called for an antitrust investigation of the American Tobacco Company , claiming they were a monopoly that drove down prices for the tobacco farmers of his district . As a result of his investigation , the Supreme Court of the United States broke up the American Tobacco Company in 1911 . Stanley also chaired a committee that conducted an antitrust investigation of U.S. Steel , which brought him national acclaim . Many of his ideas were incorporated into the Clayton Antitrust Act . During an unsuccessful senatorial bid in 1914 , Stanley assumed an anti @-@ prohibition stance . This issue would dominate his political career for more than a decade and put him at odds with J. C. W. Beckham , the leader of the pro @-@ temperance faction of the state 's Democratic Party . In 1915 , Stanley ran for governor , defeating his close friend Edwin P. Morrow by just over 400 votes . It was the closest gubernatorial race in the state 's history . Historian Lowell H. Harrison called Stanley 's administration the apex of the Progressive Era in Kentucky . Among the reforms adopted during his tenure were a state antitrust law , a campaign finance reform law , and a workman 's compensation law . In 1918 , Stanley was chosen as the Democratic nominee to succeed the recently deceased senator Ollie M. James . Stanley was elected , but did not resign as governor to take the seat until May 1919 and accomplished little in his single term . He lost his re @-@ election bid to Frederic M. Sackett in the 1924 Republican landslide and never again held elected office . He died in Washington , D. C. on August 12 , 1958 . = = Early life = = Augustus Owsley Stanley was born in Shelbyville , Kentucky on May 21 , 1867 ; he was the eldest of seven children of William and Amanda ( Owsley ) Stanley . His father was a minister of the Disciples of Christ and served as a judge advocate on the staff of Joseph E. Johnston in the Confederate Army . His mother was the niece of former Kentucky governor William Owsley . He attended Gordon Academy in Nicholasville , Kentucky and the Kentucky Agricultural and Mechanical College ( later the University of Kentucky ) before graduating with an A.B. from Centre College in 1889 . At both Centre and Kentucky A & M , he competed at the State Oratorical Contest , becoming the only such competitor to represent two different institutions . For a year after graduation , Stanley served as chair of belles @-@ lettres at Christian College in Hustonville , Kentucky . The following year , he was principal of Marion Academy in Bradfordsville , then spent two years in the same position at Mackville Academy in Mackville . While he held these positions , he studied law under Gilbert Cassiday . He was admitted to the bar in 1894 , and opened his practice in Flemingsburg , Kentucky . = = Political career = = Stanley 's first venture into the political arena was in 1897 when he made an unsuccessful bid to become county attorney of Fleming County . He continued to practice law in Flemingsburg until March 1898 when he moved to Henderson because of financial hardships . He served as a Democratic presidential elector on the ticket of William Jennings Bryan in 1900 . = = = House of Representatives = = = In 1902 , Stanley was elected as a U.S. Representative from Kentucky 's 2nd congressional district . During his tenure in the House , he served on the Committee on Mines and Mining , the Committee on Territories , and the Committee on Agriculture . He advocated for progressive reforms such as more extensive study of mine accident prevention , railroad regulation , a pure food and drug act , and an eight @-@ hour work day . By the time of Stanley 's election to the House , the American Tobacco Company had eliminated all its substantial competitors either by acquisition or by driving them out of business . The company worked with British tobacco manufacturers to set tobacco prices worldwide . Congressman Stanley came to the defense of the tobacco farmers of his district , making him virtually unbeatable as a congressional candidate . In the first of his five consecutive terms , he authored a bill that would remove an oppressive national tobacco tax , hoping this would help raise prices for unprocessed tobacco . The bill was defeated by extensive lobbying efforts by the American Tobacco Company . In 1904 , he convinced the Ways and Means Committee to hold public hearings on the American Tobacco Company 's monopolistic actions , but the hearings did not convince legislators to repeal the tax nor take action against the American Tobacco Company . Besides his legislative efforts on behalf of farmers , Stanley also directly encouraged them to organize and keep their crops off the market until prices improved . He helped draft the charter for the Dark District Tobacco Planters Association . Some of the more radical members of this group , known as the " Night Riders " , used vigilante violence to compel membership in the Association during what became known as the Black Patch Tobacco Wars . Finally in 1909 , Stanley attached his proposed repeal of the tobacco tax as a rider to the Payne @-@ Aldrich Tariff Act . The bill passed the House , but the Senate stripped Stanley 's provision . Kentucky Senator Ollie M. James reintroduced the repeal into the Senate version of the bill , and it survived when the bill was passed into law . The repeal resulted in higher tobacco prices , and although Stanley had not been alone in getting the repeal passed , he received much of the credit . In 1911 , Stanley 's fight against the American Tobacco Company bore fruit , as the Supreme Court ruled the company to be in violation of antitrust laws and broke it into separate companies . Both the tax repeal and the breakup of American Tobacco helped quell the violence perpetrated by the Night Riders . Stanley gained national notoriety for his actions against U.S. Steel . In 1909 , he introduced a resolution calling for an investigation of the company , but it died in the House Rules Committee . A second resolution , introduced in June 1910 , passed the House , but was ignored by President William Howard Taft . Stanley introduced a stronger resolution later that month , but it was killed in committee . After Republicans lost control of the house in the 1910 congressional elections , Stanley reintroduced his resolution . House Speaker Champ Clark appointed him as chairman of a nine @-@ member committee to investigate U.S. Steel . The committee 's investigation lasted from May 1911 to April 1912 . At its conclusion , the committee split along party lines . Stanley authored the majority report which condemned alleged price fixing by U.S. Steel and censured President Theodore Roosevelt for his role in U.S. Steel 's purchase of the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company . The minority report , authored by Republican Augustus P. Gardner , absolved Roosevelt and downplayed the price fixing charges . Stanley 's report also recommended a number of changes to strengthen the Sherman Anti @-@ Trust Act . Though his recommendations were not enacted into law during his time in the House , many of them were eventually included in the Clayton Antitrust Act . = = = 1915 senatorial bid = = = Despite having no serious challengers for his House seat , Stanley declined to seek re @-@ election in 1915 , choosing instead to run for a seat in the U.S. Senate . He was one of three Democrats seeking the seat , the others being Governor James B. McCreary and former governor J. C. W. Beckham . McCreary was never a serious challenger , and the primary campaign centered on Stanley and Beckham , the leaders of the two largest factions of the state 's Democratic party . The two men disliked each other . Stanley had once referred to Beckham as " a fungus growth on the grave of Goebel " – an allusion to Beckham 's former running mate , Governor William Goebel , whose assassination in 1900 had elevated Beckham to the governorship . During the campaign , Stanley criticized Beckham 's use of machine politics , calling his opponent " Little Lord Fauntleroy " . Prohibition became the major issue of the campaign . Though both Stanley and Beckham were known to drink liquor , Beckham campaigned on a pro @-@ temperance platform . Stanley , an opponent of prohibition , criticized Beckham 's position as hypocritical , saying of pro @-@ temperance politicians in general and Beckham in particular " They keep full of booze and introduce bills to punish the man who sells it to them . " " [ Beckham ] would sell out the world to go to the Senate , " he added . The support of Louisville Courier @-@ Journal editor Henry Watterson and Representative Ben Johnson were not enough to carry Stanley to victory . Beckham secured the Democratic nomination by almost 7 @,@ 000 votes and went on to win the seat in the general election . = = = Governor of Kentucky = = = Several candidates announced their intention to seek the Democratic gubernatorial nomination in 1915 , but by late August , only two remained in the race . Stanley was the choice of the anti @-@ prohibition faction of the party , while state superintendent Harry V. McChesney represented the prohibition faction , backed by Beckham . Stanley won the nomination with 107 @,@ 585 votes to McChesney 's 69 @,@ 722 . The Republicans nominated Stanley 's close friend Edwin P. Morrow . The two traveled the state together , often speaking from the same stage . Stanley was a powerful orator who used dramatic flourishes to emphasize his points . He would often loosen his tie before he ever started speaking , and by the end of his speech have thrown off his vest and coat . In one instance , the candidates debated a tax on dog owners of one dollar per dog . Stanley favored the tax , while Morrow contended that everyone should be allowed one dog tax @-@ free . Stanley ridiculed the idea as " Free Old Dog Ring , " and sometimes howled like a dog in speeches deriding the proposal . On another occasion Stanley , who had too much to drink , vomited in front of the audience as Morrow spoke . When Stanley took the podium , he remarked , " That just goes to show you what I have been saying all over Kentucky . Ed Morrow plain makes me sick to my stomach . " Democrats had been divided in the primary , but united behind Stanley in the general election . Senators Beckham and Ollie M. James endorsed him , as did Governor James B. McCreary . Samuel Gompers praised Stanley for his opposition to trusts while in Congress ; endorsements from local chapters of the American Federation of Labor soon followed . Even Harry McChesney , Stanley 's primary opponent , urged Kentuckians to vote a straight Democratic ticket . The election was too close to call on election night . Knowing that a challenged election would be decided by the heavily Democratic General Assembly , Morrow conceded a week later . Official results showed that Stanley won the election by 471 votes , the closest gubernatorial vote in the state 's history . Historian Lowell H. Harrison called Stanley 's administration the apex of the Progressive Era in Kentucky . The most significant legislation passed during the 1916 legislative session were a state antitrust law and a ban on railroads offering free passes to public figures . A Corrupt Practices Act required candidates for office to file reports of their expenses , limited the amount of allowable expenses , and forbade public service corporations from contributing to any campaign . Other accomplishments included initiating the state 's first budget program , enacting its first workman 's compensation law , and instituting a convict labor law . The one progressive measure that did not pass , a bill granting women 's suffrage , failed in the House by a single vote . Stanley called the General Assembly into special session in February 1917 . At issue was reformation of the state 's tax code , which Stanley felt unjustly burdened agricultural interests . The state was also incurring large deficits , ranging from $ 100 @,@ 000 to $ 700 @,@ 000 annually . Though Kentucky was in better shape financially than many of its peers , Stanley still sought to balance the budget . The session lasted sixty days , and the legislature passed of many of the bills he advocated . The most significant created a three @-@ member state tax commission , chaired by M. M. Logan . Additional taxes were passed on distilled spirits , oil production , race tracks , and corporate licenses . Assessments on the value of property , which had typically been evaluated at one @-@ third to one @-@ half of fair market price , rose dramatically . To balance this increase , legislators reduced the tax rates on certain types of property . With the dramatic increase in funds yielded by the special session , the General Assembly approved funding increases in nearly every part of state government , including higher education . The State Board of Health was given expanded powers , and county boards of health were established . Stanley 's administration was affected by the United States ' entry into World War I. The legislature established and funded a state Council of Defense , but Stanley vetoed a bill that would have banned the teaching of German in public schools . As in his run for Senate and in the gubernatorial primary , the liquor question was central to Stanley 's tenure as governor . Although anti @-@ prohibition forces declared prohibition dead following his election , a prohibition amendment was introduced during the first legislative session following it . The amendment failed by a vote of 20 – 14 in the state senate . In 1918 it was submitted to the state 's voters by an overwhelming 95 – 17 joint vote of the General Assembly . Although Stanley was against prohibition , he supported the 1918 amendment in order to settle the liquor issue and clear the legislature 's order paper for other measures . In 1919 , Kentucky was the first " wet " state to ratify the Eighteenth Amendment , enshrining prohibition into the national constitution . = = = U.S. Senator = = = On August 18 , 1918 , incumbent senator Ollie M. James died . Stanley appointed George B. Martin to finish James ' term , which was to expire on March 3 of the following year . James had already been nominated for re @-@ election in 1918 by the Democratic primary , and the task of selecting the party 's new nominee fell to the Democratic State Committee , which nominated Stanley . Stanley enjoyed the advantage of a united Democratic party ; J. C. W. Beckham supported Stanley for this seat so Stanley would not challenge him for his own seat when he faced re @-@ election . The Republicans chose a relative unknown , Dr. Ben L. Bruner . Stanley was attacked for his veto of the German language bill and for his long @-@ standing views against temperance . Though the national mood was against the Democrats , a letter of support from President Woodrow Wilson bolstered Stanley 's campaign , and he defeated Bruner by more than 5 @,@ 000 votes . He resigned as governor to assume the Senate seat in May 1919 . As a Democrat in a mostly Republican Senate , he wielded little influence . When Stanley sought re @-@ election to his seat in 1924 , he faced an uphill battle . No Kentucky senator had been re @-@ elected to his seat in over forty years ( though senators had been popularly elected only since 1914 ) . His opposition to prohibition cost him the support of pro @-@ temperance voters and Democratic governor William J. Fields . He was also opposed by the Ku Klux Klan , then a powerful organization in the state , because of his opposition to bigotry and secret organizations . His Republican opponent Frederic M. Sackett secured the support of the Beckham wing of the Democratic Party . Despite having his own private stock of liquor , Sackett took a pro @-@ temperance position in the campaign and was endorsed by the Anti @-@ Saloon League . Louisville Courier @-@ Journal editor Robert Worth Bingham added his endorsement , calling Sackett " one of the best men I know " . In the general election , Stanley lost his seat by almost 25 @,@ 000 votes . Sackett 's victory meant Kentucky would have two Republican senators for the first time in its history . = = Later life and death = = Following his defeat in the Senate , Stanley returned to his legal practice . In the 1927 gubernatorial election , he threw his support to his old enemy , J. C. W. Beckham , hoping to improve his chances of returning to the Senate in 1930 . Beckham lost to Republican Flem D. Sampson , greatly diminishing Stanley 's chances in the senatorial campaign . In 1930 , President Herbert Hoover appointed Stanley to the International Joint Commission , a body charged with settling boundary disputes between the United States and Canada . Stanley became its chair in 1933 . He was very proud of his service on the Commission , and once noted that nowhere on earth have two great powers lived so long as neighbors with so few disputes . He served until 1954 when he resigned under pressure from his own party . Stanley died in Washington , D.C. , on August 12 , 1958 and was buried in Frankfort Cemetery in Frankfort , Kentucky . He was survived by his wife , Sue ( Soaper ) Stanley , and two of his three sons , William Stanley and Augustus Owsley Stanley II . His grandson , Augustus Owsley Stanley III ( 1935 – 2011 ) , became a well @-@ known LSD chemist and backer of the Grateful Dead during the hippie movement .
= Grace , Replaced = " Grace , Replaced " is the eighteenth episode of the first season of the American television series Will & Grace . It was written by Katie Palmer and directed by series producer James Burrows . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on April 8 , 1999 . Actors Molly Shannon , Leigh @-@ Allyn Baker , and Tom Gallop guest starred on " Grace , Replaced " . In the episode , Grace 's ( Debra Messing ) job forces her to work overtime , which leads to Will ( Eric McCormack ) feeling neglected . As a result , he seeks solace in the company of a new neighbor , Val ( Shannon ) . Meanwhile , Jack ( Sean Hayes ) is annoyed that he has to perform community service for assaulting a meter maid . Before the airing , NBC moved the program to Thursdays at 8 : 30 p.m. , after it was a success in the Tuesday lineup . " Grace , Replaced " was the first episode to debut on the Thursday slot . Since then , the episode has generally received positive reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , it was watched by 12 @.@ 9 million viewers , which resulted in the episode attracting its highest ratings of the season . = = Plot = = Will ( Eric McCormack ) feels neglected by his best friend , Grace ( Debra Messing ) , as she spends a lot of time with her work . When Will calls Grace to confirm for a lunch date , Grace cannot go as she is too busy creating interior designs . Later , while doing his laundry , Will meets his new upstairs neighbor , Val ( Molly Shannon ) . Immediately , the two take a liking to one another . The next day , Will visits Grace at work and introduces Val to her . After the two leave , Karen ( Megan Mullally ) — Grace 's friend and socialite assistant — tells Grace that she did not like the way Will and Val acted towards one another . Grace , however , refuses to accept what Karen implies . Meanwhile , after slapping a meter maid , Jack ( Sean Hayes ) is ordered to work 40 hours of community service , picking up garbage , and while he does this is forced to wear an orange jumpsuit . While doing community service he visits Karen at Grace Adler Designs . While there , Jack goes through a trash bag and sees Soon @-@ Yi Allen 's phone bill . Jack shows Karen the bill which quickly results in the two prank calling Soon @-@ Yi . At Will and Grace 's apartment , Will and Val play Pyramid against Will 's friends Ellen ( Leigh @-@ Allyn Baker ) and Rob ( Tom Gallop ) . Grace , who comes home , is shocked when her Pyramid record with Will — 2 minutes and 14 seconds — is the same as Will and Val 's . Before leaving , Grace is horrified that Will called her Val . While at her office , Grace learns that Will is sick . She goes home to attend to him and is surprised to see Val there . Grace tells her that since she is home that Val can go . Val , however , does not leave . This results in the two fighting . The fight , however , is broken by Will and tells them to work the situation out . Grace admits she felt jealous of Val as she believed Val had replaced her , due to her not being there for Will . Will , however , reassures Grace that no one can replace her as his best friend . As a result , Grace and Val make up . = = Production = = " Grace , Replaced " was written by Katie Palmer and directed by series producer James Burrows . This was Palmer 's first written episode , and was Burrows ' 18th directed episode . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 8 , 1999 . Before the airing of the episode , it was confirmed that actress Molly Shannon would guest star as Val , a new neighbor in Will and Grace 's apartment building . This episode would be Shannon 's first appearance on the show , with her later guest starring in the episodes " Girls , Interrupted " , " Last of the Really Odd Lovers " , " Fagel Attraction " , and " One Gay at a Time " . = = Reception = = " Grace , Replaced " brought in 12 @.@ 9 million American viewers upon its original broadcast in the United States , and making it the seventh highest @-@ rated show during the week of April 5 – 11 , 1999 . Originally , Will & Grace aired on Mondays , but due to insufficient viewership , NBC decided to move the program to Tuesdays at 9 : 30 p.m. , which was a success as viewers tuned in . The network then changed the time slot from Tuesdays to Thursdays at 8 : 30 p.m. , between Friends and Frasier , with this episode becoming a success as it attracted its highest audience ratings of the season . The previous episode , " Secrets and Lays " , was watched by 9 @.@ 6 million viewers . Many believed this decision was a good one , with a contributor of The Buffalo News commenting that the time slot change suggested that NBC felt that Will & Grace had a better chance of becoming a success than the current sitcom Jesse . In a report in The Star @-@ Ledger it said that the decision of Will & Grace airing on Thursdays was a good benefit on behalf of NBC as the program was " the only watchable comedy " . The episode received generally positive reception . Alan Sepinwall and Matt Zoller Seitz of The Star @-@ Ledger were complimentary towards " Grace , Replaced " , writing that the episode " is a winner , packed with witty dialogue . " Monica Collins of the Boston Herald said that the episode " is one of the best of the series so far " . The Dallas Morning News writer Ed Bark noted that " Grace , Replaced " was " another energetic , generally amusing " episode . Bark , in regards to Jack and Karen , said that the two together " sometimes are almost more than the scenery can bear . " Aaron Barnhart for The Kansas City Star called the episode riotous , and said that the show " with [ its ] pop @-@ culture jokes delivered at blistering speed , outsized performances from ' supporting ' players Sean Hayes and Megan Mullally , and a camaraderie between platonic pals Eric McCormack and Debra Massing that would make even Plato blush . " Ted Cox of the Daily Herald was less positive about the episode , reporting that this episode " looked like more of the same " , recounting the show 's past story lines , and past NBC programs . Chicago Tribune 's Steve Johnson opined that the episode " starts strong and then goes awry [ ... ] It 's funny for a while [ ... ] But then it takes it to a ludicrous level , selling out its own internal logic by conspiring to put [ Molly ] Shannon and Messing into a ... catfight . At its best this series works a groove of pop @-@ culture savvy ; this visit from The Three Stooges by way of Dynasty will have you rolling your eyes in dismay . " Critics praised Shannon 's performance in the episode . Bark wrote , " ... the talented Ms. Shannon is winningly glossy and brassy [ in this episode ] . Someday soon she 'll have her own sitcom . Bet on it . " Tom Feran of The Plain Dealer reported that Shannon 's appearance on the show would make " a good introduction for viewers curious about Will & Grace . " The Boston Globe 's Matthew Gilbert enjoyed the actress in " Grace , Replaced " , writing that she is appealing as the Grace replacement .
= White Stag Leadership Development Program = The White Stag Leadership Development Program , founded in 1958 , is a summer camp for youth 11 @-@ 18 led by two California @-@ based non @-@ profits that sponsor leadership development activities . The teen youth staff of the two programs develop and produce several week @-@ long leadership summer camps every year for several hundred youth from Central and Northern California and a few youth from other states and countries . The outdoors program relies on hands @-@ on learning methods to help develop leadership competencies in youth . Originally founded on the Monterey Peninsula , California , in 1958 by Dr. Béla H. Bánáthy , there are currently two programs . One program in Concord , California is sponsored by the White Stag Association and a second program in Monterey , California is sponsored by the White Stag Leadership Development Academy . The entire program traces its history to the 1933 World Jamboree in Gödöllő , Hungary , which took as its emblem the white stag of Hungarian mythology . Four boys who did not know each other attended the Jamboree and met in the 1950s to lead the White Stag program . Founder Béla H. Bánáthy , a junior officer in the Hungarian Army during World War II , served on the National Council of the Hungarian Scout Association and became the voluntary national director for youth leadership development . At the end of the war , he narrowly escaped Soviet capture and likely execution . After considerable personal trials he arrived in June 1951 in Monterey , California to teach at the Army Language School . There he met two other Hungarians who had escaped the country before Soviet occupation , Joe Szentkiralyi and Paul Sujan , who had also attended the 1933 World Jamboree . They were initially assisted by a local American Scouter , Fran Peterson . Bánáthy became the Monterey Bay Area Council Training Chairman and developed an experimental program to train Scouts in leadership skills . He collaborated with research psychologist Paul Hood , who was leader of Task NCO ( Non @-@ Commissioned Officer ) , a research project by the U.S. Army that sought to identify the essential leadership skills of non @-@ commissioned leaders . As part of his Master 's thesis , Bánáthy identified eleven specific leadership competencies that he taught in the program 's summer camp . The efforts of the four men , assisted by Maury Tripp , rapidly gained the attention of the National Council of the Boy Scouts of America . They conducted extensive research that validated Bánáthy 's leadership model and developed its own version for nationwide use . They introduced the leadership competencies during the 1970s into both the adult Wood Badge program and youth @-@ focused National Youth Leadership Training . These two programs had originally focused primarily on teaching Scoutcraft skills and the Patrol Method . The change to teaching leadership was a marked cultural shift for how both adults and youth were trained in the skills of Scouting . The program is currently developed and delivered by two independent non @-@ profit groups in the Monterey Bay Area and in the San Francisco East Bay . In recent years , their youth staff plan and put on three week @-@ long summer camp programs at locations in Central and Northern California . The programs draw most of their participants from California , but attendees have come from Texas , Virginia , and international locations including France , Taiwan , Brazil , and China . The eleven leadership competencies remain a key part of both training program . The program , which observed its 50th anniversary in 2008 , has served over 21 @,@ 000 youth since its inception . = = History = = White Stag traces its direct roots to 1933 and Gödöllö , Hungary , and the Fourth World Scout Jamboree which three of its founders attended . = = = Origins in Hungary = = = At the 1933 World Scout Jamboree , a 14 @-@ year @-@ old Scout named Bela Bánáthy was kneeling by his campfire when three uniformed men rode up on horseback : Count Paul Teleki , the Chief Scout of Hungary and the Chief of Staff for the jamboree ; General Kisbarnaki Ferenc Farkas , a general staff officer of the Royal Hungarian Army ; and Baden @-@ Powell , the British hero of the Boer War and Chief Scout of the World . The men introduced themselves to the Scout and inspected his camp . They complimented him on a job well done and rode on . Meeting the Chief Scout of Hungary and Boer War hero Robert Baden @-@ Powell left a deep impression on Bánáthy . He decided he would become a military officer instead of a minister . Bánáthy briefly met fellow Hungarian Boy Scout Joseph Szentkiralyi . Hungarian Sea Scouter Paul Ferenc Sujan 's camp was visited by Baden @-@ Powell , who asked to taste some of his soup . American Maury Tripp attended the Jamboree from Saratoga , California . These four Scouts would later play instrumental roles in forming the White Stag program on the Monterey Peninsula . At the conclusion of the Jamboree , Baden @-@ Powell gave a farewell speech in which he challenged the Scouts present to pursue the ideals represented by the White Stag . This challenge and the myth of the White Stag it cites grew to become a source of inspiration to Bánáthy . During World War II , Bánáthy was a junior officer in the Royal Hungarian Army . After being seriously wounded during combat in Russia , through the connections he made at the World Jamboree , he was invited by General Farkas to join the faculty of the Hungarian Royal Academy . While there he served on the National Council of the Hungarian Scout Association and became the voluntary national director for youth leadership development . Barely escaping Soviet capture and likely execution at the end of World War II , Bánáthy arrived after considerable personal trials in June 1951 at Monterey , California to teach at the Army Language School , where he became reacquainted with Joe Szentkiralyi , who he had met at the Fourth World Jamboree . Joseph Szentkiralyi had also barely survived World War II . He and his family had previously lived in the United States in 1939 , where Szentkiralyi worked in New York City . At the start of World War II , they were deported as enemy aliens back to Hungary . Because he spoke English , Szentkiralyi was assigned to watch over the crew members of the first American B @-@ 17 bomber to crash land in Hungary . When the crew told him sensitive information , he was ordered to reveal the information to his superiors . Citing the Geneva Convention , he refused . The authorities prepared to court @-@ martial him , and Szentkiralyi fled . During a time of frequent Allied aerial bombing raids , he hid where he figured no one would look for him : in the upper floors of apartment buildings . During one bombing raid a 500 pounds ( 230 kg ) bomb crashed through and landed on the floor above him . Fortunately it did not explode . Szentkiralyi and his family later narrowly survived the Siege of Budapest . After the war ended , Szentkiralyi found work for the American Embassy in Budapest as a translator . However , this put him in a vulnerable position as the Communists hardened their grip on power . Because he had lived in the United States and spoke English , he knew he would fall under suspicion . People he knew began to disappear , including a friend who worked at the U.S. Embassy . Within a few days he found a note on his desk that read , " You are next . " With American assistance , he immediately fled Hungary for Switzerland . He and his family returned to New York City for a few months , and Szentkiralyi applied for a position as a Hungarian instructor at the Army Language School . The Army hired him in the summer of 1948 and he founded their Hungarian Department . Starting in 1951 , almost 25 years afterward , four Scouts who had attended the 1933 Fourth World Jamboree were reunited on the Monterey Peninsula . Joseph Szentkiralyi ( which he later Anglicized as St. Clair ) renewed his acquaintance with Bánáthy when he hired him . In 1956 , they were joined by Hungarian Paul Ferenc Sujan . In Monterey , through their Scouting contacts , they met F. Maurice Tripp . = = = Growth on the Monterey Peninsula = = = Bánáthy had developed a passion for the idea of leadership development in boys when serving in the Hungarian Army . In Monterey , he became Chairman of the Leadership Training Committee of the Monterey Bay Area Council . He sought and received support for his concept of a leadership camp for boys with the Council Executive and Executive Board . Bánáthy informally recruited one patrol of boys , including his own sons , and took them to summer camp in 1957 to test his idea . John Chiorini , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old Eagle Scout , was working on the waterfront . " Béla came through camp with a patrol of six or seven boys and commandeered me to teach a class on camp craft . He said he was trying out some new ideas with this patrol , " Chiorini reported " Béla listened intently as I presented and then he came up after and gave me some tips on teaching . He was a mentor to me from that point on . " During the summer of 1958 , Bánáthy recruited two patrols of boys to take part . Chiorini was recruited to serve as senior patrol leader . There wasn 't much discussion of leadership competencies to start . Bánáthy seemed to have an internal sense of direction which not everyone understood . Chiorini said , " White Stag was all about creating an environment in which youth led youth . At the time , Scouting was not necessarily a boy @-@ led program . I remember it was very clear in Béla ’ s mind what a boy @-@ led Scouting program looked like . There was no question about who was in charge in White Stag . The boys were . " Fran Peterson , a local Scouter who served on the National Engineering Service for the Boy Scouts of America , along with St. Clair , Sujan , and Tripp , helped Bánáthy develop the White Stag program . Some of them remained active with it into the 1970s . Borrowing on his experience at the 1933 World Jamboree , Bánáthy based the program symbol and its spirit and traditions on the white stag symbol found in the patch for the Fourth World Scout Jamboree , which was in turn based on Hungarian mythology . On June 8 , 1959 , at an adult staff meeting attended by Béla Bánáthy , Jack Stone , Bill White , Paul Holbrook , Ralph Herring , Fran Petersen , and Staff Advisor Bill Lidderdale , they " officially adopted White Stag as the name for junior leaders training events . " " Lord Baden @-@ Powell was my personal idol and I long felt a commitment to give back to Scouting what I had received , " Bánáthy said . During August 1959 , the first full @-@ scale program was put on . Bánáthy served as Scoutmaster , Fran Petersen was Assistant Scoutmaster , along with eight other adult staff and 13 youth staff . The training troop consisted of 39 trainees from 24 troops . In the first two years of the program , emphasis was placed on training patrol leaders . Bánáthy said , " I saw in these principles an opportunity to develop the White Stag program for my three Boy Scout sons as well as show my gratitude to this country and Scouting . " During the same year , Bánáthy continued his research on leadership and learned that the U.S. Army 's Human Resources Research Organization ( HumRRO ) at the Presidio of Monterey was conducting research into the leadership characteristics of non @-@ commissioned officers . Bánáthy contacted research psychologist Paul Hood , Task Leader of Task NCO ( Non @-@ commissioned Officer ) , and began a fruitful collaboration . A HumRRO publication titled , A Guide for the Infantry Squad Leader – What the Beginning Squad Leader Should Know About Human Relations articulated a core set of leadership competencies . Bánáthy found Hood 's research enumerated characteristics of leadership that strongly validated his vision and direction . With Hood 's active encouragement , he decided to incorporate these leadership skills into White Stag . In 1960 , the adult staff announced that they would expand the program to offer an additional phase of leadership development for boys 14 – 17 years old , to train " junior trainers and impart leadership skills . " This phase was christened Troop Leadership Development . = = = National Council takes notice = = = With the interest and support of the Monterey Bay Area Council executive staff and board , the program was continually tested and improved . Two men with connections on the National Council , Fran Peterson ( a member of the National Council 's Engineering Service ) and F. Maurice Tripp ( a research scientist and member of the National Boy Scout Training Committee ) , brought the White Stag program to the National Council 's attention . In 1962 , Tripp formed and chaired an advisory board of educators , psychologists , management specialists , and members of the Scout professional staff . During 1962 – 63 , Bánáthy focused his research and formalized it as his Master 's Thesis at San Jose State University . The Monterey Bay Area Council published an abbreviated version of it titled A Design for Leadership Development in Scouting . Responding to widespread interest , Dr. Tripp gave a talk in 1963 at the Fifty @-@ third Annual Meeting of the National Council of the Boy Scouts of America on Development of Leadership in Boy Leaders of Boys . In August 1963 , a patrol of Scouts from the San Mateo County Council and a few boys from the Circle Ten Council in Dallas attended White Stag summer camp at Camp Pico Blanco . The program was observed and evaluated by Ken Wells ( national director of Research ) and John Larson ( staff researcher ) . Wells had a long history with Wood Badge , beginning as a participant in the second United States Wood Badge course in 1948 . They were impressed by what they saw and experienced . At the end of the August 1964 summer camp , Béla Bánáthy and Fran Peterson announced that White Stag would begin in 1965 to offer a third phase of leadership development for boys age 11 – 13 , called " Patrol Member Development . " This was a revolutionary step , for it made it possible for all boys 11 – 17 years old to learn leadership skills appropriate to their maturity , capabilities , and needs , and as they grew to re @-@ cycle through the program in another phase and acquire increased skills . = = = World Scouting publishes paper = = = In 1969 , the World Organization of the Scout Movement published a paper by Béla Bánáthy titled Leadership Development : World Scouting Reference Paper No. 1 . It described the results of the Boy Scouts of America 's research and testing and was presented at the World Scoutings Conference in Helsinki . He advocated leadership development by design in Scouting based on the leadership competencies of White Stag . Bánáthy was appointed to the Interamerican Scout Committee and guided their national training teams at three Interamerican Train the Trainer events in Mexico , Costa Rica , and Venezuela . = = = Adapted for use in U.S. Wood Badge = = = In January 1967 , John Larson began work with Bánáthy and Bob Perin to write a new Wood Badge staff guide focusing on leadership . Two of the project members , Ken Wells and Bob Perin , had participated in the second United States Wood Badge course in 1948 . Despite their long experience in Wood Badge , they saw the benefit of adding leadership skills development to Wood Badge . William " Green Bar " Hillcourt , Scoutmaster of the first U.S. Wood Badge course in 1948 , felt very strongly that the traditional teaching of Scoutcraft skills should be retained . Hillcourt had recently formally retired , but his opinion still held considerable weight . Nonetheless , Chief Scout Joseph Brunton approved the changes . The National Boy Scouts of America began to test the revised Wood Badge program utilizing the White Stag leadership competencies later that year . In May 1967 , staff from councils who were invited to attend the initial course met at Philmont to plan the program , and on June 17 , 1967 , the first experimental Wood Badge course was offered at Philmont . One month later , the Circle Ten Council in Dallas presented its first new Wood Badge course . In September 1967 , six councils were approved to pilot @-@ test the new Wood Badge program in 1968 : Monterey Bay Area Council , Piedmont Council , Middle Tennessee , Del @-@ Mar @-@ Va , and Hiawatha ( formerly Onondago ) and Circle Ten Council . Among these was an experimental Wood Badge course in Monterey in 1968 . Bánáthy was Course Director , Joe St. Clair served as Scoutmaster , and Fran Petersen was senior patrol leader . John Larson , National Director of Education , was also present . In a unique application not since reproduced , all attendees were asked to bring their entire troop to a single week of summer camp , allowing the Wood Badge staff who also attended to use the summer camp as an application for Wood Badge . = = = Modified for use in junior leader training = = = Pilot @-@ testing and experimentation continued for three more years , and an experimental junior leader training program was begun in 1969 . This later became Troop Leader Development , containing modified versions of the leadership competencies which were included in the final Troop Leadership Development Staff Guide , written by John W. Larson , which credited White Stag with its origins : = = = Recent history = = = The White Stag program continued to present the Monterey Bay Area Council 's official junior leader training program through the early 1970s , and again from 1994 to 2004 . In 1975 , Bill Roberts , the Phase III Director , invited the first Explorer girls age 14 – 18 to take part in the program and adult women to serve on adult staff , becoming the first coeducational leadership development program in the Boy Scouts of America . When Bánáthy learned of girls ' new role in the program , he said it was long overdue . Committed to training youth of all ages in a manner reflecting the real world , where both sexes must work together , the next year White Stag invited girls age 11 – 13 to participate as well . The program was evaluated by a staff member from the Western Region of the Boy Scouts of America in 1978 . He wrote : White Stag Association incorporated At the same time , the Monterey Bay Area Council decided to replace the White Stag program with the nationally mandated adaptation of White Stag , the Troop Leader Development program . The adult volunteer leaders of White Stag , informally known as the White Stag Steering Committee , incorporated itself as the non @-@ profit foundation White Stag Association in 1982 and continued to sponsor the program . Prevented from using Camp Pico Blanco , it rented Skylark Ranch Resident Camp in the Santa Cruz Mountains from the Girl Scouts of Santa Clara County for two years . Over the next few years , the Association moved the summer program to San Mateo County Council 's Camp Cutter in the Santa Cruz Mountains , and later , at different times , to Marin Council 's Camp Marin @-@ Sierra and Yosemite Council 's Camp Mensinger in the California Sierra Nevada . They began attracting most of their youth from the San Francisco Bay Area . In 2014 , the Association secured use of Camp Robert L. Cole in the Tahoe National Forest near Cisco Grove , California . White Stag Academy formed When the Monterey Bay Area Council 's Junior Leader Training Chairman offered in 1994 to run the Council 's junior leader training program using the White Stag methods , the Council Executive agreed . White Stag adult alumni of the now San Francisco Bay Area @-@ based program who lived in the Monterey Peninsula area recruited a youth staff who planned and presented the White Stag program at Camp Pico Blanco in 1994 . This Monterey @-@ based program continued to present the council 's junior leader training program until 2005 , when a new Council Executive decided once again to adopt the current National Youth Leadership Training ( NYLT ) program . The adult leadership of the Monterey White Stag group incorporated in 2005 as the non @-@ profit charity White Stag Leadership Development Academy , Inc. to support the program . They have based their summer camp program at Camp Cutter and Camp Lindblad in the Santa Cruz Mountains , at Camp Tamarancho in Marin County , and at a custom @-@ built camp in Arroyo Seco on private land . Girl Scout spin @-@ off During 2004 , some leaders of the White Stag Academy organized a comparable program for the Girl Scouts of California 's Central Coast . The program teaches the eleven leadership skills used by White Stag . It was held at Cutter Scout Reservation for two years and is currently held at Boulder Creek Scout Reservation in the Santa Cruz Mountains . The Girl Scouts assumed leadership of the program after 2006 and renamed it Camp Artemis , after the Greek goddess who protects young girls , animals , and the natural environment . The Youth Staff are referred to as members of ALTA ( Artemis Leadership Training Adventure ) . They have continued to run Camp Artemis as a resident camp for girls 11 – 17 each summer . Summer camp programs Both the organization in Central California and the group in Northern California continue to develop and present summer camps for youth by youth , led by a corps of volunteer adults . The program will observe its 60th anniversary in 2018 . Participation in the Monterey @-@ based group has continued to increase each year , to 449 participants in 2013 , including 33 youth from Hong Kong , Taiwan , and mainland China , up from 70 in 2006 . The group sponsored by the White Stag Association has attracted between 40 and 83 campers from 2010 to 2014 . The two programs have operated continuously since the program 's founding entirely on a voluntary basis , with an estimated 21 @,@ 000 youth having attended its camps . In 2015 the two groups will produce four week @-@ long summer camps . = = Core tenets = = = = = Youth ready to learn = = = In his master 's thesis , Bánáthy established his reasoning for focusing on developing leadership skills in youth rather than adults . He wrote that adults in leadership development experiences often have " deeply and rigidly established patterns which are difficult to change . " He felt leadership development needs to start early in life , when an opportunity exists to give individuals long @-@ term exposure to leadership behavior . Bánáthy formulated the White Stag program to address the needs of youth from 11 to 17 years of age . He did this when defining leadership as a learnable skill was still in its infancy . = = = = Youth need leadership development = = = = A number of researchers have identified needs of youth for specific kinds of formative experiences . In one study , Ferber , Pittman , and Marshall described five developmental priorities for youth . These were learning ( developing positive basic and applied academic attitudes , skills , and behaviors ) , thriving ( developing physically healthy attitudes , skills , and behaviors ) , connecting ( developing positive social attitudes , skills , and behaviors ) , working ( developing positive vocational attitudes , skills , and behaviors ) , and leading ( developing positive civic attitudes , skills , and behaviors ) . Educators report that successful programs utilize " positive and sustained relations with a caring adult , mentoring in life skills and opportunities to use newly learned skills . " Other studies have identified areas that help youth acquire the attitudes , skills , and knowledge required to be effective in society . These areas are strong relationships with adults ; training in mediation , conflict resolution , team dynamics , and project management ; new roles and responsibilities based on experiences and resources that provide opportunity for growth , teamwork and peer networking ; and opportunities to practice communication , negotiation , and refusal skills . = = = = Youth @-@ led program = = = = The White Stag Leadership Development Program 's methods address all of the areas the studies identified . Mentored and coached by adults , the youth staff develop , plan and implement the week @-@ long summer camp programs . They develop skills in research , writing , planning , and evaluation . Using the outdoors , they practice learning activities , games , and outdoor skills required to live in a camping environment . They learn to get along with and other counsel youth from different backgrounds . They study eleven specific skills of leadership and practice presenting them to one another before summer camp , when they present these learning sessions to the participants . The youth , led and mentored by adults , work together with other youth they have never met , forming new relationships and learning to connect and cooperate . They learn basic group membership skills required in work life , like communication and planning , and plan and implement their leadership skills in their home community . They learn and practice problem @-@ solving and counseling skills , how groups form and grow , and planning skills . They learn and rehearse various kinds of communications skills , how to represent their group — both with and without the group 's input — and how to work effectively with others . = = = Leadership competencies = = = In his research for his master 's thesis , Bánáthy identified 80 characteristics of leadership . He condensed these into eleven specific leadership competencies which he then proposed be taught in a systematic process using six developmental levels tailored to the various needs of youth as they mature . The White Stag leadership competencies are organized into three groups . The competencies are taught based on the members ' and the overall group 's readiness and maturity . = = = = Four @-@ stage learning approach = = = = The group writes down both general goals and very specific , measurable objectives each year that describe leadership in behavioral terms . When engaging learners in leadership development learning activities , the youth staff implement a four @-@ phase approach called Manager of Learning . The first step requires the participant to practice the skill without preparation . The simulation is made as real and practical as possible within the limitations of the training environment . Both the participant and the instructor gain through this Guided Discovery an assessment of the learner 's current knowledge , skills , attitudes relevant to the learning task . The second step is a Teach / Learn session where the instructor begins to present information based on what the participants don 't already know . This is usually prefixed with a written statement describing in behavioral terms the objectives that the participant will complete during the session . The instructor may utilize more advanced members to help less skilled members . The instructor often tries to elicit information from the participants ' experience by asking questions . Once the Teach / Learn is complete , the third step allows participants an opportunity in an Application to practice their newly acquired skills . This may or may not be an experience like the Guided Discovery . The final step is an Evaluation discussion , during which the participants not only self @-@ assess whether they achieved the stated learning objectives , but to give feedback to the instructor about their success in presenting the information . = = = = Developing group members = = = = The first three competencies are essential to forming the group 's ability to organize itself and become ready for action . Getting and Giving Information teaches participants about different types of communication and how communication helps establish the group . They learn how to get , store , and retrieve information . Individuals practice communicating to both help get the job done and keep the group together . Understanding Group Needs and Characteristics helps individuals build group morale and unity . They learn about values , norms , needs , and characteristics . Knowing and Understanding Group Resources helps learners to use resources to improve group togetherness , to learn about different kinds of resources , and how as a leader can use the diversity of group members ' skills and abilities to help the group succeed . They learn about how resources affect getting the job done and keeping the group together . = = = = Growing group capability = = = = The second group of leadership competencies help the group to develop and implement a plan . Controlling the Group helps individuals to learn how their behavior affects others . Individuals learn the difference between external control of the group and personal control of their own behavior . They learn that controlling the group is something that everyone in the group contributes to . They learn about different techniques to influence group success . They gain skills in balancing the group 's versus the individual 's needs . Counseling helps individuals to define key counseling ideas , learn simple counseling methods , and identify when simple counseling is appropriate . Setting the Example helps participants identify what it means to set a good example , why setting an example is important , and describe ways a leader can set a good example . Planning provides learners a chance to learn about problem @-@ solving and its importance to a leader . They learn problem @-@ solving and planning methods and how planning contributes to accomplishing the task and to group success . Evaluation enables the learner to use evaluation improve group focus and get the job done . They learn to balance getting the job done and helping the group , and learn to continually assess their level of success . = = = = Accomplish the task = = = = The last group of leadership competencies helps individuals to grow the organization . Sharing Leadership helps participants learn that leadership is something that is shared by all group members depending on the situation and group member 's abilities . They learn about what kinds of things affect the leader and the group , and what style of leadership is appropriate . They learn to select a style of leadership based on the job and the group situation . Representing the Group is a way for participants to learn about how groups communicate and how to represent one group to another . They learn how to accurately represent their group to another . Manager of Learning is a four @-@ step technique for instructing others . Participants learn how to develop effective learning techniques. for effectively communicating information ; emphasize the learner in the learning process . = = The program = = = = = Values = = = The program has defined a set of values that govern how the program is implemented . One of the most important is outdoor learning . Program leaders believe that the outdoors environment provides a context for learning that is physically demanding and entirely different from that experienced every day at home and in school . The outdoors stimulates new ways of thinking and approaching both task- and group @-@ related problems . As participants learn they can exceed what they perceive to be their physical limits , they find their mental capacity also grows . White Stag uses the physical environment to tire the individual and open their minds to new ways of thinking . The program does nothing indoors that can be done outdoors , and encourages physical fitness through outdoor activities . Using the outdoors avoids the negative association of a standard classroom environment . In addition , the program utilizes outdoor camping skills to provide opportunities to practice leadership skills . One of the very first challenges a leader @-@ in @-@ training faces is to plan how to set up of their camp and cook their meals . They learn how to analyze the task , how to plan the task and organize the group , how to use all of the groups ' resources , how to implement their plan , and how to evaluate and correct . The program teaches participants to cultivate an evaluation attitude , or a predisposition to continually seek improvement . Growth as a leader is dependent on his ability to assess his current skill level and to accept the necessity for change . The leader can only attain his goals if he continuously works to analyze his movement towards achieving his goals and objectives . White Stag uses the patrol method to effectively include all members . Baden @-@ Powell wrote " [ t ] he Patrol System is the one essential feature in which Scout training differs from that of all other organizations , and where the System is properly applied , it is absolutely bound to bring success . It cannot help itself ! The formation of the boys into Patrols or from six to eight and training them as separate units each under its own responsible leader is the key to a good Troop . " One of the most important values is a focus on hands @-@ on learning . The program emphasizes use of experiential learning activities in the context of outdoor education . These help participants retain what they learn about leadership generally and the eleven leadership competencies specifically . For example , participant teams can be challenged to build foot bridges , complete a hike , build a Tyrolean Traverse , cook a meal , or other practical challenges . Always seeking to engage individuals both physically and mentally , the program uses the hurdle method . The hurdle method teaches individuals how to nimbly respond situation for which they have not specifically prepared themselves . The manager of learning prepared and present unexpected tasks or challenges to the leader and the group which they must organize themselves to find a solution or to complete a task . The hurdle method is closely linked to hands @-@ on learning . The program believes leadership can be taught using a direct approach , not by osmosis or example alone . In early leadership development programs , learning about leadership was not specifically defined with qualified objectives . Learning about leadership was a by @-@ product of other learning activities . The White Stag Method challenges these indirect methods and focuses the participant 's experience using a direct approach . The White Stag program defines leadership behaviors in specific terms as eleven leadership competencies . Youth spend too much time learning what their teachers think is important , irrelevant from what the youth may already know . The manager of learning value allows the youth to learn and practice his skills in situations simulating real life . The Manager of Learning methodology first exposes the learner to a situation to help both the learner and the leader assess his current state of knowledge . This causes the learner to internalize a need to improve his knowledge or skills . This is followed by a period of teaching or exposure during which the participant improves from their base @-@ line knowledge . The participant then gets a chance to apply what he has learned , and lastly , evaluates his performance improvement . The program believes that learning never stops and embraces this as the infinity principle . According to Bánáthy , leadership behavior cannot be developed " during a few weeks , not even during several months , " but must be ongoing . It takes months for individuals to gain proficiency in leadership skills . " The White Stag continues to leap on — upward and forward — in a never @-@ ending journey that leads the joyous followers to the promised land . For us who wear the badge of the White Stag , the White Stag journey symbolizes the idea of becoming the best we can . " The program borrowed words from Baden @-@ Powell 's Jamboree farewell , " Forward , Upward , Onward , " to define leadership : Leadership is the process of influencing people by providing purpose , direction , and motivation to continually move the organization and individual forward , upward , and onward . Individuals are taught to believe that difficult situations are opportunities for growth that must be overcome . Thus , leadership development cannot take place during a single training course . It is a continuous sequence of sequential , structured learning and experience @-@ building opportunities . The program subscribes to the belief that when an individual embraces the infinite challenge to change , he is engaged in the never @-@ ending process of becoming a leader . " The infinity principle of growth in leadership is what the White Stag symbolizes in this leadership development process . " Avoiding stereotypes and labeling based on personal dress , the program uses polo shirts , t @-@ shirts , and other articles of clothing like neckerchiefs as uniforms . Participants uniforms display the White Stag logo , which is a visible reminder of the program 's founding vision articulated by Baden @-@ Powell at the conclusion of the 1933 World Jamboree . The uniform reminds the individual wearing it of their commitment to the program 's values . It instills self @-@ esteem in the person and pride in the program . It eliminates class and socio @-@ economic distinctions . Wearing a uniform improves member 's behavior and lessens the impact on a person 's personal wardrobe . = = = Phases and levels = = = Based on Béla Bánáthy 's original work , the program is still organized into three phases , each consisting of a candidate , youth staff , and an adult staff level . This structure allows youth to develop their leadership skills over several years through gradually more intense and more advanced levels of instruction . Each level is tailored to the needs of youth at specific ages and maturity levels . The youth staff develop each summer camp 's program during the preceding nine months in a series of leadership development training and planning events . They are ultimately responsible for the entire leadership program 's content . = = = Aims = = = The program has four primary aims that are closely aligned with the aims of the Boy Scouts of America with the addition of leadership development . The program focuses on character development , which it defines as encouraging people to do what is right , no matter what , and to serve themselves and others . Its second aim is personal fitness , and in its programs it encourages individuals to accept physical and mental challenges , to surpass their own expectations , expand their knowledge , skills and abilities , and strive for continuous personal improvement . Their third aim is citizenship training , in which it helps individuals to develop a positive attitude , influence those around them , join in and shape their community . The paramount aim however is leadership development , in which it inspires individuals to engage life as an ongoing adventure , to challenge themselves , and to lead others to pursue excellence . = = = Symbolism and mythology = = = Differentiating White Stag from any other leadership program for youth is its spirit and traditions , including campfires , ceremonies , skits , yells , cheers , and emblems , all of which give it a distinctive character . These are used to communicate an ethic of always striving for self @-@ improvement and personal achievement , and values that include characteristics of servant leadership , compassion , enthusiasm , kindness , and selflessness . The symbolism of the White Stag is described in a story telling the White Stag legend . The legend borrows from the Fourth World Jamboree held in Hungary , which in turn was inspired by Hungarian mythology of the white stag . The White Stag Legend is used to inspire in the participants a desire for reflection , continuous self @-@ improvement , and pursuit of higher aims and goals . Other traditions include woggles , waist ropes , staves , berets , and patrol names . The legend tells a version of a legend honoring Hunor and Magyar , who led their people in pursuit a mythical White Stag , following it over impassable trails to a new home . Through this story and other ceremonies , the program challenges individuals to continually strive " onward and upward " and " overcome challenges , continuously evaluate , focus on learning , and always strive to improve " . = = Camp locations = = The White Stag program is currently offered by two related non @-@ profit groups in Northern and Central California . In northern California , the non @-@ profit White Stag Association sponsors three Venturing crews , a Learning for Life group , and a Boy Scout troop that plan and produce the summer camp program in Northern California , in the past at Camp John Mensinger , Camp Wolfeboro , and since 2014 at Camp Robert L. Cole . In central California , the non @-@ profit White Stag Leadership Development Academy sponsors a Learning for Life group , a Venturing crew , and a Boy Scout troop in the Silicon Valley Monterey Bay Council and the Alameda Council . These youth plan and put on a program each summer in Central California . In 2009 they offered for the first time two camps , one at Camp Tamarancho in Marin County in Northern California , and the second at Camp Lindblad in the Santa Cruz Mountains . They have continued to offer two weeks of summer camp and in 2012 based the program at a site in the Santa Lucia Range near Arroyo Seco . Youth staff participants are registered as members of the Boy Scouts or Venturing programs in the Silicon Valley Monterey Bay Council and the Alameda Council . Both programs adhere to the Youth Protection Standards of the Boy Scouts of America , including background checks of all adult leaders . The Monterey @-@ based program has drawn participants from overseas , including France , China , Martinique , and Taiwan . = = Financial support = = The White Stag program is implemented by two 501 ( c ) 3 non @-@ profits . The White Stag Leadership Development Academy is located on the Monterey Peninsula and the White Stag Association is located in the San Francisco East Bay . Both are financially self @-@ supporting . The programs are administered and managed by part @-@ time adult volunteers . All participants , including youth and adult staff , pay fees to participate . Fees for participants attending the week @-@ long summer camp are US $ 275 – $ 325 in 2012 . Candidate attendees to White Stag Sierra pay up to $ 320 , while the Association in Monterey charges $ 335 . As of 2014 , adult and youth staff volunteers paid about US $ 400 in fees over the course of a year of staff development . = = Awards and recognition = = Since 1960 , the program has recognized one or two youth and adults each year by presenting them with a Silver Stag award . The device , a miniature solid sterling silver stag on a chain or medallion , recognizes the individual 's outstanding " contributions and qualities of leadership , spirit and service to the program . " One youth staff member from each phase is selected as the outstanding youth staff member . Each graduating participant received a neckerchief unique to each phase that is to be worn only at White Stag functions . Participants may also be recognized with other awards that vary from year to year . = = Other programs that used the White Stag name = = In 1967 , Rex Hatch returned to the Crossroads of America Council after attending a pilot test of the JLT program at Philmont . He founded in 1972 a junior leader training program , previously known as Silver Bars , which was initially based on the White Stag program 's principles . It was later modified to follow the National Youth Leadership Training Course syllabus . The Hoosier Trails Council in Bloomington , Indiana produced a " National Youth Leadership Training " program based on the national syllabus that was nicknamed " White Stag NYLT " until 2011 . On the east coast , the Narragansett Council in Rhode Island nicknamed their national NYLT program as " White Stag NYLT " until 2011 . These programs are produced by the local councils . They present the standardized , nationally mandated National Youth Leadership Training program . The non @-@ profit White Stag Academy in Monterey , California sponsors Venture Crew 122 , which develops and produces a summer camp program independent of the Boy Scout of America 's nationally mandated junior leaders training program .
= Sugar & Spice ( Picket Fences ) = " Sugar & Spice " is an episode of the CBS comedy @-@ drama series Picket Fences . Written by series creator David E. Kelley and directed by Alan Myerson , the episode originally aired on April 29 , 1993 . The episode caused controversy because it depicted 16 @-@ year @-@ old lead character Kimberly Brock engaged in same @-@ sex kissing with her best friend and frankly discussing her sexuality . " Sugar & Spice " was an early entry on a list of American television episodes in which a lesbian or possibly lesbian character kisses a straight @-@ identifying character . These lesbian kiss episodes often occurred during times of the year when networks were most concerned about generating ratings , and have come to be viewed by some critics as gimmicks to help secure those ratings . The controversy generated by " Sugar & Spice " and other lesbian kiss episodes led to a chilling effect on the non @-@ sensationalized presentation of same @-@ sex intimacy on network television through most of the rest of the 1990s . = = Plot = = Kimberly Brock ( Holly Marie Combs ) and her best friend Lisa Fenn ( Alexondra Lee ) exchange several experimental kisses during a sleepover at Kimberly 's house , the first kiss being a chaste peck with the later kisses becoming more intimate . Kimberly 's younger brother Matthew ( Justin Shenkarow ) eavesdrops on the girls the next day when they discuss the incident and their feelings . He goes to his mother , town doctor Jill Brock ( Kathy Baker ) and tells her that Kimberly is a " lesbo " . A patient overhears and word of the kissing spreads through the town . Kimberly 's father , Sheriff Jimmy Brock ( Tom Skerritt ) and stepmother Jill react poorly to the idea that their daughter might be a lesbian , debating " nature vs. nurture " and " elective lesbianism " and even renting " hunk films " starring Mel Gibson and Kevin Costner . Kimberly turns to her birth mother , Lydia ( Cristine Rose ) , who had had a lesbian relationship in college . Lydia advises her that her relationship with another woman was during the women 's movement and that while she enjoyed her time with the woman she realized that she was confusing feelings of intimacy with sexuality . Lisa and Kimberly talk further . Lisa acknowledges that she is in love with Kimberly but Kimberly lets her know that she is unable to return those feelings . In a secondary plot , male Sheriff 's deputy Kenny Lacos ( Costas Mandylor ) is given a promotion over female deputy Maxine Stuart ( Lauren Holly ) after she is asked in her interview about such things as whether she was planning to get married and get pregnant in the near future . She sues for sex discrimination and Kenny 's promotion is reversed . She tells Kenny that she would be proud to serve under him but tells Sheriff Brock that his blatant bigotry has made her less proud to serve under him . = = Production = = Before " Sugar & Spice " aired , CBS , fearing sponsor pullouts and viewer backlash , demanded revisions to the kissing scene . According to Kelley in a Los Angeles Times interview , the network initially suggested fading to black before the second more intimate kiss , then suggested cutting away before the kiss to a shot of one of Kimberly 's brothers eavesdropping . Eventually , the network and Kelley settled on reshooting the kissing scene in darkness . In the episode as aired , a line of dialog is inserted over a shot of the exterior of the Brock house to explain why the room is suddenly dark . = = Reception = = Network affiliate KSL @-@ TV in Salt Lake City , which had earlier refused to air an episode dealing with polygamy , also refused to air this episode . In a move described by Stephen Tropiano of PopMatters as " a prime example of network hypocrisy " , CBS released the original footage along with the reshot scene to Entertainment Tonight , which generated enormous publicity for the episode . Television critic John Martin described this episode as indicative of the way that Picket Fences deftly blended ethical and social issues with family concerns . = = = The " lesbian kiss episode " = = = Picket Fences was one of the first American television series to feature an intimate kiss between two women . Two years earlier , L. A. Law had aired an episode ( also written by Kelley ) that included a kiss between bisexual @-@ identified character C. J. Lamb ( Amanda Donohoe ) and straight @-@ identifying Abby Perkins ( Michele Greene ) . The kiss led to complaints to the network and five sponsors pulled their ads from the episode . In reviewing incidents of lesbian kisses on network television programs , the New York Times noted that they tended to happen during " sweeps " periods , when the networks use Nielsen ratings to determine advertising rates . Noting lesbian kisses during sweeps periods on such shows as L. A. Law , Roseanne , Party of Five and Ally McBeal in addition to the Picket Fences episode and noting that they were occurring about once per year , the Times concludes that kisses between women are : " Eminently visual ; cheap , provided the actors are willing ; controversial , year in and year out ; and elegantly reversible ( sweeps lesbians typically vanish or go straight when the week 's over ) , kisses between women are perfect sweeps stunts . They offer something for everyone , from advocacy groups looking for role models to indignation @-@ seeking conservatives , from goggle @-@ eyed male viewers to progressive female ones , from tyrants who demand psychological complexity to plot buffs . " The Guardian concurred in this assessment , calling the lesbian kiss episode " a clear sign of desperation and a show running out of ideas ... Snogging The Friend is the new Jumping The Shark . " Michele Greene confirmed in an interview with AfterEllen.com that her kiss with Amanda Donohoe 's C. J. was a ratings ploy and that there was never any intention on the part of producers to seriously explore the possibility of a relationship between two women . During a period in network television history when producers were pushing the broadcast boundaries on sexually explicit content with such shows as NYPD Blue , the controversy over this and other television episodes that made inroads into presenting same @-@ sex sexuality or affection led producers not to present any sexualization of their gay and lesbian characters . As noted by author Ron Becker , " So viewers got to see Carol and Susan wed on Friends , but they didn 't get to see them kiss . And fans of NYPD Blue could hear male hustlers talk about their johns , but the only sex they got to see involved the precinct 's straight cops — naked butts and all . Clearly , chastity was the price gay characters paid for admission to prime @-@ time television in the 1990s . "
= Eskimo ( film ) = Eskimo ( also known as Mala the Magnificent and Eskimo Wife @-@ Traders ) is a 1933 American Pre @-@ Code drama film directed by W. S. Van Dyke and released by Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) . It is based on the books Der Eskimo and Die Flucht ins weisse Land by Danish explorer and author Peter Freuchen . The film stars Ray Mala as Mala , Lulu Wong Wing as Mala 's first wife Aba , Lotus Long as Mala 's second wife Iva , Peter Freuchen as the Ship Captain , W. S. Van Dyke as Inspector White , and Joseph Sauers as Sergeant Hunt . Eskimo was the first feature film to be shot in a Native American language ( Inupiat ) , and the first feature film shot in Alaska . The film also incidentally documented many of the hunting and cultural practices of Native Alaskans . The production for the film was based at Teller , Alaska , where housing , storage facilities , a film laboratory , and other structures were built to house the cast , crew , and equipment . It was nicknamed " Camp Hollywood " . The crew included 42 cameramen and technicians , six airplane pilots , and Emil Ottinger — a chef from the Roosevelt Hotel . Numerous locations were used for filming , including Cape Lisburne in March 1933 , Point Hope and Cape Serdtse @-@ Kamen in April to July , and Herald Island in the Chukchi Sea in July . The film crew encountered difficulties recording native speech due to the " kh " sound of the native language . Altogether , pre @-@ production , principal photography , and post @-@ production took 17 months . The motion picture was well received by critics upon release on 14 November 1933 , and received the first ever Academy Award for Best Film Editing , although it didn 't fare well at the box office . Scholar Peter Geller has more recently criticized the film as depicting the Eskimo as childlike , simple , and mythic " noble savages " rather than as human beings . = = Plot = = Mala is a member of an unspecified Eskimo tribe living in Alaska . He has a wife , Aba , and an infant son . He and the villagers are shown welcoming a newcomer to their village , hunting walrus , and celebrating the hunt . Mala learns of white traders at nearby Tjaranak Inlet from another Eskimo . Mala learns about rifles and desperately wants one , and Aba longs for needles and other white men 's goods . Mala gratefully offers Aba 's sexual favors to the man for telling him about the trading ship 's presence . Mala and Aba travel to the trading ship with their children , where the white ship captain takes all of Mala 's tanned animal skins in exchange for a single rifle . The captain demands that Aba spend the night with him . He gets her drunk and gives her worthless gifts , and has sexual intercourse with her . Mala is upset , but is told by the English @-@ speaking Eskimo Akat that " the white man is always right " . Mala and the Eskimos go bowhead whale hunting in wooden boats and with harpoons provided by the white men , and an actual whale hunt and carcass slaughtering is depicted on film . After the successful hunt , two drunken white men kidnap Aba ( and prevent Mala from rescuing her ) and force her to get drunk . The ship captain rapes Aba , who escapes at dawn . The Captain 's Mate , hunting seals with a rifle , mistakes Aba ( passed out on the ice ) for an animal and kills her . Mala kills the ship captain with a harpoon ( mistakenly believing the captain shot his wife ) . He flees back to his village with his children . Lonely and needing someone to care for his children and help with the sewing and other chores , Mala takes the young girl Iva as his new wife . But Mala still longs for Aba , and their relationship is a cold one . The Eskimos go hunting caribou by stampeding the animals into a lake and then hunting them with bow and arrow and spears from boats . Mala is haunted by Aba 's death , and after pouring out his grief through dance and prayer he changes his name to Kripik . Kripik 's attitude toward Iva softens dramatically , and they make love . The hunter whom Mala welcomed to the village the previous year returns to his village , and gives Kripik his wife in gratitude . The woman is more than happy to live with Mala , and Mala makes love to her as well . Some years pass . The Royal Canadian Mounted Police establish a post at Tjaranak , bringing law to the area for the first time . Several white men accuse the Eskimos of being savage and without morals , and charge Mala with the murder of the ship captain . Sergeant Hunt and Constable Balk try to find Mala and arrest him , but get lost in a blizzard and nearly freeze to death . Kripik finds them , and saves their lives . Kripik is angry with the men until Hunt explains that they do not want Kripik 's wives . When Hunt asks if Kripik knows Mala , Kripik says " Mala is no more " . The Mounties believe Mala is dead , but their misunderstanding is corrected by Akat , who arrives in the village and innocently exposes Kripik . The Mounties convince Kripik to come to the post to answer questions , and Kripik agrees . Several months pass . Hunt and Balk give Kripik the freedom of the post , and Hunt learns about the horrors the white traders visited on the Eskimo . When the Eskimo village moves on to new hunting rounds , Kripik 's family stays behind to wait for him . They begin to starve , and Kripik learns of their plight . However , the rigid and rule @-@ bound Inspector White has arrived at the RCMP outpost , and he demands that Kripik not only no longer be allowed to hunt during the day but also be chained down in his bed at night . Hunt tries to dissuade White , but White insists — and Hunt is forced to break his word that Kripik will not be chained . During the night , Kripik pulls his hand free of the single manacle used to chain him down , but mangles his hand while doing so . Kripik flees the post with his team of sled dogs , heading for his family 's old village . Hunt and Balk pursue him . The rifle Kripik steals proves useless when the bullets are not the right gauge . Kripik is forced to kill his sled dogs one by one for food . In a driving blizzard , Kripik falls short of reaching his family , and is attacked and injured by a wolf ( which he manages to kill ) . Kripik is found by his eldest son Orsodikok ( now a teenager ) , rescued , and fed by his family . The Mounties arrive the next morning , in hot pursuit . Kripik prevents his eldest son from killing the Mounties , and says he will leave and never come back . Kripik departs on foot , but Iva professes her love and goes with him . The Mounties pursue them on foot across the ice , which is breaking up . Sergeant Hunt takes aim at Kripik with his rifle , but cannot shoot him because Kripik has saved their lives and exhibited more honor and decency than white men have . Kripik and Iva escape on an ice floe , Hunt calling out goodbye and good luck to them . Hunt tells Balk that the ice will take Kripik and Iva across the inlet , and that the adults will be able to return to Orsodikok and the other children next spring . = = Cast = = Following is a list of the cast members : Ray Mala as Mala Lulu Wong Wing as Aba Lotus Long as Iva Iris Yamaoka as the Second Wife Peter Freuchen as Ship Captain Edward Hearn as Captain 's Mate W. S. Van Dyke as Inspector White Joseph Sauers as Sergeant Hunt Edgar Dearing as Constable Balk = = Production = = = = = Script and casting = = = The script for Eskimo was based on books by Danish explorer and author Peter Freuchen . W.S. Van Dyke was assigned by MGM to direct , but it was not a film which Van Dyke was interested in doing . He wrote to his uncle , John Charles Van Dyke , on May 24 , 1932 , " Am going to film Peter Freuchen 's book Eskimo . Don 't fancy the job a damn bit , but it brings in the bread and butter . " Van Dyke intended the picture to depict the corrupting influence white culture had on the Eskimos , much as he had done in White Shadows in the South Seas . The script originally ended with Mala and Iva escaping onto the ice , only to drown . But producer Hunt Stromberg felt this ending was too downbeat , and changed it in April 1932 to the ending now seen on film . Both Stromberg and Van Dyke wanted the Native Alaskans in the film to speak in their native tongue . However , MGM production chief Irving Thalberg worried that intertitles were too distracting and would seem old @-@ fashioned , and Stromberg agreed . By this time , however , it was September 1932 . To refilm the shot scenes in English would be prohibitively expensive , and Stromberg changed his mind so that intertitles ( not subtitles ) were used in the final film to translate the Inupiat language into English . Stromberg demanded complete authenticity in casting , language , and the depiction of Eskimo life . Casting was critical . Van Dyke cast Inupiat natives ( most of them from Barrow , Alaska ) for all the minor roles , but Stromberg was so insistent on finding the perfect male lead that casting the title role of Mala / Kripik proved difficult . MGM wanted Ray Wise , the actor and cameraman ( who later changed his name to Ray Mala ) , as the star of the picture , and he would become Alaska 's first movie star . Wise was a half @-@ Inupiat , half @-@ Russian Jew who previously starred in the 1932 documentary film Igloo . Van Dyke wanted an all @-@ native cast , not a half @-@ native lead , and rejected Wise . A young native Alaskan was hired for the role , but he walked off the set in July 1932 when the stress of filming proved too great . Already on location in Alaska and isolated from the studio , Van Dyke turned to Ray Wise . Not only could Wise perform his own stunts , but Stromberg praised him as an immensely realistic actor . Wise came to Hollywood in 1925 , and in addition to his work on Igloo was working as an assistant cameraman . He was hired as a guide for Eskimo 's production to Alaska , and was able to offer his services to the film when the original actor quit . Although the film 's credits state that professional actors were used only for the Canadian police roles , in fact the major female roles were played by professional actresses Lotus Long and Lulu Wong Ying . Numerous minor roles are also clearly filled by trained actors in make @-@ up and costume . According to Peter Freuchen , MGM considered filming in Greenland , where Freuchen 's novels were set . But the difficult weather and bright summer light ( which made filming difficult ) dissuaded them , and the production settled on Alaska instead . Freuchen accompanied the production not only as an actor , but as an interpreter as well . = = = Principal photography and filming locations = = = The start of production is not clear . A commercial transport ship , the Victoria , took the cast and crew from Seattle , Washington , to Nome , Alaska . There , the schooner Nanuk was rented by the studio to take the production team farther north . Originally known as the Pandora , the schooner would next be used in the 1935 production of Mutiny on the Bounty , and rerigged for the 1937 film Maid of Salem . The Nanuk acted as a mobile base of operations , and as a set for the shipboard scenes . MGM bought the schooner outright during the production . On @-@ screen credits for the film claim filming began in April 1932 , but The Hollywood Reporter said it began in July and the New York Times said June . The production had its land @-@ based home at Teller , Alaska . Housing , storage facilities , a film laboratory , and other structures were built to house the cast , crew , and equipment , and the cast nicknamed the site " Camp Hollywood " . The crew included 42 cameramen and technicians , six airplane pilots , and Emil Ottinger — a chef from the Roosevelt Hotel . The production took 50 stone ( 700 lb ) ( 0 @.@ 32 metric tonnes ) of food with them to Alaska , as well as medical supplies , a mobile film processing laboratory , and sound recording equipment . Many native people ate bacon , corn flakes , and oranges for the first time , and became enamored of the food . Film was flown out of Teller back to Los Angeles every seven or eight weeks . There are varying accounts about how much danger the production encountered during the 1932 – 33 winter season . The Hollywood Reporter said in October 1932 that the Nanuk was caught in the ice off Alaska and sled dog teams had to be used to rescue the film crew . However , crew on the film noted that the Nanuk wintered in Grantley Harbor at Teller . A press release by MGM in November 1932 claimed that the Nanuk reported via radio that it was frozen in the sea ice and drifting with 35 people aboard , unable to continue shooting until the spring . A report by the New York Times in February 1933 also claimed the Nanuk was locked in sea ice between Teller and Barrow . Peter Freuchen also relates that the Nanuk was blown off course by heavy winds several times . Filming locations varied widely . Scenes of Eskimo villages on the ice , and some of the polar bear footage ( not used ) , were shot on sea ice 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) off Cape Lisburne , Alaska , in March 1933 . For this set , separate camera houses were built some distance away from the igloo sets , and accessed via tunnel below the snow . At one point , a sudden warm spell melted the igloos the production set up to house cast and cameras . Some interior and other shots were filmed on sets at the MGM studios in Culver City , California . At one point , most of the Native Alaskans in the film went on strike . They were paid $ 5 per day for being extras , participating in hunts or tribal ceremonies , or for acting in minor roles . Although this was a large sum for Alaska at the time , many decided to strike for $ 10 or $ 15 a day . Van Dyke immediately hired strikebreakers from among the other native people as replacements , and the strike ended . Although cinematographer Clyde DaVinna is credited with the cinematography , additional footage was shot by George Gordon Nogle , Josiah Roberts , and Leonard Smith . Screenwriter John Lee Mahin claims he shot a few of the scenes with Eskimo women when coverage was found to be lacking . Numerous days of shooting were lost in the summer when strong sunlight made it impossible to film . To reduce glare from the snow , most of the sets were sprayed with pink paint from the air . Because Native Alaskan languages are somewhat staccato in nature and makes heavy of the " kh " sound , sound recordists initially had trouble recording native speech . The " kh " sound overwhelmed the microphones ( a problem known as " chopping " ) , which would then not pick up the following sounds . Significant adjustments were made in order to correct the problem . = = = Hunting and wolf attack scenes = = = The scenes of walrus , bowhead whale , and caribou hunting are all real . Because the hunting season for caribou , polar bear , walrus , and whale occur at the same time , the production was forced to spend more than a year in the Arctic ( covering two hunting seasons ) in order to get the necessary footage . The walrus and polar bear hunts were filmed in July 1932 at Herald Island in the Chukchi Sea . Walrus carcasses were used as dog food and to attract polar bears . Additional polar bear hunting was filmed in March 1933 off Cape Lisburne . The bowhead whale hunt was filmed from late April to July 1933 in two locations : Off Point Hope , Alaska , and off Cape Serdtse @-@ Kamen on the Chukchi Peninsula . The whale hunting shoot took nearly three months because the whales kept fleeing every time they spotted boats . As depicted in the film , the Inupiat also hunted polar bears by roping and drowning them , but little of this footage made it into the picture . According to Peter Freuchen , the scene in which the wolf attacks Mala is real . Freuchen says that Mala , armed with a rock and a pistol beneath his fur jacket , spent three afternoons trying to lure a wolf into attacking him . A rifleman and a cinematographer using a camera with a telephoto lens followed at a distance . The wolf attack was filmed from far away , with the rifleman ready to shoot the wolf in case Mala was unable to kill it . As shown in film , Mala was able to kill the wolf without using his pistol or relying on the rifleman , and was not injured in the attack . = = = Post @-@ production = = = Principal production appears to have ended about March 25 , 1933 . Van Dyke was back aboard a commercial ship , headed for California , while Frank Messenger ( aboard the Nanuk ) continued to shoot second unit footage for the next month or two . In the summer of 1933 , MGM staff realized that additional footage was needed to complete the film . This involved casting an actress for the role . The production staff visited San Francisco , California , to identify an actress for a minor female part . Ray Mala offered the role of Iva to Sadie Brower , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old half @-@ Inupiat girl . But after her father refused to let her appear in movies , a Japanese American ( who could not speak any Eskimo ) was cast in the role instead . According to Brower , this woman 's Eskimo was so bad that it was unintelligible . Dortuk , Elik , Kemasuk , Nunooruk , and four other Inupiat actors were brought to California to act in the reshoots and new scenes . William Axt is credited with the musical score . However , some of Modest Mussorgsky 's " Night on Bald Mountain " may be heard on the soundtrack when the Eskimos go off to hunt whales . Altogether , pre @-@ production , principal photography , and post @-@ production took 17 months . The total cost of the picture was reported variously as $ 935 @,@ 000 or $ 1 @.@ 5 million . Even the lower figure was an exceptionally large amount for the time . To recoup its costs , MGM kept the film in circulation for many years . The running time of the film in previews was 160 minutes . Major cuts were made afterward , however . The final running time for the film was either 117 or 120 minutes . = = Premieres and critical reception = = = = = Premieres = = = Eskimo premiered at the Astor Theatre in New York City on November 14 , 1933 . MGM did not promote the film as a tale of colonial corruption or revenge , but rather played up its sexual motifs . The studio placed large neon signs on Broadway Avenue declaring " Eskimo Wife Traders ! Weird Tale of the Arctic ! " Lobby cards in theaters contained lurid descriptions : " The strangest moral code on the face of the earth — men who share their wives but kill if one is stolen ! " MGM more appropriately advertised Eskimo as " the biggest picture ever made " . The film did not do well at the domestic box office , however . As Angela Aleiss put it , " The film 's adventurous scenes were certainly impressive , but few Americans would be stirred by Inupiat survival in the far north . " To boost receipts , MGM changed the film 's title to Eskimo Wife @-@ Traders . But the change did not help , and MGM lost $ 236 @,@ 000 on the film domestically . The film was released in the UK and Australia as Mala the Magnificent . The UK premiere was on October 20 , 1934 , and the Australian premiere on October 31 , 1934 . = = = Critical reception = = = Conrad A. Nervig won the very first Oscar for Best Film Editing for his work on Eskimo . Mordaunt Hall , writing for the New York Times in 1933 , generally praised the picture . The script managed to sustain interest in the various scenes , he was surprised to find moments of " genuinely effective comedy " , and he found the acting by native people " really extraordinary " . He singled out Ray Mala , Lulu Wong Wing , and Lotus Long for being particularly effective in conveying emotion . He also found the use of native language and realistic sounds ( recorded in Alaska ) one of the film 's best elements . However , Hall felt the picture was a bit long , and various hunting scenes ( although often thrilling ) were too reminiscent of many such scenes in previous motion pictures . Other reviews were also generally positive , but nearly all critics compared the film to other motion pictures ( such as Igloo and Nanook of the North ) which had also captured exquisite scenery and scenes of Inupiat people . To many critics of the day , the footage of tribal customs and hunting actually made Eskimo a documentary film rather than a drama . Scholar Peter Geller has more recently criticized the film as depicting the Eskimo as childlike , simple , and mythic " noble savages " rather than as human beings . Film historian Thomas P. Doherty concludes that the picture favors scenery and typecasting over real characters . Eskimo was not the first dramatic film to use an all @-@ native cast for the native roles ; that was the 1914 silent film In the Land of the Head Hunters . It was , however , the first motion picture to be filmed in the language of a Native American people , and the first feature film shot in Alaska . Ray Mala became nationally famous for his work in Eskimo , and subsequently had a long career as a lead and supporting actor in Hollywood . = = Box Office = = The film grossed a total ( domestic and foreign ) of $ 1 @,@ 312 @,@ 000 : $ 636 @,@ 000 in the US and Canada and $ 676 @,@ 000 elsewhere resulting in a loss of $ 236 @,@ 000 .
= Interstate 287 = Interstate 287 ( I @-@ 287 ) is an auxiliary Interstate Highway in the US states of New Jersey and New York . It is a partial beltway around New York City , serving the northern half of New Jersey and the counties of Rockland and Westchester in New York . I @-@ 287 , which is signed north – south in New Jersey and east – west in New York , follows a roughly horseshoe @-@ shaped route from the New Jersey Turnpike ( I @-@ 95 ) in Edison Township , New Jersey , clockwise to the New England Thruway ( I @-@ 95 ) in Rye , New York , for 98 @.@ 72 miles ( 158 @.@ 87 km ) . Through New Jersey , I @-@ 287 runs west from its southern terminus in Edison through suburban areas . In Bridgewater Township , the freeway takes a more northeasterly course , paralleled by U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) . The northernmost part of I @-@ 287 in New Jersey passes through mountainous surroundings . After crossing into New York at Suffern , I @-@ 287 turns east on the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 87 ) and runs though Rockland County . After crossing the Hudson River on the Tappan Zee Bridge , I @-@ 287 splits from I @-@ 87 near Tarrytown and continues east through Westchester County on the Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway until it reaches the New England Thruway . A bypass around New York City had been planned since the 1950s and would become a part of the Interstate Highway System and receive the I @-@ 287 designation . The Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway , which was originally designated as Interstate 187 , opened in 1960 as Interstate 487 before later becoming part of I @-@ 287 . The New York State Thruway portion of I @-@ 287 , which included a crossing of the Hudson River , opened in 1955 . In New Jersey , the proposed I @-@ 287 had originally been designated as FAI Corridor 104 and incorporated what was planned as the Middlesex Freeway . The New Jersey section of I @-@ 287 between the New Jersey Turnpike in Edison and US 202 in Montville opened in stages between the 1960s and 1973 ; the remainder opened in 1994 . The aging Tappan Zee Bridge is due to be replaced with a new span — construction started in 2013 , with opening scheduled for 2017 . In addition , a proposed tunnel across the Long Island Sound between Rye and Oyster Bay on Long Island would link the eastern terminus of I @-@ 287 to New York State Route 25 ( NY 25 ) and NY 135 in Syosset . = = Route description = = = = = New Jersey = = = = = = = Middlesex County = = = = I @-@ 287 begins at an interchange with the New Jersey Turnpike ( I @-@ 95 ) in Edison in Middlesex County , New Jersey , where the freeway continues east as Route 440 towards Perth Amboy and Staten Island . Within Middlesex County , I @-@ 287 is called the Lt. Col. ( Ret ) Richard F. Lauer , US Army Highway . From this point , it heads west as an eight @-@ lane freeway through suburban areas , soon reaching an interchange with US 1 that also has access to County Route 531 ( CR 531 ) in the southbound direction . Past this point , the road turns more to the northwest as it comes to the junction with Route 27 ( Lincoln Highway ) . Following Route 27 , I @-@ 287 narrows to six lanes and passes over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor as it continues to a southbound exit and northbound entrance with CR 501 . As the freeway continues into South Plainfield , it passes near several business parks and comes to a partial interchange with Durham Avenue which only has a northbound exit and southbound entrance At this point , the road starts to turn more west before it comes to a full junction with CR 529 . Here , the road enters Piscataway Township and reaches an interchange with CR 665 ( Washington Avenue ) . Continuing near more business parks , I @-@ 287 comes to the exit for South Randolphville Road . Following this interchange , the road heads west more before it turns to the southwest and comes to the Possumtown Road interchange . After Possumtown Road , the freeway comes to the CR 622 ( River Road ) exit . = = = = Somerset County = = = = After crossing over the Raritan River , I @-@ 287 enters Franklin Township , Somerset County and becomes the Captain ( Ret ) Joseph Azzolina , US Navy Highway . Soon after the river , there is an interchange with CR 527 . After CR 527 , the freeway makes a turn to the northwest and passes a mix of residential areas and business parks . The road has an interchange with CR 623 ( Weston Canal Road ) before crossing the Raritan River again and continuing into Bridgewater Township . Within Bridgewater Township , I @-@ 287 curves north @-@ northwest and passes over both New Jersey Transit 's Raritan Valley Line and CR 533 near TD Bank Ballpark , which is home to the Somerset Patriots baseball team . Past this area , the road encounters Route 28 at an interchange . Past Route 28 , the freeway turns northwest and intersects US 22 at a partial interchange with a northbound exit and entrance and southbound entrance . From this point , I @-@ 287 makes a turn to the west and runs to the north of US 22 as it has a wide median . The freeway turns northwest as it passes near the Bridgewater Commons shopping mall and reaches a partial interchange with US 202 / US 206 . Through the remainder of New Jersey , US 202 will parallel the course of I @-@ 287 . At this point , I @-@ 287 gains a local @-@ express lane configuration , with 3 local and 2 express lanes southbound and 3 express and 3 local lanes northbound . Both the southbound local and express lanes have access to southbound US 202 / US 206 at this interchange , whereas northbound US 202 / US 206 only has access to the local lanes of northbound I @-@ 287 . From here , the road continues north past suburban residential areas , with the northbound direction narrowing to 2 local lanes , before entering Bedminster Township . Here , I @-@ 287 intersects I @-@ 78 at the Vincent R. Kramer Interchange , where the local @-@ express lane configuration ends . Access from eastbound I @-@ 78 to southbound I @-@ 287 is only to the local lanes . Meanwhile , the express lanes of northbound I @-@ 287 provides access to westbound I @-@ 78 while the local lanes provide access to eastbound I @-@ 78 . Following I @-@ 78 , I @-@ 287 heads north with four northbound lanes and three southbound lanes into more wooded surroundings , reaching another interchange with US 202 / US 206 . At this point , the freeway median widens again as it turns northeast before continuing more to the east and entering Far Hills . Within Far Hills , the road passes under CR 512 before the northbound direction narrows to three lanes and the wide median ends . Entering Bernards Township , I @-@ 287 runs east @-@ northeast to an interchange with CR 525 . After the CR 525 interchange , the road gains a wide median that narrows again before the road runs under New Jersey Transit 's Gladstone Branch , heading more to the northeast . Before leaving Bernards Township , there is an exit for North Maple Avenue . = = = = Morris County = = = = A short distance after this interchange , I @-@ 287 enters Harding Township , Morris County at the crossing of the Passaic River , where it becomes the Marine Hector Cafferata Jr . Cong . Medal of Honor Highway . It continues northeast , with US 202 running a short distance to the west . The freeway makes a turn more to the east as it comes to a truck @-@ only rest area in the northbound direction . The road crosses into Morris Township , where it reaches an exit @-@ only interchange with Harter Road ; there are no entrances present . Shortly after Harter Road , there is a junction with CR 663 ( James Street ) that only has entrances to I @-@ 287 . After this , I @-@ 287 turns north and enters Morristown , where the northbound direction gains a fourth lane as the median narrows . The freeway enters more developed areas as it comes to the Route 124 interchange . From this point , the road becomes eight lanes total , with four in each direction , as it passes west of Morristown Memorial Hospital . After crossing under New Jersey Transit 's Morristown Line , it reaches the exit for CR 510 . From CR 510 , I @-@ 287 makes a turn to the northeast , crossing back into Morris Township before continuing into Hanover Township . Here , the route comes to the western terminus of the Route 24 freeway . Following Route 24 , the freeway intersects Route 10 . I @-@ 287 passes near several business parks as it enters Parsippany @-@ Troy Hills . In this area , there is an interchange with CR 511 east of Lake Parsippany that also has access to Entin Road in the southbound direction . After this , I @-@ 287 widens to ten lanes with five northbound lanes , two express southbound lanes , and three local southbound lanes as it comes to the I @-@ 80 junction . Following this interchange , the freeway becomes six lanes , with three in each direction as it continues into more wooded areas and reaching an exit with access to US 46 and US 202 / CR 511 . In this area , the highway runs to the west of the Jersey City Reservoir and immediately to the east of US 202 / CR 511 . I @-@ 287 comes to the Intervale Road exit , which carries US 202 and CR 511 . The freeway enters Boonton , where it turns northeast , with New Jersey Transit 's Montclair @-@ Boonton Line located a short distance to the northwest . In Boonton , there is another interchange with US 202 / CR 511 . From here , I @-@ 287 curves more to the east , with US 202 running immediately to the north of the road . Along this stretch , there is an exit for US 202 and Vreeland Avenue . Upon entering Montville , the freeway draws away from US 202 as it passes near wooded residential areas before coming to another interchange with US 202 . I @-@ 287 continues northeast from this point , crossing under New Jersey Transit 's Montclair @-@ Boonton Line before running north @-@ northeast through more woodland as the terrain starts to get more mountainous . The freeway runs through Kinnelon , where the northbound direction has four lanes , and Pequannock Township before entering Riverdale . In Riverdale , there is an interchange with Route 23 . A short distance later , I @-@ 287 reaches the CR 694 interchange which provides access to CR 511 Alternate . = = = = Passaic and Bergen counties = = = = Immediately after this , I @-@ 287 crosses the Pequannock River into Bloomingdale , Passaic County , where the highway becomes US Air Force Gunner Clarence " Red " Mosley Highway . The road continues northeast and turns north as it briefly passes through Pompton Lakes before crossing into Wanaque . Here , the road makes a turn northeast again as it comes to the CR 511 Alternate interchange . After this , I @-@ 287 passes through rock cuts in the Ramapo Mountains before making a sharp turn east as it crosses high above the Wanaque River valley on a bridge . The freeway continues into Oakland , Bergen County , where the name becomes Army Staff Sergeant Walter Bray Highway . Here , there are a couple of businesses near the road before the interchange with Skyline Drive . Following this , the road crosses the Ramapo River before passing near neighborhoods and reaching a junction with US 202 . After US 202 , I @-@ 287 turns southeast and closely parallels the New York , Susquehanna and Western Railway line to the southwest before entering Franklin Lakes and coming to an interchange with the northern terminus of Route 208 . Past this interchange , I @-@ 287 narrows to four lanes and turns northeast as the railroad line draws away . The freeway passes wooded residential neighborhoods prior to turning north and entering Mahwah Township , where it continues near more wooded suburban areas as well as the Campgaw Mountain Reservation to the west of the road . After passing to the east of the Ramapo College of New Jersey campus , I @-@ 287 passes over US 202 . The freeway crosses the Ramapo River again before reaching an interchange with Route 17 . At this point , Route 17 forms a concurrency with I @-@ 287 and the road widens to six lanes as it passes between the Ramapo Valley County Reservation to the west and business parks to the east . = = = New York = = = = = = = New York State Thruway = = = = Upon entering New York in the Village of Suffern in the Town of Ramapo in Rockland County , New York , New Jersey 's Route 17 ends and NY 17 follows I @-@ 287 as the road comes to an interchange with the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 87 ) . At this point , I @-@ 287 joins I @-@ 87 on the eight @-@ lane New York State Thruway , passing over Metro @-@ North Railroad 's Port Jervis Line as it heads east out of the mountains into suburban residential and commercial surroundings as it narrows to six lanes . After passing through the Village of Montebello , the freeway reaches an interchange with Airmont Road where it becomes the border between Montebello to the north and the Village of Airmont to the south . Continuing to the east , the New York State Thruway becomes the border between Monsey and Airmont before separating Monsey from the Village of Chestnut Ridge to the south as it turns slightly to the east @-@ southeast . After briefly running along the south edge of the Village of Spring Valley , where there is a westbound toll plaza for trucks , the highway fully enters Chestnut Ridge . In this area , it comes to the New York extension of the Garden State Parkway . Following this junction , I @-@ 87 / I @-@ 287 continues east into the Town of Clarkstown , coming to an exit for NY 59 . After this , the road passes to the north of Nanuet , crossing under New Jersey Transit / Metro @-@ North Railroad 's Pascack Valley Line . The freeway crosses under NY 304 before the cloverleaf interchange with the Palisades Interstate Parkway . As the Thruway continues into West Nyack , it comes to the exit for NY 303 that provides access to the Palisades Center shopping mall to the south of the road . Past NY 303 , I @-@ 87 / I @-@ 287 turns to the east @-@ southeast and passes near wooded areas as well as suburban neighborhoods of Central Nyack . It comes to another interchange with NY 59 that also provides access to US 9W . At this point , the New York State Thruway widens to eight lanes and turns to the south @-@ southeast into the Village of Nyack in the Town of Orangetown , crossing over US 9W prior to passing near residential areas in the Village of South Nyack as it runs to the east of US 9W , descending The Palisades . The last interchange in Rockland County is with US 9W and has no southbound exit . From here , the New York State Thruway crosses the Hudson River on the Tappan Zee Bridge east into the Village of Tarrytown in the Town of Greenburgh in Westchester County . After passing over the river , the road crosses over Metro @-@ North Railroad 's Hudson Line before coming to an eastbound toll plaza . After this , the freeway comes to the exit for US 9 that also serves the western terminus of NY 119 . I @-@ 87 / I @-@ 287 continue east past woodland and business parks , leaving Tarrytown before coming to an interchange where the two routes split , with I @-@ 87 continuing south on the New York State Thruway and I @-@ 287 heading east on the Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway . This interchange also has access to and from the northbound Saw Mill River Parkway and NY 119 . = = = = Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway = = = = The Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway , which is maintained by the New York State Thruway Authority , is six lanes wide and carries I @-@ 287 east to a westbound exit for NY 119 that is intertwined with the ramps between the New York State Thruway and NY 119 / Saw Mill River Parkway . After passing over the Saw Mill River Parkway and the Saw Mill River , the road enters the Village of Elmsford and runs through developed areas as it has a partial diamond interchange with NY 9A that does not have an eastbound exit . The Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway turns southeast from this point and intersects the Sprain Brook Parkway . I @-@ 287 widens to eight lanes at this junction and continues to the exit for NY 100A . After the NY 100A interchange , the freeway leaves Elmsford and turns to the east near residential areas , narrowing to six lanes before coming to an exit for NY 100 and NY 119 that also has access to the Bronx River Parkway . Following this exit , the road becomes eight lanes again and crosses over the Bronx River Parkway , the Bronx River , and Metro @-@ North Railroad 's Harlem Line . Here , the road crosses into White Plains and reaches an interchange with NY 22 . Past NY 22 , I @-@ 287 makes a sharp curve to the south as it narrows to six lanes and runs near inhabited neighborhoods . The road has a westbound exit and eastbound entrance with the Central Westchester Parkway , a road that provides access to the Taconic State Parkway by way of NY 22 . The freeway runs past commercial areas to the east of downtown White Plains as it encounters Westchester Avenue , which connects to NY 119 , NY 127 , and Anderson Hill Road as well as The Westchester shopping mall in the downtown area . Within this interchange , the Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway turns east along the border between Harrison to the north and White Plains to the south . Westchester Avenue becomes a frontage road for I @-@ 287 as the road passes corporate parks to the north and populated neighborhoods to the south . The road begins to turn southeast as it comes to a directional interchange with the southern terminus of I @-@ 684 . The I @-@ 287 freeway heads south along the White Plains / Harrison border before turning east and fully entering Harrison , where there is a cloverleaf interchange with the Hutchinson River Parkway . At this interchange , the Westchester Avenue frontage road serves as a collector / distributor road . The Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway turns southeast again past wooded areas of development , with NY 120 coming onto the Westchester Avenue frontage road . I @-@ 287 reaches an interchange where the frontage road ends as Westchester Avenue heads east as NY 120A and NY 120 continues to the south . Here , the freeway enters the Village of Rye Brook in the Town of Rye as it continues southeast . The Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway comes into the Village of Port Chester , where the road runs near more dense suburban development as it intersects US 1 . At this point , the road has ramp access to and from the southbound direction of the New England Thruway ( I @-@ 95 ) . From here , the mainline I @-@ 287 narrows to four lanes and enters the City of Rye , where it passes over the Northeast Corridor before merging into northbound I @-@ 95 about a half @-@ mile ( 800 meters ) west of the Connecticut state line . = = History = = = = = New Jersey = = = In the 1950s , a limited @-@ access highway was proposed to bypass New York City . This planned beltway would be incorporated into the new Interstate Highway System . The proposed beltway in New Jersey was designated as FAI Corridor 104 and later received the I @-@ 287 designation in 1958 . The southern segment of I @-@ 287 was planned in the 1950s as the Middlesex Freeway , which was to run from the Outerbridge Crossing to Staten Island and follow the Route 440 corridor to Edison , where it would connect to the New Jersey Turnpike before continuing west to I @-@ 78 . From here , the freeway would parallel US 202 north to the New York border . The anticipated cost of building I @-@ 287 in New Jersey was $ 235 million . The southernmost part of I @-@ 287 in Middlesex County was to be cosigned with I @-@ 95 ; this never happened due to the cancellation of the Somerset Freeway . By the mid @-@ 1960s , I @-@ 287 had been completed between the New Jersey Turnpike and Bedminster Township and from US 46 in Parsippany to US 202 in Montville . More of I @-@ 287 in New Jersey had been finished by 1969 , with the sections from US 46 south to Route 10 in Hanover Township and from Bedminster Township north to Maple Avenue in Bernards Township opened . The segment of the highway between Maple Avenue and Route 10 opened in 1973 , making I @-@ 287 a continuous road between the New Jersey Turnpike in Edison and US 202 in Montville . I @-@ 287 's missing section between US 202 in Montville and the New York State Thruway in Suffern , NY was controversial dating back to 1965 and continuing until its opening in 1993 . Property owners along the proposed route fought its completion as part of the freeway revolts of the 1960s and 1970s . Originally , I @-@ 287 was proposed to take a more eastern route through the Lincoln Park and Wayne areas ; this routing gained opposition as it passed through populated areas . A more western alignment was planned through mountainous areas in 1973 , but this was rejected as the cost of building the road through the mountains was too high . In 1977 , the current alignment of I @-@ 287 was proposed between Montville and Suffern ; this was approved by the federal government in 1982 as it was less costly than the western alignment and went through less developed areas than the eastern alignment . Permits allowing construction to begin on this segment were issued in 1988 by the Army Corps of Engineers . Officials in Rockland County , New York filed a lawsuit on November 19 , 1993 , hours before the highway 's official ribbon @-@ cutting , seeking to block its opening . They claimed the incomplete interchange with the New York State Thruway was inadequate to handle the additional traffic . That interchange was not complete until 1994 , but the highway opened as planned on November 19 in a ceremony held on the Wanaque River bridge , where New Jersey Governor Jim Florio cut the ribbon . This moment marked the completion of a bypass around New York City that had been planned for decades . The portion of I @-@ 287 between the US 202 interchange in Oakland and the Route 208 interchange in Franklin Lakes overtook the westernmost portion of Route 208 , truncating that route to its current location . The completion of I @-@ 287 in New Jersey had significant effects on traffic and development patterns in the area . Several towns along the highway , such as Wanaque and Montville , saw increases in development . In addition , as the road was a bypass , it saw a significant increase in truck traffic wishing to bypass congested roads closer to New York City . The road also increased truck traffic on other north – south corridors , such as Route 31 , from truckers wanting to bypass the New Jersey Turnpike by using these surface roads to get between the I @-@ 287 bypass of New York City and I @-@ 95 south to Pennsylvania . On July 16 , 1999 , Governor Christine Todd Whitman banned oversize trucks from using roads that are not part of the National Highway System , such as Route 31 . Trucks were therefore forced to use I @-@ 287 and the New Jersey Turnpike to travel across the state . In the 1990s , high @-@ occupancy vehicle lanes were built along I @-@ 287 between Bedminster and Parsippany . These HOV lanes , along with the ones that had been built on I @-@ 80 , were opened to all traffic in 1998 due to lack of HOV usage , and the state did not have to repay the federal government the $ 240 million to build the lanes . In 2011 , a small section of the northbound side of the highway in Boonton collapsed into the Rockaway River due to Hurricane Irene . Near the end of that year , five people and a dog were killed when a small SOCATA TBM 700 airplane en route to Georgia crashed on the highway near exit 33 in Morris Township . = = = New York State Thruway = = = The New York State Thruway portion of I @-@ 287 was planned around 1950 as part of a tolled limited @-@ access highway that was to connect the major cities of New York . A bridge across the Hudson River was planned between Nyack and Tarrytown at a site that was close enough to New York City but far enough from the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey 's jurisdiction area , as they opposed the crossing . The portion of the thruway currently followed by I @-@ 287 , including the Tappan Zee Bridge over the Hudson River , opened on December 15 , 1955 . In the 1960s , I @-@ 287 was designated along the New York State Thruway between Suffern and Tarrytown , while I @-@ 87 ran farther to the east on present @-@ day I @-@ 684 . On January 1 , 1970 , the I @-@ 87 designation was shifted onto this portion of the New York State Thruway to run concurrent with I @-@ 287 . The E @-@ ZPass electronic toll collection system was first introduced on this segment of the Thruway at the Spring Valley and Tappan Zee Bridge toll plazas in 1993 . The same year , an interchange in Suffern opened providing access to the newly opened New Jersey portion of I @-@ 287 . In 1997 , tolls for cars were eliminated at the Spring Valley toll plaza , with tolls remaining for trucks and other commercial vehicles . The I @-@ 87 / I @-@ 287 interchange split near Tarrytown began a $ 187 million reconstruction in 2001 in order to add additional lanes and rebuild overpasses and underpasses . Reconstruction in this area was completed in May 2004 . = = = Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway = = = Plans for a limited @-@ access road to cross Westchester County east to west date back to the 1920s and became more needed after post @-@ World War II traffic increases . When the Tappan Zee Bridge was proposed around 1950 , the Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway was becoming a more realistic idea . Construction of the freeway began in 1956 , and was given the NY 119 designation . The design of the highway met Interstate highway standards after opening , and was supposed to have the I @-@ 187 designation . However , by the time the highway opened , it was officially designated as I @-@ 487 instead . At a cost of $ 50 million , the Cross Westchester Expressway was opened December 1960 . Later in the 1960s , this segment of road was redesignated I @-@ 287 to make it a part of the beltway around New York City . I @-@ 287 was to continue past I @-@ 95 in Port Chester and was to cross Long Island Sound via the unbuilt Oyster Bay – Rye Bridge . On Long Island , the route would run along the Seaford – Oyster Bay Expressway ( NY 135 ) . Then , I @-@ 287 was again to be extended into Jones Beach by merging with the Wantagh State Parkway in Merrick . The plans for the bridge , and the I @-@ 287 extension onto Long Island , were dropped in 1973 by Governor Nelson Rockefeller as a result of community opposition and environmental concerns . Ownership of the Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway was transferred from the New York State Department of Transportation to the New York State Thruway Authority in 1990 to help relieve the state 's budget issues . On July 27 , 1994 , a propane truck crashed into an overpass on the Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway in White Plains and exploded , killing the driver . The fire from the explosion spread into adjacent neighborhoods and injured 23 people . In the mid @-@ 1990s , a reversible high @-@ occupancy vehicle lane was proposed for the Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway in order to alleviate congestion at a planned cost of $ 365 million . In addition , a Metro @-@ North Railroad line and a guided busway were considered to serve the I @-@ 287 corridor in Westchester County as alternatives to the HOV lane . The proposed HOV lane was cancelled in 1997 by Governor George Pataki out of the fear it would have negative effects on the area in trying to solve traffic . Since 1999 , the Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway has been under construction in order to reduce congestion and improve safety for the motorists who use the highway . The final phase of the project , a reconstruction in the area of exit 8 in White Plains , was completed in December 2012 , nine months ahead of schedule . = = Future = = = = = Tappan Zee replacement = = = Due to the congestion along I @-@ 87 / I @-@ 287 and the aging and decay of the over fifty @-@ year @-@ old Tappan Zee Bridge , talks have begun regarding the possibility of replacing the bridge . A variety of transportation improvements are currently being considered , including a Metro @-@ North Railroad commuter rail system or a bus rapid transit system that would link the western shore of the Hudson River with Westchester County and New York City . In addition , several alternatives are being considered for traffic management on the bridge , including high @-@ occupancy toll lanes , park and ride lots , ramp meters , and congestion tolling at peak times . Several designs for the new bridge , which is to be north of the existing structure , included suspension , cantilever , and cable @-@ stayed spans . Construction on the new bridge began in 2013 , with opening targeted for 2017 . = = = Improvements in New Jersey = = = NJDOT started the I @-@ 287 ( Middlesex Freeway ) Rehabilitation Project in August 2007 to resurface the pavement between exit 5 in South Plainfield and I @-@ 95 / New Jersey Turnpike in Edison Township , which is used by about 150 @,@ 000 vehicles daily . Some of the bridges and overpasses had deteriorated to such a state that they needed to be replaced . On September 16 , 2009 , NJDOT announced the start of another rehabilitation and repaving project from exit 5 in Piscataway to the area of exit 10 in Franklin Township . This project , which is being funded by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 , is to cost $ 29 million and is expected to be finished later in 2011 . = = = Proposed crossing to Long Island = = = In 2008 , a private firm , Polimeni Associates , proposed to construct a more than 16 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 26 km ) tunnel across Long Island Sound between Rye and Oyster Bay . This proposed tunnel would be the longest highway tunnel in the world , with its length exceeding that of the Lærdalstunnelen in Norway by a mile . It would start at the junction with the Cross Westchester Expressway and the New England Thruway in Rye and end at NY 135 and NY 25 in Syosset . Estimated to cost approximately $ 10 billion , it would feature three tubes : the outer tubes would have three lanes of vehicular traffic each and the inner tube would be used for maintenance . The proposed tunnel , which is to be operated by a private firm , is still awaiting approval to begin construction . = = Exit list = =
= Miracle Man ( The X @-@ Files ) = " Miracle Man " is the eighteenth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on March 18 , 1994 . It was written by Howard Gordon and series creator Chris Carter , directed by Michael Lange , and featured guest appearances by R. D. Call and Scott Bairstow . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Miracle Man " earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 5 , being watched by 7 @.@ 1 million households in its initial broadcast ; and received mixed reviews from critics . The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . When Mulder and Scully receive a video tape of a faith healer whose latest patient died mysteriously , the agents come to believe the healer 's ministry may be covering up several murders . " Miracle Man " was the first episode of The X @-@ Files written by Howard Gordon without the aid of his long @-@ term collaborator Alex Gansa . Chris Carter helped Gordon flesh out the details of the episode . Exterior shots for the episode were filmed on location in Steveston , British Columbia — a location which had previously been used in the earlier first season episode " Gender Bender " . = = Plot = = In 1983 , a young boy , Samuel Hartley , appears at the scene of a car accident and pushes his way past an emergency crew . He opens a body bag and commands the severely burnt cadaver inside to " rise up and heal . " Samuel 's father , Calvin , convinces a fireman to let him continue . The body inside the bag comes alive , grabbing Samuel 's hand . Ten years later , Dana Scully shows Fox Mulder a videotape of a religious service led by the now @-@ grown Samuel , who has become an evangelical faith healer for a ministry run by Calvin . The video shows a supposed healing which later left the follower dead . The agents travel to Clarksville , Tennessee , where they attend a service featuring an enthusiastic sermon by Leonard Vance , the man whom Samuel raised from the dead a decade earlier . The agents learn from Calvin that Samuel has gone missing . Samuel eventually turns up drunk at a local bar , his faith shaken by the death . He is taken into custody . The agents doubt his ability , but he is able to convince Mulder that he knows the latter has lost a sister — Samantha — at a young age . Mulder has been seeing visions of Samantha , and continues to see them . At Samuel 's bail hearing , the courtroom fills with a swarm of locusts , which Samuel claims is a sign of God 's wrath against him . Once he is released , Samuel returns to his ministry and attempts to heal a woman in a wheelchair . However , she suffers a seizure and dies , which leads to Samuel 's second arrest . An autopsy reveals the woman died of cyanide poisoning , whilst Mulder and Scully find evidence that the swarm of locusts , which were actually common grasshoppers , was guided by someone to the courtroom through the building 's ventilation system . Mulder believes Samuel to be innocent . However , the local sheriff , Maurice Daniels , allows two of his men to beat Samuel to death in his cell . At his home , Vance is confronted by a ghostly vision of Samuel , who accuses him of betraying the church and perpetrating the murders . Vance confesses and blames his bitterness at having been resurrected with such a scarred and deformed visage . Mulder and Scully , who have been able to trace a large purchase of grasshoppers to Vance , arrive to find the man dying of cyanide poisoning from his own glass of water . He confesses to the agents before falling dead . As the agents prepare to finish work on the case , they receive a phone call to say that Samuel 's body has gone missing from the morgue , and witnesses have seen him walking around , badly bruised . Meanwhile , Sheriff Daniels is arrested by one of his deputies for questioning by the district attorney over Samuel 's death . As Mulder and Scully leave Tennessee , Samuel 's ministry closes down , and Mulder sees one last vision of his missing sister before he gets into his car . = = Production = = " Miracle Man " was the first episode of The X @-@ Files written by Howard Gordon without the aid of his long @-@ term collaborator Alex Gansa . The pair had worked on several other series before The X @-@ Files , and had also contributed the episodes " Conduit " , " Ghost in the Machine " , " Fallen Angel " and " Lazarus " to the series so far . Series creator Chris Carter recalls being asked to collaborate on the episode , saying " Howard came to my house , and said , ' Help me out , ' so we went to my living room and put up this bulletin board and in a matter of hours we came up with this story " . Originally the script had called for more overt religious imagery , though censors at Fox objected to depictions of faith healer Samuel being beaten to death whilst in a cruciform pose , leading to scenes being cut . Exterior shots of the town were filmed on location in Steveston , British Columbia — a location which had previously been used in the earlier first season episode " Gender Bender " . Scenes set in the home of Reverend Hartley were shot in a mansion in the Langley area , with the crew taking advantage of an old filled @-@ in swimming pool in the building to set up the necessary equipment . All of the scenes set in the faith healer 's tent were filmed in one day , and involved over three hundred extras . Producer R. W. Goodwin felt that the greatest difficulty in creating the episode was the challenge in finding enough actors in the Vancouver area who could portray a convincing Southern United States accent , leading to the hiring of a dialect coach to prevent the cast from sounding " like they were coming from fifteen different parts of the South " . = = Broadcast and reception = = " Miracle Man " premiered on the Fox network on March 18 , 1994 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on January 26 , 1995 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 5 with a 13 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 5 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 13 percent of households watching TV , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 7 @.@ 1 million households watched this episode during its original airing . In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , the episode was rated a B- . Scott Bairstow 's guest role was praised , though it was noted that " an ultimately contrived plot and a stereotypical Bible @-@ thumping Southern milieu make for a case more suited to Jessica Fletcher than Mulder and Scully " . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , described it as " a largely predictable story that hits all the middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road marks " , finding the religious imagery to have been used to little effect . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , felt that the identity of the killer was one of the few endings amongst first season episodes that he had found genuinely surprising , though he attributed this to the episode 's focus on Mulder 's personal history . The use of Mulder 's visions of his sister Samantha as a motivation for his actions in this episode has been seen as " opening up " the overarching search for the truth about her through the series . The plot for " Miracle Man " was also adapted as a novel for young adults in 2000 by Terry Bisson .
= Operation Shed Light = Operation Shed Light was a crash development project in aerial warfare , initiated in 1966 by the United States Air Force to increase the ability to accurately strike at night or in adverse weather . During the 1960s the United States military worked hard to interdict the movement of men and materiel along the Ho Chi Minh trail . The North Vietnamese were experts in the use of weather and darkness to conceal their movement , and understanding the superiority of American air power put their skills immediately to good use . US forces seeking to impede the steady flow of supplies attempted to locate largely static targets during the day with poor results . The United States Air Force , focused toward nuclear weapons and delivery of such munitions against static strategic targets had spent little effort in expanding its tactical capabilities since the end of the World War II . Operation Shed Light sought to rectify this by bringing together improved tactics and technology . The programs were subsequently centered on improved communication and navigation aids for all @-@ weather and night flying , sensor equipment for seeing through clouds , foliage , and darkness , improved equipment and methods for target marking and battlefield illumination , and aircraft and tactics to utilize these developments . In the end , few of the programs would yield applicable results and most of the aircraft developed under its umbrella would largely fall into obscurity . The most applicable developments were those that could be mainstreamed such as the work done on navigation and communication and sensor equipment . = = Origins = = The United States Air Force had largely redirected its efforts to the matter of strategic deterrence in the period between the Korean War and deployment to southeast Asia . As a result , it had few serious capabilities for the plethora of conventional missions that became readily apparent with the expanding US commitment to southeast Asia . Dedicated attack aircraft were virtually nonexistent , with the exception of the Korean War era A @-@ 1 Skyraider . The US Navy was still using the type at the time , and the US Air Force had itself been long interested in the type , with this further reinforced as a result of its advisory role in South Vietnam . The US supported Vietnam Air Force was in fact using it as their primary aircraft by 1965 . These aircraft had directly replaced aging F8F Bearcats in 1962 and the decision was made in 1964 to transition to the type from the then standard T @-@ 28 Trojans . As a result of the orientation toward nuclear war , tactical air strikes were flown almost exclusively by the US Air Force between 1964 and 1966 using a variety of fighter bombers intended initially for the delivery of small strategic and tactical nuclear weapons . These types included the F @-@ 100 Super Sabre , F @-@ 4 Phantom II , and even the F @-@ 104 Starfighter . The F @-@ 100 had two fighter bomber variants in service at the time , the F @-@ 100C and F @-@ 100D , both of which were capable of carrying a nuclear store , and only the latter of which was primarily for use as a strike aircraft and not a fighter . The F @-@ 100C had largely been passed to the United States Air National Guard and by 1965 less than two hundred of the aircraft were capable of using cluster bombs or even the largely standard AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder air @-@ to @-@ air missile . The F @-@ 104C , a fighter bomber version of another fighter , though capable of utilizing conventional air @-@ to @-@ ground stores , was intended as a nuclear weapon delivery platform . Only the F @-@ 4C and F @-@ 4D were available as a true multirole aircraft , and the F @-@ 4C had still been used firstly as a fighter when deployed to the theater . The only other major non @-@ fighter type in use early on in the conflict was the B @-@ 57 Canberra . Strikes in Laos were even conducted for a time using the F @-@ 102 Delta Dagger , modified with infrared sensors , and using its internal rocket armament . These strikes proved largely fruitless and were quickly discontinued . Realizing the need for more dedicated attack aircraft the Air Force combed its inventory and looked to invest in new types . It found itself with an odd selection of obsolete , new , and experimental aircraft , and grasped for immediate solutions . To try and coordinate this effort , a task force was established by Lt. General James Ferguson , then Deputy Chief of Staff for Research and Development . Dubbed Operation Shed Light , it began on 7 February 1966 as a means of coordinating a wide variety of technological and other projects and programs that were being pursued in order to improve the United States Air Force ’ s night fighting capabilities . Outlined in the Task Force ’ s charter as of April were the following : Identify current equipment , techniques , and procedures being used by the USAF in Southeast Asia . Identify planned modifications and new equipment being developed for Southeast Asia . Survey exploratory , advanced development , and operational support projects having a potential application to the problem , indicating current programs or schedules . Identify voids in our capabilities or efforts . Recommend courses of action to improve and / or provide new attack capability in 1966 , 1967 , and the longer term . In all , the Shed Light Task Force identified nine new weapon systems and seventy @-@ seven research and development “ tasks ” in the first five months of operation . Over the next 5 – 10 years it hoped to have a fully functional " self @-@ contained night attack aircraft , " a single type that would meet the operational need and would be functionally useful in other similar situations . = = Initial programs = = Shed Light ’ s initial programs were broken down into a number of categories , the most important being communication and navigation systems , sensors , and illumination and target marking equipment . Also detailed were proposed aircraft modifications and tactics . = = = Communication and navigation = = = Issues of communication and navigation were identified under Shed Light . That air strikes could not be called in effectively and / or guided to the target reduced the effectiveness of air power overall . A variety of communication system improvements and navigational aids , including improvements to the Long @-@ Range Navigation ( LORAN ) system ( specifically LORAN @-@ D ) were incorporated into the Shed Light mission . = = = Sensors = = = The sensors to be developed under Shed Light were broken into three categories , Low Light Level TV ( LLLTV ) , Forward Looking Infrared ( FLIR ) , and Forward Looking Radar ( FLR ) . Two LLLTV systems were in development initially . Both were podded , designed to be added to aircraft already in USAF inventory . The first , produced by Dalmo @-@ Victor under Project 1533 , was LLLTV only , but had provision for a laser range finder . It was intended for the A @-@ 1E Skyraider . The second , produced by Westinghouse under Project 698DF , contained both the LLLTV and a laser ranger finder . It was intended for either the A @-@ 1E or B @-@ 57 Canberra series . The second unit would eventually be fitted to the B @-@ 57B . The two programs were named projects Tropic Moon I and Tropic Moon II respectively . The Tropic Moon I system was essentially obsolete before it was deployed , and tests quickly confirmed this . Only 4 A @-@ 1Es were so equipped . The results from the Tropic Moon II B @-@ 57Bs were almost as discouraging , with 456 trucks detected on 182 sorties , for only 39 confirmed kills . Both systems were removed from the theatre by the end of 1968 . A prototype FLIR unit had been tested under Project Red Sea in a DC @-@ 3 at Eglin AFB , and later in an AC @-@ 47 in South Vietnam in September 1965 . Using technology developed from those tests , Project Lonesome Tiger was initiated , testing a FLIR unit on two B @-@ 26 Invader aircraft . Climate was found to have serious effects on the units , especially humidity , and this fit was not to be put into widespread use . Improvised mounting of “ starlight scope [ s ] ” in the bomb bay of the B @-@ 26 is also mentioned in oral history reports , and this fit was found to be largely impractical . = = = Illumination equipment and target marking = = = Battlefield illumination was of key importance within the original Shed Light programs . The dominant aerial flare at the time was the Mk 24 Mod 0 , developed by the US Navy . Reliability of the units , however , were in question , as was availability . Perhaps of greater concern was existing test data in 1966 that suggested pilot disorientation and flare placement were serious issues . Project Night Owl , conducted in 1954 , testing flares dropped from F @-@ 86 Sabre aircraft , led to twenty @-@ five percent of pilots reporting experiencing some level of vertigo . Ironically , initial studies showed that in correcting this problem , issues of insufficient illumination were experienced . A new flare , designated MLU @-@ 32 / B99 , also referred to as Briteye , was put into development . The new flare burned at 5 million candle power for over five minutes and produced a signal that could be heard by pilots indicating when it was about to burn out . Additionally , the Navy ’ s Mk 33 Mod 0 flare warhead for the 5 ” Mk 16 “ Zuni ” rocket motor was tested under Shed Light . Projected delays in the procurement of the MLU @-@ 32 / B99 led to a proposal to test the Swedish Lepus flare as an interim measure . The Lepus flare was tested , but found to be inferior to the MLU @-@ 32 / B99 . The issues surrounding flares led to exploration of other methods of battlefield illumination . The Battlefield Illumination Airborne System or BIAS , employed two banks of Xenon ARC lamps ( 28 total ) fitted to a modified C @-@ 123B aircraft . A cooling system was installed on the left side of the aircraft to help dissipate the heat generated . The system was deployed to Vietnam , but it was found that the lamps provided a perfect target for enemy gunners and the system was discontinued . Initially it had been proposed that a similar system be installed on the more capable C @-@ 130 , but the experience during the operational trials brought the whole program to a halt . More unorthodox methods were also explored . Astrosystems International developed a so @-@ called “ Quartz Chamber ” which burned pure oxygen and aircraft fuel , converting the chemical energy into light . The system was planned to be evaluated within a year , and installed in a similar arrangement to the more conventional BIAS . A plan , codenamed Moonshine , was also put forward . Moonshine was to be a joint effort with NASA to determine the feasibility of a geosynchronous satellite that could in project light directly down on any desired location . Ground target marking , which was a key tactic for day time strikes , was investigated . Project 2531 was to investigate target marking munitions , and looked into warheads for the Mk 40 2 @.@ 75 ” rocket motor , using a variety of chemiluminescent materials . These were to be loaded with compounds developed under the US Navy ’ s Target Illumination and Recovery Aid ( TIARA ) program . Initially they used modified M151 high @-@ explosive warheads , but found the amount of compound that could be contained provided poor results . The Shed Light Task Force noted that a lighter case for these compounds was in development . A combination of red phosphorus and a flare was investigated in an attempt to provide a system that could be used at night or during the day . = = = Aircraft and tactics = = = The key aircraft intended to be developed under Shed Light was to be a “ Self Contained Night Attack ” aircraft or SCNA . The SCNA would have “ the necessary night sensors and weapon delivery capability to find and strike targets at night one the first pass without the use of visible artificial illumination . ” However , to provide an interim capability , the idea of using a “ Hunter @-@ Killer ” concept using aircraft capable of spotting targets at night and more or less unmodified conventional strike aircraft was proposed . This method had many identified disadvantages , including the need for specialized aircraft and capability differences between the hunter and the killer that might affect their combined operation . The need for specialized aircraft was further exposed by the fact that only three aircraft at all suitable for the hunter role were available to the US military in southeast Asia as of 1966 . These included the Army ’ s OV @-@ 1B Mohawk , and the USAF ’ s RF @-@ 4C Phantom II and RB @-@ 57E Canberra aircraft . There were only two RB @-@ 57E aircraft in country at the time , under a special reconnaissance project codenamed Patricia Lynn , and the aircraft were essentially experimental . They also featured Reconofax VI FLIR units , which was an older technology than those being developed under Shed Light . The RF @-@ 4C had the benefit of being of a similar capability to strike aircraft at the time , and a modified hunter version , given a designation RF @-@ 4C ( H ) was to be developed , replacing the camera equipment with LLLTV , FLIR , and Side @-@ Looking Radar ( SLAR ) units . A three @-@ phase program had been outlined as early as 1966 for development of the SCNA . The first would be a slower bomber or cargo aircraft , followed , by a jet aircraft of some type . The F @-@ 111 was originally slated to become the key SCNA aircraft . It was ultimately hoped it would incorporate the final versions of all three types of sensors ( LLLTV , FLIR , and FLR ) developed under the program . In the initial study , an “ RF @-@ 111 ” was also supposed to be available in the 3 – 7 year time frame for use in the hunter @-@ killer pairing . This time frame led the initial study report to propose using the OV @-@ 10 Bronco aircraft in the interim measure , but decided against it because of the inability of the OV @-@ 10 to carry all the desired sensor equipment . As it turned out that while the RF @-@ 111A did enter testing in December 1967 , it was not easily convertible to and from the existing F @-@ 111A configuration . The Air Force looked for alternatives , but the revised RF @-@ 111D program was terminated because of a funding shortage in September 1969 and the RF @-@ 111A program was cut for good by March 1970 . With the decision not to use the OV @-@ 10 and the desire for an immediate capability , the USAF decided to investigate using the S @-@ 2 Tracker aircraft . The proposed aircraft would incorporate the three main sensors under development in a revised aircraft that provided operators for all major systems . The S @-@ 2 ’ s built @-@ in search light was to be slaved to the LLLTV , crew protection would be provided , and the armament system would be primarily 10 SUU @-@ 24 / A munitions dispensers in a revised bomb bay . Six wing hard points would be available for additional conventional munitions including bombs , rockets , cluster munitions and dispensers , and gun pods . Interestingly enough , the program package documentation suggests that the “ XM @-@ 9 ” would be the primary under @-@ wing store . The XM9 designation is the US Army designation for the SUU @-@ 7 / A low @-@ drag dispenser pod modified for use on the UH @-@ 1B / C Iroquois helicopter . The two planned pre @-@ production aircraft were to be designated YAS @-@ 2D , while the production aircraft would have been AS @-@ 2D . Difficulties in funding , getting the aircraft from the US Navy , and delays in completing the modifications led the USAF to scrap the S @-@ 2 based SCNA in January 1968 . The F @-@ 111 would initially have a mixed record in Southeast Asia , when a detachment of six aircraft from the 474th Tactical Fighter Wing were deployed to Takhli RTAFB in Thailand , in early 1968 , as part of Operation Combat Lancer . The remaining aircraft were returned to the United States in November after logging 55 missions , but at the cost of three F @-@ 111A 's lost in combat . Eventually the aircraft redeemed itself when two squadrons ( 48 F @-@ 111As ) from the 474th deployed to Takhli in September 1972 , in order to participate in the aerial offensive against North Vietnam under Operation Linebacker II . During this deployment the F @-@ 111s operated day and night , in all weather conditions and without electronic countermeasures escort , and relied on less aerial refueling support than other tactical aircraft . Eventually over 4000 missions were logged by the two F @-@ 111 @-@ equipped units at the cost of six aircraft lost in combat and two lost to operational causes . However , by this point in time , the aircraft was no longer earmarked for conversion into the SCNA role . = = Black Spot = = Perhaps the most radical of Shed Light 's projects were two C @-@ 123K Provider aircraft modified in September 1965 under Project Black Spot . Black Spot had been in development prior to the establishment of the Shed Light Task Force , but were subsequently incorporated in under the wide reaching charter . With the scrapping of the AS @-@ 2D aircraft program in 1968 , the Black Spot aircraft became the prime contenders for Shed Light ’ s first phase . The Black Spot aircraft were to fit under the " self @-@ contained night attack capability " description and E @-@ Systems of Greenville , Texas was contracted to complete the modifications . These aircraft featured the following sensors : Autonetics ( A division of North American Aviation ) R @-@ 132 forward looking radar ( FLR ) to locate targets for closer inspection via Low Light Level TV ( LLLTV ) and Forward Looking Infrared ( FLIR ) , and featured a Moving Target Indicator ( MTI ) and automatic tracking capability . An Avco FLIR . Westinghouse LLLTV , with automatic tracking . A Westinghouse laser rangefinder . The LLLTV system was described as having the highest resolution , and was to be the primary means of target location and engagement . The aircraft itself looked radically different visibly from its transport brethren , as the new equipment required lengthening the nose by over 50 inches . Also included was an armament system that could carry BLU @-@ 3 / B ( using the ADU @-@ 253 / B adapter ) or BLU @-@ 26 / B ( using the ADU @-@ 272 / B adapter ) bomblets , or CBU @-@ 68 / Bs cluster bombs . Both the ADU @-@ 253A / B and ADU @-@ 272A / B are listed as being used in combat , with no mention of combat drops of CBU @-@ 68 / Bs . In addition to the offensive armament , two hand operated flare launchers were initially provided , until LAU @-@ 74 / A automatic launchers could be supplied . Besides the automated nature of the LAU @-@ 74 / A , the unit only required one loadmaster to operate it . The two aircraft , serial numbers 54 @-@ 691 and 54 @-@ 698 , were first designated NC @-@ 123K in 1968 and then redesignated AC @-@ 123K in 1969 . These NC / AC @-@ 123Ks were first deployed operationally at Osan in South Korea between August and October 1968 , and flying in support of operations against North Korean infiltrators approaching by boat . The operations in Korea met with a certain level of success and as a result the NC / AC @-@ 123Ks were transferred to South Vietnam in November 1968 . Once in South Vietnam the aircraft were engaged in missions against the transport of materiel along Ho Chi Minh Trail and in the Mekong Delta Region . The aircraft operated there until January 1969 , when they were redeployed to Ubon RTAB , Thailand . Two missions a night were flown from Ubon with two A @-@ 1 escorts from Nakhon Phanom RTAB ( often referred to simply as NKP ) flying cover and providing additional firepower . Initial escort had been provided by F @-@ 4s , but the difference in speed and capabilities had made protecting the lower and slower flying NC / AC @-@ 123Ks difficult . The area of responsibility for the first six months was approximately 100 nm east southeast from NKP . After that , the area of coverage was a river in southern Laos . The two aircraft were returned to the United States , to Hurlburt Field , Florida in May 1969 , where a second round of training occurred . Four crews attended a ground school in Greenville , Texas and returned to Hurlburt where they flew the aircraft for the first time . In October 1969 two crews flew the aircraft to a second deployment at Ubon . The other two crews arrived in early November . After attending jungle survival training at Clark AB in the Philippines missions over Laos commenced . The final phases of the program are slightly unclear . Some sources have missions terminating in early July , 1970 and the aircraft flying to the " Bone Yard " at Davis @-@ Monthan AFB where they were returned to C @-@ 123K standard , then returned to South Vietnam still wearing their camouflage and black undersides for transport duty . The description of the designation in the official documentation supports this , by saying that the NC @-@ 123K is " Similar to C @-@ 123K but partially demodified from AC @-@ 123K ( modified to an attack configuration ) to permit general cargo handling and troop movement . " However , the official history states that combat operations ceased 11 May 1969 , with no mention of the second deployment . The second deployment is mentioned in associated documentation , but only as to when the aircraft were scheduled to arrive in Thailand , not when they departed . Also , the official aircraft records show both aircraft as transferred to Napier Field , Alabama , where they were still listed as an NC @-@ 123K as of December 1972 . The purpose of this transfer is unclear . That the official history notes an " munitions accident " on 19 March 1969 in the chronology , but without any details as to the fate of aircraft or which aircraft was affected , adds additional confusion . It is also suggested that the Black Spot aircraft were never intended to be used in combat . However , as of 1966 20 production aircraft were planned , for a total cost of $ 64 @.@ 7 million . There was even a recommendation that the C @-@ 130 Hercules be added to the program and used instead . These projected aircraft were referred to as a Black Spot II . After the Operation Trial and Evaluation , it was found that the aircraft were not suitably protected and survivable for protracted use in combat zones . No C @-@ 130 aircraft are known to have been converted to a Black Spot II standard . = = Tropic Moon III = = Shed Light ’ s Second phase eventually turned out to be based on the B @-@ 57 . B @-@ 57 aircraft had already been deployed to southeast Asia and had been the subject of initial sensor evaluations under Tropic Moon II . Tropic Moon III was envisioned as an SCNA that made up for the gross shortcomings of Tropic Moon I and II . Tropic Moon III involved a completely new set of systems , up to date , and infinitely more capable than those previously installed . An entire new aircraft sub @-@ variant , the B @-@ 57G , was developed for the purpose with a redefined nose to house the new sensor package . Development of the aircraft experienced major delays during which it was equipped with a laser target designated to be used with the then new first @-@ generation Pave Way laser @-@ guided bombs . In the end the Tropic Moon III proved to be a capable system , both with conventional ordnance and laser guided weapons , day and night . However , the advent of the side @-@ firing gunship threatened the system . The B @-@ 57G conducted its first combat missions in October 1970 during Operation Commando Hunt V. The kill rates per sortie between the AC @-@ 130A / E and the B @-@ 57G made it clear which system was dominant in the role of " truck hunter , " in reference to the primary targets of the campaign . During the course of the operation the B @-@ 57G 's claimed over 2 @,@ 000 trucks destroyed , mostly as a result of using precision guided weaponry . In the same period AC @-@ 130s were credited with destroying six times this number of trucks . While B @-@ 57G operations continued , this led to an attempt to modify the system to incorporate gunship elements . One B @-@ 57G was modified to house a special bomb bay installation of one Emerson TAT @-@ 161 turret with a single M61 20mm cannon as a gunship under Project Pave Gat . This system proved to still be inferior to the capabilities of the AC @-@ 130 . In addition to their laser guided ordnance , Tropic Moon III B @-@ 57Gs also used a variety of conventional ordnance , including M36 incendiaries , cluster dispensers , and iron bombs . These other systems were used in light of a shortage of precision guided munitions available . The B @-@ 57G was removed from the theatre in May 1972 coinciding with the withdrawal of the bulk of US Air Elements . Plans remained for the continuation of the B @-@ 57G program and there were proposals for multiple wings of aircraft to operate in concert with AC @-@ 130s and similar aircraft . Post @-@ conflict spending cuts ended this . = = Other associated programs = = Other programs were also associated with Shed Light , either coming under its wide @-@ reaching charter , or otherwise being observed . Similar mission requirements meant other services were working on developing their own equipment , and the Shed Light Task Force was under orders from the start to survey all other development ( see the original 1966 charter ) . The US Army had been managing a piece of equipment referred to as S @-@ 202 , which combined four IR cameras , a display , and operator chains , an artificial illumination component ( described as “ covert – UV , ” using Ultraviolet light to provide illumination ) , and a freeze display function . Under Project Night Life , the S @-@ 202 it was to be tested on a S @-@ 61 helicopter by early 1967 . The project itself was being funded by the Advanced Research Projects Agency ( ARPA ) . The Army was also working on Project Dancing Dolls , which was attempting to develop a “ foliage penetration radar . ” Triple canopy jungle in Laos meant that being able to see at night might not be enough to acquire a target . The system was being tested on OV @-@ 1 aircraft then in use by the Army , but the USAF envisioned the radar as a component on the planned SCNA F @-@ 111s . This program and continued investigations into hunter @-@ killer combinations led to the OV @-@ 1B ( using SLAR ) and OV @-@ 1C ( using FLIR ) aircraft being deployed themselves as hunters , teaming up with gunship aircraft during Operation Commando Hunt . = = Summary = = No report on the effectiveness of Operation Shed Light as a whole exists . It is known that there was some discontent among some of its major participants . General John D. Ryan , Commander in Chief of the Pacific Air Forces , complained following the poor showings from the Tropic Moon II program that he was “ tired of buying everything they send us . ” He then requested that his staff draft a message that would allow him to send “ this thing [ the Tropic Moon II B @-@ 57B ] to CONUS [ Continental United States ] . ” Even in regards to the development of the Tropic Moon III aircraft , the Aeronautical Systems Division was forced to admit that the myriad of delays in that program had been caused by " reduced quality control " springing from the " crash " nature of the program . Shed Light was a crash development project , and was largely unguided . It was tasked with research and development of almost any piece of equipment that might help with the mission outlined in its charter . As a result , few of the programs came to fruition and fewer still left a definitive mark on the conflict . The developments under Shed Light were quickly eclipsed by new aircraft produced under Project Gunship ( notably under Gunship II and Gunship III ) . They were fitted with many of the sensors developed under Shed Light , but took on a life all their own . Shed Light ’ s most visible programs , Black Spot and Tropic Moon , have largely fallen into obscurity .
= Bucentaur = The bucentaur ( / bjuːˈsɛntɔːr / bew @-@ SEN @-@ tor ; bucintoro in Italian and Venetian ) was the state barge of the doges of Venice . It was used every year on Ascension Day up to 1798 to take the doge out to the Adriatic Sea to perform the " Marriage of the Sea " – a ceremony that symbolically wedded Venice to the sea every year on the " Festa della Sensa " ( Ascension Day ) . Scholars believe there were four major barges , the first significant bucentaur having been built in 1311 . The last and most magnificent of the historic bucentaurs made its maiden voyage in 1729 in the reign of Doge Alvise III Sebastiano Mocenigo . Depicted in paintings by Canaletto and Francesco Guardi , the ship was 35 m ( 115 ft ) long and more than 8 metres ( 26 ft ) high . A two @-@ deck floating palace , its main salon had a seating capacity of 90 . The doge 's throne was in the stern , and the prow bore a figurehead representing Justice with sword and scales . The barge was propelled by 168 oarsmen , and another 40 sailors were required to man it . The ship was destroyed in 1798 on Napoleon 's orders to symbolize his victory in conquering Venice . In February 2008 , the Fondazione Bucintoro announced a € 20 million project to rebuild the 1729 bucentaur . Work started on 15 March 2008 at the Arsenale shipyard and naval dock . = = Origin of the name = = The origin of the name bucintoro is obscure , but one possibility is that it is derived from the Venetian burcio , a traditional term for a lagoon vessel , and in oro , meaning covered in gold . On the other hand , man of letters Francesco Sansovino ( 1521 – 1586 ) proposed , based on documents dating from 1293 , that it was named after an earlier boat built at the Arsenale shipyard called the Navilium Duecentorum Hominum ( Of Two Hundred Naval Men ) . It has also been suggested that the vessel was named after the ship Centaurus referred to by Virgil when describing the funeral rites observed by Aeneas to honour his father 's death ; the bucentaur was twice the size of the ship mentioned in the Aeneid . The name may also refer to trumpets and horns that were played on board . The term bucintoro was Latinized in the Middle Ages as bucentaurus on the analogy of an alleged Greek word βουκένταυρος ( boukentauros ) meaning " ox @-@ centaur " , from βους ( bous , " ox " ) and κένταυρος ( kentauros , " centaur " ) . The common supposition was that the name derived from a creature of a man with the head of an ox , a figure of which served as the barge 's figurehead . This derivation is , however , fanciful ; the word βουκένταυρος is unknown in Greek mythology , and representations of the " figurehead " of the bucentaurs in fact depict the lion of St. Mark the Evangelist . The name " bucentaur " seems , indeed , to have been given to any great and sumptuous Venetian vessels . Du Cange quotes from the chronicle of the Doge Andrea Dandolo ( reigned 1343 – 1354 ) : " ... cum uno artificioso et solemni Bucentauro , super quo venit usque ad S. Clementem , quo jam pervenerat principalior et solemnior Bucentaurus cum consiliariis , & c [ ... with a well @-@ wrought and stately Bucentaur , upon which he came to San Clemente , where a more important and more stately Bucentaur had already arrived with his advisors , etc . ... ] " . The term was also used to describe a 16th @-@ century sumptuous transport boat , built and decorated in Modena , to celebrate the marriage of Lucrezia , the daughter of Ercole II d 'Este , Duke of Ferrara , to the Duke of Urbino . = = The vessels = = Before the age of the bucentaurs , it is probable that for ceremonies in the Venetian Lagoon the doge was simply assigned a small galley from the Venetian fleet . As Venice 's wealth increased due to its naval power , plans were made for a special ship to be built . This is evidenced by the promissioni – sacramental pledges spoken by the doges when they were sworn into office – of Reniero Zeno of 1252 , Lorenzo Tiepolo of 1268 and Giovanni Soranzo of 1312 which mention the construction of a bucentaur in the Arsenale shipyard and naval depot . = = = The 1311 bucentaur = = = Historians agree that four major barges were built . While there are believed to have been earlier vessels , the bucentaur of 1311 is regarded as the first significant one , for on 17 August 1311 the promissione was amended to add the statement " quod Bucentaurus Domini ducis fiat per Dominium et teneatur in Arsenatu " ( " ... that a Bucentaur should be made for the Lord Doge for his rule , and it should be held in the Arsenale " ) . This was the first time that Venetian law had provided that the expense of building the bucentaur was to be borne by the public budget . The two @-@ decked bucentaur had a tiemo ( canopy ) with two sections , one in purple velvet for the doge , the other in red velvet for Venetian nobles . The historian Marino Sanuto the Younger , in his work De origine , situ et magistratibus urbis Venetae ( On the Origin , Site and Officials of the City of Venice ) , also described the ship as bearing a sculpture of Justice . The bucentaur was used not only for the Marriage of the Sea ceremony , but also for other state functions such as festivals celebrating the Virgin Mary and the bearing of newly crowned dogaressas ( the wives of doges ) to the Doge 's Palace . On 6 May 1401 , a law was passed to prohibit the doge from making private use of the bucentaur . Documents mention the construction of another bucentaur in 1449 larger than the 1311 one , but little is known about this vessel . The earliest known image of a bucentaur appeared in Jacopo de ' Barbari 's monumental woodcut Pianta di Venezia ( Map of Venice ) which was published in 1500 . This work pictured a bucentaur afloat in the Arsenale without oars or decoration save for a large wooden sculpture of Justice in the bow . A similar illustration was produced by Andrea Valvassore between 1517 and 1525 . = = = The 1526 bucentaur = = = On 10 May 1526 , Marino Sanuto the Younger recorded that on " Ascension Day the serenissimo [ the Most Serene One – the doge ] went in the new bucintoro to wed the sea " , adding that " it was a beautiful work , larger and wider than the other one " . The proportions and rich decoration of this Bucentaur , built in the reign of Doge Andrea Gritti , became the model for successive versions of the ship . It had two decks and 42 oars , and was adorned with figures of lions with a sculpture of Justice at the prow ( preserved in the Museum of Naval History in Venice ) . The movable canopy of the vessel was covered with red fabric on the outside , and blue fabric with gold stars inside . This bucentaur was frequently referred to in Venetian chronicles . It was on the ship that on 15 July 1547 Henry II of France was conveyed with the doge down the Grand Canal to the Ca ' Foscari where he stayed during his visit to Venice . The ship was also used to transport the newly crowned Dogaressa Morosina Morosini @-@ Grimani to the Doge 's Palace on 4 May 1597 . This event was the subject of numerous etchings and paintings by Giacomo Franco , Andrea Vicentino , Sebastian Vrancx and anonymous artists . = = = The 1606 bucentaur = = = Despite Venice 's economic and maritime decline , in 1601 at the behest of the Doge Marino Grimani , the Venetian Senate decided to have a new bucentaur built at the cost of 70 @,@ 000 ducats ; although the existing one was still in service , experts regarded it as too old . The designer of the new ship is unknown , but he was selected from among the most qualified marangoni ( ships ' carpenters ) of the Arsenale . The work was supervised by Marco Antonio Memmo , the sovraprovveditore ( overseer of the provveditore ) of the Arsenale . The new vessel was approved and praised by all on its maiden voyage to the Lido with the newly elected Doge Leonardo Donato on Ascension Day , 10 May 1606 . The third barge was modelled after its predecessors , its decorations influenced by late @-@ Renaissance forms . Contemporary illustrations show that the sides of the bucentaur were covered by mythical figures of sirens riding seahorses , and that the loggias were supported by curved dolphins amongst intertwined garlands and scrollwork taking on the form of monstrous hydras extending from the ends of the two bow spurs . It was once believed that most of the wooden sculptures , including a large sculpture of Mars , two lions of St. Mark positioned on either side of the stern , and the figurehead of Justice ( dressed in apparel made by the San Daniele Monastery ) , were the work of the renowned Venetian sculptor Alessandro Vittoria , but research has revealed the names of the brothers Agostino and Marcantonio Vanini of Bassano who were praised as " authors of carvings of marvellous beauty " . After more than a century of service , in 1719 a decision was made to demolish the ship . = = = The 1727 bucentaur = = = The last and most magnificent of the historic bucentaurs was commissioned by the Senate in 1719 , and the construction of it began in the Arsenale in 1722 . The ship was designed by Michele Stefano Conti , the protomagistro dei marangoni ( head master of the ships ' carpenters ) . Wooden sculpting work was assigned to Antonio Corradini , as was testified by the phrase " Antonii Coradini sculptoris Inventum " ( " invention of the sculptor Antonio Corradini " ) inscribed near the bow palmette . He was an established sculptor , having already worked on commissions in Austria , Bohemia and Saxony . The gilding , in pure gold leaf , was handled by one Zuanne D 'Adamo . Some of the 1606 ship 's ornaments and sculptures , including the sculpture of Mars and the two lions of St. Mark , were salvaged and reused . The vessel was 35 m ( 115 ft ) long and more than 8 metres ( 26 ft ) high . A two @-@ deck floating palace , its main salon was covered in red velvet , had 48 windows set in a huge , elaborately carved baldacchino or canopy , and had a seating capacity of 90 . The doge 's throne was in the stern , and the prow bore the traditional figurehead representing Justice with sword and scales . The barge was propelled by 168 oarsmen rowing in teams of four on its 42 oars each 11 metres ( 36 ft ) in length ; another 40 sailors were required to man it . Only the most handsome and sturdy youths of the Arsenale were selected for the ship 's crew . The new bucentaur made its début on Ascension Day 1729 in the reign of Doge Alvise III Sebastiano Mocenigo . The event was officially recorded , and the splendour of the vessel praised with sonnets and publications such as that by Antonio Maria Lucchini entitled La Nuova regia su l 'acque nel Bucintoro nuovamente eretto all 'annua solenne funzione del giorno dell 'Ascensione di Nostro Signore ( The New Palace upon the Waters of the Newly Built Bucentaur at the Annual Solemn Function of the Day of the Ascension of Our Lord , 1751 ) . The German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , in his work Italienischen Reise ( Italian Journey , 1816 – 1817 ) which was an account of his travels in Italy between 1786 and 1787 , described the bucentaur on 5 October 1786 in these terms : Um mit einem Worte den Begriff des Bucentaur auszusprechen , nenne ich ihn eine Prachtgaleere . Der ältere , von dem wir noch Abbildungen haben , rechtfertigt diese Benennung noch mehr als der gegenwärtige , der uns durch seinen Glanz über seinen Ursprung verblendet . ... Ich komme immer auf mein Altes zurück . Wenn dem Künstler ein echter Gegenstand gegeben ist , so kann er etwas Echtes leisten . Hier war ihm aufgetragen , eine Galeere zu bilden , die wert wäre , die Häupter der Republik am feierlichsten Tage zum Sakrament ihrer hergebrachten Meerherrschaft zu tragen , und diese Aufgabe ist fürtrefflich ausgeführt . Das Schiff ist ganz Zierat , also darf man nicht sagen : mit Zierat überladen , ganz vergoldetes Schnitzwerk , sonst zu keinem Gebrauch , eine wahre Monstranz , um dem Volke seine Häupter recht herrlich zu zeigen . Wissen wir doch : das Volk , wie es gern seine Hüte schmückt , will auch seine Obern prächtig und geputzt sehen . Dieses Prunkschiff ist ein rechtes Inventarienstück , woran man sehen kann , was die Venezianer waren und sich zu sein dünkten . [ In order to express the concept of the Bucentaur with one word , I call it a Prachtgaleere [ magnificent galley ] . The older one , of which we still have illustrations , justifies this designation even more than the present one , as we are dazzled by the glare of its origin . ... I always return to my old theme . If a genuine object is given to the artist , then he can achieve something genuine . Here was laid on him the responsibility of constructing a galley worthy of carrying the heads of the Republic on the most solemn day to consecrate their traditional dominion over the sea , and this task is carried out excellently . The ship is itself an ornament ; therefore one may not say that it is overloaded with ornaments , and only a mass of gilded carvings that are otherwise useless . In reality it is a monstrance , in order to show the people that their leaders are indeed wonderful . Nevertheless , we know this : the people , who are fond of decorating their hats , also want to see their betters in splendour and dressed up . This grandiose ship is quite an item of inventory and shows what the Venetians were and imagined themselves to be . ] In 1798 , Napoleon ordered this bucentaur to be destroyed , less for the sake of its golden decorations than as a political gesture to symbolize his victory in conquering the city . French soldiers broke up the carved wooden portions and the gold decorations of the ship into small pieces , carted them to the island of San Giorgio Maggiore and set fire to them to recover the gold . The ship burned for three days , and French soldiers used 400 mules to carry away its gold . The decorative elements of the vessel that survived the flames are preserved in the Museo Civico Correr in Venice , and there is a detailed scale model of the vessel in the Arsenale . The hull survived and , renamed the Prama Hydra and armed with four cannons , was stationed at the mouth of the Lido 's port where it served as a coastal battery . Subsequently , the ship was returned to the Arsenale and used as a prison ship until it was entirely destroyed in 1824 . = = Marriage of the Sea ceremony = = The " Marriage of the Adriatic " , or more correctly " Marriage of the Sea " ( in Italian , Sposalizio del Mare ) , was a ceremony symbolizing the maritime dominion of Venice . The ceremony , established about 1000 to commemorate the Doge Pietro II Orseolo 's conquest of Dalmatia , was originally one of supplication and placation , Ascension Day being chosen as that on which the doge set out on his expedition . The form it took was a solemn procession of boats , headed by the doge 's nave ( ship ) , from 1311 the Bucentaur , out to sea by the Lido port . = = Modern reconstruction = = In February 2008 , plans to rebuild the bucentaur destroyed in 1798 were announced . More than 200 shipbuilders , woodcarvers and jewellers started work on 15 March 2008 at the Arsenale . It has been reported by the Italian press that it will take two years for the bucentaur to be constructed . However , Colonel Giorgio Paterno , the head of Fondazione Bucintoro which is behind the € 20 million project , said in March 2008 that " [ w ] e 'll build it as fast as we can but we 're not in a hurry . " It is intended that the project will make use of traditional shipbuilding techniques and original materials , including larch and fir wood , and will reproduce gold decorations . The foundation is supported by businessmen in the Veneto and Lombardy regions but has also written to the French President Nicolas Sarkozy for France to make a financial contribution as a goodwill gesture to compensate for Napoleon 's " vandalism " of the 1729 vessel . Fondazione Bucintoro hopes that the vessel will become " the most visited floating museum in the world " , but also sees the project as a means to " help Venice recover its former glory and its old spirit " . According to Paterno , " Invaded by so many million tourists , the city risks losing its identity , losing its cultural connection with its own history . It 's not enough to live in the future , the city needs to connect with and remember its glorious past . " = = = Articles = = = Franco , Giacomo ( c . 1609 ) , [ Illustration from Habiti d 'huomeni et donne venetiane [ Dress of Venetian Men and Ladies ] ] in William T. Hastings [ et al . ] , ed . ( 1964 ) , " Bucentaur , the Doge 's ship of state , accompanied by gondolas , gallies , and sailing vessels [ illustration ] " , Shakespeare Quarterly 15 ( 1 / Winter ) : 66 , JSTOR 2867958 . On rebuilding the Bucintoro , Fugitive Ink [ blog ] , 29 February 2008 , retrieved 2008 @-@ 03 @-@ 26 . = = = Books = = = Il Bucintoro di Venezia [ The Bucentaur of Venice ] , Venice : [ s.n. ] , 1837 ( Italian and French ) . Lucchini , Antonio Maria ( 1751 ) , La Nuova regia su l 'acque nel Bucintoro nuovamente cretto all 'annua solenne funzione del giorno dell 'Ascensione di Nostro Signore , etc . [ The New Palace upon the Waters of the Newly Built Bucentaur at the Annual Solemn Function of the Day of the Ascension of Our Lord , etc . ] , Venice : [ s.n. ] ( Italian ) . Lina Urban - Il Bucintoro - Centro Internazionale Grafica Veneziana , Venice 1988 : ( Italian )
= Wallingford Castle = Wallingford Castle was a major medieval castle situated in Wallingford in the English county of Oxfordshire ( historically in Berkshire until the 1974 reorganisation ) , adjacent to the River Thames . Established in the 11th century as a motte @-@ and @-@ bailey design within an Anglo @-@ Saxon burgh , it grew to become what historian Nicholas Brooks has described as " one of the most powerful royal castles of the 12th and 13th centuries " . Held for the Empress Matilda during the civil war years of the Anarchy , it survived multiple sieges and was never taken . Over the next two centuries it became a luxurious castle , used by royalty and their immediate family . After being abandoned as a royal residence by Henry VIII , the castle fell into decline . Refortified during the English Civil War , it was eventually slighted , i.e. deliberately destroyed , after being captured by Parliamentary forces after a long siege . The site was subsequently left relatively undeveloped , and the limited remains of the castle walls and the considerable earthworks are now open to the public . = = History = = = = = 11th century = = = As an important regional town , overlooking a key crossing point on the River Thames , prosperous and with its own mint , the town of Wallingford had been defended by an Anglo @-@ Saxon burgh , or town wall , prior to the Norman invasion of 1066 . Wigod of Wallingford , who controlled the town , supported William the Conqueror 's invasion and entertained the king when he arrived in Wallingford . Immediately after the end of the initial invasion , the king set about establishing control over the Thames Valley through constructing three key castles , the royal castles of Windsor and Wallingford , and the baronial castle , later transferred to royal hands , built at Oxford . Wallingford Castle was probably built by Robert D 'Oyly between 1067 and 1071 . Robert had married Wigod 's daughter Ealdgyth , and ultimately inherited many of his father @-@ in @-@ law 's lands . The wooden castle was built in the north @-@ east corner of the town , taking advantage of the old Anglo @-@ Saxon ramparts , with the motte close to the river overlooking the ford , and required substantial demolition work to make room for the new motte @-@ and @-@ bailey structure . Unusually , it appears that the castle was constructed on top of high @-@ status Anglo @-@ Saxon housing , probably belonging to former housecarls . The motte today is 60 metres ( 197 feet ) across and 13 metres ( 43 feet ) high . Robert endowed a sixteen @-@ strong college of priests within the castle , which he named St Nicholas College . = = = 12th century = = = Wallingford Castle passed from Robert to first his son @-@ in @-@ law Miles Crispin , and then Brien FitzCount , who married Robert 's daughter after Miles died . Brien , an important supporter of Henry I , was the son of the Duke of Brittany , and probably strengthened the castle in stone in the 1130s . He produced a very powerful fortification , including a shell keep and a curtain wall around the bailey , that , combined with the extensive earthworks , has been described by historian Nicholas Brooks as " one of the most powerful royal castles of the 12th and 13th centuries " . After the death of Henry , however , the political situation in England became less stable , with both Stephen of England and the Empress Matilda laying claim to the throne . Brien had originally been considered a supporter of Stephen , but in 1139 Matilda travelled to England and Brien announced his allegiance to her , joining forces with Miles of Gloucester and other supporters in the south @-@ west . Wallingford Castle was now the most easterly stronghold of the Empress 's faction – it was either the closest base to London , or the first in line to be attacked by Stephen 's forces , depending on one 's perspective . Stephen attacked the castle in 1139 , initially intending to besiege it , as the walls were considered impregnable to assault . Brien had brought in considerable supplies – contemporaries believed the castle could survive a siege for several years if need be – and Stephen changed his mind , putting up two counter @-@ castles to contain Wallingford along the road to Bristol , before continuing west . The next year , Miles of Gloucester , possibly acting under orders from Robert of Gloucester , struck east , destroying one of the counter @-@ castles outside Wallingford . The civil war between Stephen and Matilda rapidly descended into an attritional campaign , in which castles like Wallingford played a critical role in efforts by both sides to secure the Thames Valley . After the fall of Oxford to Stephen in 1141 , Matilda fled to Wallingford , and the importance of the castle continued to grow . Around this time Brien established a notorious prison within the castle , called Cloere Brien , or " Brien 's Close " , as part of his efforts to extract money and resources from the surrounding region . The nobleman William Martel , Stephen 's royal steward , was one of the most high profile prisoners to be kept there . Contemporary chroniclers reported the cries of tortured prisoners in the castle disturbed the inhabitants of the town of Wallingford . There was not enough space in the castle for all of Brien 's forces , and various houses in the town had to be taken for the use of his knights . Between 1145 and 1146 Stephen made another attempt to seize Wallingford , but was again unable to take the castle despite building a powerful counter @-@ castle to the east , opposite Wallingford at Crowmarsh Gifford , and building castles to the west at Brightwell , South Moreton and Cholsey . He returned with larger forces in 1152 , reestablishing the counter @-@ castle at Crowmarsh Gifford and building another one overlooking Wallingford bridge , and settled his forces down to starve the castle out . Brien , supported by Miles ' son , Roger of Hereford , who had also become trapped in the castle , attempted to break through the blockade , but without success . By 1153 , the castle garrison was running very low on food , and Roger made a deal with Stephen allowing him to leave the castle with his followers . Henry , the Empress ' son and the future Henry II , then intervened , marching his forces to relieve the castle and placing Stephen 's counter @-@ castles under siege himself . King Stephen marched back from Oxford , and the two forces confronted each other on the meadows outside the castle . The result was an embryonic peace deal called the Treaty of Wallingford , leading on to the permanent Treaty of Winchester that would ultimately bring an end to the civil war and install Henry as king following Stephen 's death in 1153 . Brien , who had no children , chose to enter a monastery , and surrendered Wallingford Castle to Henry at the end of the conflict in 1153 . At the end of the 12th century , the castle become closely associated with King John , who had been granted the town by Richard I in 1189 . John seized the castle as well during his revolt in 1191 , and although he was forced to return it , he reclaimed it when he became king himself in 1199 . John made extensive use of Wallingford Castle during the First Barons ' War between 1215 and 1216 , reinforcing the fortifications and mobilising a substantial garrison to protect it . = = = 13th – 15th centuries = = = Under Henry III , Richard , the 1st Earl of Cornwall was formally granted the castle as his main residence in 1231 . Richard lived in considerable style , and spent substantial sums on the property , building a new hall and more luxurious fittings . Richard 's election as King of the Romans in 1251 brought an end to his use of the property , but the castle became embroiled in the Second Barons ' War in the 1260s . Simon de Montfort seized the castle after his victory at the battle of Lewes , using it to imprison the royal family for a time , before moving them to the more secure Kenilworth Castle . Reclaimed by Henry III at the end of the conflict , it continued to be used by the Earls of Cornwall as a luxurious home for the rest of the century . Edward II gave Wallingford Castle first to his royal favourite , Piers Gaveston , and then to his young wife , Isabella of France , with large sums still being spent on the property . Edward continued to use the castle as a royal prison for holding his enemies , until his own fall from power in 1326 ; Isabella , who overthrew her husband , then used it as an early headquarters following her invasion of England . Her son , Edward III , ultimately settled the castle on the new title of the Duke of Cornwall , used by sons of the king . The castle continued to be used as a county jail , with many complaints about the number of felons who were able to escape from it . The cost of maintaining the castle from local rents and revenues became more challenging towards the end of the 14th century , with additional royal revenues being required for the ongoing work required on it . Nonetheless , in 1399 when Richard II was deposed , the castle was well fortified and in good condition , forming what historian Douglas Biggs calls " a formidable obstacle " to Richard 's enemies , and able to host the royal government when it first fled from London . Wallingford Castle played little role in the Wars of the Roses and after Henry VIII used it for a final time in 1518 it appears to have fallen into disuse as a royal residence . = = = 16th – 19th centuries = = = The castle fell into decline in the 16th century ; it was separated from the Duchy of Cornwall , and under Queen Mary the site was stripped for lead and other building materials for use at Windsor Castle . The antiquarian John Leland described the castle in 1540 as being " nowe sore yn ruine , and for the most part defaced " , although the jail continued in use throughout the period , albeit still suffering from many escapee inmates . Held by various nobles from 1600 onwards , it returned to the crown under Charles I , who gave it to Queen Henrietta Maria , but by then the castle was only really valuable for the surrounding meadow land and fisheries . The English Civil War broke out between the supporters of Charles I and Parliament in the 1640s ; with the king and Parliament maintaining their capitals in Oxford and London respectively , the Thames Valley once again became a critical war zone . Wallingford was a Royalist town , with a garrison established there in 1642 to prevent an advance on Oxford to the north @-@ west . Colonel Thomas Blagge was appointed governor , and in 1643 the king instructed him to refortify the castle , inspecting the results later that year . By 1644 , the surrounding Thames towns of Abingdon and Reading had fallen and Parliamentary forces unsuccessfully attacked the town and castle of Wallingford in 1645 . General Thomas Fairfax placed Wallingford Castle under siege the next year ; after 16 weeks , during which Oxford fell to Parliamentary forces , the castle finally surrendered in July 1646 under generous terms for the defenders . The risk of civil conflict continued , however , and Parliament decided that it was necessary to slight , or damage so as to put beyond military use , the castle in 1652 , as it remained a surprisingly powerful fortress and a continuing threat should any fresh uprising occur . The castle was virtually razed to the ground in the operation , although a brick building continued to be used as a prison into the 18th century . A large house was built in the bailey in 1700 , followed by a gothic mansion house on the same site in 1837 . = = Today = = The mansion , abandoned due to rising costs , was demolished in 1972 , allowing Wallingford Castle to be declared a scheduled monument as well as a Grade I listed building . The castle grounds , including the remains of St Nicholas College , two sections of castle wall and the motte hill , are now open to the public . An archaeological research project run by Leicester University conducted a sequence of excavations between 2002 and 2010 , aiming to better understand the historical transition from the Anglo @-@ Saxon town of Wallingford and the burgh , to the period of the Norman castle .
= Order of Saint Hubert = The Bavarian Order of Saint Hubert is a Roman Catholic dynastic order of knighthood founded in 1444 or 1445 by Gerhard VII , Duke of Jülich @-@ Berg . He sought to commemorate his victory over the House of Egmond at the Battle of Linnich on 3 November , which is Saint Hubert 's day . The establishment of the Order occurred during a long @-@ term , intermittent territorial dispute , initially between the Dukes of Jülich and the Dukes of Guelders , who were descended from a female line of the House of Jülich . The dispute began in the 1430s , when Arnold , Duke of Gelderland claimed the duchy of Jülich and the county of Ravensberg , and was resolved in the 1614 Treaty of Xanten , which established the United Duchies of Jülich @-@ Cleves @-@ Berg of the counties of Ravensberg and Mark with the duchies of Cleves , Jülich and Berg . In 1778 , Charles Theodore , Duke of Jülich and Berg and the Count @-@ Elector Palatine , succeeded his childless cousin , Maximilian III Joseph , Elector of Bavaria and brought the Order to Bavaria . Initially , the order was open to men and women , although limiting the number of male companions to sixty . It commemorated the conversion of Saint Hubert and his standing as the patron saint of hunters and knights . Over time , the award had other uses as a reward for loyalty to the monarch and service to the princely state . = = History = = = = = Foundation = = = Sources agree that the Order of Saint Hubert honors a military victory of the Duke of Jülich , on Saint Hubert 's day , 3 November 1444 . Sources differ on the specific date of establishment of the Order , whether it celebrated the victory at the Battle of Linnich between Gebhard V of Jülich and Arnold of Egmont ( or Egmond ) , or commemorated the battle at a future date . Consequently , the date of the founding depends on the source . Still other sources date the founding of the Order as late as 1473 or 1475 . Twentieth century investigation has helped to clear up some of the confusion . The original Latin statutes of the foundation use Good Friday , in this case 26 March 1445 . Furthermore , there is clear written evidence that the Order existed prior to March 1445 : The original German statutes were dated immediately after the battle . It is also possible that Gerhard proclaimed the establishment of the Order immediately after the victory of his knights at Linnich , but the documents were not drawn up until later , leading to discrepancy in the dates of 1444 or 1445 . To further obfuscate the date of founding , Gerhard 's son , William III , renewed the Order upon his own succession to the ducal dignities in 1475 , in the so @-@ called New Statutes , which were prepared in Latin and German . These remained the governing documents of the Order until 1708 . In this confirmation probably lies the root of confusion over the date of the Order 's foundation . Initially the Order was a knightly brotherhood ( Rittersbruderschaft ) , reflecting the overlapping religious and military aspects of medieval court life . Saint Hubert was the patron saint of hunters and knights . The founding of the Order of the Golden Fleece in the early 15th century started a trend in confraternal princely orders . The purpose of these , whether established by monarchs or princes , was to foster loyalty to a sovereign , replacing to the old Chivalric orders developed in the Crusades . Although some historians classify the Order of the Saint Hubert as a confraternal order , during its 600 @-@ year @-@ life , its purpose changed as the fortunes and needs of the Dukes of Jülich and Berg and their successors changed . = = = Order under the House of Jülich = = = When Reinhold IV , Duke of Gelder , died in 1423 , his nephew Arnold inherited the dukedom . Arnold 's cousin , Adolf of Berg , inherited territories near Liège . Arnold believed that Adolf had inherited the better of the two properties , and coveted it for himself . He tried to take it by force and failed ; a compromise was reached by which the two agreed to a truce . Adolf of Berg died in 1437 and his cousin , Gerhard IV , the Duke of Jülich and Count of Ravensburg ( Westphalia ) , inherited both the Liège properties and the Duchy of Berg . Arnold reasserted his old claim , maintaining that the truce to which he and Adolf agreed was no longer valid , and prepared to take the duchies by force . Confident in his right to the inheritance , Gerhard met Arnold in battle , at the village of Linnich , in the county of Ravensburg ( Westphalia ) . He and his knights defeated Arnold and his knights on Saint Hubert 's day in 1444 . In celebration , Gerhard declared the founding of the Order , to reward his loyal and victorious knights . The Order remained in collateral branches of the family of the Dukes of Jülich and Berg until 1521 , when the male line holding the two duchies and the county of Ravensberg became extinct . A daughter , Maria von Geldern , remained to inherit the duchies and the county , but , under the Salic law practiced in the northwestern German states , women could only hold property through a husband or guardian . Consequently , the territories passed to her husband — who was also her distant relative — John III , Duke of Cleves and Mark . The couple had three daughters , one of whom , Ann of Cleves , married Henry VIII of England in 1540 , and one son , Wilhelm , who subsequently inherited the duchies and the administration of the Order . The duchies included most of the present @-@ day North Rhine @-@ Westphalia that lay outside the ecclesiastical territories of the Electorate of Cologne and Münster . Wilhelm was known as Wilhelm the Rich . = = = Order under the House of Wittelsbach @-@ Palatine = = = In March 1609 , Duke John William of Jülich @-@ Cleves @-@ Berg died childless . Both Duke Wolfgang William of Palatinate @-@ Neuberg and Elector John Sigismund of Brandenburg claimed the territories . In the subsequent succession chaos , the Order fell into disuse . By the late 17th century , the Duchy of Jülich passed into the jurisdiction of the Prince @-@ Elector Johann Wilhelm , Duke of Neuberg , who descended from a cadet branch of the Palatine line of the House of Wittelsbach . In May 1708 , he restored the Order of Saint Hubert and assumed the position of grand master for himself . To reward loyalty and service , he conferred the cross of the Order on several of his courtiers . He also gave the recipients generous pensions on the condition that a tenth be set aside for the poor , and a significant sum be distributed on the day of their reception into the order . In 1777 , the death of Maximilian III Joseph of Bavaria without a legitimate male heir ended the main line of Wittelsbach ; after the War of the Bavarian Succession , a brief and relatively bloodless contest , Charles Theodore inherited his cousin 's dignities . The Order moved with the new Elector to Bavaria , where it eventually was confirmed again on 30 March 1800 by Maximilian IV , Elector of Bavaria . In the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars , the Order functioned primarily as a military order , similar to the Military Order of Maria Theresa or the Order of Leopold . The present head of the House of Wittelsbach , Franz Bonaventura Adalbert Maria , Duke of Bavaria , is the current Grand Master of the order . = = Structure and requirements = = Initially , hierarchy of membership was relatively flat . The statutes called for a grand master , in this case the Duke of Jülich , four masters , and a provost , or arms master . Of the four masters , two were required to be representative of families of the Duchies of Jülich or Berg ; the origins of the others had no geographic limitations . The masters were the clearing house for membership ; they investigated the admission of new members and any alleged infractions by the existing membership . The Provost , a weapons master , maintained the weapons and arms of the brotherhood , and himself wore a special medallion . The Order was open to men and women , and both genders were entitled companions . Until 1476 , there were no limits on the number of companions to be admitted , but that year , with the new edition of the Order 's statutes , the Duke limited the number of men to 60 ; unlimited women could be admitted . The editions of the Order 's statutes , two in Latin and two in German , established similar requirements for membership . The Latin editions stipulated that the man be of noble birth — eight generations of noble grandparents — and of unblemished reputation ; the German versions required that only four grandparents of the man be noble . Women were to be spouses of a companion ; in the 1476 versions of the statutes , both Latin and German , female members of the Duchess ' household could be admitted even if their husbands were not members or if the women were single , but were required to resign if they left the service of the Duchess . The exception to this clause provided for their continued membership if their husbands became companions of the order . = = = Restructuring under Maximilian Joseph IV = = = In confirming the Order , on 18 May 1808 , the King of Bavaria declared the Order to be the first in the kingdom and linked it to the Order of Civic of Merit . He limited membership to twelve knights from the ranks of counts and barons , excluding himself , as grandmaster , and members ( native and foreign ) , who may be nominated by the sovereign . Entrance fees were 200 gold ducats for princes . Those under the rank of prince paid an entrance fee of 100 silver ducats , which amounted to 120 Reichsthaler ; the silver Reichsthaler was 29.44g of .989 fineness . He also established a dress costume for festival days , which included not only the insignia of the Order , but a black collar with a sash , narrow , short breeches with poppy @-@ colored garters and bows , a short black cape , a sword , and a plumed hat . Ludwig II was laid in state and was buried in this apparel . = = Collars , Badges and Stars = = The gold @-@ enameled cross lies in a white field , and surmounted by a crown ; on one side is represented the conversion of Saint Hubert , with the legend In trau vast ( firm in fidelity ) in Gothic letters . On the reverse , lies the imperial orb and the Latin inscription In memoriam recuperatæ dignitatis a vitæ 1708 ( English : In remembrance of the restoration of the original dignity , 1708 ) . Originally , it consisted of a collar and a pendant jewel . The Jülich collar consisted of stylized horns ( six for men , four for women ) , intertwined with a cloud @-@ like figure eight . The jewel depicted a relief of the conversion of Saint Hubert . Its overall design alluded to the Saint as the patron of hunters , and thus the patron of knights . The great cross was only worn on special days ; on all other days , a smaller cross must be worn , and the member was fined 20 thalers for any and each omission ) . The smaller cross was decorated appropriately for its size . The collar of the Order under the Wittelsbach dynasty consisted of forty @-@ four gold links , twenty @-@ two of which consisted of a rectangular representation of the conversion of Saint Hubert in open relief surrounded by a gold and white enamel frame . These alternated with twenty @-@ two other links consisted of the intertwined initial letters of the motto In trau vast , ( firm in fidelity ) , i.e. , I , T and V in Gothic letters radiating small golden rays , each of these links being alternatively enameled red or green . From the center rectangular link hung a white enameled Maltese cross , each arm strewn with numerous small golden flames and each point of the cross was tipped with a small gold ball . Between each arm of this cross were five straight gold rays and in the center of the cross was a round medallion bearing a golden representation in relief of the conversion of Saint Hubert against a green enamel background . The reverse of this cross bore the same design with this same representation but against a red enamel background . The sash of the Order was poppy red moire with narrow green borders , but under the knot , at the ends of this sash , these green borders as well as the ends of the sash were covered with gold metallic ribbon . Like the sash of the Order of the Garter this sash was worn from the left shoulder to the right hip . The cross worn with this sash was a Maltese cross with narrow arms also enameled white strewn with numerous golden flames , with three straight rays between each arm , each point of the cross being tipped with a small gold ball . Between the two gold balls on the top arm of the cross was a three @-@ dimensional gold representation of the Bavarian crown , by which the cross hung from its sash . In the center of the cross was a large round medallion consisting of a small golden representation of the conversion of Saint Hubert against a green enamel background and surrounded by a wide border in red enamel with the motto the order In trau vast in Gothic letters set with small diamonds . On the reverse , in the center of the cross was a golden representation in relief of the imperial orb and cross ( i.e. , the heraldic symbol of the Prince @-@ Elector as the Arch @-@ Steward of the Holy Roman Empire ) against a red enamel background and surrounded with a white enamel scroll @-@ like border with the inscription In memoriam recuperatae dignitatis aviate . 1708 ( I. e . , In remembrance of the restoration of the original dignity , 1708 ) . The star of the order , worn on the left breast , was a radiant silver star of eight points surrounding a gold , white enameled cross pattée strewn with golden flames and with a round poppy red enameled central medallion bearing the motto In trau vast in golden Gothic letters and surrounded by a white enameled and gold border . = = Partial list of recipients = = = = = Recipients in Austrian Service = = = These recipients of the Order of Saint Hubert attained the rank of General in Austrian military service during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars . August Maria Raimund Prinz und Herzog von Arenberg , Graf von der Marck ( 1753 – 1833 ) Karl Joseph Franz , Graf u . Prinz von Auersperg ( – 1800 ) Wilhelm Ignaz Cajetan , Prince von Auersperg ( 1749 – 1822 ) Heinrich , Count von Bellegarde ( 1756 – 1845 ) Anton ( Antal ) , Fürst Esterházy de Galántha ( 1738 – 1794 ) Nikolaus II , Fürst Esterházy de Galántha ( 1765 – 1833 ) Nikolaus IV . Ferdinand Franz Fürst Esterházy de Galántha ( -Edelstetten ) ( 1765 – 1833 ) Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg ( 1760 – 1799 ) George IV of the United Kingdom ( 1762 – 1830 ) Louis Aloysius , Prince of Hohenlohe @-@ Waldenburg @-@ Bartenstein ( 1765 – 1829 ) Friedrich Karl Wilhelm , Prince Hohenlohe @-@ Ingelfingen ( 1752 – 1816 ) Karl Wilhelm Georg , Landgraf zu Hessen @-@ Darmstadt ( 1757 – 1795 ) Friedrich ( VI ) Joseph Ludwig , Prince of Hessen @-@ Homburg ( 1769 – 1829 ) Karl Emanuel , Landgraf zu Hessen @-@ Rheinfels @-@ Rothenburg ( 1746 – 1812 ) Archduke Charles , Duke of Teschen ( 1771 – 1847 ) Francis IV , Duke of Modena ( 1779 – 1846 ) Archduke John of Austria ( 1782 – 1859 ) Archduke Louis of Austria ( 1784 – 1864 ) Joseph Radetzky von Radetz ( 1766 – 1858 ) Heinrich XV . Fürst zu Reuss @-@ Plauen ( 1751 – 1825 ) Karl Philipp Fürst zu Schwarzenberg ( 1771 – 1820 ) Franz de Paula Fürst von Sulkowski , Herzog von Bielitz ( 1733 – 1812 ) Alexander Suvorov ( 1729 – 1800 ) Maximilian Joseph Fürst von Thurn und Taxis ( 1769 – 1831 ) Christian August Prinz zu Waldeck und Pyrmont ( 1744 – 1798 ) George I , Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont ( 1747 – 1813 ) = = = Diplomats = = = Alexander Kurakin ( 1752 – 1818 ) = = = French recipients = = = Napoleon ( 1769 – 1821 ) Eugène de Beauharnais ( 1781 – 1824 ) Armand Augustin Louis de Caulaincourt ( 1773 – 1827 ) André Masséna ( 1758 – 1817 ) Nicolas Soult ( 1769 – 1851 ) Henri Jacques Guillaume Clarke ( 1765 – 1818 ) Georges Mouton ( 1770 – 1838 ) = = = Post Napoleonic Recipients = = = Prince Franz Maria Luitpold of Bavaria ( 1875 – 1957 ) . Prince Arthur of Connaught ( 1883 – 1938 ) Ernest Augustus , Duke of Brunswick ( 1887 – 1953 ) = = Grandmasters of the Order = = Compiled from various sources . = = = Medieval Grandmasters of the Order = = = Gerhard VII , Duke of Jülich @-@ Berg ( founder ) William III , Duke of Jülich @-@ Berg ( ~ 1474 ) William IV , Duke of Jülich @-@ Berg John III , Duke of Cleves ( 1490 – 1538 ) Wilhelm , Duke of Jülich @-@ Cleves @-@ Berg ( 1516 – 1592 ) = = = Early modern Grandmasters of the Order = = = John William , Duke of Jülich @-@ Cleves @-@ Berg ( 1562 – 1609 ) ( Order unused until reinstated in 1708 ) Johann Wilhelm , Elector Palatine ( 1658 – 1716 ) Charles III Philip , Elector Palatine ( 1661 – 1742 ) Charles Theodore , Elector of Bavaria ( 1724 – 1799 ) = = = Modern Grandmasters of the Order = = = Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria ( 1756 – 1825 ) Ludwig I of Bavaria ( 1786 – 1868 ) Maximilian II of Bavaria ( 1811 – 1864 ) Ludwig II of Bavaria ( 1845 – 1886 ) Otto of Bavaria ( 1848 – 1916 ) Ludwig III of Bavaria ( 1845 – 1921 ) Rupprecht , Crown Prince of Bavaria ( 1869 – 1955 ) Albrecht , Duke of Bavaria ( 1905 – 1996 ) Franz , Duke of Bavaria ( born 1933 ) = = = Explanation of currency = = =
= Robert Brode = Robert Bigham Brode ( June 12 , 1900 – February 19 , 1986 ) was an American physicist , who during World War II led the group at the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos laboratory that developed the fuses used in the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . A graduate of the California Institute of Technology , where he earned his doctorate in 1924 , Brode attended Oxford University on a Rhodes Scholarship and the University of Göttingen on a National Research Council Fellowship . During World War II , Brode worked at Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University , where he helped develop the proximity fuse , and then as a group leader at the Los Alamos Laboratory . In 1950 he was one of a dozen prominent scientists who petitioned President Harry S. Truman to declare that the United States would never be the first to use the hydrogen bomb . After the war , Brode returned to teaching at Berkeley . Between 1930 and 1957 he supervised 37 graduate students . In addition to his research and teaching , he occupied a number of other positions . He was the academic assistant to two presidents of the University of California , and sat on numerous advisory panels and boards . = = Early life and education = = Robert Bigham Brode was born in Walla Walla , Washington , on June 12 , 1900 , the son of Howard S. Brode , a professor of biology at Whitman College , and his wife Martha Catherine née Bigham . He was the second of a set of triplets , being born between his brothers Wallace and Malcolm . They also had an older brother , James Stanley . All four attended Whitman College , and went on to earn doctorates and have distinguished careers as scientists and academics . Brode graduated from Whitman College with his Bachelor of Science degree in 1921 , and then entered the California Institute of Technology . He was awarded his Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph.D. ) in physics in 1924 , the first year in which CalTech awarded this degree , for his thesis on " the absorption coefficient for slow electrons in gases " . He showed that molecules with similar arrangements of their external electrons have similar cross sections for collisions with slow electrons . These results could not be readily explained with classical physics , and their importance would not be realised until 1966 . On graduation , Brode became an Associate Physicist at the National Bureau of Standards . He was awarded a Rhodes Scholarship to study at Oriel College , Oxford , in England in 1924 and 1925 , and then a National Research Council Fellowship , which he used to study at the University of Göttingen in Germany in 1925 and 1926 , and then at Princeton University from 1926 to 1927 . On returning to the United States , he married Bernice Hedley Bidwell on September 16 , 1926 . They had two sons . Brode became an assistant professor of physics at the University of California , Berkeley , in 1927 , and a full professor in 1932 . He was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship , which enabled him to return to England and study at Cambridge University and Birkbeck College , University of London , in 1934 and 1935 . While there , he became friends with the British physicist P.M.S. Blackett . He was impressed by Blackett 's cloud chambers , and set his graduate students to work on projects using them , starting with Dale R. Corson . = = Manhattan Project = = In 1941 , after the start of World War II , Brode went to work at Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University , where he helped develop the proximity fuse . In 1943 , he joined the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory , where was appointed the leader of the E @-@ 3 Fusing Group . This group consisted of 14 civilians , 12 military officers and 37 enlisted men of the Special Engineer Detachment . Its task was to develop a fuse that would detonate an atomic bomb at a specified height above the ground . Normally , bombs are cheap and fuses are relatively expensive , but an atomic bomb is extremely expensive , and any failure of a triggering device is unacceptable . On the other hand , for the same reason , fuses can be employed that would be prohibitively expensive in a conventional bomb . Brode 's E @-@ 3 group were tasked to develop a fusing mechanism that would have less than one chance in 10 @,@ 000 of failing to detonate within 200 feet ( 61 m ) of the required height . The required height was not initially known , as it depended on the yield , which was uncertain . The group investigated both radar proximity fuses and barometric altimeter fuses . Testing was carried out at the Naval Proving Ground in Dahlgren , Virginia in August 1943 and Muroc Army Air Field in March 1944 using dummy drops from barrage balloons . In the end , a modified APS @-@ 13 Monica tail warning radar known as " Archie " was employed , and the fuses performed flawlessly in the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . = = Later life = = After the war , Brode returned to teaching at Berkeley . In 1950 he was one of a dozen prominent scientists who petitioned President Harry S. Truman to declare that the United States would never be the first to use the hydrogen bomb . In 1951 he returned to England for another year , this time at Manchester University as a Fulbright Scholar . Between 1930 and 1943 , 15 graduate students conducted their research under his direction . He supervised another 22 between 1946 and 1957 . The 37 students included Corson , who became president of Cornell University , and William B. Fretter , who was vice president of the University of California from 1978 to 1983 . In addition to his research and teaching , Brode occupied a number of other positions . He was the academic assistant to two presidents of the University of California , Clark Kerr from 1960 to 1965 , and Charles J. Hitch from 1972 to 1973 , and to Angus E. Taylor , the vice @-@ president for academic affairs , from 1967 to 1972 . He served on the selection panels for Rhodes , Fulbright and Kennedy scholarships , and for awards from the State Department , the Atomic Energy Commission and the Institute of International Education . He was chairman of the Advisory Board of the Naval Ordnance Test Station from 1948 to 1955 , a member of the National Research Council Committee on Data for Science and Technology ( CODATA ) from 1951 to 1957 , and chairman of the American Association of Physics Teachers and the American Institute of Physics ' Committee on Physics Faculties in Colleges from 1962 to 1965 . At various times Brode was vice president of the International Union for Pure and Applied Physics and the American Association of University Professors , a member of the Council of the American Physical Society , president of the Pacific Division of the American Association for the Advancement of Science , chairman of the Physics Division of the National Research Council , associate director for research of the National Science Foundation , and the U.S. delegate to the International Council of Scientific Unions . He was acting director of the Berkeley Space Sciences Laboratory from 1964 to 1965 and director of its Education Abroad Program in the United Kingdom from 1965 to 1967 . Brode became a professor emeritus at Berkeley in 1967 . He died at his home in Berkeley on February 19 , 1986 . He was survived by his wife Bernice and his son John . His papers are in the University of California 's Bancroft Library .
= Washington & Jefferson College = Washington & Jefferson College , also known as W & J College or W & J , is a private liberal arts college in Washington , Pennsylvania , in the United States , which is 30 miles ( 48 km ) south of Pittsburgh . The college traces its origin to three log cabin colleges in Washington County established by three Presbyterian missionaries to the American frontier in the 1780s : John McMillan , Thaddeus Dod , and Joseph Smith . These early schools eventually grew into two competing academies and colleges , with Canonsburg Academy , later Jefferson College , located in Canonsburg and Washington Academy , later Washington College , in Washington . These two colleges merged in 1865 to form Washington & Jefferson College . The 60 @-@ acre ( 24 ha ) campus , located in Washington , Pennsylvania , has more than 40 buildings , with the oldest dating to 1793 . While the college has historically had a difficult relationship with the city of Washington , including clashes over college expansion and finances , recent efforts have been made to improve those relations . The college 's academic emphasis is on the liberal arts and the sciences , with a focus on preparing students for graduate and professional schools . Campus activities include various religious , political , and general interest clubs , as well as academic and professional @-@ themed organizations . The college has a strong history of competing literary societies , dating back before the union of Jefferson and Washington Colleges . Students operate a college radio station , a campus newspaper , and a literary journal . The athletic program competes in NCAA Division III . The football team has been particularly successful over its history , even competing in the 1922 Rose Bowl . A large majority of students participate in intramural athletics . Nearly all students live on campus and roughly one third are members of fraternities or sororities . A number of noteworthy alumni have attended the college or its predecessor institutions , including James G. Blaine , William Holmes McGuffey , and Pete Henry . = = History = = = = = Early history and the academies = = = Washington & Jefferson College traces its origin to three log cabin colleges established by three frontier clergymen in the 1780s : John McMillan , Thaddeus Dod , and Joseph Smith . The three men , all graduates from the College of New Jersey ( now Princeton University ) , came to present @-@ day Washington County to plant churches and spread Presbyterianism to what was then the American frontier beyond the Appalachian Mountains . John McMillan , the most prominent of the three founders because of his strong personality and longevity , came to the area in 1775 and built his log cabin college in 1780 near his church in Chartiers . Thaddeus Dod , known as a keen scholar , built his log cabin college in Lower Ten Mile in 1781 . Joseph Smith taught classical studies in his college , called " The Study , " at Buffalo . Washington Academy was chartered by the Pennsylvania General Assembly on September 24 , 1787 . The first members of the board of trustees included Reverends Dod and Smith . After a difficult search for a headmaster , in which the trustees consulted Benjamin Franklin , the trustees unanimously selected Thaddeus Dod , considered to be the best scholar in western Pennsylvania . Amid financial difficulties and unrest from the Whiskey Rebellion , the Academy held no classes from 1791 to 1796 . In 1792 , the Academy secured four lots at Wheeling and Lincoln street from William Hoge and began construction on the stone Academy Building . During the Whiskey Rebellion , portions of David Bradford 's militia camped on a hillside that would later become home to the unified Washington & Jefferson College . In October 1792 , after a year 's delay from its official incorporation resulting from " trouble with Indians , " McMillan was chosen as the headmaster and Canonsburg was chosen as the location for the " Canonsburg Academy . " At a subsequent unknown date , McMillan transferred his students from the log cabin to Canonsburg Academy . Canonsburg Academy was chartered by the General Assembly on March 11 , 1794 , thus placing it firmly ahead of it sister school , Washington Academy , which was without a faculty , students , or facilities . On January 15 , 1802 , with McMillan as president of the board , the General Assembly finally granted a charter for " a college at Canonsburgh . " = = = Jefferson College and Washington College = = = In 1802 , Canonsburg Academy was reconstituted as Jefferson College , with John McMillan serving as the first President of the Board of Trustees . In 1806 , Matthew Brown petitioned the Pennsylvania General Assembly to grant Washington Academy a charter , allowing it to be re @-@ christened as Washington College . At various times over the next 60 years , the various parties within the two colleges pursued unification with each other , but the question of where the unified college would be located thwarted those efforts . In 1817 , a disagreement over a perceived agreement for unification erupted into " The College War " and threatened the existence of both colleges . In the ensuing years , both colleges began to undertake risky financial moves , especially over @-@ selling scholarships . Thanks to the leadership of Matthew Brown , Jefferson College was in a stronger position to weather the financial storm for a longer period . Desperate for funds , Washington College accepted an offer from the Synod of Wheeling to take control of the college , a move that was supposed to stabilize the finances for a period of time . However , Washington College then undertook another series of risky financial moves that crippled its finances . = = = Unification of the colleges = = = Following the Civil War , both colleges were short on students and on funds , causing them to join together as Washington & Jefferson College in 1865 . The charter provided for the college to operate at both Canonsburg and Washington , a position that caused significant difficulty for the administration trying to rescue the college amid ill feelings over the unification . Jonathan Edwards , a pastor from Baltimore who had been president of Hanover College , was elected the first president of the unified Washington & Jefferson College on April 4 , 1866 . Edwards immediately encountered significant challenges , including the difficulties of administering a college across two campuses , as well as old prejudices and hard feelings among those still loyal to either Jefferson College or Washington College . Edwards resigned in 1869 , as the two @-@ campus arrangement was declared a failure and all operations were consolidated in Washington . Before the merger could be completed , Canonsburg residents and Jefferson College partisans filed a lawsuit , known as the Pennsylvania College Cases , sought to overturn the consolidation plan . Leadership of the college during this time fell to Samuel J. Wilson , a local pastor , and James I. Brownson , who had earlier been interim president of Washington College . By 1871 , the United States Supreme Court upheld the consolidation , allowing the newly configured college to proceed . = = = Washington & Jefferson College = = = George P. Hays , who had assumed the presidency amid the court battle and the unification controversy , led the newly unified college until 1881 . His successor , James D. Moffat , led the college through a period of growth where the college constructed the Old Gym , Hays Hall , Thompson Memorial Library , and Thistle Physics Building , as well as purchasing the land known as the " old fair ground , " now used for Cameron Stadium . Towards the end of his term , Moffat personally paid for the 1912 renovations of McMillan Hall . In 1914 , Frederick W. Hinitt was elected president . His tenure was dominated by the United States ' entry into World War I , with an enrollment drop of 50 % . William E. Slemmons , a college trustee and adjunct professor , succeeded Hinitt and served as interim president from May 1918 to June 1919 . After the war ended in 1919 , Samuel Charles Black took over and helped to stabilize the enrollment . While on a honeymoon tour of national parks , Black became ill and died . His successor , Simon Strousse Baker , was well liked by the college 's trustees and by " many a townsman " , but the student body felt that Baker was " autocratic " and held an " unfriendly attitude toward the student body as individuals . " Baker defended himself , saying that the perceived ill @-@ will towards students was unintentional and a misunderstanding . Nonetheless , the student body held a strike and general walkout in 1931 , prompting Baker to resign . Baker 's successor , Ralph Cooper Hutchison , was much more popular with the student body . In an effort to strengthen the college 's science department , Hutchison extended and expanded the southern portion of the campus , adding the Lazear Chemistry Hall and purchasing McIlvane Hall . When World War II broke out , the campus was opened to the Army Administration School , where hundreds of soldiers received their " training in classifications . " Hutchison resigned in 1945 to take the presidency of his alma mater , Lafayette College . James Herbert Case , Jr . , who was president from 1946 to 1950 , constructed several new dormitories to handle the influx of veterans under the G.I. Bill . In 1950 , Boyd Crumrine Patterson assumed the presidency and oversaw curriculum revisions and the construction of a number of buildings , including the Henry Memorial Center , 10 Greek housing units in the center of campus , the U. Grant Miller Library , the Student Center , the Commons , and two new dormitories . His fundraising abilities grew the college 's endowment expanded from $ 2 @.@ 3 million to nearly $ 11 million . Patterson retired in 1970 , the same year that the trustees authorized the admission of women as undergraduate students . Howard J. Burnett took office as president that year and hired the college 's first female faculty members and the first female dean . The college also adopted a new academic calendar to include intersession and expanded its academic programs to include the Entrepreneurial Studies Program , the Freshman Forum , and several cooperative international education programs . Student enrollment grew from 830 in 1970 to 1 @,@ 100 in 1998 . Burnett retired as president in 1998 . Under Burnett 's successor , Brian C. Mitchell , who served as president from 1998 to 2004 , the college experienced a growth in construction and an effort to improve relations with the neighboring communities . In 2004 , Tori Haring @-@ Smith became the first woman to serve as president of Washington & Jefferson , undertaking an effort to improve the science curriculum and to construct the Swanson Science Center . = = Academics = = As a liberal arts college , Washington & Jefferson College focuses exclusively on undergraduate education . It is accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools . The college 's teaching environment reflects the liberal arts tradition of small group instruction by maintaining an average class size of 17 and a student / faculty ratio of 12 : 1 . 85 % of faculty have terminal degrees and no classes are taught by teaching assistants . The college has a strong science program , with 35 % of students majoring in one of the scientific departments . Within those areas , all 32 professors hold terminal degrees . The most frequent class size is between 10 and 19 students . The college has a focus on preparing students for graduate school and professional programs . Across all disciplines , 85 % to 90 % of students who apply to such programs receive offers of admission . Among students who apply to medical school or related health graduate programs , 90 % of students gain admission . Approximately 11 % of all current W & J alumni are physicians and engineers , making the college third in the nation per capita for producing doctors and scientific researchers . Among students who apply to law school , approximately 90 % of students gain admission . The college recently added The English Language Institute which is a pre @-@ academic program designed to equip multi @-@ lingual learners with the English and academic skills to be prepared for undergraduate study . = = = Curriculum = = = The curriculum is centered on the traditional liberal arts education and pre @-@ professional classes . All first @-@ semester freshmen must complete the " First Year Seminar " class , which introduces new students to a variety of lectures , concerts , plays , and trips to museums or galleries based on a different course theme selected each year . In addition to completing an academic major , students must satisfy the college @-@ wide general education requirements , which include classes in the arts , humanities , natural sciences and mathematics , foreign languages , cultural diversity , and academic skills classes including writing , oral communication , quantitative reasoning . Students may choose to complete an academic minor , participate in interdepartmental concentrations , or to focus on an intra @-@ departmental emphasis . Additionally , all students must complete a physical education requirement , amounting to one full semester class , making W & J one of the few liberal arts colleges without a physical education major to have such a requirement . The college maintains a number of combined degree programs , allowing students to attend graduate or professional school in lieu of senior year . The college follows the 4 – 1 – 4 academic calendar , which includes a four @-@ month fall term , a three @-@ week Intersession term in January , followed by a four @-@ month spring term . During the Intersession term , students have the choice of studying abroad , completing an external internship , or taking a specially @-@ designed Intersession course . These Intersession courses are more focused than regular courses and provide professors with an opportunity to teach non @-@ traditional subjects . Past Intersession courses have included " Emerging Diseases : Global and Local " in the biology department , " Corporate Failures , Frauds , and Scandals " in the business department , and " Vampires and Other Bloodsuckers " in the English department , " Holocaust Survivor Narratives " in the German department , and " Alternative Radio " in the communications department . At various times , the faculty organizes an " Integrated Semester , " where professors organize regular departmental courses , specialized projects , and public events dealing with a common interdisciplinary theme . Students participating in more than two designed courses receive a transcript designation noting their participation in the program . Past themes have included " Integrated Semester on Asia , " " The Importance of Place , " " Integrated Semester on the Spanish @-@ Speaking World . " Students can also pursue international education through 30 pre @-@ approved programs in over 20 counties . While W & J has not had a Reserve Officers ' Training Corps ( ROTC ) program since 1991 , the college has a relationship with the University of Pittsburgh 's Army and Air Force ROTC programs , allowing W & J students to prepare for an active or reserve commission following graduation . Members of the National Guard of the United States may take online classes to earn an associate 's degree in Information Technology Leadership or a certificate in Information Management and Security . Students may undertake externships to gain experiential learning experience in their chosen field . The Franklin Internship Awards , established in 2006 by Ellis Hyman , provide upperclassmen with financial assistance to take an unpaid internship . The college 's Magellan Project is a series of programs that provide support and financing for research and independent study projects . Past Magellan Projects have allowed students to study the Invasion of Normandy , Mexican transportation systems , and to volunteer at medical missions in the Dominican Republic . In 2010 , the Magellan Project received the Heiskell Award from the Institute of International Education in recognition of the college 's progressive approach to study abroad . In the 2010 @-@ 2011 school year , 58 % of W & J students studied abroad . = = = Admission and rankings = = = Admission to Washington & Jefferson College is classified as " more selective " by both the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education and U.S. News & World Report . The Princeton Review gave Washington & Jefferson an " Admissions Selectivity Rating " of 92 . The college extends offers of admission to 38 @.@ 2 % of all applicants . Of all matriculating students , the average high school GPA is 3 @.@ 34 and 38 % are in the top 10 % of their high school class . The interquartile range for SAT scores in math and reasoning skills are 510 – 610 and 520 – 620 , respectively . In 2009 , the college developed an SAT @-@ optional admissions program . In the 2010 U.S. News & World Report college rankings , Washington & Jefferson is ranked # 92 of all liberal arts colleges in the nation , placing it within " Tier 1 . " In Forbes Magazine 's List of America 's Best Colleges for 2010 , the college was ranked # 100 out of the nation 's institutions of higher education . The Washington Monthly ranked the college # 132 among all American liberal arts colleges in terms of social mobility , research , and community service . The rankings listed the college as # 30 in the nation in terms of Federal Work @-@ Study Program money spent of community service . As president of the college , Tori Haring @-@ Smith has specifically criticized the U.S. News & World Report rankings system , noting that the " financial resources " portion of the rankings formula favors colleges that have higher tuition , even without providing any educational benefits , saying that this has harmed the college 's ranking because it charged $ 5 @,@ 000 to $ 7 @,@ 000 less in tuition that its peer institutions . She also questioned the " peer assessment " portion of the rankings and suggested that college presidents are rarely aware of educational improvements in their peer institutions ; she noted that Washington & Jefferson College 's ranking has remained the same for a number of years , even while the college made significant improvements acceptance rates and overall selectivity , the addition of academic programs , and the construction of additional buildings . Haring @-@ Smith 's criticism of the rankings spurred Bob Morse , the founder of the U.S. College Rankings system to respond to the criticisms directly in an article . She has signed the " Presidents Letter , " a nationwide movement asking fellow college presidents to decline participation in the U.S. News & World Report reputation survey , a subjective evaluation where college administrators score their competition . = = Student body = = As of 2010 , the student body totaled 1 @,@ 519 students . The 2010 graduating class , which totaled 351 students , was the largest in the college 's history . The student body is highly residential , with 98 % of students residing in campus housing . The number of transfer students joining the student body each year is relatively low , compared to other institutions . Approximately 18 % of the student body receives federal Pell Grants . Prior to entering college , 82 % of the student body attended public high schools . Roughly 86 % of the each freshman class returns to the college for their sophomore year . The overall graduation rate is 70 % About 25 to 30 % of each incoming class is the first in their family to attend college . The male to female ratio is 54 % to 46 % . Like the population of Pennsylvania and the United States as a whole , the largest ethnic group at the college is White American , making up about 82 % of the student population . Roughly 10 % of the student population does not specify their ethnicity . Other ethnicities , including African American , Asian American , Native American , and Hispanic Americans collectively comprise about 6 % of the student body . International students make up 2 @.@ 05 % of the student body . In 2006 , Men 's Fitness named W & J the " 14th Fittest College in America , " a ranking that weighed the college 's fitness offerings and the student body 's culture of fitness and behavior . In 2009 , the college was named to the President 's Higher Education Community Service Honor Roll , in recognition of the student body 's commitment to community service . The college 's spends 22 % of its Federal Work @-@ Study Program funds on community service projects . The college has joined the YES Prep School IMPACT Partnership Program to provide support to low @-@ income students from the YES Prep Public Schools . = = Campus = = The campus of Washington & Jefferson College is located in the city of Washington and the East Washington Borough , small @-@ town communities about 30 miles ( 48 km ) south of Pittsburgh . The 60 @-@ acre ( 24 ha ) campus is home to more than 40 academic , administrative , recreational , and residential buildings . The northern edge of campus is bound by East Walnut Street , the western edge by South College Street , the southern edge by East Maiden Street , and the eastern edge by South Wade . Portions of the campus extend into the East Washington Historic District . Four historic gates mark four traditional entrances to campus at East Maiden Street , Wheeling Street , South College Street , and Beau Street . In 1947 , the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission installed a historical marker noting the historic importance of the college . The oldest surviving building is McMillan Hall , which dates to 1793 and is the oldest college building west of the Allegheny Mountains . The main academic building is Old Main , which is topped with two prominent towers . The Old Gym houses a modern exercise facility . McIlvaine Hall , which was originally home to a female seminary , was demolished in 2008 and replaced by the Swanson Science Center . Davis Memorial Hall was once a dormitory and private house . The Thistle Physics Building , the Lazear Chemistry Hall , and the Dieter @-@ Porter Life Sciences Building all cater to the scientific curriculum . The Burnett Center and its sister building , the Technology Center , were built in the late 1990s and early 2000s . The first dormitory on campus was Hays Hall . Wade House , Carriage House , and Whitworth House are Victorian homes housing older students . The recently constructed Chestnut Street Housing complex provides housing for the college 's Greek organizations . The Presidents ' Row is a cluster of ten buildings in the center of campus , several of which are dedicated to theme housing . Two sister dormitories , New Residence Hall and Bica @-@ Ross Hall , feature suite @-@ style living arrangements . Mellon Hall and Upperclass Hall house male freshmen . Other dormitories include Alexander Hall , Beau Hall , Marshall Hall , North Hall , and Penn House . The college administration utilizes several buildings , including the Admissions House , the Alumni House , and the President ’ s House , which are all modified Victorian homes . The U. Grant Miller Library is the modern library ; its predecessor , Thompson Hall , is now used for administrative purposes . The Hub , The Commons , and the Rossin Campus Center provide recreational and dining facilities for students . The athletic and intramural teams utilize Cameron Stadium for football and track . The Henry Memorial Center is used for basketball , wrestling , swimming , and volleyball . Other athletic facilities include Brooks Park , Ross Memorial Park and Alexandre Stadium , and the Janet L. Swanson Tennis Courts . = = Athletics = = = = = Intercollegiate = = = W & J competes in 23 intercollegiate athletics at the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Division III level . As of the 2009 – 10 academic year , the Presidents have won more than 108 Presidents ' Athletic Conference ( PAC ) championships , 40 students were selected as conference Most Valuable Player , more than 300 athletes were awarded First Team All @-@ Conference recognition , 75 received All @-@ American honors , and 25 achieved Academic All @-@ American status . During the 2005 – 2006 season , 34 percent of the student body played varsity @-@ level athletics . The football team has been very successful , winning 18 out of the last 21 PAC Championships and advancing to the NCAA Division III playoffs 17 times . W & J played to a 0 – 0 tie in the 1922 Rose Bowl against the California Golden Bears . The men 's ice hockey team won the 2008 College Hockey Mid America Conference championship , a Division I regional league of the American Collegiate Hockey Association . W & J also fields teams in field hockey , wrestling , baseball , softball , and volleyball , as well as men 's and women 's cross country running , soccer , tennis , water polo , basketball , swimming and diving , golf , lacrosse , and track & field W & J 's baseball team plays at the all @-@ turf Ross Memorial Ballpark , a site selected to host the 2015 and 2016 NCAA D @-@ III regional tournament . Under the leadership of Coach Jeff Mountain , the Presidents have produced three All @-@ Americans : Shaun Pfeill ( 3B , 2007 ) ; Sam Mann ( P / 1B ; 2007 ) and Eddie Nogay ( Pitcher ; 2013 ) . Nogay of Weirton , WV is the school 's all @-@ time wins leader with a career record of 28 @-@ 2 . Josh Staniscia of Franklin Regional H.S. is the school 's all @-@ time hits leader , with 251 career hits from 2011 @-@ 2014 . Frank Quirin ( 2008 @-@ 2010 ) is the all @-@ time home run leader with 22 career dingers . = = = Intramural = = = The intramural sports program is one of the most consistently popular activities at Washington & Jefferson College , providing non @-@ varsity and recreational athletic activities for all students , faculty , and staff of the College . Vicki Staton , a former varsity women 's basketball and volleyball coach , manages the intramural program . In 2002 , 60 % of students participated in intramural sports . In 2006 , more than 40 % of the student body participated in intramural athletics . In 2007 , the intramural activities included 3 @-@ on @-@ 3 basketball , billiards , bowling , flag football , kickball , tennis , ultimate frisbee , volleyball , wallyball , ping pong , and Texas hold ' em . Intramural champions win a T @-@ shirt celebrating their victory . While the varsity athletics program was struggling during the 1930s , intramural participation topped 84 % of the student population . During that time , the management of intramural activities was transferred to the athletic department , allowing the intramural program to use the College 's varsity facilities . In the 1930s and 1940s , groups of students competed for the " Big Cup , " a trophy given to the most outstanding team , as judged by a cross @-@ sport point system . = = Student life = = = = = Literary societies = = = The history of literary societies at Washington & Jefferson College dates back to the 1797 , when the Franklin Literary Society and the Philo Literary Society were founded at Canonsburg Academy . Two other literary societies were founded at Washington College , the Union Literary Society in 1809 and the Washington Literary Society in 1814 . Typical early activities include the presentation of dialogues , translations of passages from Greek or Latin classics , and extemporaneous speaking . Later , the literary societies began to present declamations . Each society maintained independent libraries for the use of their members , each of which rivaled the holdings of their respective colleges . These four college literary societies had intense rivalries with each other , competing in " contests " , which pitted select society members against another in " compositions , speaking select orations and debating " , with the trustees selecting the victor . Because the two colleges never met each other in athletic contests , these literary competitions were the main outlet for their rivalry . In the years after the union of the two colleges , these four literary societies merged with the Franklin Literary Society , which survives today . = = = Art scene = = = Washington & Jefferson College is home to a vibrant student art and musical scene . The artistic center of campus is the Olin Fine Arts Center , with an art gallery and a 486 @-@ seat auditorium . On the academic side , the Department of Art offers majors in studio art and art education , as well as a concentration in graphic design . The Department of Music offers majors and minors in music . The Department of Theatre and Communications offers a major and minor in theatre . Current musical organizations include the W & J Wind Ensemble , the W & J Jazz Ensemble , the W & J Choir and the Camerata Singers . Former musical organizations include the Banjo , Mandolin & Guitar Club and the College Band . Every year since 2003 , the Theatre and Communication Department has produced the Winter Tales series , an annual production of one @-@ act plays written by members of the W & J community , students , alumni , faculty , administration , and staff , and produced by the W & J Student Theater Company . In addition to student @-@ produced art and music , the College provides a number of opportunities to view art and music from the larger art community . The College holds a collection of paintings by distinguished regional artist Malcolm Parcell , which are displayed in several locations on campus . The most prominent location is the Malcom Parcell Room in The Commons , which is part of the student dining area . The W & J Arts Series is an annual collection of musicians , singers , and other artistic performers appearing at the Olin Fine Arts Center . Past shows have included Di Wu , Habib Koité , Chris Potter , The Aquila Theatre Company presenting The Invisible Man , Eroica Trio , Oni Buchanan , Tommy Sands , Cavani String Quartet , Sergio and Odar Assad , and Sandip Burman . In 1999 , billionaire W & J alum and well @-@ known opera philanthropist Alberto Vilar sponsored the Vilar Distinguished Artist Series , which brought a number of world @-@ class classical performers to perform at the Olin Fine Arts Center at no cost to students . During its run , the Vilar Distinguished Artist Series hosted , among others , Lorin Maazel conducting the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra , conductor Valery Gergiev conducting the Kirov Orchestra , Camerata Salzburg with Murray Periaha , St. Petersburg Classic Ballet , Vienna State Opera Ballet , Salzburg Mozarteum Orchestra , Susan Graham , Jennifer Larmore , Samuel Ramey , Barbara Bonney , Katia and Marielle Labèque , Angelika Kirchschlager , Simon Keenlyside , Gil Shaham , and Jessye Norman . In 2003 , amid Vilar 's falling fortunes during the stock market decreases in 2001 and 2002 , the Vilar Distinguished Artist Series went on a temporary hiatus . Vilar 's 2005 indictment for financial fraud ended any possibility of reviving the arts series . In Fall 2003 , the W & J Arts Series , the college 's other art series , was expanded to partially compensate for the loss . The Student Government Association organizes the annual Fall Concert and Spring Concert , which bring popular musical acts to campus . Past Spring and Fall concerts have included Cobra Starship , Girl Talk , N.E.R.D. New Found Glory , Saves the Day , and local favorite The Clarks . = = = Greek life = = = With 43 % of women and 40 % of men of the student body participating in Greek life , fraternities and sororities play a significant role in student life at W & J. The Princeton Review named Washington & Jefferson College 12th on their 2010 list of " Major Frat and Sorority Scene " in the United States . As of 2010 , the Office of Fraternity & Sorority Life recognized 6 fraternities , Alpha Tau Omega , Beta Theta Pi , Delta Tau Delta , Phi Delta Theta , Phi Gamma Delta , and Phi Kappa Psi , and four sororities , Delta Gamma , Kappa Alpha Theta , Kappa Kappa Gamma , and Pi Beta Phi . The fraternities are governed by a local Interfraternal Council and the sororities are governed by a local Panhellenic Council , while the Greek Judiciary manages broad policy violations at the chapter @-@ level . All Greek organizations occupy College @-@ owned houses on Chestnut Street on campus . All members of fraternities and sororities must pay the $ 100 " Greek Membership Fee " , a levy designed to fund leadership seminars and other educational events for Greeks . Two national fraternities were founded at Jefferson College , Phi Gamma Delta in 1848 and Phi Kappa Psi in 1852 . Together , they are collectively known as the Jefferson Duo . A third fraternity was founded at Jefferson College , Kappa Phi Lambda , but it dissolved after a decade of existence amid a dispute between chapters . In 1874 , a fourth fraternity was founded at W & J , the short @-@ lived Phi Delta Kappa . The new fraternity grew to several chapters before falling apart in 1880 . = = = Clubs = = = Students may organize new clubs by presenting a constitution and a list of members to the college administration and the student government for approval . This approval process does not authorize any club to act on behalf of the college , nor does approval indicate any the college 's agreement with the club 's purpose . The college recognizes over 70 student clubs on campus . A number of student clubs are dedicated to encouraging interest is a specific academic discipline , including the " W & J Denominators " mathematics club , the Society of Physics Students , and the Pre @-@ Health Professions Society . Others are organized along ethnic and cultural lines , including the Black Student Union and the Asian Culture Association . Both major American political parties have chapters at the college , in the form of the " W & J College Democrats " and the Young Republicans . Some clubs take the form of non @-@ varsity athletic teams , including the Men 's Rugby Club , the Women 's Rugby Club , the Equestrian Club , Men 's Volleyball Club and the Ultimate Frisbee Club . Several clubs create volunteer opportunities though Big Brothers / Big Sisters and the United Way . Many religious faiths are represented , including the Hillel Society , Newman Club , and the Student Christian Association . Many other clubs encourage interests in various academic and non @-@ academic activities , including the Green Club ( the College 's environmental club ) , the Outdoors Club , and others which are mainly inactive like the Bottega Art Club , the Franklin Literary Society , and the Chess Club . = = = Student media = = = Student media offerings at Washington & Jefferson College include a college newspaper , a college radio station , a yearbook , and a student @-@ edited literary journal . All students , regardless of academic major , are eligible to contribute to these media organizations . Founded in 1909 , the Red & Black student newspaper has a weekly circulation of 1 @,@ 250 copies . The student staff handles all aspects of the production , including writing , editing , graphic design , layout , and advertising sales . The Red & Black features local and national news , student opinion , and college athletics coverage . During the 1860s , students published a satirical newspaper called The Bogus Tract . The college radio station , WNJR broadcasts on the FM broadcast band . Assisted by a faculty advisor from the Department of Theater and Communication , the student @-@ run studio broadcasts in a freeform format with both nationally syndicated programs and Pittsburgh @-@ based independent programs . Student on @-@ air personalities produce radio programs including music , news , talk , and sports . It serves the Pittsburgh Designated Market Area , reaching north to the northern Pittsburgh suburbs , east to Monessen , south to Waynesburg and west to the West Virginia Panhandle . The Wooden Tooth Review is a student @-@ edited literary journal , featuring short fiction and poetry submitted by members of the student body . The editorial board is organized as a recognized student club , with a faculty advisor . The journal was founded in 1999 , with V. Penelope Pelizzon , Coordinator of Creative Writing , serving as the first faculty advisor . The college 's yearbook , Pandora , is produced annually by a student staff . = = Housing and student life facilities = = The college offers " Theme Community Living , " where students with common interests live in a single living unit . Past themes have included the " Intensive Study , " the " Service Leadership Community , " the " International House , " " Music House , " the " WashPA Radio Theme Community " for students who participate in the WNJR college radio station , and the " Pet House " . Students proposing a theme community must develop an educational plan centered on the theme . The Pet House , which allows students to bring their pets to campus , has been located in Monroe Hall in Presidents ' Row . Not all types of pets are permitted , only permits students to bring cats , small dogs , small birds , hamsters , gerbils , guinea pigs , and fish . Further , students may only bring pets that they have owned for over one year and be over the age of one and one half , to avoid the problem of impulse purchases and abandonment of pets . The college began the pet house program in 2006 , and is one of a dozen schools nationwide to have such a program . The Pet House has been profiled in The New York Times , the USA Today , Observer @-@ Reporter , and KDKA . Several old Victorian houses , named Whitworth Hall and Wade Hall , are used as women 's dorms and are slightly isolated from the other dormitories . Many students are also housed in the Greek houses on Chestnut Street , all of the Greek organizations on campus occupy houses owned by the college . The college 's dining services has made efforts to use locally grown foods . = = Traditions and lore = = One of the oldest traditions at Washington & Jefferson College was the " Freshman Rules , " a system of rules and restrictions on freshmen . Failure by freshmen to follow these rules would subject them to beatings by upperclassmen or other punishments doled out by the " Freshman Court . " During the 1870s and 1880s , the students engaged in organized athletic competitions , pitting the freshman versus sophomore classes in the " Olympic Games " that involved elaborate opening ceremonies and the smoking of a " Pipe of Peace . " Another form of physical contest between the freshman and sophomore classes were the annual " color rush , " where the teams fought over control over strips of fabric , the " pole rush , " where the teams battled to raise a flag up a flagpole , and the " cane rush " where the teams fought over control over a ceremonial cane . These contests generally devolved into outright gang violence . The college cheer , Whichi Coax , is so pervasive in college history and culture that in addition to being shouted during academic ceremonies and football games , it is also used as a salutation in correspondence between alumni . The college 's fight song , Good Ole W & J is sung to the tune of 99 Bottles of Beer and makes fun of a number of rival colleges , including the University of Pittsburgh , but was modified sometime before 1958 to laud Washington Female Seminary . For a large portion of the college 's history , there was no official alma mater , but there were a number of other tradition hymns and songs . = = Symbols of the college = = The college 's coat of arms features a two @-@ part shield based on the coats of arms of the Jefferson and Washington families . The top portion , showing two towers , representing Washington College and Jefferson College , and three stars , representing the McMillan , Dod , and Smith log cabins . The lower portion , showing a saltire , is adapted from Jefferson ’ s coat of arms and the colors , red and black , is taken from the Washington coat of arms . The coat of arms may appear with a banner underneath showing the college motto . The design was adopted in 1902 in celebration of Jefferson College 's centennial . It was designed by Rev. Harry B. King , class of 1891 . Upon its adoption , it was described as " a happy combination , and makes a very neat appearance when worn as a pin or button . " The college seal displays two brick towers , with one labeled " 1802 , " representing Jefferson College , and the other labeled " 1806 , " representing Washington College . The union of the two colleges is represented by a bridge between the two towers , with Roman numerals reading 1865 , the year of union . Banners hanging from the towers show the college motto of " Juncta Juvant . " The creation of the seal is unknown , with the first known use occurring during the 1902 centennial celebration of Jefferson College 's founding . The seal is used in official documents , including diplomas and certificates . The college 's current logo features a stylized version of the two towers of Old Main , symbolizing the 1865 unification of Washington College and Jefferson College . The logo may be displayed in several versions : with the entire name of the college , the shortened form of " W & J " , or without any text . Prior to the adoption of this logo , the college 's graphic identity consisted of a variety of conflicting logos and type styles . = = Relations with the city of Washington = = Relations between the city of Washington , Pennsylvania and Washington & Jefferson College span over two centuries , dating to the founding of both the city and the college in the 1780s . The relationship between the town and college was strong enough that the citizens of Washington offered a $ 50 @,@ 000 donation in 1869 to the college in a successful attempt to lure the trustees to select Washington over nearby Canonsburg as the consolidated location of the college . However , the relationship was strained through most of the 20th century , as the college pursued an expansion policy that clashed with the residential neighborhood . The college 's frustrations grew after preservationists unsuccessfully attempted to pass laws prohibiting the college from demolishing certain buildings that were listed on the East Washington Historic District . Relations were so bad that residents and college officials engaged in a shouting match at a meeting . Local preservationists also unsuccessfully tried to block the demolition of Hays Hall , which had been condemned . In the 1990s , the city of Washington made several unsuccessful attempts to challenge the college 's tax @-@ exempt status . In 1993 , Washington appealed the Washington County Board of Assessment 's determination that the college was exempt from the city 's property tax . That case went to the Pennsylvania Supreme Court , which ruled in favor of the college . In response , the Pennsylvania General Assembly passed a new law clarifying that that colleges were exempt from taxation , including from local property taxes . Separately , the city of Washington passed an ordinance that levied a municipal " service fee " against the College students , which was ruled to be illegal and was struck down . In the late 1990s , the college and town tried to mend fences through the Blueprint for Collaboration , a plan with detailed goals and benchmarks for the future to help the college and the city work together on economic development , environmental protection , and historic preservation . = = Notable alumni = = As of 2009 , Washington & Jefferson College had about 12 @,@ 000 living alumni . Before the union of the two colleges , Washington College graduated 872 men and Jefferson College graduated 1 @,@ 936 men . These alumni include James G. Blaine , who served in Congress as Speaker of the House , U.S. Senator from Maine , two @-@ time United States Secretary of State and the Republican nominee for the 1884 presidential election . Other graduates have held high federal positions , including United States Secretary of the Treasury Benjamin Bristow and United States Attorney General Henry Stanbery , who successfully defended Andrew Johnson during his impeachment trial . As a U.S. Congressman , Clarence Long was a key figure in directing funds to Operation Cyclone , the CIA 's effort to arm the mujahideen in the Soviet war in Afghanistan . James A. Beaver served as Governor of Pennsylvania and as acting president of the Pennsylvania State University ; he is the namesake of Beaver Stadium . William Holmes McGuffey authored the McGuffey Readers , which are among the most popular and influential books in history . Thaddeus Dod 's student , Jacob Lindley , was the first president of Ohio University . Astronaut and test pilot Joseph A. Walker became the first person to enter space twice . Other graduates have gone on to success in professional athletics , including Buddy Jeannette , a member of the Basketball Hall of Fame , and Pete Henry , a member of both the College and Pro Football Hall of Fame . Roger Goodell has served as the Commissioner of the NFL since 2006 . Among graduates who entered the medical field , Jonathan Letterman is recognized as the " Father of Battlefield Medicine . " William Passavant is recognized as a saint within the Lutheran Church . James McGready , who studied with Joseph Smith and John McMillan was a leading revivalist in the Second Great Awakening . Successful graduates in the business realm include Richard Clark , President and CEO of Merck , and John S. Reed , the former chairman of Citigroup and the New York Stock Exchange .
= The Operative : No One Lives Forever = The Operative : No One Lives Forever is a first @-@ person shooter video game with stealth gameplay elements , developed by Monolith Productions and published by Fox Interactive , released for Microsoft Windows in 2000 . The game was ported later to the PlayStation 2 and Mac OS X. A story @-@ driven game set in the 1960s , No One Lives Forever has been critically acclaimed for , among other things , its stylistic representation of the era in the spirit of many spy films and television series of that decade , as well as for its humor . Players control female protagonist Cate Archer , who works for a secret organization that watches over world peace . In addition to a range of firearms , the game contains several gadgets , which are disguised as ordinary female fashion items . At the time of its release , many reviewers felt that No One Lives Forever was the best first @-@ person shooter since 1998 's critically acclaimed Half @-@ Life . After receiving several Game of the Year awards in the press , a special Game of the Year Edition was released in 2001 , which included an additional mission . The Operative : No One Lives Forever was followed by a sequel entitled No One Lives Forever 2 : A Spy in H.A.R.M. ' s Way released in 2002 , and a spin @-@ off that takes place during the time between the first two games entitled Contract J.A.C.K. released in 2003 , both developed by Monolith . A re @-@ release of the game has been hampered by the complicated state of the series ' intellectual property ( IP ) rights , with even parties assumed to be in possession of the IP having publicly admitted not knowing the precise legal situation of the series . = = Gameplay = = The Operative : No One Lives Forever is a story @-@ driven video game , set in the 1960s , and stars spy Cate Archer as the eponymous Operative , who works for UNITY – a secret international organization " dedicated to protecting humanity from megalomaniacs bent upon world domination . " During the story of the game , Archer is sent on missions to a number of locales , including Morocco , East and West Germany , the Caribbean , and the Alps , where she gets into intense situations , such as scuba diving a shipwreck , free @-@ falling from an airplane without a parachute , and exploring a space station in outer space , all the while fighting armed villains . The game is a mixture of a first @-@ person shooter and a stealth game . Most , but not all , missions can be solved in multiple ways : using sneaking to avoid danger or by going in with guns blazing . A stealthy approach can be taken to evade security cameras , guard dogs and other obstacles . Enemies are aware of noise made by the player , including footsteps and weapon fire , and they also react to footprints in the snow , and dead bodies left lying around . The game features a wide variety of firearms , including a semi @-@ automatic pistol , a revolver , a submachine gun , a sniper rifle , and an assault rifle . Some of the weapons can be loaded with different types of ammunition , including standard full metal jacket bullets , dum dum rounds that expand on impact and cause bleeding damage , and phosphorus @-@ coated tracer bullets that continue to burn upon impact . Silencers and scopes can also be fitted on some weapons . A novel feature of the game is its array of gadgets , often disguised as ordinary female fashion objects . For example , lipsticks double as various explosives , perfume bottles hold materials such as sleeping gas , a barrette also functions as a lockpick , sunglasses can be used for photographing evidence and detecting land mines , and a stylish belt buckle hides a zipcord inside it . Other over @-@ the @-@ top gadgets include a body @-@ removing powder for disposing of incriminating corpses , a robotic poodle to distract guard dogs , and a rocket launcher disguised as a briefcase . An ordinary coin can be thrown to confuse enemies , giving the player the opportunity to sneak by without a guard noticing . A cigarette lighter can also be used as a miniature welder . These ingenious gadgets come from UNITY 's gadget lab , led by its main inventor and scientist , Santa . " Santa 's Workshop " continuously works on these covert gadgets , and provides Cate with them as the game progresses . In various sections of the game , the player can ride a Triumph motorcycle , or a snowmobile . Other segments of the game involve boss fights . If the player chooses to be sneaky , they can overhear humorous conversations between non @-@ player characters , such as guards , scientists and civilians . Occasionally , the player can engage in conversations with such characters . In certain cutscenes , the game uses a dialog tree , in which the player can choose between different questions and responses when talking to another character . The missions in the game are littered with " intelligence items " : briefcases , envelopes , and manila folders containing textual notes which often provide humorous side @-@ notes and helpful hints to the game . The collection of intelligence items is optional . Special power @-@ ups , called " gear " items are also available for collection during the game , such as " fuzzy slippers " that reduce noise made by movement , earplugs that reduce damage from explosions , and a fire extinguisher that protects the player from burn damage . These gear items are sometimes located in hard @-@ to @-@ reach areas . At the start of each mission , the player can choose which weapons , gadgets and gear to take with them . Some intelligence and gear items cannot be collected on the first playthrough of the game , as the necessary gadgets to reach them are not unlocked until later in the game . If the player wants to collect these items , they have to revisit the mission with the appropriate equipment . At the end of each mission , the game displays various statistics , as well as any awards and bonuses earned during the mission . Awards are humorous textual notes given for the player 's performance during a mission ; these include awards for using a very low or a very high amount of bullets , or a " Thanks For Not Getting Hurt Award " for avoiding damage . The player also receives a rank , such as " Trainee " or " Super Spy " , which is based on the number of intelligence items obtained during the mission . Achieving a high mission rank increases the player 's maximum health , armor and ammo capacity , as well as stealth , the amount of inflicted damage , and the accuracy of their shots . No One Lives Forever also includes multiplayer gameplay online or over a local area network . There are two multiplayer modes available : standard deathmatch , and " H.A.R.M. vs. UNITY " . The latter is a team deathmatch mode , where the goal is to capture as much intelligence for a player 's team as possible , by sneaking in to the enemy team 's base , finding the item , and photographing it . = = Plot = = = = = Story = = = UNITY is a secret international organization headquartered somewhere in England that protects humanity from outsiders that want to take over the world . In 1960 , over half of the UNITY 's elite agents are murdered by an unknown assassin within a week , leaving UNITY with a critical manpower shortage . They are forced to send UNITY agent Cate Archer and her mentor , Bruno Lawrie , on a series of high @-@ profile missions . Cate is an ex @-@ cat burglar , and is UNITY 's first female spy operative . UNITY 's leaders , Jones and Smith , are skeptical of Cate working as a field agent , and have previously relegated her to more mundane assignments . Intelligence reveals that a Russian assassin named Dmitrij Volkov and a new terrorist organization named H.A.R.M. are responsible for the murders of UNITY 's former agents . Cate and Bruno embark on a dangerous assignment in Morocco , which later turns out to be an ambush set up by Volkov and his men . Cate manages to escape Morocco whilst Bruno is shot by Volkov . In the UNITY headquarters , Jones and Smith reveal that Volkov killed Bruno simply because he was the traitor , to which Cate reacts with disbelief . She is then tasked to escort Dr. Otto Schenker , an East German scientist , to England . Later on , as Cate and Dr. Schenker fly back to England , he is captured by H.A.R.M. , led by Magnus Armstrong , who knocks Cate unconscious . Armstrong decides to spare Cate 's life , believing that she is a fellow Scot . Cate awakens and is soon thrown from the plane as it explodes . After surviving the fall via parachute , Cate is later introduced to a new partner , Tom Goodman , a UNITY agent from the American branch . After meeting him in a nightclub in Hamburg , they are ambushed by H.A.R.M. , but manage to escape . The nightclub is owned by a German singer named Inge Wagner , whom Cate suspects is connected with H.A.R.M. Cate and Tom are tasked to investigate a cargo freighter containing several suspicious chemical containers that UNITY believes are linked to Dr. Schenker . Cate gets in the freighter , and after taking photos of the containers , is knocked unconscious by Armstrong , who spares her life by locking her in a cargo hold , thus ignoring Wagner 's insistence that she must be liquidated . As the freighter heads out toward sea , it slowly begins to sink , due to a huge explosion . Wagner and Armstrong escape immediately , but Cate has to fight her way out of the bowels of the freighter . Because Cate could not obtain the required information , she and Tom must return to the sunken freighter to finish gathering intelligence aboard . Cate goes scuba diving , and after investigating the shipwreck and obtaining the information she didn 't obtain , she is ambushed by H.A.R.M. divers sent from a submarine commanded by Armstrong and Wagner , but manages to escape . Later , Cate finds out about a connection between H.A.R.M. and a large manufacturing firm named Dumas Industrial Enterprises , which was operated by Baron Archibald Dumas . However , the Baron claims he has no intelligence regarding his connection to H.A.R.M. Later , Cate infiltrates the Dumas corporate headquarters , gaining access to their highly guarded safe , and photographing some relevant documents , despite heavy opposition , including an ear @-@ splitting deathmatch against Wagner . However , after photographing the headquarter 's final document , Cate escapes the headquarters despite witnessing Tom being shot by Volkov . Meanwhile , H.A.R.M. starts infecting and killing innocent people using Dr. Schenker 's biological explosive development . The chemical is injected into the living host , and it feeds on organic material until it culminates in a massive explosion . H.A.R.M. states that if their ransom demands are not met , they will continue to use human time bombs to cause destruction around the world . Cate embarks on a train ride to Washington state , where Dr. Schenker is believed to be located . Cate finds him and manages to escort him to safety using an underground base . Soon after , Dr. Schenker reveals that the antidote for the chemical reagent is located in H.A.R.M. ' s space station . Cate travels to a small island located in the Caribbean , where she infiltrates a secret launch facility . Cate discovers that a rocket will be sent to the space station that afternoon to collect some antidote . Disguised as a H.A.R.M. space agent , Cate boards the rocket and travels to H.A.R.M. ' s space station . While she is searching for the antidote , the space station is struck by a meteor shower , causing it to implode . Cate obtains a large antidote sample and uses an escape pod to return to earth safely . Now in possession of the antidote , UNITY needs the list of infected people to find out who administered it , during which Cate believes that the real mastermind behind H.A.R.M. ' s events is the Baron 's wife , Baroness Felicity Dumas , who is believed to be in possession of the list . Later , Cate heads to the Dumas ' château located in the German Alps . While there , she is knocked unconscious by Armstrong , who spares her life by locking her in a cell . The Baroness gloats at Cate about her plans to take over the world and leaves . Cate then provokes Armstrong into an ensuing fist fight . After being defeated , Armstrong agrees to let Cate go , and defects H.A.R.M. by telling her where the list is located . Cate then realizes that she was infected after being knocked unconscious by Wagner in Hamburg days ago . The Baroness mentions that Wagner must set the count @-@ down to 10 days instead of 10 hours . Eventually , Cate obtains another antidote and later , the list located in the Baroness 's hidden lair . When Cate traveled down the mountain via Gondola , defeating the H.A.R.M. helicopters in the process , she encounters Volkov and a gun duel ensues . During their duel , an explosion causes an avalanche to send Volkov over the edge of a cliff . Later , Cate is confronted by the Baroness , and another gun duel ensues . After defeating the Baroness , she reveals that she has also infected herself and is about to detonate . Cate hurries to clear the civilians off the streets , and hides inside a building as the Baroness explodes . Back at UNITY 's headquarters , Cate is congratulated for a mission well done , and everybody leaves to grab some rest . Cate arrives at a graveyard where Bruno was buried to pay her respects . She is then confronted by the supposedly long @-@ dead Tom Goodman , who reveals that he is the real traitor within UNITY , and a final gun duel ensues . Cate manages to injure Tom and arrest him , but Smith shoots Tom , causing him to fall into a freshly dug grave . Smith then tries to shoot Cate as well , but Jones shoots Smith , and reveals that Bruno is still alive . Smith attempts his one last effort to shoot Cate , but Cate kills Smith just in time . With Tom and Smith shot dead , Jones and Bruno decide to tell Cate the truth ; Bruno falsified his death so that Cate and the rest of UNITY could find the real traitor . Seven years ago , Smith was taken out of the field by UNITY due to his inadequate fieldwork . In order to sabotage UNITY as a way to avenge himself , Smith joins H.A.R.M. to kill the real Tom Goodman , and replace him with an impostor ; a vacuum cleaner salesman named Melvin Blitzney who Smith met in a bar in Florida . When Cate 's investigation initially foiled H.A.R.M. ' s plan , both Tom and Smith 's impostor were forced to reveal their true intentions . Cate reacts in shock upon finding out the truth . In a scene after the credits , it is revealed that Volkov survived the avalanche , and reports back to H.A.R.M. ' s mysterious Director , a middle @-@ aged drunk man who Cate has seen several times in different countries during the game . In a level exclusive to the Game of the Year Edition , Cate is sent on vacation to a small island , only to discover and destroy a secret H.A.R.M. base . = = = Characters = = = = = = = UNITY = = = = Cate Archer ( voiced by Kit Harris ) – A Scottish former cat burglar and the first female operative in UNITY . Main protagonist of the game . Bruno Lawrie ( John Patrick Lowrie ) – A legend among UNITY operatives , Bruno is also Cate 's best friend and mentor , who brought her into organization nine years ago . Mr. Jones ( Nigel Neale ) – UNITY 's chief . A calm and wise man , Jones once was an operative himself . Mr. Smith ( Roger Curtis ) – Jones ' right @-@ hand @-@ man and also a former operative . He is a very competent leader , but distrusts Cate 's abilities . Tom Goodman ( Mike Madeoy ) – UNITY 's American operative , Tom Goodman is a tall , well @-@ built man with a charming smile . Dr. Otto Schenker – A scientist from East Germany , he defects to the West and is about to join UNITY . However , he is captured by H.A.R.M. and has to be saved . Santa ( Ken Boynton ) – UNITY 's main scientist and inventor , he provides Cate with gadgets between the missions . = = = = H.A.R.M. = = = = Dmitrij Volkov ( Jock Blaney ) – H.A.R.M. ' s " Director of Executive Action " . The Russian @-@ born Volkov is tall , strong , intelligent , and wears an eye @-@ patch . In H.A.R.M. , he is second only to the mysterious Director . He is also the vice @-@ president of Dumas Industrial Enterprises , under the assumed name of Damascus Valentine . Inge Wagner ( Kit Harris ) – A H.A.R.M. agent supervisor , Inge is an overweight German woman who believes herself to be a great singer , while in reality her vocalizations are terrible and feared among her subordinates . She is also the owner of a popular nightclub in Hamburg . She commands H.A.R.M. troops on @-@ field and is one of Cate 's main enemies . She is also supposedly a distant relation of Richard Wagner . Magnus Armstrong ( David Stalker ) – A former military man , the kilt @-@ wearing , muscular Scotsman is known to be a nice man , who , however , enjoys a fight . He is one of H.A.R.M. ' s field commanders . He respects fellow countrymen above all else , and he spares Cate 's life on more than one occasion . Baron Archibald Dumas ( Jeff Steitzer ) – The president and owner of Dumas Industrial Enterprises is fabulously wealthy and reclusive . Not really a H.A.R.M. member , the childish and silly baron is manipulated by his wife . He claims to be a great safari hunter , but is in fact not , as all his trophies are secretly bought . Baroness Felicity Dumas ( Barbara Dirickson ) – The de facto owner of Dumas Industrial Enterprises , she is one of the true leaders of H.A.R.M. , being the sponsor behind much of the organization 's activities . The Elite Guard – Three multiracial go @-@ go girls who are an elite H.A.R.M. squad . They are seen in sporadic scenes throughout the game , complaining of how bored they are . They attack Cate Archer near the end of the game . The Director – H.A.R.M. ' s chief and the most mysterious character of the game . He is mentioned several times by antagonists and intelligence items and appears in several missions as a harmless drunkard . His true identity is revealed at the very end . = = Production = = = = = Development = = = Work on No One Lives Forever started in 1998 , after the release of Monolith Productions ' previous game , Shogo : Mobile Armor Division . Craig Hubbard , game designer for Shogo and NOLF expressed that Shogo " ( although critically successful ) fell embarrassingly short of [ the team 's ] original design goals " , and " it is a grim reminder of the perils of wild optimism and unchecked ambition " exercised by the relatively small development team . The team ( which included approximately 18 core members during development of NOLF ) was determined not to make the same mistakes again with their next game . Describing the pressure on Monolith , Hubbard said that they " were still trying to live down the stigma " of their 1998 game , Blood II : The Chosen , which had been prematurely released buggy and unpolished , and that the company " had a lot to prove , both to ourselves and the gaming public . " Signing a contract with a publisher was a very difficult task for Monolith . Development had been going on for months , and the project had been approved by different publishers four times , before they were able to actually sign a deal with one . During this long time for finding a publishing partner , No One Lives Forever " mutated constantly in order to please prospective producers and marketing departments . The game actually started off as a mission @-@ based , anime @-@ inspired , paramilitary action thriller intended as a spiritual sequel to Shogo and ended up as a 60s spy adventure in the tradition of Our Man Flint and countless other 60s spy movies and shows . " This final theme for the game was settled on through discussions with Fox Interactive , the final publisher of NOLF . ( Parts of the initial " paramilitary action thriller " concept evolved into F.E.A.R. , another Monolith game , released after the NOLF series , in 2005 . ) Monolith 's producer for the game , Samantha Ryan said that before the deal was signed , " [ t ] here was a period where Monolith was two weeks from death . And Jason [ " Jace " Hall , CEO and co @-@ founder of Monolith ] closed the deal with Fox Interactive that basically saved the company . " After finally signing a contract with Fox ( which partnership was announced to the public on August 24 , 1999 ) , the team was able to draft a mission statement , which stood as a point of reference during every aspect of developing the game . Our primary aim was to make the player feel like the hero of a 60s action / adventure / espionage movie . We came up with a list of the characteristics we felt were necessary to achieve our objective . The game must have a strong narrative , with twists and turns in the spirit of Charade or Where Eagles Dare . It must feature a fiercely competent hero and an assortment of despicable villains . The hero must have access to an impressive arsenal of weapons and gadgets worthy of Our Man Flint , Danger : Diabolik , or Get Smart . There must be memorable , death @-@ defying situations , opportunities for stealth as well as all @-@ out action , and a variety of exotic locales to explore . Finally , every aspect of the presentation must convincingly evoke the era . The game was announced at the 1999 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) conference show . While at this time – as described in the mission statement above – the game was already set out to be a spy @-@ themed shooter set in the 1960s , the version that was previewed to the press at this time had many differences to the finished product , with regard to characters , plot and setting . The game 's protagonist was originally set out to be a male character called Adam Church who worked for MI0 , " Her Majesty 's Most Secret Service " . However , many of the final gameplay and story elements are known to have been present in this earlier iteration of the game : the H.A.R.M. organization ; the defection of an East German biophysicist for information about a top @-@ secret Soviet weapons program ; the presence of humor in the game ; some locations , such as the sunken cargo freighter ; the use of gadgets , such as the rocket launching briefcase ; etc . By at least July 1999 , Monolith has decided to introduce many major changes to the game ; the main reason being that the gaming press unexpectedly started comparing the game to James Bond games , like GoldenEye 007 ( 1997 ) . Hubbard mentioned that their intention was to " make a 60s spy game " , and that they " didn 't want to make a ' Bond ' style game , so when people were obviously drawing that comparison , we decided to rework things a bit . We wanted to get away from the Bond comparisons that people were making , so we 've changed the main character and the back @-@ story a fair amount . " As a result , the player controls a female protagonist in the final game , Cate Archer , who works for an organization called UNITY . Changing the main character to a woman not only helped the separation of the game from the Bond franchise , but also allowed for " more interesting dramatic possibilities " , and the " list of gadgets got a lot more visually interesting " . As Hubbard said , before switching to a female protagonist , he had been " struggling with trying to distinguish him from all the other male superspies from the era — extraordinarily handsome , intelligent , knowledgeable , resourceful , and so on . But a woman with those same characteristics immediately stood out because of the social climate of the time . No matter how qualified she might be , she 'd have to overcome some serious barriers just to get a chance to prove herself . And if things didn 't go flawlessly on a mission , she 'd catch more heat than she deserved . " The female protagonist " went through numerous concept sketches , costume designs , hairstyles , names , and even nationalities . " According to Hubbard , it was a challenge to find a look for her that was not only evocative of era , " but also worked as a 3D model . " In the end , the in @-@ game model of Cate Archer was styled after model and actress Mitzi Martin . This was a marketing decision made by the publisher , Fox Interactive , which used its feature film casting department to look for an appropriate model internationally . Archer 's voice was provided by American voice actress Kit Harris , who also did the voice of the Inge Wagner character . Originally , Harris recorded the Scottish protagonist 's voice in a stronger Scottish accent . This was changed after a Scottish producer of the game felt that the particular accent used was too lower class , and an inappropriate choice ; Harris re @-@ recorded her lines with a " British bent " instead . Both the face and the voice of the character were changed in the game 's sequel , No One Lives Forever 2 : A Spy in H.A.R.M. ' s Way . Along with the character and plot changes , it was also decided to change the game 's working title , No One Lives Forever , to something else , for similar reasons related to the Bond franchise ( in particular , the novel Nobody Lives for Ever ) , as well as possible legal considerations . However , the title , in fact , stayed throughout the development , and " The Operative " ( referring to the game 's heroine , Agent Archer ) was added to the beginning of the title . After the game 's release , Hubbard identified the realistic expectations set by the team as a strong point in the game 's development , saying that " given our budget , team size , and development cycle , the best we could hope to do was to create a fun , engaging 60s espionage game that would make up in presentation what it lacked in innovation . " Other positive aspects of the process included the aforementioned mission statement , along with the flexible systems used in development , the cohesion of the team , and effective scheduling . On the other hand , Hubbard cited difficulties in fleshing out the final team , as well as inefficient pre @-@ production , delays due to waiting on technology , and the major difficulties in finding a publisher . Hubbard also mentioned the cinematic cutscenes as lengthy and problematic , partly because of technical difficulties , and partly because of conceptual flaws on his behalf , with regard to screenwriting . Regarding gameplay , he said that " [ o ] ne of the main failings of NOLF [ ... ] was that it ended up feeling a lot more scripted and linear than it was intended to be " . Hubbard also expressed dissatisfaction with the balance between action and intrigue : " Unfortunately , we came up a little short on intrigue . Stealth was too unforgiving . Once you were spotted , you were playing an action game . " The team paid attention to these points while developing No One Lives Forever 2 . According to Hubbard , the team 's " greatest asset was [ probably ] the list of mistakes we made during Shogo . We started this project with a pretty sober view of what we could achieve . As a result , every major feature we outlined made it into the game , as well as a few additional items we came up with during the project . " However , there were still things that the team didn 't have enough time to implement . For example , No One Lives Forever 's team @-@ based multiplayer portion was originally going to be a story @-@ driven cooperative gameplay mode ( similar to the " Assault " game type in the 1999 first @-@ person shooter Unreal Tournament ) , including objectives and obstacles for the two teams . Like the single @-@ player story in the game , this gameplay mode was also going to incorporate humor ; for example , in one map , a goal of each team was to find a special watermelon for a mayor in a Moroccan marketplace . While this mode was publicly discussed even in July 2000 , it is not present as such in the final product ( which went gold on October 20 ) . The different objectives were changed to a general goal for both teams in all maps : photographing the other team 's intelligence item . However , a number of remnants stemming from the earlier gameplay design can be seen in some of the released maps , such as the office of the aforementioned mayor seen in the Morocco map . Fully realized co @-@ operative multiplayer was , however , a feature of No One Lives Forever 2 . = = = Technology = = = No One Lives Forever utilizes the Lithtech game engine , which was originally developed by Monolith , and later by its subsidiary , LithTech , Inc ( later known as Touchdown Entertainment ) . The game is based on Lithtech 2 @.@ 5 ( the first game to use this version ) , with many custom additions and modifications to support the game 's design , such as support for vehicles . According to the game 's creators , characters in NOLF were built from more polygons than any other PC action game at the time , with Cate Archer 's model having approximately 1700 polygons . The artificial intelligence ( AI ) in NOLF was significantly advanced at the time of the game 's release . Enemy AI can react to eleven different stimuli , including hearing the player 's footsteps or weapon firing , seeing the player 's footprints in the snow , or hearing an ally scream in pain . The AI can try and investigate the source of these stimuli , by following the footprints for example , and can sound alarms or call for backup . During combat , the AI finds cover positions , and , to some extent , can also use its environment for protection , such as flipping over a table and hiding behind it . After advancing AI technology in their subsequent games , Monolith likened the way NOLF 's AIs pop randomly in and out of cover to a shooting gallery . Groups of AI guards make use of a group logic when investigating and combating the player . For example , one guard might start firing at the player , while another runs and calls for backup . The game 's AI includes friendly and enemy humans , as well as dogs , sharks , and helicopters . = = Design = = = = = Influences and humor = = = In terms of video games , Monolith drew inspiration from a number of stealth / action games , such as Metal Gear Solid ( 1998 ) , Tenchu : Stealth Assassins ( 1998 ) , Syphon Filter ( 1999 ) , and GoldenEye 007 ( 1997 ) , because the team was " interested in a blend of stealth and action rather than focusing on one or the other exclusively . " The original release of the 1981 stealth game Castle Wolfenstein was also cited as being influential . Thematically , influences behind The Operative : No One Lives Forever were primarily 1960s spy @-@ themed films , novels , television shows , as well as historical references . When it was decided that NOLF was going to be a 1960s spy game , lead designer Craig Hubbard started immersing himself in the subject matter , in order to " develop some fluency " in it . As he explained , he " was a big fan of early Bond films , but didn 't know a lot about the whole spy craze . So I watched the Derek Flint movies [ Our Man Flint , In Like Flint ] , Modesty Blaise , Matt Helm , Danger : Diabolik , Avengers – anything I could get my hands on . " Other influences included books , such as The Spy Who Came in from the Cold , TV shows like The Saint , The Pink Panther films , commando movies , such as The Guns of Navarone , as well as " lots of historical references , encompassing everything from books and documentaries on the spy trade to fashion catalogs and interior @-@ design books . " The basis for the biological explosives plot was the 1967 film Casino Royale . According to Hubbard , " the idea was to create a game that would make you feel like a superspy , so we tried to come up with situations , characters , and settings to support that goal . " During the course of the game , the player can hear explicit popular culture references , including the TV series The Prisoner and The Fugitive , the Matt Helm films The Silencers and The Ambushers , and exotica musicians Les Baxter and Sondi Sodsai . Other conversations allude to major events of the time , such as the studio years of The Beatles , and the commercial failure of the Edsel automobile . Humor plays an important role in No One Lives Forever . As Hubbard explained , the game 's intention is " to make you laugh , but not at the expense of providing a broader , more satisfying emotional experience than a spoof generally allows , so that even if you don 't chuckle once , you can still have plenty of fun playing the game . At heart , NOLF is an action / adventure / espionage game with a healthy dose of levity . " Humor is presented mainly via visual gags , overheard conversations , textual intelligence items , and cutscenes . The humor includes " situational humor , and even a dash of absurdity and bathroom humor for good measure . Some of it is subtle , some of it isn 't . " The name of UNITY , H.A.R.M. , and other fictional organizations mentioned in the game follow the spy genre formula of using contrived acronyms for organizations ( see List of fictional espionage organizations ) . What H.A.R.M. actually stands for is never revealed , and speculation about its true meaning is used as a running gag in the game and its sequel . Regarding comparisons between the game and the Austin Powers film series , Hubbard pointed out on several occasions that , unlike Austin Powers , No One Lives Forever is not a parody of the spy genre . Contrasting the source of the humor in the two series , Hubbard noted that while the game is " campy and silly , [ ... ] the underlying premise borders on apocalyptic . That dichotomy in tone results in a very different style of humor from a parody , where everything is in good fun and nobody , including the characters , takes anything very seriously . " = = = Music = = = The soundtrack for the original version of No One Lives Forever ( as well as the later Mac OS X port ) was chiefly composed and produced by Guy Whitmore . The game uses DirectMusic technology , and its music is an example of an adaptive score : the music smoothly and flexibly adapts to the situations that players finds themselves in , in order to simulate film soundtracks . For instance , the music increases in tempo or urgency when the player is in a combat situation , or if enemies become aware of the player 's presence . Whitmore 's task as composer was " to capture the flavor of the ' 50s / ' 60s spy genre , without infringing on any existing copyrights . " In order to avoid any legal troubles over music from the James Bond franchise of films and games , Whitmore was initially asked to refrain from using brass instruments ; a directive he compared to " being asked to produce a blues album without guitars " . While some of the instrument sounds came from professional collections , others were home @-@ made samples , including solo cello sounds performed by Lori Goldston , used in the H.A.R.M. theme . Influences for the score included German composer Peter Thomas , the soundtrack of the 1968 film Barbarella , and " an array of Italian composers who did beautiful scores for low budget European erotic films . " Whitmore 's adaptive score was not used for the PlayStation 2 version of the game . Instead , it featured original music by Rebecca Kneubuhl , and mixed by Gabriel Mann . The No One Lives Forever theme song was created by Rich Ragsdale . Kneubuhl and Mann also provided vocals for the title theme . = = = = In the Lounge = = = = The game was released with bonus 1960s @-@ inspired music on the second CD . The songs available on this album , titled In the Lounge , were not featured in the game , but were specifically written as extra material . The 9 songs were written by Rebecca Kneubuhl ( who created the in @-@ game score for the later PlayStation 2 port as well ) , and were recorded at Asylum Studios . The CD also features two songs by independent artists : " Void " by Red Delicious and " El Dorado " by Archie Thompson . These were selected for inclusion as part of a NOLF online " music search " , organized by Fox Interactive and Indiespace.com. A different version of In the Lounge was also created . This includes the same 9 original tracks , although in a slightly different order . It does not include the two indie songs ; however , it does feature Rich Ragsdale 's NOLF title theme , as well as remixes of 6 of the original songs , by Gabriel Mann . = = Releases and ports = = = = = Original release and Game of the Year Edition = = = The Operative : No One Lives Forever was originally released for Windows ( PC ) in the United States on November 9 , 2000 , by Fox Interactive , after it went gold on October 20 . Before the game 's release , a tech demo was released that included four single player missions , with one being a training mission . After the game 's release , another demo was released , dubbed " Mega Mix Demo " , which contained four single player levels and two multiplayer maps . A number of patches and map packs had also been made freely available for the game . After receiving a number of Game of the Year ( GOTY ) awards , a special Game of the Year Edition was released on October 4 , 2001 . Published jointly by Sierra Entertainment and Fox Interactive , this re @-@ released version includes an exclusive mission otherwise not available in the original game , titled " Rest and Relaxation " , which is available after the original story . The GOTY edition comes with the game 's official Prima strategy guide , and it also contains more multiplayer maps , which were also made available as a download for owners of the original game . In 2001 , Monolith Productions released a set of editing tools for No One Lives Forever that included the level editor and model editor used for development . The team also released the source code for NOLF ( version 1 @.@ 003 on Windows ) that year to " support the fan base by offering the tools to create their own levels " . It is available both as a download , as well as on the Game of the Year Edition CD @-@ ROM . = = = PlayStation 2 port = = = The game 's developer , Monolith Productions ported No One Lives Forever – Game of the Year Edition to the PlayStation 2 console . This port of the game was released on April 18 , 2002 ( although it was originally intended for a 2001 release ) , and was again published jointly by Sierra and Fox . The PlayStation 2 version of the game included three exclusive flashback levels not available in other releases of the game titled " Nine Years Ago " , in which the player controls a younger Cate Archer , when she used to be a cat burglar . Each of the new levels is accessed during several moments in the original story , when Cate is knocked out by Armstrong . All three levels use new textures , new character models , and feature Cate 's cat burglar outfit , as well as two exclusive gadgets . The port does not feature Guy Whitmore 's original interactive score ; instead , it uses different original music by Rebecca Kneubuhl . Multiplayer mode is not present in this version of the game . = = = Mac OS X port = = = A port of No One Lives Forever – Game of the Year Edition for the Mac OS X operating system was developed by MumboJumbo , and published by MacPlay . It was released on November 21 , 2002 , soon after the original Windows release of No One Lives Forever 2 : A Spy in H.A.R.M. ' s Way ( which was also ported to Mac OS X by MacPlay later ) . Similarly to the Windows version of the game , the Mac OS X port also uses GameSpy technology for its online multiplayer mode , allowing players to play with each other , no matter which platform they use . = = = Possible re @-@ release = = = With the rise of digital distribution in video games in the latter part of the 2000s , there has been speculation about a possible re @-@ release , or even a remake of the titles in the No One Lives Forever series . However , a number of reports have pointed out the complicated state of the series ' intellectual property ( IP ) rights . Even parties that have strong ties to the IP , including video game publisher Activision and NOLF designer Craig Hubbard , have publicly admitted not knowing the precise legal situation of the series , as of May 2014 . In April 2013 , Activision community manager Dan Amrich attempted to explain the acquisition history of the No One Lives Forever IP in a public video . This history includes the 2003 acquisition of NOLF publisher Fox Interactive by Vivendi Universal Games ( who also owned Sierra Entertainment ) , as well as the 2008 merger between Vivendi Universal Games ( VUG , which had since been renamed Vivendi Games ) and video game publisher Activision , forming the Activision Blizzard holding company . After the merger , Activision decided to sell off some IPs and retain others . In order to find out the legal details behind NOLF , Amrich asked his colleagues , saying that " [ t ] he person that I normally talk to about this stuff does not believe that we [ at Activision ] currently have the rights . They 've never seen it , they 've never been given the permission to put that stuff on [ GOG.com ] . He said , basically , ' If we had it , I would love to be able to reissue those old games . ' " Amrich also asked a friend of his who working at NOLF developer Monolith ( since acquired by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment ) , who also did not know who the IP belonged to . Amrich concluded that " at this time I do not believe that Activision has the rights to No One Lives Forever . " When asked about the rights to the game in July 2013 , NOLF designer Craig Hubbard also expressed confusion about the legal complexities behind the series . According to Hubbard , " my understanding was that Monolith owned the IP and Fox owned the title of the first game , which was technically The Operative : No One Lives Forever . I think Monolith actually owned A Spy in H.A.R.M. ' s Way , the subtitle of the sequel , but I could be wrong about that . Fox got acquired by VUG , which in turn got acquired by Activision , while Monolith got bought by Warner Brothers , so some stars would have to align for everything to get sorted out . " Hubbard added that " there didn 't seem to be any interest in resurrecting the franchise " as of 2012 , while he was still working at Monolith / Warner Bros. A possible venue for re @-@ release of the games would be computer game sale and distribution service GOG.com. In an interview with GOG.com 's Trevor Longino , he said that " NOLF is a really great title , and it ’ s one of the ones where the rights are a bear to get sorted . Just like pretty much any other classic IP you ’ re ever thought of , we ’ ve looked into it , but it ’ s not an easy thing to do . " In April 2013 , Night Dive Studios , a publisher specializing in re @-@ releasing classic video games , have posted on its Facebook page that they " have a pretty good idea of where the rights are " , and that they are " hot on the trail " . The studio later added that they are " making considerable progress , " but they refused to share more information on the matter . In May 2014 , reports revealed that Night Dive Studios has filed for trademark applications for the terms " No One Lives Forever " , " The Operative " , " A Spy in H.A.R.M. ' s Way " , and " Contract J.A.C.K. " , which are the titles and subtitles of the games in the series . In response to inquiries about the studio 's acquisition of the NOLF rights , Night Dive Studio CEO Stephen Kick sent the following statement to the press : " At this time we are unable to comment on future plans . I would like to add that our team has a great fondness for these games and our hope is that they will one day be re @-@ released . " Nonetheless , the news have prompted some to assume that a re @-@ release might be coming soon . Night Dive Studios reported to Kotaku in February 2015 that their attempts to remake the game had fallen through due to the inability to get the three companies with IP stake in the game - Activision , 20th Century Fox , and Warner Bros. - to grant them the rights for the remake . While they had the source code and assets for both No One Lives Forever and the sequels to make for modern computers , they opted to drop the project after meeting resistance from the IP holders . = = Reception and legacy = = = = = Critical reception = = = No One Lives Forever received critical acclaim upon its release , and has an 88 @.@ 34 % ranking on the aggregate site GameRankings ( based on 28 reviews ) , and a score of 91 out of 100 on Metacritic ( 32 reviews ) . Many reviewers said at the time that No One Lives Forever was among the best first @-@ person shooters since the influential and critically acclaimed 1998 title Half @-@ Life . In his review , GameSpot 's Erik Wolpaw gave No One Lives Forever a score of 9 @.@ 3 out of 10 , and praised the " game 's unrelenting inventiveness [ which ] shows in virtually every aspect of its design . " In IGN 's review the game was given a 9 @.@ 1 overall rating ( " Outstanding " ) out of 10 , and was called " one of the best shooters of the year " . Eurogamer gave the game a score of 8 out of 10 , and called it " thoroughly commendable . " Computer Games Magazine gave the game 5 stars out of 5 , and claimed that " No One Lives Forever combines a fantastic sense of style with great animation and voice acting , clever AI , industry @-@ leading interactive music , a wry sense of humor , and gameplay that keeps you coming back for more . " Critical reception of the PlayStation 2 port of No One Lives Forever was much less positive than the original version . It has a 70 @.@ 12 % ranking on GameRankings ( 42 reviews ) , and a score of 67 out of 100 on Metacritic ( 23 reviews ) . IGN gave the PlayStation 2 version an overall rating of 6 @.@ 9 ( " Passable " ) out of 10 . The PlayStation 2 port received a 4 @.@ 6 score ( " Poor " ) out of 10 from GameSpot , and was panned mainly for the lack of the quicksave feature available in the PC version . The Mac OS X version of the game was given a 9 @.@ 1 rating overall ( " Outstanding " ) by IGN , and was called " a fabulous Mac version of this top notch game . " = = = Awards = = = No One Lives Forever has earned several Game of the Year ( GOTY ) awards in the video game press . NOLF was named " Game of the Year " and " Action Game of the Year " by Computer Games Magazine . It also received " Action Game of the Year " awards from Computer Gaming World and PC Gamer magazines . In 2001 , the game was nominated by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences for their annual Interactive Achievement Award in the " Game Play Engineering " and " PC Action / Adventure " categories . NOLF was also nominated for the International Game Developers Association 's 2001 Game Developers Choice Awards in four categories : Game of the Year , Original Character of the Year , Excellence in Level Design , and Game Spotlight Awards . Out of these , the game earned a Game Spotlight Award for innovation . = = = Legacy = = = Retrospective articles written about the game have also been positive . In a 2003 GameSpy feature called " The Top 25 Underrated Games of All Time " , No One Lives Forever was ranked as # 19 , dubbing it and its sequel " two of the most memorable games of the past 10 years . " In an article written in 2009 ( nine years after the game 's release ) , Eurogamer states that the game has " dated enormously but survives well " , and that " you simply couldn 't make No One Lives Forever today . You couldn 't because it would be too long , require far too many assets , and most significantly of all , risk all the cost of development on a comedy game – a genre that no longer exists . " In a 2010 online PC Gamer feature titled " Why you must replay No One Lives Forever " , Tim Stone hailed the 10 @-@ year @-@ old game 's use of humor , and wrote that NOLF " is every bit the amusing , inventive , life @-@ affirming experience I remembered . " = = Sequel and spin @-@ off = = The Operative : No One Lives Forever is the first game in the No One Lives Forever series . It was followed by a sequel in 2002 , entitled No One Lives Forever 2 : A Spy in H.A.R.M. ' s Way . In 2003 , a spin @-@ off of the first two game was released , entitled Contract J.A.C.K .. Being a prequel to No One Lives Forever 2 , it is chronologically set between the first two No One Lives Forever games . This stand @-@ alone expansion pack is a shorter game , and unlike the previous titles , its main protagonist is not Cate Archer , but John Jack , who works for H.A.R.M. The game also focuses more on action gameplay , rather than on stealth .
= Brian Goes Back to College = " Brian Goes Back to College " is the 15th episode of Family Guy ' s fourth season . The episode originally aired on Sunday November 13 , 2005 . Guest stars on the show were Ralph Garman , Mark Hentemann and Phil LaMarr . The episode was described by show creator Seth MacFarlane to be " a real treat for The A @-@ Team fans " . The episode contained several connections with The New Yorker ; in response , they wrote a friendly article about the episode . The plot consists of Peter , Joe , Cleveland and Quagmire winning a costume contest dressed as characters from The A @-@ Team , and deciding to improve their community by continuing to act like the characters of the show . Brian is hired by The New Yorker , but is later dismissed as he did not complete college , so he returns to finish his education . It was rated TV @-@ 14 @-@ D in the United States and was rated 12 in the United Kingdom . = = Plot = = Peter , Joe , Cleveland , and Quagmire win a costume contest as characters from The A @-@ Team ( because they had an actual black guy as B. A. Baracus and the other team had a Jewish man for the same role ) . Peter and his friends find Brian , who is writing a report for the local newspaper . When Peter and his friends win the costume contest , Brian writes a report about it , and is later telephoned by a member of The New Yorker , who tell him they would like him to work for their magazine . Brian is initially given a warm welcome by the staff , but he is immediately fired after he informs them he never graduated from college . Meanwhile , disappointed at no longer being able to be The A @-@ Team , Peter decides to become an unofficial A @-@ Team alongside Joe , Cleveland , and Quagmire , and decide to help their local community . Peter designs a replica of the van used by The A @-@ Team . After encouragement from Lois , Brian decides to return to Brown University in order to complete his education so he can go back to The New Yorker . Stewie , unknowing to Brian , returns to college with him . Brian 's new teacher ( the Stephen Hawking @-@ esque man from " Ready , Willing , and Disabled " ) takes an instant disliking to him , but his opinion of Brian quickly changes after he cheats on a test by plagiarizing Stewie 's work with his permission ( due to Stewie 's knowledge of technology and physics ) and gets a high mark . Brian goes to tell his teacher that he cheated , but is interrupted , as the teacher tells him Brian has inspired him , and he was so depressed that he was planning to commit suicide . Meanwhile , Peter becomes very satisfied with his A @-@ Team 's actions , but the team fails a mission to save a local park from demolition by becoming " side @-@ tracked by idle conversation " with the builders . The guilty A @-@ Team disbands afterwards . Brian eventually cracks under the pressure of a final test and knowing he will only pass if he cheats , he decides to return home with Stewie . A shocked Lois attempts to encourage him to go back and finish the test , and eventually chases him away with a vacuum cleaner called " Mr. Hoover " . Brian ends up exercising for hours with the help of Stewie , parodying Rocky Balboa in the movie Rocky IV , but realizes his test is only a few hours away . He becomes stressed at being late for his exam , so Lois persuades Peter to revive The A @-@ Team one last time and drive Brian to his test , which is successful , and Brian arrives on time . He fails his test , but remains proud of himself for not cheating , much to the dismay of the family , who tells him that he probably should have cheated . Brian tries to reassure them that he finished what he started and labels his pride of that ' something ' , but the Griffins shoot him down for that . = = Production = = Several people who were involved in the production of the original A @-@ Team worked with show producers for this episode . Ron Jones wrote the music during the scene where Peter and his friends help the man in the bar ; Jones had also written music for the actual The A @-@ Team series in the 1980s . This episode marks the third appearance of Brian 's wheelchair @-@ using teacher ; he originally appears in " Ready , Willing , and Disabled " and " Brian the Bachelor " when playing in the Special Olympics during the former episode and attempting to become a candidate for The Bachelorette in the latter episode . The professor 's and his wife 's voices were not played by a real person ; they were made from a generic computer system in the studio . A deleted scene was animated which showed the professor informing Brian that he once had a student who was identical to him , but instead took human form and had a mustache . David Goodman commented this as being a pretty strange gag . Several viewers contacted Greg Colton , a Family Guy director , asking him if Roger Williams Park ( a real public park in Rhode Island ) was due to be demolished . He commented that one couple were extremely worried , because they were due to have their wedding there . The title of the episode was originally meant to be " Brian Goes Back to College and Stewie Goes With Him for Obvious Comedic Reasons " , but it was deemed too long . = = Cultural references = = Peter and his friends parody the 1980s American drama series The A @-@ Team . When the introduction sequence of The A @-@ Team was made for the episode , it took the writers and producers several attempts to animate it correctly . The background images used were real images used from The A @-@ Team 's intro sequence . When Brian is shown to be exercising heavily at a ski resort under the supervision of Stewie , and then climbs the mountain and shouts from the top , the montage is a reference to Rocky IV . The 1980s television convention that the gang attends features references to Too Close for Comfort ( " Cosmic Cow Autographs " ) and The Cosby Show ( " Bill Cosby aerobics " ) . At the American football game , the teams playing are " Brown " and the " Board of Education " , referencing the Brown v. Board of Education court case in 1954 which led to desegregation in the US school system . = = Reception = = The New Yorker wrote a friendly response article to this episode , as they were featured in it . They appeared to take no offense at the episode , and did not retaliate . Ryan J. Budke of TV Squad praised The A Team parody in the episode , stating that the " 30 second recreation of the A @-@ Team opening had me about as excited as anything else on TV " .
= Margaret Lea Houston = Margaret Lea Houston ( April 11 , 1819 – December 3 , 1867 ) was First Lady of the Republic of Texas during her husband Sam Houston 's second term as President of the Republic of Texas . They met following the first of his two non @-@ consecutive terms as the Republic 's president , and married when he was a representative in the Congress of the Republic of Texas . She was his third wife , remaining with him until his death . She came from a close @-@ knit family in Alabama , many of whom also moved to Texas when she married the man who was an accomplished politician in both Tennessee and Texas , and who had won the Battle of San Jacinto during the Texas Revolution . The couple had eight children , and she gave birth to most of them while he was away attending to politics . Her mother Nancy Lea was a constant in their lives , helping with the children , managing the household help , and always providing either financial assistance or temporary housing . With the help of her extended family in Texas , she convinced her husband to give up both alcohol and profane language . He believed his wife to be an exemplary woman of faith . Under her influence he converted to the Baptist denomination , after he had many years previously been baptized a Catholic in Nacogdoches , Texas . Following the Annexation of Texas to the United States , Sam Houston shuttled back and forth to Washington , D.C. as the state 's U. S. senator for 13 years , while Margaret remained in Texas raising their children . When he was elected the state 's governor , Margaret became First Lady of the state of Texas and was pregnant with their last child . Her brief tenure came on the cusp of the Civil War , at a time when the state was torn apart over the debate of whether or not to secede from the United States , while her husband worked in vain to defeat the Texas Ordinance of Secession . There had been an assassination attempt on his life , and angry mobs gathered in the streets near the governor 's mansion . With children to protect , and no government security forces in place , she lived in fear for her family 's safety . Her husband was removed from office by the Texas Secession Convention for refusing to swear loyalty to the Confederacy . Margaret became a war @-@ time mother whose oldest son joined the Confederate army and was taken prisoner at the Battle of Shiloh . Her husband died before the end of the war . In her few remaining years , she became the keeper of the Sam Houston legacy and opened his records to a trusted biographer . When she died of yellow fever 31 ⁄ 2 years later , Margaret could not be buried with her husband in a public cemetery in Huntsville for fear of contamination , and was instead interred next to her mother on private property . = = Early life = = Margaret Moffette Lea was born April 11 , 1819 into a family of devout Baptists in Perry County , Alabama . Her father Temple Lea was a church deacon and the state treasurer of the Alabama Baptist Convention , and her mother Nancy Moffette Lea was the only woman delegate at the convention 's formation . Margaret was the fifth of six children that included older siblings Martin , Varilla , Henry Clinton and Vernal , as well as younger sister Antoinette . The Lea cotton plantation had been acquired with money from a Moffette family inheritance , and was operated by Nancy . When her father died in 1834 , she inherited four slaves that included Joshua and Eliza , her favorite . The older Lea children had married prior to Temple 's death , but Vernal , Margaret and Antoinette accompanied the widowed Nancy when she moved into her son Henry 's home at Marion . He was an accomplished attorney who sat on the boards of educational institutions , and would be elected to the Alabama State Senate in 1836 . Margaret was enrolled at Professor McLean 's School , and also attended Judson Female Institute . The latter was founded by Baptists to instruct genteel young women in what were acceptable goals of their time and place , " proficiency in needlework , dancing , drawing , and penmanship " . Heavy emphasis was put on Baptist theology and missionary work . She wrote poetry and read romantic novels , while also becoming accomplished in guitar , harp and piano . Reverend Peter Crawford baptized her in the Siloam Baptist Church of Marion when she was 19 , by which time the eligible young lady was considered " accomplished , well @-@ connected and deeply religious . " = = Marriage = = Sam Houston was an attorney by profession and politically accomplished even before he moved to Texas . In Tennessee , he had been both a member of the United States House of Representatives and Governor of Tennessee . His military victory at the Battle of San Jacinto elevated him to hero status in Texas . After completing his first term as President of the Republic of Texas in early December 1838 , he continued to practice law from his office in San Augustine . He arrived in Mobile , Alabama in the early months of 1839 as a partner of the Sabine City Company , seeking investors to develop a community that is today known as Sabine Pass . Through Martin Lea , he made the acquaintance of Antoinette 's husband William Bledsoe , a wealthy businessman who in turn suggested Nancy Lea as a possible investor . Invited to a garden party at Martin 's home , it was there Houston first became acquainted with Margaret . The mutual attraction was instantaneous . Nancy was favorably impressed with Houston 's land sales pitch , but not so impressed with his interest in her daughter . She and others in the family were concerned about his reputation as a hard @-@ drinking carouser with a proclivity for profanity , who was 26 years older than Margaret and twice married . Several weeks of love letters had been exchanged between Margaret and Houston by the time he proposed marriage that summer of 1839 , presenting her with his image carved on a brooch . In an effort to assuage the family 's opposition to the union , Houston spent several weeks in the Lea home in Alabama . In September during his absence from Texas , his supporters in San Augustine County elected him to serve in the Republic of Texas House of Representatives . When the couple 's engagement was announced in newspapers , the Leas were not the only ones who were skeptical . Acquaintances in Texas were well versed with his personal history and aware that he had not divorced the first wife when he married again , only recently obtaining that divorce with hopes of marrying a Texas woman who , as it played out , rejected him for another suitor . Political crony Barnard E. Bee , Sr. tried to discourage him from making a third attempt at marriage , believing him to be " totally disqualified for domestic happiness . " As the May 9 , 1840 wedding day grew close , some family members still looked upon him with uncertainty and were determined to stop what they believed would be a disastrous union for Margaret . She would not be deterred , however , and the Reverend Peter Crawford officiated over the wedding of Margaret and the man she had fallen in love with . The newlyweds spent their honeymoon week at the Lafayette Hotel before sailing to Galveston , where Nancy and the Bledsoes had already established residences . Houston retained a house he owned in Houston City , but Margaret had no taste for the hustle and bustle and preferred the lesser populated Galveston . She and her personal slaves who had accompanied the newlyweds from Alabama shared her mother 's house while Houston traveled . = = First Lady of the Republic = = The year before he met Margaret , Houston had purchased property at Cedar Point on Galveston Bay in Chambers County , which he named Raven Moor , and planned to expand with income from his law practice . The existing 2 @-@ room log dogtrot house with its detached slaves ' quarters overlooked Galveston Bay and became the newlyweds ' first home , filled with both Margaret 's personal furnishings from Alabama , as well as newer pieces . She renamed it Ben Lomond as a tip of the hat to the romantic Walter Scott works she had read , and delegated management of the household to her mother Nancy . During his second term as representative from San Augustine , Houston was elected in 1841 to once again serve as the Republic 's president . Margaret disliked campaign events and giving up her privacy , frequently staying home while her husband traveled about the Republic canvassing for votes . Yet , when she rose to the occasion , such as the extended post @-@ election tour of San Augustine County and victory celebrations in Washington County and Houston City , the public adored her , and she became an impressive political asset . She rode in a local presidential parade , but stayed home rather than travel to the inauguration in Austin . When the couple appeared at several events in Nacogdoches , his old friends took notice of his total avoidance of alcohol , and he continued to assure her that he was giving it up completely . He also began to clean up his language to please his new wife , and would eventually claim to have eliminated his profanity altogether . Approximately 26 miles ( 42 km ) north of Ben Lomond , the Bledsoes operated a sugar cane plantation at Grand Cane in Liberty County . Financially supplemented by Nancy , the plantation became a family gathering place . About a year after Vernal and Mary Lea also moved to there , Mary suffered a pregnancy miscarriage . Not long after that , the couple accepted trusteeship of a 7 @-@ year @-@ old Galveston orphan named Virginia Thorne , who was then placed in the care of Nancy . It was a problematic relationship from the beginning , and would grow to have legal ramifications for Margaret . Events leading up to the 1842 Battle of Salado Creek caused Houston to believe that Mexico was planning a full @-@ scale invasion to re @-@ take Texas . In response , he moved the Republic 's capital farther east to Washington @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Brazos , and sent Margaret back to her relatives in Alabama . Upon her later return , they temporarily lived with the Lockhart family at Washington @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Brazos until they were able to acquire a small home there . The couple 's first child Sam Houston , Jr. was born in the new house on May 25 , 1843 . Upon learning of her son Martin 's death in a duel , Nancy moved in with the Houstons , helping Margaret with the new baby , and over Houston 's objections , pitching in with some financial assistance for food and household necessities . = = Extended family life = = = = = Raven Hill and Woodland = = = When his presidential term ended on December 9 , 1844 , Houston turned his attention to the Raven Hill plantation he had acquired that year northwest of Grand Cane and east of Huntsville . Margaret 's slave Joshua was put in charge of the carpentry to build her a new house . Nancy , Margaret and sister Antoinette devoted their time to activities in Grand Cane 's Concord Baptist Church , of which they were founding members . She continued to be a wife who was happiest when she and her husband stayed close to home . Although she accompanied him to President Andrew Jackson 's Tennessee funeral in the summer of 1845 , she did not attend fetes held in her husband 's honor by his old friends and supporters . During the latter part of the year , Antoinette 's husband William died , followed a few months later by the death of Vernal 's wife Mary . Prior to her death , she had elicited a promise from Margaret to assume the trusteeship of Virginia Thorne . Texas officially relinquished its sovereignty on February 19 , 1846 to become the 28th state in the union , and Houston was elected by the Texas state legislature to serve in the United States Senate . Margaret 's pregnancy prevented her from accompanying him , so when time and duty permitted he traveled back and forth between Texas and a temporary hotel residence in the nation 's capital . When Reverend George W. Samson first met Houston at the E @-@ Street Baptist Church in Washington , D.C. , the senator told him that his attendance had been influenced by " one of the best Christians on earth , " his wife Margaret . For the duration of his senatorial service , Houston regularly attended the E @-@ Street church , sharing his wife 's letters with Samson and delving into theological discussions pertaining to Margaret 's interpretation of scriptures . Margaret 's sister Antoinette eloped with wealthy Galveston businessman Charles Power in April and began a new life on his sugar plantation . Houston was home during a Congressional recess when their second child Nancy ( Nannie ) Elizabeth Houston was born at Raven Hill on September 6 . About this time , in a letter to Houston that gave insight into Nancy 's forceful constant presence in their lives , Margaret conceded , " She is high spirited and a little overbearing , I admit ... " but advised her husband to just give in to the insignificant issues . Houston replied , " I love the old Lady as a Mother , and have resolved to defer to her age and her disposition . Her blood is much like my own . " During the early part of 1847 , Houston 's letters to Margaret were filled with his weariness of being away from home , and his concern that he had no letters from her for weeks . He promised that at the end of the current legislative session , he would " ... fly with all speed to meet and greet my Love and embrace our little ones . " When she finally answered , she initially only told him of a serious illness that Sam Jr. had since recovered from , even though he was aware of previous problems she had with a breast lump . She had been advised to see a specialist in Memphis , Tennessee if there was a recurrence . When complications appeared , family friend Dr. Ashbel Smith recommended surgery in Texas ; only then , did she inform her husband of the situation . In an era before the development of anesthesia , her only alternative to bear the pain was to bite on a coin . Upon receipt of her letter , Houston immediately departed Washington , D.C. After his return home , Houston negotiated a labor @-@ swap arrangement with Raven Hill 's overseer Captain Frank Hatch . In lieu of a cash payment for his services , the bulk of Houston 's slave labor force was engaged to work on Hatch 's property at Bermuda Spring . The remaining slaves were retained as house labor for Margaret . Eventually , Houston became the owner of Bermuda Spring when he and Hatch swapped properties , and he set about to build the Woodland home for his wife . The first child to be born in the house was Margaret ( Maggie ) Lea Houston , arriving on April 13 , 1848 while Congress was in session and Houston in Washington , D.C. The widowed Vernal remarried to Catherine Davis Goodall in 1849 , but trusteeship of Virginia Thorne , by now a teenager , remained with Margaret . With most of his time spent in the nation 's capital , Houston 's perception of Thorne was primarily second @-@ hand gleanings from Margaret 's letters ; yet , he disliked and distrusted the orphaned girl to the point where he feared for the health and safety of his children with her in the house . Exacerbating the situation was Margaret 's disapproval of the relationship that the teenage girl developed with overseer Thomas Gott . Push literally came to shove during an incident when Margaret disciplined her for what she believed was rough handling of one of the children . Thorne alleged that during the ensuing dispute over the situation , Margaret had used threats and physical violence against her . After she eloped with Gott a month later , the couple filed assault and battery charges against Margaret . When a grand jury investigation resulted in a deadlock , the matter was referred to the local Baptist church that Margaret helped found , and she was acquitted of the charges . Houston came to believe that the filing of legal charges against his wife had been encouraged by his political enemies . Daughter Mary William ( Mary Willie ) Houston was born on April 9 , 1850 in the Woodland house during another Congressional session when Houston was in the nation 's capital . Their fourth child Antoinette ( Nettie ) Power Houston arrived on January 20 , 1852 while he was again away on a business . Many friends and acquaintances came to visit the Houstons at Woodland , including members of the Alabama @-@ Coushatta Tribe who had allied with Houston during the Texas Revolution ; and he in return had assisted them in their being granted a reservation in east Texas . Throughout the last years of his presidency , Houston had made numerous efforts for the Republic to find common ground with the various tribes , asserting their right to own land . Many tribes had come to respect him as their friend . = = = Houston 's profession of faith = = = Nancy moved southwest of Huntsville to Independence in 1852 , and much of the remaining Lea family began to form its nucleus in the Washington County community . Antoinette and Charles Power were also living in Independence after their Galveston sugar plantation was decimated by a hurricane . Brothers Vernal and Henry both died that year . The following year , Varilla 's husband Robertus Royston also died and she joined the rest of the family in Independence . That August , the Houstons bought a house near the original Baylor University campus in Independence . While Houston was attending to business in Washington , D.C. , their sixth child Andrew Jackson Houston was born on June 21 , 1854 . As required by Mexican federal law for property ownership in Coahuila y Tejas , Houston had been baptized into the Catholic faith in the Adolphus Sterne House in Nacogdoches prior to Texas independence . By 1854 when Houston told Rev. Samson he felt compelled to make a public profession of faith , perhaps on the floor of the United States Senate , Margaret and her family had spent 14 years influencing her husband 's faith . Ultimately , he decided to make the profession among those who knew him best in Texas . Word quickly spread about Houston 's upcoming public baptism , and spectators traveled from neighboring communities to witness the event . Reverend Rufus Columbus Burleson , Baylor University president and local church pastor , performed the rite in Little Rocky Creek , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) southeast of town . Houston afterwards still felt unworthy of taking the Eucharist and becoming a member of Margaret 's church . At her request , Reverend George Washington Baines of Brenham counseled with him to eliminate his self @-@ doubts . In gratitude and celebration , Nancy sold her silverware to purchase a bell for the Rocky Creek Baptist Church . = = First Lady of the state = = The state legislature decided during Houston 's third senatorial term not to re @-@ elect him , so he ran for the office of Governor of the state of Texas , losing to Hardin Richard Runnels . He was still in Washington , D.C. when William ( Willie ) Rogers Houston was born on May 25 , 1858 , their last child born in the Woodland home . In order to satisfy creditors of his gubernatorial campaign debts , Houston was forced to sell the house to his political supporter J. Carroll Smith . He subsequently defeated incumbent Runnels with a second bid for the office during a period when the populace was bitterly divided over the issue of secession from the United States , and was sworn in December 31 , 1859 . Construction on the Texas Governor 's Mansion in Austin had been completed three years earlier and first occupied by Governor Elisha M. Pease whose wife played hostess to anyone who stopped by for a visit . The Houston family and their retinue of slaves moved into the mansion during a political climate that grew increasingly hostile over the secession debate . The family furniture had been moved from Independence by Joshua , since the state government had no budget for staffing , furnishing or maintaining the governor 's residence . That financial burden fell on the shoulders of the incumbent , and the state partially defaulted on Houston 's salary . Margaret feared for the family 's safety , as her husband worked towards defeating passage of the state 's Ordinance of Secession . There had been a botched assassination attempt on Houston , and she saw throngs of angry malcontents gathering in the city . Margaret closed the mansion doors to all but those with an invitation from the Houstons . As with everywhere else had they lived , she cared nothing about public life , and instead worked with Eliza and the other servants to create a home that welcomed extended family members and personal friends of the Houstons . The family and household slaves resided on the second floor of the mansion , while others lived in the stable . Houston would occasionally hire out some of his labor force . The first child born in the Texas governor 's mansion was also the last of the Houston children ; Temple Lea Houston was delivered on August 12 , 1860 . This last birth left the 41 @-@ year @-@ old Margaret debilitated for almost 2 weeks , with a watchful Houston constantly by her side . The Texas Secession Convention passed the Texas Ordinance of Secession on February 1 , 1861 , effectively becoming part of the Confederate States of America on March 1 . Houston , like all other office holders in the state , was expected to take an oath of loyalty to the Confederacy . He refused and was removed from office by the Secession Convention on March 16 , succeeded by Lt. Governor Edward Clark . = = Final years = = Their home in Independence having been leased out to the Baptists , retreating there was not an option . Houston was in poor health , as well as spiritually and financially broken . After a brief sojourn in Nancy 's home , and over her objections , the family returned to Ben Lomond in early April . Sometime during August 1861 , Sam Jr. enlisted in the Confederate States Army 2nd Texas Infantry Regiment , Company C Bayland Guards , sending Margaret into melancholia . She dreaded that her first @-@ born child would never be home again . " My heart seems almost broken ... what shall I do ? How shall I bear it ? When I first heard the news , I thought I would lie down and die , " she wrote to her mother . Houston tried to help out by assuming care of their other children in between his extended visits to Galveston . Her fears seemed well @-@ founded when her son was critically wounded and left for dead at the April 1862 Battle of Shiloh . A second bullet was stopped by his Bible , bearing an inside inscription from Margaret . He was found languishing in a field by a Union Army clergyman who picked up the Bible and also found a letter from Margaret in his pocket . Taken prisoner and sent to Camp Douglas in Illinois , he was later released in a prisoner exchange and received a medical discharge in October . Lacking the financial means to buy back their Woodland home , they rented the Steamboat House in Huntsville . The 69 @-@ year @-@ old Houston was in his final days and physically feeble , requiring the use of a cane to get around . Until daughter Maggie took over as his personal assistant , his wife shouldered the duties . Even so , during this period , he managed to get the Confederate War Department to discharge all draftees from the Alabama @-@ Coushatta tribe , which had distanced itself completely from the conflict . On July 26 , 1863 , with Margaret at his bedside reading the 23rd Psalm to him , Houston died . His will named her as his executrix , and named his cousin Thomas Caruthers , as well as family friends Thomas Gibbs , J. Carroll Smith and Anthony Martin Branch as executors . He had died land rich , but cash poor . The inventory compiled of his estate after his death listed several thousand acres in real estate , $ 250 cash , slaves , a handful of livestock and his personal possessions . Margaret was now a widow with seven of her eight children under the age of 18 and financially dependent on her . She returned to live near her mother in Independence , swapping land for a nearby property that became known as the Mrs. Sam Houston House . The Texas legislature eventually gave Margaret an amount equivalent to her husband 's unpaid gubernatorial salary ; nevertheless , in order to afford Sam Jr . ' s enrollment at medical school at the University of Pennsylvania , she rented out the Ben Lomond plantation . Nancy Lea died of undiagnosed flu @-@ like ailments on February 7 , 1864 , and was entombed on the grounds of her home . Margaret died on December 3 , 1867 , having contracted yellow fever during an epidemic . Walter Reed would not make his discovery of the cause of yellow fever through mosquito bite until 1900 ; contamination through contact was the pervading fear in 1867 , and prevented Margaret 's remains from being interred in a public cemetery with Houston 's . She was buried in the ground beside Nancy 's tomb at 11 p.m. by her servant Bingley , family friend Major Eber Cave , and her two daughters Nettie and Mary Willie . No funeral service was performed . = = Legacy = = Two years after Houston 's death , Baylor University president William Carey Crane was commissioned by Margaret to write her husband 's biography , allowing complete access to all correspondence and records . Crane was a Lea family friend from Alabama who had little more than a passing acquaintance with " the hero of San Jacinto " . His perception of Margaret , however , was that of an extraordinary woman , in many aspects equal to the man she married . He stated that Houston 's " guardian angel " , as he called her , had set out from the time she met Houston to refine his rough edges and provide a solid foundation for his personal life . That assessment of Margaret 's relationship with her husband was echoed over a century later by author James L. Haley , " ... Houston trusted the care of his soul to Margaret , that he had no more war to fight within himself , left him with more energy to wage political battle . " Ultimately , several of Houston 's associates were cooperative with the Crane endeavor , but not everyone was inspired to join the effort . According to daughter Maggie , the author had told her that many valuable documents were destroyed by Margaret in a fit of anger when someone she considered a friend expressed disinterest . Life and Select Literary Remains of Sam Houston of Texas was rejected by the initial publisher , but was eventually published by J.B. Lippincott in 1884 . After emancipation and Margaret 's death , " Aunt Eliza " , as the children called her , alternated her time between Nannie 's and Maggie 's households . When Eliza died in 1898 , at her request , she was buried next to Margaret . Nancy 's tomb fell to decay over the years , after which she was re @-@ interred in the ground with Margaret and Eliza . There was much discussion during the Texas 1936 centennial about moving Margaret 's remains next to Houston 's in Huntsville , but the family and various authorities never came to an agreement over it . Not until May 15 , 1965 was an historical marker erected in Independence to denote her contributions to Texas history . = = = Children = = = " First Lady and the matriarch of one of the most significant families in Texas history . " – Texas Historical Commission Sam Houston , Jr . ( 1843 – 1894 ) became a physician and author . He was widowed early into his marriage to Lucy Anderson and spent his final years living with his sister Maggie . Sam Jr . ' s daughter Margaret Bell Houston ( 1877 – 1966 ) was a writer and suffragist who became the first president of the Dallas Equal Suffrage Association . Nancy ( Nannie ) Elizabeth Houston ( 1846 – 1920 ) married business man Joseph Clay Stiles Morrow . When her mother died , Nannie assumed guardianship of her younger siblings . Nannie 's great granddaughter Jean Houston Baldwin ( 1916 – 2002 ) was the wife of Texas Governor Price Daniel . Nannie 's great @-@ great @-@ grandson Price Daniel , Jr . ( 1941 – 1981 ) was Speaker of the Texas House of Representatives . Margaret ( Maggie ) Lea Houston ( 1848 – 1906 ) married Weston Lafayette Williams . The couple purchased Margaret 's home where they helped Nannie provide a home for their younger siblings , and also raised their own five children there . Mary William ( Mary Willie ) Houston ( 1850 – 1931 ) married attorney John Simeon Morrow . Widowed young with 5 children to support , she became postmistress of Abilene , Texas and held the position for 22 years . Antoinette ( Nettie ) Power Houston ( 1852 – 1932 ) Poet laureate and state historian for the Daughters of the Republic of Texas , she married Texas A & M University president William Lorraine Bringhurst . Andrew Jackson Houston ( 1854 – 1941 ) was a United States Senator . A graduate of West Point , he served in Teddy Roosevelt 's Rough Riders during the Spanish – American War . He was a proponent of prohibition and supportive of suffrage for women . His first wife was Carrie Glenn Purnell ; after her death , he remarried to Elizabeth Hart Good . William ( Willie ) Rogers Houston ( 1858 – 1920 ) was a lifelong bachelor , and became a career Special Agent of the Bureau of Indian Affairs . He died in what is believed to have been either a heart attack and / or a fall from his horse while on official duty , on the grounds of Goodland Indian School in Choctaw County , Oklahoma . Temple Lea Houston ( 1860 – 1905 ) served as Texas State Senator , District 19 , and Senate President Pro Tem . He was a multi @-@ linguist in 10 languages that included seven spoken by Native Americans . Temple Lea became the most famous of the Houston children and was considered a brilliant legal counsel whose " Soiled Dove Plea " won the acquittal of a woman accused of prostitution . Married to Laura Cross , he lived his final years in Oklahoma where locals gave him the nickname " Lone Wolf of the Canadian ( river ) " . The Temple Houston television series was based on his legal career . = = = Historic residences and sites = = = Sam Houston 's house in Houston City has been replaced by an office building . Ben Lomond and Raven Hill homes deteriorated through the years and were destroyed , as was Nancy Lea 's home in Independence . Steamboat House was moved in 1936 to the grounds of the Sam Houston Memorial Museum at Sam Houston State University , and designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1964 . The Mrs. Sam Houston house in Independence was listed on the National Register of Historic Places listings in Washington County on October 22 , 1970 . The Woodland home was listed on the National Register of Historic Places listings in Walker County on May 30 , 1974 as the Sam Houston House , and is part of the Sam Houston Memorial Museum . The Rocky Creek Baptist Church bell purchased by Nancy Lea is currently located at the intersection of Farm to Market Road 50 and Farm to Market Road 390 . Sam Houston 's baptismal site is marked by the Texas Historical Commission on Farm to Market Road 150 at Sam Houston Road .
= Theresa Andrews = Theresa Andrews ( born August 25 , 1962 ) is an American former competition swimmer and Olympic champion . Raised in Maryland , Andrews gained prominence as a national collegiate champion who competed for the University of Florida . In international competition , she was a backstroke specialist who won two gold medals at the 1984 Summer Olympics . = = Early years = = Andrews was born in New London , Connecticut in 1962 . She grew up in Annapolis , Maryland , where she initially attended St. Mary 's High School . She was one of twelve children of Frank and Maxine Andrews ; her father was a graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy and a former U.S. Navy officer . Andrews first trained in the Navy Junior Program as an age @-@ group swimmer , and then moved to the North Baltimore Aquatic Club ( NBAC ) , attending Archbishop Keogh High School in Baltimore , Maryland and staying with a succession of five sponsoring local families during her final two years of high school . She later described her training regime as " six hours a day , six days a week ... training in a pool . " Andrews was among the first generation of elite swimmers to train under coach Murray Stephens at NBAC , a club that has produced a succession of Olympic swimmers after her , including Michael Phelps and Katie Hoff . She was the first Olympic medalist produced by the club . = = College swimming career = = Andrews accepted an athletic scholarship to attend Indiana University in Bloomington , Indiana , and swam for the Indiana Hoosiers swimming and diving team in Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women ( AIAW ) and Big Ten Conference competition during the 1980 – 81 school year . As a Hoosier swimmer , she won six Big Ten titles , and earned five All @-@ American honors . After her freshman season , Andrews transferred to the University of Florida in Gainesville , Florida , where she swam for coach Randy Reese 's Florida Gators swimming and diving team in National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) and Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) competition in 1982 and 1983 . As a Gator , she was an eleven @-@ time SEC champion , including the 50 @-@ yard backstroke ( twice ) , 100 @-@ yard backstroke ( twice ) , 200 @-@ yard backstroke , and six relays . She was a three @-@ time NCAA champion ( twice in the 400 @-@ yard medley relay , and once in the 200 @-@ yard medley relay ) , and received a total of eighteen All @-@ American honors . The Gators won the 1982 NCAA women 's team championship , and the Gators ' winning 400 @-@ yard medley relay team of Andrews , Amy Caulkins , Michele Kurtzman and Kathy Treible set a new American national record in the event of 3 : 40 @.@ 99 . Andrews , together with teammates Kurtzman , Treible and Tracy Caulkins , won the NCAA 400 @-@ yard medley relay event again in 1983 , and the Gators placed second overall at the NCAA championship tournament . = = 1984 Olympic swimming = = Andrews qualified to represent the United States at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles , where she won two gold medals . She gained her first gold in the women 's 100 @-@ meter backstroke , narrowly edging fellow American Betsy Mitchell by eight one @-@ hundredths ( .08 ) of a second – about five inches – for a final time of 1 : 02 @.@ 55 . It was the first time she had ever beaten Mitchell . She earned her second gold by swimming the lead @-@ off backstroke leg for the first @-@ place U.S. team in the women 's 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay event , sharing the honors with her American teammates Tracy Caulkins ( breaststroke ) , Mary T. Meagher ( butterfly ) , and Nancy Hogshead ( freestyle ) , and clocking a winning time of 4 : 08 @.@ 34 . Her split time of 1 : 04 @.@ 00 was slower than her gold @-@ medal time in the individual 100 @-@ meter backstroke , but her teammates made good the difference to win and set a new American record in the event . Andrews later gave her first Olympic gold medal to her brother Danny in a private gathering , honoring him for his courage when he was paralyzed at the age of 19 after being struck by a car two years earlier . After the Olympics , she retired from competitive swimming at the age of 21 . = = Life after competition swimming = = Andrews graduated from the University of Florida with a bachelor 's degree in therapeutic recreation in 1986 , and thereafter , from Ohio State University with a master 's degree in clinical social work . From 1992 to 1999 , she worked as a clinical social worker in children 's hematology and cancer treatment at the University of Virginia Health Science Center . Andrews has worked for MBNA America and Bank of America since 1999 ; as a Bank of America vice president and market manager for consumer banking , she has oversees fifteen banking centers in Delaware and Pennsylvania . Andrews delivers motivational speeches for corporations , conferences , community groups and schools , usually on the topics of individual potential and the importance of teamwork in achieving goals , and drawing on the values of the Olympic movement . She is a member of the U.S. Olympic Committee , and has served as a volunteer for the U.S. Olympic Alumni Association since 2004 . She is also a veteran celebrity swimmer for Swim Across America ( SAA ) , a charitable organization that uses former Olympic swimmers to raise funds for cancer research , and has participated in SAA events for nine years . Andrews was inducted into the Maryland Swimming Hall of Fame as an " Honor Athlete " in 1987 . In 2008 she received the NCAA 's Silver Anniversary Award , which recognizes successful former student @-@ athletes who have excelled in their careers after graduation .
= Rave In2 the Joy Fantastic = Rave In2 the Joy Fantastic is the first remix album by American recording artist Prince , under the unpronounceable " Love Symbol " , as shown on the album cover . It was released on April 29 , 2001 by NPG Records and contains remixes of songs found on Prince 's twenty @-@ third studio album , Rave Un2 the Joy Fantastic ( 1999 ) . It was issued via mail exclusively through the NPG Music Club , an Internet subscription service ; due to this circumstance , the album was not able to chart . The album is an alternative version of Rave Un2 the Joy Fantastic , containing 13 of the album 's tracks , plus a previously unreleased track entitled " Beautiful Strange " . Besides remixes of the mentioned tracks , Rave In2 the Joy Fantastic also contains several extended songs , plus a trimmed version of " Wherever U Go , Whatever U Do " . The album also does not contain " Segue " tracks , that were used several times in the previous album . = = Background and release = = Rave In2 the Joy Fantastic is an alternative version of Prince 's 1999 studio album Rave Un2 the Joy Fantastic . Unlike Prince 's previous efforts , the album was not released commercially . Instead , an internet subscription service co @-@ founded by Prince , NPG Music Club , issued the album via mail through the NPG Music Club . Due to this , Rave In2 the Joy Fantastic also was not able to chart anywhere . Recording sessions for the parent album took place in Prince 's hometown of Chanhassen , Minnesota , at Paisley Park Studios , plus at Electric Lady Studios in California and O 'Henry Sound Studios in New York . The album was released on April 29 , 2001 , exclusively through the NPG Music Club . A limited number of CDs were made available to members ; Rave In2 the Joy Fantastic is no longer in production and has since became unavailable for purchase . The album was only released in one format , consisting of fourteen tracks , with four of them being remixes , four others being extended versions , five being Rave Un2 the Joy Fantastic tracks , and a previously unreleased track , " Beautiful Strange " . = = Composition = = Almost the entire album consists of the songs from Rave Un2 the Joy Fantastic , minus " Beautiful Strange " , which was a previously unreleased recording . Unlike the former album , Rave In2 the Joy Fantastic does not include any " Segue " tracks . The album opens with " Rave In2 the Joy Fantastic " , similar to the opening song on the parent album . " The Greatest Romance Ever Sold " also includes a verse from Eve , along with an additional three minutes of production ; the album 's fourth song is the Nasty Girl remix of " Hot Wit ' U " , however , this version does not include the Eve verse . An extended version of " Tangerine " occurs , followed by " So Far , So Pleased " , a duet with Gwen Stefani created to cater to modern radio . The aforementioned track and " The Sun , the Moon and Stars " both appear in their untouched versions on the album . A remix of promotional single " Man 'O'War " is the eighth recording , immediately by a lengthier version of other promotional single " Baby Knows " . " I Love U , but I Don 't Trust U Anymore " is also the original track , and includes a verse from folk rock singer Ani DiFranco , who plays an acoustic guitar . The album 's eleventh song is " Beautiful Strange " , a previously unreleased track , which was later the name of a DVD released by Prince in 2010 . The following recording is " Silly Game " , which is the album 's final untouched song . Alternative versions of " Wherever U Go , Whatever U Do " and " Prettyman " close the album , while the latter song is also a hidden track . = = Track listing = = All songs composed by Prince . = = Credits and personnel = = Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes . = = Release history = =
= Mireya Moscoso = Mireya Elisa Moscoso Rodríguez de Arias ( born July 1 , 1946 ) was Panama 's first female president , serving from 1999 to 2004 . Born into a poor family , Moscoso became active in the 1968 presidential campaign of three @-@ time president Arnulfo Arias , following and marrying him when he went into exile after a military coup . After his death in 1988 , she assumed control of his coffee business and later his political party , the Arnulfista Party ( PA ) . During the 1994 general elections for the presidency , she narrowly lost to the Democratic Revolutionary Party ( PRD ) candidate Ernesto Pérez Balladares by 4 % of the vote . In the 1999 general election , she defeated the PRD candidate Martín Torrijos by 8 % to become Panama 's first female president . During her tenure in office , she presided over the handover of the Panama Canal from the US to Panama and the economic downturn that resulted from the loss of US personnel . Hobbled by new spending restrictions passed by the opposition @-@ controlled Legislative Assembly , and her administration 's corruption scandals , she had difficulty passing her legislative initiatives . Her popularity declined , and her party 's candidate José Miguel Alemán lost to the PRD 's Torrijos in the subsequent general elections to succeed her . = = Background = = Moscoso is the daughter of a schoolteacher and was born into a poor family in Pedasí , Panama as the youngest of six children . She later worked as a secretary and joined the 1968 presidential campaign of Arnulfo Arias ; Arias had already served two partial terms as president , both times being deposed by the Panamanian military . He won the presidency but was again deposed by the military , this time after only nine days in office . Arias went into exile in Miami , Florida in the US , and Moscoso followed , marrying him the subsequent year . She was 23 , and he was 67 . During this period , Moscoso studied interior design at Miami @-@ Dade Community College . After Arias ' 1988 death , she inherited his coffee business . On September 29 , 1991 , almost two years after the US invasion of Panama that overthrew Manuel Noriega , she became president of her former husband 's Arnulfista Party . Also in 1991 , Moscoso married businessman Richard Gruber . The couple adopted a son , Richard ( born 1992 ) . Moscoso and Gruber divorced in 1997 . = = Presidential campaigns = = In 1994 , Moscoso ran as the presidential candidate of her deceased husband 's Arnulfista Party ( PA ) in the general election , seeking to succeed PA president Guillermo Endara . Her main rivals were Democratic Revolutionary Party ( PRD ) candidate Ernesto Pérez Balladares and salsa singer Rubén Blades , who was then president of the party Papa Egoro . Moscoso and Blades sought to emphasize Pérez Balladares ' connection with military ruler Manuel Noriega , broadcasting pictures of the two together , while Pérez Balladares worked to position himself as a successor to military ruler Omar Torrijos , who was regarded as a national hero . Moscoso 's campaign , meanwhile , was hindered by public dissatisfaction with the perceived incompetence and corruption of Endara 's government . Pérez Balladares ultimately won the election with 33 % of the vote , with Moscoso receiving 29 % and Blades receiving 17 % . Moscoso was named the PA candidate again in the May 2 , 1999 general election . Her main opponent this time was Martín Torrijos , Omar Torrijos ' son , named to represent the PRD after the failure of a constitutional referendum that would have allowed Pérez Balladares to run for a second term . Torrijos was selected in part to try to win back left @-@ leaning voters after the privatizations and union restrictions instituted by Pérez Balladares . Moscoso ran on a populist platform , beginning many of her speeches with the Latin phrase " Vox populi , vox Dei " ( " the voice of the people is the voice of God " ) , previously used by Arias to begin his own speeches . She pledged to support education , reduce poverty , and slow the pace of privatization . While Torrijos ran in large part on his father 's memory — including using the campaign slogan " Omar lives " — Moscoso evoked that of her dead husband , leading Panamanians to joke that the election was a race between " two corpses " . Torrijos allies also criticized Moscoso for her lack of government experience or college degree . However , unlike in 1994 , it was now the PRD that was hampered by the scandals of the previous administration , and Moscoso defeated Torrijos with 45 % of the vote to 37 % . = = Presidency = = Moscoso took office on September 1 , 1999 . Because she was divorced when she assumed the presidency , her older sister Ruby Moscoso de Young served as her First Lady . Facing a PRD @-@ controlled Legislative Assembly , Moscoso was limited in her ability to make new policy . She was also hampered by strict new restraints Pérez Balladares had passed on spending public money in the final days of his term , targeted specifically at her administration . On December 31 , 1999 , Moscoso oversaw the handover of the Panama Canal from the US to Panama under the Torrijos @-@ Carter Treaties . Her government then faced the challenge of cleaning up environmental problems in the Canal Zone , where the US Army had long tested bombs , biological agents , and chemical weapons . Remaining issues included lead contamination , unexploded munitions , and stockpiles of depleted uranium . Though Moscoso fired all of Pérez Balladares ' appointments from the Panama Canal Authority and appointed supermarket magnate ( and future president ) Ricardo Martinelli as its head , the Authority retained its autonomy from her administration . At the same time , Panama 's economy began to struggle due to the loss of income from American canal personnel . Moscoso worked to end Panama 's role in international crime , passing new laws against money laundering and supporting tax transparency . The legislation allowed Panama to be removed from international lists of tax havens . Meanwhile , violent crime rose sharply during Moscoso 's tenure . In September 2000 , under pressure from the US and some Latin American governments , Moscoso 's government gave temporary asylum to former Peruvian spy chief Vladimiro Montesinos , who had fled Peru after being videotaped bribing a member of its congress . In December 2000 , human remains were discovered at a Panamanian National Guard base , incorrectly believed to be those of Jesús Héctor Gallego Herrera , a priest murdered during the Omar Torrijos dictatorship . Moscoso appointed a truth commission to investigate the site and those at other bases . The commission faced opposition from the PRD @-@ controlled National Assembly , who slashed its funding , and from PRD 's president Balbina Herrera , who threatened to seek legal action against the president for its creation . It ultimately reported on 110 of the 148 cases it examined , of which 40 had disappeared and 70 were known to be murdered . The report concluded that the Noriega government had engaged in " torture [ and ] cruel , inhuman , and degrading treatment " , and recommended further exhumation and investigation . During her term , Moscoso was often accused of nepotism for her administrative appointments and faced several corruption scandals , such as the unexplained gift of US $ 146 @,@ 000 in watches to Legislative Assembly members . By 2001 , her second year in office , Moscoso 's approval rating had fallen to 23 % , due to corruption scandals and concern for the economy . That year , she attempted to pass a tax reform package through the Legislative Assembly , but the proposal was opposed by both the private sector and organized labor . In 2003 , the US ambassador publicly criticized Moscoso for the growth of corruption during her term . By the end of her term , her presidency was " criticized as rife with corruption and incompetence " and " widely regarded as weak and ineffectual " . Herself barred by the Constitution of Panama from a second consecutive term , Moscoso was succeeded by her former rival Martín Torrijos in the 2004 election . Shortly before leaving office , Moscoso sparked controversy by pardoning four men — Luis Posada Carriles , Gaspar Jiménez , Pedro Remon , and Guillermo Novo Sampol — who had been convicted of plotting to assassinate Cuban president Fidel Castro during a 2000 visit to Panama . Cuba broke off diplomatic relations with the country , and Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez recalled the nation 's ambassador . Moscoso stated that the pardons had been motivated by her mistrust of Torrijos , saying , " I knew that if these men stayed here , they would be extradited to Cuba and Venezuela , and there they were surely going to kill them there . " Moscoso also issued pardons to 87 journalists for defamation convictions dating back as far as 14 years . On July 2 , 2008 , all of the 180 pardons Moscoso had issued were overturned as unconstitutional by the Supreme Court . = = Post @-@ presidency = = During the Torrijos presidency , Moscoso remained an active member of the opposition . In September 2007 , she criticized the appointment of PRD politician Pedro Miguel González , who was wanted in the US for the murder of US Army sergeant Zak Hernández , as the head of the National Assembly . In the same year , she joined Endara and Perez Balladares in lobbying the Organization of American States to investigate the Hugo Chavez government 's refusal to renew the broadcasting license of opposition station Radio Caracas Televisión Internacional in Venezuela . Since leaving office , Moscoso has also served as a member of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars ' Council of Women World Leaders , a network intended " to promote good governance and enhance the experience of democracy globally by increasing the number , effectiveness , and visibility of women who lead at the highest levels in their countries . " = = Honors = = = = = Foreign honors = = = Monaco : Grand Officer of the Order of Saint @-@ Charles ( November 26 , 2002 ) Grand Cross of the Order of Saint @-@ Charles ( July 25 , 2003 ) = = External link = = Biography by CIDOB ( in Spanish )
= Castaing machine = The Castaing machine is a device used to add lettering and decoration to the edge of a coin . Such lettering was necessitated by counterfeiting and edge clipping , which was a common problem resulting from the uneven and irregular hammered coinage . When Aubin Olivier introduced milled coinage to France , he also developed a method of marking the edges with lettering which would make it possible to detect if metal had been shaved from the edge . This method involved using a collar , into which the metal flowed from the pressure of the press . This technique was slower and more costly than later methods . France abandoned milled coinage in favour of hammering in 1585 . England experimented briefly with milled coinage , but it wasn 't until Peter Blondeau brought his method of minting coins there in the mid @-@ seventeenth century that such coinage began in earnest in that country . Blondeau also invented a different method of marking the edge , which was , according to him , faster and less costly than the method pioneered by Olivier . Though Blondeau 's exact method was secretive , numismatists have asserted that it likely resembled the later device invented by Jean Castaing . Castaing 's machine marked the edges by means of two steel rulers , which , when a coinage blank was forced between them , imprinted legends or designs on its edge . Castaing 's device found favour in France , and it was eventually adopted in other nations , including Britain and the United States , but it was eventually phased out by mechanised minting techniques . = = Background = = Prior to the introduction of milled coinage , hammered coinage , which resulted in a relatively crude product of irregular shape and size , predominated in European mints . In c . 1550 , an Augsburg goldsmith named Max Schwab created a new technique for striking coins , which included the use of rolling mills , presses to cut the coinage blanks and the coinage press . After learning about the invention via the French ambassador , King Henry II dispatched the Comptroller of Finance Guillaume de Marillac and François Guilhem , Master of the Mint in Lyon , to observe the machinery . Schwab 's press was turned with a weighted wooden handle , which exerted even pressure across the coinage blank , creating a sharper and more precise strike than hammering . De Marillac requested that Anne de Montmorency send him an engineer capable of creating a similar machine ; he sent the engineer Aubin Olivier . Olivier viewed the machine , and introduced his own version to France , to which he later added a segmented collar . This allowed for the expanding metal to fill the collar , creating reeding , designs or edge lettering at the same time as the obverse and reverse images were struck onto the coin . The segments of the collar were then removed , and the coin ejected . Such lettering was used to aid in detecting coins which were debased by clipping metal from their edges , a problem frequently encountered in hammered coinage . Olivier 's method of striking coins was considered costly relative to the previously utilised method , as the upper coinage die often came into contact with the collar on its downward descent , causing expensive damage . Milled coinage was thus abandoned in 1585 in favour of hammering . Eloy Mestrelle introduced milled coinage to England in 1561 , but their production ceased in 1575 . On 8 August 1649 , the Council of State and the House of Commons opted to summon Peter Blondeau , a Paris Mint engineer , to London to modernise operations at the Tower Mint . Mint officials opposed Blondeau 's techniques , and subjected him to a series of trials in which the quality of his product would be compared to that made by the Mint . According to a pamphlet published in Blondeau 's name , his process is described as " a new invention , to make a handsome coyne ... that shall not only be stamped flat on both sides , but shall even be marked with letters on the thickness of the brim , " which was intended to prevent clipping . Blondeau described , in a proposition presumably meant for the Committee of the Mint , " two different ways to make the pieces marked about the thicknesse or edge . One is auncient , knowne to severall men , and according whereunto David Ramage [ the man whom the Mint had selected to create hammered coinage in competition to Blondeau 's ] , workeman of the Mint , hath made some bigg pieces ; but that way is very tedious , requireth much time , spoyles abondance of stamps and engines , and cannot be done upon the currant money , which is thynne . " Blondeau was referring to the type of collar added to the Paris Mint 's early coinage presses by Olivier , which were time @-@ consuming to use and caused significant damage to coinage dies and engines . He went on to say " [ a ] s touching the new way , which is ready and expeditious , and can be based upon the thynne and currant money , I am the inventor of it , and only I know itt , as I can make appeare by experiences , if it be the pleasure of the State to imploy me . " Blondeau also argued that his methods would prevent counterfeiting , because the machinery required was too complex to be duplicated by criminals . Following his swearing in as Lord Protector in 1653 , Oliver Cromwell became a proponent of Blondeau 's coinage method , which had yet to find favour in the nation 's minting establishment . In 1654 , Cromwell 's government placed Blondeau in charge of a planned mint in Ireland , where the coinage was heavily debased by fraudulent means . The proposed mint never came into existence , but in 1656 , Blondeau was given official appointment to strike £ 2 @,@ 000 worth of coins bearing Cromwell 's portrait with captured Spanish silver . The former Royal Mint superintendent , William John Hocking , believed that the edge lettering on Blondeau 's coinage was created by means of a perforated steel strip , through which the coin 's metal flowed during striking , creating the raised designs and wording . Hocking suggested that this technique would have been less costly than the older method involving the split collar , because the steel strip could be replaced more economically . However , the numismatist Peter B. Gaspar determined that Blondeau 's Cromwell @-@ era coinage was struck without a collar , which suggests that he used a machine to impart the edge lettering prior to striking . Blondeau returned to France following Cromwell 's death , but he was summoned to return to London in 1661 following an order from King Charles II to modernise operations at the Mint . He received a contract from the Mint , which he fulfilled until his death in 1672 , to work as an engineer for tools , to instruct moneyers , and to conduct his edge lettering process . In his diary , the Member of Parliament Samuel Pepys remarked upon the secrecy maintained by Blondeau regarding this process , stating that coiners at the Mint " mark the letters on the edges , which is kept as the great secret by Blondeau . " = = Invention = = Though production of hammered coinage ceased in France in 1645 , edge lettering wasn 't immediately reintroduced to that nation 's milled coinage . At some point prior to 1679 , Jean Castaing , a French engineer , invented a machine to apply edge lettering to coins , and in 1685 , he approached the French government with a proposal to use his machine in that nation 's mints . King Louis XIV favoured the invention , but his financial minister , Jean @-@ Baptiste Colbert , believed that it would not be economically viable to pay the expenses required to put it into use . In 1686 , over Colbert 's objection , the French Council of State entered a contract with Castaing wherein all of the nation 's gold and silver coinage would include edge lettering created by his machine . Two years later , in 1688 , in response to counterfeiting and to raise money to support the Nine Years ' War , Castaing proposed a method of reshaping and restriking existing coins , which was ultimately accepted . Castaing 's edge lettering machine was used on the overstruck coins , and the Royal Mint supervisor Martin Masselin , the individual who undertook the process , was obligated to pay Castaing for its use . In 1691 , Masselin was dismissed , as he and his clerks were found to have stolen from the Mint during the reformation of the coinage , and Castaing was appointed to perform the edge lettering and restriking in his place . A second reform took place in 1693 . Castaing was imprisoned in 1700 on charges of using inaccurate scales to weigh the coins to be reminted ; according to his wife , Marie Hippolyte Castaing ( née Bosch ) , the allegations were false , originating from opponents who lost money as a result of his machine 's introduction to the French Mint and the resulting monetary reforms . According to the engineer and numismatist George E. Ewing , Jr . , Castaing 's machine was likely similar to that used by Blondeau in England , but " Castaing 's improvements made his machine worthy of being called an invention . " = = = Operation = = = An 1819 account described the operation of Castaing 's machine : The machine used for this purpose consists of two plates of steel in form of rulers , on which the edging is engraved , half on the one , and half on the other . One of these plates is immovable , being strongly bound with screws to a copper plate on a board or table ; the other is movable , and slides on the copper plate by means of a handle , and a wheel , or pinion , of iron , the teeth of which catch in other teeth , on the surface of the sliding plate . The planchet , being placed horizontally between these two plates , is carried along by the motion of the movable one ; so as by the time that it had made half a turn , it is found marked all round . According to a 1765 Encyclopédie entry , Castaing 's machine was capable of applying the edge lettering to 20 @,@ 000 coins daily . The machine came into use at various mints throughout the world as a way to improve upon the existing machinery used for edge lettering . A copy of Castaing 's machine was put into use at the British Royal Mint , and in 1792 , the director of the newly established United States Mint in Philadelphia , David Rittenhouse , ordered three coinage presses from England to which he added a modified version of the machine . This became obsolete following Franklin Peale 's introduction of steam @-@ powered equipment to the Mint in 1836 . Castaing 's machine was replaced at the Paris Mint in 1803 , when one of the Mint 's engineers , Philippe Gengembre , created his own version .
= Rob Roy ( dog ) = Rob Roy ( 1922 – 1928 ) was a white male collie owned by Calvin Coolidge . Coolidge 's favorite pet , he was acquired by Grace Coolidge in 1922 after she became enamored with collies , having seen one of the breed perform in a circus . He later lived with the family in the White House . Roy Roy was immortalized in a Howard Chandler Christy portrait of Grace Coolidge . He died in 1928 after a short illness . = = Life and death = = Rob Roy was acquired by Calvin Coolidge 's wife , Grace Coolidge , in 1922 from Island White Kennels in Oshkosh , Wisconsin . Grace Coolidge had reportedly become enthralled by collies after seeing one of the breed perform in a circus . During the period in which the Coolidges owned Rob Roy , they also had a female collie named Prudence Prim . In 1928 Rob Roy became ill and was unsuccessfully treated at Walter Reed Army Medical Center , where he died . Upon his death Coolidge wistfully remarked , = = Mannerisms = = Rob Roy was known as Coolidge 's " favorite " among a menagerie of pets he kept that included dogs , birds , cats , and raccoons . Coolidge himself described Rob Roy as a " stately gentleman of great courage and fidelity " . Rob Roy was known to lead Coolidge to the Oval Office each morning in a stoic manner with gaze fixed forward . Rob Roy 's stately characteristics aside , Coolidge frequently tried to trick the dog into chasing animals that appeared on screen during the showing of films at the White House . According to Harry Truman , Coolidge once ordered Senator Morris Sheppard to surrender his sausage to the dog while Coolidge and Sheppard were having breakfast . = = Legacy = = A portrait of Grace Coolidge by the American artist and illustrator Howard Chandler Christy that hangs in the Red Room of the White House shows Coolidge with Rob Roy . The dog 's pose – a gaze directed toward Grace Coolidge – was achieved by feeding it candy from Coolidge 's hand throughout the portrait sittings .
= Cerro Maravilla murders = The Cerro Maravilla murders , also known as the Cerro Maravilla massacre , is the name given by the Puerto Rican public and media to describe the events that occurred on July 25 , 1978 , at Cerro Maravilla , a mountain in Puerto Rico , wherein two young Puerto Rican pro @-@ independence activists were murdered in a Puerto Rico Police ambush . The event sparked a series of political controversies where , in the end , the police officers were found guilty of murder and several high @-@ ranking local government officials were accused of planning and / or covering up the incident . Originally declared a police intervention against terrorists , the local media quickly questioned the officers ' testimonies as well as the only surviving witness for inconsistencies . Although reluctant , Carlos Romero Barceló ( PNP ) , then Governor of Puerto Rico , ordered the local Justice Department to launch various investigations , and asked the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) and the US Justice Department to aid in the investigations , which concluded that there was no wrongdoing on the officers ' part . However , after the local opposing political party launched its own inquiries , new evidence and witness testimonies surfaced which uncovered gross negligence and murder on the officers ' part , as well as the possibility of a local and federal cover @-@ up . Trials were held and a total of 10 officers were convicted of various crimes . The incident and subsequent events have become one of the most controversial events in Puerto Rico 's political history , frequently called " the worst political cover @-@ up in the history of the island . " The event is often used by Puerto Rican independence activists as an example of political oppression against the independence movement . Joy James commented that " the Cerro Maravilla massacre demonstrated the reason why colonialism was banned in the world . " = = The victims = = Carlos Enrique Soto Arriví was born on December 8 , 1959 , in San Juan . His parents were Pedro Juan Soto ( one of the most admired Puerto Rican novelists in the 20th century ) and Rosa Arriví . He had an older brother ( Roberto Alfonso ) and a younger brother ( Juan Manuel ) . As a student he enjoyed literature . He also wrote stories and went on to win second place in a competition held by the Puerto Rico Department of Education . When his parents went to Europe to finish their doctoral studies , he learned to speak French in a year . Upon returning from Europe , he enrolled at the Escuela Superior República de Colombia , a high school in Río Piedras , although in a lower grade , because the school officials did not want to credit his years of overseas study . Although Soto Arriví was interested in social issues from a very young age , his political activism started when he joined a pro @-@ independence group in high school . Arnaldo Darío Rosado Torres was born on November 23 , 1953 , in Old San Juan . His parents were Pablo Rosado and Juana Torres Aymat . Rosado finished his high school studies and went to work at a cracker factory . Dario Rosado was married to Angela Rivera , and had a son called Manuel Lenín Rosado Rivera . From a very young age , Rosado identified with the cause of Puerto Rico 's independence . He joined the socialist league with which he participated in several activities . Rosado was an autodidact and an avid reader of various kinds of literature , especially those related to the political processes of Puerto Rico and Latin America . He also wrote poems , essays , and had several pen @-@ pals throughout Latin America . = = The incident = = On the night of July 25 , 1978 Carlos Soto Arriví and Arnaldo Darío Rosado , two independence activists of the Armed Revolutionary Movement ( Spanish : Movimiento Revolucionario Armado ) , along with undercover police officer Alejandro González Malavé posing as a fellow group member , took taxi driver Julio Ortiz Molina hostage and ordered him to drive them to Cerro Maravilla where several communication towers were located . Their original plan was to set fire and sabotage the towers to protest the imprisonment of Puerto Rican nationalists convicted of the 1950 assassination attempt on U.S. President Harry S. Truman and the 1954 shooting at the United States Capitol where five members of Congress were injured . State police officers were alerted of their plan prior to their arrival and the activists were ambushed and shot . The undercover agent received a minor bullet wound during the shooting , while the taxi driver was left relatively unharmed . = = = Initial statements = = = The morning after the shootings , the officers argued that they acted in self defense , stating that they ordered the activists to surrender , at which time the activists started shooting at them and they returned fire . Initially , the taxi driver said he was under the dashboard of his cab when the shooting started and could not see who shot first , although he contradicted his statement a few days later in an interview with the San Juan Star , a local newspaper , stating that he ducked under the dashboard of the car after the three men ( the two activists and the undercover agent ) left the car , and that he saw " 10 heavily armed men " approaching . When he emerged from the car , he saw the three men alive and two of them were being beaten by the armed men , who were later identified as policemen . Then @-@ Governor of Puerto Rico Carlos Romero Barceló ( PNP ) praised the officers in a televised address by calling them “ heroic ” , stating that they acted in self @-@ defense and stopped a terrorist attack . Two days later , in a follow @-@ up interview by WAPA @-@ TV news reporter Enrique Cruz , the taxi driver stated that when the first shooting occurred , he heard one of his three passengers shout " I 'm an agent ! Don 't shoot me , I 'm an agent ! " while the others called for help and shouted " I give up ! I give up ! " . He saw " 10 heavily armed men " approaching , later identified as police agents , when the three passengers exited the car , and the taxi driver was ordered at gunpoint to exit the vehicle . He was extracted by an agent , kicked , and taken away from the scene . While being escorted , he saw the two activists directly in front of his vehicle being beaten by the armed men . = = = The first investigations = = = Facing public pressure due to the taxi driver 's conflicting statements , Governor Barceló ordered two separate investigations by the P.R. Justice Department in addition to the ongoing standard Police investigation , all of which concluded that the officers ' actions were free of any wrongdoing , despite various inconsistencies in their stories . P.R. District Attorney Pedro Colton informed reporters on July 29 , four days after the incident , that the P.R. Justice Department 's investigation revealed " no massacre , no beatings , and no aggressions , except for the shootings that occurred in Cerro Maravilla . " Opposing political parties , mainly the Popular Democratic Party ( PDP ) , insisted that the investigations were just cover @-@ ups and demanded that a special independent prosecutor be assigned to investigate . Two special investigations by the U.S. Justice Department 's Civil Rights Division and by the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) were performed on separate occasions between 1978 and 1980 , which confirmed the conclusions of the P.R. Justice Department that the officers acted in self @-@ defense . = = = The second investigations = = = In the November 1980 general elections , Governor Romero Barceló was re @-@ elected by a margin of 3 @,@ 503 votes ( one of the closest in Puerto Rico history ) , though his party lost control of the state legislature to the main opposition party , the PPD . This loss was attributed by the New York Times to the surrounding controversy regarding the investigations at the time . Other news organizations , such as Time , attributed the loss to Gov. Romero Barcelo 's stance on the island 's political status . The Legislature quickly started new inquiries and hearings into the Cerro Maravilla incident . The Senate , then presided by Miguel Hernández Agosto , spearheaded the investigations by naming former Assistant District Attorney Hector Rivera Cruz to investigate . The second investigations performed between 1981 and 1984 by the legislature , the U.S. Justice Department , and the local press uncovered a plot to assassinate the activists and a possible , though not conclusive , conspiracy to cover @-@ up these actions . During interviews of the Senate Investigations Committee in 1983 , officer Miguel Cartagena Flores , a detective in the Intelligence Division of the Puerto Rico Police Department , testified : “ When I arrived at the scene I saw 4 police officers aiming their guns at the two activists who were kneeling before them . I turned my eyes away and heard 5 gunshots . " Cartagena , who was offered immunity for his testimony , added that several hours before the shooting , he and other officers were told by Col. Angel Perez Casillas , commander of the Intelligence Division , that “ these terrorists should not come down ( from the mountain ) alive . ” His testimony was corroborated by officer Carmelo Cruz who , although he did not witness the fatal shooting , confirmed many details provided by Cartagena when also granted immunity . Other inquiries obtained similar testimony from witnesses , including the taxi driver who now stated that the activists were “ alive and disarmed ” when the police removed him from the scene . The taxi driver stated that there was a short exchange of gunfire , and when he was removed to another place nearby he heard a second volley of gunfire , but was asked by the police and investigators of the PR Justice Department to forget about the second round of shots . The statement regarding two different volleys of shots was upheld by various people , including ex @-@ officer Jesus Quiñones before a Federal grand jury ( he quit the force shortly after the shootings ) , and three other civilian witnesses in a San Juan Star interview . Subsequently , the legislature and local press started questioning the actions of the Puerto Rico Police , the Puerto Rico Justice Department , the U.S. Justice Department , and the FBI actions during the first investigation , alleging corruption within the agencies and a conspiracy to cover @-@ up evidence . Letters were sent by various community and political leaders to then Senate Judiciary Committee chairman Senator Edward M. Kennedy , asking for an inquiry into the conduct of the Federal investigations . Several letters even accused former US Attorney General Benjamin R. Civiletti of providing aid to Gov. Romero Barceló during the investigations . Two leaders from the opposing parties , the Popular Democratic Party and the Puerto Rican Independence Party , charged that after a December 1979 meeting between the two , the Governor , then considered as a lifelong Republican , began campaigning to deliver the 41 Democratic Party convention votes of the island for President Jimmy Carter 's ( D ) nomination for the presidency ( ironically , Carter ’ s opponent for the nomination was Senator Kennedy ) . Almost 45 days after President Carter won the nomination by only one delegate , the U.S. Justice Department announced that due to lack of evidence it was bringing its investigation of the case to an end . A Justice Department internal memorandum that was issued the same month of Romero Barceló ’ s and Civiletti ’ s meeting later proved that the investigations were closed even when agents were still investigating important evidence of the case that could potentially incriminate the officers , including “ several unexplained contusions ” on a victim 's face and the fact that one of the police officers recanted his original story , stating that there was in fact “ two bursts of firing ” . These and several other accusations brought public and political pressure to the investigating agencies . This led to internal revisions of evidence and procedures from the first investigations both at the local and federal level , though all organizations still adamantly denied any cover @-@ up . These second investigations led to reassignments , demotions and resignations among top officials within the PR Justice Department , including three different P.R. Secretaries of Justice ( equivalent to State Attorney General ) accepting and resigning their posts in a span of six months . On November 29 , 1983 , three prosecutors were relieved of their duties after a report by the state Senate Investigations Committee found they had failed to properly investigate the Cerro Maravilla shootings , citing 101 specific deficiencies in two investigations . This was the third state Attorney General to oversee the investigations since the shootings occurred in 1978 . = = Aftermath = = The second investigations led to ten officers being indicted and found guilty of perjury , destruction of evidence , and obstruction of justice , four of which were convicted of second @-@ degree murder in 1984 . The convicted officers , who were no longer on active duty , and their status with the Puerto Rico Police were : Col. Ángel Pérez Casillas ( head of the Puerto Rico Police Department Intelligence Division during the incident ; suspended ) Lieut . Nelson González Pérez ( resigned ) Lieut . Jaime Quíles Hernández ( suspended ) Officer Juan Bruno González ( suspended ) Officer William Colón Berríos ( suspended ) Officer Nazario Mateo Espada ( suspended ) Officer Rafael Moreno Morales ( suspended ) Officer Luis Reverón Martínez ( on disability leave ) Officer Jose Ríos Polanco ( suspended ) Officer Rafael Torres Marrero ( on disability leave ) That same year , in the general elections held in November , Romero Barceló lost his gubernatorial seat against former governor and opposing party rival Rafael Hernández Colón ( PPD ) . It is widely accepted that Romero Barceló lost the elections because of this case , since his public opinion rating had deteriorated substantially during late 1984 as the investigations progressed , and since his political rivals used his defense of the officers as an indication of a possible conspiracy . = = = Undercover agent murdered = = = Alejandro Gonzalez Malavé , the undercover agent who was accompanying the activists , was not indicted for his part in the slayings because he was granted immunity for testifying against other officers , but was removed from the police force due to public pressure . In February 1986 , he was acquitted of kidnapping the taxi driver . His lawyer had argued that he was acting under orders and , therefore , it was the government who was actually guilty of kidnapping . This , despite the testimony presented by officer Carmelo Cruz who had testified that it was Gonzalez who recklessly endangered the hostage 's life . The prosecution had provided evidence that he threatened the hostage at gunpoint , drove the car , and , when the car approached the mountaintop , refused to free the hostage despite suggestions from the activists . These actions , according to officer Cruz , were contrary to standard police procedures since his primary concern should have been the safety of the hostage . Nevertheless , the Puerto Rico Police Department did not reinstate Gonzalez as an active police officer , a fact that he publicly expressed resentment over , and subsequently threatened to provide incriminating evidence to the media about other individuals involved in the shootings unless reinstated . On the evening of April 29 , 1986 , just two months after his acquittal , Gonzalez was assassinated in front of his mother 's house in Bayamón . He sustained three gunshot wounds and his mother was slightly injured . A few hours later , a group identifying itself as the “ Volunteer Organization for the Revolution ” called local news agencies claiming responsibility . In their statements they swore to kill , " one by one , " all the policemen involved in the deaths in Cerro Maravilla . The FBI considered it one of the most dangerous terrorist organizations in the United States at the time , given that it was the same organization that claimed responsibility for an attack on a Navy bus in Puerto Rico on December 3 , 1979 , in which two Navy men were killed and 10 people injured , and the attack on a U.S. National Guard base on January 12 , 1981 , in which six fighter @-@ jet planes were destroyed . To this day , no one has been identified as a possible suspect in Gonzalez 's murder , and the case remains unsolved . = = = Public apologies = = = In 1992 , former US Justice Department Civil Rights Division chief Drew S. Days III admitted before the P.R. Senate that the U.S. Justice Department and the FBI acted negligently during the 1978 – 1980 investigations of the Cerro Maravilla incident , such as rejecting interviews with key witnesses ( including the taxi driver ) , refusing to offer immunity to certain witnesses , and avoiding various standard investigating tasks . Days stated : " I think that certainly an apology is justified with respect to the way the federal government handled its investigation : the FBI , the Justice Department , and my division . . . it was not done in the professional way that it should have been done . " FBI Director William S. Sessions had made similar concessions in a written statement in 1990 , stating : “ In hindsight , the eyewitness should have been interviewed and a civil rights investigation initiated ” . In 1984 , the FBI conducted an internal review of its Cerro Maravilla Case files , and concluded that there was no cover @-@ up effort inside the FBI , only a desire to avoid derailing " the cooperative anti @-@ terrorism effort " with the Puerto Rican police . Their statements were accompanied with promises to improve their agencies to avoid similar incidents in the future . In 2003 , 25 years after the incident , former Gov. Romero Barceló admitted in a public radio interview that it was “ an error of judgment ” and “ a premature declaration ” to laud the police officers , since at that time he believed they were telling the truth about their self @-@ defense . However , he has publicly denied any wrongdoing regarding the alleged cover @-@ up during the first investigations . = = Legacy = = Since the conclusion of the final investigations , there has been heated debate about the Cerro Maravilla incident in Puerto Rico , with some groups arguing that there are still others responsible for planning and / or ordering the plot to kill the activists as well as the subsequent cover @-@ up , while others have argued that the incident was exaggerated by rival politicians and the media , maintaining that no conspiracy ever took place and that some of the officers incarcerated , though not all , are actually innocent . Every year on July 25 , Puerto Rican Nationalists and independence activists gather atop Cerro Maravilla to honor Carlos Soto and Arnaldo Dario , as well as to defend and celebrate the Puerto Rican independence ideology . It is usually organized by the family of the victims , former members of nationalist groups , and by the Puerto Rican Independence Party ( PIP ) . The mountain has also been christened by them as “ El Cerro de los Mártires ” ( The Mountain of the Martyrs ) . The American movie A Show of Force is loosely based on the events and theories behind the incident .
= Jordan River ( Utah ) = The Jordan River , in the state of Utah , United States , is a river about 51 miles ( 82 km ) long . Regulated by pumps at its headwaters at Utah Lake , it flows northward through the Salt Lake Valley and empties into the Great Salt Lake . Four of Utah 's six largest cities — Salt Lake City , West Valley City , West Jordan and Sandy — border the river . More than a million people live in the Jordan Subbasin , which is the part of the Jordan River watershed that lies within Salt Lake and Utah counties . During the Pleistocene , the area was part of Lake Bonneville . Members of the Desert Archaic Culture were the earliest known inhabitants of the region ; an archaeological site found along the river dates back 3 @,@ 000 years . Mormon pioneers led by Brigham Young were the first European American settlers , arriving in July 1847 and establishing farms and settlements along the river and its tributaries . The growing population , needing water for drinking , irrigation , and industrial use in an arid climate , dug ditches and canals , built dams , and installed pumps to create a highly regulated river . Although the Jordan was originally a cold @-@ water fishery with 13 native species including Bonneville cutthroat trout , it has become a warm @-@ water fishery where the common carp is most abundant . It was heavily polluted for many years by raw sewage , agricultural runoff , and mining wastes . In the 1960s , sewage treatment removed many pollutants . In the 21st century , pollution is further limited by the Clean Water Act , and , in some cases , the Superfund program . Once the home of bighorn sheep and beaver , the contemporary river is frequented by raccoons , red foxes , and domestic pets . It serves as an important avian resource , as does the Great Salt Lake and Utah Lake , visited by more than 200 bird species . Big Cottonwood , Little Cottonwood , Red Butte , Mill , Parley 's , and City creeks , as well as smaller streams like Willow Creek at Draper , Utah , flow through the subbasin . The Jordan River Parkway along the river includes natural areas , botanical gardens , golf courses and a proposed 40 @-@ mile ( 64 km ) bicycle and pedestrian trail , much of which has been completed . = = Course = = The Jordan River is the Utah Lake 's only outflow , and originates at the northern end of the lake between the cities of Lehi and Saratoga Springs . It then meanders north through the north end of Utah Valley for approximately 8 miles ( 13 km ) until it passes through a gorge in the Traverse Mountains , known as the Jordan Narrows . The Utah National Guard base at Camp Williams lies on the western side of the river through much of the Jordan Narrows . The Turner Dam , located 41 @.@ 8 miles ( 67 @.@ 3 km ) from the river 's mouth ( or at river mile 41 @.@ 8 ) and within the boundaries of the Jordan Narrows , is the first of two dams of the Jordan River . The Turner dam diverts water to the right or easterly into the East Jordan Canal and to the left or westerly toward the Utah and Salt Lake Canal . Two pumping stations , situated next to the Turner Dam , divert water to the west into the Provo Reservoir Canal , Utah Lake Distribution Canal and Jacob @-@ Welby Canal . The Provo Reservoir Canal runs north through Salt Lake County , Jacob @-@ Welby runs south through Utah County and the Utah Lake Distribution Canal runs both north and south eventually leading back into Utah Lake . Outside the narrows , the river reaches the second dam , known as the Joint Dam , which is 39 @.@ 9 miles ( 64 @.@ 2 km ) from the river 's mouth . The Joint Dam diverts water to the east for the Jordan and Salt Lake City Canal and to the west for the South Jordan Canal . The river then flows through the middle of the Salt Lake Valley , initially moving through the city of Bluffdale and then forming the border between the cities of Riverton and Draper . The river then enters the city of South Jordan where it merges with Midas Creek from the west . Upon leaving South Jordan , the river forms the border between the cities of West Jordan on the west and Sandy and Midvale on the east . From the west , Bingham Creek enters in West Jordan . Dry Creek , an eastern tributary , combines with the main river in Sandy . The river then forms the border between the cities of Taylorsville and West Valley City on the west and Murray and South Salt Lake on the east . The river flows underneath Interstate 215 in Murray . Little and Big Cottonwood Creeks enter from the east in Murray , 21 @.@ 7 miles ( 34 @.@ 9 km ) and 20 @.@ 6 miles ( 33 @.@ 2 km ) from the mouth respectively . Mill Creek enters on the east in South Salt Lake , 17 @.@ 3 miles ( 27 @.@ 8 km ) from the mouth . The river runs through the middle of Salt Lake City , where the river travels underneath Interstate 80 a mile west of downtown of Salt Lake City and again underneath Interstate 215 in the northern portion of Salt Lake City . Interstate 15 parallels the river 's eastern flank throughout Salt Lake County . At 16 miles ( 26 km ) from the mouth , the river enters into the Surplus Canal channel . The Jordan River physically diverts from the Surplus Canal through four gates and heads north with the Surplus Canal heading north @-@ west . Parley 's , Emigration , Red Butte Creeks converge from the east through an underground pipe , 14 @.@ 2 miles ( 22 @.@ 9 km ) from the mouth . City Creek also enters via an underground pipe , 11 @.@ 5 miles ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) from the river 's mouth . The length of the river and the elevation of its mouth varies year to year depending on the fluctuations of the Great Salt Lake caused by weather conditions . The lake has an average elevation of 4 @,@ 200 feet ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) which can deviate by 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) . The Jordan River then continues for 9 to 12 miles ( 14 to 19 km ) with Salt Lake County on the west and North Salt Lake and Davis County on the east until it empties into the Great Salt Lake . = = = Discharge = = = The United States Geological Survey maintains a stream gauge in Salt Lake City that shows annual runoff from the period 1980 – 2003 is just over 150 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 190 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) per year or 19 percent of the total 800 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 990 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of water entering the Jordan River from all sources . The Surplus Canal carries almost 60 percent of the water into the Great Salt Lake with various irrigation canals responsible for the rest . The amount of water entering the Jordan River from Utah Lake is just over 400 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 490 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) per year . Inflow from the 11 largest streams feeding the Jordan River , sewage treatment plants and ground water each accounts for approximately 15 percent of water entering the river . = = Watershed = = The Jordan Subbasin , as defined by the United States Geological Survey , is located entirely within Salt Lake and Utah counties in a roughly rectangular area of 791 square miles ( 2 @,@ 050 km2 ) . The Subbasin is part of the larger 3 @,@ 830 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 9 @,@ 900 km2 ) Jordan River Basin that includes the upper Jordan River , Utah Lake , Provo and Spanish Fork Subbasins . Four of the six largest cities in Utah are in Salt Lake County . The Jordan River flows through Sandy , with a 2010 population of 87 @,@ 461 ; West Jordan , population 103 @,@ 712 ; West Valley City , population 129 @,@ 480 ; and Salt Lake City , population 186 @,@ 440 . Flanked on either side by mountain ranges , the topography of the land varies greatly . The Wasatch Mountains rise on the east , with a high point of 11 @,@ 100 feet ( 3 @,@ 400 m ) above sea level at Twin Peaks , near the town of Alta . The Oquirrh Mountains rise on the west , with a high point of over 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) above sea level at Farnsworth Peak . The low point of 4 @,@ 200 feet ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) is at the river 's mouth , where the river enters the Great Salt Lake . Both the Oquirrh and Wasatch Mountains are fault @-@ block mountains created from normal @-@ slip faults where the mountains rise at the fault and the valley floor drops . The Wasatch Fault runs along the western edge of the Wasatch Mountains and the Oquirrh Fault runs along the eastern edge of the Oquirrh Mountains . From approximately 75 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 years ago , much of what is now northern Utah was covered by a Pleistocene lake called Lake Bonneville . At its greatest extent , Lake Bonneville reached an elevation of 5 @,@ 200 feet ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) above sea level and had a surface area of 19 @,@ 800 square miles ( 51 @,@ 000 km2 ) . The lake left behind lacustrine sediments , which resulted in a relatively flat lake bed , and the valley floors seen today . As the region experienced increasingly warmer and drier climate over time , Lake Bonneville 's water levels receded , leaving the Great Salt Lake and Utah Lake as remnants . The river 's greatest slope , 27 feet per mile ( 5 @.@ 1 m / km ) , is in the Jordan Narrows , while the rest of the river has a more gentle slope of 2 to 4 feet per mile ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 8 m / km ) . Approximately 237 @,@ 000 acres ( 960 km2 ) ( 46 percent of land area ) of the Jordan Subbasin is in the Wasatch , Oquirrh and Traverse mountains . The United States Forest Service manages 91 @,@ 000 acres ( 370 km2 ) of land in the Wasatch Range . The vast majority of the Oquirrh Range is privately held , with Kennecott Copper Mine owning most of the land . The State of Utah has scattered land holdings of 9 @,@ 800 acres ( 40 km2 ) throughout the subbasin and owns the beds of all navigable streams and lakes . The Jordan Subbasin has two distinct climate zones . The lower elevations are characterized as a cold , semi @-@ arid climate , with four distinct seasons . Both summer and winter are long with hot , dry summers and cold , snowy winters . Salt Lake City receives 61 inches ( 150 cm ) of snow annually , part of a total of 16 @.@ 5 inches ( 420 mm ) of precipitation per year . The mean maximum temperature is 91 ° F ( 33 ° C ) in July and 37 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in January Areas of higher elevation have two distinct seasons , summer and winter . One of the areas of highest elevation , Alta , Utah , receives 544 inches ( 1 @,@ 380 cm ) of snow annually , part of a total of 52 inches ( 1 @,@ 300 mm ) of precipitation per year . The mean maximum temperature is 71 ° F ( 22 ° C ) in July and 29 ° F ( − 2 ° C ) in January . = = History = = The first known inhabitants of the banks of the Jordan River were members of the Desert Archaic Culture , a group of nomadic hunter @-@ gatherers . A 3 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old archaeological site , called the Soo 'nkahni Village , was uncovered next to the Jordan River and over 30 @,@ 000 artifacts have been excavated . The next recorded inhabitants , between 400 A.D. to around 1350 A.D. , were the Fremont people , composed of several scattered bands of hunters and farmers living in what is now southern Idaho , western Nevada and most of Utah . The disappearance of the Fremont people has been attributed to both changing climatic conditions , which put an end to favorable weather for farming , and to the arrival of ancestors to the present @-@ day Ute , Paiute , and Northwestern Shoshone . Although there were no permanent Native American settlements when European settlers arrived in the Salt Lake Valley , the area bordered land occupied by several tribes , such as the Timpanogot band of the Utes in Utah Valley , the Goshutes on the western side of the Oquirrh Mountain Range and the Northwestern Shoshone north of the Salt Lake Valley . In 1776 , Franciscan missionary Silvestre Vélez de Escalante was trying to find a land route from Santa Fe , New Mexico , to Monterey , California . His party included twelve Spanish colonials and two Utes from the Utah Valley Timpanogots band who acted as guides . On 23 September 1776 , the party entered Utah Valley at the present @-@ day city of Spanish Fork . The local Timanogots villagers hosted them and told them of the lake to the north . In his journal , Escalante described Utah Lake as a " lake , which must be six leagues wide and fifteen leagues long , [ and ] extends as far as one of these valleys . It runs northwest through a narrow passage , and according to what they told us , it communicates with others much larger . " The Great Salt Lake was described as the " other lake with which this one communicates , according to what they told us , [ and ] covers many leagues , and its waters are noxious and extremely salty . " The next group of Europeans to see the Jordan River was the party of Étienne Provost , a French Canadian trapper . In October 1824 , Provost 's party was lured into a Shoshone camp somewhere along the Jordan River , where they were attacked in retaliation for the murder of a local chief . In truth , the murder was committed by a member of Peter Skene Ogden 's party . The men were caught off guard , and fifteen perished , but Provost and two others escaped . The river was historically named Proveau 's Fork , as the Quebec @-@ born fur trapper was known as Proveau and Provot , in addition to Provost ( and the pronunciation was " Provo " ) . On 22 July 1847 , the first party of Mormon pioneers arrived in the Salt Lake Valley , and five days later another party led by Brigham Young crossed the Jordan River and bathed in the Great Salt Lake . The River Jordan ( located in the Middle East ) drains the Sea of Galilee into the Dead Sea in a way which the settlers found remarkably similar to the way the as @-@ yet @-@ unnamed local river drained Utah Lake into the saline Great Salt Lake . This similarity influenced the eventual name of the river , and on 22 August 1847 , a conference was held and the name Western Jordan River was decided upon , although it was later shortened to the Jordan River . By 1850 , settlements were established along the Jordan River , Big Cottonwood Creek , Little Cottonwood Creek , Mill Creek , Parley 's Creek and Emigration Creek . In 1850 , Captain Howard Stansbury of the United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers traveled the entire length of the Jordan River , surveying and making observations of the wildlife . Around the year 1887 at Bingham Canyon in the Oquirrh Mountains , low @-@ grade copper deposits were discovered and mining claims were filed . Bingham Canyon is a porphyry copper deposit where magma containing copper , molybdenum , gold and other minerals slowly moved its way to the surface and cooled into rock . By 1890 , underground copper mining had started , and in 1907 , Kennecott Copper Mine started open pit mining . In the early 20th century , mills were established near the Jordan River in Midvale and West Jordan to process ore . As of 2010 , Kennecott Copper Mine 's open pit is 2 @.@ 8 miles ( 4 @.@ 5 km ) wide and 0 @.@ 8 miles ( 1 @.@ 3 km ) deep . Throughout the 19th century and up to the 1940s , water from the Jordan River watershed sustained the agrarian society of the Salt Lake Valley . In 1950 , Salt Lake County had 489 @,@ 000 acres ( 198 @,@ 000 ha ) devoted to farming . By 1992 , however , the rapid urbanization of the Salt Lake Valley had reduced the amount of land devoted to farming to 108 @,@ 000 acres ( 44 @,@ 000 ha ) , which was further reduced to 82 @,@ 267 acres ( 33 @,@ 292 ha ) by 2002 . = = = River modifications = = = Alterations of the Jordan River watershed began two days after the Mormon Pioneers arrived in the Salt Lake Valley when water was diverted from City Creek for irrigation . The earliest dam and ditch along the Jordan River was constructed in 1849 to irrigate land on the west side of the river near present @-@ day Taylorsville . Other ditches include one built by Archibald Gardner , one of the founders of West Jordan in 1850 , to provide water for his mill and one built by Alexander Beckstead , a founder of South Jordan , who built the Beckstead Ditch in 1859 to provide water for farmland . Many other small dams and ditches were also constructed in the first 25 years , several of which are still used as of 2010 . All of these ditches irrigated only small amounts of land in the Jordan River floodplain ; the largest , the Beckstead Ditch , irrigated 580 acres ( 230 ha ) . By the late 1860s , it became apparent that new , larger canals needed to be built if more acreage was to be farmed . The first dam in the Jordan Narrows was constructed in 1872 and raised in 1880 , sparking an outcry from residents living near Utah Lake who thought the dam was responsible for raising the level of the lake . After several years of dispute , a commission was established to determine an acceptable compromise for the elevation of Utah Lake . The commission 's 1885 decision stated that if the lake level were to rise above the established compromise level , the Jordan River could not be impeded by either dams or flood gates . Additionally , the commission stated that after water pumps were installed at the source of the river , the pumps should all be working if the lake were to rise above the compromise level . However , if the lake level fell below the compromise level , pumps could be turned off so that water could be held for storage in Utah Lake . In 1875 , the first large canal , the South Jordan Canal , was completed and it brought water to the area above the bluffs of the Jordan River for the first time . All told , five large canals that originated from the dams in the Jordan Narrows were completed by 1883 . A second dam was built in 1890 a few miles downstream from the first dam and was constructed to better regulate the flow of two canals . Both dams have been rebuilt in subsequent years and operate as diversion points for canals rather than impounding water by the use of sluice gates and head gates . The drought of 1901 – 1902 caused the Jordan River , on occasion , to stop flowing , and in response to the drought a pumping plant was installed at the outlet from Utah Lake . It was the largest pumping plant in the United States at the time , and contained seven pumps with a total capacity of 700 cubic feet ( 20 m3 ) per second . Twice , during the droughts of 1934 and 1992 , Utah Lake levels dropped so low that the pumps were rendered useless and the Jordan River actually ran dry . In the 1950s , due to flood control measures to increase river velocity , large sections of the river were straightened in Salt Lake County . As part of the straightening process , meanders or curves in the river were cut off and the channel slope was increased . The river was also shifted to opposite sides of the flood plain in Midvale and Murray as part of local smelter operations . Floods in 1983 – 1984 caused Utah Lake to overflow its banks , flooding homes and farmland in Provo , Lehi and present @-@ day Saratoga Springs . Dikes had to be constructed around Interstate 15 in Provo to prevent Utah Lake flooding the freeway . Big Cottonwood , Parley 's , Emigration and City creeks flowed down sand @-@ bag lined streets in order to manage the overflowing streams . Additional dikes were built at the Great Salt Lake to protect railroad lines and Interstate 80 . As a result of the flooding , the Utah Lake compromise level was amended to 4 @,@ 489 feet ( 1 @,@ 368 m ) . = = Ecology = = = = = Invertebrates and fish = = = In the Jordan River , invertebrates play an important role as a source of food for fish and other aquatic life , and they function as a parameter by which to measure water quality and the health of the river . There are 34 different groups of invertebrates found in the Jordan River , most commonly of the class Oligochaeta ( which includes earthworms ) , mosquito larvae and caddisfly larvae . The state of Utah maintains a Sensitive Species List that includes " those species for which there is credible scientific evidence to substantiate a threat to continued population viability . " The Lyrate mountainsnail and the western pearlshell mussel , both native to the Jordan River watershed , are found on this list . A 2007 survey of invertebrates and their response to pollution stated that the Jordan River was substantially to severely impaired with organic pollution and that it contained reduced levels of dissolved oxygen . Historically , the Jordan River was a cold @-@ water fishery that contained 13 native species , including the Bonneville cutthroat trout , Utah Lake sculpin , June sucker , Mottled sculpin , Utah chub and the Utah Sucker . Today , the Jordan River is a warm @-@ water fishery with the Utah Sucker and the endangered June Sucker present only in Utah Lake . The Utah chub , however , is still found in the Jordan River . The most common species of fish encountered today is the common carp , which was introduced into the Jordan River and Utah Lake as a source of food after overfishing caused the depletion of native species stocks . The Utah Division of Wildlife Resources regularly stocks the river with catfish and rainbow trout . = = = Wildlife = = = Before the area was urbanized , mammals such as bighorn sheep , mule deer , coyote , wolves , beaver , muskrat and jack rabbits would have been seen along the river . A " varmint hunt " was organized by John D. Lee around 1848 , after the arrival of Mormon settlers . The final count of the hunt included " two bears , two wolverines , two wildcats , 783 wolves , 409 foxes , 31 minks , nine eagles , 530 magpies , hawks and owls , and 1 @,@ 026 ravens . " None of the original large mammals is found along the Jordan River today ; they have , for the most part , been replaced by raccoons , red foxes and domestic pets . Animals from the Jordan River area found on the Utah Sensitive Species List include the smooth green snake , the western toad , kit fox , spotted bat , and Townsend 's big @-@ eared bat . Combined with Utah Lake and the Great Salt Lake , the Jordan River offers one of the region 's richest bird resources . Over 200 bird species use the river for breeding habitat or as a stop @-@ over on their migratory route . Once @-@ common native species such as the willow flycatcher , gray catbird , warbling vireo , American redstart , black tern , and yellow @-@ billed cuckoo are no longer found along the river . The common yellowthroat and yellow @-@ breasted chat are still found in small isolated populations . The most common species now found are the black @-@ billed magpie , mourning dove , western meadowlark , barn swallow , and the non @-@ native ring @-@ necked pheasant and starlings . = = = Vegetation = = = Vegetation in the watershed is closely tied to elevation and precipitation levels . About 30 percent of the basin , mostly at higher elevation levels , is populated with oak , aspen and coniferous trees . At the lower levels , 27 percent of the basin is rich in mountain @-@ brush , sagebrush , juniper and grasses . About 34 percent of the Jordan River basin is classified as urban . Russian olive and tamarisk or salt cedar trees now dominate the Jordan River floodplain where willow trees and cottonwood trees would once have been found . Plant species such as foxtail barley , saltgrass , rabbitbrush , cattails and other reeds are still found in small pockets along the river . Exotic pasture grasses such as orchard grass , bluegrass , redtop bentgrass , quackgrass , wheatgrass and fescue have become the common species of grass . The vulnerable flower , Ute 's Ladies ' -tresses , can also be found along the river . = = Pollution = = The Jordan River has been a repository for waste since the settling of the Salt Lake Valley . For 100 years , raw , untreated sewage was dumped into the river ; farming and animal runoff occurred ; and mining operations led to 40 smelters being built and contaminating the river with heavy metals , mostly arsenic and lead . In 1962 , the river in Midvale recorded a total coliform level of about 3 million per 100 milliliters , even though the state of Utah criteria for the total number of coliform bacteria in water samples should not exceed 5 @,@ 000 per 100 milliliters . In 1965 , a new sewage treatment plant came on @-@ line in Salt Lake City that prevented 32 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons per day ( 120 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) of raw sewage from being dumped into a canal . The Utah Division of Water Quality and Utah Division of Drinking Water are responsible for the regulation and management of water quality in the State of Utah . Streams that exceed the standard contamination levels are placed on the 303d list in accordance with the Clean Water Act . The Act also requires states to identify impaired water bodies every two years and develop a total maximum daily load ( TMDL ) for pollutants that may cause impairments in the various water bodies . The Jordan River and Little Cottonwood Creek were included on the 2006 303d list ; parameters that exceeded the standard level for at least part of the Jordan River include temperature , dissolved oxygen , total dissolved solids , E. Coli and salinity . = = = EPA Superfund sites = = = Superfund sites are designated as being among the nation 's worst areas with respect to toxic and hazardous waste . The Environmental Protection Agency is the federal agency that determines if a particular site is hazardous , prepares a course of action to reduce the hazard , and finds the parties responsible for the pollution . If a site is listed with the Superfund program , federal dollars are available for cleanup . The Kennecott South Zone / Bingham site contains contamination from Kennecott Copper Mine 's operation in Copperton , at the base of the Oquirrh Mountains to Bingham Creek and Butterfield Creek . A 72 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 190 km2 ) plume of lead , arsenic and sulfates ( covering 9 percent of the watershed ) currently contaminates the ground water from the mine site all the way to the Jordan River . The largest inland reverse osmosis plant in the country was built in 2006 to clean up the ground water and a second plant has been scheduled for construction ; completion of the ground water cleanup , however , is not projected until 2040 . In 1998 , the site was removed from the Superfund list due to Kennecott 's progress in the cleanup and a consent decree legally obligating Kennecott to continue the rest of the cleanup . The Murray Smelter site was the location of a large lead smelter in operation from 1872 until 1949 . The 142 @-@ acre ( 57 ha ) site contained groundwater contamination from arsenic and lead , but the majority of the cleanup was completed in 2001 . In Midvale , there are two Superfund sites that sit along 4 percent of the Jordan River . The Midvale Slag site is a 446 @-@ acre ( 180 ha ) site adjacent to 6 @,@ 800 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) of the Jordan River . From 1871 to 1958 , the site contained five separate smelters that processed ores from Kennecott and other mines . The site was contaminated with lead , arsenic , chromium , and cadmium . Cleanup of the property is complete , although the Jordan River Riparian Project still underway as of 2010 . Sharon Steel was a 460 @-@ acre ( 190 ha ) site adjacent to 4 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) of the Jordan River which was used , from 1902 to 1971 , for smelting copper from Kennecott Copper Mine . The site was contaminated with lead , arsenic , iron , manganese , and zinc . Cleanup has been completed , and the site taken off the Superfund list in 2004 . = = = Uranium mill tailings = = = Vitro Uranium Mill was a 128 @-@ acre ( 52 ha ) site located in South Salt Lake , surrounded by the Jordan River , Mill Creek , a small wetland and traversed by the South Vitro Ditch . The site , operational from 1953 to 1964 , contained a uranium mill and storage for uranium . In 1989 , surface contamination cleanup was completed with tailings , radioactively contaminated soil material , and debris removed from the site . However , 700 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 2 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 m3 ) of contaminated shallow ground water still remain , and studies are underway to determine what action should be taken . = = Jordan River Parkway = = The Jordan River Parkway was originally proposed in 1971 as a flood control measure with two reservoirs , restoration of wetlands , shoreline roads for cars , walking trails , and parks . By 1986 , $ 18 million had been used to purchase lands around the Jordan River and to construct the Murray Golf Course , several smaller parks and about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) of canoe runs and trails . As of 2010 , the majority of the 40 @-@ mile ( 64 km ) continuous mixed @-@ use trail has been finished from Utah Lake to the Davis County border . A water trail for canoeing and kayaking is also being constructed , but dams , bridges , weirs and other obstacles hamper the use of the river . Riverside parks include the International Peace Gardens , 8 @.@ 5 acres ( 3 @.@ 4 ha ) of gardens with each garden representing a different country ; Redwood Nature Area , about 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of natural areas ; South Jordan 's Riverfront Park , 59 acres ( 24 ha ) of trails , fishing ponds and natural areas ; Thanksgiving Point , including 15 themed gardens spread over 59 acres ( 24 ha ) and a 200 @-@ acre ( 81 ha ) 18 @-@ hole golf course ; and Utah County 's Willow Park , 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of camping and wildlife areas . = = = Books = = = = = = PDF documents = = =
= Neo soul = Neo soul is a genre of popular music . The term was coined by music industry entrepreneur Kedar Massenburg during the late 1990s to market and describe a style of music that emerged from soul and contemporary R & B. Heavily based in soul music , neo soul is distinguished by a less conventional sound than its contemporary R & B counterpart , with incorporated elements ranging from jazz , funk , and hip hop to pop , fusion , and African music . It has been noted by music writers for its traditional R & B influences , conscious @-@ driven lyrics , and strong female presence . Neo soul developed during the 1980s and early 1990s , in the United States and United Kingdom , as a soul revival movement . It earned mainstream success during the 1990s , with the commercial and critical breakthroughs of several artists , including D 'Angelo , Erykah Badu , Lauryn Hill , and Maxwell . Their music was marketed as an alternative to the producer @-@ driven , digitally approached R & B of the time . Since its initial mainstream popularity and impact on the sound of contemporary R & B , neo soul has been expanded and diversified musically through the works of both African @-@ American and international artists . Its mainstream presence declined during the 2000s , although newer artists emerged through more independent means of marketing their music . According to music journalist Mark Anthony Neal , " neo @-@ soul and its various incarnations has helped to redefine the boundaries and contours of black pop . " = = Etymology = = As a term , neo soul was coined by Kedar Massenburg of Motown Records in the late 1990s as a marketing category following the commercial breakthroughs of artists such as D 'Angelo , Erykah Badu , Lauryn Hill , and Maxwell . The success of D 'Angelo 's 1995 debut album Brown Sugar has been regarded by several writers and music critics as inspiration behind the term 's origin . While some artists have ignored the label , others have received the designation with controversy because it may seem contrived to music audiences and imply that soul music had ended at some point in time . In a 2002 interview for Billboard , Massenburg said that genre classifications are often unpopular because they may be suggestive of a short @-@ lived trend . However , although he said neo soul is still essentially soul music , Massenburg felt there was a need to market artists of the genre for listeners to have an understanding of what they were buying . In a 2010 article for PopMatters , music writer Tyler Lewis said that neo soul has been received with much controversy : " Given the way black music has been named by ( usually ) outsiders ever since the blues , the reaction to the name by artists who ostensibly fit into the ' neo @-@ soul ' category represents a wonderful example of black self @-@ determination in an industry that is still defiantly wedded to narrow definitions and images of black folks . " Jason Anderson of CBC News compares the etymology of neo soul to that of " new wave " and comments : " As imperfect as the term may be , neo @-@ soul is still an effective tag to describe the mix of chic modernity and time @-@ honoured tradition that distinguished the genre 's best examples . Neo @-@ soul artists tried to look both backward and forward , acting in the belief that a continuum might exist . " = = Characteristics = = Despite some ambivalence from artists , the term received widespread use by music critics and writers who wrote about artists and albums associated with the musical style . African American studies professor Mark Anthony Neal has described neo soul as " everything from avant @-@ garde R & B to organic soul ... a product of trying to develop something outside of the norm in R & B " . According to music writers , the genre 's works are mostly album @-@ oriented and distinguished by its musicianship and production , incorporating " organic " elements of classic soul music with the use of live instrumentation , in contrast to the more single @-@ oriented , hip hop @-@ based , and producer @-@ driven sampling approach of contemporary R & B. They also infuse jazz , funk , and African musical elements into R & B. In her book Musical Rhythm in the Age of Digital Reproduction , music author Anne Danielson wrote that neo soul toward the end of the 1990s exhibited a musical development that was part of " a remarkable increase in musicians ' experimentation with and manipulation of grooves at the microrhythmic level – that is , the level in played music that is usually understood in terms of phrasing and timing . " Noting that most of the genre 's artists are singer @-@ songwriters , writers have viewed their lyrical content as more " conscious @-@ driven " and having a broader range than most other R & B artists . AllMusic calls it " roughly analogous to contemporary R & B " . Dimitri Ehrlich of Vibe said that they " emphasize a mix of elegant , jazz @-@ tinged R & B and subdued hip hop , with a highly idiosyncratic , deeply personal approach to love and politics " . Music writers have noted that neo soul artists are predominantly female , which contrasts the marginalized presence of women in mainstream hip hop and R & B. Jason Anderson of CBC News called neo soul a " sinuous , sly yet unabashedly earnest " alternative and " kind of haven for listeners turned off by the hedonism of mainstream hip @-@ hop and club jams . " Neo soul artists are often associated with alternative lifestyles and fashions , including organic food , incense , and knit caps . According to music writer Peter Shapiro , the term itself refers to a musical style that obtains its influence from older R & B styles , and bohemian musicians seeking a soul revival , while setting themselves apart from the more contemporary sounds of their mainstream R & B counterparts . In a 1998 article on neo soul , Time journalist Christopher John Farley wrote that singers such as Hill , D 'Angelo , and Maxwell " share a willingness to challenge musical orthodoxy " . Miles Marshall Lewis commented that 1990s neo soul " owed its raison d 'être to ' 70s soul superstars like Marvin Gaye and Stevie Wonder " , adding that " in concert , Erykah Badu and D 'Angelo regularly covered Chaka Khan , the Ohio Players , and Al Green , to make the lineage crystal clear . " In citing Tony ! Toni ! Tone ! as progenitors of the genre , Tony Green of Vibe viewed that the group pioneered the " digital @-@ analog hybrid sound " of neo soul and " dramatically refreshed the digitalized wasteland that was R & B in the late ' 80s " . Neo soul artists during the 1990s were heavily inspired by the eclectic sound and mellow instrumentation of Gil Scott @-@ Heron 's and Brian Jackson 's collaborative work in the 1970s . All About Jazz cited Jackson as " one of the early architects " of the sound and his early work with Scott @-@ Heron as " an inspirational and musical Rosetta stone for the neo @-@ soul movement " . = = History = = = = = 1980s – early 1990s : Origins = = = Neo soul originated in the 1980s and early 1990s , with the work of musical acts such as Prince , Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! , Terence Trent D 'Arby , Joi , and Mint Condition , whose music deviated from the conventions of most contemporary R & B at the time . Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! -member Raphael Saadiq later embarked on a solo career and produced various works of other neo soul artists . Influential to neo soul , UK act Sade achieved success in the 1980s with music that featured a sophisti @-@ pop style , incorporating elements of soul , pop , smooth jazz , and quiet storm . The band was part of a new wave of British R & B @-@ oriented artists during the late @-@ 1980s and early 1990s that also included Soul II Soul , Caron Wheeler , The Brand New Heavies , Jamiroquai , and Lisa Stansfield . AllMusic 's Alex Henderson writes that , " Many of the British artists who emerged during that period had a neo @-@ soul outlook and were able to blend influences from different eras " . Other British progenitors of the neo soul movement at the time included Young Disciples and Omar Lye @-@ Fook , the latter of whom has been cited as " the father of British neo @-@ soul " and an influence on many future artists . According to Christopher John Farley , Prince had been " carrying a torch for neo soul for decades , refusing to make R & B that played by the rules or fit into comfortable formats . In the mid- ' 90s , he was suddenly joined by a host of other soul artists who also wanted to break boundaries " . American artists during the early 1990s included Zhané , Groove Theory , Joi , Tony Rich , and Me 'Shell NdegéOcello . = = = Mid – late 1990s : Mainstream breakthrough = = = The success of Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! ' s 1993 album Sons of Soul has been viewed as a precursor to the soul music revival in the mid @-@ 1990s . In a 1997 article for the Los Angeles Times , music journalist Cheo Hodari Coker cited the album as having " largely sparked the soul music revival that has opened the door for a new generation of singers who build on the tradition of Marvin Gaye and Stevie Wonder " . Allmusic editor Leo Stanley wrote that by the release of Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! ' s follow @-@ up album House of Music in 1996 , " their influence was beginning to be apparent , as younger soul singer / songwriters like Tony Rich and Maxwell began reaching the R & B charts . Like Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! , Rich and Maxwell relied on traditional soul and R & B values of songwriting and live performances , discarding the synth @-@ heavy productions of the late ' 80s and early ' 90s " . Malcolm Venable of Vibe cites the early work of hip hop group The Roots , who used live instrumentation , as a precursor to neo soul 's commercial breakthrough in the mid @-@ 1990s . Music journalists have credited the successes of D 'Angelo 's Brown Sugar ( 1995 ) , Badu 's Baduizm ( 1997 ) , Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite ( 1996 ) , and Hill 's The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill ( 1998 ) with shaping and raising the neo soul movement to commercial visibility into the late 1990s . According to Farley , D 'Angelo 's album " gives a nod to the past , [ ... ] mints his own sound , with golden humming keyboards and sensual vocals and unhurried melodies [ ... ] His songs were polished without being slick and smart without being pretentious " , while Badu " brought an iconoclastic spirit to soul music , with her towering Afrocentric headwraps , incense candles , and quirky lyrics " . Baduizm sold nearly three million copies and won Badu two Grammy Awards . Hill 's debut featured her singing and rapping , with deeply personal lyrics , and was one of neo soul 's primary successes , achieving massive sales , critical acclaim , and five Grammy Awards . Subsequently , other female artists broke through with their debut albums , including Macy Gray , Angie Stone , and Jill Scott . The 1997 film Love Jones capitalized on neo soul 's success at the time with its soundtrack album , which impacted the Billboard charts and featured artists such as Hill , Maxwell , The Brand New Heavies , Me 'Shell NdegéOcello , Groove Theory , and Dionne Farris . According to Greg Kot , the musical collective Soulquarians--consisting of such artists as D 'Angelo , The Roots , Erykah Badu , Bilal , Mos Def , Common , James Poyser , and Q @-@ Tip--contributed significantly to the neo soul movement during the late 1990s to the early 2000s with its members ' " organic soul , natural R & B , boho @-@ rap " . The collective developed through the production work of The Roots ' drummer and producer Questlove . Following a minor decline in its hype , neo soul 's mainstream popularity increased in the late 1990s with the successes of Hill , Maxwell , Eric Benét , Saadiq , and Les Nubians . It impacted more mainstream @-@ oriented R & B radio , while influencing contemporary R & B acts , such as R. Kelly and Aaliyah , to incorporate some of its textural and lyrical elements . In his song " When a Woman 's Fed Up " ( 1998 ) , Kelly incorporated a more soul @-@ based sound and referenced Erykah Badu 's 1997 song " Tyrone " in the lyrics . = = = 2000s : Apex and mainstream decline = = = With the success of albums by Hill , Badu , and Maxwell , D 'Angelo 's second album Voodoo served as a further alternative to excesses of late 1990s R & B and hip hop , as neo soul reached its apex in 2000 . A production of the Soulquarians , it was an exemplary creative milestone of neo soul . Ben Ratliff of The New York Times called the album " the succes d 'estime that proves the force of this new music : it is a largely unslick , stubbornly idiosyncratic and genuinely great album that has already produced two hit singles " . By the time of her second album Mama 's Gun ( 2000 ) , Erykah Badu had been dubbed by writers as " the queen of neo @-@ soul " . She said of the honorific title , " I hated that because what if I don ’ t do that anymore ? What if I change ? Then that puts me in a penitentiary . " Subsequently , other artists attained success in the early 2000s , including Bilal , Musiq Soulchild , India.Arie , and Alicia Keys , who broke through to broader popularity with her debut album Songs in A Minor ( 2001 ) . Hip hop artists such as The Roots and Common , associated with the Soulquarians , released albums that incorporated neo soul , Phrenology ( 2002 ) and Electric Circus ( 2003 ) . However , the decade later featured a decline in output by neo soul artists , with many of them failing to make a commercial impact after previous successes or not releasing a follow @-@ up album . Badu 's commercial viability decreased as each of her releases following her debut Baduizm departed further from that album 's music . Hill followed @-@ up her 1998 debut , considered the best @-@ selling neo soul album , with the 2002 live album MTV Unplugged No. 2 @.@ 0 , a combative , confessional work in which she expresses her misgivings about fame . Melena Ryzik of The New York Times wrote in a retrospect of that " era of left @-@ of @-@ center black singer @-@ songwriters " , stating " many of them struggled to keep their creative momentum , conflicted about their early mainstream success . " Producer and Soulquarians member Questlove elaborated on the artists ' regression from the mainstream , saying " I think most of us went through our psychosomatic , quasi @-@ self @-@ saboteur stage . Once we got that first taste of success , I think just the pressure of reacting got to all of us . Some of us released some of the craziest records of our career . " Other artists such as D 'Angelo and Hill went on indefinite hiatus from the music scene . Tyler Lewis from PopMatters attributed the decline to " the downside of [ the ] rejection of the term [ ' neo soul ' ] " . " The industry , which already has a hard time with unapologetic and complicated black artists , had no idea what to do with all these enormously talented individuals who rejected entire marketing campaigns designed to ' break ' them to the record @-@ buying public . As such , albums were shelved or delayed or retooled and artists were dropped from major labels and forced to go it alone , making the first decade of the 21st century the least " soulful " — however you define it — decade for the industry itself in … well , decades . " The Boston Globe 's Renée Graham wrote of the artists ' ambivalence towards the term in a 2003 article on neo soul 's standing , " Despite its critical success , if neo @-@ soul had an initial failing , it was the media @-@ created label itself – a term that the artists , whom it was meant to represent , generally rejected " . In a 2003 interview , music publicist John Constanza said that " The neo @-@ soul movement is still there , but it 's been underground , and it 's trying to get the attention of the mainstream again " . Mark Edward Nero of About.com stated , " In general , neo @-@ soul has remained almost exclusive to R & B outlets such as urban radio and Black Entertainment Television [ ... ] the majority of neo @-@ soul artists have yet to crossover to mainstream American music listeners , partially because the music 's sound generally focuses on artist expression , rather than popular appeal " . During the mid @-@ 2000s , emerging artists such as Heather Headley , Anthony David , J Davey , Eric Roberson , and Ledisi signed to independent soul labels and received exposure through independent retailers , neo soul @-@ oriented web sites , college and public radio stations , city club venues , cable networks such as Music Choice and BET J , and publishing deals as writers and producers for major label @-@ recording artists . Erykah Badu and Maxwell returned from their respective hiatuses and released well @-@ received albums , her New Amerykah albums and his 2009 album BLACKsummers 'night , and they subsequently toured together . VH1 Soul 's series Soulstage , which began in 2007 , showcased new music by artists such as Badu , Jill Scott , India.Arie , Q @-@ Tip , and Saadiq . = = = 2010s : Late period = = = Since its original popularity , neo soul has been expanded and diversified musically through the works of both African @-@ American and international artists . The more popular neo soul artists in recent years are John Legend , Anthony Hamilton , Jill Scott , Maxwell , Chrisette Michele , Leela James , and Raheem DeVaughn . DeVaughn has described himself as an " R & B Hippy Neo @-@ Soul Rock Star " , viewing it as a reference to his eclectic musical style . In its 2010 issue on critical moments in popular music , Spin cited D 'Angelo 's Voodoo and its success as a turning point for neo soul : " D 'Angelo 's pastiche of funk , carnal ache , and high @-@ minded , Afrocentric rhetoric stands as neo @-@ soul 's crowning achievement . So unsurpassable that it 'd be eight years before we 'd hear from Erykah Badu and Maxwell again , while Hill and D 'Angelo remain missing . But Alicia Keys , John Legend , and Cee @-@ Lo picked up D 's mantle and ran with it " . Evan Rytlewski of The A.V. Club discerns " a line of revelatory , late @-@ period neo @-@ soul albums " with the releases of Maxwell 's BLACKsummers 'night ( 2009 ) , Badu 's New Amerykah Part Two ( Return of the Ankh ) ( 2010 ) , Bilal 's Airtight 's Revenge ( 2010 ) , and Frank Ocean 's Channel Orange ( 2012 ) .
= Howard Llewellyn Swisher = Howard Llewellyn Swisher ( September 21 , 1870 – August 27 , 1945 ) was an American businessperson , real estate developie , orchardist , editor , writer , and historian . As a prominent businessman , he established several companies responsible for the development of businesses and real estate in Morgantown , West Virginia . Swisher was born in 1870 near Levels , West Virginia . He became a schoolteacher there at the age of 18 , then graduated from Fairmont State Normal School ( present @-@ day Fairmont State University ) and West Virginia University . He then remained in Morgantown , where he established a bookstore and stationery shop . Following the success of his bookstore , Swisher organized the Main Street Building Company , the Howard L. Swisher Company , and the Morgantown Building Association , each of which constructed a large number of residences in the city . He was also the inaugural secretary @-@ treasurer of the West Virginia Real Estate Dealers ' Association . Swisher was secretary of the Royalty Oil Company , which owned mining rights for approximately 16 @,@ 000 acres ( 65 km2 ) of prospective oil lands throughout the United States . In addition , he also held prominent leadership and management roles in the Valley Wood Working Company , the Monongahela Valley Posting and Distributing Plant , the Federal Savings and Trust Company , and the West Virginia Tri @-@ Products Company . In Hampshire County , Swisher maintained fruit growing interests and served as the president of the South Branch Merchandising Company . He was an active member of the West Virginia Democratic Party and was selected as a delegate from West Virginia to the 1936 Democratic National Convention . In 1897 , Swisher co @-@ authored History of Hampshire County , West Virginia : From Its Earliest Settlement to the Present with West Virginia historian Hu Maxwell . The book was the first comprehensive history of Hampshire County ever compiled . He composed a collection of poetry and short stories , Briar Blossoms , in 1899 , and was the editor of The Ghourki , a literary journal of poetry , short stories , and aphorisms . In 1908 , Swisher published Book of Harangues , a selection of passages from The Ghourki . = = Family background = = Howard Llewellyn Swisher was born on September 21 , 1870 near the unincorporated community of Levels , West Virginia . He was the son of David Warner Swisher and his wife , Mary Katherine Bonnifield Swisher . David was born in Augusta County , Virginia on April 29 , 1822 , and was of Swiss German and French ancestry . David moved to Preston County in present @-@ day West Virginia in 1838 , and a few years later , he purchased land near present @-@ day Levels in Hampshire County and relocated there . He then established a farm on this land , known as " The Levels , " and remained there for the remainder of his life . The Swisher family owned and operated one of the largest orchard operations in the Levels community . In 1846 , David married his wife , Mary Katherine Bonnifield , the daughter of Dr. Arnold Bonnifield of St. George , West Virginia . = = Early life and education = = Swisher spent his early years and adolescence on his father 's farm , until he became a schoolteacher in Hampshire County at the age of 18 . He began his post @-@ secondary education at Fairmont State Normal School ( present @-@ day Fairmont State University ) in Fairmont , which he graduated from in 1892 . While enrolled there , Swisher became affiliated with the Mu Mu Chapter of the Sigma Chi fraternity . Following his graduation , he traveled throughout the northwestern United States and the Canadian provinces and territories of Alberta , Assiniboia , British Columbia , and Manitoba . Swisher then moved to Fresno , California , where he worked as a public schoolteacher for two years . He then returned to West Virginia and attended West Virginia University in Morgantown . While at the university , he aspired to become a journalist and edited The Athenaeum , the institution 's official student newspaper . In 1897 , after three years of studies , Swisher graduated from the university with a Bachelor of Arts degree . = = Business career = = As a prominent businessman , Swisher established several corporations and companies responsible for the development of businesses and commercial and residential real estate in Morgantown . He remained in Morgantown after his graduation from West Virginia University , and in 1897 with $ 700 in capital , he opened a book and stationery store known as the Acme Book Store . The business prospered , and in April 1898 , Swisher established the Acme Publishing Company , which he served as president of for several years . Swisher subsequently organized the Main Street Building Company , which became responsible for building the Strand Building , a business and commercial block in Morgantown . He established and incorporated the Howard L. Swisher Company in November 1914 . He also organized the Morgantown Building Association in November 1918 with an authorized capital of $ 250 @,@ 000 and himself serving as its general manager . The Morgantown Building Association undertook extensive construction of residences in the city . In December 1914 , following its organization in Parkersburg , Swisher was named the secretary @-@ treasurer of the West Virginia Real Estate Dealers ' Association . The association was formed in cooperation with the West Virginia Department of Agriculture and other state agencies for the promotion and development of the states 's agricultural resources , real estate , and investments . In addition to his real estate and construction ventures , Swisher was an organizer and secretary of the Royalty Oil Company , which owned mining rights to approximately 16 @,@ 000 acres ( 65 km2 ) of prospective oil lands throughout the southern and southwestern United States . He built and operated the Swisher Theater in Morgantown . Swisher was also a director of the Valley Wood Working Company , the owner of the Monongahela Valley Posting and Distributing Plant , and the secretary of the Federal Savings and Trust Company prior to 1903 . By 1913 , he was the president of the West Virginia Tri @-@ Products Company , which invested in coal and oil production , glass manufacturing , and the production of timber and fruit . Swisher maintained fruit growing interests on South Branch Mountain ( known as Jersey Mountain ) in Hampshire County , and served as the president of the South Branch Merchandising Company . = = Writing career = = During his travels , Swisher contributed articles and poetry to newspapers throughout the Northwest . While attending West Virginia University , he published a small book containing approximately 600 lines of poetry , which he dedicated to his classmates . In 1897 , Swisher co @-@ authored History of Hampshire County , West Virginia : From Its Earliest Settlement to the Present with West Virginia historian Hu Maxwell . The book was the first comprehensive history of Hampshire County ever compiled . He composed a collection of poetry and short stories titled Briar Blossoms , which was published by his Acme Publishing Company in 1899 . Swisher was the editor of The Ghourki , a literary journal of poetry , short stories , and aphorisms . He began each issue with an introductory commentary entitled " Harangues to the Ghourki " in which he referred to himself as the " Chief of the Tribe " . In 1908 , Swisher published Book of Harangues , a selection of passages from The Ghourki . = = Politics = = Swisher was an active member of the West Virginia Democratic Party . In 1900 , he was selected as a candidate for State Superintendent of Free Schools . In the 1902 general election , he ran as the Democratic candidate for the Eleventh District of the West Virginia State Senate . Despite his loss , Swisher received the largest number of Democratic votes ever amassed in Monongalia County up until that time . Swisher was a delegate at the 1936 Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia , and was selected as an alternate delegate to the Democratic National Conventions of 1912 and 1924 . = = Personal life = = In August 1897 , Swisher married Mary Dering of Morgantown , daughter of Edward A. Dering and his wife , Cordelia Walker Dering of Morgantown . Both the Dering and Walker families , from which Swisher 's wife descended , had arrived in the Colony of Virginia during its earlier periods of settlement . Swisher was a member of the Morgantown Union Lodge No. 4 of the Free and Accepted Masons , Morgantown Lodge No. 411 of the Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks , the Morgantown Chamber of Commerce , the Kiwanis Club , the Country Club , and the Old Colony Club . Swisher served on the Old Colony Club 's National Advisory Council . On August 27 , 1945 , Swisher died of a cerebral hemorrhage due to hypertension at his residence at 80 Donley Street in Morgantown . Swisher was interred on August 30 , 1945 at Oak Grove Cemetery in Morgantown 's Chancery Hill Historic District . = = Selected works = = History of Hampshire County , West Virginia : From Its Earliest Settlement to the Present . 1897 . Co @-@ authored with Hu Maxwell . Briar Blossoms : Being a Collection of a Few Verses and Some Prose . 1899 . Book of Harangues . 1908 .
= Camber Castle = Camber Castle , also known formerly as Winchelsea Castle , is a 16th @-@ century Device Fort , built near Rye by King Henry VIII to protect the Sussex coast of England against French attack . The first fortification on the site was a small , round artillery tower , constructed by Henry between 1512 and 1514 , overlooking the Camber anchorage and the entrance to Rye Harbour . In 1539 , increasing tensions with France encouraged Henry to rethink his coastal defence plans , and Camber Castle was rebuilt and extended over the next year under the direction of the Moravian engineer , Stefan von Haschenperg . The results were considered unsatisfactory and further work was carried out from 1542 to 1543 , at great expense , to rectify the problems . The result was a large , concentric artillery fort , with a central keep , surrounded by four circular bastions and a circular entrance bastion , built from stone and brick . The finished castle was initially equipped with 28 brass and iron artillery guns and a garrison of 28 men , commanded by a captain . It may have seen service in 1545 when a French fleet attacked the coast , but its operational value was short lived . The Camber and the surrounding harbours began to silt up , becoming unusable by shipping , and the coastline receded away from the fort , eventually placing it well in @-@ land . Furthermore , the fort had been superseded by newer European military designs even before it had been completed , and peace with France later in the century removed much of the requirement for the fort . The castle still remained operational up until 1637 , when it was closed by King Charles I. With the outbreak of civil war in 1642 , much of the fortification was dismantled by Parliamentary forces to prevent it being used by the Royalists . The ruins became a popular spot for picnics in the 18th and 19th centuries , and was painted by J. M. W. Turner . Plans to redevelop the castle as a Martello tower or as a clubhouse for a local golf course came to nothing , although the property was used in the Second World War , probably as an early warning site . Archaeological interest in the fort increased after the war and in 1967 it was taken into the guardianship of the state , the property being bought from the private owners in 1977 . It is now operated by English Heritage , who reopened it to visitors after an extensive programme of conservation between 1968 and 1994 . The fort is an unusual example of an unmodified Device Fort and is protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building . = = History = = = = = 16th – 17th centuries = = = = = = = Initial tower , 1512 – 14 = = = = Camber Castle was built approximately 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) between the ports of Rye and Winchelsea on the south coast of England , overlooking a body of water called the Camber , at the mouth of the Brede , Rother and Tillingham rivers . The two towns were part of the Cinque Ports , a strategic chain of maritime towns responsible for providing ships to the king 's navy , although Winchelsea 's harbour had silted up by the 16th century , limiting its utility , and similar problems were beginning to impact the port of Rye . The mouth of the Camber had also begun to silt up in the late medieval period , although in this case the process had created an important new anchorage for ships . The first fortification at Camber may have been built shortly after 1486 by Sir Richard Guldeford , the Master of the Ordnance , who was given the manor of Higham by King Henry VII in exchange for Richard constructing a tower to protect the anchorage . There is no surviving evidence , however , to show if a tower was in fact built as Guldeford had promised , and Henry VII did not invest much in his coastal defences during the rest of his reign . Many castles across England were left in poor repair , often considered to be outdated and too expensive to maintain . Henry VIII became king in 1509 and began to follow a more aggressive policy towards neighbouring France than his father . Tensions increased and in 1512 Henry ordered the construction of an artillery tower and a new bridge at Camber . The work was carried out by Edward Guldeford , Richard 's son , and cost £ 1 @,@ 309 over the next two years . The resulting circular stone tower was 64 feet ( 20 m ) across and around 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) high , occupying the shingle spit of Kevill Point and controlling the Camber and the port of Rye . It would have provided relatively limited facilities and living accommodation , and was probably not permanently garrisoned . Despite being an artillery tower with a flat roof to carry heavy guns , the tower was not initially supplied with any artillery and was therefore unable to protect Rye against the hostile naval expeditions which attacked the coast in the 1520s . After many letters to from Guldeford to the Lord Chancellor , Cardinal Thomas Wolsey , some guns finally arrived around 1536 in the form of wrought iron serpentines . Prescient concerns began to be raised in the mid @-@ 1530s about whether the Camber might silt up further and ultimately become unusable as an anchorage . = = = = Concentric design , 1539 – 40 = = = = In 1539 the threat of invasion from France and Spain grew and Henry issued orders for his coastal defences to be improved , creating a sequence of fortifications called the Device Forts across England . These were intended to carry artillery pieces able to engage enemy naval vessels should they approach the coast , and to deter any enemy landings . As part of this programme of work , Camber Castle was considerably expanded at a cost of £ 5 @,@ 660 . The first phase of this work took place from 1539 until autumn 1540 . The Moravian engineer Stefan von Haschenperg was responsible for the design of the fort , being paid the substantial salary of £ 75 a year for his work on this and other similar projects , including Calshot , Hurst , Sandgate and Sandown . Philip Chute , John Fletcher and William Oxenbridge , all prominent local men , served as the commissioners for the project , Oxenbridge becoming the pay master . Finding sufficient numbers of workmen was difficult and some had to be pressed into service unwillingly . More artillery pieces were sent to the castle ahead of the work being completed , and were probably installed in temporary battery positions around the castle site . Initially the old tower was converted into a stronger keep which was able to support artillery guns on its roof , a gatehouse was built alongside it , four stirrup towers – so @-@ called because of their shape – a curtain wall was constructed around the outside of the castle , and bastions erected around the wall . Towards the end of this phase of work the castle was altered in a frantic burst of work , possibly driven on by pressure from the King himself . The height of the curtain wall was increased , the gatehouse extended into an entrance bastion , a new network of underground passages installed , and foreworks added around the outside of the bastions . By the end of 1540 the castle was garrisoned with 17 men and equipped with artillery , with Chute appointed as its captain . The result was a concentric fortress , which von Haschenperg had hoped would combine the best of Italian military architecture , able to carry heavy guns but with a low profile to protect against any incoming artillery fire . Various flaws rapidly became apparent . The castle 's design had focused on defence , with the result that the guns could not easily be brought to bear on enemy vessels , which had been the original intent of building the fortification by the Camber ; some of the angles of fire from the defences were blocked by the entrance and the high water table may have caused serious damp problems on the ground floor . Furthermore , the design was different from the other Device Forts constructed across the region and would have stood out as unusual and not in keeping with the King 's general intent for the chain of forts . = = = = Redeveloped concentric design , 1542 – 43 = = = = As a result of the problems with the original design , in summer 1542 work recommenced on the castle , well after the initial invasion scare was over , lasting until August 1543 . The decision to rectify the problems with the castle may have been taken by King Henry himself . Oxenbridge appears to have stayed on as the pay master and acted as the master of the works , with von Haschenperg remaining in his role as engineer almost until the end of the project , despite the difficulties with his earlier work . The cost of the second phase of work was much higher than the first , around £ 10 @,@ 000 . The design was rather different to von Haschenperg 's first castle . The keep and the stirrup towers were raised in height , the level of the floors elevated , the curtain wall was strengthened , the old bastions entirely removed and four new , larger bastions added in their place , while the older foreworks around the castle were demolished . The keep 's flat roof was altered to a pitched design , and the guns that it had supported moved into the outlying bastions . Although the size of the castle had slightly decreased , the new design had much more domestic space available for the garrison . In practice , even the revised design ignored the acute @-@ angled bastions which had been introduced in Europe , the round towers creating numerous patches of dead ground around the castle into which its guns could not fire ; the high walls presented a greater target , the internal design was complicated and it remained difficult to move around inside the fort . Indeed , the historian Peter Harrington describes the final design as even " more archaic than its predecessor " . Chute 's role was extended to become the Keeper and Captain of Camber , and the Keeper of the Waters of Camber and Puddle in January 1544 , for which he was paid two shillings a day . Haschenperg left England in disgrace in 1544 , facing complaints that he was " a man who will pretend more knowledge than he hath indeed " . The bulk of the stone for the two phases of the project was acquired by demolishing monastic buildings in Winchelsea , and by purchasing it from the nearby Fairlight and Hastings quarries . Higher quality stone was bought from Mersham in Hampshire , and from various suppliers in Normandy . Timber was acquired from Udimore , Appledore and Knell , the latter two lumber @-@ felling operations being run directly by the Camber project team . Chalk was brought from Dover to manufacture lime , and at least 16 @,@ 000 bricks initially purchased to make the necessary kilns , with possibly over 500 @,@ 000 further bricks being manufactured locally as the work progressed . Steel , iron and tiles were bought locally in Sussex , along with a 10 metric tons ( 9 @.@ 8 long tons ; 11 short tons ) crane for the project 's quay . = = = = Operational use = = = = The castle was already obsolete by the time it had been completed , as European military design had moved beyond curved bastions , embracing the angular designs seen in the later star forts . Nonetheless , it remained operational as an artillery fort for the rest of the century , with an initial garrison in 1540 of 24 men under the command of Chute , rising to 28 men and the captain after 1542 . Although it had been fitted with gunloops for handguns from the very start , the castle initially relied heavily on archers for its own protection against attack from the land . It had stocks of 140 longbows and 560 sheaves of arrows in 1568 , for example , probably for use by the local militia in the event of a war . Polearms were also stored there in considerable numbers , again probably for use by the militia . Initially the fort was equipped with between 26 and 28 artillery pieces , including brass demi @-@ cannons , culverins , demi @-@ culverins and a falcon , and wrought @-@ iron guns , such as portpieces , bases and slings . After 1568 , the castle typically held around nine or ten guns for most of the 16th century , including cannons , demi @-@ cannons , culverins and demi @-@ culverins . Brass guns could fire more quickly , up to eight times an hour , and were safer to use than their iron equivalents . It is uncertain how far the castle 's guns could have reached ; analysis carried out in the 16th and 17th century on the ranges of artillery suggested that a culverin , for example , could hit at a target up to between 1 @,@ 600 metres ( 5 @,@ 200 ft ) and 2 @,@ 743 metres ( 8 @,@ 999 ft ) away . In July 1545 , the French carried out a raid at nearby Seaford , and the castle may have seen action against the French fleet . Soon , however , silt began to block the entrance to the Camber , threatening its use as an anchorage . Complaints were made to Parliament about the situation in 1548 , and the authorities in Rye expressed fears in 1573 that the Camber was damaged beyond repair . By the end of the century , the reclamation of the surrounding marshes and the dumping of ballast by passing ships had accelerated the natural processes and the anchorage was ruined . The surrounding region was also less strategically important than it had once been : towns like Winchelsea and Rye were in decline , peace had been made with France in 1558 and military attention shifted towards the Spanish threat to the south @-@ west of England . The castle was garrisoned from 1553 onwards by between 26 to 27 men , including 17 gunners ; they were led by a captain , Thomas Wilford having taken over this role by 1570 . As the century went on , the castle became difficult to maintain . By 1568 the gun platforms were reported to be in " utter Ruing and decay " , with repairs projected to be likely to cost around £ 60 , although it is unclear whether the repairs were carried out . Tensions between Spain and England rose , and in 1584 Queen Elizabeth I spent £ 171 on repairs to the castle amid fresh fears of an invasion . War broke out the next year , and in 1588 , the year of the Spanish Armada , a Jesuit priest called Father Darbysher , and Roger Walton , a spy in the pay of the Spanish , made plans to hand over the castle to an invading force of French and Spanish soldiers , although the conspiracy never came to fruition . In 1593 there was a fresh crisis with Spain and the brass guns needed for the English navy were in short supply . Brass artillery pieces were therefore rounded up from the forts along the south coast , including Camber . The number of guns at the castle remained around the same , but the larger , brass culverins and demi @-@ cannon were removed , being replaced with smaller iron demi @-@ culverins , sakers and a minion . In 1594 another royal survey suggested that £ 95 of repair work was needed on the fortifications . = = = 17th – 19th centuries = = = = = = = Closure and English Civil War = = = = Camber Castle went through several changes at the start of the 17th century . In 1610 , Peter Temple was appointed as captain of the castle , and between 1610 and 1614 the garrison was reduced to 14 soldiers , including only 4 gunners , either as an effort to reduce costs or as a result of the changing types of artillery kept at the castle . The north and south bastions were filled in to form solid gun platforms around approximately 1613 and 1615 , and an earth rampart called the Rampire was built up against the south corner of the castle . These solid bastions would have sacrificed living space , less in demand with a smaller garrison , but been much cheaper to maintain . Longbows fell out of use in warfare as archery in England declined , and were replaced by arquebuses and muskets , 46 of which were kept at the castle in 1614 . Sir John Temple took over as captain in 1615 , being replaced by Robert Bacon by 1618 . The fortification was now both antiquated and too far from the receding sea to be useful . In 1623 it was suggested that the castle should be closed , and King Charles I was briefed on the dilapidated condition of the fortification , which was now reportedly around 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from the sea . The local towns campaigned to keep the castle operational but in 1636 Charles issued an instruction to demolish it ; the garrison , by now led by Captain Thomas Porter , left the next year , followed by the artillery . When civil war broke out in 1642 between the supporters of Charles and those of Parliament , Camber Castle had not been entirely closed and was being used as a royal munitions store . The citizens of Rye sided with Parliament , which agreed that the weapons and stores in the castle should be removed and taken to the town for safe @-@ keeping . Concerned that it might be seized by Royalist forces , Parliament went on to dismantle the castle over the next year , stripping the lead from the roof , blocking up the gunports and demolishing the living accommodation . As a result , Camber Castle was not used by the Royalists during the Second English Civil War in 1648 , despite several other of the Device Forts along the south coast being occupied . = = = = Ruins = = = = After the Restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660 , a royal survey of the castle found the fortification to be in ruins . An increasing number of visitors came to see the castle in the 18th and 19th centuries , with the north @-@ east corner becoming a popular site for picnics . Writing in 1785 , the antiquarian Francis Grose attributed the decline of the fortification to the changes in the local harbours and the superiority of the British Navy in protecting the coasts , observing that the castle 's architecture " clearly shew the low state of military architecture " during the 16th century in England . In response to the threat posed by France during the Napoleonic Wars , Lieutenant Colonel John Brown surveyed the castle in 1804 to examine whether the central keep could be turned into a Martello tower , a type of circular gun tower popular during this period . The scheme was not taken forward , although the defences of the surrounding coast line were much improved by the government . The painter J. M. W. Turner visited between 1805 and 1807 during the middle of this work , later depicting the castle in landscape paintings and sketches of the area . = = = 20th – 21st centuries = = = At the start of the 20th century Camber Castle and the surrounding farmland remained in private ownership and open to visitors . In the 1931 there was a proposal to turn the keep into a golf clubhouse but the project was not taken forward and the facility was built at the nearby Castle Farm instead . A research team from the Victoria County History project visited the castle in 1935 , resulting in the first – albeit cursory – historical analysis and survey of the fortification being published two years later . By the 1940s , the castle structures were mostly covered with rubble and debris , interwoven with pathways created by the movement of visitors over the years . During the Second World War , the castle was used by the British Army , possibly as an early warning site fitted with anti @-@ aircraft searchlights . In an area just to the north of the castle , the Starfish and Naval decoy sites were created to distract incoming German bombers from the town of Rye itself . Trenches were dug in the north bastion , and military training may have been conducted around the outskirts of the castle . In the post @-@ war years , archaeological interest in the castle grew . From 1951 onwards the Ministry of Works carried out a long @-@ running research project into the Device Forts , the section on Camber being written by the historian Martin Biddle and finally published in 1982 . Biddle carried out an exploratory archaeological survey of the site in 1962 and the following year the ruins were closed to allow more extensive archaeological excavation by the Ministry . These were initially carried out by Biddle and Alan Cook , with support from local school children and from young offenders from the Borstal institution in Dover . The state took Camber Castle into guardianship in 1967 , and the next year the government began a slow process of restoring the castle with the intention of eventually reopening it to the public , their efforts largely focusing on protecting the internal brick walls and wall @-@ cores . Further excavations followed in the 1970s and early 1980s . In 1977 , the Department of National Heritage bought the castle from its owners . The government agency English Heritage took control of the castle in 1984 and a scheme to reopen the property to visitors was put forward in 1993 . This included a final assessment of the archaeological work of the previous decades , and the castle finally opened to the public again in 1994 . As of 2015 , the castle is open to visitors through guided tours organised by the Rye Harbour Nature Reserve . The site is protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building . = = Architecture and landscape = = = = = Landscape = = = Camber Castle now lies on the Brede Level , a wide , reclaimed area of land between the modern towns of Rye and Winchelsea , about 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) from the sea . The surrounding pasture land is flat and only just above at sea @-@ level , marked with numerous ridges formed by the retreating coastline over the centuries . On the eastern side of the fortification is Castle Water , a large , 20th @-@ century gravel pit that is now flooded to form a wetland nature reserve . A 1 @.@ 8 @-@ metre ( 5 ft 11 in ) defensive earthwork runs around the south and east sides of the castle ; this was probably originally topped by a stone wall and designed to protect the castle from the sea , which would have then been much closer . The remains of a raised causeway , which once linked the isolated castle to the mainland , leads away for a short distance to the south @-@ west from the earthwork before petering out . Marks from the holes that were dug to provide the materials for the infilling of the bastions in the early 17th century also survive around the outside of the castle . = = = Architecture = = = The three @-@ storey castle itself has changed little since its completion in 1544 , an incorporates elements from all of the three phases of building work in 1512 – 14 , 1539 – 40 and 1543 – 44 . It is now roofless but still standing up to 18 metres ( 59 @.@ 1 ft ) tall , and covers 0 @.@ 73 acres ( 0 @.@ 30 ha ) , almost as big as the largest of the Device Forts at Deal in Kent . The first tower on the site was built from fine @-@ grained yellow sandstone , with the later expansion making use of both yellow and grey sandstone , with imported Caen stone being used for the finer detailing . Ironstone , siltstone and brown sandstone rubble and boulders was used for the core of the castle walls , some of it taken from the local cliffs . The castle would have been entered through the entrance bastion . The core of this building was constructed in the second phase of work on the castle and was initially a square one @-@ storey construct , 15 by 10 @.@ 5 metres ( 49 @.@ 2 by 34 @.@ 4 ft ) across , before being extended forward by an additional 9 metres ( 29 @.@ 5 ft ) to form a circular bastion ; an additional floor was then added on top in the third phase . The internal walls have mostly been destroyed , but the ground floor chambers would have been used for administration , and possibly as living rooms for the deputy captain . The first floor would have formed a high @-@ status set of chambers for the use of the captain , and included large windows , fireplaces and a private garderobe , but most of this storey has been destroyed . A special German tile @-@ stove was probably fitted into the chambers for the use of Philip Chute , the first captain of the castle , and was illustrated with pictures of Landsknecht soldiers and Protestant German leaders ; only fragments of the stove have survived . In the centre of the fortification was the keep , built up from the round tower of 1512 – 14 , and 6 @.@ 7 metres ( 22 ft ) of the original building 's walls were incorporated into the new design . The original tower had ten gunports embedded at ground level in its 3 @.@ 05 @-@ metre @-@ thick ( 10 @.@ 0 ft ) walls , but these were blocked up in the second phase of building . The keep would originally had a parapet running around its roof , which was initially flat but converted to a ridged design in the third phase of work . The ground floor was laid in brick and had a brick and stone @-@ lined well to supply it with water . The keep had two fireplaces , but these were small and not intended for cooking – indeed , the final version of the keep was probably never used as a living space . The first floor windows were added in the final phase of work ; they were not intended for use as gunports , but they had bars and shutters , so could have been easily secured in the event of an attack . An underground vaulted ring passageway , only 1 @.@ 9 metres ( 6 ft 3 in ) high ran around the outside of the keep , with similar covered radial passageways leading off to each of the bastions ; the passageways are now ruined . A cobbled courtyard surrounded the keep , separating it from the external defences , and containing a well in the north @-@ west corner . Underground passageways led from the entrance bastion to outside the castle walls , either to allow the garrison to escape in an emergency or to assault a besieging force . The outer part of the castle was defended by an octagonal wall , which linked the four stirrup turrets and bastions that formed the main defences for the castle . This wall had initially been built in the second phase of work on the castle , but was then supplemented in the final phase with an additional 2 @.@ 4 @-@ metre @-@ thick ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) exterior facing , and was originally finished with a gun embrasure along each section , and parapets . A two @-@ storey gallery , which provided relatively spacious barrack accommodation for the garrison , ran all the way around the inside of the wall , although only the ground floor of the gallery now survives . The gallery would have been lit by windows facing into the courtyard . The Rampire earthwork built in the early 17th century lies across the south and south @-@ east parts of the defences , where the gunports were blocked up with stone when the earth was piled up along the inside of the castle . The four stirrup towers are two storeys tall , 6 by 6 @.@ 2 metres ( 19 @.@ 7 by 20 @.@ 3 ft ) across internally , with 0 @.@ 8 @-@ metre @-@ thick ( 2 @.@ 6 ft ) walls , flat at the front and curved at the back . They would originally have been topped by firing platforms , with gunloops around the inside of the fortification enabling their occupants to fire into the courtyard if necessary . The bastions built around the outside of the towers in the third phase of work are 19 metres ( 62 @.@ 3 ft ) wide internally and each extend 12 metres ( 39 @.@ 4 ft ) from their respective stirrup tower , with 3 @.@ 6 @-@ metre @-@ thick ( 12 ft ) walls . Most of the bastions had a single internal gun room with a robust gun deck on top , but the West Bastion was used as a kitchen and the interior was fitted with two circular ovens and a range for cooking . The bastions would have been connected by a wall @-@ walk and parapets , but these have since been lost . The south stirrup tower and bastion remains partially buried as a result of the construction of the Rampire .
= Nancy Reagan = Nancy Davis Reagan ( born Anne Frances Robbins ; July 6 , 1921 – March 6 , 2016 ) was an American actress and the wife of the 40th President of the United States , Ronald Reagan . She was the First Lady of the United States from 1981 to 1989 . She was born in New York City . After her parents separated , she lived in Maryland with an aunt and uncle for some years . She moved to Chicago when her mother remarried in 1929 , and later took the name Davis from her stepfather . As Nancy Davis , she was a Hollywood actress in the 1940s and 1950s , starring in films such as The Next Voice You Hear ... , Night into Morning , and Donovan 's Brain . In 1952 , she married Ronald Reagan , who was then president of the Screen Actors Guild . They had two children together . Reagan was the First Lady of California when her husband was Governor from 1967 to 1975 , and she began to work with the Foster Grandparents Program . Reagan became First Lady of the United States in January 1981 , following her husband 's victory in the 1980 presidential election . She was criticized early in his first term , largely due to her decision to replace the White House china , despite it being paid for by private donations . She aimed to restore a Kennedy @-@ esque glamour to the White House following years of lax formality , and her interest in high @-@ end fashion garnered much attention as well as criticism . She championed recreational drug prevention causes by founding the " Just Say No " drug awareness campaign , which was considered her major initiative as First Lady . More discussion of her role ensued when it was revealed in 1988 that she had consulted an astrologer to assist in planning the president 's schedule after the attempted assassination of her husband in 1981 . She had a strong influence on her husband , and played a role in a few of his personnel and diplomatic decisions . The Reagans retired to their home in Bel Air , Los Angeles , California in 1989 . Reagan devoted most of her time to caring for her husband , who was diagnosed with Alzheimer 's disease in 1994 , until his death at the age of 93 in 2004 . Reagan remained active within the Reagan Library and in politics , particularly in support of embryonic stem cell research , until her death in March 2016 . = = Early life and education = = Anne Frances Robbins was born on July 6 , 1921 , at Sloane Hospital for Women , at the time located in Midtown Manhattan in New York City . She was the only child of Kenneth Seymour Robbins ( 1894 – 1972 ) , a car salesman who had been born into a once @-@ prosperous family , and his actress wife , radio actress Edith Prescott Luckett ( 1888 – 1987 ) . Her godmother was silent @-@ film @-@ star Alla Nazimova . From birth , she was commonly called Nancy . She lived her first two years in Flushing , Queens , in New York City , in a two @-@ story house on Roosevelt Avenue between 149th and 150th Streets . Her parents separated soon after her birth and were divorced in 1928 . After their separation , her mother traveled the country to pursue acting jobs and Reagan was raised in Bethesda , Maryland , for six years by her aunt , Virginia Luckett , and uncle , Audley Gailbraith . Nancy later described longing for her mother during those years : " My favorite times were when Mother had a job in New York , and Aunt Virgie would take me by train to stay with her . " In 1929 , her mother married Loyal Edward Davis ( 1896 – 1982 ) , a prominent conservative neurosurgeon who moved the family to Chicago . Nancy and her stepfather got along very well ; she later wrote that he was " a man of great integrity who exemplified old @-@ fashioned values . " He formally adopted her in 1935 , and she would always refer to him as her father . At the time of the adoption , her name was legally changed to Nancy Davis . She attended the Girls ' Latin School of Chicago ( describing herself as an average student ) , graduated in 1939 , and later attended Smith College in Massachusetts , where she majored in English and drama , and graduated in 1943 . = = Acting career = = In 1940 , a young Davis had appeared as a National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis volunteer in a memorable short subject shown in movie theaters to raise donations for the crusade against polio . The Crippler featured a sinister figure spreading over playgrounds and farms , laughing over its victims , until finally dispelled by the volunteer . It was very effective in raising contributions . Following her graduation from college , Davis held jobs in Chicago as a sales clerk in Marshall Field 's department store and as a nurse 's aide . With the help of her mother 's colleagues in theatre , including Zasu Pitts , Walter Huston , and Spencer Tracy , she pursued a career as a professional actress . She first gained a part in Pitts ' 1945 road tour of Ramshackle Inn , moving to New York City . She landed the role of Si @-@ Tchun , a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting , in the 1946 Broadway musical about the Orient , Lute Song , starring Mary Martin and a pre @-@ stardom Yul Brynner . The show 's producer told her , " You look like you could be Chinese . " After passing a screen test , she moved to California and signed a seven @-@ year contract with Metro Goldwyn Mayer Studios ( MGM ) in 1949 ; she later remarked , " Joining Metro was like walking into a dream world . " Her combination of attractive appearance – centered on her large eyes – and somewhat distant and understated manner made her hard at first for MGM to cast and publicize . Davis appeared in eleven feature films , usually typecast as a " loyal housewife " , " responsible young mother " , or " the steady woman " . Jane Powell , Debbie Reynolds , Leslie Caron , and Janet Leigh were among the actresses with whom she competed for roles at MGM . Davis ' film career began with small supporting roles in two films released in 1949 , The Doctor and the Girl with Glenn Ford and East Side , West Side starring Barbara Stanwyck . She played a child psychiatrist in the film noir Shadow on the Wall ( 1950 ) with Ann Sothern and Zachary Scott ; her performance was called " beautiful and convincing " by New York Times critic A. H. Weiler . She co @-@ starred in 1950 's The Next Voice You Hear ... , playing a pregnant housewife who hears the voice of God from her radio . Influential reviewer Bosley Crowther of The New York Times wrote that " Nancy Davis [ is ] delightful as [ a ] gentle , plain , and understanding wife . " In 1951 , Davis appeared in Night Into Morning , her favorite screen role , a study of bereavement starring Ray Milland . Crowther said that Davis " does nicely as the fiancée who is widowed herself and knows the loneliness of grief , " while another noted critic , The Washington Post 's Richard L. Coe , said Davis " is splendid as the understanding widow . " MGM released Davis from her contract in 1952 ; she sought a broader range of parts , but also married Reagan , keeping her professional name as Davis , and had her first child that year . She soon starred in the science fiction film Donovan 's Brain ( 1953 ) ; Crowther said that Davis , playing the role of a possessed scientist 's " sadly baffled wife , " " walked through it all in stark confusion " in an " utterly silly " film . In her next @-@ to @-@ last movie , Hellcats of the Navy ( 1957 ) , she played nurse Lieutenant Helen Blair , and appeared in a film for the only time with her husband , playing what one critic called " a housewife who came along for the ride . " Another reviewer , however , stated that Davis plays her part satisfactorily , and " does well with what she has to work with . " Author Garry Wills believes that Davis was underrated as an actress overall because her constrained part in Hellcats was her most widely seen performance . In addition , Davis downplayed her Hollywood goals : promotional material from MGM in 1949 said that her " greatest ambition " was to have a " successful happy marriage " ; decades later , in 1975 , she would say , " I was never really a career woman but [ became one ] only because I hadn 't found the man I wanted to marry . I couldn 't sit around and do nothing , so I became an actress . " Ronald Reagan biographer Lou Cannon nevertheless characterized her as a " reliable " and " solid " performer who held her own in performances with better @-@ known actors . After her final film , Crash Landing ( 1958 ) , Davis appeared for a brief time as a guest star in television dramas , such as the Zane Grey Theatre episode " The Long Shadow " ( 1961 ) , where she played opposite Ronald Reagan , as well as Wagon Train and The Tall Man , until she retired as an actress in 1962 . During her career , Davis served on the board of directors of the Screen Actors Guild for nearly ten years . Decades later , Albert Brooks attempted to coax her out of acting retirement by offering her the title role opposite himself in his 1996 film Mother . She declined in order to care for her husband , and Debbie Reynolds played the part . = = Marriage and family = = During her Hollywood career , Davis dated many actors , including Clark Gable , Robert Stack , and Peter Lawford ; she later called Gable the nicest of the stars she had met . On November 15 , 1949 , she met Ronald Reagan , who was then president of the Screen Actors Guild . She had noticed that her name had appeared on the Hollywood blacklist , and sought Ronald Reagan 's help to maintain her employment as a guild actress in Hollywood , and for assistance in having her name removed from the list . Ronald Reagan informed her that she had been confused with another actress of the same name . The two began dating and their relationship was the subject of many gossip columns ; one Hollywood press account described their nightclub @-@ free times together as " the romance of a couple who have no vices " . Ronald Reagan was skeptical about marriage , however , following his painful 1948 divorce from Jane Wyman , and he still saw other women . After three years of dating , he eventually proposed to Nancy in the couple 's favorite booth at the Beverly Hills restaurant Chasen 's . They married on March 4 , 1952 , in a simple ceremony designed to avoid the press , at the Little Brown Church in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles . The only people in attendance were fellow actor William Holden ( the best man ) and his wife , actress Brenda Marshall ( the matron of honor ) . The couple 's first child , Patricia Ann Reagan ( better known by her professional name , Patti Davis ) , was born on October 21 , 1952 . Their son , Ronald Prescott Reagan alias Ron Reagan , was born six years later on May 20 , 1958 . Reagan also became stepmother to Maureen Reagan ( 1941 – 2001 ) and Michael Reagan ( born 1945 ) , the daughter and adopted son of her husband 's first marriage to Jane Wyman . Observers described Nancy and Ronald 's relationship as intimate . As President and First Lady , the Reagans were reported to display their affection frequently , with one press secretary noting , " They never took each other for granted . They never stopped courting . " Ronald often called Nancy " Mommy " ; she called him " Ronnie " . While the President was recuperating in the hospital after the 1981 assassination attempt , Nancy Reagan wrote in her diary , " Nothing can happen to my Ronnie . My life would be over . " In a letter to Nancy , Ronald wrote , " whatever I treasure and enjoy ... all would be without meaning if I didn 't have you . " In 1998 , while her husband was afflicted with Alzheimer 's disease , Reagan told Vanity Fair , " Our relationship is very special . We were very much in love and still are . When I say my life began with Ronnie , well , it 's true . It did . I can 't imagine life without him . " Nancy was known for the focused and attentive look , termed " the Gaze " , that she fastened upon her husband during his speeches and appearances . President Reagan 's death in June 2004 ended what Charlton Heston called " the greatest love affair in the history of the American Presidency . " Nancy 's relationship with her children was not always as close as that with her husband . She frequently quarreled with her biological children and her stepchildren . Her relationship with Patti was the most contentious ; Patti flouted American conservatism , rebelled against her parents by joining the nuclear freeze movement , and authored many anti @-@ Reagan books . The nearly 20 years of family feuding left Patti very much estranged from both her mother and father . Soon after her father was diagnosed with Alzheimer 's disease , Patti and her mother reconciled and began to speak on a daily basis . Nancy 's disagreements with Michael were also public matters ; in 1984 , she was quoted as saying that the two were in an " estrangement right now " . Michael responded that Nancy was trying to cover up for the fact she had not met his daughter , Ashley , who had been born nearly a year earlier . They too eventually made peace . Nancy was thought to be closest to her stepdaughter Maureen during the White House years , but each of the Reagan children experienced periods of estrangement from their parents . = = First Lady of California , 1967 – 1975 = = Nancy Reagan was First Lady of California during her husband 's two terms as governor . She disliked living in the state capitol of Sacramento , which lacked the excitement , social life , and mild climate to which she was accustomed in Los Angeles . She first attracted controversy early in 1967 , when , after four months ' residence in the California Governor 's Mansion in Sacramento , she moved her family into a wealthy suburb , because fire officials had labeled the mansion as a " firetrap . " Though the Reagans leased the new house at their expense , the move was viewed as snobbish . Reagan defended her actions as being for the good of her family , a judgment with which her husband readily agreed . Friends of the family later helped support the cost of the leased house , while Reagan supervised construction of a new ranch @-@ style governor 's residence in nearby Carmichael . The new residence was finished just as Ronald Reagan left office in 1975 , but his successor , Jerry Brown , refused to live there . It was sold in 1982 , and California governors lived in improvised arrangements , until Brown moved into the Governor 's Mansion in 2015 . In 1967 , Reagan was appointed by her husband to the California Arts Commission , and a year later was named Los Angeles Times ' Woman of the Year ; in its profile , the Times labeled her " A Model First Lady " . Her glamour , style , and youthfulness , made her a frequent subject for press photographers . As first lady , Reagan visited veterans , the elderly , and the handicapped , and worked with a number of charities . She became involved with the Foster Grandparents Program , helping to popularize it in the United States and Australia . She later expanded her work with the organization after arriving in Washington , and wrote about her experiences in her 1982 book To Love a Child . The Reagans held dinners for former POWs and Vietnam War veterans while governor and first lady . = = Role in 1976 and 1980 presidential campaigns = = Governor Reagan 's term ended in 1975 , and he did not run for a third ; instead , he met with advisors to discuss a possible bid for the presidency in 1976 , challenging incumbent President Gerald Ford . Ronald still needed to convince a reluctant Nancy before running , however . She feared for her husband 's health and his career as a whole , though she felt that he was the right man for the job and eventually approved . Nancy took on a more traditional role in the campaign , holding coffees , luncheons , and talks , with senior citizens . With that , she oversaw personnel , monitored her husband 's schedule , and occasionally provided press conferences . The 1976 campaign included the so @-@ called " battle of the queens " , contrasting Nancy with First Lady Betty Ford . They both spoke out over the course of the campaign on similar issues , but with different approaches . Nancy was particularly upset by the warmonger image that the Ford campaign had drawn of her husband . Though he lost the 1976 Republican nomination , Ronald Reagan ran again for the presidency in 1980 , and succeeded in winning the nomination and election . During this second campaign , Nancy played a very prominent role , and her management of staff became more apparent . She arranged a meeting among feuding campaign managers John Sears and Michael Deaver , and her husband , which resulted in Deaver leaving the campaign and Sears being given full control . After the Reagan camp lost the Iowa caucus and fell behind in New Hampshire polls , Nancy organized a second meeting and decided it was time to fire Sears and his associates ; she gave Sears a copy of the press release announcing his dismissal . Her influence on her husband became particularly notable ; her presence at rallies , luncheons , and receptions increased his confidence . = = First Lady of the United States , 1981 – 1989 = = = = = White House glamour = = = = = = = Renovation = = = = Reagan became the First Lady of the United States when Ronald Reagan was inaugurated as president in January 1981 . Early in her husband 's presidency , Reagan stated her desire to create a more suitable " first home " in the White House , as the building had fallen into a state of disrepair following years of neglect . White House aide Michael Deaver described the second and third floor family residence as having " cracked plaster walls , chipped paint [ and ] beaten up floors " ; rather than use government funds to renovate and redecorate , she sought private donations . In 1981 , Reagan directed a major renovation of several White House rooms , including all of the second and third floors and rooms adjacent to the Oval Office , including the press briefing room . The renovation included repainting walls , refinishing floors , repairing fireplaces , and replacing antique pipes , windows , and wires . The closet in the master bedroom was converted into a beauty parlor and dressing room , and the West bedroom was made into a small gymnasium . The First Lady secured the assistance of renowned interior designer Ted Graber , popular with affluent West Coast social figures , to redecorate the family living quarters . A Chinese @-@ pattern , handpainted wallpaper was added to the master bedroom . Family furniture was placed in the president 's private study . The First Lady and her designer retrieved a number of White House antiques , which had been in storage , and placed them throughout the mansion . In addition , many of Reagan 's own collectibles were put out for display , including around twenty @-@ five Limoges boxes , as well as some porcelain eggs and a collection of plates . The extensive redecoration was paid for by private donations . Many significant and long @-@ lasting changes occurred as a result of the renovation and refurbishment , of which Reagan said , " This house belongs to all Americans , and I want it to be something of which they can be proud . " The renovations received some criticisms for being funded by tax @-@ deductible donations , meaning some of it eventually did indirectly come from the tax @-@ paying public . = = = = Fashion = = = = Another of Reagan 's trademarks was her interest in fashion . While her husband was still president @-@ elect , press reports speculated about Reagan 's social life and interest in fashion . In many press accounts , Reagan 's sense of style was favorably compared to that of a previous First Lady , Jacqueline Kennedy . Friends and those close to her remarked that , while fashionable like Kennedy , she would be different from other first ladies ; close friend Harriet Deutsch was quoted as saying , " Nancy has her own imprint . " Reagan 's wardrobe consisted of dresses , gowns , and suits made by luxury designers , including James Galanos , Bill Blass , and Oscar de la Renta . Her white , hand @-@ beaded , one shoulder Galanos 1981 inaugural gown was estimated to cost $ 10 @,@ 000 , while the overall price of her inaugural wardrobe was said to cost $ 25 @,@ 000 . She favored the color red , calling it " a picker @-@ upper " , and wore it accordingly . Her wardrobe included red so often that the fire @-@ engine shade became known as " Reagan red " . She employed two private hairdressers , who would style her hair on a regular basis in the White House . Fashion designers were pleased with the emphasis Reagan placed on clothing . Adolfo said the first lady embodied an " elegant , affluent , well @-@ bred , chic American look " , while Bill Blass commented , " I don 't think there 's been anyone in the White House since Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis who has her flair . " William Fine , president of cosmetic company Frances Denney , noted that she " stays in style , but she doesn 't become trendy . " Though her elegant fashions and wardrobe were hailed as a " glamorous paragon of chic " , they were also controversial subjects . In 1982 , she revealed that she had accepted thousands of dollars in clothing , jewelry , and other gifts , but defended her actions by stating that she had borrowed the clothes , and that they would either be returned or donated to museums , and that she was promoting the American fashion industry . Facing criticism , she soon said she would no longer accept such loans . While often buying her clothes , she continued to borrow and sometimes keep designer clothes throughout her time as first lady , which came to light in 1988 . None of this had been included on financial disclosure forms ; the non @-@ reporting of loans under $ 10 @,@ 000 in liability was in violation of a voluntary agreement the White House had made in 1982 , while not reporting more valuable loans or clothes not returned was a possible violation of the Ethics in Government Act . Reagan expressed through her press secretary " regrets that she failed to heed counsel 's advice " on disclosing them . Despite the controversy , many designers who allowed her to borrow clothing , noted that the arrangement was good for their businesses , as well as for the American fashion industry overall . In 1989 , Reagan was honored at the annual gala awards dinner of the Council of Fashion Designers of America , during which she received the council 's lifetime achievement award . Barbara Walters said of her , " She has served every day for eight long years the word ' style . ' " = = = = Elegance and formality = = = = Approximately a year into her husband 's first term , Reagan explored the idea of ordering new state china service for the White House . A full china service had not been purchased since the Truman administration in the 1940s , as only a partial service was ordered in the Johnson administration . She was quoted as saying , " The White House really badly , badly needs china . " Working with Lenox , the primary porcelain manufacturer in America , the first lady chose a design scheme of a red with etched gold band , bordering the scarlet and cream colored ivory plates with a raised presidential seal etched in gold in the center . The full service comprised 4 @,@ 370 pieces , with 19 pieces per individual set . The service totaled $ 209 @,@ 508 . Although it was paid for by private donations , some from the private J.P Knapp Foundation , the purchase generated quite a controversy , for it was ordered at a time when the nation was undergoing an economic recession . Furthermore , news of the china purchase emerged at the same time that her husband 's administration had proposed school lunch regulations that would allow ketchup to be counted as a vegetable . The new china , White House renovations , expensive clothing , and her attendance at the wedding of Charles and Diana , Prince and Princess of Wales , gave her an aura of being " out of touch " with the American people during the recession . This built upon the reputation she had coming to Washington , wherein many people concluded that Reagan was a vain and shallow woman , and her taste for splendor inspired the derogatory nickname " Queen Nancy " . While Jacqueline Kennedy had also faced some press criticism for her spending habits , Reagan 's treatment was much more consistent and negative . In an attempt to deflect the criticism , she self @-@ deprecatingly donned a baglady costume at the 1982 Gridiron Dinner and sang " Second @-@ Hand Clothes " , mimicking the song " Second @-@ Hand Rose " . The skit helped to restore her reputation . Reagan reflected on the criticisms in her 1989 autobiography , My Turn . Reagan describes lunching with former Democratic National Committee chairman Robert Strauss , wherein Strauss said to her , " When you first came to town , Nancy , I didn 't like you at all . But after I got to know you , I changed my mind and said , ' She 's some broad ! ' " Reagan responded , " Bob , based on the press reports I read then , I wouldn 't have liked me either ! " After the presidencies of Gerald Ford ( who favored the Michigan fight song over " Hail to the Chief " ) , and Jimmy Carter ( who dramatically reduced the formality of presidential functions ) , Reagan brought a Kennedy @-@ esque glamour back into the White House . She hosted 56 state dinners over eight years . She remarked that hosting the dinners is " the easiest thing in the world . You don 't have to do anything . Just have a good time and do a little business . And that 's the way Washington works . " The White House residence staff found Reagan demanding to work for during the preparation for the state dinners , with the First Lady overseeing every aspect of meal presentations , and sometimes requesting one dessert after another be prepared , before finally settling on one she approved of . In general , the First Lady 's desire for everything to appear just right in the White House led the residence staff to consider her not easy to work for , with tirades following what she perceived as mistakes . One staffer later recalled , " I remember hearing her call for her personal maid one day and it scared the dickens out of me – just her tone . I never wanted to be on the wrong side of her . " She did show loyalty and respect to a number of the staff . In particular , she came to the public defense of a maid who was indicted on charges of helping to smuggle ammunition to Paraguay , providing an affidavit to the maid 's good character ( even though it was politically inopportune to do so at the time of the Iran – Contra affair ) ; charges were subsequently dropped , and the maid returned to work at the White House . In 1987 , Mikhail Gorbachev became the first Soviet leader to visit Washington , D.C. since Nikita Khrushchev had in 1959 at the height of the Cold War , and Reagan was in charge of planning and hosting the important and highly anticipated state dinner , with the goal to impress both the Soviet leader and especially his wife Raisa Gorbachev . After the meal , Reagan recruited pianist Van Cliburn to play a rendition of " Moscow Nights " for the Soviet delegation , to which Mikhail and Raisa broke out into song . Secretary of State George Shultz later commented on the evening , saying " We felt the ice of the Cold War crumbling . " Reagan concluded , " It was a perfect ending for one of the great evenings of my husband 's presidency . " = = = Just Say No = = = The First Lady launched the " Just Say No " drug awareness campaign in 1982 , which was her primary project and major initiative as first lady . Reagan first became aware of the need to educate young people about drugs during a 1980 campaign stop in Daytop Village , New York . She remarked in 1981 that " Understanding what drugs can do to your children , understanding peer pressure and understanding why they turn to drugs is … the first step in solving the problem . " Her campaign focused on drug education and informing the youth of the danger of drug abuse . In 1982 , Reagan was asked by a schoolgirl what to do when offered drugs ; Reagan responded : " Just say no . " The phrase proliferated in the popular culture of the 1980s , and was eventually adopted as the name of club organizations and school anti @-@ drug programs . Reagan became actively involved by traveling more than 250 @,@ 000 miles ( 400 @,@ 000 km ) throughout the United States and several nations , visiting drug abuse prevention programs and drug rehabilitation centers . She also appeared on television talk shows , recorded public service announcements , and wrote guest articles . She appeared in single episodes of the television drama Dynasty and the sitcom Diff 'rent Strokes , to underscore support for the " Just Say No " campaign , and in a rock music video , " Stop the Madness " ( 1985 ) . In 1985 , Reagan expanded the campaign to an international level by inviting the First Ladies of various nations to the White House for a conference on drug abuse . On October 27 , 1986 , President Reagan signed a drug enforcement bill into law , which granted $ 1 @.@ 7 billion in funding to fight the perceived crisis and ensured a mandatory minimum penalty for drug offenses . Although the bill was criticized , Reagan considered it a personal victory . In 1988 , she became the first First Lady invited to address the United Nations General Assembly , where she spoke on international drug interdiction and trafficking laws . Critics of Reagan 's efforts questioned their purpose , labelled Reagan 's approach to promoting drug awareness as simplistic , and argued that the program did not address many social issues , including unemployment , poverty , and family dissolution . A number of " Just Say No " clubs and organizations remain in operation around the country . = = = Her husband 's protector = = = Reagan assumed the role of unofficial " protector " for her husband after the attempted assassination on his life in 1981 . On March 30 of that year , President Reagan and three others were shot as they left the Washington Hilton Hotel . Nancy was alerted and arrived at George Washington University Hospital , where the President was hospitalized . She recalled having seen " emergency rooms before , but I had never seen one like this – with my husband in it . " She was escorted into a waiting room , and when granted access to see her husband , he quipped to her , " Honey , I forgot to duck " , borrowing the defeated boxer Jack Dempsey 's jest to his wife . An early example of the First Lady 's protective nature occurred when Senator Strom Thurmond entered the President 's hospital room that day in March , passing the Secret Service detail by claiming he was the President 's " close friend " , presumably to acquire media attention . Nancy was outraged and demanded he leave . While the President recuperated in the hospital , the First Lady slept with one of his shirts to be comforted by the scent . When Ronald Reagan was released from the hospital on April 12 , she escorted him back to the White House . Press accounts framed Reagan as her husband 's " chief protector " , an extension of their general initial framing of her as a helpmate and a Cold War domestic ideal . As it happened , the day after her husband was shot , Reagan fell off a chair while trying to take down a picture to bring to him in the hospital ; she suffered several broken ribs , but was determined to not reveal it publicly . = = = Influence in the White House = = = Nancy Reagan stated in her memoirs , " I felt panicky every time [ Ronald Reagan ] left the White House " following the assassination attempt , and made it her concern to know her husband 's schedule : the events he would be attending , and with whom . Eventually , this protectiveness led to her consulting an astrologer , Joan Quigley , who offered insight on which days were " good " , " neutral " , or should be avoided , which influenced her husband 's White House schedule . Days were color @-@ coded according to the astrologer 's advice to discern precisely which days and times would be optimal for the president 's safety and success . The White House Chief of Staff , Donald Regan , grew frustrated with this regimen , which created friction between him and the First Lady . This escalated with the revelation of the Iran @-@ Contra affair , an administration scandal , in which the First Lady felt Regan was damaging the president . She thought he should resign , and expressed this to her husband , although he did not share her view . Regan wanted President Reagan to address the Iran @-@ Contra matter in early 1987 by means of a press conference , though Reagan refused to allow her husband to overexert himself due to a recent prostate surgery and astrological warnings . Regan became so angry with Reagan that he hung up on her during a 1987 telephone conversation . According to the recollections of ABC News correspondent Sam Donaldson , when the President heard of this treatment , he demanded – and eventually received – Regan 's resignation . Vice President George H. W. Bush is also reported to have suggested to Reagan to have Regan fired . In his 1988 memoirs , Regan wrote about Reagan 's consultations with the astrologer , the first public mention of them , which resulted in embarrassment for the First Lady . Reagan later wrote , " Astrology was simply one of the ways I coped with the fear I felt after my husband almost died ... Was astrology one of the reasons [ further attempts did not occur ] ? I don 't really believe it was , but I don 't really believe it wasn 't . " Nancy wielded a powerful influence over President Reagan . Again stemming from the assassination attempt , she strictly controlled access to the president and even occasionally attempted to influence her husband 's decision making . Beginning in 1985 , she strongly encouraged her husband to hold " summit " conferences with Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev , and suggested they form a personal relationship beforehand . Both Ronald Reagan and Gorbachev had developed a productive relationship through their summit negotiations . The relationship between Nancy Reagan and Raisa Gorbachova was anything but the friendly , diplomatic one between their husbands ; Reagan found Gorbachova hard to converse with and their relationship was described as " frosty " . The two women usually had tea and discussed differences between the USSR and the United States . Visiting the United States for the first time in 1987 , Gorbachova irked Reagan with lectures on subjects ranging from architecture to socialism , reportedly prompting the American president 's wife to quip , " Who does that dame think she is ? " Press framing of Reagan changed from that of just helpmate and protector to someone with hidden power . As the image of her as a political interloper grew , she sought to explicitly deny that she was the power behind the throne . At the end of her time as First Lady , however , she said that her husband had not been well @-@ served by his staff . She acknowledged her role in reaction in influencing him on personnel decisions , saying " In no way do I apologize for it . " She wrote in her memoirs , " I don 't think I was as bad , or as extreme in my power or my weakness , as I was depicted , " but went on , " However the first lady fits in , she has a unique and important role to play in looking after her husband . And it 's only natural that she 'll let him know what she thinks . I always did that for Ronnie , and I always will . " = = = Breast cancer = = = In October 1987 , a mammogram detected a lesion in Reagan 's left breast and she was subsequently diagnosed with breast cancer . She chose to undergo a mastectomy rather than a lumpectomy , and the breast was removed on October 17 , 1987 . Ten days after the operation , her 99 @-@ year @-@ old mother , Edith Luckett Davis , died in Phoenix , Arizona , leading Reagan to dub the period " a terrible month " . After the surgery , more women across the country had mammograms , an example of the influence the First Lady possessed . = = Subsequent life = = Though Reagan was a controversial First Lady , 56 percent of Americans had a favorable opinion of her when her husband left office on January 20 , 1989 , with 18 percent having an unfavorable opinion , and the balance not giving an opinion . Compared to fellow First Ladies when their husbands left office , Reagan 's approval was higher than those of Rosalynn Carter and Hillary Clinton . However , she was less popular than Barbara Bush , and her disapproval rating was double that of Carter 's . Upon leaving the White House , the couple returned to California , where they purchased a home in the wealthy East Gate Old Bel Air neighborhood of Bel Air , Los Angeles , dividing their time between Bel Air and the Reagan Ranch in Santa Barbara , California . Ronald and Nancy regularly attended Bel Air Presbyterian Church as well . After leaving Washington , Reagan made numerous public appearances , many on behalf of her husband . She continued to reside at the Bel Air home , where she lived with her husband until he died on June 5 , 2004 . = = = Early post @-@ White House activities = = = In late 1989 , the former First Lady established the Nancy Reagan Foundation , which aimed to continue to educate people about the dangers of substance abuse . The Foundation teamed with the BEST Foundation For A Drug @-@ Free Tomorrow in 1994 , and developed the Nancy Reagan Afterschool Program . She continued to travel around the United States , speaking out against drug and alcohol abuse . Her memoirs , My Turn : The Memoirs of Nancy Reagan ( 1989 ) , are an account of her life in the White House , commenting openly about her influence within the Reagan administration , and discussing the myths and controversies that surrounded the couple . In 1991 , the author Kitty Kelley wrote an unauthorized and largely uncited biography about Reagan , repeating accounts of a poor relationship with her children , and introducing rumors of alleged sexual relations with singer Frank Sinatra . A wide range of sources commented that Kelley 's largely unsupported claims are most likely false . In 1989 , the Internal Revenue Service began investigating the Reagans over allegations they owed additional tax on the gifts and loans of high @-@ fashion clothes and jewelry to the First Lady during their time in the White House ( recipients benefiting from the display of such items recognize taxable income even if they are returned ) . In 1992 , the IRS determined the Reagans had failed to include some $ 3 million worth of fashion items between 1983 and 1988 on their tax returns ; they were billed for a large amount of back taxes and interest , which was subsequently paid . After President Reagan revealed that he had been diagnosed with Alzheimer 's disease in 1994 , she made herself his primary caregiver , and became actively involved with the National Alzheimer 's Association and its affiliate , the Ronald and Nancy Reagan Research Institute in Chicago , Illinois . Nancy Reagan was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom , the nation 's highest civilian honor , by President George W. Bush on July 9 , 2002 . President Reagan received his own Presidential Medal of Freedom in January 1993 . Reagan and her husband were jointly awarded the Congressional Gold Medal on May 16 , 2002 , at the United States Capitol building , and were only the third President and First Lady to receive it ; she accepted the medal on behalf of both of them . = = = Ronald Reagan 's funeral = = = Ronald Reagan died in their Bel Air home on June 5 , 2004 . During the seven @-@ day state funeral , Nancy , accompanied by her children and military escort , led the nation in mourning by keeping a strong composure , traveling from her home to the Reagan Library for a memorial service , then to Washington , D.C. , where her husband 's body lay in state for 34 hours prior to a national funeral service in the Washington National Cathedral . She returned to the library in California for a sunset memorial service and interment , where , overcome with emotion , she lost her composure , crying in public for the first time during the week . After accepting the folded flag , she kissed the casket and mouthed " I love you " before leaving . CNN journalist Wolf Blitzer said of Reagan during the week , " She 's a very , very strong woman , even though she looks frail . " She had directed the detailed planning of the funeral , including ordering all the major events and asking former President George H. W. Bush , as well as former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher , former Soviet Union Leader Mikhail Gorbachev , and former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney to speak during the National Cathedral Service . She paid very close attention to the details , something she had always done in her husband 's life . Betsy Bloomingdale , one of Reagan 's closest friends , stated , " She looks a little frail . But she is very strong inside . She is . She has the strength . She is doing her last thing for Ronnie . And she is going to get it right . " The funeral marked her first major public appearance since delivering a speech to the 1996 Republican National Convention on her husband 's behalf . The funeral had a great impact on her public image . Following substantial criticism during her tenure as first lady , she was seen somewhat as a national heroine , praised by many for supporting and caring for her husband while he suffered from Alzheimer 's disease . U.S. News & World Report opined , " after a decade in the shadows , a different , softer Nancy Reagan emerged . " = = = Widowhood = = = Reagan remained active in politics , particularly relating to stem cell research . Beginning in 2004 , she favored what many consider to be the Democratic Party 's position , and urged President George W. Bush to support federally funded embryonic stem cell research , in the hope that this science could lead to a cure for Alzheimer 's disease . Although she failed to change the president 's position , she did support his campaign for a second term . In 2005 , Reagan was honored at a gala dinner at the Ronald Reagan Building in Washington , D.C. , where guests included Dick Cheney , Harry Reid , and Condoleezza Rice . It was her first major public appearance since her husband 's funeral . Asked what her plans were , Reagan shook her head and responded , " I don 't know . I 'll know when I 'll know . But the Reagan library is Ronnie , so that 's where I spend my time . " In 2007 , she attended the national funeral service for Gerald Ford in the Washington National Cathedral . Reagan hosted two 2008 Republican Presidential Candidates Debates at the Reagan Presidential Library , the first in May 2007 and the second in January 2008 . While she did not participate in the discussions , she sat in the front row and listened as the men vying to become the nation 's 44th president claimed to be a rightful successor to her husband . Though some speculation arose as to whether Reagan might support New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg in a presidential bid , nothing came of it . She formally endorsed Senator John McCain , then the presumptive Republican party nominee , for president on March 25 . She attended the funeral of Lady Bird Johnson in Austin , Texas , on July 14 , 2007 , and three days later accepted the highest Polish distinction , the Order of the White Eagle , on behalf of Ronald Reagan at the Reagan Library . The Reagan Library opened the temporary exhibit " Nancy Reagan : A First Lady 's Style " , which displayed over eighty designer dresses belonging to her . Reagan 's health and well @-@ being became a prominent concern in 2008 . In February , she suffered a fall at her Bel Air home and was taken to St. John 's Health Center in Santa Monica , California . Doctors reported that she did not break her hip as feared , and she was released from the hospital two days later . News commentators noted that Reagan 's step had slowed significantly , as the following month she walked in very slow strides with John McCain . NBC 's Brian Williams , who attended a dinner with Reagan in mid @-@ 2008 , recalled , " Mrs. Reagan 's vision isn 't what it always was so she was taking very halting steps as a lot of folks her age do ... It is so important for folks in her age bracket and in her bracket of life to remain upright and captain of their own ship . She very much is captain of her own ship . " As for her mental ability , Williams remarked , " She 's as sharp as ever and enjoys a robust life with her friends in California , but falling is always a danger of course . She 's a very stoic , hardy person full of joy and excitement for life ... She is not without opinions on politics and political types these days ... She is , as most of her friends described her , a pistol . " In October 2008 , Reagan was admitted to Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center after falling at home . Doctors determined that the 87 @-@ year @-@ old had fractured her pelvis and sacrum , and could recuperate at home with a regimen of physical therapy . As a result of her mishap , medical articles were published containing information on how to prevent falls . In January 2009 , Reagan was said to be " improving every day and starting to get out more and more . " In March 2009 , she praised President Barack Obama for reversing the ban on federally funded embryonic stem cell research . She traveled to Washington , D.C. in June 2009 to unveil a statue of her late husband in the Capitol rotunda . She was also on hand as President Obama signed the Ronald Reagan Centennial Commission Act , and lunched privately with Michelle Obama . Reagan revealed in an interview with Vanity Fair that Michelle Obama had telephoned her for advice on living and entertaining in the White House . Following the death of Senator Ted Kennedy in August 2009 , she said she was " terribly saddened … Given our political differences , people are sometimes surprised how close Ronnie and I have been to the Kennedy family . ... I will miss him . " She attended the funeral of Betty Ford in Rancho Mirage , California , on July 12 , 2011 . Reagan hosted a 2012 Republican presidential debate at the Reagan Presidential Library on September 7 , 2011 . She suffered a fall in March 2012 . Two months later , she endured several broken ribs , which prevented her from attending a speech given by Paul Ryan in the Reagan Presidential Library in May 2012 ; her spokesperson said , " Mrs. Reagan has been recovering slowly and has been adding a few appointments back on to her schedule , but was advised by her doctor today not to try and attend large events too far from home just yet . " She endorsed Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney on May 31 , 2012 , explaining that her husband would have liked Romney 's business background and what she called " strong principles " . Following the death of former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in April 2013 , she said that , " The world has lost a true champion of freedom and democracy . ... Ronnie and I knew her as a dear and trusted friend , and I will miss her . " Reagan was the second @-@ longest @-@ lived First Lady of the United States , after Bess Truman who died at the age of 97 . Coincidentally , Ronald Reagan was the second @-@ longest @-@ lived President , trailing only Gerald Ford . = = Death and funeral = = On March 6 , 2016 , Reagan died at the age of 94 , of congestive heart failure . On March 7 , 2016 , President Barack Obama issued a presidential proclamation , ordering the Flag of the United States of America to be flown at half @-@ staff until sunset on the day of Reagan 's interment . Her funeral was held on March 11 , 2016 , at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley , California . Representatives from ten First Families were in attendance , including former President George W. Bush and four current or former first ladies : Michelle Obama , Laura Bush , Hillary Clinton , and Rosalynn Carter . The other such representatives were presidential children Steven Ford , Tricia Nixon Cox , Luci Baines Johnson , and Caroline Kennedy , and presidential grandchild Anne Eisenhower Flottl . Other prominent individuals in attendance included Governor of California Jerry Brown and former Governors Arnold Schwarzenegger and Pete Wilson ; former House Speakers Nancy Pelosi and Newt Gingrich ; and former members of the Reagan administration , including George Shultz and Edwin Meese . A sizable contingency from the Hollywood entertainment industry attended as well , including Mr. T , Maria Shriver , Wayne Newton , Johnny Mathis , Angelica Huston , John Stamos , Tom Selleck , Bo Derek , and Melissa Rivers . In all there were some 1 @,@ 000 guests . Eulogists included former Prime Minister of Canada Brian Mulroney , former Secretary of State James Baker , Diane Sawyer , Tom Brokaw , and her children Patti Davis and Ron Reagan . After the funeral , Nancy Reagan was buried next to her husband . = = Filmography = = As Nancy Davis , she also made a number of television appearances from 1953 to 1962 , as a guest star in dramatic shows or installments of anthology series . These included The Ford Television Theatre ( her first appearance with Ronald Reagan came during a 1953 episode titled " First Born " ) , Schlitz Playhouse of Stars , Wagon Train , The Tall Man , and General Electric Theater ( hosted by Ronald Reagan ) .
= Gordon Parks High School = Gordon Parks High School is a public alternative learning center in Saint Paul , Minnesota . The school , founded in 1991 , was originally the Saint Paul Area Learning Center . It was then called Unidale Alternative Learning Center for several years , after the local strip mall it operated in ; this was often shortened to ALC Unidale . In 2007 , a permanent building was built for the school and it was again renamed . The school serves high @-@ school @-@ age students categorized as " at risk " or far behind in grade level . It is the largest of seven alternative day school programs in the Saint Paul Public Schools district . = = Campus = = The Saint Paul Area Learning Center opened on February 1 , 1991 . Its initial student body consisted of 500 full and part @-@ time students . The school first opened in a leased 8 @,@ 000 square feet ( 740 m2 ) building in the Unidale Mall . The small space was repeatedly expanded ; the largest expansion was in 1997 , when the building grew by 6 @,@ 000 square feet ( 560 m2 ) . Eventually , the building reached 18 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 700 m2 ) . The school , with tiny classrooms and no windows , cost the school district $ 300 @,@ 000 in rent a year . The rented space became too small , and the school district decided to build a new building in part because of pressure from developers of the mall . Upon the school 's relocation suggestions were solicited for a new name , and social studies teacher Ted Johnson submitted the winning entry . The school was named after photographer , film director and local icon Gordon Parks . Parks grew up in Saint Paul , attending local high schools such as Mechanic Arts High School and Saint Paul Central . Like many of the students the school targets , Parks struggled with events outside of school and eventually dropped out . = = = New building = = = In 2003 , Saint Paul Public Schools purchased a parcel of land about a mile and half west of the Unidale Mall on University Avenue from 3M . Construction of the new facility was planned to start in 2005 , costing $ 7 million . When construction bids were higher than expected , the price tag went up to $ 8 million and the project was postponed to allow for planning to reduce costs . Construction started in late November 2006 after price concerns had been resolved . The building opened in early December 2007 , with a total cost of $ 7 @.@ 5 million . It was dedicated one day before the two @-@ year anniversary of Gordon Parks 's death . He died on March 7 , 2006 ; the building was dedicated on March 6 , 2008 . When the new building was proposed , the initial plan called for a 44 @,@ 000 square feet ( 4 @,@ 100 m2 ) facility . The finished product featured a new gym and cafeteria in a 34 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 200 m2 ) building . Ownership of the new facility is saving the Saint Paul Public Schools district $ 300 @,@ 000 annually in rent . The building also has new science labs , computer labs , and bigger art and industrial technology areas . The building was designed by Wold Architects and built by Jorgenson Construction , Inc . The sloping glass walls in the front entrance were designed to emulate the many car dealerships along University Avenue . The school was built to be environmentally friendly , and the school district intends to apply for a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Certification . = = Students = = The school serves students aged 16 @-@ 21 . Students who enroll must qualify under one or more " at @-@ risk " categories . These include homelessness , pregnancy , children and chemical dependency , as well as being at least one year behind for graduation or any other characteristic that would place a student at a disadvantage . In the 2006 @-@ 07 school year roughly 279 students attended Gordon Parks High School . Sixty @-@ two percent of students qualify for free or reduced lunch , which is the school district 's measure of poverty . Eight percent of students qualify for special education . = = Academics = = Students must finish school before turning 21 years old . In 2007 , the school 's 12 @-@ week trimesters were changed into smaller six @-@ week mini @-@ terms , and then in 2011 , even smaller three @-@ week terms in order to improve attendance . Students who miss more than three days in a three @-@ week mini @-@ term do not earn full high school credit . As a result of this change , attendance increased by 100 % , though daily attendance is still about 50 % . It takes 60 hours of class work to earn one credit . The school has a closed campus . When students were free to come and go as they pleased , many would not return after leaving for lunch . Now students must arrive by 8 a.m. and remain until noon , or arrive by 1 p.m. and stay until 5 p.m. Exceptions are granted for students in job programs , or who must take care of their family . To meet student needs the school has social workers , counselors , special education teachers , educational assistants , and on @-@ the @-@ job training . The school has developed a specific program focus that includes film , photography , writing , and art , using Gordon Parks 's life as an inspiration and guide . In partnership with the Minnesota Historical Society , students are documenting stages of transition along University Avenue through the stories of elders , business owners , and residents affected by the METRO Green Line light @-@ rail transit project . The students learn more about the neighborhood 's history , document stories of the LRT project that might not otherwise be told , and share images that might not otherwise be seen . This multiyear project is titled " Transitions : University Avenue " and is produced entirely by students , who began by documenting the controversial stage of pre @-@ construction along the avenue . As the construction moved forward , the students created documentaries on area residents and businesses and the impact the LRT has on them . The goals are to preserve important history , increase awareness of this community in transition , and highlight the work of Gordon Parks High School students . GPHS partners with the Human Rights Program at the University of Minnesota in a pilot creative writing curriculum called the Scribes Fellowship . Students develop writing skills and confidence by focusing on personal reflections on human rights that affect their community . Community / school gardens , sustainable agriculture and food justice are the first topics explored .
= Pennsylvania Route 39 = Pennsylvania Route 39 ( PA 39 ) is a 17 @.@ 83 miles ( 28 @.@ 69 km ) state highway located in Dauphin County , Pennsylvania , United States . PA 39 begins at North Front Street near Harrisburg and ends at U.S. Route 322 and U.S. Route 422 near Hummelstown and Hershey . The route passes through the northern and eastern suburbs of Harrisburg and passes by Hersheypark , Giant Center , as well as the primary production factory for The Hershey Company . Between Harrisburg and Manada Hill , it is known as Linglestown Road , from Manada Hill to Hershey as Hershey Road and from Hershey to near Hummelstown and Hershey as Hersheypark Drive . Prior to the establishment of PA 39 in 1937 , PA 39 , had previously been designated as a route in northeastern Pennsylvania during the 1920s . That designation was deleted when it was renumbered US 11 . As a result , PA 39 is one of a few routes which has a set of child routes which are no where near the primary route . The Linglestown – Manada Hill portion of PA 39 was originally part of Legislative Route 140 , one of hundreds of unsigned legislative routes created by the Sproul Road Bill in 1911 . LR 140 was later rerouted to bypass Linglestown to the south , and the Paxtonia – Lower Paxton Township portion of its former routing became LR 140A . This legislative route was initially signed solely as PA 894 . PA 39 was assigned in the 1930s to the portion of LR 140A east of Linglestown — overlapping PA 894 — and also to LR 22006 between the Susquehanna River and Manadahill . The PA 894 designation was later removed . PA 39 was extended southward to the vicinity of Hummelstown in two stages . The first extension during the 1940s shifted PA 39 's eastern terminus to the junction of Hershey Road and Allentown Boulevard ( U.S. Route 22 ) south of Manadahill . Its terminus was moved to its present location in the early 1960s . Only local realignments and improvements have occurred since . = = Route description = = PA 39 begins at an intersection with North Front Street on the east bank of the Susquehanna River in the Dauphin County township of Susquehanna north of Harrisburg . It heads northeast as Linglestown Road through a densely populated neighborhood and widens from two to four lanes as it approaches an interchange with U.S. Route 22 and U.S. Route 322 at the northern tip of Wildwood Lake . East of the exit , the highway reverts to two lanes and passes through the predominantly residential northern suburbs of Harrisburg . It intersects North Progress Avenue prior to passing into Lower Paxton Township . West of the village of Linglestown , Linglestown Road intersects Colonial Road , and then continues east to Linglestown , where it intersects North Mountain Road at a roundabout . Outside of the village , the amount of development along the highway declines as the route passes through areas of forests and open fields . Continuing east , the road becomes more developed as it approaches an interchange with Interstate 81 at exit 77 . Just east of the interchange , PA 39 intersects Jonestown Road and changes names from Linglestown Road to Hershey Road . Unlike Linglestown Road , which followed a mostly east – west alignment , Hershey Road has a north – south orientation . It heads south from Jonestown Road to intersect US 22 , here an at @-@ grade roadway named Allentown Boulevard , near Skyline View . Hershey Road continues onward , snaking southeastward through a rural region of Dauphin County to the vicinity of Hershey . During this stretch , it passes through South Hanover Township and serves the communities of Hanoverale and Union Deposit . The route crosses into Derry Township after crossing over Swatara Creek , then intersects Hersheypark Drive near the creek 's southern bank . Hershey Road continues south from here as Park Boulevard , a service road for Hersheypark , Hersheypark Stadium , Hersheypark Arena , The Star Pavilion , Giant Center and Hershey 's Chocolate World ; however , the route veers westward onto Hersheypark Drive and bypasses Giant Center to the north . This portion of the road is four lanes wide , the first significant portion of PA 39 to be that many lanes wide since the area surrounding I @-@ 81 . PA 39 heads south bypassing the village of Hershey to the north and west . It passes under a Norfolk Southern Railway line , then enters a highly developed area east of the borough of Hummelstown . Here , the road intersects Walton Avenue , a local street connecting Hersheypark Drive to the village . This is the final junction along PA 39 as the route ends 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 480 m ) later at a modified cloverleaf interchange with US 322 and U.S. Route 422 . = = History = = = = = Legislative Routes = = = Legislative Route 140 , an unsigned legislative route extending from Harrisburg in the west to Pottsville in the east , was created on May 31 , 1911 , through the Sproul Road Bill , which established the initial set of legislative routes throughout Pennsylvania . LR 140 entered Linglestown on North Mountain Road , then turned to follow modern PA 39 from Linglestown to Manadahill , where it veered onto Jonestown Road . LR 140 was realigned by 1926 to follow a direct route between Paxtonia and Manadahill via Jonestown Road . The portion of former LR 140 from Paxtonia to the Lower Paxton – West Hanover township line was then redesignated as LR 140A . All of LR 140A was designated as the signed PA 894 by 1930 . In the Omnibus Road Bill Act of 1931 , LR 22006 was established , spanning the portion of current PA 39 from the Susquehanna River north of Harrisburg to Hanoverdale at the West Hanover – South Hanover township line , three miles north of Union Deposit . The remainder of current PA 39 north of Swatara Creek was a state @-@ aid route designated A @-@ 306 , which ran from South Hanover Township to Union Deposit . Those sections of roads were paved in 1926 , in preparation for gaining state aid . = = = Designation and extensions = = = PA 39 was assigned on May 1 , 1937 , by the Pennsylvania Department of Highways to the portion of LR 22006 between the Susquehanna River ( at North Front Street ) and Manadahill and to the section of LR 140A east of Linglestown , overlapping PA 894 along the latter . PA 894 was also extended northward along Piketown Road to a junction with PA 443 near Piketown . The overlap between PA 39 and PA 894 was eliminated in the 1940s when the entirety of the PA 894 designation was removed . The first change to PA 39 's routing came in the 1940s . During this time , U.S. Route 22 was rerouted through Dauphin and Lebanon County to follow Allentown Boulevard instead of Jonestown Road . As a result , PA 39 was extended a short distance southward along LR 22006 on what is now Jonestown Road , Harper Drive , and Hershey Road to meet the new alignment of US 22 south of Manadahill . This section of PA 39 was rerouted in 1969 when a new road was constructed between Jonestown Road and Manada View Drive which directly connected Linglestown Road to Hershey Road . The alignment on Jonestown Road and what became Harper Drive was deleted . PA 39 was extended further southward on LR 22006 and A @-@ 306 , as well as parts of Legislative Routes 22011 and 22013 , in 1961 , to a new terminus at U.S. Route 322 and U.S. Route 422 near Hummelstown . At the time , it was routed on Hanover Street in the vicinity of Union Deposit . The portion of Hanover Street south of Canal Street had previously been part of PA 340 from the 1930s to the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 1950s . A new highway around the eastern fringe of Union Deposit was constructed in the late 1960s and opened to traffic as a realignment of PA 39 by 1970 . Park Boulevard in Hershey was rerouted in 1973 to intersect the new bypass and provide a direct connection between Hersheypark and PA 39 . = = = Rehabilitation projects = = = In the early 1970s , the portion of PA 39 in Susquehanna Township from North Sixth Street to Laurelwood Drive was converted from a two @-@ lane roadway to a four @-@ lane divided highway as part of the construction of the US 22 and US 322 bypass . The divided highway was extended west to North Front Street in the early 1990s . To the southeast , the segment of PA 39 south of West Chocolate Avenue near Hummelstown was rebuilt as a divided highway ca . 1990 . All of Hersheypark Drive east to Laudermilch Road was converted into a divided highway by 1995 . The piece of PA 39 near I @-@ 81 was reconstructed into a four @-@ line divided roadway ca . 1990 . In 2009 , PA 39 was widened to five lanes ( two lanes in each direction with a center turning lane ) when a new shopping center near the intersection of PA 39 and Progress Avenue was built . At the same time , West Hanover Township made improvements to the area surrounding PA 39 's interchange with Interstate 81 . Prior to the improvements , there was only one traffic light in the vicinity , located at Jonestown Road . Several traffic lights and two additional lanes with a center concrete barrier was added to handle the increased truck traffic caused by the construction of warehouses nearby in 2003 and 2004 . PA 39 was also improved in Linglestown square , when two roundabouts were installed between 2009 and 2011 . = = Major intersections = = The entire route is in Dauphin County .
= 32X = The 32X is an add @-@ on for the Mega Drive / Genesis video game console . Codenamed " Project Mars " , the 32X was designed to expand the power of the Genesis and serve as a transitional console into the 32 @-@ bit era until the release of the Sega Saturn . Independent of the Genesis , the 32X uses its own ROM cartridges and has its own library of games . The add @-@ on was distributed under the name Super 32X ( スーパー32X , Sūpā Sanjūni Ekkusu ) in Japan , Genesis 32X in North America , Mega Drive 32X in the PAL region , and Mega 32X in Brazil . Unveiled by Sega at June 1994 's Consumer Electronics Show , the 32X was presented as a low @-@ cost option for consumers looking to play 32 @-@ bit games . Developed in response to the Atari Jaguar and concerns that the Saturn would not make it to market by the end of 1994 , the product was first conceived as an entirely new console . At the suggestion of Sega of America executive Joe Miller and his team , the console was converted into an add @-@ on to the existing Genesis and made more powerful . The final design contained two 32 @-@ bit central processing units and a 3D graphics processor . To bring the new add @-@ on to market by its scheduled release date of November 1994 , development of the new system and its games were rushed . The console failed to attract third @-@ party video game developers and consumers because of the announcement of the Sega Saturn 's simultaneous release in Japan . Sega 's efforts to rush the 32X to market cut into available time for game development , resulting in a weak library of forty titles that could not fully use the add @-@ on 's hardware , including Genesis ports . By the end of 1994 , the 32X had sold 665 @,@ 000 units . After price reductions in 1995 , it was discontinued in 1996 as Sega turned its focus to the Saturn . Reception after the add @-@ on 's unveiling and launch was positive , highlighting the low price of the system and power expansion to the Genesis . Later reviews , both contemporary and retrospective , for the 32X have been mostly negative because of its shallow game library , poor market timing and the resulting market fragmentation for the Genesis . = = History = = The Sega Genesis , initially released in Japan as the Mega Drive in 1988 , was Sega 's entry into the 16 @-@ bit era of video game consoles . The console was then released as the Genesis in 1989 for the North American market , with releases in other regions following a year later . Although the earlier release of the Sega CD add @-@ on had been commercially disappointing , Sega began to develop a stop @-@ gap solution that would bridge the gap between the Genesis and the Sega Saturn , serving as a less expensive entry into the 32 @-@ bit era . The decision to create a new system was made by Nakayama and broadly supported by Sega of America employees . According to former Sega of America producer Scot Bayless , Nakayama was worried that the Saturn would not be available until after 1994 , and about the recent release of the 64 @-@ bit Atari Jaguar . As a result , the direction given was to have this second release to market by the end of the year . = = = Development = = = At the Winter Consumer Electronics Show in January 1994 , Sega of America research and development head Joe Miller took a phone call from Nakayama , in which Nakayama stressed the importance of coming up with a quick response to the Jaguar . Included on this call were Bayless , Sega hardware team head Hideki Sato , and Sega of America vice president of technology Marty Franz . One potential idea for this came from a concept from Sega Enterprises in Japan , later known as " Project Jupiter " , an entirely new independent console . Project Jupiter was initially slated to be a new version of the Genesis , with an upgraded color palette and a lower cost than the upcoming Saturn , as well as with some limited 3D capabilities thanks to integration of ideas from the development of the Sega Virtua Processor chip . Miller suggested an alternative strategy , citing concerns with releasing a new console with no previous design specifications within six to nine months . According to former Sega of America producer Michael Latham , Miller said , " Oh , that 's just a horrible idea . If all you 're going to do is enhance the system , you should make it an add @-@ on . If it 's a new system with legitimate new software , great . But if the only thing it does is double the colors .... " Miller , however , insists that the decision was made collectively to talk about alternative solutions . One idea was to leverage the existing Genesis as a way to keep from alienating Sega customers , who would otherwise be required to discard their Genesis systems entirely to play 32 @-@ bit games , and to control the cost of the new system . This would come in the form of an add @-@ on . From these discussions , Project Jupiter was discontinued and the new add @-@ on , codenamed " Project Mars " , was advanced . At the suggestion from Miller and his team , Sega designed the 32X as a peripheral for the existing Genesis , expanding its power with two 32 @-@ bit SuperH @-@ 2 processors . The SH @-@ 2 had been developed in 1993 as a joint venture between Sega and Japanese electronics company Hitachi . The original design for the 32X add @-@ on , according to Bayless , was created on a cocktail napkin , but Miller insists that this was not the case . At the end of the Consumer Electronics show , with the basic design of the 32X in place , Sega Enterprises invited Sega of America to assist in development of the new add @-@ on . Although the new unit was a stronger console than originally proposed , it was not compatible with Saturn games . This was justified by Sega 's statement that both platforms would run at the same time , and that the 32X would be aimed at players who could not afford the more expensive Saturn . Bayless praised the potential of this system at this point , calling it " a coder 's dream for the day " with its twin processors and 3D capabilities . Sega of America headed up the development of the 32X , with some assistance from Sato 's team at Sega Enterprises in Japan . Shortages of processors due to the same 32 @-@ bit chips being used in both the 32X and the Saturn hindered the development of the 32X , as did the language barrier between the teams in Japan and the United States . Before the 32X could be launched , the release date of the Saturn was announced for November 1994 in Japan , coinciding with the 32X 's target launch date in North America . Sega of America now was faced with trying to market the 32X with the Saturn 's Japan release occurring simultaneously . Their answer was to call the 32X a " transitional device " between the Genesis and the Saturn , to which Bayless describes of the strategy , " [ f ] rankly , it just made us look greedy and dumb to consumers . " = = = Pre @-@ launch promotion , release , and marketing = = = The unveiling of the 32X to the public came at the Summer Consumer Electronics Show in June 1994 in Chicago . Promoted as the " poor man 's entry into ' next generation ' games " , 32X was marketed for its US $ 159 price point as a less @-@ expensive alternative to the Saturn . However , Sega would not answer whether or not a Genesis console equipped with a Sega CD and a 32X would be able to run Saturn software . Founder of The 3DO Company , Trip Hawkins , was willing to point out that it would not , stating , " Everyone knows that 32X is a Band @-@ Aid . It 's not a ' next generation system . ' It 's fairly expensive . It 's not particularly high @-@ performance . It 's hard to program for , and it 's not compatible with the Saturn . " In response to these comments , Sega executive Richard Brudvik @-@ Lindner pointed out that the 32X would play Genesis titles , and had the same system architecture as the Saturn . In August of that year , GamePro highlighted the advantages of the upcoming add @-@ on in its 32 @-@ bit processors and significantly lower price , noting that " [ n ] o doubt gotta @-@ get @-@ it @-@ now gamers will spend the big bucks to grab Saturn or PlayStation systems and games from Japan . For the rest of us , however , 32X may well be the system of choice in ' 94 . " In promotion for the new system , Sega promised 12 games available at launch and 50 games due for release in 1995 from third @-@ party developers . The 32X was released on November 21 , 1994 in North America , in time for the holiday season that year . As announced , it retailed for $ 159 @.@ 99 , and had a reasonably successful launch in the marketplace . Demand among retailers was high , and Sega could not keep up orders for the system . Over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 orders had been placed for 32X units , but Sega had only managed to ship 600 @,@ 000 units by January 1995 . Launching at about the same price as a Genesis console , the price of the 32X was less than half of what the Saturn 's price would be at launch . Despite Sega 's initial promises , only four titles were available at its North American launch ; Doom , Star Wars Arcade , Virtua Racing Deluxe , and Cosmic Carnage . Games were available at a retail price of $ 69 @.@ 95 . Advertising for the system included images of the 32X being connected to a Genesis console to create an " arcade system " . Japan received the 32X on December 3 , 1994 , at a cost of JP ¥ 16 @,@ 800 . The system 's PAL release came in January 1995 , at a price of GB £ 169 @.@ 99 , and also experienced initial high demand . = = = Decline = = = Despite the lower price console 's positioning as an inexpensive entry into 32 @-@ bit gaming , Sega had a difficult time convincing third @-@ party developers to create games for the new system . Top developers were already aware of the coming arrival of the Sega Saturn , Nintendo 64 , and PlayStation , and did not believe the 32X would be capable of competing with any of those systems . The quick development time of the 32X also made game development difficult , according to Franz . Not wanting to create games for an add @-@ on that was " a technological dead @-@ end " , many developers decided not to make games for the system . Issues also plagued titles developed in @-@ house due to the time crunch to release the 32X . According to Bayless , " games in the queue were effectively jammed into a box as fast as possible , which meant massive cutting of corners in every conceivable way . Even from the outset , designs of those games were deliberately conservative because of the time crunch . By the time they shipped they were even more conservative ; they did nothing to show off what the hardware was capable of . " Journalists were similarly concerned about Sega 's tactic of selling two similar consoles at different prices and attempting to support both , likening Sega 's approach to that of General Motors and segmenting the market for its consoles . In order to convince journalists that the 32X was a worthwhile console , Sega hosted a party for journalists in a nightclub , featuring live music and 32X games on exhibition . The event turned out to be a bust , however , as journalists attempted to leave the party due to its loud music and unimpressive games on display . Though the system had a successful launch , demand soon disappeared . Over the first three months of 1995 , several of the 32X 's third party publishers , including Capcom and Konami , cancelled their 32X projects so that they could focus on producing games for the Saturn and PlayStation . The 32X failed to catch on with the public , and is considered a commercial failure . By 1995 , the Genesis had still not proven successful in Japan , where it was known as Mega Drive , and the Saturn was beating the PlayStation , so Sega CEO Hayao Nakayama decided to force Sega of America to focus on the Saturn and cut support for Genesis products , executing a surprise early launch of the Saturn in the early summer of 1995 . Sega was supporting five different consoles before this — Saturn , Genesis , Game Gear , Pico , and the Master System — as well as the Sega CD and Sega 32X add @-@ ons . Sales estimates for the 32X stood at 665 @,@ 000 units at the end of 1994 . Despite assurances from Sega that many games would be developed for the system , in early 1996 , Sega finally conceded that they had promised too much out of the add @-@ on and decided to discontinue the 32X in order to focus on the Saturn . In September 1995 , the retail price for the 32X dropped to $ 99 , and later the remaining inventory was cleared out of stores at $ 19 @.@ 95 . = = = Sega Neptune = = = The Sega Neptune was a two @-@ in @-@ one Genesis and 32X console which Sega planned to release in fall 1995 , with the retail price planned to be something less than US $ 200 . The Neptune was delayed into 1996 , then canceled altogether with the discontinuation of 32X production . Electronic Gaming Monthly used the Sega Neptune as an April Fools ' Day prank in its April 2001 issue . The issue included a small article in which the writers announced that Sega had found a warehouse full of old Sega Neptunes , and were selling them on a website for only $ 50 . = = Technical aspects and specifications = = The 32X can be used only in conjunction with a Genesis system . It is inserted into the system like a standard game cartridge . The add @-@ on requires its own separate power supply , a connection cable linking it to the Genesis , and an additional conversion cable for the original model of the Genesis . As well as playing its own library of cartridges , the 32X is backwards @-@ compatible with Genesis games , and can also be used in conjunction with the Sega CD to play games that use both add @-@ ons . The 32X also came with a spacer so it would fit properly with the second model of the Genesis ; an optional spacer was offered for use with the Sega Genesis CDX system , but ultimately never shipped due to risks of electric shock when the 32X and CDX were connected . Installation of the 32X also requires the insertion of two included electromagnetic shield plates into the Genesis ' cartridge slot . Seated on top of a Genesis , the 32X measures 115 mm × 210 mm × 100 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 in × 8 @.@ 3 in × 3 @.@ 9 in ) . The 32X contains two Hitachi SH2 32 @-@ bit RISC processors with a clock speed of 23 MHz , which Sega claimed would allow the system to work 40 times faster than a stand @-@ alone Genesis . Its graphics processing unit is capable of producing 32 @,@ 768 colors and rendering 50 @,@ 000 polygons per second , which provides a noticeable improvement over the polygon rendering of the Genesis . The 32X also includes 256 Kilobytes of random @-@ access memory ( RAM ) , along with 256 Kilobytes of Video RAM . Sound is supplied through a pulse @-@ width modulation sound source . Input / output is supplied to a television set via a provided A / V cable that supplies composite video and stereo audio , or through an RF modulator . Stereo audio can also be played through headphones via a headphone jack on the attached Genesis . = = Game library = = The 32X 's game library consists of forty titles , including six that required both the Sega 32X and Sega CD . Among the titles for the 32X were ports of arcade games Space Harrier and Star Wars Arcade , a sidescroller with a hummingbird as a main character in Kolibri , and a 32X @-@ exclusive game in the Sonic the Hedgehog series titled Knuckles ' Chaotix . Several of the games released for the 32X are enhanced ports of Genesis games , including After Burner , NFL Quarterback Club , and World Series Baseball ' 95 . In a retrospective review of the console , Star Wars Arcade was considered the best game for the 32X by IGN for its cooperative play , soundtrack , and faithful reproduction of the experiences of Star Wars . In a separate review , IGN 's Buchanan praised the 32X title Shadow Squadron as superior to Star Wars Arcade . Retro Gamer writer Damien McFerran , however , praised Virtua Fighter as " the jewel in the 32X 's crown " , and GamesRadar named Knuckles ' Chaotix as the best game for the system . Although the console used 32 @-@ bit processing and was capable of better graphics and sound than the Genesis alone , most games for the 32X did not take advantage of its hardware . Doom for the 32X received near perfect reviews from gaming magazines upon launch , but was later noted for being an inferior version of the game compared to releases for the PC and the Atari Jaguar , with the 32X version criticized for missing levels , poor graphic and audio quality , chuggy movement , and running within a window on the screen . Though the system had enhanced audio capabilities , 32X games did not use this , which Franz believes was due to developers being unwilling to invest in designing games to work with the new audio enhancements . One source of these issues was the rush to release games on time for the 32X 's launch ; former Sega of America executive producer Michael Latham explained , in reference to 32X launch title Cosmic Carnage , " We were rushed . We had to get games out for the 32X and it was going to be such a close cycle . When Cosmic Carnage showed up , we didn 't even want to ship it . It took a lot of convincing , you know , to ship that title . " Likewise with Doom , id Software 's John Carmack rushed to have the port ready for release at the 32X 's launch and had to trim out a third of the game 's levels in order to meet the deadline for the port to be published on time . Because of time limitations , game designs were intentionally conservative and did not show what the 32X hardware was able to do . In an interview at the end of 1995 , Sega vice president of marketing Mike Ribero , while insisting that Sega was not abandoning the 32X , acknowledged that first party software support for the system had been lackluster : " I won 't lie to you , we screwed up with 32X . We overpromised and underdelivered . " = = Reception and legacy = = Initial reception to the 32X and its games upon the launch of the add @-@ on was very positive . Four reviewers from Electronic Gaming Monthly scored the add @-@ on 8 , 7 , 8 , and 8 out of 10 in their 1995 Buyer 's Guide , highlighting the add @-@ on 's enhancements to the Genesis but questioning how long the system would be supported . GamePro commented that the 32X 's multiple input and power cords make it " as complicated as setting up your VCR " and noted some performance glitches with the prototype such as freezes and overheating , but expressed confidence that the production models would perform well and gave the add @-@ on their overall approval . Reviews of its launch titles , such as Doom , were likewise positive . By 1996 , feedback to the add @-@ on had soured . In its 1996 Buyer 's Guide , Electronic Gaming Monthly 's four reviewers scored the add @-@ on 3 , 3 , 3 , and 2 out of 10 , criticizing the game library and Sega 's abandonment of the system in favor of the Saturn . Retrospectively , the 32X is widely criticized as having been under @-@ supported and a poor idea in the wake of the release of the Sega Saturn . 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish stated that the 32X " tainted just about everything it touched . " GamesRadar also panned the system , placing it as their ninth @-@ worst console with reviewer Mikel Reparaz criticizing that " it was a stopgap system that would be thrown under the bus when the Sega Saturn came out six months later , and everyone seemed to know it except for die @-@ hard Sega fans and the company itself . " Retro Gamer 's Damien McFerran offered some praise for the power increase of the 32X to offer ports of Space Harrier , After Burner , and Virtua Fighter that were accurate to the original arcade versions , as well as the add @-@ on 's price point , stating , " If you didn 't have deep enough pockets to afford a Saturn , then the 32X was a viable option ; it 's just a shame that it sold so poorly because the potential was there for true greatness . " Levi Buchanan , writing for IGN , saw some sense in the move for Sega to create the 32X but criticized its implementation . According to Buchanan , " I actually thought the 32X was a better idea than the SEGA CD ... The 32X , while underpowered , at least advanced the ball . Maybe it only gained a few inches in no small part due to a weak library , but at least the idea was the right one . " In particular , the console 's status as an add @-@ on and poor timing after the announcement of the Saturn has been identified by reviewers as being responsible factors for fracturing the audience for Sega 's video game consoles in terms of both developers and consumers . Allgame notes that " [ e ] very add @-@ on whittled away at the number of potential buyers and discouraged third @-@ party companies from making the games necessary to boost sales . " GamePro criticized the concept of the add @-@ on , noting the expenses involved in purchasing the system . According to reviewer Blake Snow , " Just how many 16 @-@ bit attachments did one need ? All in all , if you were one of the unlucky souls who completely bought into Sega 's add @-@ on frenzy , you would have spent a whopping $ 650 for something that weighed about as much as a small dog . " Writing for GamesRadar , Reparaz noted that " developers — not wanting to waste time on a technological dead @-@ end — abandoned the 32X in droves . Gamers quickly followed suit , turning what was once a promising idea into an embarrassing footnote in console history , as well as an object lesson in why console makers shouldn 't split their user base with pricey add @-@ ons . " Reparaz went on to criticize Sega 's decision to release the 32X , noting that " ( u ) ltimately , the 32X was the product of boneheaded short @-@ sightedness : its existence put Sega into competition with itself once the Saturn rolled out . " Writing for IGN , Buchanan also notes that " Notice that we haven 't seen many add @-@ ons like the 32X since 1994 ? I think the 32X killed the idea of an add @-@ on like this — a power booster — permanently . And that 's a good thing . Because add @-@ ons , if not implemented properly , just splinter an audience . " Former executives at Sega have mixed opinions of the 32X . Bayless believes firmly that the 32X serves as a warning to the video game industry not to risk splintering the market for consoles by creating add @-@ ons , and was critical of the Kinect and PlayStation Move for doing so . Franz places the 32X 's commercial failure on its inability to function without an attached Genesis and lack of a CD drive , despite its compatibility with the Sega CD , stating , " The 32X was destined to die because it didn 't have a CD drive and was an add @-@ on . An add @-@ on device is never as well thought out as a built @-@ from @-@ scratch device . " Miller , on the other hand , remembers the 32X positively , stating , " I think the 32X actually was an interesting , viable platform . The timing was wrong , and certainly our ability to stick with it , given what we did with Saturn , was severely limited . There were a whole bunch of reasons why we couldn ’ t ultimately do what we had to do with that platform , without third party support and with the timing of Saturn , but I still think the project was a success for a bunch of other reasons . In hindsight , it was not a great idea for a whole bunch of other reasons . "
= Jama Masjid , Delhi = The Masjid @-@ i Jahān @-@ Numā ( Persian / Urdu : مسجدِ جہاں نما , Devanagari : मस ् जिद जहान नुमा , the ' World @-@ reflecting Mosque ' ) , commonly known as the Jama Masjid ( Hindi : जामा मस ् जिद , Urdu : جامع مسجد ) of Delhi , is one of the largest mosques in India . It was built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan between 1644 and 1656 at a cost of 1 million rupees , and was inaugurated by an imam from Bukhara , present @-@ day Uzbekistan . The mosque was completed in 1656 AD with three great gates , four towers and two 40 m high minarets constructed of strips of red sandstone and white marble . The courtyard can accommodate more than 25 @,@ 000 persons . There are three domes on the terrace which are surrounded by the two minarets . On the floor , a total of 899 black borders are marked for worshippers . The architectural plan of Badshahi Masjid , built by Shah Jahan 's son Aurangzeb at Lahore , Pakistan , is similar to the Jama Masjid . The mosque has been the site of two attacks , one in 2006 and another in 2010 . During the first , two explosions occurred in the mosque , injuring thirteen people . In the second , two Taiwanese students were injured as two gunmen opened fire upon them . = = History = = Mughal emperor Shah Jahan built the Jama Masjid between 1644 and 1656 . It was constructed by more than 5000 workers . It was originally called Masjid @-@ i @-@ Jahan @-@ Numa , meaning ' mosque commanding view of the world ' . The construction was done under the supervision of Saadullah Khan , wazir ( or prime minister ) during Shah Jahan 's rule . The cost of the construction at the time was one million Rupees . Shah Jahan also built the Taj Mahal , at Agra and the Red Fort in New Delhi , which stands opposite the Jama Masjid . The Jama Masjid was completed in 1656 AD ( 1066 AH ) . The mosque was inaugurated by an Imam Bukhari , a mullah from Bukhara , Uzebekistan , on 23 July 1656 , on the invitation from Shah Jahan . About 25 @,@ 000 people can pray in the courtyard at a time and it is sometimes regarded as India 's largest mosque . The mosque is commonly called " Jama " which means Friday . After the British victory in Revolt of 1857 , they confiscated the mosque and stationed their soldiers here.They also wanted to destroy the mosque to punish the people of the city . But due to opposition faced , the demolition was not done . = = Architecture = = The mosque has three great gates , four towers and two 40 m high minarets constructed of strips of red sandstone and white marble . The northern gate has 39 steps and the southern side has 33 steps . The eastern gate was the rural entrance and it has 35 steps . Out of all these gateways , the eastern one , which was used by the emperors , remains closed during weekdays . The mosque is built on a red sandstone porch , which is about 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) from ground level and spreads over 1200 square metre . The dome is flanked by two lofty minarets which are 130 feet ( 40 m ) high and consists of 130 steps , longitudinally striped by marble and red sandstone . The minarets consists of five storeys , each with a protruding balcony . The adjoining edifices are filled with calligraphy . The first three storeys of the minarets is made of red sandstone , the fourth of marble and the fifth of sandstone . The courtyard can accommodate 25 @,@ 000 worshippers and occupies 408 square feet . The mosque is about 261 feet ( 80 m ) long and 90 feet ( 27 m ) wide . The prayer hall measures 61 metre in length and 27 @.@ 5 metre in breadth . It is made up of high cusped arches and marble domes . The cabinet located in the north gate has a collection of relics of Muhammad – the Quran written on deerskin , a red beard @-@ hair of the prophet , his sandals and his footprints implanted in a marble block . The floor plan of the mosque is similar to that of the Jama Masjid of Agra . It is covered with white and black ornamented marble to look like a Muslim prayer mat . Beside it , a thin black border measuring 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) long and 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) wide is marked for the worshippers . There are 899 total such boxes . The architecture and plan of Badshahi Masjid which was built by Shah Jahan 's son Aurangzeb in Lahore is closely related to that of the mosque . Before the Revolt of 1857 , there was a madrasa near the southern end of the mosque , which was during the revolt destroyed . = = Recent times = = In 2006 , it was reported that the mosque was in urgent need of repair and the then Saudi Arabian king Abdullah , offered to pay for it . The imam said that he had received the offer directly from the Saudi authorities but requested them to approach the Indian government . In November 2014 , the Shahi Imam Syed Bukhari appointed his son Shaban Bukhari as his successor . However , the Delhi High Court said that this matter had no " legal sanctity " giving no " special equities " to the imam . He created controversy by inviting Pakistan Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif to the ceremony and not his Indian counterpart Narendra Modi . He said that " Muslims have not forgiven him for the Gujarat riots " . = = = 2006 Jama Masjid explosions = = = On 14 April 2006 , there were two explosions which came soon after Friday prayers and occurred in swift succession . However it was unclear , about how the blasts occurred . Among the casualties , one was in serious condition , whereas other eight people sustained minor injuries . The then imam , Bukhari commented " here is anger among our people but I am appealing to them to maintain calm " . = = = 2010 Jama Masjid attack = = = On 15 September 2010 , two Taiwanese tourists were injured after gunmen on a motorcycle opened fire on a bus parked near gate number three of the mosque . After the attack , the police detained 30 people to question and the area was turned into a fortress because policemen were heavily deployed . In November 2011 , the Delhi Police arrested six members of the Indian Mujahideen who were believed to be behind the Jama Masjid blast along with the Pune German bakery blast . Sources said that the " ' main man ' Imran " allegedly planted the bomb in a car outside the mosque . In September 2013 it was reported that , Yasin Bhatkal , a leader of the group , along with Assadullah Akhtar , were arrested last month and admitted that they carried the attack with on @-@ the @-@ run Pakistani national Waqas . Yasin said that he was ordered by Karachi @-@ based IM head Riyaz Bhatkal to do the task as the Imam allowed " semi @-@ naked " foreigners inside it .
= St Ceinwen 's Church , Cerrigceinwen = St Ceinwen 's Church , Cerrigceinwen , is a former parish church in the countryside of central Anglesey , north Wales . The present building dates from 1860 , although the site has been used for worship since at least the 7th century . The doorway reuses some old carved gravestones , one from the 9th to 11th centuries , and another from the 12th century . The church grounds contain a well , once thought to have healing properties . The church and the well are both named after St Ceinwen , an early Celtic female saint . The church is closed and no longer used for worship by the Church in Wales and , as of July 2012 , was for sale . It is a Grade II listed building , a national designation given to " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " , in particular because it is a " simple rural church " from the 19th century that reuses older carved stonework . = = History and location = = St Ceinwen 's Church is in a rural location in the middle of Anglesey , north Wales . It is set in a hollow at the side of the road near the village of Cerrigceinwen , about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to the south @-@ west of Llangefni , the county town of Anglesey . The date of establishment of the first church on this site is uncertain . According to a 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey , worship began here in the 7th century . The 19th @-@ century writer Samuel Lewis , however , stated that it was supposed that a church was founded at the site in 450 . Some repair work was carried out to a medieval church on this site in 1839 ( although the date of its original construction is unknown ) and the current structure was erected in 1860 . The architects were Henry Kennedy ( architect of the Diocese of Bangor ) and Frederick Rogers . The dedication is to St Ceinwen , known elsewhere in Wales and in Cornwall as Cain or Keyne ( in Welsh , Cain means " fair " or " beautiful " , and Ceinwen means " Blessed Cain " ) . She was the daughter of King Brychan Brycheiniog ; her siblings St Dwynwen and St Dyfnan are commemorated elsewhere on Anglesey , at St Dwynwen 's Church , Llanddwyn and St Dyfnan 's Church , Llanddyfnan respectively . A spring in the south of the churchyard is known as " St Ceinwen 's Well " ; according to the 19th @-@ century clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones , it was " once much resorted to as a spring that could cure many diseases . " The church is no longer used for worship by the Church in Wales and , as of July 2012 , it was being offered for sale at £ 65 @,@ 000 . Some of the surrounding land is included in the sale , but the graveyards to the front and rear of the church are not . = = Architecture and fittings = = The church , which is built in the Decorated style , has a nave at the west end and a chancel at the east end . It is built from rubble masonry dressed with freestone ; the roof is made of slate and edged with stone . There is a porch at the west end of the south wall of the nave and a vestry at the west end of the north wall of the chancel , abutting the nave . The nave measures approximately 39 feet 8 inches by 20 feet 8 inches ( 12.10m by 6 @.@ 30 m ) and the chancel is shorter and narrower at approximately 18 feet by 14 feet 1 inch ( 5 @.@ 50 by 4 @.@ 30 m ) . The total floor space of the church is approximately 1 @,@ 076 square feet ( 100 m2 ) . There is a large bellcote at the west end of the nave , containing one bell . The arched doorway in the porch reuses two old carved gravestones . One from the 12th century is cut at its head with a circle containing a rough cross of petals and has a decorated key design on the shaft . It is used as the lintel of the doorway . Part of another gravestone , dating from the 9th to the 11th centuries and with a cross in a circle , is set to the right of the door . Inside , three steps lead up from the nave to the chancel through a decorated chancel arch . A further two steps lead up from the chancel to the sanctuary . The internal woodwork of the roof is exposed . The window in the east wall of the chancel is a pointed arch and has three lights ( sections of window separated by mullions ) topped with trefoils ( a pattern of three overlapping circles ) . The nave windows are also pointed arches and variously have one , two or three lights topped with trefoils . The windows contain coloured leaded glass rather than stained glass pictures . The circular stone font dates from the 12th century but is set on a modern base . It has five panels , four of which are decorated with interlacing carvings of crosses and knots while the fifth is blank . The other fittings of the church date from the 19th century and include an octagonal pulpit with decorated panels . The west wall of the nave has a stone memorial to a Reverend William Griffith who died in 1752 , the south wall has a war memorial to the dead of the First World War , and the north wall has an inscribed stone commemorating a Morris Lloyd ( or Llwyd ) , a Royalist who was killed by Cromwell 's troops in 1647 . A survey of church plate within the Bangor diocese in 1906 recorded a chalice and a paten dating from 1823 . It recorded that a pewter flagon , known from church records to have been owned by the church from 1739 to 1834 , was lost . The churchyard contains a Commonwealth War Grave of a Royal Army Medical Corps sergeant of World War II . = = Assessment = = The church has national recognition and statutory protection from unauthorised alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building , which is the lowest of the three grades of listing , designating " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " . It was given this status on 30 January 1968 and has been listed as " a simple rural church of the 19th century " . Cadw , the Welsh Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists , also comments that the church is " particularly notable for retention of early carved stonework in the later fabric . " Two writers in the 19th century described the old church . The antiquarian Angharad Llwyd described it ( before the 1839 building work ) as " a neat small edifice , and appropriately fitted @-@ up " . Writing in 1846 , after some rebuilding , Longueville Jones said that the east window was " one of the purest models , as to proportion and workmanship " , in Anglesey , and noted the " richly sculptured compartments " of the font .
= Great Sejm = The Great Sejm , also known as the Four @-@ Year Sejm ( Polish : respectively , Sejm Wielki or Sejm Czteroletni ; Lithuanian : Didysis seimas or Ketverių metų seimas ) was a Sejm ( parliament ) of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth that was held in Warsaw between 1788 and 1792 . Its principal aim became to restore sovereignty to , and reform , the Commonwealth politically and economically . The Sejm 's great achievement was the adoption of the Constitution of May 3 , 1791 , often described as Europe 's first modern written national constitution , and the world 's second , after the United States Constitution . The Polish Constitution was designed to redress long @-@ standing political defects of the federative Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth and its system of Golden Liberties . The Constitution introduced political equality between townspeople and nobility and placed the peasants under the protection of the government , thus mitigating the worst abuses of serfdom . The Constitution abolished pernicious parliamentary institutions such as the liberum veto , which at one time had placed a sejm at the mercy of any deputy who might choose , or be bribed by an interest or foreign power , to undo all the legislation that had been passed by that sejm . The May 3rd Constitution sought to supplant the existing anarchy fostered by some of the country 's reactionary magnates , with a more egalitarian and democratic constitutional monarchy . The reforms instituted by the Great Sejm and the Constitution of May 3 , 1791 , were undone by the Targowica Confederation and the intervention of the Russian Empire at the invitation of the Targowica Confederates . = = Origins = = The reforms of the Great Sejm responded to the increasingly perilous situation of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , only a century earlier a major European power and indeed the largest state on the continent . By the 18th century the Commonwealth 's state machinery became increasingly dysfunctional ; the government was near collapse , giving rise to the term " Polish anarchy " , and the country was managed by provincial assemblies and magnates . Many historians hold that a major cause of the Commonwealth 's downfall was the peculiar parliamentary institution of the liberum veto ( " free veto " ) , which since 1652 had in principle permitted any Sejm deputy to nullify all the legislation that had been adopted by that Sejm . By the early 18th century , the magnates of Poland and Lithuania controlled the state – or rather , they managed to ensure that no reforms would be carried out that might weaken their privileged status ( the " Golden Freedoms " ) . The matters were not helped by the inefficient monarchs elected to the Commonwealth throne around the start of the 18th century , nor by neighboring countries , which were content with the deteriorated state of the Commonwealth 's affairs and abhorred the thought of a resurgent and democratic power on their borders . The Enlightenment European cultural movement had gained great influence in certain Commonwealth circles during the reign of its last king , Stanisław August Poniatowski ( 1764 – 95 ) , which roughly coincided with the Enlightenment in Poland . In 1772 , the First Partition of Poland , the earliest of the three successive 18th @-@ century partitions of Commonwealth territory that eventually removed Poland from the map of Europe , shocked the inhabitants of the Commonwealth , and made it clear to progressive minds that the Commonwealth must either reform or perish . In the last three decades preceding the Great Sejm , there was a rising interest among progressive thinkers in constitutional reform . Even before the First Partition , a Polish noble , Michał Wielhorski , an envoy of the Bar Confederation , had been sent to ask the French philosophes Gabriel Bonnot de Mably and Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau to offer suggestions on a new constitution for a new Poland . Mably had submitted his recommendations ( The Government and Laws of Poland ) in 1770 – 1771 ; Rousseau had finished his Considerations on the Government of Poland in 1772 , when the First Partition was already underway . Notable works advocating the need to reform and presenting specific solutions were published in the Commonwealth itself by Polish @-@ Lithuanian thinkers such as : Stanisław Konarski , founder of the Collegium Nobilium ( On the Effective Conduct of Debates in Ordinary Sejms , 1761 – 1763 ) ; Józef Wybicki , composer of the Polish National Anthem ( Political Thoughts on Civil Liberties , 1775 , Patriotic Letters , 1778 – 1778 ) ; Hugo Kołłątaj , head of the Kołłątaj 's Forge party ( Anonymous Letters to Stanisław Małachowski , 1788 – 1789 , The Political Law of the Polish Nation , 1790 ) ; and Stanisław Staszic ( Remarks on the Life of Jan Zamoyski , 1787 ) . Also seen as crucial to giving the upcoming reforms their moral and political support were Ignacy Krasicki 's satires of the Great Sejm era . = = Proceedings = = = = = 1789 – 90 = = = A major opportunity for reform seemed to present itself during the sejm of 1788 – 92 , which opened on October 6 , 1788 with 181 deputies , and from 1790 – in the words of the May 3 Constitution 's preamble – met " in dual number " , when 171 newly elected Sejm deputies joined the earlier @-@ established Sejm . On its second day the Sejm transformed itself into a confederated sejm to make it immune to the threat of the liberum veto . Russian tsarina Catherine the Great had issued the approval for the sejm confederation a while ago , at a point she was considering that the successful conclusion of this Sejm may be necessary if Russia would need Polish aid in the fight against the Ottoman Empire . Stanisław Małachowski , a statesman respected both by most factions , was elected as the Marshal of the Sejm . Many supporters of the reforms were gathered in the Patriotic Party . This group received support from all strata of Polish @-@ Lithuanian society , from societal and political elites , including some aristocratic magnates , through Piarist and Enlightened Catholics , to the radical left . The Party 's conservative , or right , wing , led by progressive magnates such as Ignacy Potocki , his brother Stanisław Kostka Potocki and Prince Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski , sought alliance with Prussia and advocated opposing King Poniatowski . The Patriotic Party 's centrists , including Stanisław Małachowski , wished accommodation with the King . The liberal left wing ( the Polish Jacobins ) , led by Hugo Kołłątaj ( hence also known as " Kołłątaj 's Forge " ) , looked for support to the people of Warsaw . While King Poniatowski also supported some reforms , he was initially not allied with this faction , represented by Potocki , who preferred a republican form of a government . Events in the world appeared to play into the reformers ' hands . Poland 's neighbors were too occupied with wars to intervene forcibly in Poland , with Russia and Austria engaged in hostilities with the Ottoman Empire ( the Russo @-@ Turkish War and the Austro @-@ Turkish War ) ; the Russians also found themselves fighting Sweden ( the Russo @-@ Swedish War ) . At first , King Poniatowski and some reformers hoped to gain Russian support for the reforms ; they attempted to draw Poland into the Austro @-@ Russian alliance , seeing a war with the Ottomans as an opportunity to strengthen the Commonwealth . Due to internal Russian politics , this plan was not implemented . Spurned by Russia , Poland turned to another potential ally , the Triple Alliance , represented on the Polish diplomatic scene primarily by the Kingdom of Prussia . This line of reasoning gained support from Polish politicians such as Ignacy Potocki and Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski . With the new Polish @-@ Prussian alliance seeming to provide security against Russian intervention , King Poniatowski drew closer to leaders of the reform @-@ minded Patriotic Party . This alliance was also helped as the 1790 elections were more supportive of the royal faction then Potocki 's ; and the conservative faction gained enough new seats to threaten the reformers if they were to stay divided . With the mediation of Scipione Piattoli , Potocki and Poniatowski begun to reach a consensus on a more constitutional monarchy approach , and started to draft a constitutional document . Overall , the first two years of the Sejm passed with few major reforms , and it was the second half of the Sejm duration that brought major changes . = = = 1791 – 92 = = = The elections of autumn 1790 resulted in a new group of deputies joining those already elected . A second Marshal of the Sejm was elected ( Kazimierz Nestor Sapieha ) . As Małachowski was seen as associated with the reformers , Sapieha was initially seen as a conservative , although he would later switch sides and join the reformers . The doubled number of deputies exceeded the capacity of the parliament chambers , and not all of the deputies could secure a seat ; public interest also grew and the entire building and the observation galleries were often overcrowded . While the Sejm comprised representatives only of the nobility and clergy , the reformers were supported by the burghers ( townspeople ) , who in the fall of 1789 organized a Black Procession , demonstrating their desire to be part of the political process . Taking a cue from similar events in France , and with the fear that if burghers ' demands were not met , their peaceful protests could turn violent , the Sejm on April 18 , 1791 adopted a law addressing the status of the cities and the rights of the burghers ( the Free Royal Cities Act ) . Together with the legislation on the voting rights ( the Act on Sejmiks of March 24 , 1791 ) , it became incorporated into the final constitution . The new Constitution had been drafted by the king , with contributions from others , including Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kołłątaj . The king is credited with authoring the general provisions , and Kołłątaj , with giving the work its final shape . Poniatowski aimed for a constitutional monarchy similar to the one in England , with strong central government based upon a strong monarch . Potocki wanted to make the parliament ( Sejm ) the most powerful of the state 's institutions , and Kołłątaj , for a " gentle " social revolution , enfranchising other classes in addition to the till @-@ then dominant nobility , but doing so without a violent overthrow of the old order . Reforms were opposed by conservative elements , including the Hetmans ' Party . The reform 's advocates , threatened with violence from their opponents , managed to move debate on the new constitution forward by two days from the original May 5 , while many opposed deputies were still away on Easter recess . The ensuing debate and adoption of the Constitution of 3 May took place in a quasi @-@ coup d 'état : recall notices were not sent to known opponents of reform , while many pro @-@ reform deputies arrived early and in secret , and the royal guard were positioned about the Royal Castle , where the Sejm was gathered , to prevent Russian supporters from disrupting the proceedings . On May 3 the Sejm met with only 182 members present , about a half of its " dual " number ( or a third , if one was to count all individuals eligible to take part in the proceedings , including the Senate and the king ) . The bill was read out and adopted overwhelmingly , to the enthusiasm of the crowds gathered outside . The work of the Great Sejm did not end with the passing of the Constitution . The Sejm continued to debate and pass legislation building on and clarifying that document . Among the most notable acts passed after the 3 May was the Deklaracja Stanów Zgromadzonych ( Declaration of the Assembled Estates ) of May 5 , 1791 , confirming the Government Act adopted two days earlier , and the Zaręczenie Wzajemne Obojga Narodów ( Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations , i.e. , of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ) of October 22 , 1791 , affirming the unity and indivisibility of Poland and the Grand Duchy within a single state , and their equal representation in state @-@ governing bodies . The Mutual Declaration strengthened the Polish @-@ Lithuanian union , while keeping many federal aspects of the state intact . The Sejm was disbanded on May 29 , 1792 . On that day , soon after learning that the Russian army had invaded Poland , the Sejm gave the commander @-@ in @-@ chief position to the king , and voted to end the session . = = Aftermath = = Soon afterwards , the Friends of the Constitution , regarded as the first Polish political party , and including many participants of the Great Sejm , was formed to defend the reforms already enacted and to promote further ones . The response to the new Constitution was less enthusiastic in the provinces , where the Hetmans ' Party exerted stronger influence . The Great Sejm 's reforms were brought down by the Targowica Confederation and the intervention of the Russian Empire . On 23 November 1793 the Grodno Sejm annulled all the enactments of the Great Sejm , including the Constitution of May 3 , 1791 .
= Certificate of division = A certificate of division was a source of appellate jurisdiction from the circuit courts to the Supreme Court of the United States from 1802 to 1911 . Created by the Judiciary Act of 1802 , the certification procedure was available only where the circuit court sat with a full panel of two : both the resident district judge and the circuit @-@ riding Supreme Court justice . As Chief Justice John Marshall wrote , he did not have " the privilege of dividing the court when alone . " The certificate of division procedure had unique features . Unlike writ of error and certiorari jurisdiction , the certificate of division procedure did not require a federal question . In criminal cases , the certificate of division was the only source of appellate jurisdiction from the circuit courts ( save original habeas ) until 1889 . In civil cases , although ordinary writs of error were authorized , the certificate of division remained important because it permitted appeals without regard to the amount in controversy and interlocutory appeals . Inasmuch as the certificate of division permitted the Supreme Court some measure of control over its docket , it is a precursor to modern certiorari jurisdiction . With regards to criminal cases , the Supreme Court held ( in 1896 ) that Judiciary Act of 1891 operated as an implied repeal of the authorization to hear cases on certificates of division . But , the Court retained its authority hear civil cases via certificates of division until the abolition of the circuit courts by the Judicial Code of 1911 . A different , and rarely used , certified question procedure was adopted in 1925 and is currently codified at 28 U.S.C. § 1254 ( 2 ) . = = Background = = = = = Circuit courts = = = Under the Judiciary Act of 1789 , the circuit courts were composed of a stationary district court judge and any two Supreme Court justices riding circuit . Following a brief intermezzo with the soon @-@ repealed Midnight Judges Act of 1801 ( which abolished circuit riding ) , under the Judiciary Act of 1802 , the circuit courts were composed of a stationary district judge and one Supreme Court justice assigned to the circuit . Section 4 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 had provided that two judges or justices would constitute a quorum . The practice of sending a single circuit rider was explicitly authorized by the Judiciary Act of 1793 , but was already common before 1793 . Under the Judicial Act of 1802 , a single judge ( either the district judge or the circuit rider ) could preside alone . = = = Early tie @-@ breaking methods = = = In United States v. Daniel ( 1821 ) , Chief Justice John Marshall recounted the history of tie @-@ breaking methods on the circuit courts . If one judge or justice disagreed with the other two , the majority prevailed . If only one Supreme Court justice could attend , and a division arose between the district judge and the Supreme Court justice , the practice — as required by the Judiciary Act of 1793 — was to hold the case over until the next term . If a one @-@ to @-@ one division persisted with a different circuit riding justice , the opinion of the previous circuit rider broke the tie . After 1802 , in cases where both judges sat , though , one @-@ to @-@ one divisions were less likely to be resolved by continuing the case until the next term because the circuit @-@ riding justice would be the same ( barring a change in membership on the Court ) . Prior to 1802 , there was no way to call upon the Supreme Court to resolve one @-@ to @-@ one ties on the circuit courts . Alexander Dallas , the Supreme Court reporter ( and also the reporter of an eclectic assortment of cases from state and federal courts in Pennsylvania ) , noted in United States v. Worrall ( C.C.D. Pa . 1798 ) : The Court being divided in opinion , it became a doubt , whether sentence could be pronounced upon the defendant ; and a wish was expressed by the Judges and the Attorney of the District , that the case might be put into such a form , as would admit of obtaining the ultimate decision of the Supreme Court , upon the important principle of the discussion : But the counsel for the prisoner [ Dallas himself ] did not think themselves authorized to enter into a compromise of that nature . Worrall involved a criminal prosecution of Robert Worrall for bribing Tench Coxe , the Commissioner of Revenue within the Department of the Treasury . After Worrall 's conviction by jury , Dallas had moved for a judgment of acquittal on the ground that the Judiciary Act of 1789 did not empower the circuit court to try common law crimes ( in 1798 , there was no federal statute criminalizing the bribery of the relevant federal official ) . Despite the divided opinion in the circuit court , Worrall was sentenced to three months imprisonment and fined $ 200 . The " short consultation " referred to in the official report , prior to the pronouncement of the reduced sentence , may have been with other members of the Supreme Court , which was then resident in Philadelphia . = = Statutory basis = = The Judiciary Act of 1802 permitted circuit courts to certify questions of law to the Supreme Court if the judges were divided on that question . Specifically , § 6 provided : Whenever any question should occur before a circuit court , upon which the opinions of the judges shall be opposed , the point upon which the disagreement shall happen , shall , during the same term , upon the request of either party , or their counsel , be stated under the direction of the judges , and certified under the seal of the court , to the supreme court , at their next session to be held thereafter ; and shall , by said court , be finally decided . And the decision of the supreme court , and their order in the premises , shall be remitted to the circuit court , and be there entered of record , and shall have effect according to the nature of the said judgment and order : Provided , that nothing herein contained shall prevent the cause from proceeding , if , in the opinion of the court , farther proceedings can be had without prejudice to the merits : and provided also , that imprisonment shall not be allowed , nor punishment in any case be inflicted , where the judges of the said court are divided in opinion upon the question touching said imprisonment or punishment . An 1872 statute modified the certificate of division procedure to require waiting for a final decision in the circuit court case first . In the interim , the opinion of the presiding judge was to prevail . An 1874 statute repealed the 1872 modification as to criminal cases , but left it in place as to civil cases . While the statute provided only for the certification of " the point upon which the disagreement shall happen , " the justices sometimes took the liberty of enlarging the question . For example , in United States v. Hudson ( 1812 ) , the question certified was " whether the Circuit Court of the United States had a common law jurisdiction in cases of libel ? " but the question answered was " whether the Circuit Courts of the United States can exercise a common law jurisdiction in criminal cases ? " And , in United States v. Bevans ( 1818 ) , the Court noted that " [ i ] t may be deemed within the scope of the question certified to this court " to inquire whether the murder was cognizable under § 3 of the Crimes Act of 1790 , even though the defendant had only been indicted under § 8 . = = History of use = = Certificates of division began to fall into disuse as it became increasingly common for the circuit courts to sit with a single judge . The Judiciary Act of 1869 ( the " Circuit Judges Act " ) reduced the circuit @-@ riding duties of the Supreme Court justices and therefore reduced the possibility for certificates of division . As Chief Justice Marshall wrote , he did not have " the privilege of dividing the court when alone . " = = = In criminal cases = = = In United States v. More ( 1805 ) , the Court held that the ordinary means of appeal , the writ of error , could not be utilized in criminal cases from the circuit courts . This contributed to the importance of the certificate of division in criminal cases . The Marshall Court ( 1801 – 1835 ) heard thirty @-@ one criminal cases arising from certificates of division ; the Taney Court ( 1836 – 1864 ) , fifteen ; the Chase Court ( 1864 – 1873 ) , seventeen ; the Waite Court ( 1874 – 1888 ) , thirty @-@ eight ; and the Fuller Court ( 1888 – 1910 ) , fourteen . The Judiciary Act of 1802 plainly contemplated that certificates of division would issue in criminal cases . Section 6 provided that " imprisonment shall not be allowed , nor punishment in any case be inflicted , where judges of the said court are divided in opinion upon the question touching the said imprisonment or punishment . " Justice Story — in his opinions for the Court — cautioned against the too frequent use of certificates of division in criminal cases . In United States v. Gooding ( 1827 ) , for the Court , Justice Story wrote : We take this opportunity of expressing our anxiety , least , by too great indulgence to the wishes of counsel , questions of this sort should be frequently brought before this Court , and thus , in effect , an appeal in criminal cases become an ordinary proceeding to the manifest obstruction of public justice , and against the plain intendment of the acts of Congress . Not every question or every criminal case was eligible for a certificate of division . In United States v. Daniel ( 1821 ) , the Court held that a motion for a new trial — as authorized by the § 17 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 — could not be the subject of a certificate of division ; rather , the division would operate a rejection of the motion . Similarly , in United States v. Bailey ( 1835 ) , the Court held that the question of whether the evidence was legally sufficient to support the offense charged could not be certified . In United States v. Briggs ( Briggs I ) ( 1847 ) , the Court further limited its jurisdiction to hear criminal certificates of division by holding that the question of whether a demurrer to an indictment should be sustained was to general to be certified . In United States v. Hamilton ( 1883 ) , the Court reaffirmed its earlier holdings that certificates could not issue from motions to quash an indictment . And , in United States v. Rosenburgh ( 1868 ) and United States v. Avery ( 1871 ) , the Court held that a motion to quash an indictment could not be so certified , even if the motion called into question the jurisdiction of the circuit court . = = = In habeas cases = = = In Ex parte Tom Tong ( 1883 ) , the Court held that — under 1872 amendments to the certification procedure , which went into effect during the Chase Court era — because habeas corpus was a civil proceeding , questions arising in habeas cases could not be certified to the Supreme Court until a final judgment had been entered . In Ex parte Milligan ( 1866 ) , after the repeal of those amendments , the Court held that habeas petitions in the circuit courts could be a source of certified questions to the Supreme Court . = = = In civil cases = = = Dartmouth College v. Woodward ( 1819 ) is a famous use of the certificate of division procedure in a civil case . In order to insure that the certificate of division procedure would be available in Dartmouth College , " Story was closely involved from the outset with the litigation . " Early on , Dartmouth 's lawyer , Daniel Webster , sought " to elicit the cooperation of Story in carrying the case to the Marshall Court through a pro forma certificate of division . " The Contract Clause question for which Dartmouth College is famous could have been appealed to the Supreme Court even if the case had been brought in the courts of New Hampshire ( and it was ) ; but , the " vested rights " argument , which Story and Webster regarded as potentially stronger , was not a matter of federal law and thus could not be appealed by writ of error . In fact , after the New Hampshire Supreme Court ruled against the College , in addition to filing an appeal , a new case was filed in the federal circuit court . As Webster wrote in a letter to another lawyer for the College : I have no doubt [ that Justice Story ] will [ be ] incline [ d ] to send up the new cause in the most convenient manner , without giving any opinion , and probably without an argument . If the district judge will agree to divide without argument , pro forma , I think Judge Story will incline so to dispose of the cause . Although Story did as Webster predicted , the certificate of division was never heard by the Supreme Court because the direct appeal was decided first . = = Certificates not decided = = In addition to the Dartmouth College case ( supra ) , there are other reports of certificates of division that were issued but never decided by the Supreme Court . After the indictment of Jefferson Davis , the President of the Confederacy , for treason , William Wirt Henry reports that a certificate of division was issued on Davis 's motion to dismiss the indictment on the grounds that he owed no allegiance to the United States after the secession of his state . Reportedly , Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase sided with Davis , while District Judge John Curtiss Underwood sided with the government . No response from the Supreme Court to that certificate is reported , but Davis 's bail was eventually absolved , and he was released . = = Abolition = = = = = Criminal cases = = = In 1889 , Congress created a right of ordinary appeal in capital cases . The 1889 act was " [ t ] he first act of Congress which authorized a criminal case to be brought from the Circuit Court of the United States to this court , except upon a certificate of division of opinion . " In 1891 , with the Judiciary Act of 1891 ( the " Evarts Act " ) , Congress extended this right to other serious crimes . The 1891 act did not explicitly repeal the authorization to issue certificates of division , but § 14 provided that prior , inconsistent laws were repealed . After the passage of the 1891 act , the Supreme Court initially continued to decide questions presented in criminal cases by certificate of division on the merits . Three such decisions , United States v. Eaton ( 1892 ) , United States v. Rodgers ( 1893 ) , and United States v. Thomas ( 1894 ) , made no mention of the 1891 act . But , in United States v. Rider ( 1896 ) and United States v. Hewecker ( 1896 ) , the Court held that the 1891 act was an implied repeal of the authorization of certificates of division in criminal cases . Rider held : We are of opinion that the scheme of the act of March 3 , 1891 , precludes the contention that certificates of division of opinion may still be had under sections 651 and 697 of the Revised Statutes . Review by appeal , by writ of error or otherwise , must be as prescribed by the act , and review by certificate is limited by the act to the certificate by the Circuit Courts , made after final judgment , of questions raised as to their own jurisdiction and to the certificate by the Circuit Courts of Appeals of questions of law in relation to which our advice is sought as therein provided , and these certificates are governed by the same general rules as were formerly applied to certificates of division . It is true that repeals by implication are not favored , but we cannot escape the conclusion that , tested by its scope , its obvious purpose , and its terms , the act of March 3 , 1891 , covers the whole subject @-@ matter under consideration , and furnishes the exclusive rule in respect of appellate jurisdiction on appeal , writ of error or certificate . Hewecker , the last criminal certificate of division case , declined to reconsider the question on the grounds that Rider could have been decided on the narrower ground that a certificate of division could not issue on a matter committed to the district judge 's discretion . = = = Civil cases = = = Following Rider and Hewecker , certificates of division continued to be issued in civil cases . Felsenheld v. United States ( 1902 ) was the last civil certificate of division case . The possibility of civil certificates of division was not completely abolished until the Judicial Code of 1911 abolished the circuit courts . = = Other forms of certification = = The modern form of Supreme Court certified question jurisdiction was enacted in 1925 and amended in 1949 . 28 U.S.C. § 1254 provides : Cases in the courts of appeals may be reviewed by the Supreme Court by the following methods : ( 1 ) By writ of certiorari granted upon the petition of any party to any civil or criminal case , before or after rendition of judgment or decree ; ( 2 ) By certification at any time by a court of appeals of any question of law in any civil or criminal case as to which instructions are desired , and upon such certification the Supreme Court may give binding instructions or require the entire record to be sent up for decision of the entire matter in controversy . Section 1254 ( 1 ) represents the far more common route : certiorari , the source of nearly all the Supreme Court 's current docket . Section 1254 ( 2 ) represents a less common route : certification . Pursuant to § 1254 ( 2 ) , the Supreme Court heard 72 certified question cases between 1927 and 1936 ; 20 between 1937 and 1946 ; and only four between 1947 and 2010 . In modern jurisprudence , § 1254 ( 2 ) certification has become very rare . For example , when the en banc Fifth Circuit attempted to certify a question in 2009 ( also a rare occurrence ) , the Supreme Court summarily declined to consider the case . Certified questions are also governed by Supreme Court Rule 19 . = = Analysis = = Several scholars have argued that certificates of division were pro forma , and that the judge and justice would merely agree to disagree , often without writing opposing opinions . For example , with the circuit court decision leading up to United States v. Marchant ( 1827 ) , the reporter records that " [ t ] he district judge concurred in this opinion ; but as it was a matter of not infrequent occurrence , and important to the practice of the court , the judges afterwards divided in opinion for the purpose of obtaining a solemn decision of the superior court . " Similarly , the United States v. Ortega ( 1826 ) circuit court opinion notes that the " point was taken to the supreme court upon a proforma certificate of a division of opinion in this court . " White writes that " the certificate of division procedure constituted the principal opportunity by which they could control their docket . " It was common for Marshall Court justices , while riding circuit or on vacation , to exchange letters about cases in the circuit courts which might be appropriate for certificates of division .
= New York State Route 96 = New York State Route 96 ( NY 96 ) is a 126 @.@ 01 @-@ mile ( 202 @.@ 79 km ) northwest – southeast state highway in the Finger Lakes region of New York in the United States . The southern terminus of the route is at an interchange with NY 17 in the Southern Tier village of Owego , Tioga County . Its northern terminus is at a junction with East Main Street in the city of Rochester , Monroe County . Between the two endpoints , NY 96 passes through the city of Ithaca and the villages of Waterloo , Victor , and Pittsford . NY 96 is signed north – south for its entire length , although most of the route in Ontario County travels in an east – west direction . All of NY 96 , except from Candor to Ithaca and from northwest of Victor to Pittsford , was originally designated as part of New York State Route 15 in 1924 . NY 15 was originally routed on modern NY 96B between Candor and Ithaca , and modern NY 64 and NY 251 between Victor and Pittsford . It was realigned onto the modern alignment of NY 96 between Victor and Pittsford in 1930 . NY 15 was renumbered to New York State Route 2 c . 1939 to eliminate duplication with U.S. Route 15 ( US 15 ) . NY 2 was subsequently redesignated as NY 96 in the early 1940s as the alignments of NY 2 and NY 96 , a route in Rensselaer County , were swapped . NY 96 was realigned again in the early 1950s , this time between Candor and Ithaca , to serve the village of Spencer west of Candor . Near Rochester , NY 96 followed what is now Interstate 490 ( I @-@ 490 ) for a short time during the 1950s and early 1960s . = = Route description = = Most of NY 96 's 126 miles ( 203 km ) are maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) ; however , three sections of the route in Tompkins County and Monroe County are maintained by local highway departments . In the Tompkins County city of Ithaca , NY 96 is city @-@ maintained from the southern city line to the start of the Fulton / Meadow Street one @-@ way couplet , at which point maintenance of the highway reverts to NYSDOT . The route is also maintained by Ithaca from Park Road to the western city limits . The last locally owned section is in the Monroe County city of Rochester , where the entirety of NY 96 within the city is city @-@ maintained . = = = Tioga County = = = Though unsigned at this point , NY 96 begins at the eastbound onramp to NY 17 at exit 64 on Southside Drive across the Susquehanna River from the Tioga County village of Owego . The route remains unsigned until the intersection of Court Street and Southside Drive , the western terminus of NY 434 . NY 434 continues east along Southside Drive while NY 96 , now fully signed , turns north onto Court Street and crosses the Susquehanna River . On the opposite side of the river , NY 96 intersects Front Street . The configuration of NY 96 between Front Street and East Main Street is unorthodox in that NY 96 splits at Front Street to follow a one @-@ way couplet around the Tioga County Courthouse to Main Street , where both streets terminate . NY 96 turns onto Main Street for half a block to North Avenue , where it resumes its northward path . The route shares the parallel one @-@ way streets with NY 17C , which enters Owego from the west via Main Street and leaves via Front Street to the east . Now on North Avenue , NY 96 passes through the heart of Owego before leaving the village and following Owego Creek into a long stretch of rural country . Just over 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Owego village in the town of Owego , NY 96 meets the southern terminus of NY 38 . At this point , NY 38 becomes the creekside highway while NY 96 passes over Owego Creek and follows Catatonk Creek northwest into the town of Candor . Once in Candor , the route and the creek turn northward toward the village of Candor , where NY 96 meets NY 96B , an alternate route of NY 96 between Candor and the city of Ithaca . Past NY 96B , NY 96 turns to the west and crosses over Catatonk Creek as it exits the village . West of Candor , NY 96 follows an east – west alignment through a creek valley to the village of Spencer , where the route converges with NY 34 and heads north into another valley leading to Tompkins County . = = = Tompkins County = = = The two routes remain concurrent as they snake to the northwest through Tompkins County . Southwest of the city of Ithaca in the town of Ithaca , NY 34 and NY 96 meet NY 13 . The three routes continue northeast through the town , intersecting NY 327 and NY 13A before crossing over the inlet of Cayuga Lake and entering the city of Ithaca on Meadow Street . Here , NY 96B reconnects to its parent at the junction of Clinton and Meadow Streets . North of this point , Meadow Street splits into a one @-@ way couplet , with Fulton Street carrying southbound traffic and Meadow Street handling northbound traffic . NY 79 , also routed on a one @-@ way couplet here , crosses NY 96 at Green and Seneca Streets , with NY 79 eastbound using one block of Fulton Street to travel from State Street to Green Street . One block north of NY 79 , NY 96 splits from NY 13 and NY 34 and heads to the west at Buffalo Street . NY 89 begins here , and NY 96 overlaps with NY 89 toward the West End of Ithaca . After crossing southbound NY 13 and NY 34 , NY 89 and NY 96 run parallel to and a few feet to the north of NY 79 . NY 89 turns north onto Taughannock Boulevard at the next intersection while NY 96 continues west across the lake outlet as Cliff Street , paralleling NY 79 . They do not intersect in this area — known locally as The Octopus — though they once did . At one time , NY 96 , NY 79 , NY 89 , NY 13A and Elm Street met at an intersection that gave the area its name . Today , only NY 13A and NY 79 intersect there while the stub of former NY 89 is now a park access road that intersects with NY 96 , which continues north out of the Cayuga Lake valley as Trumansburg Road . Unlike NY 89 , which runs along the base of the valley and parallels the west shore of Cayuga Lake , NY 96 heads away from the lake , increasing the distance between itself and the water body as it proceeds northwestward to the highlands overlooking the lake . The route heads across open fields and past isolated pockets of homes toward Trumansburg , where NY 96 crosses over Taughannock Creek and serves Taughannock Falls State Park southeast of the village . In Trumansburg itself , the highway becomes Main Street and meets the northern terminus of NY 227 in the center of the community . NY 96 continues on , exiting Trumansburg just 250 yards ( 229 m ) before crossing the Seneca County line . = = = Seneca County = = = NY 96 proceeds northwest through a lightly populated section of Seneca County and the town of Covert to the village of Interlaken , home to the southern terminus of NY 96A , a more westerly alternate route of NY 96 between Interlaken and Geneva . Outside of the village , NY 96 continues on a northwesterly path for another 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) to the Ovid – Romulus town line , where it turns due west for 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to access the village of Ovid . The route mostly bypasses the village , with NY 96A and NY 414 serving as its Main Street instead . The three routes meet at a junction on the northern fringe of the community , at which point NY 96A leaves NY 414 and turns west to follow the town line toward Seneca Lake while NY 96 joins NY 414 and heads north into the town of Romulus . Midway between the village of Ovid and the hamlet of Romulus , the two routes split , allowing NY 414 to continue due north to Seneca Falls . NY 96 , meanwhile , turns to the northwest , following the eastern edge of the Seneca Army Depot for most of the distance to Romulus hamlet . Just south of the community 's center , NY 96 separates from the depot grounds and continues north through the hamlet and into the town of Varick . The route uneventfully crosses the town , passing by open fields on a predominantly northward alignment on its way to the Fayette town line and a junction with NY 336 , an east – west connector between NY 96A and NY 414 . NY 96 continues across rural terrain to the outskirts of the village of Waterloo , where the number of homes rises as the route enters the village on Fayette Street . In the southern half of the village , the highway follows a zig @-@ zag routing as it leaves Fayette Street at River Road before returning to the north at Washington Street one block to the east . While on Washington Street , the route passes over the Cayuga – Seneca Canal and enters the village 's center , changing names to Virginia Street in the process . Not far to the north , NY 96 heads into Waterloo 's central business district , built up around the junction of Virginia and Main ( US 20 and NY 5 ) Streets . Past Routes 5 and 20 , NY 96 continues north as a residential street to the village line , where the route turns to the west with a slight trend to the north . At this point , the scenery surrounding NY 96 shifts from house @-@ lined streets to rural countryside once again , an appearance that follows the road to the northwest through the town of Waterloo and across the county line . = = = Ontario County = = = Although NY 96 travels mostly in an east – west direction throughout Ontario County , it is still signed as a north – south highway . Less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) into the county , NY 96 connects to NY 14 by way of a cloverleaf interchange , an oddity considering the rural location of the interchange . West of NY 14 , NY 96 begins to parallel the paths of both the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) and the Canandaigua Lake outlet to the north . The highway follows both entities across the town of Phelps to the village of the same name , where NY 96 meets the southern terminus of NY 88 . Just west of the village , NY 96 intersects the northern terminus of NY 488 , formerly part of NY 88 . West of the intersection , a northward reverse S @-@ curve draws NY 96 closer to the Thruway and the outlet as the route heads toward the village of Clifton Springs , which NY 96 bypasses to the north . 4 miles ( 6 km ) to the west in the village of Manchester , NY 96 crosses over the outlet ( which roughly follows NY 21 south to Canandaigua Lake from this point out ) and indirectly connects to the Thruway by way of a junction with NY 21 located north of the village center and just south of where NY 21 meets the Thruway at exit 43 . West of NY 21 , NY 96 curves gently to the south , crossing the Ontario Central Railroad before resuming its westward alignment near the grade crossing . At this point , NY 96 enters the town of Farmington and begins to parallel the Thruway once more . The route passes by Finger Lakes Gaming and Race Track , located between County Route 8 ( CR 8 ) and NY 332 , prior to intersecting NY 332 itself 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) west of the race track . From this point northwestward to Rochester , NY 96 passes through substantially more developed areas . The first of these is the nearby village of Victor , which NY 96 enters by way of an overpass carrying it over the Ontario Central Railroad . In the village itself , the route meets the northern terminus of NY 444 , which travels north – south between Victor and Bloomfield . West of the village in the town of Victor , NY 96 runs along the base of a valley separating it from the Thruway , where it intersects the eastern terminus of NY 251 . The route continues on a northwesterly track for another mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before curving to the north and widening from two to four lanes as it passes under the Thruway near exit 45 . I @-@ 490 , which begins at Thruway exit 45 , is accessible from NY 96 by way of exit 29 , the eastern @-@ most exit on I @-@ 490 . The section of NY 96 between exit 29 and NY 250 in Perinton serves as a major commercial strip , anchored by the presence of Eastview Mall , one of the largest malls in the Rochester area and the largest east of the city . Also present along this stretch of NY 96 are a series of plazas , beginning with one just north of I @-@ 490 featuring a Walmart and a Kohl 's . Continuing northward , NY 96 runs along the eastern edge of Eastview Mall and passes two more plazas , one of which is developed around a Kmart . The highway gradually turns northwest toward the county line as it passes the mall , and crosses into Monroe County at an intersection leading to Eastview Commons , a plaza separated from the mall by high @-@ voltage power lines and a large ditch . = = = Monroe County = = = Roughly a quarter of a mile ( 0 @.@ 4 km ) from the county line , the commercial surroundings end as NY 96 intersects the southern terminus of NY 250 in the town of Perinton . 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) to the northwest , NY 96 meets I @-@ 490 once again , this time at exit 28 . West of the exit , NY 96 parallels I @-@ 490 for roughly 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 @.@ 01 km ) , serving several office parks and Powder Mills Park before reconnecting to the freeway at exit 27 , located on the southern edge of Bushnell 's Basin , a small hamlet located directly on NY 96 . North of the exit , NY 96 breaks from I @-@ 490 and parallels the Erie Canal through slightly less developed areas between Bushnell 's Basin and Mitchell Road in the town of Pittsford , where it narrows to two lanes and becomes East Jefferson Road . West of Mitchell Road , NY 96 takes a more southerly alignment than the canal as it enters the densely populated village of Pittsford and meets the northern and eastern termini of NY 64 and NY 252 , respectively , at the intersection of Jefferson Road and South Main Street . NY 64 heads to the south along South Main Street and NY 252 continues along Jefferson Road to the west while NY 96 turns north , proceeding into the heart of the village along South Main Street . In the village center , NY 96 intersects Monroe Avenue and State Street , which carry NY 31 east – west through Pittsford . The route continues on , becoming North Main Street as it crosses the Erie Canal and passes under the CSX Transportation @-@ owned West Shore Subdivision . Just north of the railroad overpass is a junction with the southern terminus of NY 153 , the most direct route between Pittsford and nearby East Rochester . Past NY 153 , NY 96 exits the village of Pittsford and becomes East Avenue , a name the route retains to its terminus in downtown Rochester . It proceeds northward through the heavily residential town , passing by Nazareth College and meeting the western terminus of NY 31F ( Fairport Road ) at a junction adjacent to the campus of St. John Fisher College . East Avenue , and likewise NY 96 , takes on the northwesterly , four @-@ lane alignment set by Fairport Road and begins to parallel the routing of I @-@ 490 once more as both enter the town of Brighton . Not far to the northwest of the town line , NY 96 meets Elmwood and Linden Avenues , the latter carrying NY 441 . About 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the northwest , NY 96 intersects Penfield Road , the pre @-@ expressway alignment of NY 441 . One block from this point is Clover Street , which carries NY 65 south of East Avenue . At the Brighton town – Rochester city line , NY 96 passes through the center of the Can of Worms , a complex interchange that links I @-@ 490 to I @-@ 590 . Here , I @-@ 590 passes under NY 96 while I @-@ 490 flies over NY 96 . On the other side of the interchange in Rochester , East Avenue becomes a commercial strip once again , but to a lesser extent than in Victor . At North Winton Road , NY 96 is signed for the last time by way of a " North 96 " reassurance assembly directing traffic to stay on East Avenue . Despite this fact , the route officially continues northwestward toward downtown Rochester . West of Winton , NY 96 passes through the East Avenue Historic District , a primarily residential area with historic upper @-@ class houses , including the George Eastman House . This stretch of the route was narrowed in mid @-@ 2010 from four lanes to two , to improve the residential feel and reduce automobile speeds . At Alexander Street , the environment turns more commercial as the route enters the downtown area . After crossing the Inner Loop , the route passes the Little Theatre before terminating at a Y @-@ junction with East Main Street . = = History = = In 1908 , the New York State Legislature created Route 36 , an unsigned legislative route that extended from Owego to Seneca Falls via Candor , Ithaca , and Ovid . South of Romulus , Route 36 utilized what is now NY 96 and NY 96B . When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the Owego – Interlaken and Ovid – Romulus portions of legislative Route 36 became part of NY 15 , which began in Owego and proceeded northwest from Romulus to Rochester by way of Waterloo , Phelps , Victor , Mendon , and Pittsford . From Mendon to Rochester , NY 15 followed the path of legislative Route 14 , another highway dating back to 1908 that continued south from Mendon on what is now NY 64 and used Monroe Avenue between Pittsford and Rochester . Another section of NY 15 — from the village of Phelps east to NY 14 — utilized what had been designated as part of legislative Route 6 @-@ a from 1911 to 1921 . By 1926 , NY 31 was assigned across western and central New York , utilizing Monroe Avenue from downtown Rochester to Pittsford . Although NY 96 's modern routing via East Avenue was state @-@ maintained and formerly part of legislative Route 20 from current NY 31F westward , NY 15 initially remained on Monroe Avenue , creating an overlap between NY 15 and NY 31 . It was realigned at some point between 1927 and 1932 to follow East Avenue to Rochester instead . In southern Seneca County , NY 15 initially passed through Lodi on its way from Interlaken to Ovid . It was realigned in the late 1920s to bypass Lodi to the northeast on the former alignment of legislative Route 36 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 15 basically remained intact . The only change made at this time was the straightening out of the Victor – Pittsford segment , which now bypassed Mendon in favor of a more direct alignment between the two villages via Bushnell 's Basin . The former alignment of NY 15 became part of NY 251 east of Mendon and part of NY 64 north of the hamlet . US 15 was extended into New York c . 1939 ; it replaced NY 2 , which had extended from the Pennsylvania state line to Rochester . NY 15 was renumbered to NY 2 to eliminate numerical duplication with the U.S. Highway . The NY 96 designation was originally assigned to present @-@ day NY 2 from NY 7 in Troy to Route 2 at the Massachusetts state line . In the early 1940s , the alignments of NY 2 and NY 96 were swapped , placing NY 96 on the Owego – Rochester routing . The only major change to NY 96 since that time came in the early 1950s , when the route was realigned between Candor and Ithaca to follow a new routing via Spencer . The Candor – Spencer portion of the alignment had been part of NY 53 during the 1920s and part of NY 223 since 1930 . NY 223 was truncated to its current eastern terminus at NY 224 near Van Etten as part of NY 96 's realignment . Between Spencer and Ithaca , NY 96 overlapped with NY 34 , which had occupied that segment of highway since the 1930 renumbering . In the 1950s , NY 96 was temporarily moved onto the Eastern Expressway as sections of the freeway opened to traffic . The first section extended from Bushnell 's Basin to NY 31F and opened to traffic in the mid @-@ 1950s , at which time NY 96 was routed onto the new highway and NY 252 and NY 64 were extended eastward and northward , respectively , to cover NY 96 's old surface alignment . NY 31F , meanwhile , was truncated to begin at the expressway . A northwest extension to what is now the Can of Worms was completed c . 1957 as a realignment of NY 96 , resulting in the re @-@ extension of NY 31F to its original terminus and an extension of NY 64 along East Avenue to the eastern edge of Rochester . NY 64 , NY 96 , and NY 252 were restored to their pre @-@ 1950s alignments c . 1961 when the freeway was designated as I @-@ 490 . = = Suffixed routes = = NY 96A ( 26 @.@ 94 miles or 43 @.@ 36 kilometres ) is an alternate route of NY 96 in Seneca County . The route splits from NY 96 in Interlaken and terminates at US 20 and NY 5 east of Geneva in Waterloo . It was assigned in the early 1940s . NY 96B ( 19 @.@ 56 miles or 31 @.@ 48 kilometres ) is an alternate route of NY 96 between Candor , Tioga County , and Ithaca , Tompkins County . The route was assigned in the early 1950s . = = Major intersections = =
= Kill the Irishman = Kill the Irishman ( alternatively known as Bulletproof Gangster ) is a 2011 American biographical crime film directed by Jonathan Hensleigh , and starring Ray Stevenson , Vincent D 'Onofrio , Christopher Walken , and Val Kilmer . Written by Hensleigh ( along with Jeremy Walters ) , it is based on the life of Irish @-@ American gangster Danny Greene , and was adapted from the book To Kill the Irishman : The War That Crippled the Mafia by Rick Porrello . Before entering production , Kill the Irishman had a troubled development stage that lasted over a decade . Production commenced in 2009 , with filming taking place in and around Detroit . The film chronicles the rise and fall of Danny Greene . He worked as a longshoreman in the Cleveland docks , until being chosen to serve as interim president in 1961 . In 1964 , he was convicted of embezzling $ 11 @,@ 500 of the union 's funds . After his conviction , Greene rose through the criminal underworld in Cleveland , and waged war on the Mafia for control of the city . After many failed attempts , Greene was assassinated on October 6 , 1977 by contract killer Ray Ferritto . His death ultimately led to the demise of the Cleveland Mafia . Released in the United States on March 11 , 2011 , Kill the Irishman premiered at the Landmark Sunshine Cinema in New York City . Most of the cast , including Stevenson and D ’ Onofrio , were in attendance . Shondor Birns ' niece was also present . The film was met with mixed @-@ positive reviews upon release , but some criticized the purported similarities to Martin Scorsese 's Goodfellas . Kill the Irishman grossed $ 1 @,@ 188 @,@ 194 at the domestic box office , against a production budget of $ 12 million . = = Plot = = In 1960 , Danny Greene and his childhood friends Billy McComber and Art Sneperger are longshoremen at the Cleveland docks . Meanwhile , the members are exploited by corrupt union boss , Jerry Merke and the leadership of the ILA union urges Greene to run against him . Meanwhile , Sneperger can 't pay a gambling debt to Cleveland Mafia Capo John Nardi . In return for Sneperger 's debt being forgiven , Greene supplies Nardi 's crew with goods stolen from the docks . Merke finds out , demands a cut of Greene 's profits , and then sends an enforcer to kill him . Instead , Greene beats up the enforcer , then beats up Merke , throws the union leader out of his office , and is later elected union president . He improves the working conditions at the docks while continuing his dealings with Nardi . Greene 's corruption is exposed by the Plain Dealer newspaper and Cleveland Police Detective Joe Manditski , who grew up with Greene in Collinwood , arrests him . Bankrupt and facing prison , Greene plea bargains to lesser charges in return for becoming an FBI informant and being banned for life from organized labor . Greene is released and moves his unhappy wife and daughters back to Collinwood . Nardi gets him work as an enforcer for Hungarian Jewish loan shark Shondor Birns , and later helps pitch a deal to Mafia Capo Jack Licavoli : Greene will force the city 's garbage haulers to join the union Licavoli controls . Greene , McComber , Sneperger , and ex @-@ Hells Angel Keith Ritson terrorize many into joining , but Greene 's friend Mike Frato refuses . Licavoli orders Greene to kill Frato , but Greene balks because Frato has ten children . Nardi tells him privately , though , that , " You wanted to play in the big leagues . Sometimes you have to do things you don 't wanna do . " As Greene prepare 's to kill Frato with a car bomb , he learns from the FBI that Sneperger has returned to gambling , and has become an informant for Manditsky . That night , Greene assigns Sneperger to set the bomb under Frato ’ s car and presses the detonator as he does it . An enraged Frato later shoots at Greene in a park . Greene returns fire , kills Frato , and is arrested for murder , but released after Frato 's driver tells Manditski that Greene acted in self @-@ defense . Having had enough , Greene 's long suffering wife leaves him and takes the children . Greene sees his elderly Irish neighbor , Grace O ’ Keefe , being evicted . He intervenes , pays her rent , and she gratefully gives him her father 's gold Celtic cross to wear for protection . Greene begins to use his money and connections to help other Irish @-@ Americans in need , and earns the nickname " The Robin Hood of Collinwood " . Greene wants to open his own restaurant , and asks Shondor Birns to help him . Birns arranges a $ 70 @,@ 000 loan from the Gambinos , but Birns ' courier buys cocaine with the money and gets arrested . Birns and Greene argue over which of them should pay back the money ; when Greene refuses to pay , Birns hires a hitman to kill him . Greene narrowly escapes , and later kills Birns with a car bomb . After Mafia boss John Scalish dies , both Nardi and Licavoli are considered for succession . Licavoli is chosen due to his closer ties to the Five Families and decides to charge Greene 30 % " street tax " for doing business in Cleveland . Greene refuses to pay , crudely mocks Licavoli 's Italian heritage , and vows , " The Irishman 's in business for himself now . " An outraged Licavoli has Greene 's house blown up , but he survives . He then attempts to demote Nardi and take away his crew , only to have the latter join forces with Greene . Vowing to take over Cleveland together , Greene and Nardi start by organizing the murders of Licavoli ’ s associates , many of whom are blown up . Thirty @-@ six car bombings occur during the summer of 1976 , drawing national attention and humiliating Licavoli . After failing multiple times to kill Greene , Licavoli is forced to humbly ask Genovese boss Anthony Salerno to help him kill Nardi and Greene . Having learned of this from the FBI , Greene claims that he wants to leave Cleveland and buy a ranch in Texas , but needs to raise $ 2 million . Wishing to size up their enemies , Greene and Nardi travel to New York and invite Salerno to invest in the ranch . After they leave , Salerno orders his associates to hire professional hitman Ray Ferritto to kill them both . Nardi is killed in a car explosion , McComber dies in a bombing at the Cleveland docks , and Ritson is shot near his house . Detective Manditski lets Greene know that a master killer is after him . He offers Greene protection , but is told , " My enemies will be taken care of . " After a dentist 's appointment on October 6 , 1977 , Greene notices Ferritto driving by slowly , and accepts that he is about to die , giving his gold cross to an admiring boy . Ferritto detonates a bomb on the car next to Greene 's , killing Greene instantly . An epilogue , by Manditski , reveals that the investigation of Danny Greene 's murder led to the collapse of the Mafia , not only in Cleveland , but all over the United States . = = Cast = = = = = Principal = = = Ray Stevenson as Danny Greene , an Irish @-@ American gangster . Vincent D 'Onofrio as John Nardi , an Italian @-@ American labor racketeer and Greene 's ally . Val Kilmer as Joe Manditski , a Cleveland cop who investigates Greene . The character is partly based on former Cleveland Police Chief Edward Kovačić . Christopher Walken as Alex " Shondor " Birns , a Jewish @-@ American loan shark . = = = Supporting = = = = = Development = = Kill the Irishman had been in development since 1997 . Producer Tommy Reid heard that Rick Porrello , an Ohio policeman , was about to publish a book about Greene called To Kill the Irishman . Reid flew to Ohio and met with Porrello , who told Reid his grandfather was a high @-@ ranking Mafia figure in Cleveland during the prohibition era . The meeting went well , and on March 17 , 1998 , they signed a deal for the film rights to the book . Getting Kill the Irishman produced was difficult . Reid frequently left deals unconcluded , and discovered that the script he ’ d commissioned was attached to a cover with another screenwriter and producer ’ s name listed . According to Reid , this was a common occurrence in Hollywood , and he claims to have spent over $ 1 million to ensure the film was made . = = Pre @-@ production = = = = = Inspiration = = = Reid was a fan of mafia movies ( including The Godfather and Goodfellas ) and aspired to become a film maker . Being of Irish and Italian ancestry , he wanted to make a film that would relate to both nationalities . Reid first heard about mobster Danny Greene from his roommates in Ohio , and believed that New York , Chicago and Boston were the " three meccas of mafia crime " . According to Reid , there wasn 't much documentation on Greene 's life , but after hearing that Porrello was about to publish a book on Greene and the Mafia in Cleveland , he was determined to make a movie about him . = = = Background research = = = Prior to making Kill the Irishman , Reid did research on Greene 's life and organized crime in Cleveland . He spoke with Sister Barbara Eppich , a nun , who helped raise Greene during his childhood . Sister Eppich told Reid of how Greene was abandoned during childhood and was raised by his grandfather . Because his grandfather worked nights , Greene was left to walk the streets . He would go to school dirty on a regular basis , so Sister Eppich would have to wash him . She also stated that Greene would sleep all the time , but was a " phenomenal athlete " . Reid spoke to number of law enforcement agencies , including the FBI . The FBI wanted to make sure that Reid wasn 't glorifying the Mafia . Reid stated he had no intentions of glorifying crime , and that " the whole message at the end of the movie is that crime doesn ’ t pay " . On a similar subject , Hensleigh also said the " film [ doesn 't suggest Greene ] was a hero " . However , he did note the film provides a balanced perspective . While researching his role , Stevenson looked at TV footage of Greene , and read Porello 's book ; To Kill The Irishman . According to Stevenson , there was " quite a bit " of research material available . D 'Onofrio , on the other hand , had the opposite experience . Information on Nardi was scarce , so Hensleigh allowed him to improvise on his character . = = = Screenplay = = = Although the screenplay was adapted from his book , Porrello had " minimum involvement " in its writing ( most of which was done by Hensleigh ) . Hensleigh regularly contacted Porrello and they agreed not to use the real names of anyone who was still alive , " out of respect and sensitivity " towards them . = = = Casting = = = Due to the troubled development of Kill the Irishman , Reid decided to make a documentary about Greene 's life ; known as Danny Greene : the Rise and Fall of the Irishman . Due to the research he had done for the movie , Reid became specialized in the Northern Ohio crime scene and Greene ’ s life . Reid felt that by doing the documentary , at least he could go to his " grave ' saying I tried ' " . In 2009 , with 17 hours of the documentary shot , Reid was told his film had been green @-@ lit . He joined forces with production company Code Entertainment and engaged with a " reliable " director ; Jonathan Hensleigh . They then signed actors Val Kilmer and Christopher Walken to the project . This was followed by the signing of actors Vincent D ’ Onofrio ( Full Metal Jacket ) , Paul Sorvino ( Goodfellas ) , and Irish actor Ray Stevenson , respectively . Stevenson was filming The Book of Eli when he got a telephone call from Hensleigh , so they arranged to meet in Los Angeles . According to Stevenson , he was drawn to the script and immediately made a deal . = = Production = = = = = Filming = = = On May 19 , 2009 , the film entered principal photography . It was shot within seven weeks , mostly in and around Detroit . This was partly because the city gave tax credits which Cleveland would not match . According to the 2009 report by the Michigan Film Office , Kill the Irishman received roughly $ 3 million in subsidies . Michigan 's film rebate pays up to 42 percent of filmmakers ' expenses for costs incurred while filming in the state . Ohio offers only 25 to 35 percent in subsidies , meaning that if the producers spent the same amount filming in Cleveland , they would have received $ 500 @,@ 000 to $ 1 @.@ 25 million less in subsidies . On the other hand , Stevenson said that they wanted to film in Cleveland , but the city had " prettied itself up " and changed , whereas Detroit was - in his opinion - still " on its knees " . Two incidents occurred during filming . On the first , seven bullet holes were shot into one of the trucks used during production . On the second , the cast and crew were driving from the set , and a pedestrian was shot in the neck outside a supermarket . The ambulance took 35 – 45 minutes to arrive , and waited a further 35 – 45 minutes for the police to arrive . The paramedics refused to take the victim to the hospital without a police escort . According to Stevenson , there was a possibility that rival gangmembers would shoot at the paramedics for trying to resuscitate the victim . = = Post @-@ production = = = = = Effects = = = Due to the limited budget , some of the effects seen in the film couldn 't be replicated . Stevenson said everyone " had to be on point " , and that any mistakes couldn 't be rectified by re @-@ filming . For example , the producers couldn 't afford to shoot the film 's final scene ( in which Greene is killed via a car explosion ) twice . Before filming , the production crew and actors had to check everything on the set . Time was also lacking , with Stevenson saying everyone " had to be extremely focused " . = = = Editing = = = Porrello had second thoughts about one scene being included in the film . This particular scene included the murder of two police officers . Porrello felt uncomfortable approaching Hensleigh , but did so anyway . Porrello said to him : " if you are going to kill a cop " , it is " going to change the tone of the story " . The scene was nevertheless included in the final cut . = = Release = = = = = Critical reception = = = Kill the Irishman received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reviews from film critics . Giving the film a positive review , Mike LaSalle , of the San Francisco Chronicle , said ; " What makes this film special and memorable is the character of Danny Greene , who is not the usual neighborhood hoodlum you see in movies , the kind who gets in deep and gradually loses his soul " . Marshall Fine , of the Huffington Post , gave the film a mixed review . He criticized it for jumping through different events in a " jerky fashion " , but summed up the review by calling it a " movie with a lot of meat on the bone , even if some of it is tough or stringy . It 's not fancy , but it 's always tasty " . Rotten Tomatoes reported that 63 % of critics gave the movie a positive review , with an average rating of 5 @.@ 6 out of 10 . Whereas on Metacritic , the film has a score of 50 out of 100 , indicating " mixed or average reviews " . But despite the mixed @-@ positive reception , a number of critics have called the movie a ripoff of Goodfellas . Robert Abele , of the LA Times , said " the film plays like an explosion 's aftermath ; shards of mob movies that add up to the usual Goodfellas knockoff " . Scott Tobias , of the A.V. Club , had similar views ; saying " the biggest problem " with the film " isn ’ t that it rips off Goodfellas " , but that plenty of " good films " have " ripped it off well " . In regards to the controversy surrounding Kill the Irishman and its purported similarities to Goodfellas , critic Dave Van Houwelingen said : " There are certain movies that serve as a standard bearer for a genre – a high water mark that filmmakers always try to hit , but seem to always come up short . To me , I think Martin Scorsese ’ s Goodfellas is that type of film for the gangster genre . In the 21 years since the film was released , so many filmmakers have tried so hard to copy Goodfellas ' success , and so few have gotten even close to capturing the magic that Scorsese did in one of his very best films . The 21 years have been littered with a bunch of pale imitations . To that list , you can add Jonathan Hensleigh ’ s Kill the Irishman , which wants so desperately to be Goodfellas , and comes up so very , very short . " Hensleigh 's directing was criticized . Scott Tobias said the directing " doesn ’ t do much beyond filling in the template " . He noted that Hensleigh was telling the " true @-@ life tale " of the mob 's decline in Cleveland , but also said that " every character and setpiece felt like it fell off a truck " . LA Weekly 's Nick Pinkerton held similar views , saying that although " Hensleigh perks up when filming violence , the atmosphere throughout is past @-@ prime , stymieing any strut " . Lisa Schwarzbaum , of Entertainment Weekly , also concurred , calling the film 's structure " pretty square " . Despite criticizing the film 's structure , Schwarzbaum called the cast " tasty " , and singled out D 'Onofrio , Kilmer , and Walken for praise . Clint O 'Connor , of The Plain Dealer , held similar views , saying the " film 's greatest strength is its cast " . On the contrary , David Rooney held the opposite opinion ; saying the " low @-@ wattage cast " is what turned the " potentially strong " film into a " routine crime thriller " . = = = Box office performance = = = On its opening day , Kill the Irishman earned $ 42 @,@ 925 from five theaters ( with an average gross of $ 8 @,@ 585 per theater ) . On its second day , the box office receipts increased by 46 percent ; earning $ 62 @,@ 446 from five theaters ( with an average gross of $ 12 @,@ 489 per theater ) . Then on the third day , the film 's box office performance dropped by 36 percent ; earning $ 40 @,@ 059 from five theaters ( with an average gross of $ 8 @,@ 012 per theater ) . The gradual decline in box office receipts continued until the eighth day , where the film 's gross sharply increased by 373 percent ; earning $ 36 @,@ 119 from 21 theaters ( with an average gross of $ 1 @,@ 720 per theater ) . The film continued to have periodic fluctuations at the box office . By the end of its box office run , Kill the Irishman grossed a total of $ 1 @,@ 188 @,@ 194 at the domestic box office , against a production budget of $ 12 million . = = = Home media = = = After a limited theatrical release , Kill the Irishman was released on DVD by Anchor Bay Entertainment on June 14 , 2011 . As of October 22 , 2015 , the movie has grossed $ 2 @,@ 498 @,@ 115 in domestic DVD sales . = = Soundtrack = = The soundtrack for the film includes 26 songs . = = Historical accuracy = = Kill the Irishman contains four historical inaccuracies . This has been noted by critics , one of whom said the film 's main problem is that it seemed " all too willing to sacrifice historical accuracy in the name of an easy @-@ to @-@ digest narrative " . Shondor Birns was murdered on March 29 , 1975 , whereas in the film this occurs on March 8 . The movie also misspells the name of a nearby parish known as ' St. Malachi 's ' ; in the movie it is spelled ' St. Malichy 's ' . = = = The death of Alex " Shondor " Birns = = = In the movie , Greene kills Shondor Birns by detonating a bomb on his car . In reality , even though Birns was killed by a car bomb , there was no evidence to link Greene to his murder . Even though it is commonly speculated that Greene killed Birns , his murder remains officially unsolved . = = = The death of Art Sneperger = = = In the movie , Greene discovers his friend Art Sneperger is about to become an informant , so he decides to kill him in a car bombing . Greene has Sneperger place a bomb on Mike Frato 's car , and as he is doing it , Greene detonates the bomb early , killing Sneperger in the process . In reality , Greene was questioned by the police , but was never proved to have killed Sneperger .
= Paynter ( horse ) = Paynter ( foaled March 4 , 2009 ) is an American @-@ bred Thoroughbred racehorse notable for a promising three @-@ year @-@ old racing season that included a second @-@ place finish in the Belmont Stakes and a victory in the Haskell Invitational , cut short by a near @-@ fatal case of colitis requiring abdominal surgery , complicated by laminitis . Most experts believed that even if he survived , his racing days were over . His struggle for life , regularly updated via social media by his owners , gained him a large fan base and earned him the National Thoroughbred Racing Association Moment of the Year and Secretariat Vox Populi Award for 2012 . His surgery was successful , and innovative treatment for laminitis prevented harm to his feet , so he was sent to the Fair Hill Training Center for recovery and rehabilitation . In his four @-@ year @-@ old year , he returned to the track in June 2013 , almost eleven months after his 2012 Haskell victory , winning the first race of his comeback by 4 1 ⁄ 2 lengths , then running in three more graded stakes races , placing second in two of them , demonstrating his ability to compete against top horses . In November , 2013 , he ran in the Breeders ' Cup Classic and following the race was retired to WinStar Farm to stand at stud beginning with the 2014 breeding season . = = Background = = Paynter is a bay horse with a white star on his forehead , a faint irregular snip on his nose , and a white left front pastern bred by Diamond A Racing Corporation of Kentucky . His sire is 1998 Breeders ' Cup Classic winner Awesome Again , and his dam is Tizso , who raced twice and is a full sister to the two @-@ time Breeders ' Cup Classic winner Tiznow . Originally named MC 's Dream , Paynter sold for $ 325 @,@ 000 at the Keeneland yearling sale . He was purchased by Ahmed Zayat 's Zayat Stables , LLC and was started under saddle by horse trainer J.B. McKathan in Florida . After completing basic training , Zayat 's adult son , Justin , selected Paynter , along with stablemate Bodemeister , to move on to the racing stable of trainer Bob Baffert . Paynter did not race as a two @-@ year @-@ old . = = Three @-@ year @-@ old season = = Paynter won his maiden race on February 18 , 2012 at Santa Anita Park . In an unusual move , he was taken directly from his maiden race to the Grade I Santa Anita Derby , where he had a troubled start and ran in sixth place before finishing fourth , 3 3 ⁄ 4 lengths behind the winner . Viewed as not quite ready for the Triple Crown races , Paynter next ran in the Derby Trial , where , on a muddy track , he lost narrowly in the final furlong . In his first three races , he was ridden by Martin Garcia . His second win was in a 1 1 ⁄ 16 mile allowance race on the undercard of the 2012 Preakness Stakes , when he was ridden by Mike Smith , who also rode Bodemeister in the Preakness later that day . Following Bodemeister 's second @-@ place finish in both the Kentucky Derby and the Preakness , Paynter was entered into the Belmont with Smith as jockey . In the Belmont , Paynter led for most of the race until the final furlong when Smith came off the rail , allowing winner Union Rags to slip through and win by a neck . Paynter had already fended off two challengers during the race , and Smith had switched his whip from his right hand to his left in an attempt to fend off a late challenge from Atigun ; Smith considered his decision to be an error that cost him the race . Paynter 's biggest win and first graded stakes win came in his next race , the 1 1 ⁄ 8 mile , $ 1 million Haskell Invitational at Monmouth Park Racetrack in July 2012 . Baffert 's assistant trainer , Jim Barnes , represented the stable at the race , as Baffert had cut back his schedule following a heart attack earlier in the year . Paynter went off as the even @-@ money favorite . Ridden for the first time by jockey Rafael Bejarano , he followed the leader through the backstretch , then took the lead at the far turn , beating five other horses to win by 3 3 ⁄ 4 lengths . His winning time was 1 : 48 @.@ 87 , earning him a Beyer Speed Figure of 108 . The victory was also Baffert 's third win in a row at the Haskell and sixth Haskell win in his career . Paynter 's winnings of $ 600 @,@ 000 put him close to a lifetime earnings figure of $ 1 million , at $ 952 @,@ 224 , considered impressive for a three @-@ year @-@ old horse who did not race as a two @-@ year @-@ old . Paynter 's next race was scheduled to be the Travers Stakes on August 25 . With all three Triple Crown race winners for 2012 already retired from racing ( all due to injury ) , Paynter was considered a contender to become the 3 @-@ year @-@ old Horse of the Year if he continued to win races . = = Illness and surgery = = On July 29 , 2012 , two days after his Haskell win , Paynter developed a fever , pneumonia , and diarrhea . He was hospitalized at the nearby Mid @-@ Atlantic Equine Medical Center in New Jersey and then shipped on August 10 , 2012 to Belmont Park where he trained for several days . He was then shipped to Saratoga Race Course , home to the Travers Stakes , to recover further . However , he had no public workouts and missed the Travers . He was scheduled to be flown back to Baffert 's home stable in California on August 27 , but Paynter again developed a fever and diarrhea . He was sent to the Upstate Equine Medical Center in Schuylerville , NY where he was diagnosed with colitis , an inflammation of the colon . Paynter 's condition quickly deteriorated and was deemed life @-@ threatening . Ahmed and Justin Zayat began to tweet regular updates on his condition to the public . His care was supervised by Dr. Laura Javsicas , an Equine Internal Medicine specialist . Her devotion to Paynter was admired by both Zayat and Baffert , who later said that Javsicas should receive a special Eclipse Award . In turn , Paynter , normally characterized as an " aggressive " horse , was very cooperative toward his caregivers and accepted treatment without causing problems . Paynter developed an infection at a catheter site and blood clots in his veins due to problems with his protein levels . He lost weight , and suffering from fever , colitis and diarrhea was given plasma and " aggressive " antibiotic treatment . The medical staff were also worried , because a systemic illness with intestinal inflammation , such as colitis , is a common precursor to laminitis , a painful inflammation of the internal structures of the hoof . The staff had been using cryotherapy on his lower legs as a precaution . Although his blood test results and protein levels began to stabilize , he nevertheless developed laminitis in three of his feet on September 4 , ten days after he arrived at the center . The veterinarians treating Paynter put casts on his lower legs to support his feet . Most experts believed that even if he survived his racing days were over , and the Zayat family feared that euthanasia would be necessary . After about three days , he seemed to be feeling better ; his blood work became normal and his diarrhea cleared up , but he still had low @-@ grade fevers . Against the odds , his hoof X @-@ rays came back showing no separation of the laminae , and no rotation or sinking of the coffin bone in any of his feet . Although the cryotherapy had not prevented laminitis , it might have kept it from becoming worse . On September 21 , the casts were removed from his legs . The laminitis treatment was successful and his feet were returning to normal , raising hopes that he could race again some day . Paynter developed an increasing fan base as people followed the Zayat family 's social media updates , drawing comparisons to the struggle of Barbaro a few years earlier . Both Ahmed and Justin Zayat sent out regular tweets and the hashtag # PowerUpPaynter was used to help organize updates to the public . Paynter received handmade posters from children and hundreds of get well cards . Because fevers and colitis were still a problem , Javsicas performed ultrasound and found a problem area in his colon , thus surgery was required . Paynter was very thin by this time , weighing less than 900 pounds , and surgery was considered high risk . On October 2 , he was shipped to the University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine 's New Bolton Center ( where Barbaro had also been treated ) and saw Dr. Louise Southwood , a veterinary surgeon who specialized in equine intestinal medicine and colitis cases . The following morning , Paynter went into surgery and Southwood removed a 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) growth " full of puss [ sic ] and bacteria " from his intestines . Southwood explained , " we finally got to the bottom of why he was spiking the fever . " Paynter came out of the surgery well and Zayat tweeted , " Just think about the resilience of this guy . " Baffert commented , " I can 't believe this horse is still alive . " Nine days later , a press release came out stating that Paynter was " cleared of any lingering symptoms of both [ colitis and laminitis ] , " and expected to fully recover . = = Rehabilitation and awards = = Following surgery , Paynter quickly started to regain his weight , putting on 35 pounds in the two weeks between his surgery and being sent to Fair Hill Training Center 's Equine Therapy program on October 15 for rehabilitation . Nonetheless , he arrived at Fair Hill weighing only 912 pounds . At Fair Hill , he started out with hand @-@ walking and grazing , later being allowed short periods of exercise in a round pen . He had access to treatment in a horse @-@ sized hyperbaric oxygen therapy chamber , an underwater treadmill called an AquaPacer , equine massage therapy , electromagnetic therapy , and use of a cold saltwater spa . By November 15 , he was close to 1 @,@ 000 pounds and was allowed free daily turnout in a paddock . His normal temperament returned as he began to buck and kick during turnout . He also developed a taste for red peppermint candies , strongly preferring them over green spearmint ones . On December 26 , Paynter was selected as the winner of the 2012 Secretariat Vox Populi Award . Penny Chenery , owner of Secretariat , for whom the award was named , said " Paynter 's popularity stems from his ability to battle and exceed expectations , making him the perfect choice as the recipient of this year 's Vox Populi Award ... After seeing firsthand the devastating effects of this disease , I am even more convinced that the industry must continue to diligently fight laminitis . The progress we have made to date clearly benefited Paynter — a beautiful colt with a tremendous spirit . " In January 2013 , Paynter 's survival and recovery was voted the " Moment of the Year " by the National Thoroughbred Racing Association ( NTRA ) in a field of 12 nominees , and the horse 's connections were given that honor at the annual Eclipse Awards . = = 2013 : Comeback = = On December 29 , 2012 , Paynter was shipped from Fair Hill back to California , where he resumed race training with Baffert . When he left Fair Hill he weighed 1022 pounds and was described as " full of himself . " Both Southwood and Javsicas believed that he could recover completely . While numerous horses recovering from colitis and abdominal surgery have been able to return to their previous levels of competition , Paynter 's successful recovery from laminitis was the biggest factor in his ability to resume racing . He began jogging on the track on January 5 , and had his first official workout on February 26 . On June 14 he was entered into a 7 @-@ furlong allowance race at Betfair Hollywood Park . Ahmed Zayat said , " He has shown so much courage , so much tenacity . I just want to let the horse do the talking . " Paynter carried 124 pounds , the co @-@ highweight of the eight horses in the race . Bejarano returned as jockey . It was the horse 's first start on a synthetic surface . He started from starting post position two at odds of 2 – 5 . Paynter led from the start , clocked the first quarter mile in : 22 @.@ 68 and the half mile in : 45 @.@ 67 . At six furlongs , he was 2 1 ⁄ 2 lengths in front , running that distance in 1 : 06 @.@ 56 , and continued to increase his lead over the other horses . He won by 4 1 ⁄ 2 lengths , finishing in 1 : 21 @.@ 86 , and earning a Beyer Speed Figure of 114 , the best of his career . Justin Zayat said , “ I thought I was winning the Kentucky Derby , ” and Baffert stated , " He is just an incredible , phenomenal horse , I can 't believe he is back . He 's just a great horse ... He went from being 99 – 1 to survive to 1 – 9 to win ... I got emotional watching . It ’ s an amazing story . " Paynter handled the race well and came out in good shape . Plans were made for Paynter to run additional races before the Breeders ' Cup Classic in the fall . His next race was the San Diego Handicap at Del Mar on July 27 , 2013 . Shortly after his arrival at Del Mar racetrack in early July , Paynter was profiled on TV , showing that his usual temperament was back to normal , as the camera showed him attempting to nip Baffert . Running for the first time on a different synthetic surface , Polytrack , in the grade 2 race , Paynter was the 3 – 5 favorite , and at 122 pounds carried the most weight . After running close to the pace and taking the lead in the homestretch , he lost by a half @-@ length to a late @-@ running horse , Kettle Corn , at the finish . Jockey Bejarano believed the polytrack surface was a factor in his loss . " He never seemed comfortable out there , I felt like I had plenty of horse , but he just wasn 't liking what he was doing ... he didn 't have enough at the end . " Nonetheless , purse money for his placing put him over one million dollars in lifetime winnings . Paynter next went east to run in the Grade I Woodward Stakes at Saratoga on August 31 . Five of the horses in the initial seven @-@ horse field , including Paynter , were previous Grade I stakes winners . Paynter drew post position 5 and was the second favorite at 3 @-@ 1 odds on the morning line . However , following the scratch of a speed horse , the oddsmaker revised his figures to make front @-@ running Paynter the 2 @-@ 1 favorite . On race day , over a sloppy track , another horse , Mucho Macho Man , scratched and only five horses went to the post . Paynter had a bad start , hitting the left side of the starting gate . Although he ran second for part of the race , he finished last in the field . Justin Zayat said after the race , " [ Paynter ] never got a hold of the track . We ’ ll be back another day . " Baffert concurred , stating that the horse was " fine " , but had been troubled by the poor break and by mud hitting his face . Paynter 's next race was the Grade I Awesome Again Stakes at Santa Anita on September 28 . He started from the seven post with his former rider , Martin Garcia up . After running in the middle of the pack and going five horses wide coming into the stretch , he finished second to Mucho Macho Man . His placing was viewed by sportswriters as proof that he could run against top competitors . Baffert said Paynter was still " a bit rusty , " but the trainer was happy with Paynter 's race . He was entered in the Breeders ' Cup Classic , on November 2 . Before the race , he had a very strong workout and Baffert said that Paynter was " a monster " and " back to top form " , and Ahmed Zayat stated , " Paynter is a horse like no other ... The fact that he 's even competing in the Breeders ' Cup is miraculous . " Though he finished 7th out of 11 horses , with Mucho Macho Man winning again , Paynter finished ahead of a fellow Awesome Again son , the stakes @-@ winning favorite Game On Dude . After the Breeders ' Cup , Paynter was retired and shipped to WinStar Farm to begin his stud career . His initial stud fee was set at $ 25 @,@ 000 for the 2014 breeding season . Anticipating his arrival , WinStar commissioned a unique , colorful 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) long graffiti @-@ style mural , created by Louisville street artist Braylyn Stewart . The artwork featured the slogan " Paynter : Awesome Heart , " and was surrounded by quotations about the horse and assorted references to his racing career . The decision to use graffiti art as a promotional tool was to reflect Paynter 's toughness and " street fighter " image . Artist Stewart also expressed hope that the artwork would help put graffiti art in a positive light and encourage young people to " get involved with the arts . " = = Racing statistics = = = = Pedigree = = Paynter was sired by the Canadian @-@ bred Awesome Again , winner of the 1998 Breeders ' Cup Classic . At stud , Awesome Again has sired many stakes winners including Ghostzapper , who was 2004 Breeders ' Cup winner and 2004 Horse of the Year , and two @-@ time Santa Anita Handicap winner Game On Dude , another Bob Baffert @-@ trained horse . Paynter is closely related to 2013 Preakness Stakes winner Oxbow ; the two horses share the same sire and are out of full sisters . Both horses have pedigrees outcrossed for four generations , with very little inbreeding , 4x5x5 to Northern Dancer . Paynter 's dam is Tizso , a full sister to Tiznow , who was 2000 Horse of the Year and won the Breeders ' Cup Classic twice . Tizso 's dam , Cee 's Song , is credited with raising the respect breeders have for her female breeding line , Thoroughbred family 26 , as one of the top distaff lines in America . Five full siblings out of Cee 's Song were either race winners or the dams of race winners : Paynter 's dam Tizso and Oxbow 's dam Tizamazing both foaled stakes winners , and Tiznow , Tizbud and Tizdubai all won stakes races . Another Cee 's Song son , the gelding Budroyale , was second in the 1999 Breeders ' Cup Classic .
= February 2010 Australian cyberattacks = The February 2010 Australian cyberattacks were a series of denial @-@ of @-@ service attacks conducted by the Anonymous online community against the Australian government in response to proposed web censorship regulations . Operation Titstorm was the name given to the cyber attacks by the perpetrators . They resulted in lapses of access to government websites on 10 and 11 February 2010 . This was accompanied by emails , faxes , and phone calls harassing government offices . The actual size of the attack and number of perpetrators involved is unknown but it was estimated that the number of systems involved ranged from the hundreds to the thousands . The amount of traffic caused disruption on multiple government websites . Australian Telecommunications Minister Stephen Conroy proposed the regulations that would mainly filter sites with pornographic content . Various groups advocating uncensored access to the Internet , along with companies like Google and Yahoo ! , object to the proposed filter . A spokesperson for Conroy said that the actions were not a legitimate form of protest and called it irresponsible . The attacks also drew criticism from other filter protest groups . The initial stage was followed by small in @-@ person protests on 20 February that were called " Project Freeweb " . = = Background = = The attack began as a protest responding to a plan by Australian Telecommunications Minister Stephen Conroy that would require internet service providers to block Australian users from accessing illegal and what the government deemed as " unwanted " content . Websites to be blocked feature pornography showing rape , bestiality , child sex abuse , small @-@ breasted women ( who may appear under the legal age ) , and female ejaculation . Drawn depictions of such acts are included in the proposal . The proposed filter also includes gambling sites along with others showing drug use . A leaked version of the proposed blacklist ( also referred to as the " refused classification " or " RC " list ) also showed sites that did not include adult content . The name " Operation Titstorm " was in reference to the material that would be censored . Google has questioned the proposal , saying the prohibitions would be too broad . It is strongly opposed by free speech groups . A poll conducted by McNair Ingenuity Research for the Hungry Beast television program found that 80 % of their 1 @,@ 000 respondents were in favour of the concept of the plan . The survey also found that 91 % were concerned about the government 's intent to keep the list of filtered websites a secret . The Department of Defence 's Cyber Security Operations Centre discovered the attack was coming on 5 February . A statement released by Anonymous to the press two days before the attack said , " No government should have the right to refuse its citizens access to information solely because they perceive it to be ' unwanted ' . " It went on to read , " The Australian Government will learn that one does not mess with our porn . No one messes with our access to perfectly legal ( or illegal ) content for any reason " . Anonymous had previously garnered media attention with protests against Church of Scientology ( Project Chanology ) and the Iranian government . In September 2009 , Prime Minister Kevin Rudd 's website was hacked in a similar protest to proposed web censorship reforms . = = Attacks = = Flyers distributed to recruit participants said the attack was to begin at 8 pm AEST on 10 February . On that day , government websites were targeted by denial @-@ of @-@ service attacks . The Communications Department said the hackers had not infiltrated government security , but had instead swamped government computer servers . Sites were left unavailable for sporadic periods throughout the attack . At one point , the Australian Parliament 's website was offline for about two days due to the high volume of requests . Rudd 's government site was also inaccessible for some time . As a primary target , the Communications Department also received a large amount of traffic . Government offices were also flooded with e @-@ mail spam , junk faxes , and prank phone calls . The Prime Minister 's homepage was vandalized with pornographic images . The flyer released before the attack called for the faxes to focus on cartoon pornography , female ejaculation , and small @-@ breasted pornography . Reports of the actual size of the attack have varied . One cyber security expert described the attacks as " the equivalent of parking a truck across the driveway of a shopping centre " . A firm marketing security technology said that the peak of the attack was a relatively low 16 @.@ 84 megabits per second . One writer described the 7 @.@ 5 million requests per second that initially brought down the Parliament website as " massive " . The site usually only receives a few hundred per second . It appears that botnets made up of compromised computers were not used . Estimates of the number of attacking systems involved have ranged from hundreds to thousands . = = Response = = A spokeswoman for Conroy said such attacks were not a legitimate political protest . According to her , they were " totally irresponsible and potentially deny services to the Australian public " . The Systems Administrators Guild of Australia said that it " condemned DDoS attacks as the wrong way to express disagreement with the proposed law " . Anti @-@ censorship groups criticised the attacks , saying they hurt their cause . A purported spokesperson for the attackers recommended that the wider Australian public protest the filter by signing the petition of Electronic Frontiers Australia . Anonymous coordinated a second phase with small protests outside the Parliament House in Canberra and in major cities throughout Australia on 20 February . Additional demonstrations were held at some of the country 's embassies overseas . The organizers called the follow @-@ up protests " Project Freeweb " to differentiate them from the criticised cyber attacks . Several supporters of the attack later said on a messageboard that taking down websites was not enough to convince the government to back down on the web filtering policy and called for violence . Others disagreed with such actions and proposed launching an additional attack on a popular government site . A spokesman for Electronic Frontiers Australia said he believed there was no real intention or capacity to follow through with any of the violent threats . The attack also resulted in criticism of Australia 's terrorism laws from the The University of New South Wales Law Journal . One writer wrote that the provisions leave " no place for legitimate acts of online protest , or at least sets the penalty far too high for relatively minor cyber @-@ vandalism " . An Australian teenager was charged with four counts of inciting other hackers to impair electronic communications and two of unauthorised access to restricted data for his role in the attack . He was ordered to pay a bond instead of being convicted after pleading guilty and showing good behaviour . In July 2010 , Conroy delayed implementing the plan pending a 12 @-@ month review into how refused classification content was rated . The proposal is not expected to go forward due to the opposition from The Coalition and the Greens . Internet service providers Telstra and Optus have both agreed to voluntarily block some content .
= History of Crystal Palace F.C. = Crystal Palace Football Club is an English professional football club who were founded in 1905 at the famous Crystal Palace Exhibition building and during their early years they played at the FA Cup Final venue which was situated inside the Palace grounds . This article documents the history of the club from its formation all the way through to the present day . = = Background and formation = = As early as 1861 , workers from the famous glass exhibition building formed the initial Crystal Palace team as an amateur club . They were one of the 12 founder members of the Football Association and competed in the first FA Cup reaching the semi @-@ finals where they were eliminated by the Royal Engineers in a replay after the first game ended goalless . The team also played in the FA Cup in the next four seasons , disappearing from historical records after a 3 – 0 defeat to eventual winners Wanderers in the second round of the 1875 – 76 FA Cup . However , this was not the end of the association between Crystal Palace and the FA Cup . In 1895 , the FA adopted a new permanent home for the Cup Final which was to be played at the sports stadium situated inside the grounds of The Crystal Palace . With the owners of the attraction reliant on tourist activity for their income , they sought fresh attractions for the venue , attracting the London County Cricket Club of W. G. Grace before turning their attention to football . The idea of a new club playing at the Crystal Palace stadium was proposed in 1904 by the Crystal Palace Company . The proposal was rejected by the Football Association , who disliked the idea of the owners of the Cup Final venue also possessing a football club . However a separate company was formed the following year to establish the club under the chairmanship of Sydney Bourne , chosen due to his propensity in buying tickets to the Cup Final . = = Southern League ( 1905 – 20 ) = = Crystal Palace Football Club was formed on 10 September 1905 playing in the Aston Villa colours of claret and blue . The choice of colours was a result of the important role in the club 's formation played by Edmund Goodman , an Aston Villa employee who was recommended to the fledgling club by the Villa chairman , William McGregor . Goodman organised the business side of the club and managed the team from 1907 to 1925 . A former amateur player with Villa , Goodman had lost his right leg after an injury led to amputation . Goodman hired John Robson from Middlesbrough to be the team 's manager . Robson had transformed his previous club from an amateur side to an established Football League First Division side . Along with another newly formed London club Chelsea , Palace applied to join the Second Division of the Football League . Chelsea were accepted , but Crystal Palace were not . Unfortunately Palace were too late to be considered for the First Division of the Southern League and were forced to settle for a place in the Second Division . To increase the number of club fixtures , they also joined the mid @-@ week United Counties League . Robson established a team of sixteen professionals , mainly drawn from Middlesbrough . The club 's inaugural campaign in Division Two of the Southern League , which consisted mainly of other clubs ' reserve sides alongside Southall , Southern United , St. Leonards United and Grays United was a successful one . Their opening match was against Southampton Reserves , and approximately 3 @,@ 000 people paid 6d to stand or a shilling to sit . Palace led 3 – 0 after 30 minutes , before fading and losing 3 – 4 . However , that was the club 's only defeat in the League all season , and Crystal Palace won the championship and were promoted to the Southern League First Division . The season included a run of seventeen straight victories , and a 9 – 1 win over Grays United at Crystal Palace . The crowd attendances for the season were regularly between 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 although 4 @,@ 000 attended the 4 – 0 defeat of Watford Reserves in March . Following their championship win , Palace started their second season as a club in the Southern League First Division , placing 19th at the end of the season but enjoying better form in the FA Cup . Beating Rotherham County in a qualifying tie , Palace were then drawn away to Newcastle United in the First Round proper . Newcastle had played in the previous two FA Cup Finals , were league champions in 1905 and were on their way to another championship . In what still stands as one of the club 's greatest ever wins , Crystal Palace scored through Horace Astley against the run of play and then held off Newcastle to come away with a shock 1 – 0 win . The second and third rounds saw Palace dispose of Fulham and Brentford respectively , the latter after a replay , and the quarter @-@ finals saw Palace drawn at home to First Division club Everton , currently flying high in second place . In front of a record crowd of 35 @,@ 000 , Palace took the lead , but their opponents equalised taking the tie to a replay , where Everton proved too strong , running out 4 – 0 winners . John Robson left Palace to manage neighbours Croydon Common F.C for the 1907 – 08 season , and Edmund Goodman took over as manager and club secretary . The club had a good season , finishing fourth . Bill Davies became the first player from the club to win an international honour when he was called up for Wales . The club could not sustain their league form the following season , finishing the league in a disappointing sixteenth place . In the FA Cup they fell to their heaviest defeat , a second round replay to Burnley which finished 0 – 9 , a record defeat for Palace and a record victory for Burnley . Palace managed to finish fourth again in the following season , losing just one game in the first twelve , and repeated their fourth @-@ place finish again the following season , with league attendances as high as 12 @,@ 000 . The club won the London Challenge Cup in 1913 , overcoming West Ham United 1 – 0 . After seventh and fifth @-@ place finishes , Palace enjoyed good form in the 1913 – 14 season , the club putting together some long unbeaten runs and finishing the season runners @-@ up to Swindon Town on goal average . They also retained the London Challenge Cup , defeating Tottenham Hotspur 2 – 1 at Highbury , and provided their first England representative in Horace Colclough , who played in the team that beat Wales in Cardiff on 16 March . Following the outbreak of the First World War on 4 August 1914 , Palace had three players called up as Reservists before the season started . Former Palace players Ginger Williams and Joe Bulcock were amongst those killed in the conflict . In March 1915 , The Admiralty , who had taken over the Palace and its grounds at the start of the war , ordered the club to leave . Palace chose to move to Herne Hill Stadium , but the 1918 – 19 season found Palace at a new ground . Croydon Common failed to return to business after the war , and it was to their ground , The Nest opposite Selhurst Station , that Crystal Palace now moved . Palace finished the season without a win in the last nine games , ending in seventh place , building on that position to finish third the following year . = = Lower divisions ( 1920 – 58 ) = = Crystal Palace became a league club in 1920 when the Football League accepted the entire Southern League en bloc as associate members in a newly formed Third Division . In their first season as a league club , Palace lost their opening game at Merthyr Town 1 – 2 with A.G. Milligan scoring Palace 's first @-@ ever Football League goal . Milligan 's Palace career was short @-@ lived however , and he made just one more appearance for the club . Palace 's first @-@ ever home Football League match was a disappointing 0 – 0 draw against Plymouth Argyle but Palace then went on a run of six consecutive wins . Goalkeeper Jack Alderson , who had been signed in 1919 , kept a clean sheet in six consecutive games . Palace lost just six more games all season , were unbeaten in the final sixteen games of the season which included an eight @-@ game winning streak and went on to win the championship by five points from Southampton . The feat earned them promotion to the Second Division . The club conceded just thirty @-@ four goals over the season , a record that stood until 1978 – 79 , and they joined Preston North End , Small Heath , Liverpool and Bury as the only clubs to have won a championship in their first season as a league club . Palace also won their third London Challenge Cup , beating Clapton Orient at White Hart Lane 1 – 0 through a goal from forward John Conner . The following season , 1921 – 22 , saw the formation of a Northern section of the Third Division and the Third Division became Division Three South . This arrangement would continue until 1958 when the Third and Fourth Division were formed , but for the moment , Palace were above all of that , and in 1921 they opened their second season in the Football League as a Second Division club , finishing in fourteenth place . The highest attendance of the season was 20 @,@ 000 for the Fulham game . Palace remained in the lower reaches of the table in the following season , 1922 – 23 , finishing fifteenth . The club also made a significant purchase that season with regards to a new permanent home . Back in 1919 , the Palace minute book contained an entry instructing the Secretary to investigate the possibility of obtaining a lease on the ' ground at Selhurst ' . Calling it a ' ground ' was a little misleading since at the time it was a piece of wasteland valuable only to the London , Brighton and South Coast Railway Company . At one time it had been a brickfield , and two chimney stacks still remained . On 3 January 1922 the club purchased the ground at a cost of £ 2 @,@ 750 , and renowned football ground architect Archibald Leitch was commissioned to design Selhurst Park . Leitch had designed stands at Craven Cottage , Stamford Bridge , White Hart Lane and Leeds Road , but the design for Palace was unusual in that it had no roof gable . The other three sides of the ground remained open banking with just the lower parts being terraced . Construction work was delayed by industrial disputes , and when the ground was opened by the Lord Mayor of London on the first day of the 1924 – 25 season , 30 August , the stand was not finished . It did however boast many luxuries , including " offices , tea rooms , training quarters , plunge , slipper shower and needle baths " . The opening fixture was against The Wednesday , and in front of a crowd of 25 @,@ 000 , Palace lost 0 – 1 , with the first goal at Selhurst Park being scored by Billy Marsden . That defeat set the tone for the season , and the club finished in twenty @-@ first place – relegated along with Coventry City . A win in the last game at home to Oldham Athletic would have secured survival , but Palace went down 0 – 1 and it would be almost 40 years before Palace would again grace the second level of English football . One small consolation was the decision by the FA to stage the England versus Wales international at Selhurst Park on 1 March 1925 . It remains the only full international staged at the ground , and Wales won the game 3 – 1 . After one season in the Third Division South and eighteen in total , Edmund Goodman stepped down as manager and returned to administrative duties , and a succession of managers attempted to plot Palace 's climb back up the table . However , Palace 's stay in the division was to last as long as the Third Division South itself . With only the champions gaining promotion , it was a difficult division to be promoted from , although Palace came close on more than one occasion . In the fourteen Division Three South seasons pre @-@ Second World War , Palace finished in the top seven ten times , and never lower than fourteenth . Palace finished runners @-@ up no less than three times , and when the 1939 – 40 season ended , Palace were sitting fourth . Unfortunately the season was only four matches old , cancelled with the onset of the Second World War . The war years of 1939 – 45 saw football enter a period of disarray with the creation of Wartime Leagues . Palace joined the South " A " Division in 1939 , but also joined the South League " D " in 1940 , winning the latter competition , and then promptly winning an improvised South Regional League the following season on goal average . Palace then joined the London League for 1941 – 42 , the sides in London refusing to accept the ad @-@ hoc competitions the Football League were organising . This division lasted one season before the London clubs were back in the Football League fold , Palace joining the Football League South for the next four seasons . Crystal Palace fielded 186 different players during the seven wartime seasons . Kit changes had been introduced in the late 1930s . The 1937 season saw Palace field a shirt of claret and blue stripes , before adopting white shirts and black shorts for the following eleven seasons . The club reverted to claret and blue in 1948 , but any attempt at changing the kit to change their luck backfired as the club had their worst season to date , finishing bottom and celebrating twenty @-@ five years in League Football by applying for re @-@ election for the first time . Palace kept their place , changed the kit back to white shirts and black shorts , and finished seventh the following season . They followed this up with another bottom place and re @-@ election in 1951 , with the unwanted record of scoring the lowest number of goals in a Division Three South season . Palace would remain in the bottom half of the table until the League was restructured in 1958 , requiring re @-@ election a third and final time in 1956 , with only Swindon keeping them from bottom spot that season . = = Arthur Wait years ( 1958 – 74 ) = = 1958 was a period of change , with Arthur Wait taking control of the club as chairman and Division Four football being enjoyed by the club . Palace had failed to qualify for Division Three , falling outside the top eleven finish required by three places . The 1958 – 59 season saw the club finish seventh , with the team going slightly worse the following season with an eighth @-@ place finish . The club then enjoyed a successful 1960 – 61 season , finishing second behind league newcomers Peterborough United , who thus matched Palace 's 1921 achievement of winning a championship in their inaugural league season . Palace themselves set the Fourth Division records for highest average attendance of 19 @,@ 092 , and the highest attendance at an individual match ; 37 @,@ 774 for the Good Friday game at Selhurst Park between Palace and Millwall . Surrey born Johnny Byrne scored thirty @-@ one of Palace 's 110 goals , and his strike partner Roy Summersby netted twenty @-@ five as Palace moved up to Division Three . Palace finished fifteenth in the 1961 – 62 season . In November , Byrne was called up to the England team , despite playing outside the top two divisions at the time , one of only five people ever to achieve this . He played the whole of the 1 – 1 draw against Northern Ireland , part of the 1962 British Home Championship , at Wembley Stadium . After international recognition , Ron Greenwood paid a British record transfer fee of £ 65 @,@ 000 and ex @-@ Palace striker Ron Brett in exchange to take " Budgie " to West Ham United in March 1962 . This was a record fee between two British clubs at the time . Byrne left having scored ninety @-@ six goals for Palace , then a post @-@ war record . On Wednesday 18 April 1962 , Real Madrid made their first ever appearance in London to celebrate the opening of Palace 's new floodlights , with Byrne returning to the Palace line @-@ up as a guest player . Real Madrid ran out 4 – 3 winners . The 1962 – 63 season saw Palace finish 11th , before the following season saw the team finish second behind Coventry City on goal average and gain promotion to the Second Division . The Dave Clark Five 's chart @-@ hit " Glad All Over " became a crowd favourite at Selhurst , with fans banging on advertising hoardings in time with the drum beat in the chorus of the song . The club began to play the song regularly , and it remains the club 's anthem today . For the following four seasons Palace achieved respectable top half finishes , and poached the Bury manager Bert Head after persistence from chairman Arthur Wait in early 1966 . Head had been with Bury less than a season . The new manager promoted from the youth team and transferred in players new and old , and delighted fans by re @-@ signing Johnny Byrne . His work paid dividends in the 1968 – 69 season when Palace , not fancied as promotion candidates at the beginning of the season , finished second behind Brian Clough 's Derby County . The club had achieved a place in the top flight for the first time in their history , clinching promotion with a 16 @-@ game unbeaten run to end the season . Palace 's life in the top division of English football in the 1969 – 70 season began with a home game against Manchester United . Scoring the first Division One goal for the club was Mel Blyth after six minutes , and a second goal from new signing Gerry Queen saw Palace hold Manchester United to a 2 – 2 draw with goalkeeper John Jackson denying George Best and Brian Kidd . The next match was another home game versus Sunderland which Palace won 2 – 0 . After a season long struggle against relegation , Palace were eventually able to secure safety , finishing in twentieth place above demoted Sheffield Wednesday and Sunderland . Palace managed to gain three new records for the First Division at the end of this season : the fewest goals scored ; the fewest wins recorded by a non @-@ relegated team ; and the tally of twenty @-@ seven points was the smallest number with which a team has avoided relegation from the top flight . Palace avoided the drop for two more seasons , and followed the trend of many other top flight clubs by introducing a new " Player of the Year " award which has been presented at the end of every season since the 1971 – 72 campaign . The first recipient was John McCormick . Despite some good performances in the 1972 – 73 season , notably a 5 – 0 home win against Manchester United in December , Palace succumbed to the drop in their fourth season in the top division . Arthur Wait , having overseen the rise of the club from Fourth to First , was replaced as Chairman by Raymond Bloye in November 1972 and the club appointed Malcolm Allison in March the following year , replacing Bert Head . Although the club saw a record average attendance over the season , neither the crowd nor the managerial change were able to keep the club at the top level . Allison 's first game in charge did see some changes , however . He gave young Scottish defender Jim Cannon his debut in the home game against Chelsea . Palace had never won a London derby in the top flight to this point , but Cannon , who had risen through the youth ranks at Palace , marked Blues striker Peter Osgood out of the game and then scored the second goal in a 2 – 0 win to begin a long career in SE25 . = = The coming of The Eagles ( 1974 – 80 ) = = Despite relegation , the 1973 – 74 season started with much optimism among supporters . Malcolm Allison had a strong recent record as a coach , having won trophies with Manchester City as an assistant to Joe Mercer . Allison , or ' Big Mal ' as he was nicknamed in the press , had a flamboyant personality which was something of a change for the club . Palace had previously enjoyed something of a conservative image . " The Glaziers " became " The Eagles " and the club changed its colours from the original claret and sky blue to a red and dark blue scheme inspired by Barcelona . The Eagle was also introduced as the club mascot at this time , an idea borrowed from Benfica , and the club badge was redesigned . The new season saw the introduction of a three @-@ up , three @-@ down promotion and relegation system , and Palace struggled to find their feet in the Second Division , failing to win any of their first 15 league games . In bottom place for most of the season , the club , aided by the signing from Southend United of pacey winger Peter Taylor climbed to seventeenth place with a 3 – 1 win at Fulham on Good Friday . The club then turned in three consecutive losses which saw them needing to win the last game of the season at Cardiff City to remain in the second tier of English football . They could only draw 1 – 1 , and were demoted for a second successive season . The 1974 – 75 season was the club 's first season in Division Three since 1963 – 64 , and although the team had a good season , and attendances were the highest in the division , they missed out on promotion , finishing in fifth place . Allison acquired Terry Venables and Ian Evans from QPR in exchange for Don Rogers , a trade that was to be significant to Palace 's , and indeed England 's , football future . It was also around this time that Allison persuaded the club to put more resources into developing a strong youth team , a decision that would lead to both success at youth level , and the emergence of a number of promising players . The following season Palace again failed to gain promotion , distracted in part by their best effort in the FA Cup to date . Palace enjoyed a run to the semi @-@ finals , beating Leeds United and Chelsea along the way , before losing 2 – 0 to Southampton at Stamford Bridge on 2 April . Allison was sacked at the end of the season , in part because of his off the field antics , famously getting himself photographed in the team bath with porn star Fiona Richmond . Allison was replaced as manager by Terry Venables , who had been his assistant the previous season , and he guided Palace to promotion at the first attempt . The Palace youngsters also won the FA Youth Cup with a side including Kenny Sansom , Vince Hilaire and Billy Gilbert . The following season , 1977 – 78 saw the youth team became the first team to win the FA Youth Cup in successive seasons since Chelsea in 1960 and 1961 . These talented young players had become regulars in the team by the 1978 – 79 season which saw Palace vying not only for promotion but also the Second Division Championship . The final game of the season was a Friday night match at home to Burnley . In front of the club 's record home crowd of 51 @,@ 801 , there was all to play for : a Palace win , and the club would be champions ; a draw , and Palace would be promoted , but hand the championship to fierce rivals Brighton ; a loss and Palace would stay down , with Sunderland clinching the final promotion place . At half @-@ time the deadlock had not been broken despite Palace 's dominance , but a second @-@ half cross from Vince Hilaire allowed Ian Walsh to head the opener , before a great run by David Swindlehurst was completed by a finish from outside the penalty area to give the Eagles a 2 – 0 win . Palace were crowned champions , and had reached the top flight again . As an increasing number of players from the FA Youth Cup winning team had established themselves in the first team , the press gave Palace the title of the " Team of the Eighties " . The Eagles began the 1979 – 80 season well and stayed unbeaten longer than any other club in the top flight . They also occupied first place in the top flight for the first and to date only time in the club 's history when they demolished an excellent Ipswich Town side managed by Bobby Robson by four goals to one at Selhurst Park . Sadly however the young starlets could not keep this form up , and a slide down the table resulted in the Eagles finishing thirteenth , which at that point was the club 's highest ever finish . = = Top tier football ( 1980 – 98 ) = = The slide continued into the 1980 – 81 season , with nine defeats in the first ten games , and Venables quit Selhurst Park for QPR . The club were suffering financial problems as well , and were virtually relegated by the start of February when another , even bigger change occurred . Ron Noades , formerly chairman of Wimbledon , took financial control of the club , purchasing it from Raymond Bloye 's consortium . After a couple of seasons flirting with the drop and numerous managerial changes , Noades appointed 29 @-@ year @-@ old former Manchester United and England midfielder Steve Coppell as manager for the 1984 – 85 season . Coppell 's playing career had been cut short by a knee injury , and , assisted by former Palace player Ian Evans , he worked on rebuilding the club , eventually signing the then unknown Ian Wright from non @-@ league Greenwich Borough and Mark Bright from Leicester City , and the pair formed the " Wrighty & Brighty " strike partnership . Coppell stabilised the club in his first season , and after two seasons of narrowly missing out on the play @-@ offs , followed up by narrowly missing out on automatic promotion by a single point . The club instead entered the 1989 Football League Championship play @-@ offs , beating Swindon in the semi @-@ finals to set up a two legged final against Blackburn Rovers . The first leg at Ewood Park saw the Lancashire club defeat the Eagles 3 – 1 , but a 30 @,@ 000 full house at Selhurst Park saw the Eagles triumph 3 – 0 in extra time in the second leg to end their eight @-@ year exile from the top flight . Ian Wright , who scored 24 league goals , and 33 in all competitions in the promotion campaign , was voted player of the year by the club 's supporters . Crystal Palace began their first top flight campaign in nearly a decade by re @-@ signing Andy Gray from QPR for £ 500 @,@ 000 . In November , Palace hit the headlines when they signed Bristol Rovers goalkeeper Nigel Martyn for £ 1million – a record for a goalkeeper in Britain . Mixed form meant that the Eagles ended the season fifteenth after spending most of the first half in the top ten . However it was in the FA Cup that Palace really shone . After a succession of ties against lower division teams ( Portsmouth , Huddersfield Town , Rochdale and Cambridge United ) , Palace reached the semi @-@ finals , drawing the same Liverpool side that had beaten them 9 – 0 earlier in the season . The tie was played at Villa Park , and saw Liverpool score first and hold a seemingly comfortable 1 – 0 lead at half @-@ time . However , Palace emerged from the half @-@ time interval with a sense of purpose , and within a minute of the restart were level with Bright equalising . After going 2 – 1 up , they found themselves 3 – 2 down late in the match and were seemingly beaten . Then a late equaliser by Andy Gray took the game into extra @-@ time , with the winner scored by Alan Pardew . The team secured a thrilling 4 – 3 victory and for the first time in their history , Palace were in the FA Cup Final . Their first @-@ ever appearance at Wembley Stadium saw the Eagles facing Alex Ferguson 's Manchester United . Gary O 'Reilly opened the scoring and Ian Wright then equalised immediately after coming onto the pitch as a substitute to take the tie to extra time , before scoring again early in the extra period . Mark Hughes scored a third for United to leave the game drawn 3 – 3 and requiring a replay . In the replay the Eagles wore a new one @-@ off yellow and black striped shirt because the club did not have time to find their away strip . The replay saw United left @-@ back Lee Martin cap a 40 @-@ yard run by slotting past Martyn to win the Cup for the Red Devils . The club built on the success of the previous season and for a while challenged for the league title . However Palace fell just short of champions Arsenal and runners @-@ up Liverpool , finishing a club @-@ best third in the league . Palace were denied a place in Europe because although the ban on English clubs in European competitions following the Heysel disaster of 1985 had now been lifted , there would only be one place for English clubs in the 1991 – 92 edition of the UEFA Cup , and this went to Liverpool rather than Palace . Success was achieved that season however when Palace made their third trip to Wembley in twelve months , beating Everton 4 – 1 in the final of the Full Members Cup . The following season was to become one marked by controversy in another way . Critical Eye – Great Britain United , a Channel 4 documentary of 12 September featured interviews with a number of club personnel . Amongst them was chairman Ron Noades , who commented " when you 're getting into mid @-@ winter in England , you need a few hard white men to carry the artistic black players through " . Noades claimed he was reported out of context , an allegation rejected by the programmes makers , and his comments stunned Palace 's many black players . Ian Wright left the club soon after , transferring to Arsenal for £ 2.5million. Palace finished tenth in the First Division , losing rising England star John Salako to a cruciate ligament injury . A breakaway by the top 22 clubs saw Palace become founder members of the new FA Premier League for the 1992 – 93 season . However , they would be without the services of another key player – Mark Bright – who was sold to Sheffield Wednesday and the Eagles struggled to score goals without him . They were demoted on goal difference , after Oldham Athletic 's 4 – 3 victory over Southampton . Palace 's 49 points from 42 games that season became the joint @-@ highest total of any club ever to have been relegated from the top flight of English football , and remains a Premier League record . Palace 's drop prompted the resignation of manager Steve Coppell after nine years at the helm , and he was succeeded by his assistant Alan Smith . Smith immediately guided Palace back to the Premier League as runaway champions of the second tier , Chris Armstrong top @-@ scoring with 23 league goals . During this period the badge was changed with the bird being replaced by one which Ron Noades felt more closely resembled an eagle . 1995 again saw the club making news for off the field reasons . On 25 January 1995 Palace played Manchester United at Selhurst Park . Following a bad tackle on Richard Shaw , United 's maverick french forward Eric Cantona was sent off . As Cantona walked towards the tunnel he was taunted by Palace fan Matthew Simmons . This angered Cantona , who launched a flying kick at him with both feet . Manchester United suspended Cantona for the remainder of the season , while the French Football Federation dropped Cantona from the France national football team , and stripped Cantona of the captaincy of Les Bleus . Cantona was sentenced to two weeks in jail ; this was reduced to 120 hours community service on appeal . Simmons was immediately banned from Selhurst Park , and in 1996 was found guilty of two charges of using threatening words and behaviour towards Cantona . More was to follow at Selhurst in March , when Chris Armstrong was suspended by the FA for failing a drugs test . In 1995 Palace reached the semi @-@ finals of both domestic cups , but a shortage of Premier League goals counted against them alongside the introduction of a fourth relegation place . The Premiership was being cut from 22 to 20 clubs at the end of the 1994 – 95 season , and Palace found themselves demoted on the last day of the season once again . Smith left by " mutual agreement " within days of failing to secure a place in the Premier League , and Steve Coppell returned as technical director , with Ray Lewington and Peter Nicholas handling first team affairs . This set @-@ up was augmented after only seven months with Dave Bassett joining as manager , overseeing a run of form which took them to the play @-@ offs , losing the final against Leicester City at Wembley after a long range Steve Claridge goal in the final minute of extra time . Bassett moved to Nottingham Forest in March 1997 , but Steve Coppell returned as manager to secure a play @-@ off spot . Palace beat Sheffield United at Wembley , with David Hopkin scoring a long @-@ range goal in the 90th minute . When asked what promotion meant to him , Coppell famously replied " ten months of misery " . The 1997 – 98 season saw a new board member and new arrivals on the pitch . Mark Goldberg was the new board member who had aspirations to take over the club and spent the season negotiating with Ron Noades . Goldberg 's initial plans involved the club becoming part owned by Juventus , and it was from this source that the club gained two Italian players : Attilio Lombardo and Michele Padovano . Goldberg agreed a deal to gain control of the club in February 1998 , with Palace bottom of the Premiership , and moved Coppell to Director of Football . The club appointed Lombardo as player @-@ manager , with former Swedish striker Tomas Brolin as assistant . The two failed to achieve a turn @-@ around and Palace fell through the trap door back to the second tier , having won just two home games and finishing bottom of the table with 33 points . Lombardo and Brolin were replaced as the management team by out @-@ going Chairman Noades and Ray Lewington for the last three games of the season . Despite finish bottom , the beginning of the next season saw Palace get their first experience of European football in the UEFA Intertoto Cup . Goldberg 's takeover of the club finally went through in early June , although Noades maintained ownership of the ground , leasing it back to the club , and granting them an option to buy . = = Two administrations ( 1998 – 2010 ) = = Palace 's European venture was brief , entering the Intertoto Cup in the Third Round with a tie against Samsunspor , of Turkey . Palace lost by two goals to nil at both Selhurst Park and the Samsun 19 Mayıs Stadyumu . Terry Venables had returned to the club for a second spell after being appointed head coach , but the dream of success for the 1998 – 99 season quickly soured as Goldberg was unable to sustain his financial backing of the club and they were placed into administration . Venables left and Steve Coppell returned to manage the club once again , while , with the approval of the administrators Peter Morley was installed as chairman . Coppell guided Palace to two mid @-@ table finishes , and in July 2000 Singapore financier Jerry Lim purchased an almost bankrupt Crystal Palace , immediately selling the club to mobile phone tycoon and lifelong fan Simon Jordan . Jordan replaced Coppell with Alan Smith after taking control , but despite reaching the League Cup semi @-@ finals , Smith was sacked in April 2001 with demotion to the third tier looking imminent . Long serving coach Steve Kember was put in temporary charge of the first team alongside Terry Bullivant , and demotion was staved off on the last day of the season with an 87th @-@ minute Dougie Freedman goal away to Stockport County . Palace turned to former Manchester United captain Steve Bruce as their manager for the 2001 – 02 season . A good start gave the club hope for a promotion challenge , but Bruce attempted to walk out on the club after just four months at the helm to take charge of Birmingham City . After a short spell on ' gardening leave ' , Bruce was eventually allowed to join Birmingham , succeeded by Trevor Francis , who had , ironically , been his predecessor at the Midlands club Under Francis , Palace finished mid @-@ table for two successive seasons , and Francis left to be replaced by long @-@ serving coach Steve Kember . Kember guided Palace to victories in their opening three games of the 2003 – 04 Division One campaign , which put Palace at the top of the table , but he was sacked in November after a terrible loss of form saw them slip towards the bottom three . Caretaker player @-@ manager Kit Symons , was put in charge of first @-@ team duties for a month and oversaw an improvement in form before the appointment of Iain Dowie as manager was made . Dowie , a former Palace player , transformed the club from relegation candidates at Christmas into play @-@ off contenders in April , where they overcame West Ham United in the Play @-@ off Final at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff on Saturday 29 May 2004 . A goal from captain Neil Shipperley was enough for them to win the match 1 – 0 , and with it a return to the Premiership . Palace once again could not maintain their seat at the top table , however , and again dropped down a division in spite of the 21 Premiership goals struck by Andrew Johnson , the second highest goalscorer in the division . Palace now held the distinction of being the only team to have been relegated from the Premier League four times . The following season saw Palace make the play offs for the third time in four seasons but they failed to progress to the final , losing to Watford . Palace also lost another manager , as Dowie left the club stating that he wanted to be closer to his family in Bolton . Jordan had accepted Dowie 's reasons and waived a £ 1million compensation fee in the manager 's contract . However , when Dowie was appointed as manager of Charlton Athletic Jordan pursued him through the courts , eventually settling the affair in April 2008 . Former fans favourite Peter Taylor succeeded Dowie as manager for the 2006 – 07 season . Taylor was unsuccessful in getting Palace promoted , and was replaced by Neil Warnock two months into the 2007 – 08 season . Warnock guided the team to the 2008 Football League Championship play @-@ offs where they lost in the semi @-@ finals to Bristol City . Palace followed this with a fifteenth @-@ place finish the next season . The 2009 – 10 season started poorly , with the club failing to pay bonuses to former players , as well as £ 250k owed to Bristol City for the transfer of Australian international Nick Carle twelve months before . The Football League placed a transfer embargo on the Eagles in early August , which was lifted near the end of that month . However , it was only another three weeks before a second embargo was put into effect , this time due to an unpaid portion of a transfer fee owed to Ipswich Town for Alan Lee . The financial problems came to a head at the end of January when the club was placed into administration by creditor Agilo Finance , and Brendan Guilfoyle took over the running of the club . Victor Moses departed for Wigan Athletic days later , and Neil Warnock left one month later to take over at Queens Park Rangers . Paul Hart was brought in on a temporary basis to keep the Eagles up , with Dougie Freedman and John Pemberton both returning to the club they played for as assistant and coach respectively . Before administration , the Eagles appeared to be building towards a run for the play @-@ offs , but the ten @-@ point deduction for going into administration turned the season into a battle against relegation . Survival was only achieved on the final day , with a memorable 2 – 2 draw at Sheffield Wednesday , who went down to League One instead of Palace . Following the end of the season , Freedman took over as caretaker manager and the club emerged from administration owned by a consortium of wealthy fans , CPFC 2010 . = = New era ( 2010 onwards ) = = The CPFC 2010 consortium , consisting of businessmen Steve Parish , Martin Long , Stephen Browett and Jeremy Hosking , appointed former Scotland boss George Burley as the club 's new manager for the 2010 – 11 season , with Freedman remaining at the club as his assistant . The club was short on players , with several members of the squad from the previous season having departed . One of Burley 's first signings to bridge this gap was former Netherlands midfielder Edgar Davids . Palace started poorly in the League , however , and by November sat bottom , with Davids departing after less than impressive performances for the club . The club 's away form in the first half of the season was poor and a heavy South London derby defeat to Millwall on New Year 's Day saw Burley sacked , with Palace second @-@ from @-@ bottom in the Championship table . Dougie Freedman was appointed manager , Lennie Lawrence was brought in as his assistant to provide some much @-@ needed experience , and the duo successfully guided Palace to safety with a game to spare . In the midst of the managerial change from Burley to Freedman , the club announced plans to relocate the club back to the site of the Crystal Palace National Sports Centre , built on the club 's original home , redeveloping it into a 25 @,@ 000 @-@ seater , purpose @-@ built football stadium . The following season started well , with a League Cup run that saw Palace beat Crawley Town , Wigan Athletic and Middlesbrough , and by late October the club were third in the league . A League Cup victory over Southampton set up a quarter final tie away at Manchester United . League form began to slip though and Palace went six games without scoring immediately prior to the match at Old Trafford . Entering the tie as the underdogs , a 35 @-@ yard free @-@ kick from Darren Ambrose and an extra time header from Glenn Murray saw Palace win at Old Trafford for the first time in 22 years . The club then announced potential plans to update the image of the club through a new badge . On the pitch , league form remained patchy , and the semi @-@ final of the League Cup ended in a penalty shoot @-@ out defeat to Cardiff . Palace finished the season in seventeenth place , an improvement on the previous season . The 2012 – 13 season saw Freedman take charge for a third season – the club 's eighth consecutive in the Championship – before departing to manage Bolton on 23 October . Lennie Lawrence and Curtis Fleming acted in caretaker roles , with Lawrence managing for the away games against Barnsley and Leicester City which saw Palace take four points . Although Ian Holloway was appointed manager on 3 November , Fleming took charge for that day 's home win against Blackburn . Holloway 's first game in charge was the 5 – 0 home win against Ipswich Town which saw the club climb to the top of the table . A poor end of the season saw them scrape into the play @-@ offs by finishing 5th . They played Brighton in the semi @-@ finals , achieving a scintillating 2 – 0 win away from home after a 0 – 0 draw at Selhurst in the first leg . Both goals were scored by Wilfried Zaha , appearing in his penultimate game for Palace . Palace met Watford at Wembley in the Final . It was Palace who won 1 – 0 courtesy of a Kevin Phillips penalty given for a foul on Zaha , holding on in the face of Watford pressure with the help of a goal line clearance from Joel Ward in the final minute , resulting in promotion back to the Premier League after an eight @-@ year absence . At the end of the 2013 – 14 season , Palace had secured eleventh place in the Premier League . Although they had previously enjoyed four @-@ year spells in the top flight under Bert Head ( 1969 – 1973 ) and Steve Coppell ( 1989 – 1993 ) and a two @-@ year spell ( 1979 – 1981 ) , this was the first time since the top division had been rebranded as the Premier League that Palace had survived beyond one season . Ian Holloway had quit as manager in October , with the club having only taken three points from the first eight games of the season . He was replaced by former Stoke City manager Tony Pulis , who led the team to a remarkable run of results and subsequent safety achieved with three weeks of the season still remaining . Pulis then resigned just two days before the start of the 2014 – 15 season . Neil Warnock returned to the club for a second spell as manager on 27 August , after Palace had lost their first two league games under caretaker manager Keith Millen . However , Warnock was sacked by the club at Christmas after a poor run of results . In January 2015 , former Palace player Alan Pardew was confirmed as the new manager , signing a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract with the club after a compensation package of £ 3 @.@ 5 million was agreed with Newcastle United . Under Pardew the club won eight games out of twelve in the new year , eventually securing mid @-@ table safety and a third season in a row in the Premier League . The following season saw the club reach their first FA Cup Final for twenty @-@ six years . Manchester United would again be the opposition , who Palace lost to back in the 1990 final . Unfortunately , Palace would suffer disappointment again when they lost 2 @-@ 1 after extra time .
= M @-@ 83 ( Michigan highway ) = M @-@ 83 is a state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan primarily serving as a link between Interstate 75 / US Highway 23 ( I @-@ 75 / US 23 ) in Birch Run and the Bavarian @-@ themed town of Frankenmuth . M @-@ 83 is primarily a north – south trunkline that passes by such landmarks as Bronner 's Christmas Wonderland , Zehnder 's and the Bavarian Inn before leaving town . The landscape in the remainder of the area is composed of farm fields between Frankenmuth and the northern terminus at M @-@ 15 near Richville . Previously , the M @-@ 83 designation was used for a highway in the Upper Peninsula between 1919 and 1926 . Immediately after that , the moniker was used to supplant the M @-@ 31 designation in The Thumb area . A disconnected segment of highway was given the M @-@ 83 name in 1929 in the Frankenmuth area . The gap between the two roads was eliminated within a year . By the end of the 1930s , the highway was truncated to its current northern terminus in the Richville area , removing the The Thumb area segments . The last changes rerouted the southern end to connect with I @-@ 75 after that freeway was opened in 1962 . = = Route description = = M @-@ 83 starts at exit 136 along I @-@ 75 / US 23 just north of the outlet mall in Birch Run ; this interchange is also the northern terminus of M @-@ 54 . The two highways run concurrently east from the freeway along Birch Run Road , crossing Dixie Highway . The landscape away from the freeway is predominantly fields through the area . Traveling eastward along this roadway , a motorist is on either northbound M @-@ 83 or southbound M @-@ 54 , making these two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) a wrong @-@ way concurrency . At the intersection with Gera Road , the two trunklines diverge when M @-@ 54 turns southward . From here , M @-@ 83 turns due north for about four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) into Frankenmuth . The trunkline curves to the northwest around Bronner 's Christmas Wonderland , which bills itself as the " World 's Largest Christmas Store " ; the store has 7 acres ( 2 @.@ 8 ha ) under one roof devoted to Christmas merchandise . Further north , M @-@ 83 follows Main Street over the Cass River into downtown Frankenmuth . North of the river are Zehnder 's and the Bavarian Inn , restaurants known for their " world famous " chicken dinners . The city is known as " Michigan 's Little Bavaria " ; the area was settled by German Lutherans in the 19th century . Today , buildings and even road signs are erected in the Bavarian theme . North of downtown , the highway passes through a residential area and out of the city . The landscape returns to farm fields as M @-@ 83 follows Gera Road due north again . The highway passes through the community of Gera and crosses a line of the Huron and Eastern Railway . North of the railroad , the trunkline intersects M @-@ 46 ( Holland Road ) . After this intersection , M @-@ 83 continues about a mile and a half ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) and ends at a four @-@ way intersection with M @-@ 15 ( Vassar Road ) near Richville while Gera Road continues as a county road . M @-@ 83 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2011 showed that the highest traffic level along M @-@ 83 was 17 @,@ 240 vehicles daily between the I @-@ 75 / US 23 interchange and Dixie Highway in Birch Run ; the lowest count was 2 @,@ 316 vehicles per day at the northern terminus . No section of M @-@ 83 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . = = History = = = = = Previous designation = = = The first designation of M @-@ 83 was in place by July 1 , 1919 , for a routing along the Mohawk – Gay Road between the communities of the same name in Keweenaw County in the Upper Peninsula . This designation lasted until late 1926 when it was replaced by a northerly extension of M @-@ 26 . The second designation of M @-@ 83 replaced M @-@ 31 across The Thumb between Bay Port and Harbor Beach , along what is today M @-@ 142 . = = = Current designation = = = The current designation was assigned in 1929 as a second , disconnected section of highway . This new routing ran from US 10 / US 23 in Clio by way of Frankenmuth to Reese . The gap between the two sections was filled in a year later when M @-@ 84 in Tuscola County was redesignated as part of M @-@ 83 . After this change , M @-@ 83 continued north from Reese through Gilford and Akron to Unionville . There it ran concurrently along M @-@ 29 to Bay Port , connecting the two segments . The eastern segment first designated in 1926 was separated from the rest of the highway in 1939 . The northern end was scaled back to M @-@ 15 / M @-@ 24 in Saginaw County . The concurrency along M @-@ 81 was removed , the section northeast to Gilford was transferred to local control , and the section northeast of Guilford to Unionville was added to M @-@ 138 . The Bay Port — Harbor Beach section was redesignated M @-@ 142 . The last changes came around 1962 when the I @-@ 75 / US 10 / US 23 freeway was completed between Pontiac and Flint . M @-@ 83 was rerouted on its south end to turn west along Birch Run Road to the freeway , concurrent with the new M @-@ 54 , which replaced M @-@ 83 south of Birch Run Road . = = Major intersections = = The entire highway is in Saginaw County .
= Stokesay Castle = Stokesay Castle is a fortified manor house in Stokesay , Shropshire , England . It was built in the late 13th century by Laurence of Ludlow , then the leading wool merchant in England , who intended it to form a secure private house and generate income as a commercial estate . Laurence 's descendants continued to own the castle until the 16th century , when it passed through various private owners . By the time of the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1641 , Stokesay was owned by William Craven , the first Earl of Craven and a supporter of King Charles I. After the Royalist war effort collapsed in 1645 , Parliamentary forces besieged the castle in June and quickly forced its garrison to surrender . Parliament ordered the property to be slighted , but only minor damage was done to the walls , allowing Stokesay to continue to be used as a house by the Baldwyn family until the end of the 17th century . In the 18th century the Baldwyns rented the castle out for a range of agricultural and manufacturing purposes . It fell into disrepair , and the antiquarian John Britton noted during his visit in 1813 that it had been " abandoned to neglect , and rapidly advancing to ruin " . Restoration work was carried out in the 1830s and 1850s by William Craven , the second Earl of Craven . In 1869 the Craven estate , now heavily in debt , was sold to the wealthy industrialist John Derby Allcroft who paid for another round of extensive restoration during the 1870s . Both of these owners attempted to limit any alterations to the existing buildings during their conservation work , which was unusual for this period . The castle became a popular location for tourists and artists , and was formally opened to paying visitors in 1908 . Allcroft 's descendants fell into financial difficulties during the early 20th century , however , and it became increasingly difficult for them to cover the costs of maintaining Stokesay . In 1986 Jewell Magnus @-@ Allcroft finally agreed to place Stokesay Castle into the guardianship of English Heritage , and the castle was left to the organisation on her death in 1992 . English Heritage carried out extensive restoration of the castle in the late 1980s . In the 21st century , Stokesay Castle continues to be operated as a tourist attraction , receiving 39 @,@ 218 visitors in 2010 . Architecturally , Stokesay Castle is " one of the best @-@ preserved medieval fortified manor houses in England " , according to historian Henry Summerson . The castle comprises a walled , moated enclosure , with an entrance way through a 17th @-@ century timber and plaster gatehouse . Inside , the courtyard faces a stone hall and solar block , protected by two stone towers . The hall features a 13th @-@ century wooden @-@ beamed ceiling , and 17th @-@ century carved figures ornament the gatehouse and the solar . The castle was never intended to be a serious military fortification , but its style was intended to echo the much larger castles being built by Edward I in North Wales . Originally designed as a prestigious , secure , comfortable home , the castle has changed very little since the 13th century , and is a rare , surviving example of a near complete set of medieval buildings . English Heritage has minimised the amount of interpretative material displayed at the property and kept the castle largely unfurnished . = = History = = = = = 13th - 15th centuries = = = Stokesay Castle was built in the 1280s and 1290s in the village of Stokesay by Laurence of Ludlow , a very wealthy wool merchant . Stokesay took its name from the Anglo @-@ Saxon word stoches , meaning cattle farm , and the surname of the de Says family , who had held the land from the beginning of the 12th century onwards . In 1241 , Hugh de Say sold Stokesay to John de Verdon ; John then left for the Eighth Crusade in 1270 , mortgaging the land on a life @-@ time lease to Philip de Whichcote . John died in 1274 , leaving his rights to the property to his son , Theobald . Laurence bought Stokesay from Theobald and Philip in 1281 , possibly for around £ 266 , which he could easily have afforded , as he had made a fortune from the wool trade . Laurence exported wool from the Welsh Marches , travelling across Europe to negotiate sales , and maintaining offices in Shrewsbury and London . He had become the most important wool merchant in England , helping to set government trade policies and lending money to the major nobility . Stokesay Castle would form a secure personal home for Laurence , well @-@ positioned close to his other business operations in the region . It was also intended to be used as a commercial estate , as it was worth around £ 26 a year , with 120 acres ( 49 ha ) of agricultural land , 6 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 ha ) of meadows , an expanse of woodland , along with watermills and a dovecot . Work began on the castle at some point after 1285 , and Laurence moved into his new property in the early 1290s . The castle was , as Nigel Pounds describes it , " both pretentious and comfortable " , initially comprising living accommodation and a tower to the north . In 1291 Laurence received permission from the King to fortify his castle - a document called a licence to crenellate - and he may have used this authority to construct the southern tower , which had a particularly martial appearance and was added onto the castle shortly afterwards . In November 1294 Laurence was drowned at sea off the south of England , and his son , William , may have finished some of the final work on Stokesay . His descendants , who took the Ludlow surname , continued to control Stokesay Castle until the end of the 15th century , when it passed into the Vernon family by marriage . = = = 16th - 17th centuries = = = Stokesay Castle was passed by Thomas Vernon to his grandson Henry Vernon in 1563 . The family had hopes of becoming members of the peerage and , possibly as a consequence , the property began to be regularly called a " castle " for the first time during this period . Henry divided his time between London and Stokesay , probably staying in the north tower . Henry stood surety for an associate 's debts and when they defaulted , he was pursued for this money , resulting in a period of imprisonment in Fleet Prison ; by 1598 he sold the castle for £ 6 @,@ 000 to pay off his own substantial debts . The new owner , Sir George Mainwaring , sold the property on again in 1620 , via a consortium of investors , to the wealthy widow and former Mayoress of London , Dame Elizabeth Craven for £ 13 @,@ 500 . The estates around Stokesay were now valuable , bringing in over £ 300 a year in income . Elizabeth 's son , William , spent little time at Stokesay and by the 1640s had leased it out to Charles Baldwyn , and his son Samuel . He rebuilt the gatehouse during 1640 and 1641 , however , at a cost of around £ 533 . In 1643 the English Civil War broke out between the supporters of King Charles I and Parliament . A Royalist supporter , William spent the war years at Elizabeth Stuart 's court at the Hague , and gave large sums of money to the King 's war effort . William installed a garrison in the castle , where the Baldwins were also strong Royalists , and , as the conflict progressed , the county of Shropshire became increasingly Royalist in sympathies . Despite this , by late 1644 bands of vigilante clubmen had risen up in Shropshire , complaining about the activities of Royalist forces in the region , and demanding , among other things , the removal of the garrison from Stokesay Castle . By early 1645 the war had turned decisively against the King , and in February , Parliamentary forces seized the city of Shrewsbury . This exposed the rest of the region to attack , and in June a force of 800 Parliamentary soldiers pushed south towards Ludlow , attacking Stokesay en route . The Royalist garrison , led by Captain Daurett , was heavily outnumbered and it would have been impossible for them to effectively defend the new gatehouse , which was essentially ornamental . Nonetheless , both sides complied with the protocols of warfare at the time , resulting in a bloodless victory for the Parliamentary force : the besiegers demanded that the garrison surrender , the garrison refused , the attackers demanded a surrender for a second time , and this time the garrison were able to give up the castle with dignity . Shortly afterwards on 9 June , a Royalist force led by Sir Michael Woodhouse attempted to recapture the castle , now garrisoned by Parliament . The counter @-@ attack was unsuccessful , ending in the rout of the Royalist forces in a skirmish at the nearby village of Wistanstow . Unlike many castles in England which were deliberately seriously damaged , or slighted , to put them beyond military use , Stokesay escaped substantial harm after the war . Parliament sequestrated the property from William and ordered the slighting of the castle in 1647 , but only pulled down the castle 's curtain wall , leaving the rest of the complex intact . Samuel returned in 1649 to continue to rent the castle during the years of the Commonwealth , and put in wood panelling and new windows into parts of the property . With the restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660 , William 's lands were returned to him , and the Baldwyns continued to lease Stokesay Castle from him . = = = 18th - 19th centuries = = = During the 18th century , Stokesay Castle continued to be leased by the Baldwyn family , although they sublet the property to a range of tenants ; after this point it ceased to be used as a domestic dwelling . Two wood and plaster buildings , built against the side of the hall , were demolished around 1800 , and by the early 19th century the castle was being used for storing grain and manufacturing , including barrel @-@ making , coining and a smithy . The castle began to deteriorate , and the antiquarian John Britton noted during his visit in 1813 that it had been " abandoned to neglect , and rapidly advancing to ruin : the glass is destroyed , the ceilings and floors are falling , and the rains streams through the opening roof on the damp and mouldering walls " . The smithy in the basement of the south tower resulted in a fire in 1830 , which caused considerable damage to the castle , gutting the south tower . Extensive decay in the bases of the cruck tresses in the castle 's roof posed a particular threat to the hall , as the decaying roof began to push the walls apart . Restoration work was carried out in the 1830s by William Craven , the Earl of Craven . This was a deliberate attempt at conserving the existing building , rather than rebuilding it , and was a very unusual approach at this time . By 1845 , stone buttresses and pillars had been added to support parts of the hall and its roof . Research by Thomas Turner was published in 1851 , outlining the history of the castle . Frances Stackhouse Acton , a local landowner , took a particular interest in the castle , and in 1853 convinced William to carry out further repair work on the castle , under her supervision , at a cost of £ 103 . In 1869 the Craven estate , 5 @,@ 200 acres ( 2 @,@ 100 ha ) in size but by now heavily mortgaged , were purchased by John Derby Allcroft for £ 215 @,@ 000 . Allcroft was the head of Dents , a major glove manufacturer , through which he had become extremely wealthy . The estate included Stokesay Castle , where from around 1875 onwards Allcroft undertook extensive restoration work over several years . Stokesay was in serious need of repairs : the visiting writer Henry James noted in 1877 that the property was in " a state of extreme decay " . Allcroft attempted what the archaeologist Gill Chitty has described as a " simple and unaffected " programme of work , which generally attempted to avoid excessive intervention . He may have been influenced by the contemporary writings of the local vicar , the Reverend James La Touche , who took a somewhat romanticised approach to the analysis of the castle 's history and architecture . The castle had become a popular sight for tourists and artists by the 1870s and the gatehouse was fitted out to form a house for a caretaker to oversee the property . Following the work , the castle was in good condition once again by the late 1880s . = = = 20th - 21st centuries = = = Further repairs to Stokesay Castle were required in 1902 , carried out by Allcroft 's heir , Hebert , with help from the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings . The Allcroft family faced increasing financial difficulty in the 20th century and the castle was formally opened for visitors in 1908 , with much of the revenue reinvested in the property , but funds for repairs remained in short supply . By the 1930s the Allcroft estate was in serious financial difficulties , and the payment of two sets of death duties in 1946 and 1950 added to the family 's problems . Despite receiving considerable numbers of visitors - over 16 @,@ 000 in 1955 - it was becoming increasingly impractical to maintain the castle , and calls were made for the State to take over the property . For several decades the owners , Philip and Jewell Magnus @-@ Allcroft , declined these proposals and continued to run the castle privately . In 1986 Jewell finally agreed to place Stokesay Castle into the guardianship of English Heritage , and the castle was left to the organisation on her death in 1992 . The castle was passed to English Heritage largely unfurnished , with minimal interpretative material in place , and it needed fresh restoration . There were various options for taking forward the work , including restoring the castle to resemble a particular period in its history ; using interactive approaches such as " living history " to communicate the context to visitors ; or using the site to demonstrate restoration techniques appropriate to different periods . These were rejected in favour of a policy of minimising any physical intervention during the restoration and preserving the building in the condition it was passed to English Heritage , including its unfurnished interior . The archaeologist Gill Chitty has described this as encouraging visitors to undergo a " personal discovery of a sense of historical relationship and event " around the castle . Against this background , an extensive programme of restoration work was carried out between August 1986 and December 1989 . In the 21st century , Stokesay Castle continues to be operated by English Heritage as a tourist attraction , receiving 39 @,@ 218 visitors in 2010 . British Airways , in conjunction with English Heritage , named their last Boeing 757 aircraft Stokesay Castle in 2010 for its final month of flying . The castle is protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building and as a scheduled monument . = = Architecture = = = = = Structure = = = Stokesay Castle was built on a patch of slightly rising ground in the basin of the River Onny . It took the form of a solar block and hall attached to a northern and southern tower ; this combination of hall and tower was not uncommon in England in the 13th century , particularly in northern England . A crenellated curtain wall , destroyed in the 17th century , enclosed a courtyard , with a gatehouse - probably originally constructed from stone , rebuilt in timber and plaster around 1640 - controlling the entrance . The wall would have reached 34 feet ( 10 m ) high measured from the base of the moat . The courtyard , around 150 feet ( 46 m ) by 125 feet ( 38 m ) , contained additional buildings during the castle 's history , probably including a kitchen , bakehouse and storerooms , which were pulled down around 1800 . The castle was surrounded by a moat , between 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) and 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) across , although it is uncertain whether this was originally a dry moat , as it is in the 21st century , or water @-@ filled from the pond and nearby stream . The spoil from digging out the moat was used to raise the height of the courtyard . Beyond the moat were a lake and ponds that were probably intended to be viewed from the south tower . The parish church of St John the Baptist , of Noman origins but largely rebuilt in the middle of the 17th century , lies just alongside the castle . Stokesay Castle forms what archaeologist Gill Chitty describes as " a comparatively complete ensemble " of medieval buildings , and their survival , almost unchanged , is extremely unusual . Historian Henry Summerson considers it " one of the best @-@ preserved medieval fortified manor houses in England " . = = = Buildings = = = The gatehouse is a two @-@ storied , 17th century building with exposed timber and plasterwork , constructed in a distinctively local Shropshire style . It features elaborate wooden carvings on the exterior and interior doorways , including angels , the biblical characters of Adam , Eve and the serpent from the Garden of Eden , as well as dragons and other nude figures . It was designed as essentially an ornamental building , with little defensive value . The south tower forms an unequal pentagon in shape , and has three storeys with thick walls . The walls were built to contain the stairs and garderobes , the unevenly positioned empty spaces weakening the structure , and this meant that two large buttresses had to be added to the tower during its construction to support the walls . The current floors are Victorian in origin , having been built after the fire of 1830 , but the tower remains unglazed , as in the 13th century , with shutters at the windows providing protection in winter . The basement was originally only accessible from the first floor , and would have provided a secure area for storage , in addition to also containing a well . The first floor , which formed the original entrance to the tower , contains a 17th @-@ century fireplace , reusing the original 13th @-@ century chimney . The second floor has been subdivided in the past , but has been restored to form a single chamber , as it would have been when first built . The roof of the south tower provides views of the surrounding landscape ; in the 13th @-@ century protective wooden mantlets would have been fitted into the gaps of the merlons along the battlements , and during the English Civil War it was equipped with additional wooden defences to protect the garrison . The hall and solar block are adjacent to the south tower , and were designed to be symmetrical when seen from the courtyard , although the addition of the additional stone buttresses in the 19th century has altered this appearance . The hall is 54 @.@ 5 feet ( 16 @.@ 6 m ) long and 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) wide , with has three large , wooden 13th @-@ century arches supporting the roof , unusually , given its size , using lateral wooden collars , but no vertical king @-@ posts . The roof 's cruck joists now rest on 19th @-@ century stone supports , but would have originally reached down to the ground . The roof is considered by the historian Henry Summerson to be a " rare survival for the period " . In the medieval period a wooden screen would have cut off the north end , providing a more secluded dining area . The solar block has two storeys and a cellar , and would have probably acted as the living space for Laurence of Ludlow when he first moved into the castle . The solar room itself is on the first floor , and is reached by external steps . The wood panelling and carved wooden fireplace are of 17th @-@ century origin , probably from around 1640 . This woodwork would have originally been brightly painted , and included spy @-@ holes so that the hall could be observed from the solar . The three @-@ storey north tower is reached by a 13th @-@ century staircase in the hall , which leads onto the first floor . The first floor was divided into two separate rooms shortly after the construction of the tower , and contain various decorative tiles , probably from Laurence 's house in Ludlow . The walls of the second floor are mostly half @-@ timbered , jettying out above the stone walls beneath them ; the tower has its original 13th @-@ century fireplace , although the wooden roof is 19th @-@ century , modeled on the 13th @-@ century original , and the windows are 17th @-@ century insertions . The details and the carpenters ' personal marks on the woodwork show that the hall , solar and north tower were all constructed under the direction of the same carpenter in the late 1280s and early 1290s . = = = Interpretation = = = Stokesay Castle was never intended to be a serious military fortification . As long ago as 1787 , the antiquarian Francis Grose observed that it was " a castellated mansion rather than a castle of strength " , and more recently the historian Nigel Pounds has described the castle as forming " a lightly fortified home " , providing security but not intended to resist a military attack . The historian Henry Summerson describes its military features as " superficial " , and Oliver Creighton characterises Stokesay as being more of a " picturesque residence " than a fortification . Among its weaknesses were the positioning of its gatehouse , on the wrong side of the castle , facing away from the road , and the huge windows in the hall , reaching down to the ground and making access relatively easy to any intruder . Indeed , this vulnerability may have been intentional - its builder Laurence was a newly moneyed member of the upper class , and he may not have wanted to erect a fortification that would have threatened the established Marcher Lords in the region . Nonetheless , Stokesay Castle was intended to have a dramatic , military appearance , echoing the castles then being built by Edward I in North Wales . Visitors would have approached the castle across a causeway , with an excellent view of the south tower , potentially framed by and reflected in the water @-@ filled moat . The south tower was probably intended to resemble the gatehouses of contemporary castles such as Caernarfon and Denbigh , and would probably have originally shared the former 's " banded " stonework . Cordingley describes the south tower as " adding prestige rather than security " . Visitors would then have passed by the impressive outside of the main hall block , before entering the castle itself , which Robert Liddiard notes might have been an " anticlimax from the point of view of the medieval visitor " . = = = Carved 17th @-@ century woodwork = = =
= Buzz ( mascot ) = Buzz is one of the two official mascots of the Georgia Institute of Technology . Buzz is usually represented as a stylized yellowjacket with yellow @-@ and @-@ black fur , white wings , a yellow head , and antennae . He is almost never drawn with six legs , but rather with arms , legs , hands ( in white gloves ) and feet ( in black Converse high tops ) , like a human . Invented in 1972 and reinvented in 1979 , Buzz reflects the tradition of referring to Georgia Tech students as " Yellow Jackets . " Buzz is also one of Georgia Tech 's emblems and trademarks , one that they defended in a 1998 legal conflict with the Salt Lake Buzz . = = Tradition = = Like many mascots , Buzz communicates via hand gestures and sign language , rather than speech . At some school events , there are a few people who dress up as Buzz . The identities of these individuals must be kept secret until their graduation . They must be in excellent physical condition , about 5 ft 4 in tall ( 1 @.@ 63 m ) , and must be able to do a front " suicide " flip called a Buzz Flip , Buzz 's trademark move . Those interested in donning the Buzz suit must take part in a two @-@ day tryout , judged by the former Buzz . Buzz is officially part of Georgia Tech 's cheerleading team , so the Buzz tryout happens at the same time as the other cheerleading tryouts . Buzz is beloved by Georgia Tech students and fans for his spirit and antics . He is a prankster and likes to crowd @-@ surf . Buzz is seen at football games , basketball games , Georgia Tech Six Flags Night , and other events . Buzz has parachuted onto the field for pre @-@ game festivities , does push @-@ ups every time Tech scores , and conducts the band for the Budweiser song , a common jingle for the beer . Buzz is involved with charity events , team photos , sports conventions , and official Georgia Tech events such as the annual President ’ s Dinner . Buzz can also be hired for social gatherings , such as weddings and birthday parties . = = History = = The term Yellow Jacket or Yellowjacket has been used to refer to students and the various sports teams as early as the 1890s . Fans of Georgia Tech would often wear yellow jackets to sporting events in support of the early Georgia Tech teams . The early football teams , lacking gold fabric for jerseys , wore yellow jerseys . John Heisman told the Atlanta Constitution that he wanted his teams to be referred to as the Yellow Jackets in October 1905 . In November 1906 , the Atlanta Journal portrayed a University of Georgia football player being attacked by a yellowjacket with the words " Somebody 's about to get stung " as the caption . This was the first time that the Georgia Tech sports teams were referred to as the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets in print . = = = Invention and reinvention = = = The original Georgia Tech Yellow Jacket mascot was Judi McNair who , according to the Winter 2004 edition of the Georgia Tech Alumni Association Tech Topics magazine , donned a homemade yellowjacket costume in 1972 and performed at home football games . She rode on the Ramblin ' Wreck and appears in the 1972 Georgia Tech Blueprint yearbook . McNair 's mascot was considered a great idea , as it was a big hit with the fans . In 1979 , McNair 's idea for a Yellow Jacket was reintroduced by another Georgia Tech student , Richie Bland . Bland , who was apparently unaware of McNair 's prior initiative , paid $ 1 @,@ 400 to have a local theme park costume designer make a yellow jacket costume that he first wore at a pep rally prior to the Tennessee football game . Rather than obtain permission from Georgia Tech as Judi had done in 1972 , this student , a few weeks later simply sneaked onto the field in costume during a football game and ran across the field . The fans naturally believed that this costumed character was acting as an official member of the cheerleading squad and responded accordingly . By 1980 this new incarnation of the yellow jacket mascot was given the name Buzz Bee and was adopted as an official mascot by Georgia Tech . This new Buzz character would be the model for a new Georgia Tech emblem , designed in 1985 by Mike Lester . = = = Salt Lake Buzz lawsuit = = = In 1998 , Georgia Tech filed a trademark infringement lawsuit against the Salt Lake Buzz , a Pacific Coast League minor league baseball team . The Institute had negotiated a deal with the team , but the team backed out of the agreement before it was finalized and filed suit in Utah for the right to use the mark . Tech filed a countersuit and won in 2001 . As a result , the team was forced to change its name ( to the " Salt Lake Stingers " ; several years later , it would adopt its current name of the " Salt Lake Bees " ) and pay Georgia Tech $ 600 @,@ 000 , although Georgia Tech spent $ 700 @,@ 000 to $ 800 @,@ 000 during the dispute . = = = Contests and stunts = = = Buzz participates in several mascot contests . In 1997 , Buzz won an Access Atlanta poll due to creative ballot stuffing by Tech students . In 2005 and 2006 , Buzz was named to the Capital One All @-@ American Mascot Teams and participated in the Capital One Mascot Challenge . In 2000 and 2001 , Buzz won the NCA ( National Cheerleaders Assoc . ) mascot of the year and in 2004 and 2006 , Buzz received second place in the NCA Mascot Competition in Daytona , Florida . On June 14 , 2008 , Buzz rappelled down the 40 story Viewpoint lofts building in Midtown , Atlanta as part of a university fundraiser .
= Axial Seamount = Axial Seamount ( also Coaxial Seamount or Axial Volcano ) is a seamount and submarine volcano located on the Juan de Fuca Ridge , approximately 480 km ( 298 mi ) west of Cannon Beach , Oregon . Standing 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 609 ft ) high , Axial Seamount is the youngest volcano and current eruptive center of the Cobb @-@ Eickelberg Seamount chain . Located at the center of both a geological hotspot and a mid @-@ ocean ridge , the seamount is geologically complex , and its origins are still poorly understood . Axial Seamount is set on a long , low @-@ lying plateau , with two large rift zones trending 50 km ( 31 mi ) to the northeast and southwest of its center . The volcano features an unusual rectangular caldera , and its flanks are pockmarked by fissures , vents , sheet flows , and pit craters up to 100 m ( 328 ft ) deep ; its geology is further complicated by its intersection with several smaller seamounts surrounding it . Axial Seamount was first detected in the 1970s by satellite altimetry , and mapped and explored by Pisces IV , DSV Alvin , and others through the 1980s . A large package of sensors was dropped on the seamount through 1992 , and the New Millennium Observatory was established on its flanks in 1996 . Axial Seamount received significant scientific attention following the seismic detection of a submarine eruption at the volcano in January 1998 , the first time a submarine eruption had been detected and followed in situ . Subsequent cruises and analysis showed that the volcano had generated lava flows up to 13 m ( 43 ft ) thick , and the total eruptive volume was found to be 18 @,@ 000 – 76 @,@ 000 km3 ( 4 @,@ 300 – 18 @,@ 200 cu mi ) . Axial Seamount erupted again in April 2011 , producing a mile @-@ wide lava flow and fulfilling a 16 @-@ year cycle that had been predicted in 2006 . = = Geology = = = = = Tectonic setting = = = Axial Seamount is the youngest volcano and current eruptive center of the Cobb @-@ Eickelberg Seamount chain , a chain of seamounts that terminates south of Alaska . Axial lies where the chain intersects with the Juan de Fuca Ridge , approximately 480 km ( 298 mi ) west of Oregon . It is a product of the Cobb hotspot , but now sits on an ocean spreading center between the Juan de Fuca Plate and the North American Plate , offset by the Blanco Fracture Zone to the south and a ridge @-@ built triple junction to the north . This position is not yet entirely understood . It is believed that the chain , formed over millions of years by the now @-@ inactive Cobb hotspot , is older than the mid @-@ ocean ridge it bisects . Between 200 @,@ 000 and 700 @,@ 000 years ago , the hotspot was encroached by the tectonic spreading center , displacing it by as much as 20 km ( 12 mi ) and building up the 500 km ( 311 mi ) long Juan de Fuca Ridge . At least 7 spreading centers have been recognized , and plate measurements near Axial show that the ridge is separating at a rate of 6 cm ( 2 in ) per year , producing a complex system of oceanic basins and ridges . However some scientists have questioned this theory , pointing out that the high density of the chain 's overlapping seamounts is incompatible with such an origin , as a hotspot would form a well organized , widely spaced chain . Although the exact nature of Axial Seamount remains unknown , its complex origins makes it one of the most geologically interesting features in the North Pacific . = = = Structure = = = Axial Seamount is the most active volcanic site in the North Pacific . Study of magnetic delineations along the seamount have modeled the ridge 's history up to 30 million years ago , and shown that growth has progressed mostly in the north , with some southward progression dating back 3 @.@ 5 million years . The base of Axial Seamount is a long , low @-@ lying plateau , and the eastern part of the seamount is defined by a series of linear scarps . Axial Seamount has two major volcanic rifts extending approximately 50 km ( 31 mi ) north and south of its main summit , as well as several much smaller , ill @-@ defined ones aligned in a roughly similar pattern . Basins around the volcano increase its irregularity , making it unusually complex ( most seamounts of roughly the same size are circular or flattened in shape . ) Axial Seamount 's summit is marked by an unusual rectangular caldera , 3 km × 8 km ( 2 mi × 5 mi ) in area , ~ 3 ° in slope , and breached on the southeast side . The area is offset by the two rift zones and defined on three sides by boundary faults up to 150 m ( 492 ft ) deep . The caldera is roughly 50 m ( 164 ft ) deeper at the north side then it is in the south . Flows within the caldera consist mostly of sheet flows pocketed by lava ponds and pit craters . Less common are pillow lavas ; their arrangement along the caldera walls suggests that they were an important component in the volcano 's early growth . There are several dome @-@ like structures within the caldera with heights of 100 – 300 m ( 328 – 984 ft ) . There are several small craters within the region , the largest of which , nicknamed the D.D. Cone , is 2 km ( 1 mi ) in diameter and 100 m ( 328 ft ) in relief . However , most of the features do not range over 30 to 40 m ( 98 to 131 ft ) deep and 1 km ( 1 mi ) across . The northern rift zone of Axial Seamount is a 5 km ( 3 mi ) long ridge running 10 to 20 degrees northeast of the main caldera . The rift is pocketed by multiple fissures , 100 – 200 m ( 328 – 656 ft ) in length , as far as 7 km ( 4 mi ) from Axial Volcano 's center , and reaching up to 400 m ( 1 @,@ 312 ft ) long and 20 m ( 66 ft ) deep . The area contains high amounts of volcanic glass ; a major eruption is still visible in the form of an elongated glassy lava flow extending off the caldera wall , east of the main rift line . Dives in 1983 found extensive low @-@ temperature venting at the northern half of the fissure . The shorter , newer southern rift zone consists of a topographically plunging rift , surrounding by subtle , discontinuous faults . Camera tows along the southern flank reveal that the area is built of delineated sheet flows , small lava ponds , and lava channels . The youngest of the flows on Axial Seamount are aligned along the two rift zones , followed by flows inside the summit caldera ; the oldest appear to originate from directly around the caldera , where most of the basalt is completely covered in accumulated sediment . This suggests a bilateral growth pattern , a trend also found in Hawaiʻian volcanics and other well @-@ known seamounts , for instance Jasper Seamount . Axial Seamount 's growth has intersected the growth of many of the smaller seamounts around it . The largest of these is Brown Bear Seamount , to which it is connected by a narrow ridge running roughly perpendicular to its western caldera wall . However , little evidence of interactions between the two seamounts has been found . On the other hand , Axial Seamount 's southern rift zone bisects Vance Seamount by as much as 30 km ( 19 mi ) , creating a zone of intense fissuring at the northern edge of the smaller volcano . Interactions with Cobb Seamount to the north are more complex , forming an unusual " bent spreading center . " In addition there are four smaller structures directly east , north , and south of Axial . = = History = = = = = Early history = = = The first volcanoes along the Juan de Fuca ridge , including Axial Seamount , were detected in the 1970s by satellite altimetry . Axial Seamount 's proximity to the western coast and shallow depth make it one of the most easily accessible seamounts in the world , and its unique geological setting and active state also makes it one of the most interesting , rivaling Davidson Seamount to the south in scientific interest . The first bathymetry of the seamount was compiled by the NOAAS Surveyor in 1981 , as part of SeaBeam trials in the North Pacific . The survey was specifically meant to find and link seafloor hydrothermal activity to geomorphic features . Four areas of increased temperature concentration , indicative of hydrothermal activity were found , and the then @-@ unnamed Axial Seamount was among them . Submersible dives with Pisces IV and DSV Alvin in 1983 and 1984 discovered the first active black smoker vents in the north Pacific . Soon after Axial Seamount was named for its central position on the intersection of the Cobb @-@ Eickelberg Seamount chain and Juan de Fuca Ridge . That same year , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) founded its VENTS program , providing impetus for studying the volcano more closely . Between 1987 and 1992 , a variety of pressure sensors , tilt sensors , temperature probes , and seismometers were dropped on the volcano in what came to be known as the Volcanic Systems Moninters ( VSN ) . Further bathymetries by the NOAAS Discoverer in 1991 and RV Sonne in 1996 detailed the seamount further , making it one of the best known features in the North Pacific . Also in 1996 , the New Millennium Observatory ( NeMO ) was established on Axial Seamount , to study volcanic perturbations and the effect they have on hydrothermal communities . = = = 1998 eruption = = = The 1998 eruption of Axial Seamount was preceded by several large earthquake swarms , common indicators of volcanic activity . The swarms correlated to magma movements in the volcano ; bottom pressure recorders deployed on the volcano between 1987 and 1992 recorded five instances of deflation in the summit surface ( caused by lava movement ) , ranging from 3 to 10 cm ( 1 to 4 in ) . In 1991 , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) was granted access to the United States Navy 's SOSUS system , a chain of submerged hydrophones in the North Pacific originally used by the Navy to detect Russian submarines during the Cold War . Since 1993 , the NOAA has maintained a real @-@ time monitoring system that alerts the organization whenever an event occurs . The hydrophones are able to detect even very small earthquakes ( ~ magnitude 1 @.@ 8 ) by listening for the acoustic waves generated by T @-@ waves . These waves can propagate over large distances with minimal loss in power , making them an ideal way to record otherwise unnoticeable submarine earthquakes ; over the course of the eruption , only 3 earthquakes were strong enough to register on land @-@ based systems . However , they cannot interpret earthquake depth or what caused them . Between 1991 and 1996 Axial Seamount experienced a single earthquake swarm of over 50 events . Between May and November 1997 this activity increased markedly , with SOSUS recording 5 such swarms , culminating with a massive 11 @-@ day , 8247 @-@ quake event around the time of the eruption , in January 1998 . The seismicity began at the summit , but within 6 hours had begun to migrate south as well ; by 29 November 1997 the swarm had moved south by 50 kilometers ( 31 mi ) . This coincided with lava release along the summit and southern flank . The seamount remained absolutely quiet thereafter , suggesting the completion of an eruptive cycle at the volcano . In all , 9055 earthquakes were detected , and 1669 were strong enough to be located . Earthquake activity was concentrated around the summit and southern rift zones , with the majority of events centered inside the summit caldera ; temperature probes and pressure recorders in the caldera recorded an average 0 @.@ 6 ° C ( 33 @.@ 1 ° F ) increase and 3 @.@ 3 m ( 11 ft ) height deflation , respectively , during the event . This close monitoring gives the 1998 eruption the distinction of being the only submarine eruption ever observed in situ . The first post @-@ eruption expedition was organized and conducted by R / V Wecoma on 12 February 1998 , which conducted conductivity , temperature , depth , and optical casts to unusual results . In May , a dedicated bathymetric survey of the seamount showed topographical changes along the volcano 's southern flank , which estimated the thickest flows to 13 m ( 43 ft ) . In July DSV Alvin made several dives on the seamount 's summit caldera , followed in August through September by an extensive observation and collection program using ROV ROPOS , confirming the bathymetric estimates . A sheet flow more than 3 km ( 2 mi ) long and 500 to 800 m ( 1 @,@ 640 to 2 @,@ 625 ft ) wide was produced from Axial Seamount 's upper southern flank , on the site of what was formerly an active geothermal field . The southern flows were in an area marked by a difference between older sediments and newer , glassier rock , and the maximum ridge generated by the eruption , at the crest of the southern flow , was 13 m ( 40 ft ) high . The total eruptive volume was roughly 0 @.@ 018 – 0 @.@ 076 km3 ( 0 @.@ 004 – 0 @.@ 018 cu mi ) . The development , eruption , and close monitoring of Axial Seamount provided a fertile model on submarine volcanic eruptions to scientists ; several scientific papers on the topic were published soon after . = = = 2011 eruption = = = Seismic activity at Axial Seamount virtually disappeared after the 1998 eruption , and monitoring of the volcano was done principally with bottom pressure recorders deployed on the volcano 's flanks , supplemented since 2000 by annual measurements using pressure sensors mounted on Remotely Operated Vehicles ( ROVs ) and applied to local benchmarks . The sensors have shown that Axial Seamount is slowly reflating ; just after the eruption the seamount was swelling at 20 cm ( 8 in ) per month , a number that decreased to 15 cm ( 6 in ) by 2006 . In eight years Axial Seamount recovered approximately 50 % of its 3 @.@ 2 m ( 10 @.@ 5 ft ) of pre @-@ eruption swelling , and in 2006 , William Chadwick of the Oregon State University and his associates calculated an eruption recurrence interval of ~ 16 years , predicting the next eruption would occur in approximately 2014 : Axial Seamount behaves in a more predictable way than many other volcanoes ; likely due to its robust magma supply coupled with its thin crust , and its location on a mid @-@ ocean ridge spreading center . It is now the only volcano on the seafloor whose surface deformation has been continuously monitored throughout an entire eruption cycle . This prediction was fulfilled when , in July 2011 , a dive using ROV Jason discovered new lava flows on the volcanoes that had not been present a year ago . The expeditionary crew recovered two bottom @-@ pressure recorders and two hydrophones ( a third was found buried in lava ) off the volcano , which together showed that the eruption had occurred during April , starting on 6 April 2011 . Although the instruments recorded hundreds of seismic events , only a handful had been noticed by SOSUS and land @-@ based seismometers , as many components of the system had been offline at the time . The volcano subsided by more than 2 m ( 7 ft ) and produced a 2 km ( 1 mi ) wide lava flow during the event , which was as much as three times larger than the 1998 eruption . = = Ecology = = In 1983 , a Canadian @-@ American collaborative expedition , named the Canadian American Seamount Expedition ( CASM ) , visited the northwestern edge of Axial Seamount 's summit caldera to investigate a persistent temperature anomaly in the region . In a series of eight dives conducted by Pisces IV , the scientists discovered a vibrant hydrothermal vent community on the leading edge of a 300 m ( 984 ft ) fissure within the caldera . Vent temperatures were measured around 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) , approximately 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) hotter than the surrounding environment . Camera tows and submersible dives through the 1980s and 1990s revealed Axial Seamount 's active state , including the only known black smoker in the northwest Pacific . Three venting centers have been recognized : the original site , named CHASM ; a southwestern caldera field discovered in the late 1980s , named ASHES ; and a site located on its southeastern rift zone , named CASTLE . All are primarily sulfur / sulfide emitting . The temperature and composition of Axial Seamount 's hydrothermal vents changes over time , but always maintains a roughly common identity , as do the vents ' individual microbial communities . Vents generally have a lower pH than the surrounding fluid , and are acidic and alkaline as a result . The temperature of the magma feeding the system is uncertain , and may vary between 300 and 550 ° C ( 572 and 1 @,@ 022 ° F ) . Curiously , vent fluid are heavily enriched in helium , containing five times the amount of the element as similar vents in the Galapagos , and 580 times that of regular seawater . Tube worms of the Pogonophora family thicket the largest vents on Axial Seamounts , forming colonies up to 6 m2 ( 65 sq ft ) thick in places ; smaller , less nutritious vents feed bacterial mats , smaller tube worms , and limpets . The three most common microbial groups are bacterial epsilonproteobacteria , archaeon thermophilics of the Methanococcus family , and archaeons of the Euryarchaeota family . The most common flora at Axial Seamount 's hydrothermal vents is the worm Ridgeia piscesae , which is found at hydrothermal sites of all descriptions on the Juan de Fuca ridge , and is the base of Axial Seamount 's hydrothermal ecosystem . Other species on the seamount include the tube worm P. palmiformis , the sea snail Lepetodrilus fucensis , the bristle worm Amphisamytha galapagensis , and the sea spider Sericosura verenae .
= Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' = " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " is a song by American recording artist Michael Jackson . Released on May 8 , 1983 , by Epic Records , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " was the fourth single from Jackson 's sixth studio album Thriller ( 1982 ) . The opening track of the album , it was written , composed and co @-@ produced by Jackson , and was produced by Quincy Jones . The song 's lyrics pertain to strangers spreading rumors to start an argument for no good reason . Musically , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " evokes the disco sound of Jackson 's previous studio album , Off the Wall , released in 1979 . The song is characterized by a complex rhythm arrangement and a distinctive horn arrangement . " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " has been covered and sampled by multiple recording artists since its release . Aside from Thriller , the song appears on multiple compilation and greatest hits albums by Jackson . " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " was generally well received by contemporary music critics . The song was also commercially successful , charting within the top 20 and top 30 in several countries . It became Jackson 's fifth consecutive top 10 single in the United States on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number five , and later re @-@ entered charts in 2008 after the release of Thriller 25 . Following Jackson 's death in June 2009 , the song re @-@ entered music charts worldwide , mainly due to digital download sales . Unlike previous singles from Thriller , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " did not have a music video to accompany it , but was performed by Jackson on world concert tours , as both a member of The Jacksons and as a solo artist . As part of the release of Thriller 25 , a remix of " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " , entitled " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' 2008 with Akon " , was recorded with Akon , and released as the second single from the album . The song was commercially successful , mainly charting within the top 10 in six countries , as well as the top 20 in several territories worldwide and top 40 in Canada . The song was more successful internationally than in the United States , having peaked on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 81 , which was the song 's lowest charting position . = = Background = = " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " was written , composed and co @-@ produced by Michael Jackson , and produced by Quincy Jones . It was originally written for his sister La Toya Jackson about her troubled relationship with her sisters @-@ in @-@ law , but Michael ended up recording the song , and La Toya sometimes performs the song at her concerts . The song was originally recorded in 1978 for the inclusion on the Off the Wall album , but was later re @-@ recorded in fall 1982 , in Los Angeles , California . " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " was one of the four songs that Jackson received writing credits on for his sixth studio album Thriller in 1982 . The song was released by Epic Records as the fourth single from the album . Unlike Thriller 's previous singles , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " did not have a film or a music video released to promote it . Aside from Thriller , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " has been featured on multiple compilation and greatest hits albums by Jackson since the song 's release . " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " appeared on the first disc of Jackson 's two @-@ disc compilation album HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I in 1995 as well as the 25th anniversary edition of Thriller , entitled Thriller 25 , and the greatest hits album King of Pop ; both albums were released in 2008 . The song is also featured on the box set collection released in 2004 , The Ultimate Collection , the greatest hits album The Essential Michael Jackson , the compilation album This Is It , and the special box set The Collection released days after Jackson 's death . Some versions of the 1995 Earth Song CD single included the Brothers in Rhythm Mix and Tommy D 's Main Mix as B @-@ sides . The song was also remixed to the Immortal album in 2011 . The demo version of the song was also released in This Is It ( 2009 ) . = = Composition = = A post @-@ disco and funk song , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " was viewed as a nod to the disco sound of Jackson 's material on his previous studio album , Off the Wall , released in 1979 . Arranged by Jackson himself and played by percussionist Paulinho da Costa , the song 's rhythm was regarded as a " complex interweaving of drum @-@ machine patterns and work " , while the horn section , arranged by Jerry Hey , was described as both " brassy and precise " . Slant Magazine commented that the song was a " complicated tapestry of colliding hooks and pop references . " The song 's lyrics , " Too high to get over , too low to get under " , has strong similarities to Funkadelic 's opening salvo for " One Nation Under a Groove " . The lyrics pertain to the media and press , as well as gossip and people trying to start arguments or problems for no reason , which he states in the lyrics , " Someone 's always tryin ' to start my baby crying , " and then goes to a more " quasi paranoia " yield in the " near @-@ bitterness " chorus , ' You 're a vegetable , you 're a vegetable / You 're just a buffet , you 're a vegetable / They 'll eat off you , you 're a vegetable . ' " In " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " , Jackson 's vocal range spans from G # 3 to E5 . Played in the key of E Major , the song is moderately bright and its metronome is 122 beats per minute . It has a basic sequence of D / E – E – D / E – E as its chord progression . The coda at the end of the song , which comes directly from Cameroonian saxophonist Manu Dibango 's 1972 disco song " Soul Makossa " , is " Mama @-@ say mama @-@ sah ma @-@ ma @-@ coo @-@ sah " . Makossa is a Cameroonian music genre and dance . Dibango sued Jackson and settled out of court for one million French francs , agreeing thereby to waive future rights to this recording but not future use of the material . = = Critical reception = = " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " has received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics . Christopher Connelly , a writer for Rolling Stone , described " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " as being Thriller 's " most combative track " . Connelly noted that in the " hyperactive " song , Jackson 's " emotions are so raw that the song nearly goes out of control " . He further commented that the song has a " tune that 's almost as exciting as seeing Jackson motivate himself across a concert stage – and a lot more unpredictable " . Remarking that while the song 's lyrics " won 't keep Elvis Costello awake nights " , they " do show that Jackson has progressed past the hey @-@ let 's @-@ hustle sentiments that dominated Off the Wall " . He added that Jackson 's " raw ability and conviction make material like " , citing " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " , as well as other of Thriller 's songs , " into first @-@ class cuts " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine , a writer for AllMusic , listed " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " , along with " Beat It " , " Billie Jean " , and " Human Nature " , as being the best songs from Thriller . He also described the song as the " freshest funk on the album " . Eric Herderson , a writer for Slant Magazine , commented that with " three quick rimshots " , he felt that " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " was like a " court fanfare " . Robert Christgau , a music critic , commented that he 'd " expect to bear more " of Thriller 's " Wanna Be Startin ' Something " and " Thriller " on the " dancefloor " rather than in his " living room " . " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " received one Grammy Award nomination ; it was nominated for " Best R & B Song " at the 1984 Grammy Awards , but lost to " Billie Jean , " another of Jackson 's singles from Thriller . = = Chart performance = = In 1983 , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " had a good chart performance worldwide . The song entered the Billboard Hot 100 chart top ten positions on July 2 , 1983 , at number nine , having moved up six places from the song 's previous week . On July 16 , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " charted at number five , which was the song 's peak position on the chart . The song 's peak position made " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " Thriller 's fourth consecutive single to peak within the top ten on the Billboard Hot 100 . It was more commercially successful than Thriller 's follow @-@ up single " Human Nature " on the Billboard Hot 100 , with the song peaking on the chart at number seven . The song also peaked within the top ten , at number five , on the Black Singles Chart . Internationally , the song was commercially successful , mainly charting within the top 20 and top 30 on music charts . In the United Kingdom , on June 11 , 1983 , the song entered the chart 's top 40 positions at number 38 . The following week , the song moved up 24 positions to number 14 , and on June 25 , the song peaked within the top ten at number eight . The song remained on the charts for a total of nine weeks in 1983 . In New Zealand , on July 24 , 1983 , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " entered the charts at number 47 . The following week , the song peaked at number 35 , which was its peak position , and remained in the top 50 of the chart for three weeks . " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " entered the Dutch charts on July 9 , 1983 , charting within the top five at number four . The following week , the song charted at number three , which was its peak position , for three consecutive weeks . The song charted within the top ten for several weeks , and remained in the top 20 for ten weeks in 1983 . In 2008 , after the release of Thriller 25 the song re @-@ entered music charts worldwide . " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " entered the Italian music charts on February 21 , 2008 , charting at number 14 ; it remained on the chart for only one week . The song entered the Danish music charts on February 28 , charting within the top 30 at number 29 . The following week , it peaked at number 22 . In Switzerland , the song entered the top 50 at number 47 on February 24 , 2008 . The following week , the song peaked at number 30 . After a total of six weeks on the chart the song , fell out of the top 100 , and after four weeks re @-@ entered the chart at number 83 , before falling off the chart again . Following Jackson 's death in June 2009 , his music experienced a surge in popularity . " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " re @-@ entered the United Kingdom charts on July 4 , 2009 and peaked at number 57 the following week . On July 12 , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " re @-@ entered Switzerland music charts for the second time . The song charted at number 37 , which was its peak position , and remained on the charts for three weeks , before charting out of the top 100 positions . = = Live performances = = " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " was one of the songs released as a single without an accompanying video . It nonetheless has attained a popularity rivaling its sister compositions on the album , and became Jackson ’ s song of choice for opening live concerts , although not being as strictly associated with a specific dance routine as those others has arguably allowed for more flexibility in performances and staging . Three notable occurrences during live performances are the physically complicated " stop / start " dance technique that brings Jackson and his dancers to a frozen stop several times , the sing @-@ along between performer and audience during the bridge , and him singing " Hard To Get Over , Hard To Get Under " instead of " Too High To Get Over , Too Low To Get Under " in the studio version . " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " , along with " Thriller " , " Beat It " and " Billie Jean " , was also used on every set list of Jackson ’ s tours , from the Victory Tour in 1984 , right the way through to the HIStory Tour in 1997 . Unlike most of the other songs performed live , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " has never been lip @-@ synched during any of Jackson ’ s tours . The song was first performed by Jackson as both a member of The Jacksons as well as a solo artist during world concert tours . It was performed by Jackson during the Jacksons final world concert series , including the Victory Tour in 1984 , for which it was the tour 's opening song . Similar to the Victory Tour , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " was the Bad World Tour opening song on both tour legs . The concert series lasted from 1987 to 1989 . A version was released on the 2012 DVD Live at Wembley July 16 , 1988 . " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " was also performed during Jackson 's Dangerous World Tour from June 1992 to November 1993 . The Dangerous World Tour was supposed to last longer , but was cancelled due to Jackson 's health concerns , as well as the stress from the false child sexual abuse accusations made against him . A version was released on the 2004 DVD Live in Bucharest : The Dangerous Tour . The next , and what would be the last performance of the song , was during Jackson 's world concert tour , HIStory World Tour , from 1996 to 1997 . Since March 2009 , Jackson was preparing to perform " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " during his This Is It concert series from 2009 to 2010 . During rehearsals for the This Is It concerts , Jackson 's performance of " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " contained an a cappella snippet of " Speechless " , from Jackson 's studio album Invincible ( 2001 ) . Following Jackson 's death in June of the same year , video footage of Jackson rehearsing the song was featured as the opening song in the 2009 concert documentary , Michael Jackson 's This Is It . = = Manu Dibango controversy = = After Barbadian pop singer Rihanna sampled the song in her 2007 hit single " Don 't Stop the Music " , she and Jackson were both sued in February 2009 by Cameroonian musician Manu Dibango , who claimed that both songs stole the " mama @-@ say mama @-@ sa mama @-@ ko @-@ sa " hook from his 1972 single " Soul Makossa " without permission . According to Agence France @-@ Presse , Jackson admitted that he borrowed the line for " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " and settled out of court . When Rihanna asked Jackson in 2007 for permission to sample the line , he allegedly approved the request without contacting Dibango beforehand . Dibango 's attorneys brought the case before a court in Paris , demanding € 500 @,@ 000 in damages and for Sony BMG , EMI and Warner Music to be " barred from receiving ' mama @-@ say mama @-@ sa ' -related income until the matter is resolved " . = = Charts = = = = = Weekly charts = = = = = = Year @-@ end charts = = = = = = Charts successions = = = = = Personnel = = = = Track listing = = = = Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' 2008 = = " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " , was re @-@ recorded for the 2008 re @-@ issue of Thriller , entitled Thriller 25 . Similar to " Beat It 2008 " , the song was titled on the CD sleeve as " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' 2008 with Akon " . Recorded in 2007 , the 2008 version features remix elements and additional vocals from Akon . The 2008 version was written and produced by Akon . The single of that song was the last one released during Jackson 's lifetime . " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics , with critics having felt that while the 2008 version was good , it was not better than the original , but was better than other re @-@ issues on Thriller 25 . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic commented that " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " was turned into a " moody piano murk " . He further commented that while the song is not great , " it is better than Fergie parroting the lyrics of " Beat It " back to a recorded Jackson , and it 's better than will.i.am turning " The Girl Is Mine " into a hapless dance number . " Rob Sheffield , a writer for Rolling Stone , commented that " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " is " actually kind of great " and praised the song 's composition . The song was released by Epic Records and Legacy Recordings in January 2008 , as the second single from the re @-@ issue album . It was commercially a modest success internationally , charting within the top 20 in several countries , as well charting within the top ten in four territories . The song charted at number three in Sweden , number four in New Zealand , number eight in Australia and number ten in France . " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' 2008 " charted at number 15 in Belgium 's Flanders and Wallonia charts. and also charted at number 20 in Italy . In the US , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' 2008 " peaked at number 81 on the Billboard ' Hot 100 , giving the song its lowest charting position . The song also charted on the Pop charts at number 48 , as well as number 47 on the Pop Hot 100 Airplay . Other charting positions include number 47 on the Billboard Hot Digital Songs and the Hot Canadian Digital Singles Chart at number 33 . It also peaked at number 2 on the Dance Club Songs chart . " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' 2008 " also reached number 19 on the year @-@ end chart of Dance Club Play Song . A music video was also shown on some channels to help promote the single and album ; it featured a montage of previous Michael Jackson music videos and concert footage , and also clips of Akon singing his parts . = = = Chart performance = = =
= 47 Ursae Majoris b = 47 Ursae Majoris b ( abbreviated 47 UMa b ) , also named Taphao Thong ( Thai : ตะเภาทอง , rtgs : Taphaothong , pronounced [ tā.pʰāw.tʰɔ ̄ ːŋ ] ) , is an extrasolar planet approximately 46 light @-@ years from Earth in the constellation of Ursa Major . The planet was discovered located in a long @-@ period orbit around the star 47 Ursae Majoris in January 1996 and as of 2011 it is the innermost of three known planets in its planetary system . It has a mass at least 2 @.@ 53 times that of Jupiter . In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars . The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names . In December 2015 , the IAU announced the winning name was Taphao Thong for this planet . The winning name was submitted by the Thai Astronomical Society of Thailand . Taphaothong was one of two sisters associated with a Thai folk tale . = = Discovery = = Like the majority of known extrasolar planets , Taphao Thong was discovered by detecting the changes in its star 's radial velocity as the planet 's gravity pulls the star around . This was achieved by observing the Doppler shift of the spectrum of Chalawan . After the discovery of the first extrasolar planet around a Sun @-@ like star , Dimidium , astronomers Geoffrey Marcy and R. Paul Butler searched through their observational data for signs of extrasolar planets and soon discovered two : Taphao Thong and 70 Virginis b . The discovery of Taphao Thong was announced in 1996 . = = Orbit and mass = = 47 Ursae Majoris b orbits at a distance of 2 @.@ 10 AU from its star , taking 1 @,@ 078 days or 2 @.@ 95 years to complete a revolution . It was the first long @-@ period planet around a main sequence star to be discovered . Unlike the majority of known long @-@ period extrasolar planets , the eccentricity of the orbit of 47 Ursae Majoris b is low . A limitation of the radial velocity method used to detect 47 Ursae Majoris b is that only a lower limit on the planet 's mass can be obtained . Preliminary astrometric measurements made by the Hipparcos satellite suggest the planet 's orbit is inclined at an angle of 63 @.@ 1 ° to the plane of the sky , which would imply a true mass 12 % greater than the lower limit determined by radial velocity measurements . However , subsequent investigation of the data reduction techniques used suggests that the Hipparcos measurements are not precise enough to adequately characterise the orbits of substellar companions , and the true inclination of the orbit ( and hence the true mass ) are regarded as unknown . = = Physical characteristics = = Given the planet 's high mass , it is likely that 47 Ursae Majoris b is a gas giant with no solid surface . Because the planet has only been detected indirectly , properties such as its radius , composition , and temperature are unknown . Due to its mass it is likely to have a surface gravity 6 – 8 times that of Earth . Assuming a composition similar to that of Jupiter and an environment close to chemical equilibrium , the upper atmosphere of the planet is expected to contain water clouds , as opposed to the ammonia clouds typical of Jupiter . Although 47 Ursae Majoris b is outside its star 's habitable zone , its gravitational influence would disrupt the orbit of planets in the outer part of the habitable zone . In addition , it may have disrupted the formation of terrestrial planets and reduced the delivery of water to any inner planets in the system . Therefore , planets located in the habitable zone of 47 Ursae Majoris are likely to be small and dry . It has been theorized that light reflections and infrared emissions from 47 UMa b , along with tidal influence , could warm any moons in orbit around it to be habitable , despite the planet being outside the normally accepted habitable zone .
= Snake River = The Snake River is a major river of the greater Pacific Northwest in the United States . At 1 @,@ 078 miles ( 1 @,@ 735 km ) long , it is the largest tributary of the Columbia River , the largest North American river that empties into the Pacific Ocean . Rising in western Wyoming , the river flows through the Snake River Plain of southern Idaho , then through the rugged Hells Canyon area via northeastern Oregon and the rolling Palouse Hills , to reach its mouth near the Washington Tri @-@ Cities area , where it enters the Columbia . Its drainage basin encompasses parts of six U.S. states , and its average discharge is over 54 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 1 @,@ 500 m3 / s ) . Rugged mountains divided by rolling plains characterize the physiographically diverse watershed of the Snake River . The Snake River Plain was created by a volcanic hotspot which now lies underneath Yellowstone National Park , where the headwaters of the Snake River arise . Gigantic glacial @-@ retreat flooding episodes that occurred during the previous Ice Age carved out many topographical features , including various canyons and ridges along the middle and lower Snake River . Two of these catastrophic flooding events significantly affected the river and its surrounds . More than 11 @,@ 000 years ago , prehistoric Native Americans lived along the Snake . Salmon from the Pacific Ocean spawned in the millions in the river . These fish were central to the lives of the people along the Snake below Shoshone Falls . By the time Lewis and Clark crossed the Rockies and sighted the valley of a Snake tributary , the Nez Perce and Shoshone were the most powerful peoples in the region . Some tribes adopted use of horses after contact with Europeans , which reshaped their hunting and cultures for the next few hundred years before outside settlement . Later explorers and fur trappers further changed and used the resources of the Snake River basin . At one point , a hand sign made by the Shoshones representing fish was misinterpreted to represent a snake , giving the Snake River its name . By the middle 19th century , the Oregon Trail , a pioneer trail of which a major portion followed the Snake River , had been established by aspiring settlers and traders . Steamboats and railroads moved agricultural products and minerals along the river throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries . The powerful , steep flow of the Snake River has been used since the 1890s to generate hydroelectricity , enhance navigation , and provide irrigation water from fifteen major dams built on the lower river , transforming it into a series of reservoirs . Several of these have been proposed for removal in order to restore some of the river 's once @-@ tremendous salmon runs . = = Course = = Formed by the confluence of three tiny headstreams on the southwest flank of Two Oceans Plateau in western Wyoming and Yellowstone National Park , the Snake starts out as a small river flowing west and south into Jackson Lake . Its first 50 miles ( 80 km ) run through the valley of Jackson Hole , which cuts between the Teton Range and the Continental Divide . The Snake takes a large bend northwest through Snake River Canyon , cutting through the Snake River Range and into eastern Idaho , receiving first the Hoback and Greys rivers before entering Palisades Reservoir . There it is also met by the Salt River at the mouth of Star Valley . After passing through Palisades Dam , the Snake River flows through the Snake River Plain , a vast physiographic province extending through southern Idaho across the massif of the Rocky Mountains and underlain by the Snake River Aquifer , one of the most productive aquifers in the United States . Southwest of the city of Rexburg , the Snake receives from the right the Henrys Fork , sometimes called the North Fork of the Snake River . The confluence with the Henrys Fork takes the river southwards through downtown Idaho Falls , rounding the Fort Hall Indian Reservation and into American Falls Reservoir , receiving the Portneuf River . The Portneuf River Valley is an overflow channel that in the last glacial period carried floodwaters from pluvial Lake Bonneville into the Snake River Plain , carving out many topographic features and significantly altering the Snake River landscape . The Snake River resumes its journey westwards , then enters the Snake River Canyon of Idaho , where it drops over Shoshone Falls , a waterfall that marks the historical upriver limit of migrating salmon , and passing under the Perrine Bridge . Close to Twin Falls , the Snake approaches the southernmost point in its entire course , after which it starts to flow generally northwest . Shortly after it passes within 30 miles ( 48 km ) of the Idaho state capital of Boise , the river surges past the state border into Oregon , close to where it meets the Owyhee , Boise and Payette rivers . The Snake River begins to define the roughly 200 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 320 km ) Idaho @-@ Oregon state border , which follows the river into Hells Canyon , a steep and spectacular gorge that cuts through the Salmon River Mountains and Blue Mountains of Idaho and Oregon . Hells Canyon is one of the most rugged and treacherous portions of the course of the Snake River , which pioneers on the Oregon Trail and steamboat operators in the 19th century had great difficulty negotiating . There were hundreds of rapids in Hells Canyon , some of which have been stilled by the three dams of the Hells Canyon Hydroelectric Project : Hells Canyon , Oxbow , and Brownlee . The Salmon River , the largest tributary of the Snake River , meets it in one of the most remote areas of its entire course , nearly at the halfway point in Hells Canyon . From there , the Snake crosses into Washington and Idaho , receiving the Grande Ronde River from the west before receiving the Clearwater River at Lewiston , the uppermost major city on the navigable stretch of the Snake . As the Snake leaves Hells Canyon and spreads into the low @-@ lying Palouse Hills of eastern Washington , the Lower Snake River Project 's four dams have transformed the Snake River into a series of reservoirs . The confluence of the Snake and Columbia rivers has been submerged in Lake Wallula , the reservoir of McNary Dam . The Columbia River flows about 325 miles ( 523 km ) further west to the Pacific Ocean , cutting through the Cascade Range by way of the Columbia River Gorge . = = Geology = = As recently as 165 million years ago , most of western North America was still part of the Pacific Ocean . The nearly complete subduction of the Farallon Plate underneath the westward @-@ moving North American Plate created the Rocky Mountains , which were pushed up by rising magma trapped between the sinking Farallon plate and the North American plate . As the North American Plate moved westwards over a stationary hotspot beneath the crust , a series of tremendous lava flows and volcanic eruptions carved out the Snake River Plain beginning about 12 million years ago , west of the Continental Divide . Even larger lava flows of Columbia River basalts issued over eastern Washington , forming the Columbia Plateau southeast of the Columbia River and the Palouse Hills in the lower Snake . Separate volcanic activity formed the northwestern portion of the plain , an area far from the path of the hotspot which now lies beneath Yellowstone National Park . At this point , the Snake River watershed was beginning to take shape . The Snake River Plain and the gap between the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range formed a " moisture channel , " running as far inland as the headwaters of the Snake River . Rainclouds from the Pacific Ocean blown into the moisture channel travel eastwards over 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) . When the Teton Range uplifted about 9 million years ago along a detachment fault running north – south through the central Rockies , rainclouds began to encounter a barrier at the eastern end of the channel , engorging the headwaters of the Snake River with frequent rainfall . These rains fed the Snake River , helping it to cut through the Tetons , forming the Snake River Canyon of Wyoming . About 6 million years ago , the Salmon River Mountains and Blue Mountains at the far end of the plain began to rise , and as the river cut through the rising mountains , the ancestral Hells Canyon was formed . Lake Idaho , formed during the Miocene , covered a large portion of the Snake River Plain between Twin Falls and Hells Canyon , and its lava dam was finally breached about 2 million years ago . Lava flowing from Cedar Butte in present southeast Idaho blocked the Snake River at Eagle Rock , about 42 @,@ 000 years ago , near the present @-@ day site of American Falls Dam . A 40 @-@ mile ( 64 km ) -long lake , known as American Falls Lake , formed behind the barrier . The lake was stable and survived for nearly 30 @,@ 000 years . About 14 @,@ 500 years ago , pluvial Lake Bonneville in the Great Salt Lake area , formed in the last glacial period , spilled catastrophically down the Portneuf River into the Snake in an event known as the Bonneville Flood . This was one of the first in a series of catastrophic flooding events in the Northwest known as the Ice Age Floods . The deluge caused American Falls Lake to breach its natural lava dam , which was rapidly eroded with only the 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) -high American Falls left in the end . The flood waters of Lake Bonneville , approximately twenty times the flow of the Columbia River or 5 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 150 @,@ 000 m3 / s ) , swept down the Snake River , leaving debris and sediment deposits across southern Idaho . For miles on either side of the Snake , flood waters stripped away soils and scoured the underlying basalt bedrock , in the process creating Shoshone Falls , Twin Falls , Crane Falls , and Swan Falls , while cutting and deepening gorges and canyons along the way . The Bonneville flood waters continued through Hells Canyon . The flood widened Hells Canyon but did not deepen it . As the Bonneville Floods rushed down the Snake River , the Missoula Floods occurred in the same period , but farther north . The Missoula Floods , which took place more than 40 times in the time span from 15 @,@ 000 to 13 @,@ 000 years ago , were caused by Glacial Lake Missoula on the Clark Fork repeatedly being impounded by ice dams then breaking through , with the lake 's water rushing over much of eastern Washington in massive surges far larger than the Lake Bonneville Flood . These floods pooled behind the Cascade Range into enormous lakes and spilled over the northern drainage divide of the Snake River watershed , carving deep canyons through the Palouse Hills . The Palouse River canyon was the largest of the many gorges cut through the Palouse Hills , and could not have become as large as it now is if it were not for the Missoula Floods . The Lake Bonneville Floods and the Missoula Floods helped widen and deepen the Columbia River Gorge , a giant water gap which allows water from the Columbia and Snake rivers to take a direct route through the Cascade Range to the Pacific . The massive amounts of sediment deposited by the Lake Bonneville Floods in the Snake River Plain also had a lasting effect on most of the middle Snake River . The high hydraulic conductivity of the mostly @-@ basalt rocks in the plain led to the formation of the Snake River Aquifer , one of the most productive aquifers in North America . Many rivers and streams flowing from the north side of the plain sink into the aquifer instead of flowing into the Snake River , a group of watersheds called the lost streams of Idaho . The aquifer filled to hold nearly 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 120 km3 ) of water , underlying about 10 @,@ 000 square miles ( 26 @,@ 000 km2 ) in a plume 1 @,@ 300 feet ( 400 m ) thick . In places , water exits from rivers at rates of nearly 600 cubic feet per second ( 17 m3 / s ) . Much of the water lost by the Snake River as it transects the plain issues back into the river at its western end , by way of many artesian springs . = = Watershed = = The Snake River is the thirteenth longest river in the United States . Its watershed is the 10th largest among North American rivers , and covers almost 108 @,@ 000 square miles ( 280 @,@ 000 km2 ) in portions of six U.S. states : Wyoming , Idaho , Nevada , Utah , Oregon , and Washington , with the largest portion in Idaho . Most of the Snake River watershed lies between the Rocky Mountains on the east and the Columbia Plateau on the northwest . The largest tributary of the Columbia River , the Snake River watershed makes up about 41 % of the entire Columbia River Basin . Its average discharge at the mouth constitutes 31 % of the Columbia 's flow at that point . Above the confluence , the Snake is slightly longer than the Columbia — 1 @,@ 078 miles ( 1 @,@ 735 km ) compared to 928 miles ( 1 @,@ 493 km ) — and its drainage basin is slightly larger — 4 % bigger than the upstream Columbia River watershed . The mostly semi @-@ arid , even desert climate of the Snake River watershed on average , receives less than 12 inches ( 300 mm ) of precipitation per year . However , precipitation in the Snake River watershed varies widely . At Twin Falls , in the center of the Snake River Plain , the climate is nearly desert , with an annual rainfall of just 9 @.@ 24 inches ( 235 mm ) , although the average snowfall is 13 @.@ 1 inches ( 330 mm ) . This desert climate occupies the majority of the basin of the Snake River , so although it is longer than the Columbia River above the Tri @-@ Cities , its discharge is on average significantly less . However , in the high Rockies of Wyoming , in the upper Jackson Hole area , the average precipitation is over 30 inches ( 760 mm ) , and snowfall averages 252 inches ( 6 @,@ 400 mm ) . Most of the Snake River basin consists of wide , arid plains and rolling hills , bordered by high mountains . In the upper parts of the watershed , however , the river flows through an area with a distinct alpine climate . There are also stretches where the river and its tributaries have incised themselves into tight gorges . The Snake River watershed includes parts of Yellowstone National Park , Grand Teton National Park , Hells Canyon National Recreation Area , and many other national and state parks . Much of the area along the river , within a few miles of its banks , is irrigated farmland , especially in its middle and lower course . Irrigation dams include American Falls Dam , Minidoka Dam , and C.J. Strike Dam . Aside from water from the river , water is also pulled from the Snake River Aquifer for irrigation . Major cities along the river include Jackson in Wyoming , Twin Falls , Idaho Falls , Boise , and Lewiston in Idaho , and the Tri @-@ Cities in Washington ( Kennewick , Pasco and Richland ) . There are fifteen dams in total along the Snake River , which aside from irrigation , also produce electricity , maintain a navigation channel along part of the river 's route , and provide flood control . However , fish passage is limited to the stretch below Hells Canyon . The Snake River watershed is bounded by several other major North American watersheds , which drain both to the Atlantic or the Pacific , or into endorheic basins . On the southwest side a divide separates the Snake watershed from Oregon 's Harney Basin , which is endorheic . On the south , the Snake watershed borders that of the Humboldt River in Nevada , and the watershed of the Great Salt Lake ( the Bear , Jordan and Weber rivers ) on the south . The Snake River also shares a boundary with the Green River to the southeast ; the Green River drains parts of Wyoming and Utah and is the largest tributary of the Colorado River . On the western extremity for a short stretch the Continental Divide separates the Snake watershed from the Bighorn River , a tributary of the Yellowstone River , which the Snake begins near . On the north the Snake River watershed is bounded by the Red Rock River , a tributary of the Beaverhead River , which flows into the Jefferson River and into the Missouri River , part of the Gulf of Mexico drainage basin . The rest of the Snake River watershed borders on several other major Columbia River tributaries - mostly the Spokane River to the north , but also Clark Fork in Montana to the northeast and the John Day River to the west . Of these , the Clark Fork ( via the Pend Oreille River ) and the Spokane join the Columbia above the Snake , while the John Day joins downstream of the Snake , in the Columbia River Gorge . It is of note that the northeastern divide of the Snake River watershed forms the Idaho @-@ Montana boundary , so the Snake River watershed does not extend into Montana . Mountain ranges in the Snake watershed include the Teton Range , Bitterroot Range , Clearwater Mountains , Seven Devils Mountains , and the extreme northwestern end of the Wind River Range . Grand Teton is the highest point in the Snake River watershed , reaching 13 @,@ 775 feet ( 4 @,@ 199 m ) in elevation . The elevation of the Snake River is 358 feet ( 109 m ) when it joins the Columbia River . = = = Pollution = = = Agricultural runoff from farms and ranches in the Snake River Plain and many other areas has severely hurt the ecology of the river throughout the 20th century . After the first irrigation dams on the river begun operation in the first decade of the 20th century , much of the arable land in a strip a few miles wide along the Snake River was cultivated or turned to pasture , and agricultural return flows began to pollute the Snake . Runoff from several feedlots was dumped into the river until laws made the practice illegal . Fertilizer , manure and other chemicals and pollutants washed into the river greatly increase the nutrient load , especially of phosphorus , fecal coliforms and nitrogen . During low water , algae blooms occur throughout the calm stretches of the river , depleting its oxygen supply . Much of the return flows do not issue directly back into the Snake River , but rather feed the Snake River Aquifer underneath the Snake River Plain . Water diverted from the river for irrigation , after absorbing any surface pollutants , re @-@ enters the ground and feeds the aquifer . Although the aquifer has maintained its level , it has become increasingly laced with contaminants . Water in the aquifer eventually travels to the west side of the Snake River Plain and re @-@ enters the river as springs . Throughout much of the Snake River Plain and Hells Canyon , excessive sediment is also a recurring problem . In December 2007 , the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) issued a permit requiring owners of fish farms along the Snake River to reduce their phosphorus discharge by 40 % . Pollutant levels in Hells Canyon upstream of the Salmon River confluence , including that of water temperature , dissolved nutrients , and sediment , are required to meet certain levels . = = = Discharge = = = The Snake River 's average flow is 54 @,@ 830 cubic feet per second ( 1 @,@ 553 m3 / s ) . The United States Geological Survey recorded the river 's discharge from a period of 1963 – 2000 at a stream gauge below Ice Harbor Dam . In that period , the largest average annual flow recorded was 84 @,@ 190 cubic feet per second ( 2 @,@ 384 m3 / s ) in 1997 , and the lowest was 27 @,@ 100 cubic feet per second ( 770 m3 / s ) in 1992 . The lowest recorded daily mean flow was 2 @,@ 700 cubic feet per second ( 76 m3 / s ) on February 4 , 1979 . On August 27 , 1965 , there was temporarily no flow as a result of testing at Ice Harbor Dam . The highest recorded flow was 312 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 8 @,@ 800 m3 / s ) on June 19 , 1974 . The highest flow ever recorded on the Snake River was at a different USGS stream gauge near Clarkston , which operated from 1915 to 1972 . This gauge recorded a maximum flow of 369 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 10 @,@ 400 m3 / s ) — more than the Columbia 's average discharge — on May 29 , 1948 . An even larger peak discharge , estimated at 409 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 11 @,@ 600 m3 / s ) , occurred during the flood of June 1894 . The river 's flow is also measured at several other points in its course . Above Jackson Lake , Wyoming , the discharge is about 885 cubic feet per second ( 25 @.@ 1 m3 / s ) from a drainage area of 486 square miles ( 1 @,@ 260 km2 ) . At Minidoka , Idaho , about halfway through the Snake River Plain , the river 's discharge rises to 7 @,@ 841 cubic feet per second ( 222 @.@ 0 m3 / s ) . However , at Buhl , Idaho , only about 50 miles ( 80 km ) downstream , the river 's flow decreases to 4 @,@ 908 cubic feet per second ( 139 @.@ 0 m3 / s ) because of agricultural diversions and seepage . But at the border of Idaho and Oregon , near Weiser at the beginning of Hells Canyon , the Snake 's flow rises to 17 @,@ 780 cubic feet per second ( 503 m3 / s ) after receiving several major tributaries such as the Payette , Owyhee and Malheur . The discharge further increases to 19 @,@ 530 cubic feet per second ( 553 m3 / s ) at Hells Canyon Dam on the border of Idaho and Oregon . At Anatone , Washington , downstream of the confluence with the Salmon , one of the Snake 's largest tributaries , the mean discharge is 34 @,@ 560 cubic feet per second ( 979 m3 / s ) . = = History = = = = = Name = = = Canadian explorer David Thompson first recorded the Native American name of the Snake River as Shawpatin when he arrived at its mouth by boat in 1800 . When the Lewis and Clark Expedition crossed westwards into the Snake River watershed in 1805 , they first gave it the name Lewis River , Lewis Fork or Lewis 's Fork , as Meriwether Lewis was the first of their group to sight the river . They also made note of the " Snake Indians " who lived along the river , who were actually the Shoshone tribe , and learned that the Native Americans called the river Ki @-@ moo @-@ e @-@ nim or Yam @-@ pah @-@ pa ( for an herb that grew prolifically along its banks ) . Later American explorers , some of whom were originally part of the Lewis and Clark expedition , journeyed into the Snake River watershed and records show a variety of names have been associated with the river . The explorer Wilson Price Hunt of the Astor Expedition named the river as Mad River . Others gave the river names including Shoshone River ( after the tribe ) and Saptin River . Eventually , the name Snake River was derived from an S @-@ shaped gesture the Shoshone tribe made with their hands to represent swimming salmon . Explorers misinterpreted it to represent a snake , giving the river its present @-@ day name . = = = Early inhabitants = = = People have been living along the Snake River for at least 11 @,@ 000 years . Historian Daniel S. Meatte divides the prehistory of the western Snake River Basin into three main phases or " adaptive systems " . The first he calls " Broad Spectrum Foraging " , dating from 11 @,@ 500 to 4 @,@ 200 years before present . During this period people drew upon a wide variety of food resources . The second period , " Semisedentary Foraging " , dates from 4 @,@ 200 – 250 years before present and is distinctive for an increased reliance upon fish , especially salmon , as well as food preservation and storage . The third phase , from 250 to 100 years before present , he calls " Equestrian Foragers " . It is characterized by large horse @-@ mounted tribes that spent long amounts of time away from their local foraging range hunting bison . In the eastern Snake River Plain there is some evidence of Clovis , Folsom , and Plano cultures dating back over 10 @,@ 000 years ago . Early fur traders and explorers noted regional trading centers , and archaeological evidence has shown some to be of considerable antiquity . One such trading center in the Weiser area existed as early as 4 @,@ 500 years ago . The Fremont culture may have contributed to the historic Shoshones , but it is not well understood . Another poorly understood early cultural component is called the Midvale Complex . The introduction of the horse to the Snake River Plain around 1700 helped in establishing the Shoshone and Northern Paiute cultures . On the Snake River in southeastern Washington there are several ancient sites . One of the oldest and most well @-@ known is called the Marmes Rockshelter , which was used from over 11 @,@ 000 years ago to relatively recent times . The Marmes Rockshelter was flooded in 1968 by Lake Herbert G. West , the Lower Monumental Dam 's reservoir . Eventually , two large Native American groups controlled most of the Snake River : the Nez Perce , whose territory stretched from the southeastern Columbia Plateau into northern Oregon and western Idaho , and the Shoshone , who occupied the Snake River Plain both above and below Shoshone Falls . Lifestyles along the Snake River varied widely . Below Shoshone Falls , the economy centered on salmon , who often came up the river in enormous numbers . Salmon were the mainstay of the Nez Perce and most of the other tribes below Shoshone Falls . Above the falls , life was significantly different . The Snake River Plain forms one of the only relatively easy paths across the main Rocky Mountains for many hundreds of miles , allowing Native Americans both east and west of the mountains to interact . As a result , the Shoshone centered on a trading economy . According to legend , the Nez Perce tribe was first founded in the valley of the Clearwater River , one of the Snake River 's lowermost major tributaries . At its height , there were at least 27 Nez Perce settlements along the Clearwater River and 11 more on the Snake between the mouth of the Clearwater and Imnaha Rivers . There were also villages on the Salmon River , Grande Ronde River , Tucannon River , and the lower Hells Canyon area . The Snake River 's annual salmon run , which was estimated at that time to exceed four million in good years , supported the Nez Perce , who lived in permanent , well @-@ defined villages , unlike the nomadic southeastern tribes along the Snake River . The Nez Perce also were involved in trade with the Flathead tribe to the north and other middle Columbia River tribes . However , they were enemies to the Shoshone and the other upstream Snake River tribes . The Shoshone or Shoshoni were characterized by nomadic groups that took their culture from the earlier Bitterroot culture and Great Basin tribes that migrated north via the Owyhee River . They were the most powerful tribe in the Rocky Mountains area , and were known to many Great Plains tribes as the " Snakes " . In the 18th century , Shoshone territory extended beyond the Snake River Plain , extending over the Continental Divide into the upper Missouri River watershed and even further north into Canada . A smallpox epidemic brought by European explorers and fur trappers was responsible for wiping out much of the Shoshone east of the Rocky Mountains , but the Shoshone continued to occupy the Snake River Plain . Eventually , the Shoshone culture merged with that of the Paiute and Bannock tribes , which came from the Great Basin and the Hells Canyon area , respectively . The Bannock brought with them the skill of buffalo hunting and horses they had acquired from Europeans , changing the Shoshone way of life significantly . = = = Exploration and settling = = = The Lewis and Clark Expedition ( 1804 – 06 ) was the first American group to cross the Rocky Mountains and sail down the Snake and Columbia rivers to the Pacific Ocean . Meriwether Lewis supposedly became the first American to sight the drainage basin of the Snake River after he crossed the mountains a few days ahead of his party on August 12 , 1805 , and sighted the Salmon River valley ( a major Snake tributary ) from Lemhi Pass , a few miles from the present @-@ day site of Salmon , Idaho . The party later traveled north , descended the Lemhi River to the Salmon and attempted to descend it to the Snake , but found it impassable because of its violent rapids . The expedition named the Snake River the Lewis River , Lewis 's River , or Lewis Fork , in his honor , and they traveled northwards to the Lochsa River , which they traveled via the Clearwater River into the lower Snake , and into the Columbia . They also referred to the Shoshone Indians as the " Snake Indians " , which became the present @-@ day name of the river . The name " Lewis Fork " , however , did not last . Later American explorers traveled throughout the Snake River area and up its major tributaries beginning in 1806 , just after Lewis and Clark had returned . The first was John Ordway in 1806 , who also explored the lower Salmon River . John Colter in 1808 was the first to sight the upper headwaters of the Snake River , including the Jackson Hole area . In 1810 , Andrew Henry , along with a party of fur trappers , discovered the Henrys Fork of the Snake River , which is now named after him . Donald Mackenzie sailed the lower Snake River in 1811 , and later explorers included Wilson Price Hunt of the Astor Expedition ( who gave the river the name " Mad River " ) , Ramsay Crooks , Francisco Payelle , John Grey , Thyery Goddin , and many others after the 1830s . Many of these later explorers were original members of the Lewis and Clark Expedition who had returned to map and explore the area in greater detail . Even later , American fur trappers scouted the area for beaver streams , but Canadian trappers from the British Hudson 's Bay Company were by now a major competitor . The Hudson 's Bay Company first sent fur trappers into the Snake River watershed in 1819 . The party of three traveled into the headwaters of the Owyhee River , a major southern tributary of the Snake , but disappeared . Meanwhile , as American fur trappers kept coming to the region , the Hudson 's Bay Company ordered the Canadian trappers to kill as many beavers as they could , eventually nearly eradicating the species from the Snake River watershed , under the " rationale [ that ] if there are no beavers , there will be no reason for the Yanks ( [ Americans ] ) to come . " Their goal was to eventually gain rights over the Oregon Territory , a region covering Washington , Oregon , Idaho , and parts of Montana and Wyoming ( most of the present @-@ day region called the Pacific Northwest ) . However , the area was eventually annexed into the United States . By the middle 19th century , the Oregon Trail had been established , generally following much of the Snake River . One crossing the trail made over the Snake River was near the present @-@ day site of Glenns Ferry . Several years later , a ferry was established at the site , replacing the old system where pioneers had to ford the wide , powerful and deep Snake . Another place where pioneers crossed the Snake was further upstream , at a place called " Three Island Crossing " , near the mouth of the Boise River . This area has a group of three islands ( hence the name ) that splits the Snake into four channels each about 200 feet ( 61 m ) wide . Some emigrants chose to ford the Snake and proceed down the west side and recross the river near Fort Boise into Hells Canyon , continue down the drier east side into the gorge , or float the Snake and Columbia to the Willamette River , the destination of the Oregon Trail . The reason for the Three Island Crossing was the better availability of grass and water access . Numerous ferries have provided crossings of the upper Snake from the Brownlee Ferry at the head of Hell 's Canyon to Menor 's Ferry , which operates today at Moose , Wyoming . Sophistication varied from reed boats pulled by Indians on horse back at Snake Fort , Fort Boise , as described by Narcissa Whitman in 1836 to an electric operated ferry , the Swan Falls Ferry , at Swan Falls Dam of the early 20th century . = = = Steamboats = = = Unlike the Columbia River , it was far more difficult for steamboats to navigate on the Snake . The Columbia River drops 2 @,@ 690 feet ( 820 m ) from source to mouth , while the Snake drops over 8 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @,@ 600 m ) in elevation over a length more than 200 miles ( 320 km ) shorter . Still , from the 1860s to the 1940s , steamboats traveled on the Snake River from its mouth at the Columbia River to near the mouth of the Imnaha River in lower Hells Canyon . However , most of the steamboats only sailed from the river 's mouth to Lewiston , located at the confluence of the Snake and Clearwater rivers . This stretch of the river is the easiest to navigate for watercraft since it has the least elevation change , although it still contained over 60 sets of rapids . Passenger and freight service downstream of Lewiston lasted throughout the late 19th century and persisted until the introduction of railroads in the Palouse Hills grain @-@ growing region and ultimately , the construction of dams on the lower Snake to facilitate barge traffic , which caused the demise of both the steamboats and the railroad . Lewiston , 140 miles ( 230 km ) from the confluence of the Snake and Columbia and 465 miles ( 748 km ) from the mouth of the Columbia on the Pacific Ocean , became connected with Portland and other Pacific ports via steamboat service from the mouth of the Snake through the Columbia River Gorge . A commonly traveled route was from Wallula , Washington , 120 miles ( 190 km ) downstream of the Snake River 's mouth , upstream to Lewiston . The Oregon Steam Navigation Company launched the Shoshone at Fort Boise in 1866 which provided passenger and freight service on the upper Snake for the Boise and Owyhee mines . By the 1870s , the OSN Company , owned by the Northern Pacific Railroad , was operating seven steamboats for transporting wheat and grain from the productive Palouse region along the Snake and Columbia to lower Columbia River ports . These boats were the Harvest Queen , John Gates , Spokane , Annie Faxon , Mountain Queen , R.R. Thompson , and Wide West , all of which were built on the Columbia River . However , there were more resources along the Snake River than wheat and grain . In the 1890s , a huge copper deposit was discovered at Eureka Bar in Hells Canyon . Several ships were built specifically to transport ore from there to Lewiston : these included Imnaha , Mountain Gem , and Norma . In 1893 the Annie Faxon suffered a boiler explosion and sank on the Snake below Lewiston . = = River modifications = = = = = Dams = = = Many factors have influenced the construction of dams along the Snake River . A total of fifteen dams have been constructed along the Snake River for a multitude of different purposes , from its headwaters in the Rocky Mountains to its mouth on Lake Wallula , a slackwater reservoir formed behind McNary Dam on the Columbia River . Dams on the Snake can be grouped into three major categories . From its headwaters to the beginning of Hells Canyon , many small dams block the Snake to provide irrigation water . Between here and Hells Canyon , the first dam on the Snake , Swan Falls Dam , was built in 1901 . In Hells Canyon , a cascade of dams produce hydroelectricity from the river 's lofty decrease in elevation over a comparatively small distance . Finally , a third cascade of dams , from Hells Canyon to the mouth , facilitates navigation . Many different government and private agencies have worked to build dams on the Snake River , which now serve an important purpose for people living in the Snake 's drainage basin and trade of agricultural products to Pacific seaports . The Minidoka Irrigation Project of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation , created with the passage of the Reclamation Act of 1902 , involved the diversion of Snake River water into the Snake River Plain upstream of Shoshone Falls in order to irrigate approximately 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 500 km2 ) in the Snake River Plain and store 4 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 5 @.@ 1 km3 ) of water in Snake River reservoirs . The first studies for irrigation in the Plain were conducted by the United States Geological Survey in the late 19th century , and the project was authorized on April 23 , 1904 . The first dam constructed for the project was Minidoka Dam in 1904 ; its power plant began operating in 1909 , producing 7 MW of electricity . This capacity was revised to 20 MW in 1993 . However , Minidoka Dam was not the only dam constructed for the project . As far upstream as Jackson Lake in Wyoming , the Jackson Lake Dam was built in 1907 to raise the lake level for providing additional water storage for dry years . American Falls Dam , upstream of Minidoka , was completed in 1927 and replaced in 1978 . As the dams were constructed above Shoshone Falls , the historical upriver limit of salmon and also a total barrier to boats and ships , no provisions were made for fish passage or navigation . Several other irrigation dams were also built - including Twin Falls Dam and Palisades Dam . The Hells Canyon Project was built and maintained by Idaho Power Company starting in the 1940s , and was the second of the three major water projects on the river . The three dams of the project , Brownlee Dam , Oxbow Dam and Hells Canyon Dam , are located in upper Hells Canyon . All three dams are primarily for power generation and flood control , and do not have fish passage or navigation locks . Brownlee Dam , the most upriver dam , was constructed in 1959 , and generates 728 MW of power . Oxbow Dam , the second dam in the project , was built in 1961 and generates 220 MW . The dam was named for a 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) -wide bend in the Snake River , shaped like an oxbow , although not an oxbow lake . Hells Canyon Dam was the last and most downriver of the three , was constructed in 1967 and generates 450 MW . Downriver of the Hells Canyon is the Lower Snake River Project , authorized by the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1945 , which was created by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to create a navigable channel on the Snake River from its mouth to the beginning of Hells Canyon . These dams are , in downstream order : Lower Granite Lock and Dam , Little Goose Lock and Dam , Lower Monumental Lock and Dam , and Ice Harbor Lock and Dam . Dredging work was also done throughout the length of the navigation channel to facilitate ship passage . These dams form a cascade of reservoirs with no stretches of free @-@ flowing river in between . Immediately below Ice Harbor Dam is Lake Wallula , formed by the construction of the McNary Dam on the Columbia River . ( McNary Dam is not part of the Lower Snake River Project . ) Above Lower Granite Dam , the river channel from Lewiston to Johnson Bar , just below Hells Canyon , is also maintained for jet @-@ boats as this section is too rugged for ships . These dams have been proposed for removal , and if they were to be removed , it would be the largest dam removal project ever undertaken in the United States . The removal has been proposed on the grounds that it would restore salmon runs to the lower Snake River and the Clearwater River and other smaller tributaries . Idaho 's Snake river once teemed with sockeye salmon . However , there are almost no wild sockeye salmon left in the river due to a number of factors . There are many reasons why Sockeye Salmon in the Snake River are reduced in number . One reason is that the Snake river runs through 3 different states , and is over 1 @,@ 000 miles long . Salmon swimming upstream in this river are faced with predators and dams . The Snake River has fifteen dams and is extremely difficult for salmon to access because of hydroelectric dams . Hell 's Canyon Dam blocks passage to the entire upper Snake River . The Grand Cooley also blocks spawning grounds to the famous " June Hogs . " ( June Hogs were legendary Chinook Salmon that weighed over 100 pounds . ) Between 1985 and 2007 , only an average of 18 sockeye salmon returned to Idaho each year . Serious conservation efforts by wildlife biologists and fish hatcheries have captured the few remaining wild sockeye salmon , collected their sperm and eggs , and in a laboratory , have them spawn . Instead of spawning naturally , these sockeye begin their lives in an incubator in a fishery biologist 's laboratory . These baby salmon then are transported by ship , bypassing the dams . ( The dams can hurt juvenile baby sockeye salmon with their powerful tides and currents , which suck the baby salmon down . ) Another conservation effort that has helped the salmon recover , is the destruction of old , outdated dams , such as the Lewiston Dam on the Clearwater River , a tributary of the Snake . After destroying the dam , salmon populations noticeably recovered . Another interesting recovery method conservationists and biologists are using is called Fish Transportation . Since many juvenile salmon perish at each dam while swimming out to the ocean , massive ships filter and collect these baby salmon by size and take them out to the ocean for a ride , where they can be guaranteed to make it alive to saltwater . This method raises controversy to the effectiveness and costs , since this method is extremely expensive , almost costing $ 15 million . Another similar method to transport fish across the dams is the " Fish Gun " method . Engineers at Whooshh Innovations have developed a " Whooshh Fish Transport System " that literally collects salmon and shoots them above the dam at high speed in an effort to get them across the dams . Overall , these combined efforts have had good success . In the summer of 2006 , the Snake River reportedly only had 3 sockeye salmon that returned to their spawning grounds.In the summer of 2013 , more than 13 @,@ 000 sockeye salmon returned to the spawning grounds . = = = Navigation = = = In the 1960s and 1970s the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers built four dams and locks on the lower Snake River to facilitate shipping . The lower Columbia River has likewise been dammed for navigation . Thus a deep shipping channel through locks and slackwater reservoirs for heavy barges exists from the Pacific Ocean to Lewiston , Idaho . Most barge traffic originating on the Snake River goes to deep @-@ water ports on the lower Columbia River , such as Portland . Grain , mostly wheat , is the main product shipped from the Snake , and nearly all of it is exported internationally from the lower Columbia River ports . The shipping channel is authorized to be at least 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) deep and 250 feet ( 76 m ) wide . Where river depths were less than 14 feet ( 4 m ) , the shipping channel has been dredged in most places . Dredging and redredging work is ongoing and actual depths vary over time . With a channel about 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) deeper than the Mississippi River system , the Columbia and Snake rivers can float barges twice as heavy . Agricultural products from Idaho and eastern Washington are among the main goods transported by barge on the Snake and Columbia rivers . Grain , mainly wheat , accounts for more than 85 % of the cargo barged on the lower Snake River . In 1998 , over 123 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US bushels ( 4 @.@ 3 × 109 l ; 980 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US dry gal ; 950 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of grain were barged on the Snake . Before the completion of the lower Snake dams , grain from the region was transported by truck or rail to Columbia River ports around the Tri @-@ Cities . Other products barged on the lower Snake River include peas , lentils , forest products , and petroleum . = = Biology = = The World Wide Fund for Nature ( WWF ) divides the Snake River 's watershed into two freshwater ecoregions : the " Columbia Unglaciated " ecoregion and the " Upper Snake " ecoregion . Shoshone Falls marks the boundary between the two . The WWF placed the ecoregion boundary about 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) downriver from Shoshone Falls in order to include the Big Wood River ( the main tributary of the Malad River ) in the Upper Snake ecoregion , because the Wood River is biologically distinct from the rest of the downriver Snake . Shoshone Falls has presented a total barrier to the upstream movement of fish for 30 @,@ 000 to 60 @,@ 000 years . As a result , only 35 % of the fish fauna above the falls , and 40 % of the Wood River 's fish fauna , are shared with the lower Snake River . The Upper Snake freshwater ecoregion includes most of southeastern Idaho and extends into small portions of Wyoming , Utah , and Nevada , including major freshwater habitats such as Jackson Lake . Compared to the lower Snake River and the rest of the Columbia River 's watershed , the Upper Snake ecoregion has a high level of endemism , especially among freshwater molluscs such as snails and clams . There are at least 21 snail and clam species of special concern , including 15 that appear to exist only in single clusters . There are 14 fish species found in the Upper Snake region that do not occur elsewhere in the Columbia 's watershed , but which do occur in Bonneville freshwater ecoregion of western Utah , part of the Great Basin and related to the prehistoric Lake Bonneville . The Wood River sculpin ( Cottus leiopomus ) is endemic to the Wood River . The Shoshone sculpin ( Cottus greenei ) is endemic to the small portion of the Snake River between Shoshone Falls and the Wood River . The Snake River below Shoshone Falls is home to thirty @-@ five native fish species , of which twelve are also found in the Columbia River and four of which are endemic to the Snake : the relict sand roller ( Percopsis transmontana ) of the Percopsidae family , the shorthead sculpin ( Cottus confusus ) , the maginated sculpin ( Cottus marginatus ) , and the Oregon chub ( Oregonichthys crameri ) . The Oregon chub is also found in the Umpqua River and nearby basins . The lower Snake River also supports seven species of Pacific salmon and trout ( Oncorhynchus ) . There are also high , often localized levels of mollusc endemism , especially in Hells Canyon and the basins of the Clearwater River , Salmon River , and middle Snake River . The mollusc richness extends into the lower Columbia River and tributaries such as the Deschutes River . = = = Animals = = = Aside from aquatic species , much of the Snake River watershed supports larger animals including numerous species of mammals , birds , amphibians , and reptiles . Especially in the headwaters and the other mountainous areas strewn throughout the watershed , the gray wolf , grizzly bear , wolverine , mountain lion and Canada lynx are common . It has been determined that there are 97 species of mammals in the upper part of the Snake River , upstream from the Henrys Fork confluence . Pronghorn and bighorn sheep are common in the area drained by the " lost streams of Idaho " , several rivers and large creeks that flow south from the Rocky Mountains and disappear into the Snake River Aquifer . About 274 bird species , some endangered or threatened , use the Snake River watershed , including bald eagle , peregrine falcon , whooping crane , greater sage @-@ grouse , and yellow @-@ billed cuckoo . Barrow 's goldeneye are a species of bird that occurs commonly along the lower section of the Snake River . Ten amphibian and twenty species of reptiles inhabit the upper Snake River 's wetland and riparian zones . Several species of frogs are common in the " lost streams " basin and the northeasternmost part of the Snake River watershed , including the inland tailed frog , northern leopard frog , western toad , Columbia spotted frog , long @-@ toed salamander , spadefoot toad . However , in the lower and middle portions of the Snake River watershed , several native species have been severely impacted by agriculture practices and the resulting non @-@ native species supported by them . Introduced birds include the gray partridge , ring @-@ necked pheasant , and chukar . Other non @-@ native species include the bullfrog , brown @-@ headed cowbird , and European starling , attracted by the construction of cities and towns . = = = Plants = = = The Snake River watershed includes a diversity of vegetation zones both past and present . A majority of the watershed was once covered with shrub @-@ steppe grassland , most common in the Snake River Plain and also the Columbia Plateau in southeastern Washington . Riparian zones , wetlands and marshes once occurred along the length of the Snake River and its tributaries . In higher elevations , conifer forests , of which ponderosa pine is most common , dominate the landscape . The basin ranges from semi @-@ desert to alpine climates , providing habitat for hundreds of species of plants . In the lowermost part of the watershed , in southeastern Washington , the Snake River is surrounded by an area called the Columbia Plateau Ecoprovince , which is now mostly occupied by irrigated farms . The rest of the Plateau area is characterized by low hills , dry lakes , and an arid , nearly desert climate . The headwaters of the Snake River and the high mountains elsewhere in the watershed were historically heavily forested . These include aspen , Douglas fir , and spruce fir , comprising about 20 % of the historic watershed . At the base of mountains and in the Lost River basin , sagebrush was and is the predominant vegetation cover . Because of deforestation , up to one @-@ fourth of the forests have been taken over by sagebrush , leaving the remaining forests to cover about 15 % of the watershed . However , the lodgepole pine has increased in number , taking over historic stands of other conifers . There are also up to 118 species of rare or endemic plants that occur in the Snake River watershed . = = = Salmon and other anadromous fish = = = The Snake River was once one of the most important rivers for the spawning of anadromous fish — which are hatched in the headwaters of rivers , live in the ocean for most of their lives , and return to the river to spawn — in the United States . The river supported species including chinook salmon , coho salmon , and sockeye salmon , as well as steelhead , white sturgeon , and Pacific lamprey . It is known that before the construction of dams on the river , there were three major chinook salmon runs in the Snake River ; in the spring , summer and fall , totaling about 120 @,@ 000 fish , and the sockeye salmon run was about 150 @,@ 000 . The historical barrier to fish migration on the Snake River was Shoshone Falls , a waterfall that occurs as the Snake River passes through the Snake River Plain . Since the early 20th century , when Swan Falls Dam was constructed on the middle Snake River upstream of Hells Canyon , the fifteen dams and reservoirs on the river have posed an increasing problem for migrating salmon . Agricultural lands and their resulting runoff have also had a significant impact on the success rate of migrating fish . Salmon can travel up the Snake River as far as Hells Canyon Dam , using the fish passage facilities of the four lower Snake River dams , leaving the Clearwater , Grande Ronde and Salmon river to sustain spawning salmon . Rising in several forks in the Clearwater Mountains of central Idaho , the Clearwater and Salmon River watersheds are nearly undeveloped with the enormous exception of Dworshak Dam on the North Fork Clearwater River . The watershed of the Grande Ronde in northeastern Oregon is also largely undeveloped . The four reservoirs formed by the lower Snake River dams — Lake Sacagawea , Lake Herbert G. West , Lake Bryan , and Lower Granite Lake — have also formed problems , as the downstream current in the pools is often not enough for the fish to sense , confusing their migration routes . At the confluence of the Snake and Clearwater Rivers , young salmon that swim down from spawning gravels in the headwaters of the Clearwater River often delay their migrations because of a significant temperature difference . ( Prior to the removal of Lewiston Dam on the main Clearwater and Grangeville Dam on the South Fork Clearwater , the Clearwater was completely unusable by migrating salmon . ) Agricultural runoff and water held in reservoirs higher upstream on the Snake warm its waters as it flows through the Snake River Plain , so as the Snake meets the Clearwater , its average temperature is much higher . Directly below the confluence , the river flows into Lower Granite Lake , formed by Lower Granite Dam , the uppermost dam of the Lower Snake River Project . Paradoxically , the combination of these factors gives the young salmon further time to grow and to feed in Lower Granite Lake , so when they begin the migration to the Pacific Ocean , they often have a higher chance at survival , compared to those salmon who migrate to the ocean earlier . = = = Lower Snake River dam removal = = = A controversy has erupted since the late 20th century over the four lower Snake River dams , with the primary argument being that removing the dams would allow anadromous fish to reach the lower Snake River tributaries — the Clearwater River , the Tucannon River and the Grande Ronde River — and spawn in much higher numbers . However , removal of the dams has been fiercely opposed by some groups in the Pacific Northwest . Because much of the electricity in the Northwest comes from dams , removing the four dams would create a hole in the energy grid that would not be immediately replaceable . Navigation on the lower Snake would also suffer , as submerged riffles , rapids and islands would be exposed by the removal of the dams . Irrigation pumps for fields in southeastern Washington would also have to reach further to access the water of the Snake River . However , aside from restoring salmon runs , dam removal proponents argue that the power is replaceable , that the grain transportation system could be replaced by railroads , and that only one of the four reservoirs supplies irrigation water . Irrigators in the Snake River Plain would likely need to allow less water into the Snake River during low flow in order to create a current in the four lower reservoirs , and recreation and tourism would likely benefit . = = Tributaries = = The Salmon River is the second largest tributary . Although the Salmon has a larger drainage than the Clearwater , the Salmon drains much drier country and therefore has a smaller discharger than the Clearwater , about 8 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 9 @.@ 9 km3 ) annually compared to about 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 14 km3 ) annually for the Clearwater River . The Snake River has over 20 major tributaries , most of which are in the mountainous regions of the basin . The largest by far is the Clearwater River , which drains 9 @,@ 000 square miles ( 23 @,@ 000 km2 ) in north central Idaho . Many of the rivers that flow into the Snake River Plain from the north sink into the Snake River Aquifer , but still contribute their water to the river . Aside from rivers , the Snake is fed by many significant springs , many of which arise from the aquifer on the west side of the plain .
= Diffusion damping = In modern cosmological theory , diffusion damping , also called photon diffusion damping , is a physical process which reduced density inequalities ( anisotropies ) in the early universe , making the universe itself and the cosmic microwave background radiation ( CMB ) more uniform . Around 300 @,@ 000 years after the Big Bang , during the epoch of recombination , diffusing photons travelled from hot regions of space to cold ones , equalising the temperatures of these regions . This effect is responsible , along with baryon acoustic oscillations , the Doppler effect , and the effects of gravity on electromagnetic radiation , for the eventual formation of galaxies and galaxy clusters , these being the dominant large scale structures which are observed in the universe . It is a damping by diffusion , not of diffusion . The strength of diffusion damping is calculated by a mathematical expression for the damping factor , which figures into the Boltzmann equation , an equation which describes the amplitude of perturbations in the CMB . The strength of the diffusion damping is chiefly governed by the distance photons travel before being scattered ( diffusion length ) . What affect the diffusion length are primarily the properties of the plasma in question : different sorts of plasma may experience different sorts of diffusion damping . The evolution of a plasma may also affect the damping process . The scale on which diffusion damping works is called the Silk scale and its value corresponds to the size of galaxies of the present day . The mass contained within the Silk scale is called the Silk mass and it corresponds to the mass of the galaxies . = = Introduction = = Diffusion damping took place about 13 @.@ 8 billion years ago , during the stage of the early universe called recombination or matter @-@ radiation decoupling . This period occurred about 380 @,@ 000 years after the Big Bang . This is equivalent to a redshift of around z = 1090 . Recombination was the stage during which simple atoms , e.g. hydrogen and helium , began to form in the cooling , but still very hot , soup of protons , electrons and photons that composed the universe . Prior to the recombination epoch , this soup , a plasma , was largely opaque to the electromagnetic radiation of photons . This meant that the permanently excited photons were scattered by the protons and electrons too often to travel very far in straight lines . During the recombination epoch , the universe cooled rapidly as free electrons were captured by atomic nuclei ; atoms formed from their constituent parts and the universe became transparent : the amount of photon scattering decreased dramatically . Scattering less , photons could diffuse ( travel ) much greater distances . There was no significant diffusion damping for electrons , which could not diffuse nearly as far as photons could in similar circumstances . Thus all damping by electron diffusion is negligible when compared to photon diffusion damping . Acoustic perturbations of initial density fluctuations in the universe made some regions of space hotter and denser than others . These differences in temperature and density are called anisotropies . Photons diffused from the hot , overdense regions of plasma to the cold , underdense ones : they dragged along the protons and electrons : the photons pushed electrons along , and these , in turn , pulled on protons by the Coulomb force . This caused the temperatures and densities of the hot and cold regions to be averaged and the universe became less anisotropic ( characteristically various ) and more isotropic ( characteristically uniform ) . This reduction in anisotropy is the damping of diffusion damping . Diffusion damping thus damps temperature and density anisotropies in the early universe . With baryonic matter ( protons and electrons ) escaping the dense areas along with the photons ; the temperature and density inequalities were adiabatically damped . That is to say the ratios of photons to baryons remained constant during the damping process . Photon diffusion was first described in Joseph Silk 's 1968 paper entitled " Cosmic Black @-@ Body Radiation and Galaxy Formation " , which was published in The Astrophysical Journal . As such , diffusion damping is sometimes also called Silk damping , though this term may apply only to one possible damping scenario . Silk damping was thus named after its discoverer . = = Magnitude = = The magnitude of diffusion damping is calculated as a damping factor or suppression factor , represented by the symbol <formula> , which figures into the Boltzmann equation , an equation which describes the amplitude of perturbations in the CMB . The strength of the diffusion damping is chiefly governed by the distance photons travel before being scattered ( diffusion length ) . What affect the diffusion length are primarily the properties of the plasma in question : different sorts of plasma may experience different sorts of diffusion damping . The evolution of a plasma may also affect the damping process . <formula> Where : <formula> is the conformal time . <formula> is the " differential optical depth for Thomson scattering " . Thomson scattering is the scattering of electromagnetic radiation ( light ) by charged particles such as electrons . <formula> is the wave number of the wave being suppressed . <formula> is the visibility function . <formula> The damping factor <formula> , when factored into the Boltzmann equation for the cosmic microwave background radiation ( CMB ) , reduces the amplitude of perturbations : <formula> Where : <formula> is the conformal time at decoupling . <formula> is the " monopole [ perturbation ] of the photon distribution function " <formula> is a " gravitational @-@ potential [ perturbation ] in the Newtonian gauge " . The Newtonian gauge is a quantity with importance in the General Theory of Relativity . <formula> is the effective temperature . Mathematical calculations of the damping factor depend on <formula> , or the effective diffusion scale , which in turn depends on a crucial value , the diffusion length , <formula> . The diffusion length relates how far photons travel during diffusion , and comprises a finite number of short steps in random directions . The average of these steps is the Compton mean free path , and is denoted by <formula> . As the direction of these steps are randomly taken , <formula> is approximately equal to <formula> , where <formula> is the number of steps the photon takes before the conformal time at decoupling ( <formula> ) . The diffusion length increases at recombination because the mean free path does , with less photon scattering occurring ; this increases the amount of diffusion and damping . The mean free path increases because the electron ionisation fraction , <formula> , decreases as ionised hydrogen and helium bind with the free , charged electrons . As this occurs , the mean free path increases proportionally : <formula> . That is , the mean free path of the photons is inversely proportional to the electron ionisation fraction and the baryon number density ( <formula> ) . That means that the more baryons there were , and the more they were ionised , the shorter the average photon could travel before encountering one and being scattered . Small changes to these values before or during recombination can augment the damping effect considerably . This dependence on the baryon density by photon diffusion allows scientists to use analysis of the latter to investigate the former , in addition to the history of ionisation . The effect of diffusion damping is greatly augmented by the finite width of the surface of last scattering ( SLS ) . The finite width of the SLS means the CMB photons we see were not all emitted at the same time , and the fluctuations we see are not all in phase . It also means that during recombination , the diffusion length changed dramatically , as the ionisation fraction shifted . = = = Model dependence = = = In general , diffusion damping produces its effects independent of the cosmological model being studied , thereby masking the effects of other , model @-@ dependent phenomena . This means that without an accurate model of diffusion damping , scientists cannot judge the relative merits of cosmological models , whose theoretical predictions cannot be compared with observational data , this data being obscured by damping effects . For example , the peaks in the power spectrum due to acoustic oscillations are decreased in amplitude by diffusion damping . This deamplification of the power spectrum hides features of the curve , features that would otherwise be more visible . Though general diffusion damping can damp perturbations in collisionless dark matter simply due to photon dispersion , the term Silk damping applies only to damping of adiabatic models of baryonic matter , which is coupled to the diffusing photons , not dark matter , and diffuses with them . Silk damping is not as significant in models of cosmological development which posit early isocurvature fluctuations ( i.e. fluctuations which do not require a constant ratio of baryons and photons ) . In this case , increases in baryon density do not require a corresponding increases in photon density , and the lower the photon density , the less diffusion there would be : the less diffusion , the less damping . Photon diffusion is not dependent on the causes of the initial fluctuations in the density of the universe . = = Effects = = = = = Speed = = = Damping occurs at two different scales , with the process working more quickly over short ranges than over longer distances . Here , a short length is one that is lower than the mean free path of the photons . A long distance is one that is greater than the mean free path , if still less than the diffusion length . On the smaller scale , perturbations are damped almost instantaneously . On the larger scale , anisotropies are decreased more slowly , with significant degradation happening within one unit of Hubble time . = = = The Silk scale and the Silk mass = = = Diffusion damping exponentially decreases anisotropies in the CMB on a scale ( the Silk scale ) much smaller than a degree , or smaller than approximately 3 megaparsecs . This angular scale corresponds to a multipole moment <formula> . The mass contained within the Silk scale is the silk mass . Numerical evaluations of the Silk mass yield results on the order of <formula> solar masses at recombination and on the order of the mass of a present @-@ day galaxy or galaxy cluster in the current era . <formula> Scientists say diffusion damping affects small angles and corresponding anisotropies . Other effects operate on a scale called intermediate <formula> or large <formula> . Searches for anisotropies on a small scale are not as difficult as those on larger scales , partly because they may employ ground @-@ based telescopes and their results can be more easily predicted by current theoretical models . = = = Galaxy formation = = = Scientists study photon diffusion damping ( and CMB anisotropies in general ) because of the insight the subject provides into the question , " How did the universe come to be ? " . Specifically , primordial anisotropies in the temperature and density of the universe are supposed to be the causes of later large @-@ scale structure formation . Thus it was the amplification of small perturbations in the pre @-@ recombination universe that grew into the galaxies and galaxy clusters of the present era . Diffusion damping made the universe isotropic within distances on the order of the Silk Scale . That this scale corresponds to the size of observed galaxies ( when the passage of time is taken into account ) implies that diffusion damping is responsible for limiting the size of these galaxies . The theory is that clumps of matter in the early universe became the galaxies that we see today , and the size of these galaxies is related to the temperature and density of the clumps . Diffusion may also have had a significant effect on the evolution of primordial cosmic magnetic fields , fields which may have been amplified over time to become galactic magnetic fields . However , these cosmic magnetic fields may have been damped by radiative diffusion : just as acoustic oscillations in the plasma were damped by the diffusion of photons , so were magnetosonic waves ( waves of ions travelling through a magnetised plasma ) . This process began before the era of neutrino decoupling and ended at the time of recombination .
= GT Advance Championship Racing = GT Advance Championship Racing ( known as Advance GTA in Japan ) is a racing game developed by MTO and published by THQ . It was a launch title for the Game Boy Advance , and was released in Japan on March 21 , 2001 , in North America on June 11 , 2001 , and in Europe on June 22 , 2001 . The game 's sequel , GT Advance 2 : Rally Racing , was released on June 30 , 2002 in North America . GT Advance features forty @-@ five Japanese cars and places the player in races on thirty @-@ two tracks . Due to positive reaction to the game in Japan , THQ purchased publishing rights for the North American and European releases to the game after a reported bidding war , and added in a controversial password save system into the game to cut costs . The game was received with mostly positive reviews from critics that praised the game for its fun gameplay , but THQ was criticized by most reviewers for adding passwords to the game when the Japanese version had battery @-@ backed saves . = = Gameplay = = GT Advance Championship Racing is a customizable experience , including 48 cars from 8 car manufacturers , and 32 courses . Some of the cars featured in the game are exclusively found in Asia , such as the Nissan Cube . The courses vary between paved and dirt roads , requiring the player to adapt their driving to meet the conditions of the course they 're driving on . The game 's championship mode features four levels of play , three cups of varying levels , and an unlockable " kart racing mode " . Upgrades earned through gameplay can be added to the player 's car , and in some cases , they can change the physical appearance of the vehicle . The game contains multiplayer support , allowing two people to play against each other using a Game Link Cable . Controls are simple , with the A and B buttons controlling the player 's gas and brakes respectively . The R and L buttons shift the car up or down a gear in manual control , and the D @-@ Pad controls the car 's steering . The game requires the player to master the powerslide technique to skid around corners and to reduce their lap time . = = = Graphics = = = The roads in the game are painted on a flat plane , which allows the game to progress at a smooth rate , but makes it harder for the player to see upcoming turns in the road . The problem can be remedied by playing through a track multiple times to gain familiarity with the turns in a course . The cars are rendered through sprite frames , giving the impression of 3D graphics in the game . = = = Save system = = = The Japanese version of the game , Advance GTA , had save support . However , THQ pulled the battery RAM out of the North American and European releases of the game , and utilized passwords to save data instead . The system forces players of the North American and European releases to enter a sixteen digit code consisting of upper and lowercase letters , numbers , and symbols into the game to retrieve their data . Many critics blamed THQ for what was perceived to be a cost @-@ cutting measure . It was the only major change from the Japanese version of the game . = = Development = = MTO began development on GT Advance Championship Racing about a year before the release of the game in Japan . The game was first announced on August 18 , 2000 , under the name of Pocket GT Advance . With the exception of a new password save system , tweaking was kept to a minimum for the North American version of the game . The choice was made in the Japanese version to use mostly English in the game so it would be playable outside Japan . The Japanese version of the game , Advance GTA , was praised by critics and the anticipation for the North American and European releases of the game grew . A reported bidding war between United States publishing companies to release the game in the US began after the positive feedback from the Japanese version . It was reported a month afterwards that THQ had gained the publishing rights for the game 's North American and European releases . = = Reception = = GT Advance Championship Racing garnered praise from critics for its overall gameplay , but the inclusion of a password save system by THQ into the North American and European releases of the game was heavily criticized . IGN 's Craig Harris praised the high quality graphics engine and the entertaining powerslide system , but observed that with regards to the password system , " ... some players ( myself included ) just might throw their hands up in disgust with what THQ has done to the game . " GameSpot observed that , " GT Advance is , at its core , a very robust and graphically impressive racing game . " Despite praising the gameplay , however , GameSpot recommended that players buy a Japanese import version of the game instead , since it was in English and included a battery save feature . Eurogamer wrote that even though GT Advance was hampered by passwords , " ... you should definitely own GT Advance one way or another , as current gripe excepted ; it 's a sterling example of handheld racing done properly . " Responding to criticisms of the password save system , THQ later re @-@ instated the battery save feature into the two sequels of the game , GT Advance 2 : Rally Racing , and GT Advance 3 : Pro Concept Racing .
= Kristins Hall = Kristins Hall is an arena located at Stampesletta in Lillehammer , Norway . It consist of an ice rink , a combined handball and floorball court , and a curling rink . The venue , owned and operated by the Lillehammer Municipality , opened in 1988 and cost 65 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) to build . One of the motivations for its construction was to help Lillehammer 's bid to be selected as the host of the 1994 Winter Olympics . The ice rink has a capacity for 3 @,@ 194 spectators and is the home rink of GET @-@ ligaen hockey club Lillehammer IK . Kristins Hall is located next to the larger Håkons Hall , which opened in 1993 . During the 1994 Winter Olympics , Kristins Hall was a training rink , and subsequently hosted the ice sledge hockey tournament at the 1994 Winter Paralympics . The venue also co @-@ hosted Group B of the 1989 World Ice Hockey Championships . = = Construction = = Plans for an ice rink in Lillehammer started in the 1980s with the Lillehammer bid for the 1992 Winter Olympics . In 1985 , Lillehammer Municipal Council accepted an agreement with the Norwegian Confederation of Sports ( NIF ) , which offered to finance 50 percent of a new multi @-@ use arena in Lillehammer . Combined with the construction of the skiing resort Hafjell , it was part of a plan to document the construction of new venues in and around Lillehammer to help the town secure the right to host the Olympics . The construction received NOK 25 million in state grants . To promote the Olympic bid , the venue was given priority by NIF in their recommendation for use of public grants . In May 1987 , the municipal council stated that they did not want to apply to host the B @-@ Group of the 1989 World Ice Hockey Championships , because they feared the venue would not be completed by November 1987 . NIF President Hans B. Skaset stated that this could jeopardize the entire Olympic bid if Lillehammer withdrew from arranging such a small event . The decision was changed a week later . The venue opened in December 1988 and cost NOK 65 million . After Lillehammer was awarded the 1994 Winter Olympics in 1988 , it became necessary to build a larger venue to hold the Olympic ice hockey matches . The name of the arena was decided by the Lillehammer Municipal Council in October 1988 , as part of a broader branding policy , based on the history of the Birkebeiner . Originally the administration had suggested the new larger hall be named Håkons Hall , after Haakon Haakonarson , later king of Norway , while the smaller hall would be named Sveres Hall , for Sverre Sigurdsson . During the political debate , a number of female councilors suggested that the smaller hall be named Kristins Hall , for Sigurdsson 's daughter Kristina Sverresdotter , which was passed by the city council . Kristin and Håkon would be used to name the mascots for the Olympics . Kristins Hall has had small renovations throughout the years , including an upgrade in 2007 which included new ice hockey sideboards , a new ice machine , a new lighting system , and a new handball floor . = = Facilities = = The municipally owns and operates venue is located at Stampesletta , about 1 kilometer ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) from the town center of Lillehammer , Norway . With a gross area of 9 @,@ 000 square meters ( 97 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , it consists of three main sections : an ice hockey rink , a combined handball and floorball court , and a curling rink . The venue has eight locker rooms , of which two are designed for judges and referees , a weight room , a 100 @-@ meter ( 330 ft ) long , four @-@ track sprint track , meeting rooms , three kiosks , VIP facilities and a cafeteria . The handball hall has an artificial surface measuring 22 by 44 meters ( 72 by 144 ft ) . The ice rink is certified by the Norwegian Ice Hockey Association to hold 3 @,@ 197 spectators , but can accommodate up to 4 @,@ 000 people in special circumstances . The cooling and heating systems for Håkons Hall and Kristins Hall are connected , allowing them to function as energy reserves for each other . = = Tenants and events = = The ice rink is the home of Lillehammer IK , which plays in GET @-@ ligaen , the premier ice hockey league in Norway . During the season , they play one to two home games per week , typically attracting crowds of 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 500 spectators . They inaugurated the arena in December 1988 with a game against Oshaug . The ice rink is also used by the Norwegian College of Elite Sport in Lillehammer and Lillehammer Kunstløpklubb . The handball court is used by Lillehammer Innebandyklubb and Lillehammerstudentenes IL , while the curling rink is used by Lillehammer Curlingklubb . The venue is owned and operated by Lillehammer Municipality . The official opening of the venue took place on 12 December 1988 , when Norway played West Germany . Kristins Hall held two more Norwegian friendly internationals during the season , before it was host to the B @-@ Group during the 1989 World Ice Hockey Championships . Ten games were played in Lillehammer , including the opening game between Norway and Japan , while 18 games were played in Oslo . During the 1994 Winter Olympics , Kristins Hall was used as a training venue for the ice hockey teams , which played their games at Håkons Hall and Gjøvik Olympic Cavern Hall . During the 1994 Winter Paralympics , Kristins Hall hosted the ice sledge hockey tournament . Lillehammer is scheduled to host the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics , with Kristins Hall to be used for curling and ice hockey . This involves an expansion of the curling rink to satisfy international requirements , including expansion of the spectator capacity .
= Washington Park Historic District ( Albany , New York ) = Washington Park in Albany , New York is the city 's premier park and the site of many festivals and gatherings . As public property it dates back to the city charter in 1686 , and has seen many uses including that of gunpowder storage , square / parade grounds , and cemetery . The park is often mistaken as being designed by Frederick Law Olmsted , but does incorporate many of the philosophical ideals used by Olmsted when he designed Central Park in Manhattan . The park is about 81 acres ( 33 ha ) in size with the 5 @.@ 2 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 1 ha ) Washington Park Lake , a roughly 1 @,@ 600 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 490 m ) and 140 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 43 m ) lake , in the southwestern corner . Not only is the park historic , but so is the mostly residential surrounding neighborhood . Many architectural works line the streets facing the park , designed by some of the most famous architects of the late 19th century , including Henry Hobson Richardson . At least two governors of New York lived in buildings facing Washington Park outside of their term in office . Due to the historical and architectural significance of the park and neighborhood both were included in 1972 as the Washington Park Historic District ; and in 1998 the park was named one of the nation 's 100 most important parks by the American Association of Architects . In 2008 Boston @-@ based composer Peter Child wrote an orchestral piece inspired by the park , entitled Washington Park . = = History = = = = = Cemetery and parade grounds = = = Washington Park has been public property since the Dongan Charter was granted to Albany incorporating it as a city . The charter specified that all land not privately owned at the time became property of the Mayor , Aldermen , and Commonalty of the city of Albany , including the land that would become the site of Washington Park . A portion of the land was set aside for a structure built to house gunpowder in 1802 , and in 1806 the areas between Willett and Knox streets , and between State Street and Madison Avenue , became the Middle Public Square . In 1800 , the land west of Knox Street to Robin Street and south from State Street to Hudson Avenue was taken for a cemetery , which was apportioned into sections for each of Albany 's churches . There were separate sections for African @-@ Americans and for strangers . West of the cemetery was the alms @-@ house farm and the penitentiary grounds . In 1809 the Middle Public Square was renamed Washington Square , and later the Washington Parade Ground . In 1868 the remains and headstones in the cemetery were removed and reinterred , most to Albany Rural Cemetery , and some to the cemeteries of other churches . For years leading up to the creation of the park , the leading citizens and newspapers in Albany had pushed for a grand public park . Frederick Law Olmsted 's Olmsted , Vaux and Company was hired in 1869 to plan such a park . In their plan they envisioned Washington Park as the centerpiece of a string of parks and boulevards similar to those they had designed in Buffalo , Boston , and Brooklyn . Though Olmsted and his company was not involved in the actual design of the park , their broad vision was followed for the detailed designs , including the idea of damming the Beaver Kill ( Beaver Creek ) to form a grand lake . = = = Construction of the park = = = The New York Legislature passed a law in 1869 authorizing the creation of a large public park on the spot and the creation of the Board of Trustees of the Washington Park of the City of Albany ( later Commissioners ) . John Bogart and John Cuyler drew the plans for Washington Park in 1870 . Bogart had worked for Olmsted and Vaux on Central Park in New York and later Bogart was the chief engineer for the New York City Department of Parks from 1872 to 1877 . From 1869 to 1872 R.H. Bingham was the chief engineer in charge of the drafting of the plans and the supervision of construction , after 1872 his assistant William S. Egerton took charge . It was under Egerton that the formal garden settings were planted . Work on the Washington Parade Grounds between Willett and Knox streets was begun in July 1870 and finished by the end of the year . During 1871 the former cemetery was landscaped and that area reopened as part of the park . The section of Washington Park between Lexington ( formerly Snipe ) and Robin streets was the focus of work in 1873 , including the damming of the Beaverkill to form Washington Park Lake . In 1874 focus shifted to roughly 15 acres ( 61 @,@ 000 m2 ) along Madison Avenue from Lake to Robin and a footbridge was built over the lake in 1875 . Nine acres of mostly row houses along Knox Street north of Madison were purchased , destroyed , and landscaped in 1880 ; this included the area that would be the site of the King Memorial Fountain . The large house and landscaped grounds of John Taylor was the last part of the park to be purchased , in 1882 , since 1889 it has been the site of tennis courts . The northwestern corner that is cut out of the park 's otherwise rectangular shape was never part of the park ; those plots were mostly owned by the Barnes family and developed into urban mansions facing Thurlow Terrace and Englewood Place . The process of buying and improving the land piecemeal was criticized because each improvement raised the value of the existing land that still needed to be purchased . The increase in property value can be shown through the value of the lands surrounding Washington Park almost doubling in the six years in which the majority of the park improvements were made ; from $ 2 @,@ 696 @,@ 688 in 1869 to $ 4 @,@ 843 @,@ 440 in 1875 . The properties next to Washington Park on Robin Street , which was renamed Englewood Terrace , increased in value from $ 9 @,@ 500 in 1875 to $ 175 @,@ 800 by 1891 . The Commissioners were given by the state additional powers to build and maintain approaches to the park and other parks as well , this allowed the commissioners to build a series of boulevards around the city . Western Avenue from the northwestern corner of Washington Park to the location of the toll gate of the Western Turnpike was under the purview of the commissioners . Work on the road began in late 1876 and was finished the next year . The total construction cost of the park , including purchasing the real estate and improving Western Avenue , was $ 1 @,@ 073 @,@ 020 @.@ 91 . In 1878 Northern Boulevard ( today Manning Boulevard ) was constructed by the commissioners , it extended from the western end of their jurisdiction on Western Avenue north and east to the intersection of Clinton and Central avenues . In 1896 the state legislature also gave the commissioners authority over Lake Avenue from the park corner at Madison Avenue south to New Scotland Avenue ( then- Albany , Schoharie , and Rensselaerville Plank Road ) . In addition to boulevards the Commissioners of Washington Park also gained control of other existing parks , and built new ones throughout the city , including Academy Park , Bleeker Park , Hudson Avenue Park , Clinton Square , Rensselaer Park , St. Joseph 's Park , Townsend Park , Beaver Park ( later Lincoln Park ) , and the former grounds of the Dudley Observatory . In 1900 the board of commissioners was transformed into the Bureau of Parks in the Department of Public Works and later the bureau became a separate department . = = = Modern times = = = In 1958 Lancaster Street , which had previously ended at Willett Street opposite the park , was extended through to Northern Boulevard ( today Henry Johnson Boulevard ) . Associated with this extension Northern Boulevard was also widened and both Lancaster and State streets were turned into one @-@ ways . Entrances to Washington Park from Thurlow Terrace and Englewood Place were closed in 1972 turning those into dead end streets from Western Avenue . In 1988 Washington Park Road was renamed Albany Plan of Union Avenue in honor of the colonial congress held in Albany by Benjamin Franklin that proposed closer ties and support among the Thirteen Colonies . In 1991 Northern Boulevard from its intersection with Madison Avenue and Willett Street north through the park and continuing to Livingston Avenue in Arbor Hill was renamed Henry Johnson Boulevard in honor of African @-@ American World War I hero Henry Johnson . In the 1950s Dutch elm disease ( Ceratocystis ulmi ) killed off all the elms that once populated the park and crab apples were planted to replace the elms along the pedestrian mall . After deteriorating over the decades Washington Park saw a revival in the 1990s and 2000s with the flower beds being restored to their original specifications , the pedestrian mall removed of pavement and widened to its original dimensions with disease @-@ resistant elms planted to form a canopy , the King Fountain relit at night , and the lilac shrub border around the periphery of the park being restored . = = Structures = = Originally Washington Park included many buildings : several shelters of untrimmed logs , a pavilion , wellhouse , croquet shelter , and lakehouse once dotted the landscape . The wooden lake house was replaced in 1929 with a " modern " brick structure while the others over time succumbed to age and changing use @-@ patterns for the park and no longer stand . The footbridge over Washington Park Lake is the only remaining original structure in Washington Park ; erected over the lake in 1875 the lamps on the bridge were originally gas burning but were electrified in 1881 . The current Washington Park Lake House was built in 1929 replacing the original stick style structure constructed in 1876 . It is constructed in the Spanish Revival style with terracotta , terrazzo , brick , and guastavino tile . The area in front of the lake house has been the site for the performance of plays by the Park Playhouse for over 20 years . A 900 @-@ seat amphitheater faces the lake house allowing for comfortable seating for the over 60 @,@ 000 people who visit every year . A proposal by the city to turn the lake house into a 125 @-@ seat restaurant and 200 @-@ seat banquet hall with an expanded dock with boat , cross @-@ country ski , and ice skate rentals failed to materialize due to a lack of interest from the private business sector . = = Monuments = = Dr. James H. Armsby Memorial is a bust of James H. Armsby , the co @-@ founder of Albany Medical College . Erected in 1879 , it was the first memorial in the park . Robert Burns Statue is a bronze statue erected in 1888 , with four panels around the base installed in 1891 . It is of the famous Scottish poet Robert Burns , his statue was sculpted by Charles Calverley and each of the four panels around the base have one of Burns ' poems carved by George H. Boughton . The Saint Andrew 's Society funded conservation of the statue in 1978 . King Memorial Fountain is a fountain erected in 1893 with a monumental bronze statue of Moses smiting the rock for water on Mount Horeb . Four figures of Israelite slaves around the statue on the side of the mountain represent the four stages of life : infancy , youth , adulthood , and old age . The fountain is in the center of formal gardens laid out by William S. Egerton . It was a gift from Rufus H. King and was sculpted by J. Massey Rhind , who also sculpted the Philip Schuyler statue that stands at the center of the intersection of Eagle Street and Washington Avenue in front of city hall . In 1988 , the statue of Moses was cleaned and applied with a wax coating to protect it from the weather , and an arm was reattached to one of the four other statues on the fountain . Marinus Willett Memorial is a monument to Colonel Marinus Willett commemorating his combat and character during the French and Indian Wars . It consists of a 33 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 15 @,@ 000 kg ) boulder from the " scenes of conflict " he fought in , and the plaque is dedicated to his " patriotic services in defense of Albany and the people of the Mohawk " . The boulder was placed by the Sons of the American Revolution in 1907 , facing towards an entrance to the park from the corner of State and Willett streets , an entrance that no longer exists . The boulder 's back faced Henry Johnson Boulevard ( formerly Northern Boulevard ) and was the scene of many vehicular accidents as drivers missed a sharp curve . In 2006 , as part of the 200th anniversary of the park , the boulder was moved 60 yards ( 55 m ) to the corner of State and Willett . Soldiers and Sailors ' Monument is a marble monument sitting on a granite base with a bronze statue representing the Nation , holding the palms of victory . The monument is built of Tennessee marble above the seat and the remainder is of Stony Creek granite . It is 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) high , 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) long and 5 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) deep , surrounded by a seat , the whole resting upon a platform 70 feet ( 21 m ) long by 64 feet ( 20 m ) deep . It sits at the Henry Johnson Boulevard entrance from State Street to the park . The monument represents " The Nation at Peace Won Through Victorious War " . It was finished in 1911 by American Sculptor Hermon A. MacNeil and erected in 1912 by the Grand Army of the Republic as a monument to Civil War veterans . The monument was restored in 1986 and renamed the Albany Veterans Memorial Monument with an unveiling by two 85 @-@ year @-@ old women who , as 12 @-@ year @-@ olds , had unveiled the monument when it was first erected in 1912 . Henry Johnson Memorial is a bust of World War I hero Henry Johnson in a traffic island at the intersection of Henry Johnson Boulevard and Willett Street near Madison Avenue , erected in 1991 . = = Activities = = Washington Park has many activities open to visitors and residents , some maintained by the city , others are spontaneously set up by individuals . Washington Park 's open spaces are often used by visitors to play boccie , volleyball , and badminton games . Tennis , basketball , and handball courts are maintained by the city in the park , and ice skating is permitted on Washington Park Lake , though swimming is prohibited . Bicycling is popular on the many roadways , many of which are closed to vehicular traffic . Though skateboarding is legal throughout the park itself , the monuments and ball courts in the park fall under a city @-@ wide ban on skateboarding on public monuments , statues , and tennis / basketball courts . Washington Park is the site of many festivals , concerts , and special occasions . The Tulip Festival held every year since 1949 in Washington Park is highlighted by the blossoming of 200 @,@ 000 tulips throughout the park . The African @-@ American tradition of Pinksterfest , whose origins are traced back even further to Dutch festivities , was later incorporated into the Tulip Fest and since 1998 the Tulip Fest has also included the Mother of the Year award . The Latin Festival and the Columbus Day Parade and Italian Festival are some of the ethnic festivals held every year in the park . The city , the Albany Police Athletic League , and Hannaford supermarkets sponsor the Capital Holiday Lights every winter , with 125 displays through the park . Proceeds benefit juvenile crime prevention programs . Many fund raisers are held every year in the park as well , such as the American Cancer Society walkathon and the Freihofer 's Run for Women . The Freihofer 's Run is an International Association of Athletics Federations ( IAAF ) Silver Label race that draws professional marathon runners from Kenya , Ethiopia , Australia , and all across the United States along with locals as well . It is one of the largest all @-@ women races in the world , and has served as the 5K national championship in 1989 , 1990 , and 1993 – 2004 . = = Historic district = = The streets surrounding Washington Park , State Street to the north , Willett Avenue to the east , Madison Avenue to the south , and South Lake Avenue to the west , along with Englewood Terrace , Thurlow Terrace , and the residence at 76 Western Avenue to the northwest , are all included in the Washington Park Historic District . Most of the existing properties date to after the 1880s , with very few predating the creation of the park . = = = State Street = = = State Street is a one @-@ way eastbound street along Washington Park 's northern border . Over 60 townhouses sit on State Street facing the park , most are of brick or brownstone and three stories tall . Many of these homes were built for industrialists , bankers , railroad executives , and politicians by notable national architects such as Henry Hobson Richardson and Stanford White , and local ones such as Marcus T. Reynolds and Albert Fuller . Many of the buildings have fine details such as decorative tiles , terracotta , or stone . On the corner of State and Willett is located the First Presbyterian Church , designed by J. Cleveland Cady in 1882 , and the church is noted for its four Tiffany windows . New York Governor John Alden Dix lived at 491 State Street before and after his term in office . 423 State Street is owned by the University at Albany and used by its Center for Legislative Development . At 465 State Street is the Benjamin Walworth Arnold House and Carriage House , the only buildings in Albany designed by Stanford White . = = = Willett Street = = = Willet Street is a northbound one @-@ way street comprising three blocks , stretching from the southeastern corner of the park at the intersection with Madison Avenue to the northeastern corner with State Street . All of Willett Street is in the historic district , including approximately 33 buildings . The street is entirely residential except for the First Presbyterian Church , built in 1883 on the corner with State Street . Willett Street has many different styles including Queen Anne , Spanish Revival , Classical revival , Georgian , Romanesque , Italianate , and brownstones . Two larger apartment buildings , built in 1909 and 1927 , break up the otherwise continuous row of older townhouses . One of those apartment buildings is the Willett , formerly the Wareham , a five @-@ story building built in 1909 that spans 84 – 92 Willett Street . This building sits on a former site of the New York State Normal College , predecessor to the University at Albany , which burned in 1906 . The oldest building on Willett to maintain its original facade , 22 Willett , was built in 1872 . Nearby 28 Willett Street was the home of Martin Glynn , an owner and publisher of the Albany Times Union , a state comptroller , and the governor of New York from 1913 to 1914 . Glynn was the first Catholic New York governor and the only longtime Albany resident to reach that position . = = = Madison Avenue = = = Madison Avenue is part of the cross @-@ country US Route 20 , and at four lanes wide it is the busiest street in the district . Roughly 90 buildings on Madison Avenue face the park . East of the intersection with Robin Street , Madison is more urban with 19th @-@ century rowhouses ; west of Robin Street is dominated by large detached residences , many of which have been converted to medical offices . A few buildings , such as 694 and 710 Madison predate park improvements that occurred across the street at the Taylor property , which later became basketball and tennis courts . 682 Madison was formerly the home of the Academy of Holy Names . It is currently administrative offices for the Albany Medical Center Annex . = = = South Lake Avenue = = = South Lake Avenue facing Washington Park consists of 23 rowhouses , a modern apartment building , and a converted carriage house . The Elouise Apartments were built in 1927 in the Classical Revival architecture style and are eight stories tall . 55 South Lake Avenue is in the Art Deco style , while 57 to 87 South Lake , built in 1896 – 97 is a row of yellow brick facades designed by Albert Fuller . = = = Englewood Place and Thurlow Terrace = = = Englewood Place and Thurlow Terrace were constructed by the Commissioners of Washington Park and maintained by them for some time , with half the maintenance cost assessed on the private property facing the street . Restrictions were placed to prevent fences and unwelcome uses to preserve a park @-@ like appearance . Englewood Place was a part of Robin Street until receiving its current name in the 1870s ; it was laid out in lots in 1879 , with large mansions and carriage houses built between 1879 and 1887 . 5 and 7 Englewood Place were designed by Robert Gibson , who also designed the All Saints Cathedral . 5 Englewood Place became the residence of the University at Albany 's president after 1997 . Thurlow Terrace was developed a decade after Englewood . 8 Thurlow Terrace was the residence of the Albany Catholic bishops until 1957 . From 1958 to 1972 the State University of New York owned 7 , 8 , 9 , and 10 Thurlow Terrace as their central administration , prior to moving to One Commerce Plaza .
= Heart of Stone ( Star Trek : Deep Space Nine ) = " Heart of Stone " is the fourteenth episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , and originally aired on February 6 , 1995 in broadcast syndication . The story was written by Ira Steven Behr and Robert Hewitt Wolfe , while the episode was directed by Alexander Singer and the score was created by David Bell . Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures on Deep Space Nine , a space station located near a stable wormhole between the Alpha and Gamma quadrants of the Milky Way Galaxy . In this episode , Odo ( René Auberjonois ) and Major Kira Nerys ( Nana Visitor ) are trapped on a small moon near the Badlands , while on the station Nog ( Aron Eisenberg ) tries to get Commander Benjamin Sisko 's ( Avery Brooks ) support for his application to Starfleet Academy . The idea behind the main plot was inspired by a scene from the novel Sometimes a Great Notion . However , the rock prop used was unpopular with the cast and crew , and post @-@ production effects were required . The episode was the first of an ongoing plot thread with Nog entering Starfleet , which initially concerned Eisenberg as he thought he was being written out of the show . The episode was the fourth most watched episode of the third series , with 8 @.@ 3 million viewers . Critical response was mixed , with negative comments directed at the idea that the situation was created by the female Founder ( Salome Jens ) . = = Plot = = On board a Runabout , Odo ( René Auberjonois ) and Major Kira Nerys ( Nana Visitor ) are in pursuit of a Maquis vessel in the Badlands . They pursue the vessel to a small moon and land nearby . They find that the Maquis vessel is empty , and split up to search for the pilot . After a short while , Odo comes across Kira , whose foot is caught in an expanding crystal mass . Odo is unable to either remove the crystal from Kira , or transport Kira back to the Runabout . Meanwhile , on Deep Space Nine , Nog ( Aron Eisenberg ) attempts to convince Commander Benjamin Sisko to endorse his application to join Starfleet Academy . Sisko gives the Ferengi the task of counting the inventory of a cargo bay , which he completes quickly but Sisko still has doubts . On the moon , Kira is slowly being covered by the crystal and insists that Odo leave her as there are increasing seismic tremors . He attempts to free her using an ultrasonic generator , and reveals some personal information to her as they wait for the crystal to shatter . As the crystal slowly swallows her whole after the generator fails to work , and the tremors become even worse , Odo confesses his love for Kira . To his surprise , she says that she is in love with him too . On DS9 , Sisko informs Nog that he will not give him a recommendation as he has concerns that it is a scheme . Nog confesses that he wants to do it so that he doesn 't turn out like his father Rom ( Max Grodénchik ) , whom he describes as an engineering genius but his culture won 't let him pursue it . Sisko responds by agreeing to recommend Nog to the Academy . Odo is suspicious of Kira 's responses and points a phaser at her , demanding to know who she is . Kira and the crystal suddenly morph into the female Founder ( Salome Jens ) , who reveals that she was the Maquis all along and she was hoping to convince Odo to return to the Dominion . She reveals the location of the real Kira and transports away . Odo finds Kira and tells her of the Founder , but not of his feelings for her . = = Production = = Ira Steven Behr and Robert Hewitt Wolfe conceived the story and wrote the script for " Heart of Stone " , and intended the Odo / Kira storyline to be the A @-@ Plot . Behr later thought that the performances of Eisenberg and Brooks elevated the Nog / Sisko story to equal status and would result in a better reaction by fans . The idea of having a character trapped was taken from the Ken Kesey novel Sometimes a Great Notion in which a character is trapped under a log and drowned by rising water . Behr described the same scene in the 1971 film as " a great scene in a not so great movie " . The episode was intended to be low budget , but heavy on characterisation . At one point it was intended for Odo to sing the 1955 Richard Berry song " Louie Louie " , which the character described as a sea shanty , but producers couldn 't acquire the rights in time . The cast and crew were unhappy with the rock prop used in the episode . Visual effects supervisor Glenn Neufeld strapped Visitor 's feet to the stage in order to ensure that the crystal didn 't move . Different versions of the crystal were then applied for different scenes , with the larger versions incorporating a seat for the actress so that she could relax inside the prop between takes . The prop caused problems for Visitor due to her claustrophobia , which was the second time during season three that a Wolfe scripted episode had caused her these types of problems after " Second Skin " . She also didn 't like how it appeared on screen : " I thought it was going to look like my body turning to stone . Instead I looked like a big old hot fudge sundae , and my head was the cherry on top . " Director Alexander Singer admitted that the prop wasn 't what they envisioned , and work was conducted on it post @-@ production to improve it . Post @-@ production was also problematic as there were several morphing scenes involving Odo and the female Founder , which required reactions by other actors . Neufeld said that none of what they were aiming for worked in post @-@ production , but it was saved by the visual effects company VisionArt who managed to salvage the work . Jens agreed to re @-@ appear as the female Founder she had previously appeared as in " The Search " , and for her credit to only appear in the closing credits so as to avoid spoiling the twist in the Odo / Kira plot . Eisenberg was initially panicked by the script that showed Nog going to Starfleet Academy as he thought the character was being written out of the show , but executive producer Rick Berman assured him that it wouldn 't be the case . He later said that the scene where Nog talks to Sisko about his father was his favourite scene in the series . = = Themes = = Children had featured in Star Trek as major series characters since Wesley Crusher in Star Trek : The Next Generation . The character of Crusher had attended Starfleet Academy , but leaves Starfleet in the seventh season episode " Journey 's End " , aired in February 1994 . Jake Sisko was a major character in Deep Space Nine , but had expressed a desire to be a writer rather than join Starfleet in the sixth episode of the third season , " The Abandoned " . There was a desire to avoid the Crusher " chosen one " type storyline with Sisko , but after " The Abandoned " it was seen that there would no longer be a young character progressing through Starfleet as previously intended . Wolfe said that " Of Wesley , Jake , Alexander , and Nog , wouldn 't it be funny if Nog were the one to end up as a Starfleet captain ? " . Ronald D. Moore agreed with the new character direction , saying that " Somehow , Captain Nog sounds cool " . Nog 's progression through Starfleet was followed in later episodes , with the character promoted to the rank of Lieutenant Junior Grade by the time of the series finale , " What You Leave Behind " . Odo 's unrequited love for Kira had been hinted at throughout season three building up to the reveal in " Heart of Stone " , which would be a repeating plot device up until the final episode of the series when Odo departs the crew . = = Reception and home media release = = " Heart of Stone " was first broadcast on February 6 , 1995 in broadcast syndication . It received Nielsen ratings of 8 @.@ 3 million . This placed it in fourth place in the timeslot . This was an increase from the episode aired the previous week , as " Life Support " gained a rating of 8 @.@ 2 million . It was the fourth most viewed episode of the season on first broadcast after " The Search " , " Defiant " and " Meridian " . Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Zack Handlen reviewed the episode for the A.V. Club in October 2012 . He had reservations about the episode up until the twist involving the Founder , and thought that Visitor 's performance as Kira had been slightly off all episode . He thought that having Kira admit her feelings for Odo was rushed and was disappointed by it and felt it ruined what he had considered to be one of the best episodes of the season . However , he was pleased that Odo was as suspicious as he was , and the twist was made all the more striking by the performances . He felt that the Nog / Sisko story was just as good , having felt that Nog had been " off @-@ putting " previously but the performance by Eisenberg in " Heart of Stone " was " amazing " . He particularly praised Nog 's monologue explaining his motives to join Starfleet , and said it was " terrific " as it was " exciting because it ’ s unexpected " . Jamahl Epsicokhan reviewed the episode for his website " Heart of Stone " . He felt that the main Odo / Kira plot was " contrived " in that the female Founder stole a Maquis ship and set up the entire situation simply to attempt to convince Odo to return to his people . He said that the Nog and Sisko plot was " lightweight but amiable " , and he gave the episode an overall score of 2 @.@ 5 out of 4 . Michelle Erica Green watched the episode for the website TrekNation , and also questioned the main plot . She wrote " what was the shapeshifter going to do if someone OTHER than Kira was in the runabout with Odo ? Did she sit around and wait for the two of them to leave the station together ? " She had further concerns about the direction of the Odo and Kira relationship , and described the romance as a " cop @-@ out " . She thought that Odo 's declaration of his feelings felt forced , but that the plot featuring a crystal creature attacking a crew member reminded her of something from Star Trek : The Original Series . The first home media release of " Heart of Stone " was as a two episode VHS cassette alongside " Life Support " in the United Kingdom on June 12 , 1995 . This was followed in the United States and Canada with a single episode release on October 5 , 1999 . It was later released on DVD as part of the season three box set on June 3 , 2003 .
= Oskar Schindler = Oskar Schindler ( 28 April 1908 – 9 October 1974 ) was a German industrialist , spy , and member of the Nazi Party who is credited with saving the lives of 1 @,@ 200 Jews during the Holocaust by employing them in his enamelware and ammunitions factories , which were located in occupied Poland and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia . He is the subject of the 1982 novel Schindler 's Ark , and the subsequent 1993 film Schindler 's List , which reflected his life as an opportunist initially motivated by profit who came to show extraordinary initiative , tenacity and dedication to save the lives of his Jewish employees . Schindler grew up in Zwittau , Moravia , and worked in several trades until he joined the Abwehr , the intelligence service of Nazi Germany , in 1936 . He joined the Nazi Party in 1939 . Prior to the German occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1938 , he collected information on railways and troop movements for the German government . He was arrested for espionage by the Czech government but was released under the terms of the Munich Agreement in 1938 . Schindler continued to collect information for the Nazis , working in Poland in 1939 before the invasion of Poland at the start of World War II . In 1939 , Schindler acquired an enamelware factory in Kraków , Poland , which employed about 1 @,@ 750 workers , of whom 1 @,@ 000 were Jews at the factory 's peak in 1944 . His Abwehr connections helped Schindler to protect his Jewish workers from deportation and death in the Nazi concentration camps . As time went on , Schindler had to give Nazi officials ever larger bribes and gifts of luxury items obtainable only on the black market to keep his workers safe . By July 1944 , Germany was losing the war , the SS began closing down the easternmost concentration camps and deporting the remaining prisoners westward . Many were killed in Auschwitz and Gross @-@ Rosen concentration camp . Schindler convinced SS @-@ Hauptsturmführer Amon Göth , commandant of the nearby Kraków @-@ Płaszów concentration camp , to allow him to move his factory to Brünnlitz in the Sudetenland , thus sparing his workers from certain death in the gas chambers . Using names provided by Jewish Ghetto Police officer Marcel Goldberg , Göth 's secretary Mietek Pemper compiled and typed the list of 1 @,@ 200 Jews who travelled to Brünnlitz in October 1944 . Schindler continued to bribe SS officials to prevent the execution of his workers until the end of World War II in Europe in May 1945 , by which time he had spent his entire fortune on bribes and black @-@ market purchases of supplies for his workers . Schindler moved to West Germany after the war , where he was supported by assistance payments from Jewish relief organisations . After receiving a partial reimbursement for his wartime expenses , he moved with his wife , Emilie , to Argentina , where they took up farming . When he went bankrupt in 1958 , Schindler left his wife and returned to Germany , where he failed at several business ventures and relied on financial support from Schindlerjuden ( " Schindler Jews " ) – the people whose lives he had saved during the war . He was named Righteous Among the Nations by the Israeli government in 1963 . He died on 9 October 1974 in Hildesheim , Germany , and was buried in Jerusalem on Mount Zion , the only member of the Nazi Party to be honoured in this way . = = Early life = = Schindler was born on 28 April 1908 , into a Sudeten German family in Zwittau , Moravia , Austria @-@ Hungary . His father was Johann " Hans " Schindler , the owner of a farm machinery business , and his mother was Franziska " Fanny " Schindler ( née Luser ) . His sister , Elfriede , was born in 1915 . After attending primary and secondary school , Schindler enrolled in a technical school , from which he was expelled in 1924 for forging his report card . He later graduated , but did not take the Abitur exams that would have enabled him to go to college or university . Instead he took courses in Brno in several trades , including chauffeuring and machinery , and worked for his father for three years . A fan of motorcycles since his youth , Schindler bought a 250 @-@ cc Moto Guzzi racing motorcycle and competed recreationally in mountain races for the next few years . On 6 March 1928 , Schindler married Emilie Pelzl ( 1907 – 2001 ) , daughter of a prosperous Sudeten German farmer from Maletein . The young couple moved in with Oskar 's parents and occupied the upstairs rooms , where they lived for the next seven years . Soon after his marriage , Schindler quit working for his father and took a series of jobs , including a position at Moravian Electrotechnic and the management of a driving school . After an 18 @-@ month stint in the Czech army , where he rose to the rank of Lance @-@ Corporal in the Tenth Infantry Regiment of the 31st Army , Schindler returned to Moravian Electrotechnic , which went bankrupt shortly afterwards . His father 's farm machinery business closed around the same time , leaving Schindler unemployed for a year . He took a job with Jarslav Simek Bank of Prague in 1931 , where he worked until 1938 . Schindler was arrested several times in 1931 and 1932 for public drunkenness . Also around this time he had an affair with Aurelie Schlegel , a school friend . She bore him a daughter , Emily , in 1933 , and a son , Oskar Jr , in 1935 . Schindler later claimed the boy was not his son . Schindler 's father , an alcoholic , abandoned his wife in 1935 . She died a few months later after a lengthy illness . = = Spy = = Schindler joined the separatist Sudeten German Party in 1935 . Although he was a citizen of Czechoslovakia , Schindler became a spy for the Abwehr , the intelligence service of Nazi Germany , in 1936 . He was assigned to Abwehrstelle II Commando VIII , based in Breslau . He later told Czech police that he did it because he needed the money ; by this time Schindler had a drinking problem and was chronically in debt . His tasks for the Abwehr included collecting information on railways , military installations , and troop movements , as well as recruiting other spies within Czechoslovakia , in advance of a planned invasion of the country by Nazi Germany . He was arrested by the Czech government for espionage on 18 July 1938 and immediately imprisoned , but was released as a political prisoner under the terms of the Munich Agreement , the instrument under which the Czech Sudetenland was annexed into Germany on 1 October . Schindler applied for membership in the Nazi Party on 1 November and was accepted the following year . After some time off to recover in Zwittau , Schindler was promoted to second in command of his Abwehr unit and relocated with his wife to Ostrava , on the Czech @-@ Polish border , in January 1939 . He was involved in espionage in the months leading up to Hitler 's seizure of the remainder of Czechoslovakia in March . Emilie helped him with paperwork , processing and hiding secret documents in their apartment for the Abwehr office . As he frequently travelled to Poland on business , he and his 25 agents were in a position to collect information about Polish military activities and railways for the planned invasion of Poland . One assignment called for his unit to monitor and provide information about the railway line and tunnel in the Jablunkov Pass , deemed critical for the movement of German troops . Schindler continued to work for Abwehr until as late as fall 1940 , when he was sent to Turkey to investigate corruption among the Abwehr officers assigned to the German embassy there . = = World War II = = = = = Emalia = = = Schindler first arrived in Kraków in October 1939 on Abwehr business and took an apartment the following month . Emilie maintained the apartment in Ostrava and visited Oskar in Kraków at least once a week . In November 1939 , he contacted interior decorator Mila Pfefferberg to decorate his new apartment . Her son , Leopold " Poldek " Pfefferberg , soon became one of his contacts for black market trading . They eventually became lifelong friends . Also that November , Schindler was introduced to Itzhak Stern , an accountant for Schindler 's fellow Abwehr agent Josef " Sepp " Aue , who had taken over Stern 's formerly Jewish @-@ owned place of employment as a Treuhander ( trustee ) . Property belonging to Polish Jews , including their possessions , places of business , and homes were seized by the Germans beginning immediately after the invasion , and Jewish citizens were stripped of their civil rights . Schindler showed Stern the balance sheet of a company he was thinking of acquiring , an enamelware factory called Rekord Ltd owned by a consortium of Jewish businessmen that had filed for bankruptcy earlier that year . Stern advised him that rather than running the company as a trusteeship under the auspices of the Haupttreuhandstelle Ost ( Main Trustee Office for the East ) , he should buy or lease the business , as that would give him more freedom from the dictates of the Nazis , including the freedom to hire more Jews . With the financial backing of several Jewish investors , Schindler signed an informal lease agreement on the factory on 13 November 1939 and formalised the arrangement on 15 January 1940 . He renamed it Deutsche Emaillewaren @-@ Fabrik ( German Enamelware Factory ) or DEF , and it soon became known by the nickname " Emalia " . He initially acquired a staff of seven Jewish workers ( including Abraham Bankier , who helped him manage the company ) and 250 non @-@ Jewish Poles . At its peak in 1944 , the business employed around 1 @,@ 750 workers , a thousand of whom were Jews . Schindler also helped run Schlomo Wiener Ltd , a wholesale outfit that sold his enamelware , and was leaseholder of Prokosziner Glashütte , a glass factory . Schindler 's ties with the Abwehr and his connections in the Wehrmacht and its Armaments Inspectorate enabled him to obtain contracts to produce enamel cookware for the military . These connections also later helped him protect his Jewish workers from deportation and death . As time went on , Schindler had to give Nazi officials ever larger bribes and gifts of luxury items obtainable only on the black market to keep his workers safe . Bankier , a key black market connection , obtained goods for bribes as well as extra materials for use in the factory . Schindler himself enjoyed a lavish lifestyle and pursued extramarital relationships with his secretary , Viktoria Klonowska , and Eva Kisch Scheuer , a merchant specialising in enamelware from DEF . Emilie Schindler visited for a few months in 1940 and moved to Kraków to live with Oskar in 1941 . Initially , Schindler was mostly interested in the money @-@ making potential of the business and hired Jews because they were cheaper than Poles – the wages were set by the occupying Nazi regime . Later he began shielding his workers without regard for cost . The status of his factory as a business essential to the war effort became a decisive factor enabling him to help his Jewish workers . Whenever Schindlerjuden ( Schindler Jews ) were threatened with deportation , he claimed exemptions for them . Wives , children , and even persons with disabilities were claimed to be necessary mechanics and metalworkers . On one occasion , the Gestapo came to Schindler demanding that he hand over a family with forged identity papers . " Three hours after they walked in , " Schindler said , " two drunk Gestapo men reeled out of my office without their prisoners and without the incriminating documents they had demanded . " On 1 August 1940 , Governor @-@ General Hans Frank issued a decree requiring all Kraków Jews to leave the city within the next two weeks . Only those who had jobs directly related to the German war effort would be allowed to stay . Of the 60 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 Jews then living in the city , only 15 @,@ 000 remained by March 1941 . These Jews were then forced to leave their traditional neighbourhood of Kazimierz and relocate to the walled Kraków Ghetto , established in the industrial Podgórze district . Schindler 's workers travelled on foot to and from the ghetto each day to their jobs at the factory . Enlargements to the facility in the four years Schindler was in charge included the addition of an outpatient clinic , co @-@ op , kitchen , and dining room for the workers , in addition to expansion of the factory and its related office space . = = = Płaszów = = = In fall 1941 the Nazis began transporting Jews out of the ghetto . Most of these were sent to Belzec extermination camp and killed . On 13 March 1943 the ghetto was liquidated and those still fit for work were sent to the new concentration camp at Płaszów . Several thousand not deemed fit for work were sent to extermination camps and killed . Hundreds more were killed on the streets by the Nazis as they cleared out the ghetto . Schindler , aware of the planned action because of his Wehrmacht contacts , had his workers stay at the factory overnight to prevent them coming to any harm . Schindler witnessed the liquidation of the ghetto and was appalled . From that point forward , says Schindlerjude Sol Urbach , Schindler " changed his mind about the Nazis . He decided to get out and to save as many Jews as he could . " Płaszów concentration camp opened in March 1943 on the former site of two Jewish cemeteries on Jerozilimska Street , about 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) from the DEF factory . In charge of the camp was SS @-@ Hauptsturmführer Amon Göth , a brutal sadist who would shoot inmates of the camp at random . Inmates at Płaszów lived in constant daily fear for their lives . Emilie Schindler called Göth " the most despicable man I have ever met . " Initially Göth 's plan was that all the factories , including Schindler 's , should be moved inside the camp gates . However , Schindler , with a combination of diplomacy , flattery , and bribery , not only prevented his factory from being moved , but convinced Göth to allow him to build ( at his own expense ) a subcamp at Emalia to house his workers plus 450 Jews from other nearby factories . There they were safe from the threat of random execution , were well fed and housed , and were even permitted to undertake religious observances . Schindler was arrested twice on suspicion of black market activities and once for breaking the Nuremberg Laws by kissing a Jewish girl , an action forbidden by the Race and Resettlement Act . The first arrest , in late 1941 , led to him being kept overnight . His secretary arranged for his release through Schindler 's influential contacts in the Nazi Party . His second arrest , on 29 April 1942 , was the result of his kissing a Jewish girl on the cheek at his birthday party at the factory the previous day . He remained in jail five days before his influential Nazi contacts were able to obtain his release . The third arrest , where he was accused of black marketeering and bribing Göth and others to improve the conditions of the Jewish workers , took place in October 1944 . He was held for most of a week and released . Göth had been arrested on 13 September 1944 for corruption and other abuses of power , and Schindler 's arrest was part of the ongoing investigation into Göth 's activities . Göth was never convicted on those charges , but was hanged by the Supreme National Tribunal of Poland for war crimes on 13 September 1946 . In 1943 , Schindler was contacted via members of the Jewish resistance movement by Zionist leaders in Budapest . Schindler travelled there several times to report in person on Nazi mistreatment of the Jews . He brought back funding provided by the Jewish Agency for Israel and turned it over to the Jewish underground . = = = Brünnlitz = = = As the Red Army drew nearer in July 1944 , the SS began closing down the easternmost concentration camps and evacuating the remaining prisoners westward to Auschwitz and Gross @-@ Rosen concentration camp . Göth 's personal secretary , Mietek Pemper , alerted Schindler to the Nazis ' plans to close all factories not directly involved in the war effort , including Schindler 's enamelware facility . Pemper suggested to Schindler that production should be switched from cookware to anti @-@ tank grenades in an effort to save the lives of the Jewish workers . Using bribery and his powers of persuasion , Schindler convinced Göth and the officials in Berlin to allow him to move his factory and his workers to Brünnlitz ( Czech : Brněnec ) , in the Sudetenland , thus sparing them from certain death in the gas chambers . Using names provided by Jewish Ghetto Police officer Marcel Goldberg , Pemper compiled and typed the list of 1 @,@ 200 Jews — 1 @,@ 000 of Schindler 's workers and 200 inmates from Julius Madritsch 's textiles factory — who were sent to Brünnlitz in October 1944 . On 15 October 1944 a train carrying 700 men on Schindler 's list was initially sent to the concentration camp at Gross @-@ Rosen , where the men spent about a week before being re @-@ routed to the factory in Brünnlitz . Three hundred female Schindlerjuden were similarly sent to Auschwitz , where they were in imminent danger of being sent to the gas chambers . Schindler 's usual connections and bribes failed to obtain their release . Finally after he sent his secretary , Hilde Albrecht , with bribes of black market goods , food and diamonds , the women were sent to Brünnlitz after several harrowing weeks in Auschwitz . In addition to workers , Schindler moved 250 wagon loads of machinery and raw materials to the new factory . Few if any useful artillery shells were produced at the plant . When officials from the Armaments Ministry questioned the factory 's low output , Schindler bought finished goods on the black market and resold them as his own . The rations provided by the SS were insufficient to meet the needs of the workers , so Schindler spent most of his time in Kraków , obtaining food , armaments , and other materials . His wife Emilie remained in Brünnlitz , surreptitiously obtaining additional rations and caring for the workers ' health and other basic needs . Schindler also arranged for the transfer of as many as 3 @,@ 000 Jewish women out of Auschwitz to small textiles plants in the Sudetenland in an effort to increase their chances of surviving the war . In January 1945 a trainload of 250 Jews who had been rejected as workers at a mine in Goleschau in Poland arrived at Brünnlitz . The boxcars were frozen shut when they arrived , and Emilie Schindler waited while an engineer from the factory opened the cars using a soldering iron . Twelve people were dead in the cars , and the remainder were too ill and feeble to work . Emilie took the survivors into the factory and cared for them in a makeshift hospital until the end of the war . Schindler continued to bribe SS officials to prevent the slaughter of his workers as the Red Army approached . On 7 May 1945 he and his workers gathered on the factory floor to listen to British Prime Minister Winston Churchill announce over the radio that Germany had surrendered , and the war in Europe was over . = = After the war = = As a member of the Nazi Party and the Abwehr intelligence service , Schindler was in danger of being arrested as a war criminal . Bankier , Stern , and several others prepared a statement he could present to the Americans attesting to his role in saving Jewish lives . He was also given a ring , made using gold from dental work taken out of the mouth of Schindlerjude Simon Jeret . The ring was inscribed " Whoever saves one life saves the world entire . " To escape being captured by the Russians , Schindler and his wife departed westward in their vehicle , a two @-@ seater Horch , initially with several fleeing German soldiers riding on the running boards . A truck containing Schindler 's mistress Marta , several Jewish workers , and a load of black market trade goods followed behind . The Horch was confiscated by Russian troops at the town of Budweis , which had already been captured by Russian troops . The Schindlers were unable to recover a diamond that Oskar had hidden under the seat . They continued by train and on foot until they reached the American lines at the town of Lenora , and then travelled to Passau , where an American Jewish officer arranged for them to travel to Switzerland by train . They moved to Bavaria in Germany in the fall of 1945 . By the end of the war , Schindler had spent his entire fortune on bribes and black @-@ market purchases of supplies for his workers . Virtually destitute , he moved briefly to Regensburg and later Munich , but did not prosper in postwar Germany . In fact , he was reduced to receiving assistance from Jewish organisations . In 1948 he presented a claim for reimbursement of his wartime expenses to the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee , and received $ 15 @,@ 000 . He estimated his expenditures at over $ 1 @,@ 056 @,@ 000 , including the costs of camp construction , bribes , and expenditures for black market goods , including food . Schindler emigrated to Argentina in 1949 , where he tried raising chickens and then nutria , a small animal raised for its fur . When the business went bankrupt in 1958 , he left his wife and returned to Germany , where he had a series of unsuccessful business ventures , including a cement factory . He declared bankruptcy in 1963 and suffered a heart attack the next year , which led to a month @-@ long stay in hospital . Remaining in contact with many of the Jews he had met during the war , including Stern and Pfefferberg , Schindler survived on donations sent by Schindlerjuden from all over the world . He died on 9 October 1974 and is buried in Jerusalem on Mount Zion , the only member of the Nazi Party to be honoured in this way . For his work during the war , in 1963 Schindler was named Righteous Among the Nations , an award bestowed by the State of Israel on non @-@ Jews who took an active role to rescue Jews during the Holocaust . Other awards include the German Order of Merit ( 1966 ) . Writer Herbert Steinhouse , who interviewed him in 1948 , wrote that " Schindler 's exceptional deeds stemmed from just that elementary sense of decency and humanity that our sophisticated age seldom sincerely believes in . A repentant opportunist saw the light and rebelled against the sadism and vile criminality all around him . " In a 1983 television documentary , Schindler was quoted as saying , " I felt that the Jews were being destroyed . I had to help them ; there was no choice . " = = Legacy = = = = = Films and book = = = In 1951 , Poldek Pfefferberg approached director Fritz Lang and asked him to consider making a film about Schindler . Also on Pfefferberg 's initiative , in 1964 Schindler received a $ 20 @,@ 000 advance from MGM for a proposed film treatment titled To the Last Hour . Neither film was ever made , and Schindler quickly spent the money he received from MGM . He was also approached in the 1960s by MCA of Germany and Walt Disney Productions in Vienna , but again nothing came of these projects . In 1980 , Australian author Thomas Keneally by chance visited Pfefferberg 's luggage store in Beverly Hills while en route home from a film festival in Europe . Pfefferberg took the opportunity to tell Keneally the story of Oskar Schindler . He gave him copies of some materials he had on file , and Keneally soon decided to make a fictionalised treatment of the story . After extensive research and interviews with surviving Schindlerjuden , his 1982 historical novel Schindler 's Ark ( published in the United States as Schindler 's List ) was the result . The novel was adapted into the 1993 movie Schindler 's List by Steven Spielberg . After acquiring the rights in 1983 , Spielberg felt he was not ready emotionally or professionally to tackle the project , and he offered the rights to several other directors . After he read a script for the project prepared by Steven Zaillian for Martin Scorsese , he decided to trade him Cape Fear for the opportunity to do the Schindler biography . In the film , the character of Itzhak Stern ( played by Ben Kingsley ) is a composite of Stern , Bankier , and Pemper . Liam Neeson was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Schindler in the film , which won seven Oscars , including Best Picture . Other film treatments include a 1983 British television documentary produced by Jon Blair for Thames Television entitled Schindler : His Story as Told by the Actual People He Saved ( released in the US in 1994 as Schindler : The Real Story ) , and a 1998 A & E Biography special , Oskar Schindler : The Man Behind the List . = = = Schindler 's suitcase = = = In 1997 a suitcase belonging to Schindler containing historic photographs and documents was discovered in the attic of the apartment of Ami and Heinrich Staehr in Hildesheim . Schindler had stayed with the couple for a few days shortly before his death . Staehr 's son Chris took the suitcase to Stuttgart , where the documents were examined in detail in 1999 by Dr. Wolfgang Borgmann , science editor of the Stuttgarter Zeitung . Borgmann wrote a series of seven articles , which appeared in the paper from 16 to 26 October 1999 and were eventually published in book form as Schindlers Koffer : Berichte aus dem Leben eines Lebensretters ; eine Dokumentation der Stuttgarter Zeitung ( Schindler 's Suitcase : Report on the Life of a Rescuer ) . The documents and suitcase were sent to the Holocaust museum at Yad Vashem in Israel for safekeeping in December 1999 . = = = Copies of the list = = = In early April 2009 , a carbon copy of one version of the list was discovered at the State Library of New South Wales by workers combing through boxes of materials collected by author Thomas Keneally . The 13 @-@ page document , yellow and fragile , was filed among research notes and original newspaper clippings . The document was given to Keneally in 1980 by Pfefferberg when he was persuading him to write Schindler 's story . This version of the list contains 801 names and is dated 18 April 1945 ; Pfefferberg is listed as worker number 173 . Several authentic versions of the list exist , because the names were re @-@ typed several times as conditions changed in the hectic days at the end of the war . One of four existing copies of the list was offered at a ten @-@ day auction starting on 19 July 2013 on EBay at a reserve price of $ 3 million . It received no bids . = = = Other memorabilia = = = In August 2013 , a one @-@ page letter signed by Schindler on 22 August 1944 sold in an online auction for $ 59 @,@ 135 . The letter noted Schindler 's permission for a factory supervisor to move machinery to Czechoslovakia . The same unknown auction buyer had previously purchased 1943 construction documents for Schindler 's Kraków factory for $ 63 @,@ 426 .
= Bastion ( video game ) = Bastion is an action role @-@ playing video game developed by independent developer Supergiant Games and published by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment . In the game , the player controls " the Kid " as he moves through floating , fantasy @-@ themed environments and fights enemies of various types . It features a dynamic voiceover from a narrator , and is presented as a two @-@ dimensional game with an isometric camera and a hand @-@ painted , colorful art style . Bastion 's story follows the Kid as he collects special shards of rock to power a structure , the Bastion , in the wake of an apocalyptic Calamity . The game was built over the course of two years by a team of seven people split between San Jose and New York City . They debuted the game at the September 2010 Penny Arcade Expo , and it went on to be nominated for awards at the 2011 Independent Games Festival and win awards at the Electronic Entertainment Expo prior to release . Bastion was published in July 2011 for Xbox Live Arcade and in August 2011 through digital distribution for Windows on Steam . Supergiant Games made it available as a browser game for Google Chrome in December 2011 . It was released for Mac OS X via the Mac App Store in April 2012 and directly followed by a SteamPlay update in early May 2012 which allows the version purchased via Steam to be playable on both Mac OS X and Windows . A version for iPad was released in August 2012 . In April 2015 it was released for the PlayStation 4 . Bastion 's soundtrack was produced and composed by Darren Korb , and a soundtrack album was made available for sale in August 2011 . During 2011 , the game sold more than 500 @,@ 000 copies , 200 @,@ 000 of which were for the Xbox Live Arcade . It sold over 3 million copies across all platforms by January 2015 . The game was widely praised by reviewers , primarily for its story , art direction , narration , and music . Opinions were mixed on the depth of the gameplay , though the variety of options in the combat system was praised . Bastion has won many nominations and awards since its release , including several for best downloadable game and best music , from review outlets such as IGN and Game Informer as well as from the Spike Video Game Awards , the Game Developers Conference , and the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences . = = Gameplay = = Bastion is an action role @-@ playing game with a level structure . The player character , " the Kid " , moves through floating , fantasy @-@ themed environments that form paths as the player approaches the edge . Levels consist of a single plane , and are viewed isometrically . They are filled with enemies of various types , which attempt to harm the Kid . The Kid carries two weapons , which may be selected from the choices available to the player at specific locations called arsenals . The Kid also has the ability to perform a special attack . Weapons and special attacks must be acquired before they can be used . There are a limited number of special attacks that the player can perform at any time , represented by " black tonics " that can be found in the levels or dropped from enemies . Special attacks may be used a total of three times . This maximum number of uses can be increased in the Distillery . The Kid 's health is represented by a health bar , which can be replenished with " health tonics " . Like black tonics , the Kid can only carry a certain number of health potions at a time , and can replenish them by finding more in the levels . Levels contain many different environment types , including cities , forests , and bogs . At the end of most levels , the player collects an item called a core or a shard ; occasionally , the level begins to disintegrate once the Kid takes the item , forcing him to hastily retreat . As the player progresses through the levels , a voice narrates their actions . This narration gives scripted plot information as well as dynamic comments , such as on the player 's skill with a weapon or performance while fighting enemies . Between levels , the Kid visits the Bastion , where the player can use fragments — the game 's form of currency — that they have accrued to buy materials and upgrade weapons . With each core the player collects , they can add one of six structures to the Bastion , such as a shrine , an armory , or a distillery , and each shard allows the player to expand a structure . Each structure serves a different purpose ; for example , the distillery lets the player select upgrades , and the shrine allows the player to choose idols of the gods to invoke , causing the enemies to become stronger and giving the player increased experience points and currency . Experience points are used to determine the Kid 's ability level ; higher values give the player more health and increase the number of upgrades they can select . Whenever the player leaves the Bastion , they can choose between one or two regular levels to play . In addition to these levels , however , the Kid can engage in challenge courses designed to test the player 's skills with the weapons the player has found . They are called Proving Grounds . The challenges differ depending on the weapon , such as destroying a certain number of objects within a given time or breaking targets in the fewest shots possible . According to the player 's score , different tiers of prizes are awarded . Additionally , the Kid can fight waves of enemies while the narrator tells a character 's backstory by journeying to " Who Knows Where " from the Bastion . The back story battles occur during ' Memories . ' The player earns fragments and experience for each completed wave . After the game is completed , the player can choose to begin a " new game + " mode , where the player replays through the game while keeping the experience points , fragments , and weapons that they have gained . This mode also offers more options in the buildings , as well as two more journeys to " Who Knows Where " . = = Plot = = The game takes place in the aftermath of the Calamity , a catastrophic event that suddenly fractured the city of Caelondia ( / seɪˈlɒndiə / ) as well as the surrounding areas of the game 's world into many floating pieces , disrupting its ecology and reducing most of its people to ash . Players take control of the Kid , a silent protagonist who awakens on one of the few remaining pieces of the old world and sets off for the eponymous Bastion , where everyone was supposed to go in troubled times . The only survivor he meets there is an elderly man named Rucks , the game 's narrator , who instructs him to collect the Cores that once powered Caelondia . A device in the Bastion can use the power of the crystalline Cores to create landmasses and structures , as well as enable the Kid to travel farther afield via " skyways " that propel him through the air . During his quest , the Kid meets two more survivors : Zulf , an ambassador from the Ura , underground @-@ dwelling people with whom Caelondia was once at war ; and Zia , an Ura girl who was raised in Caelondia . Both of them return to the Bastion , but upon reading a journal that the Kid discovers , Zulf intentionally damages parts of the Bastion 's central device ( the monument ) and returns to Ura territory . The Kid learns that the journal belonged to Zia 's father , Venn , who had worked for the Caelondians . He had helped Caelondian scientists ( " Mancers " ) build a weapon intended to destroy the Ura completely to prevent another war . Venn rigged the weapon to backfire , so that when he was finally forced to trigger it , the resulting Calamity destroyed most of Caelondia as well . To repair Zulf 's damage to the Bastion , the Kid starts collecting Shards , a lesser form of Cores . As he obtains the penultimate shard needed , the Ura attack the Bastion , damaging it and abducting Zia . In the next seven days , The Kid engages in sporadic skirmishes in Ura territory . When he finally blasts through an Ura outpost and meets Zia , she tells him that she had left with the Ura voluntarily to find out their intentions ; Rucks had previously told Zia that the Bastion had the ability to somehow fix the Calamity . The Kid travels to the once @-@ underground Ura homeland to retrieve the last shard . There , he discovers Zulf being attacked by his own people : the battle with the Kid has devastated the Ura forces , and they blame Zulf for bringing the Kid to their home . The Kid can choose to drop his weapon to help Zulf or leave him . If he leaves Zulf behind , the Kid destroys the remnants of the Ura and escapes through a skyway . If he chooses to carry Zulf , Ura archers initially open fire on them but ultimately cease fire and watch silently as the Kid and Zulf take the skyway back to the Bastion . After the Kid returns and recovers , Rucks gives him another choice : He can have the Bastion rewind time to before the Calamity in the hopes of preventing it , or use it to evacuate the survivors and move on to somewhere safe . Rucks is unsure if there is any way to prevent the Calamity from reoccurring if the time is rewound , as there was no way to test the process . The game ends either way , showing images of the characters ( with the inclusion of Zulf if the player chose to rescue him ) flying away or of their lives before the Calamity along with the credits . In the New Game + mode , which is unlocked after beating the game once , it is hinted that restoring the world didn 't prevent the Calamity . = = Development = = Bastion was created by a team of seven people , who composed the studio Supergiant Games . It was the company 's first game . The game was directed by Amir Rao and Greg Kasavin wrote the game 's narration , which was spoken by Logan Cunningham . Jen Zee was the artist , Gavin Simon developed the gameplay , Andrew Wang helped develop the game , and Darren Korb handled the sound effects and music . The co @-@ founders of Supergiant Games , Rao and Simon , previously worked for Electronic Arts , where they helped develop Command & Conquer 3 and Red Alert 3 . They left to form the studio because they wanted the development speed and the ability to try new ideas that would be possible with a smaller team . Development began on the game in September 2009 . The team created the game over almost two years , and funded the development themselves . Most of the team built the game in a house in San Jose , though the music and voice acting were recorded in New York City . Some of the San Jose designers — including the writer — did not meet Rucks ' voice actor in person until near the release of the game . The team spent the first nine months of development prototyping various ideas , before settling on the game 's design . The original idea was based around the premise of creating a town like those found in a role @-@ playing game . The team chose the design elements of a fractured , floating world due to their wish to portray a sky in the game , which is usually not possible with an isometric camera , as it always points down . They also wanted to forgo a map system , and felt that having the ground come up to the Kid allowed the player to easily see without a map where they had already been in a level . The story of the Calamity was created as a way to explain this game mechanic . Jen Zee developed the art style of the game to express beauty in a post @-@ apocalyptic landscape . The hand @-@ painted style was intended to soften the sharpness she saw as typical in isometric games and the colorless , harsh depictions of most devastated landscapes . Zee was inspired by the pixel art landscapes of earlier Japanese isometric games . The narrator was added early in the game 's development as a way to provide background details and depth to the world without requiring the player to read long strings of text or wait through cutscenes . To avoid slowing the pace of the action @-@ oriented gameplay , the team had the narrator mainly speak in short , evocative phrases , with long pauses between speaking parts . The narrator is intended to feel like an " old acquaintance " to the player , a connection built by his commentary on the player 's actions as they happen , both major and minor . Kasavin sought to make the game feel as if it were the player 's story , rather than just a story being watched . The development of Bastion was chronicled in the monthly Building the Bastion video series from October 2010 to May 2011 in which Supergiant Games collaborated with Kasavin 's former GameSpot co @-@ workers at Giant Bomb . The videos showed early game concepts in addition to the process of building the final game , as well as interviews with the team . Supergiant Games showed an early , unplayable version of the game at the March 2010 Game Developers Conference , to little acclaim . They debuted a playable version of the game at the September 2010 Penny Arcade Expo , where it was well received . After a strong showing at the March 2011 Game Developers Conference , Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment signed on to publish and distribute the game . The team decided to partner with a publisher in order to get through the process of Xbox Live certification . Bastion was released on July 20 , 2011 for Xbox Live Arcade ( XBLA ) , and on August 16 , 2011 for digital distribution on Windows through Steam . It was released as a browser game for Google Chrome on December 9 , 2011 . A version for Mac OS X was made available via the Mac App Store on April 26 , 2012 along with a SteamPlay update for Mac OS X and Windows . = = = Music = = = Bastion 's soundtrack was produced and composed by Darren Korb , a songwriter and composer . He was selected to pen the soundtrack by Rao , who was a childhood friend of Korb . Bastion was the first video game that Korb had scored ; prior to it he had worked on a few smaller television shows and movies . He was brought onto the team in the beginning stages of the project , and several of the pieces he developed were created prior to the final design of the levels with which they were associated . The musical style of the soundtrack has been described by Korb as " acoustic frontier trip hop " . It was intended to evoke both the American frontier and an exotic fantasy world . The songs combine " heavily sampled beats in layers , along with acoustic elements " , and he determined that he wanted to create the soundtrack in that style as it was different from video game soundtracks that he had heard before . The music was recorded in Korb 's closet at his New York City apartment , as were the sound effects and more than three thousand lines of narration by Cunningham . In addition to composing the music , Korb wrote all the lyrics for the soundtrack . The soundtrack features four vocal themes : " Build That Wall " , " What 's Left Undone " , " Mother , I 'm Here " , and " Setting Sail , Coming Home " . " Build That Wall " features the voice of Ashley Lynn Barrett , " What 's Left Undone " features that of Cunningham and " Mother , I 'm Here " features Korb , and both Korb and Barrett perform in " Setting Sail , Coming Home " . Supergiant Games originally had not planned to release a full soundtrack album for the game , but due to fan demand they released one in digital format on August 5 , 2011 , with two songs not heard in the game . These songs are " Get Used to It " , which has a voiceover written by Greg Kasavin and spoken by Logan Cunningham , and " The Pantheon ( Ain 't Gonna Catch You ) " , with lyrics written by Korb and sung by Cunningham . A physical limited edition CD signed by Korb was released on September 2 . The soundtrack sold 30 @,@ 000 copies by November 2011 . On March 15 , 2012 , Supergiant Games released sheet music for piano and guitar arrangements by Korb of " Build That Wall " , " Mother , I 'm Here " , " Setting Sail , Coming Home " , and " The Pantheon ( Ain 't Gonna Catch You ) " for free in their online store . = = Reception = = Bastion was released to strong sales and critical acclaim . The game sold more than 500 @,@ 000 copies during 2011 , 200 @,@ 000 of which were for the Xbox Live Arcade . In March 2013 at the PAX East gaming convention , Bastion 's creative director Greg Kasavin stated that the game had sold more than 1 @.@ 7 million copies combined across all platforms . By May 2014 , the game had sold over 2 million copies , and by January 2015 , it had sold over 3 million . Bob Mackey of 1UP.com called it " the perfect mesh of game and story " , and McKinley Noble of GamePro said that it " raises the visual and narrative bar for downloadable titles " . Maxwell McGee of GameSpot called it " wonderfully crafted " and " an amazingly good time " , and Greg Miller of IGN concluded that Bastion " is amazing and you owe it to yourself to download it " . The presentation of the game was widely praised , especially the narration . Mackey said that the game " could be sold on its presentation alone " , focusing on the graphics , music , and story . Edge said that the narration added " emotional resonance " to the game , and Tom Bramwell of Eurogamer praised the " dazzling visuals " and " artful commentary " . Game Informer 's Matt Miller highlighted " the well @-@ written narration , excellent music , and bright visuals " as factors that made the game feel " like a storybook in which you control the outcome . " Of the presentation elements , the story was the least praised , though several reviewers such as Noble enjoyed it , saying that it " just gets better the further you delve into it . " Ryan Scott of GameSpy , however , termed it a " just @-@ sorta @-@ there plot " , and Greg Miller said that it " could have been better " and never " hooked " him . Reviewers had a more mixed opinion of the gameplay . Mackey praised the variety of gameplay elements and said that combat has " a deceptive amount of depth " , but Bramwell felt that the combat did not " invite experimentation " and was somewhat disappointing . Edge said that the gameplay was " more interested in variety than challenge " , for which he praised it , and Matt Miller said that combat was " a lot of fun " , though he felt it lacked " the depth , speed , or complexity of a true action game " . Greg Miller highlighted the variety of the gameplay as the best part of the game , and Scott called it " enjoyable " , though not " challenging " . = = = Awards = = = The game won several awards , both before and after publication . It was nominated for the 2011 Independent Games Festival awards at the Game Developers Conference in the Excellence In Visual Art and Excellence In Audio categories . It went on to win the Game Critics Award for Best Downloadable Game of E3 2011 , and received a nomination for Best Original Game . The game continued to be nominated for awards after release . It was nominated for the Best Independent Game award at the 2011 Spike Video Game Awards , and won the Best Original Score and Best Downloadable Game awards , " Build That Wall ( Zia 's Theme ) " won the Best Song in a Game award , and " Setting Sail , Coming Home ( End Theme ) " was nominated for the same award . It was named the Downloadable Title of the Year by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences and was nominated for their Outstanding Innovation in Gaming award . 1UP.com gave Bastion their Best Narrative in a Game award , and Game Informer gave it the Best RPG Innovation award for the narration in the game . In GameSpot 's Game of the Year awards , Bastion won the Song of the Year award for " Build That Wall " as well as the Readers ' Choice award for Best Download @-@ only Console Game . IGN termed it the " Best XBLA Game of 2011 " , and RPGamer gave the game their Role @-@ Playing Game of the Year award . Official Xbox Magazine awarded it their Best Music award and nominated it for Best Art Direction , Role @-@ Playing Game of the Year , and XBLA Game of the Year . The music won the Game Audio Network Guild 's Best Audio in a Casual / Indie / Social Game award , and Darren Korb was selected as the Rookie of the Year . The game was nominated for the 2012 Game Developers Conference awards in the Innovation , Best Audio , and Best Narrative categories , and won the Best Downloadable Game award . Supergiant Games won the Best Debut award .
= Tasha Yar = Natasha " Tasha " Yar is a fictional character that mainly appeared in the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . Portrayed by Denise Crosby , she is chief of security aboard the Starfleet starship USS Enterprise @-@ D and carries the rank of lieutenant . The character 's concept was originally based upon the character of Vasquez from the 1986 film Aliens . Following further development she became known first as Tanya , and then Tasha . Crosby had originally auditioned for the role of Deanna Troi , while Rosalind Chao became a favorite for Tasha . After Marina Sirtis auditioned for the role , the show 's creator Gene Roddenberry decided to switch the roles for the actresses , with Sirtis becoming Troi and Crosby becoming Yar ( Chao would later appear on the series in a recurring role as Keiko O 'Brien ) . The character first appeared in the series ' pilot episode , " Encounter at Farpoint " . After Crosby decided to leave the show , Yar was killed by the creature Armus in " Skin of Evil " , the 23rd episode of the season . She was written back into the show for a guest appearance in the third season episode " Yesterday 's Enterprise " , in which the timeline was altered so that she did not die , and again in the final episode of the series " All Good Things ... " , in events set prior to the pilot . She was described as a forerunner to other strong women in science fiction , such as Kara Thrace from the 2004 version of Battlestar Galactica , while providing a step between the appearances of female characters in The Original Series to the command positions they have in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine and Voyager . Questions were raised over the sexuality of the character , and it was thought that the events in the episode " The Naked Now " were designed to establish her heterosexuality . The manner of her first death was received with mostly negative reviews . One critic called it typical of the death of a Star Trek security officer , and the scene was also included in a list of " naff " sci @-@ fi deaths . = = Concept and development = = Inspired by Vasquez in Aliens , the character was initially named " Macha Hernandez " and was the tactical officer of the Enterprise . This had been changed by the first casting call — issued on December 10 , 1986 — when she was given the position of security chief . The producers considered Jenette Goldstein , who had played Vasquez , for the role , but writer Dorothy Fontana pointed out that the actress " is not Latina . She is petite , blue @-@ eyed , freckle @-@ faced " . The character was subsequently renamed " Tanya " around March 13 . By the time that the writers ' and directors ' guide for the series was published , dated March 23 , 1987 , the character was named Natasha " Tasha " Yar . Her surname was suggested by Robert Lewin , drawing inspiration from the Babi Yar atrocities in Ukraine during the Second World War . Her biography stated that she was 28 years old , and confirmed her Ukrainian descent . She was planned to have a friendship with teenager Wesley Crusher , and was described in the guide as " treat [ ing ] this boy like the most wonderful person imaginable . Wes is the childhood friend that Tasha never had . " In April 1987 , Lianne Langland , Julia Nickson , Rosalind Chao , Leah Ayres and Bunty Bailey were each listed as being in contention for the role . Chao was a favorite candidate , while Denise Crosby was described as " the only possibility " for the character of Troi . The production staff were not keen on having two actresses in the bridge crew roles with similar physical types and hair colors , and so the team took account of the casting of the two parts together . The writers and directors guide described Yar as having a muscular but very feminine body type , and being sufficiently athletic to defeat most other crew members in martial arts . After Crosby and Marina Sirtis had each auditioned for Troi and Yar respectively , Gene Roddenberry decided to switch the actresses and cast Crosby as Tasha Yar . He felt that Sirtis ' appearance was better suited to the " exotic " Troi . Before the end of the first season , Crosby asked to be released from her contract as she was unhappy that her character was not being developed . She later said " I was miserable . I couldn 't wait to get off that show . I was dying . " Roddenberry agreed to her request , and she left on good terms . The final episode she filmed was " Symbiosis " , which was completed after Yar 's death in " Skin of Evil " . Her last scene was during the final act of the episode , in which she can be seen waving goodbye to the camera as the cargo bay doors close . After her departure , archive footage of Crosby as Yar was used in the episodes " The Schizoid Man " and " Shades of Gray " . Crosby was happy to return in " Yesterday 's Enterprise " due to the strength of the script , saying that " I had more to do in that episode than I 'd ever had to do before . " Prior to the episode being aired , the media had to be reassured that Yar was not returning in a dream sequence . Following her appearance in that episode , Crosby pitched the idea of Yar 's daughter , Sela , to the producers . She made her first appearance in this role in the two @-@ part " Redemption " , and appeared once more in another two @-@ part episode , " Unification " . Denise Crosby returned twice more in the non @-@ canon Star Trek universe . In 2007 , she appeared as an ancestor of Tasha Yar , Jenna Yar , in " Blood and Fire " , an episode of the fan @-@ produced series Star Trek : New Voyages . Tasha Yar was written into Star Trek Online as part of the three @-@ year anniversary celebration in 2013 . Denise Crosby recorded audio for the game , in scenes set after those in " Yesterday 's Enterprise " . = = Appearances = = Natasha Yar 's origins are explained in the season four episode " Legacy " . She was born on the planet Turkana IV in 2337 . She had a younger sister named Ishara ( Beth Toussaint ) , who was born five years after her . Shortly after Ishara 's birth , the girls ' parents were killed and they were taken in by other people . However , they were subsequently abandoned and Tasha was required to look after her sister on her own . The government on the planet had collapsed , and the sisters were forced to scavenge for food while avoiding rape gangs . In 2352 , aged 15 , Tasha managed to leave Turkana IV . She never saw Ishara again ; the latter joined the " Coalition " , one of the factions on the planet before Tasha left . Tasha refused to join the cadres on the planet , blaming them for her parent 's deaths . Yar appeared for the first time in the pilot episode of Star Trek : The Next Generation as the Security and Tactical Officer on board the USS Enterprise @-@ D. When Captain Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) orders an emergency saucer separation , Yar is one of the bridge crew to accompany him to the battle bridge . She is amongst the crew abducted by Q ( John de Lancie ) , and later serves on the away team to Farpoint Station . In " The Naked Now " , while the crew are under the influence of an alien ailment , she initiates a sexual encounter with the android Data ( Brent Spiner ) . In " Code of Honor " Yar is abducted by Lutan ( Jessie Lawrence Ferguson ) , the leader of the planet Ligon II , after she demonstrates her combat skills on the holodeck . She defeats Lutan 's wife Yareena in ritual combat . Yareena is revived on the Enterprise by Doctor Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) . During the events of " Where No One Has Gone Before " , Yar begins to hallucinate that she is back on Turkana IV and running for her life . In " The Arsenal of Freedom " , Yar and Data are trapped together on the surface of the planet Minos and are attacked by a series of sentry probes which adapt to Data and Yar 's phasers . The situation is resolved by Captain Picard , who is trapped elsewhere on the planet 's surface with Dr. Crusher . Yar forms part of the away team which beams down to Vagra II to rescue Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) from a crashed shuttlecraft in " Skin of Evil " . She is killed by the creature Armus ( Mart McChesney and Ron Gans ) in a display of his power . The crew hold a memorial service for her on the holodeck , and Worf ( Michael Dorn ) replaces her as chief tactical and security officer . After her death it is revealed that Data keeps a small hologram of her in his quarters . Despite Data 's lack of emotions , he is described by reviewers as being sentimentally attached to her image . During the court hearing on Data 's stature as a sentient being in " The Measure of a Man " , he explains that he and Yar were intimate and that she was special to him . After the USS Enterprise @-@ C emerges from a rift in space @-@ time in " Yesterday 's Enterprise " , the timeline is changed and Yar is once again alive and in her former position on the Enterprise @-@ D. She works with the older Enterprise 's helmsman , Richard Castillo ( Christopher McDonald ) , and the two become close . Guinan ( Whoopi Goldberg ) , who has some awareness of the timeline that would be restored by the Enterprise @-@ C returning into the rift , confides in Yar that she believes that Yar died senselessly in that timeline . Based on that advice , Yar transfers to the Enterprise @-@ C and returns with it to two decades into the past , and its expected destruction at the hands of the Romulans while defending the Klingon outpost Narendra III . The alternative universe version of Yar travelled back in time on board the Enterprise @-@ C , and into the main timeline . This process was later described as " world jumping " rather than a typical timeline travel story by critics . Yar 's half @-@ Romulan daughter Sela explains in " Redemption " that several members of the Enterprise @-@ C crew were captured by the Romulans when it returned through the rift , including Yar . A Romulan general offered to spare the crew 's lives if she became his consort . After a year , Yar gave birth to Sela . When Sela was four , Yar attempted to escape but Sela screamed to prevent her from being taken away from her father . After she was caught , Yar was executed . The series finale " All Good Things ... " includes Yar 's final appearance , in scenes which take place prior to and in the early parts of " Encounter at Farpoint " . As most of the bridge crew are yet to join the Enterprise @-@ D in the scenes , Yar is one of the senior members of the crew under Captain Picard in the earliest of the three timeframes in the episode . She needs to be convinced by Picard to put the ship in danger in order to destroy the temporal anomaly that threatens to prevent life from evolving on Earth . = = Reception and commentary = = Science fiction writer Keith DeCandido considered Yar the most interesting role to appear in the " writer 's bible " , while Hal Boedeker characterized her as " forceful " in an article on women in Star Trek for Knight Ridder . A Den of Geek article also about women in Star Trek described the character as a predecessor to Kara " Starbuck " Thrace in the 2004 re @-@ imagining of Battlestar Galactica . A Post @-@ Tribune review of the series following the pilot described Yar as a " tough cookie " and the reviewer 's favorite crew member . Frank Oglesbee , in his article on Deep Space Nine 's Kira Nerys , outlined the progression of female roles in " gender assumptions " from The Original Series where women were on the bridge , through Tasha Yar in The Next Generation where they were in command positions , to Deep Space Nine and Voyager where women were in lead parts . He noted specifically that women appeared in command positions more regularly as main and supporting characters , and were portrayed as more assertive and combative , with leading roles in action sequences . In Sarah Projansky 's contribution on rape in Star Trek to the book Enterprise Zones : Critical Positions on Star Trek , she extrapolates that Yar 's introduction to Starfleet was similar to the actions of United States Army soldiers issuing supplies to the survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the liberation of Nazi concentration camps during the Second World War . The idea of an American savior of colonial rape victims stems from U.S. propaganda during the war , stating that " In TNG , the Federation citizen represents a new and improved version of this U.S. savior citizen ; the Federation citizen is a post @-@ nationalist , post @-@ sexist , and post @-@ racist soldier — feminist " . Reviewers have questioned the character 's sexuality since the end of the series . Curve magazine speculated that Yar was a " closeted " lesbian . In the book Science Fiction Audiences : Watching Doctor Who and Star Trek , the authors describe her as " an obvious bisexual " , but that " she should be a lesbian " . Referring to the events in " The Naked Now " , the authors explain " when they decided to straighten her , they used an android . So we ended up heterosexualizing two perfectly wonderful characters " . The authors of the book Deep Space and Sacred Time : Star Trek in the American Mythos also thought that having Data and Yar consummate sexually was a means to state early on in the series the heterosexuality of the two most androgynous characters in the show . Fans responded negatively to the departure of Yar as they felt that the character had potential for future expansion . Reviewers were also critical of the manner of Yar 's death . Keith DeCandido called it " pointless " , but thought that it was no worse than the deaths of other security officer " redshirts " throughout the history of Star Trek . He said that he preferred her death in " Skin of Evil " to the " clichéd @-@ up @-@ the @-@ wazoo " death she experienced in " Yesterday 's Enterprise " . Gary Westfahl , in his book Space and Beyond : The Frontier Theme in Science Fiction , described Yar 's death as one of the most notable ones in Star Trek , alongside that of Spock in Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan and James T. Kirk in Star Trek Generations . SFX magazine included her first death in a 2012 list of the top 21 " Naff Sci @-@ Fi Deaths " , while the Chicago Sun @-@ Times described her death in " Yesterday 's Enterprise " as a " hero 's death " .
= Kauhajoki school shooting = The Kauhajoki school shooting occurred on 23 September 2008 , at the Seinäjoki University of Applied Sciences in Western Finland . The gunman , 22 @-@ year @-@ old student Matti Juhani Saari , shot and fatally injured ten people with a Walther P22 semi @-@ automatic pistol , before shooting himself in the head . He died a few hours later in Tampere University Hospital . One woman was injured but was in a stable condition . The shooting took place at the Kauhajoki School of Hospitality , owned by the Seinäjoki Municipal Federation of Education . The facilities and campus were shared between the Seinäjoki University of Applied Sciences and the Seinäjoki Vocational Education Centre – Sedu . Saari was a second @-@ year student in a Bachelor of Hospitality Management degree programme . The incident was the second school shooting in less than a year in Finland , the other being the Jokela school shooting in November 2007 , in which nine people including the gunman died . Before that , only one other school shooting had taken place in the country 's history , in Rauma in 1989 , leaving two people dead . = = Shooting = = Saari entered through the school buildings via the basement . The shooting began at around 10 : 40 ( UTC + 3 ) , when roughly 200 people were assembled inside the college . The emergency services received their first call at 10 : 46 . Saari was armed with a .22 LR calibre Walther P22 Target semi @-@ automatic firearm and homemade Molotov cocktails . He wore dark clothing and a balaclava ( ski mask ) . The school 's caretaker Jukka Forsberg , who had several shots directed at him but survived , said " [ The gunman ] was very well prepared . He walked calmly . " Saari initially opened fire on a group of students taking a business studies exam , and entered at least one other classroom . According to the three students who were able to escape the exam room ( there were roughly 20 students taking the exam ) , Saari had approached his victims individually before shooting them . It was also said that he was revelling in the situation and was acting very aggressively . Saari encountered little resistance , and the massacre was concluded relatively quickly . He then covered the classroom in a flammable liquid , believed to be petrol , and set the room alight . A student in an adjacent classroom , Sanna Orpana , said that her class had heard " shooting and a kind of a rumble like tables falling down . " Orpana believed at the time that the noise may have been coming from a toy gun , and two other students went to investigate the noise . Saari shot at them , and the remaining students in Orpana 's classroom hid under a table before running upstairs . At some point between 10 : 45 – 11 : 00 Saari ran down a corridor and threw a petrol bomb into a language laboratory . He then shot out all of the windows in the school 's main corridor , that extended through the building . It was during this time that he also took aim at Forsberg . A police van with two officers arrived a short time after the shootings began , at around 11 : 00 . They entered the yard of the college where they were shot at by Saari , and forced to retreat . From around 11 : 45 to 12 : 00 further police units , bolstered by a number of armoured vehicles , began to arrive on the scene . They attempted to enter the building through the main corridor , but this assault was aborted due to the black smoke that was emanating from within the building . = = Aftermath = = Having escaped the buildings in a variety of ways ( including through doors and out of windows ) , some students found themselves impeded by a river that adjoined the school . However , some were able to use rowing boats as a means of escape . Saari started fires at several other locations within the school buildings , and the fire in the exam room damaged some of the bodies so badly that they had to be identified from DNA and dental records . Nine of the victims were found in the exam room , and one in a nearby corridor . It was later ascertained that this student had fled the burning classroom and then died in the corridor . Eight of the victims were female students , one a male student , and one a male member of staff . All of the students killed were in their 20s , and the teacher was in his 50s . A 21 @-@ year @-@ old woman was shot in the head but had two operations in the days after sustaining her injury , and was reported as being in a satisfactory condition . A further ten students were treated for minor injuries including sprains and cuts from broken glass . All the victims were classmates of Saari 's . Saari was originally from Pohjois @-@ Pohjanmaa , but lived in Kauhajoki where he was enrolled on his catering course at the college . It was later revealed that the male student was probably a close friend of Saari 's . The pair had spent an evening out together in February 2008 when they were threatened with a starter pistol . A photo of them together had been circulating on the Internet , in which Saari jokingly points at his friend 's head with his forefinger . The names of the other victims were withheld by police . Firefighters extinguished the fires without any major damage to the school . Saari remained at large for some time in the school grounds after they had been evacuated . Two days after the killings , a friend of Saari 's , named Rauno , told 7 päivää that at 11 : 53 he received a call from Saari in which he confessed to having killed ten people . Saari is claimed to have spoken to Rauno in a calm manner , telling him that he wanted to say goodbye . He was found alive by the police at 12 : 30 , having shot himself in the head . He was taken to Tampere University Hospital , where he was treated for his gunshot wound . He died a short time later at 17 : 40 . With a total of ten people killed , it was the deadliest peacetime attack in Finnish history , surpassing the previous highest count of eight in the Jokela school shooting . It was the deadliest attack on a school campus since April 2007 , when Seung @-@ Hui Cho killed 32 people during the Virginia Tech shooting . Saari had fired a total of nearly 200 shots , including shots into the air . The highest number of shots inflicted to a single victim was twenty . = = Perpetrator = = Matti Juhani Saari ( 20 May 1986 – 23 September 2008 ) was identified as the gunman responsible for the shooting . Saari , a hospitality management student at the school , was thrown out of the Finnish Army in 2006 , after being a member for only a month for opening fire in a woodland exercise , against orders . Saari had been the victim of bullying in secondary school and dropped out of his classes for this reason . A friend of Saari also reported that he had been seeing a psychologist in the months before the shooting , and had been obsessed with guns . Saari left behind two handwritten notes in his school dormitory indicating that he had been planning the massacre for six years . A police spokesperson commented : " Saari left notes saying he had a hatred for mankind , for the whole of the human race , and that he had been thinking about what he was going to do for years . The notes show he was very troubled and he hated everything . " Police said that although most of the victims were female , the motive did not seem to be a hatred of women . One of Saari 's friends noticed a change in his behaviour two years before the shootings , when Saari began expressing a fondness for guns and an admiration of the school shootings in the United States . He said that around 18 months previously Saari had sent him a message saying that he would carry out a school shooting the next day . Saari reportedly denied being serious about carrying out his threat . Police were also investigating whether a copycat element was involved after it emerged that both Saari and Pekka @-@ Eric Auvinen , the gunman in the Jokela school shooting , had bought their guns from the same store . Both gunmen had taken photographs of themselves in similar poses , and both exchanged videos related to school shootings on YouTube and Finnish social networking site IRC @-@ Galleria . In March 2009 , Police ruled out contact with Pekka @-@ Eric Auvinen , and said that he had committed his crimes alone : 200 people were interviewed during the investigation , none of whom said they knew of Saari 's plans . Saari had a YouTube account where he uploaded videos of him firing a handgun at a local shooting range . Among the user 's YouTube account favourites was footage of the Columbine High School massacre . Finnish police had been informed about the YouTube videos in an anonymous tip @-@ off on the Friday before the shooting . The police talked to Saari and searched his home on the day before the incident , Monday 22 September . They found no reason to arrest him as he held a temporary weapons permit . In August 2008 , Saari had obtained a licence for a .22 @-@ calibre ( 5 @.@ 6 mm ) pistol . The police said that Saari did not have a criminal record . However , a police inspector was subsequently charged with dereliction of duty , and his court case began in September 2009 . Saari also posted another video on a Finnish social networking site , in which he pointed a gun at the camera and said in English " You will die next " , followed by firing four shots in the direction of the camera . This video was not available to the police when Saari was questioned . A police spokesperson commented : " The only video we saw was where he was shooting at the range . It was only afterwards that much more information came out . " Police said that Saari would have been detained if they had known about this video at the time of the questioning . Police said that they believed Saari 's videos were shot by someone else , and that they were trying to identify who this person was . The Chief Investigator of the case , Jari Neulaniemi , speculated that the cameraman may have been the friend of Saari 's who was murdered . Interior Minister Anne Holmlund announced that the actions of the police would be investigated . Police Commissioner Mikko Paatero said that Finnish police would increase their monitoring of YouTube and other social networking sites , and when asked whether similar attacks could take place in the future , he replied : " I badly fear it 's possible . " = = Response = = On the day of the incident , a crisis meeting was held , with government ministers , chairs of the parliamentary groups , and police officials all in attendance . The Prime Minister Matti Vanhanen described it as a " tragic day " and appealed for unity in the hope " that events like these will not happen again . " A national day of mourning was declared for the following day , and Vanhanen travelled to Kauhajoki to meet with students . Within days of the shooting , the police said they had received a sizeable number of tip @-@ offs alerting them to suspicious photographs , videos , and comments on chat rooms . Finnish media reported that several bomb threats and other threatening messages were circulating among students nationwide in the few days after the shootings as well .
= SMS Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand = SMS Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand was an Austro @-@ Hungarian Radetzky @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 5 June 1910 . She was named after Archduke Franz Ferdinand . The first ship of her class to be built , she preceded Radetzky by more than six months . Her armament included four 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) guns in two twin turrets , and eight 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns in four twin turrets . She participated in an international naval protest of the Balkan Wars in 1913 , during which she helped enforce a blockade of Montenegro . She was also one of the first ships to deploy seaplanes for military use . During World War I , she saw limited service in the 2nd Division of the 1st Battle Squadron , including mobilization to assist the escape of the German ships SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau and the bombardment of Ancona in 1915 . At the end of the war , she was ceded to Italy as a war prize and was eventually scrapped in 1926 . = = Construction = = Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand was built at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino dockyard in Trieste . She was laid down on 12 September 1907 and launched from the slipway on 8 September 1908 . The teak used on her deck was the only material Austria @-@ Hungary purchased abroad to build her . A month and a half after her launch , she was towed to the harbor in Muggia for completion . During a severe storm that night , she broke loose from her moorings ; with no crewmen aboard , Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand drifted for several hours before running aground just off Izola . The following morning , the navy located her and started to refloat her . Completion was delayed by a welders ' strike in 1908 and a riveters ' strike in 1909 . Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand was the first ship of the class to be completed , and she was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 5 June 1910 . At 137 @.@ 5 m ( 451 ft 1 in ) long , with a beam of 24 @.@ 6 m ( 80 ft 9 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 1 m ( 26 ft 7 in ) , Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand normally displaced 14 @,@ 508 long tons ( 14 @,@ 741 t ) . With full combat load , she displaced up to 15 @,@ 845 @.@ 5 long tons ( 16 @,@ 100 t ) . Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand , like the other ships of the Radetzky class , was smaller and not as well @-@ armed as other battleships in contemporary navies . Despite these shortcomings , Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand was one of Austria @-@ Hungary 's first true deep @-@ water fighting ships . She was powered by two 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines rated at 19 @,@ 800 indicated horsepower and had a maximum speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) . Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand was the first warship in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to use oil and coal @-@ fired boilers . She had a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 408 km ; 4 @,@ 603 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ship 's primary armament consisted of four 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns in two twin gun turrets . Eight 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns in four wing turrets formed the heavy secondary battery . The tertiary battery consisted of twenty 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) L / 50 guns in casemated single mounts and four 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) L / 44 guns . Three 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes were also carried , two on the beam and one in the stern . = = Service history = = The ship was assigned to the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet 's 1st Battle Squadron after her 1910 commissioning . In 1912 , Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand and her two sister ships conducted two training cruises into the eastern Mediterranean Sea . On the second cruise into the Aegean Sea , conducted from November to December , she was accompanied by the cruiser Admiral Spaun and a pair of destroyers . After returning to Pola , the entire fleet mobilized for possible hostilities , as tensions flared in the Balkans . The following year , she participated in an international naval demonstration in the Ionian Sea to protest the Balkan Wars . Ships from other navies included the British pre @-@ dreadnought HMS King Edward VII , the Italian pre @-@ dreadnought Ammiraglio di Saint Bon , the French armoured cruiser Edgar Quinet , and the German light cruiser SMS Breslau . The most important action of the combined flotilla , which was under the command of British Admiral Cecil Burney , was to blockade the Montenegrin coast . The goal of the blockade was to prevent Serbian reinforcements from supporting the siege at Scutari , where Montenegro had besieged a combined force of Albanians and Ottomans . Pressured by the international blockade , Serbia withdrew its army from Scutari , which was subsequently occupied by a joint Allied ground force . The first seaplanes used in combat , supplied by French manufacturer Donnet @-@ Lévêque , were operated from Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand and her two sisters during the blockade . However , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy was not satisfied with the operation , as the ships lacked enough deck space for the planes , as well as a lack of cranes with which they could easily hoist the planes onto the decks . The planes were later moved to a hangar at the navy yard in Teodo . By 1913 , the four new dreadnoughts of the Tegetthoff class — the only dreadnoughts built for the fleet — were coming into active service . With the commissioning of these dreadnoughts , the navy shifted Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand and her sisters to the 2nd Division of the 1st Battle Squadron . = = = World War I = = = The ship was named after Archduke Franz Ferdinand , whose assassination on 28 June 1914 triggered World War I. At that time , the battleships in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy consisted of the Radetzky class , the Tegetthoff class , and the older Habsburg and Erzherzog Karl classes . Along with the remainder of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand was mobilized in late July 1914 to support the flight of SMS Goeben and Breslau . The two German ships broke out of Messina , which was surrounded by the British navy , and reached their allies in Turkey . The flotilla had advanced as far south as Brindisi in southeastern Italy when news of the successful breakout reached Vienna . The Austro @-@ Hungarian ships were recalled before seeing action . On 23 May 1915 , between two and four hours after the Italian declaration of war reached the main Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola , Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand and the rest of the fleet departed to bombard the Italian coast . Their focus was on the important naval base at Ancona , and later the coast of Montenegro . The bombardment of Montenegro was part of the larger Austro @-@ Hungarian campaign against the Kingdoms of Montenegro and Serbia , who were members of the Entente , during the first half of 1915 . The attack on Ancona was an immense success , and the ships were unopposed during the operation . The bombardment of the province and the surrounding area resulted in the destruction of an Italian steamer in the port of Ancona itself , and an Italian destroyer , Turbine was severely damaged further south . On the shore , the infrastructure of the port of Ancona , as well as the surrounding towns , were severely damaged . The railroad yard in Ancona , as well as the port facilities in the town , were damaged or destroyed . The local shore batteries were also rendered inactive . Additional targets that were damaged or destroyed included wharves , warehouses , oil tanks , radio stations , and the local barracks . 63 Italians , both civilians and military personnel alike , were killed in the bombardment . By the time Italian ships from Taranto and Brindisi arrived at Ancona , the Austro @-@ Hungarians were safely back in Pola . The objective of the bombardment of Ancona was to delay the Italian Army from deploying its forces along the border with Austria @-@ Hungary by destroying critical transportation systems . The surprise attack on Ancona succeeded in delaying the Italian deployment to the Alps for two weeks . This delay gave Austria @-@ Hungary valuable time to strengthen its Italian border and re @-@ deploy some of its troops from the Eastern and Balkan fronts . The only damage in the ensuing days to Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand appears to have been after the battleships returned to Pola . A collision occurred between the ship and an unknown Austro @-@ Hungarian destroyer on 30 May , while both were attempting to avoid an aerial bombardment from an Italian airship ; the destroyer sank . Aside from the attack on Ancona , the Austro @-@ Hungarian battleships were confined to Pola for the duration of the war . Their operations were limited by Admiral Anton Haus , the commander of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , who believed that he would need to husband his ships to counter any Italian attempt to seize the Dalmatian coast . Since coal was diverted to the newer Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships , the remainder of the war saw Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand and the rest of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy acting as a fleet in being . This resulted in the Allied blockade of the Otranto Strait . With his fleet blockaded in the Adriatic Sea , and with a shortage of coal , Haus enacted a strategy based on mines and submarines designed to reduce the numerical superiority of the Allied navies . = = = Postwar fate = = = According to the terms of the Armistice of Villa Giusti , which ended hostilities between Italy and Austro @-@ Hungary , the latter was to transfer three battleships to Venice . Italy originally intended to seize the three remaining Tegetthoff @-@ class ships , but Italian frogmen sank SMS Viribus Unitis three days before the Armistice took effect . Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand was substituted in her place . The pre @-@ dreadnought served as a showpiece of the Italian victory parade held in March 1919 . She was formally ceded to Italy under the terms of the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , signed in September 1919 , and was moved to Venice by sailors of the Regia Marina ( Royal Italian Navy ) . Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand did nothing while in Italian custody ; she was scrapped in 1926 .
= The Young Victoria = The Young Victoria is a 2009 Anglo @-@ American period drama film directed by Jean @-@ Marc Vallée and written by Julian Fellowes , based on the early life and reign of Queen Victoria , and her marriage to Prince Albert of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha . Produced by Graham King , Martin Scorsese , Sarah Ferguson and Timothy Headington , the film stars Emily Blunt , Rupert Friend , Paul Bettany , Miranda Richardson and Jim Broadbent among a large ensemble cast . As screenwriter , Fellowes sought to make the film as historically accurate as possible . With this in mind , Academy Award @-@ winning costume designer Sandy Powell and historical consultant Alastair Bruce were hired , and filming for The Young Victoria took place at various historical landmarks in England to further the film 's authenticity . Despite this , various aspects of the film have been criticised for their historical inaccuracies . Momentum Pictures released the film in the United Kingdom , where it appeared in cinemas on 6 March 2009 . Sony Pictures Worldwide Acquisitions Group opened The Young Victoria in limited theatrical release in the United States on 18 December 2009 through Apparition . Critical reception was generally positive , and it scored a 76 percent rating on film review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes based upon 139 reviews . The film was nominated for three Academy Awards , winning the 2009 Academy Award for Best Costume Design . The film also won for the Best Make @-@ Up and Hair and Best Costume Design at the 63rd British Academy Film Awards . = = Plot = = Princess Victoria of Kent is the heiress presumptive to the throne during the last years of the reign of her uncle King William IV and is subject to a political tug of war for influence over her . On the one side is her mother , the Duchess of Kent , along with the comptroller of the Duchess 's household , Sir John Conroy , who tries to force Victoria to sign papers declaring a regency and giving him and her mother power . On the other side is her uncle , King Leopold I of Belgium , who wishes to use his influence through family ties to secure an alliance between Britain and his kingdom . He decides to have his nephew Prince Albert of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha seduce Victoria and he is coached in her likes and dislikes . The Duchess invites the Coburg brothers , Albert and Prince Ernest of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha , to visit the household . Victoria and Albert develop an early fondness for each other , despite Victoria knowing that Albert was sent by their uncle to win her favours . They begin writing to one another after Albert returns home . At a birthday reception in Windsor Castle , the King states his wish to be closer to Victoria and insults her mother . But when the King increases Victoria 's income , this is rejected by Conroy , who physically subdues her in front of her mother , heightening the animosity between them . The King then sends the Prime Minister Lord Melbourne to advise her . Victoria agrees to make him her private secretary , and he appoints ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting for her from political families allied to him . King William dies after Victoria 's 18th birthday , avoiding a regency . After accession , Victoria immediately begins to exert her independence , including moving into her own room and banishing Conroy from her household and coronation . During her first meeting with the Privy Council , she announces that " I mean to devote my life in service of my country and my people " . Victoria now moves into the recently completed Buckingham Palace and her aunt , Queen Adelaide , advises her against giving in too much to Lord Melbourne 's direction . Albert then comes to England to spend more time with Victoria . They bond more , dancing together during her coronation and later discussing together the condition of the poor . Albert hints at taking their relationship further but the self @-@ sufficient Victoria resists and he leaves . When Lord Melbourne loses a vote in Parliament , the new Prime Minister designate , Sir Robert Peel , wishes to replace some of her ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting with supporters of his own party and the queen refuses . Peel in turn refuses the queen 's invitation to form a new government , allowing Melbourne to continue as Prime Minister . The subsequent crisis damages Victoria 's popularity , leading to demonstrations outside the palace and insults hurled at her in public . Her loneliness during the turbulence draws Victoria closer to Albert through their letters and decides her to invite him back to Britain . Since protocol prevents him suggesting marriage , she proposes to him herself . Their marriage is loving and the birth of their first child helps heal the breach between Victoria and her mother , who had earlier sent a letter of support during the crisis . Nevertheless , Albert is frustrated at his initial powerlessness and Queen Adelaide advises Victoria to allow him to take on more duties . He then reorganises the running of the royal household and dismisses Conroy for mishandling funds . As Victoria 's primary adviser , he now blocks the influences of Lord Melbourne and King Leopold . However , Victoria quarrels with him fiercely for going over her head with Peel in the matter of her household . Soon after , when Victoria is fired upon by a would @-@ be assassin as they are riding in an open carriage , Albert throws himself across her and is wounded . This bravery leads to their reconciliation and Melbourne advises her to share with Albert also her work for the social welfare . The final title card sketches in their successful future until Albert 's death at the age of 42 . = = Principal cast = = = = Production = = = = = Conception and adaptation = = = It was Sarah , Duchess of York , who conceived the idea for a film based upon the early years of Queen Victoria . She had been interested in the queen since her marriage to Prince Andrew , Duke of York , a great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Victoria and Albert , and had written two books about her with the help of an historian . The Victoria @-@ Albert relationship in particular drew her into the queen 's history , as she believed there were parallels between their marriage and her own with Prince Andrew , as they both " fought for their love " in the midst of public scrutiny . A friend set up a meeting with producer Graham King , to whom she pitched the idea along with several others . At the time wrapping up his work on The Departed , King , a native of Britain , had been looking for a project set in his home country for years . The producer later remembered , " she pitched me a bunch of things , and among them was a three @-@ page synopsis of Victoria ’ s early life : the precise span covered in The Young Victoria . [ After that the film ] just fell into place . " King brought frequent collaborator Martin Scorsese on board as a co @-@ executive producer , as the Academy Award @-@ winning director knew " pretty much all there is to know about British history " . Gosford Park screenwriter Julian Fellowes contacted King to present ideas for a script , and according to the producer , " [ Fellowes ] seemed to have the whole movie planned out in his head so we told him to go ahead and write it . Three months later , this incredibly impressive screenplay showed up on our desks . " Fellowes was immediately hired by him and Scorsese . Fellowes chose not to end the film at Albert 's death because he wary of copying " the horror of biopics , " where there is simply an important event after important event . Believing it had been done before and that the audience was already familiar with that part of Victoria 's history , he thought it would be better suited for a television series or for another film . For the film 's director , King wanted someone " who would steer us away from the traditional BBC @-@ type costume drama , " and " make a period film for an MTV audience " . By chance , someone recommended King watch the 2005 film C.R.A.Z.Y. by French @-@ Canadian filmmaker Jean @-@ Marc Vallée , and became immediately interested in hiring him . King offered the job to Vallée on their very first meeting . Though at first expressing disinterest , Vallée agreed to direct after reading the script . He commented , " When I read the script , I saw it 's a family drama , a romance , a political plot at the same time . " Vallee considered Victoria to be a rebel because " she has this attitude , which is you make noise , you want to yell and yell loudly to your parents and all the people , to authority ... ' I 'm going to do it my way . ' That 's what rock ' n ' roll is all about . That 's what I liked about her , this energy . [ Victoria ] was special and had this mystical quality . " Academy Award @-@ winning costume designer Sandy Powell heard about the script and contacted King , who in turn hired her . Powell was granted exclusive access to Victoria 's wedding dress and coronation robes while researching . Based upon his work on The Lives of Others and his German nationality , Hagen Bogdanski was selected as the director of photography . Fellowes enlisted his friend Alastair Bruce 's help with the coronation ceremony 's historical authenticity , which led to Bruce 's employment as the film 's historical consultant , his first film credit . = = = Casting = = = For the title role , King required the candidate be British , and considered casting an unknown actress . British actress Emily Blunt read the script , and aware other actresses would fight for the part , she approached King early in the search process . Blunt later admitted she had a " non @-@ existent knowledge " of the queen , but after consulting her mother about Victoria 's successful marriage , Blunt told King that the queen " was a young girl who was very in love for the first time , and she was in a job where she felt way over her head . So I said to Graham , ' She 's rebellious . She 's a survivor . ' I didn 't want to approach her as the English rose , but as a young girl who was fighting " . They awarded Blunt the role after viewing her entire filmography as well as her Golden Globes acceptance speech for Gideon 's Daughter . Blunt noted , " I thought [ Victoria ] was remarkable and such a challenge . This young girl , who was so feisty and emotional and strong @-@ willed , was very fascinating to me ... In my life and in the job I 've chosen to do , you have to perform all the time . And I thought Victoria was a bit of an actress . " After winning the part , Blunt was allowed access to Windsor Castle , where she viewed Victoria 's paintings , letters , diaries , and music composed by Albert himself . Determined not to use any big Hollywood names , King looked at many European actors before settling on British actor Rupert Friend . They were aware of him from the 2005 film Pride & Prejudice . Vallée noted , " I had an image of Albert in my mind , before we cast Rupert , and how the actor might play him and when Rupert came on board he was just right . He had a very good understanding of the character and he did a lot of research to get him right , with the accent and his deportment . He really looks the part , he looks so romantic ! " Co @-@ producer Dennis O 'Sullivan called Friend " our Scarlett O 'Hara search " . They believed the actor had the most chemistry with Blunt after selecting several to play chess with her . Friend 's height ( 6 ft 1in ) also played a factor in their choice . Friend believed " Albert was a true unsung hero . A great reformer , a doting husband and father , a hard worker and man of real integrity and modesty . " The actor also thought their relationship was not " a gooey love story " ; rather , their arguments showed it " wasn 't an easy road by any means " . Friend strove to immerse himself in the role , and learned the prince 's particular characteristics , such as the way he rode a horse , walked , and played the piano . He worked with a voice coach and German instructor to perfect his accent , with the intention of " put [ ting ] in as much German as possible , because Victoria and Albert did speak German to each other . " Paul Bettany was cast as Lord Melbourne despite being roughly twenty years too young for the part . Vallée explained , " We couldn 't find a 58 @-@ year @-@ old actor who was sexy and good @-@ looking enough . Paul was a more than good enough actor to age from the inside , and he plays him as a great politician and a great seducer . " Early in the casting process the crew wanted to cast Miranda Richardson as the Duchess of Kent , and believed she had such great chemistry with Blunt that it became " genuinely uncomfortable watching them in a scene , as the scenes are so intense and real . " Jim Broadbent and Mark Strong joined the cast as King William IV and Sir John Conroy , respectively , as did Harriet Walter as Queen Adelaide . Sarah 's elder daughter , Princess Beatrice of York , made her film debut in a small cameo role , becoming the first member of the Royal Family to appear in a non @-@ documentary film . = = = Filming = = = In consideration of the expense of a film shot in Britain , King initially sought to film in Germany and Eastern Europe . However , he came to the realisation that it was vital The Young Victoria be filmed in its native country for authenticity . Due to the Duchess of York 's status and connections with the British royal family , The Young Victoria was able to film in many actual palaces and other landmarks . The film had a ten @-@ week shoot starting in August 2007 . Scenes set at Westminster Abbey were filmed at Lincoln Cathedral in September and October , and Ham House was substituted for Kensington Palace . Blenheim Palace , Lancaster House and Ditchley Park doubled for internal scenes of the monarch 's main residence , Buckingham Palace . Other scenes filmed at Hampton Court Palace , Arundel Castle in West Sussex , Wilton House near Salisbury , Balls Park and Belvoir Castle in Leicestershire . Week four of shooting was especially intensive , as filming was done at a different site each day , including Osterley Park , Old Royal Naval College , Ham House , Novello Theatre and Hampton Court . = = Historical accuracy = = Fellowes strove to make the script free of anachronisms , to the point where he became upset when actor Jim Broadbent ad @-@ libbed and told someone to " Enjoy the meal " during a dinner scene , a phrase not proper for the time period . The writer commented , " Everything I have put into it is based entirely on fact . It just happens to be a story that not many people are familiar with . " Fellowes has remarked that while he would not alter the " fundamental truth " , such as the characters ' real relationships to each other , he strove to " use episodes to illustrate the journey you 're taking your characters , and with them , your audience " . Although largely faithful to a selection of historical facts , the film has drawn criticism for embellishing on events in order to increase dramatic potential . For example , Prince Albert was never shot during an assassination attempt on Queen Victoria . Fellowes told BBC Radio 4 's Film Programme that in actuality the prince did put his body before the queen as protection , and that showing Prince Albert having been grazed by the bullet in the film was added to best show his bravery and devotion as he tried to stop Queen Victoria from being shot . Another departure from history comes during Victoria 's coronation scene . Contrary to what is shown in the film , Albert was not present at the ceremony ; the couple instead wrote letters to each other , but Fellowes felt that having them keep opening letters would be less cinematic . Furthermore , according to Fellowes , " The scene where [ Conroy ] is trying to make her sign the paper when she is ill and she throws it to the floor - it 's completely true " , and " The scene in Windsor where the King stands up and insults Victoria 's mother is not only true , but about two @-@ thirds of his speech is what he actually said ! " However , the Duchess of Kent was seated next to the King when he spoke and did not leave during the speech ; and , undepicted in the film , the princess burst into tears , " and the two parties , soon realising that they had gone too far , patched up an uneasy truce " . According to Charles Greville 's memoirs : " The Queen [ Adelaide ] looked in deep distress , the Princess [ Victoria ] burst into tears , and the whole company were aghast . The Duchess of Kent said not a word . Immediately after they rose and retired , and a terrible scene ensued ; the Duchess announced her immediate departure and ordered her carriage , but a sort of reconciliation was patched up , and she was prevailed upon to stay till the next day . " William Lamb , 2nd Viscount Melbourne , who was prime minister when Victoria came to the throne and a political mentor to the young queen , was forty years her senior , but is portrayed as a much younger man in the film . As for King Leopold , he was her favourite uncle whose advice she constantly sought ; her interest in Albert was due not to the latter 's success in wooing her , but simply to please Leopold . Victoria 's great @-@ great @-@ granddaughter Queen Elizabeth II viewed the film in a special screening ; according to one source , she believed the film had a " lot of good points " , but was unhappy with the change to the assassination attempt , and also thought the British officers ' costumes looked too German . Apart from the assassination attempt , historian Alex von Tunzelmann noted that " historically , [ the film 's ] not at all bad " , and especially praised the depiction of contemporary politics and the characteristics Friend put into his performance as Prince Albert . = = Music = = Director Vallée used his background as a DJ to " create a structure for a film using music with the right rhythm and balance . I wanted to combine classical pieces with a rock spirit " . During filming Vallée often played rock music , such as the Rolling Stones , to create the right " mood " before a scene . Executive producer Colin Vaines knew composer Ilan Eshkeri , and hired him for the film . Sinéad O 'Connor performed " Only You " , which O 'Sullivan described as " very much in line with one of the overriding aims of the film , which was to be hopeful and tell people that these amazing love stories really can happen , it ’ s not just a fairy tale . " EMI Music released the film soundtrack . It received a nomination for the 2010 Ivor Novello Award for Best Original Score . The soundtrack includes the following tracks : = = Reception = = = = = Release = = = Momentum Pictures handled distribution of The Young Victoria in the United Kingdom . The film 's world premiere was held on 5 February 2009 at the 59th Berlin International Film Festival while its UK premiere was held in London 's Leicester Square on 3 March . , though the film was shown in the small market town of Bridport , Dorset two days before this on 1 March 2009 in the Electric Palace Theatre , of which Julian Fellowes is a patron . The film was released in British cinemas on 6 March 2009 . On its opening week in the UK The Young Victoria grossed £ 1 @,@ 016 @,@ 053 , and earned a total of £ 4 @,@ 538 @,@ 697 over its six @-@ week run . A bidding war erupted over its US release , and American distribution studio Apparition on the behalf of Sony Pictures Worldwide Acquisitions Group won the rights to the film . At the time , Apparition executive Bob Berney noted the film is " very audience friendly and commercial . " The Young Victoria earned USD $ 160 @,@ 069 on its initial US release on 18 December 2009 , where it opened in twenty theatres . It expanded nationwide on Christmas Day , and grossed USD $ 11 @,@ 001 @,@ 272 by the end of its theatrical run . = = = Critical reception = = = The film received a generally positive reception and holds a 76 % ' Fresh ' rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 145 reviews . Entertainment Weekly film critic Owen Gleiberman gave The Young Victoria a B + ; he gave praise to Emily Blunt 's performance and concluded , " The Young Victoria has a subtler flow than you might expect , and at times it 's calmer than you may like . Director Jean @-@ Marc Vallée 's images have a creamy stateliness , but this is no gilded princess fantasy — it 's the story of a budding ruler who learns to control her surroundings , and Blunt makes that journey at once authentic and relevant . " Manohla Dargis of The New York Times called it a " frivolously entertaining film " and believed it was " directed with some snap by Jean @-@ Marc Vallée " . Dargis finished her review , " Despite the filmmakers ’ efforts to persuade us that The Young Victoria is a serious work , and despite some tense moments and gunfire , the film ’ s pleasures are as light as its story . No matter . Albert may never rip Victoria ’ s bodice , but he does eventually loosen it , to her delight and ours . " The Daily Telegraph called The Young Victoria a " production of the highest calibre with an impeccable cast . " The Times ' Wendy Ide gave the film 3 out 5 stars wrote " It 's decorative , but suffers from a stultifying lack of drama " and found similarities to the 1998 film Elizabeth . Ide found Victoria and Albert 's relationship to be " persuasive and rather charming , " and praised the performances of both the main and supporting cast , particularly noting Bettany 's scene @-@ stealing performance . Less positive was Peter Bradshaw , film critic for The Guardian , who gave the film two out of five stars . While initially looking forward to Blunt 's performance , he believed the " black @-@ belt minx " actress was " never really allowed to let rip . All that coiled feline sensuality stay [ ed ] coiled " . He thought the queen 's relationship with Prince Albert " very , very unsexy " , as their devotion " makes for a boring film " . Bradshaw did praise the power dynamics around Victoria , but concluded " I spent an hour and three @-@ quarters waiting for this film to start . Where was the tang and the zing and the oomph of Fellowes 's cracking script for Robert Altman 's Gosford Park ? " = = = Accolades = = = Emily Blunt received a Golden Globe nomination in 2010 for Best Dramatic Actress but lost to Sandra Bullock for The Blind Side . Blunt received further nominations at the British Independent Film Awards , Broadcast Film Critics ' Association Awards , and at the Empire Awards , among others . The film also received three Academy Awards nominations in 2010 for Best Art Direction ( which it lost to Avatar ) , Makeup ( which it lost to Star Trek ) and won for Costume Design . At the 63rd British Academy Film Awards , The Young Victoria won the BAFTA Award for Best Costume Design and the BAFTA Award for Best Makeup and Hair . = = Home media = = Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the DVD and Blu @-@ ray on 13 July 2009 for the UK , and 20 April 2010 for the US . The DVD special features included deleted and extended scenes , and four featurettes on filming and the subject matter 's history . The Blu @-@ ray possesses a feature that allows viewers to access real @-@ time data about the actors , music , film trivia and other information .
= Glanville Davies affair = The Glanville Davies affair was a scandal in the English legal profession which resulted in greater reform of the regulatory processes for solicitors and was one of the justifications for the Courts and Legal Services Act 1990 . Glanville Davies was a well @-@ respected solicitor and a member of the Council of the Law Society of England and Wales who massively overcharged his client , Leslie Persons , sending him a bill for £ 197 @,@ 000 that was reduced on taxation to £ 67 @,@ 000 . Davies was not punished by the Law Society 's internal regulatory committees , which allowed him to resign from the council on the grounds of ill @-@ health with his reputation intact . Following litigation and public criticism , the Law Society commissioned an internal report that found " administrative failures , wrong decisions , mistakes , errors of judgement , failures in communication and insensitivity " . A private member 's bill reformed the way in which the Law Society investigated disciplinary complaints , although not to the extent initially proposed , and paved the way for the Courts and Legal Services Act 1990 that created an independent disciplinary body . = = Background = = In 1982 , Leslie Parsons filed a complaint against Glanville Davies , a respected solicitor and member of the Council of the Law Society of England and Wales , the solicitors ' professional body . Davies had charged Parsons £ 197 @,@ 000 for legal services , a " grossly inflated and inaccurate legal bill " . Parsons complained to the Law Society repeatedly from 1976 to 1982 ; despite this , the Law Society took no disciplinary action , allowing Davies to resign from the Council on grounds of ill @-@ health with his reputation intact . Parsons finally brought legal action against Davies in 1982 , and on 18 November , Anthony McCowan of the High Court of Justice reduced the bill to £ 67 @,@ 000 . McCowan also said that Davies was " guilty of at least gross and persistent misconduct " and recommended that he be struck off . On 24 October 1983 , Vinelott J struck Davies from the roll of solicitors . = = Investigation = = Following the start of litigation , an investigation by the Lay Observer and the Law Society itself ( which became known as the Ely Report ) highlighted " an appalling catalogue of errors , insensitivity and poor judgment " in the handling of the Davies Affair by the Law Society internal disciplinary organisation . The report found " administrative failures , wrong decisions , mistakes , errors of judgement , failures in communication and insensitivity ... the whole affair was a disgrace to the Society " . The Society paid compensation to Parsons for their mishandling of the situation and said that they would compensate victims of similar cases where they had failed to investigate complaints with reasonable care . The Law Society asked Coopers & Lybrand to produce a report on the Law Society , which included its disciplinary topics among the areas to be reported on . The draft report , published in 1984 , recommended that the Law Society should transfer its disciplinary processes to an independent Solicitor 's Complaints Board , which would be made up of both solicitors and lay people ( although with a majority of its members being solicitors ) . In 1985 the National Consumer Council published a survey showing that only 15 % of respondents felt that the Law Society should be investigating complaints , and only 5 % felt that if an independent body was created it should contain a solicitor majority , with 36 % wanting equal representation of solicitors and lay people and 55 % preferring a majority of lay people . = = Aftermath = = As a result of this and similar controversies , Alf Dubs introduced a private member 's bill named the Solicitors ( Independent Complaints Procedure ) Bill on 12 February 1985 , which would move the responsibility of regulating the solicitors profession to a body outside the Law Society . Professional opinion was split on this – the National Consumer Council , Legal Action Group and many of the smaller law societies supported the proposal , while larger law societies and the Law Society of England and Wales opposed it . The Law Society of England and Wales persuaded Coopers & Lybrand to include an alternate reform proposal in their report , and after pressure from the Law Society , and several of the larger regional societies , the alternate proposal was used . This was far weaker than the original proposal , and kept the responsibility of regulating the solicitors ' profession within the Law Society but increased the separation of functions within the Society and required that the majority of the people on regulatory committees be lay people ( not solicitors ) . The events surrounding this scandal have been directly linked to the reforms pushed through in the Courts and Legal Services Act 1990 , which created an independent disciplinary body for solicitors .
= Lacrymosa ( song ) = " Lacrymosa " is a song recorded by American rock band Evanescence for their second studio album , The Open Door ( 2006 ) . The song was composed by Amy Lee and Terry Balsamo and produced by Dave Fortman . " Lacrymosa " incorporates the Lacrimosa sequence from Mozart 's Requiem ( 1791 ) throughout the song and Lee said that its main inspiration is the film Amadeus . The song is influenced by genres such as alternative metal , gothic rock , and post @-@ grunge . Set in slow tempo , it was originally written in the key of D minor but Lee and Balsamo transposed it into E minor . The song garnered polarizing opinions from music critics , with some labeling it as one of the best songs on The Open Door , particularly complimenting the backing choir , while others lamented it one of the worst for the same reasons . According to Lee , " Lacrymosa " was originally written for the soundtrack of the movie The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe , but was not included because of its dark sound . The producers of Narnia , however , rebutted her claim , stating this information was " news to them " and that no Evanescence music had been planned for inclusion in the soundtrack . The song was part of the setlist during their The Open Door Tour . = = Background and recording = = " Lacrymosa " was written by Amy Lee and Terry Balsamo and produced by Dave Fortman . David Campbell , who has previously arranged music for the band and worked with them at the Billboard Music Awards , led a 22 @-@ piece orchestra for the song . The Millennium Choir performed the Lacrimosa sequence ( " Lacrimosa dies illa Qua resurget ex favilla Judicandus homo reus . Huic ergo parce , Deus : Pie Jesu Domine , Dona eis requiem . Amen . " ) and backing vocals throughout the song . Lee , the orchestra and choir recorded the song at a chapel in Seattle , Washington . In a number of interviews , Lee revealed that everyone asked about a collaboration between her and Mozart . She further stated that she always wanted to make Lacrimosa from Mozart 's Requiem a metal song , later adding that The Open Door was " the time for that , for trying things I hadn 't been brave enough to try before . " In an interview with VH1 News , Lee further explained the inspiration behind the song " I saw Amadeus when I was nine years old and fell in love with Mozart . The part of Mozart 's Requiem called " Lacyrmosa " [ sic ] is my favorite piece of music ever . I always wished we could cover it , but with programming and guitars and make it cool . It 's our moment to try all the things I wanted to and couldn 't , so I started messing with it in Protools . Terry wrote some riffs and turned it into this awesome metal epic . " = = Composition , music and lyrics = = According to the sheet music published by Alfred Publishing on musicnotes.com , " Lacrymosa " is an alternative metal , gothic rock and post @-@ grunge song set in a common time and performed in slow tempo of 48 beats per minute . Although the original Lacrimosa sequence was performed in D @-@ minor , it was transposed into E @-@ minor by Lee and Terry Balsamo . The instruments in the song are piano , guitar , violins and drums . Lee 's vocal range from the note of B3 and E5 ; the SATB choir ranges from the note of B2 to E4 . " Lacrymosa " has a " violin intro , synth worth of a Nine Inch Nails album , and Omen @-@ esque choral sections that are very haunting . " According to Rob Sheffield from Rolling Stone , in " Lacrymosa " Lee is " sobbing hysterically over a grand piano . " According to the IGN reviewer , Ed Thompson , the song " takes the trademark Evanescence sound - Lee 's celestial voice , and adds her brooding lyrics ' I can 't change who I am , not this time , I won 't lie to keep you near me and in this short life , there 's no time to waste on giving up . My love wasn 't enough ' . " . Danielle Baudhuin from The Oshkosh West Index stated that " Lee 's astounding classical vocals are displayed with songs as the eerie ' Like You , ' and ' Lacrymosa ' . " She said that these two songs feature slower beats , and are more " piano @-@ themed melodies , followed shortly by the power guitar section of the song . " But she said that the song was very similar to " Haunted " from Fallen adding , " creepy background choir vocals and violins send listeners into a gothic Cathedral @-@ like setting . " Jim Farber from nydailynews.com said that " Lacrymosa " will remind older listeners the ' 70s art @-@ rock horror Renaissance . Andree Farias from Christianity Today said " [ But ] the song has nothing to do with Lucy and her escapades into the land of Aslan . Rather , it 's just another bitter break @-@ up anthem : ' And you can blame it on me / Just set your guilt free , honey / I don 't want to hold you back now love . ' " = = Critical reception = = " Lacrymosa " received positive to mixed reviews from music critics . Bill Lamb from About.com put the song in the list of Top Tracks on The Open Door alongside " Sweet Sacrifice " , " Call Me When You 're Sober " , " Your Star " and " Good Enough " . He added " Elements such as the connection of the song ' Lacrymosa ' to the Mozart ' Requiem ' movement of the same name , or intense exploration of the benefits and costs of ' Lithium ' give hints that Evanescence could add intellectual heft to their obvious command of emotion . " Ed Thompson from IGN called " Lacrymosa " the " most memorable track " in the whole album . Don Kaye of the website Blabbermouth.net said that while the song was an " interesting experiment " it came " across as more of a stab at artsiness with its strings and choirs than a real song . " An editor from The New York Times said that " Lacrymosa " is grandiose even by the album ’ s standards . Sputnikmusic said that the song is the best on the album and gave the song a grade of 4 @.@ 5 along with " Good Enough " , adding that on the last two songs the album stops to be boring because of the variations . Simon Cosyns from The Sun concluded that " song titles such as ' Weight of the World ' , ' Lose Control ' and ' Lacrymosa ' tell you it ’ s not a bed of roses , but there is a positive streak running through The Open Door " . On Postmedia News it was stated that Lee " achieves stunning notes on ' Lacrymosa ' , which employs a haunting choir " . Jordan Reimer from The Daily Princetonian praised Lee 's melodies and said that " Cloud Nine " and " Lacrymosa " were her best two arrangements . John Hood from Miami New Times made a story , " ' Call Me When You 're Sober ' sent a man away , ' Lacrymosa ' kept him there , and ' Cloud Nine ' told the clueless dolt why he would no longer ever be welcomed back . Joost Melis from the Dutch website FOK ! compared " Lacrymosa " with song of the bands Within Temptation and Nightwish . A writer of The Independent put the song on his list of " Download This " from The Open Door . Brendan Butler from Cinema Blend was critical saying that " the worst song on The Open Door , i [ t ’ ] s a toss up between ' Lacrymosa ' with its abominable choir and the obnoxious ' Lose Control , ' which features Amy crying for about five minutes . " A reviewer from Altsounds noted that the weakest tracks on the album are " Snow White Queen " , " Lacrymosa " , " Like You " , and " Lose Control " because " the vocal arraignments on those tracks just do not flow with the lyrics and music combined therefore making them annoying because [ Lee 's ] voice gets a bit unsettling and can only be tolerable to a certain extent . " Glenn Gamboa from The Providence Journal concluded that " maybe the over @-@ the @-@ top dramatics of ' Lacrymosa ' and piano ballad ' Your Star ' will be seen as so @-@ bad @-@ they ’ re @-@ good . " = = Live performances = = The song was played live by the band during their tour for the promotion of The Open Door . On the concert which took place on November 17 , 2007 in Orem the band played " Lacrymosa " . During the performance Lee was wearing a purple tank , black skirt and black boots . They also performed the song at Hammerstein Ballroom in New York in 2006 . Evanescence played the song live at their secret New York gig which took place on November 4 , 2009 . The band played the song during a concert at Porto Alegre , Brazil on October 4 , 2012 . = = Controversy and usage in media = = In a 2004 interview with MTV News , Amy Lee revealed that she was composing music for the film , The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe . She also revealed that the producers of the movie offered her a small role , " They were like , ' Do you want to do a cameo ? ' And I was like , ' Hell yeah ! Let me die . I want to be somebody who gets murdered . ' So I don 't think that 's going to happen . " She later revealed that " Lacrymosa " was originally written for the film , but was mysteriously not included . However , according to producers , neither Lee or the band were approached to compose music for the film . Another song was also written for the movie , but it was rejected because of its dark sound . Lee went on to state that it was just " more great stuff [ for The Open Door ] " . Lacrymosa is a corruption of the Latin term lacrimosa , which means " tearful " . The track title is also the scientific name for a species of moth known as Catocala lacrymosa , also known as the ' Tearful Underwing ' . The species of moth are featured throughout The Open Door 's cover booklet and on the cover of the " Sweet Sacrifice " radio promo CD . A clip of " Lacrymosa " was used in the video teaser for The Open Door . = = Credits and personnel = = Credits adapted from The Open Door liner notes .
= Billy Sing = William Edward " Billy " Sing , DCM ( 2 March 1886 – 19 May 1943 ) was a part Chinese Australian soldier who served in the Australian Imperial Force during World War I , best known as a sniper during the Gallipoli Campaign . He took at least 150 confirmed kills during that campaign , and may have had over 200 kills in total . One contemporary estimate put his tally at close to 300 kills . Towards the end of the war , Sing married a Scottish woman , but the relationship did not last long . Following work in sheep farming and gold mining , he died in relative poverty and obscurity in Brisbane during World War II . = = Early life = = Sing was born on 2 March 1886 in Clermont , Queensland , Australia , the son of a Chinese father and an English mother . His parents were John Sing ( c . 1842 – 1921 ) , a drover from Shanghai , China , and Mary Ann Sing ( née Pugh ; c . 1857 – unknown ) , a nurse from Kingswinford , Staffordshire , England . Sing 's mother had given birth to a daughter named Mary Ann Elizabeth Pugh on 28 May 1883 , less than two months before marrying Sing 's father on 4 July 1883 . It is unclear whether this child was John Sing 's daughter as well . A daughter , Beatrice Sing , was later born into the family on 12 July 1893 . The three children grew up together on the farm run by the Sings , and all three performed well academically . There was considerable anti @-@ Chinese sentiment in Australia at this time . As a boy , Sing was well known for his shooting skill , but was the subject of racial prejudice due to his ancestry . He began work hauling timber as a youth , and later worked as a stockman and a sugarcane cutter . Sing became well known for his marksmanship , both as a kangaroo shooter and as a competitive target shooter . In the latter role , he was a member of the Proserpine Rifle Club . He regularly won prizes for his shooting , and also played cricket with skill . On 24 October 1914 , two months after the outbreak of war , Sing enlisted as a trooper in the Australian 5th Light Horse Regiment of the Australian Imperial Force . His Certificate of Medical Examination at the time showed that he stood at 5 ' 5 " ( 165 cm ) and weighed 141 lb . ( 64 kg ) . According to John Laws and Christopher Stewart , he was accepted into the army only after a recruitment officer chose to disregard the fact that Sing was part Chinese ; at the time , only those of European ancestry were generally considered suitable for Australian military service . = = Military service = = = = = Gallipoli Campaign = = = Sing began his military career as part of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) forces in the Gallipoli Campaign in modern day Turkey . Biographer John Hamilton described the Turkish terrain thus : " It is a country made for snipers . The Anzac and Turkish positions often overlooked each other . Each side sent out marksmen to hunt and stalk and snipe , to wait and shoot and kill , creeping with stealth through the green and brown shrubbery ... " Sing partnered with spotters Ion ' Jack ' Idriess and , later , Tom Sheehan . The spotter 's task was to observe ( spot ) the surrounding terrain and alert the sniper to potential targets . Idriess described Sing as " a little chap , very dark , with a jet black moustache and goatee beard . A picturesque looking mankiller . He is the crack shot of the Anzacs . " Chatham 's Post , a position named after a Light Horse officer , was Sing 's first sniping post . Biographer Brian Tate wrote , " It was here that Billy Sing began in earnest his lethal occupation . " He set about his task with a Lee – Enfield .303 rifle . An account by Private Frank Reed , a fellow Australian soldier , states that Sing was so close to the Turkish lines that enemy artillery rarely troubled him . His comrades left three particular enemy positions to his attention : a trench at 350 yards ( 320 m ) from his post , a communication sap at 500 yards ( 457 m ) , and a track in a gully at 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 914 m ) . According to Reed , " Every time Billy Sing felt sorry for the poor Turks , he remembered how their snipers picked off the Australian officers in the early days of the landing , and he hardened his heart . But he never fired at a stretcher @-@ bearer or any of the soldiers who were trying to rescue wounded Turks . " In contrast , Hamilton said in a 2008 interview , " We have an anecdote where , after spotting an injured Turk , he said ' I 'll put that poor cuss out of his agony ' and just shot him . He was a very tough man . " Sing 's reputation resulted in a champion Turkish sniper , nicknamed ' Abdul the Terrible ' by the Allied side , being assigned to deal with him . Tate alleges that the Turks were largely able to distinguish Sing 's sniping from that of other ANZAC soldiers , and that only the reports of incidents believed to be Sing 's work were passed on to Abdul . Through analysis of the victims ' actions and wounds , Abdul concluded that Sing 's position was at Chatham 's Post . After several days , Sing 's spotter alerted him to a potential target , and he took aim , only to find the target — Abdul — looking in his direction . Sing prepared to fire , trying not to reveal his position , but the Turkish sniper noticed him and began his own firing sequence . Sing fired first and killed Abdul . Very shortly thereafter , the Turkish artillery fired on Sing 's position — he and his spotter barely managed to evacuate from Chatham 's Post alive . Near the beginning of August 1915 , Sing was hospitalised for four days with influenza . That same month , an enemy sniper 's bullet struck Sheehan 's spotting telescope , injuring his hands and face , and then hit Sing 's shoulder , but the latter was back in action after a week 's recuperation . Sheehan was more severely wounded , and was shipped back to Australia . This was reportedly the only time that Sing was injured at Gallipoli . He would not fare so well later on in the war . = = = Sniping record = = = Sing 's marksmanship at Gallipoli saw him dubbed ' The Assassin ' or ' The Murderer ' by his comrades . He reportedly acquired the latter nickname due to his callous attitude towards the enemy . By early September 1915 , he had taken 119 kills , according to Brigadier @-@ General Granville Ryrie , commanding officer of the 2nd Australian Light Horse Brigade . Regimental records list Sing as having taken 150 confirmed kills , but on 23 October 1915 , General William Birdwood , commander of ANZAC forces , issued an order complimenting him on his 201 unconfirmed kills . Historian Bob Courtney noted that an official kill was recorded only if the spotter saw the target fall . If the first shot missed the target , it was very risky to take a second shot , as this could give away the sniper team 's position . Major Stephen Midgely estimated Sing 's tally at close to 300 kills . Midgely had brought him to the attention of Birdwood , who in turn had told Lord Kitchener that " if his troops could match the capacity of the Queensland sniper the allied forces would soon be in Constantinople . " Birdwood had reportedly joined Sing as his spotter on one occasion , and had the opportunity to witness his marksmanship first hand . In February 1916 , Sing was Mentioned in Despatches by General Sir Ian Hamilton , Commander of the Allied Forces . This was the first official recognition of his service . On 10 March 1916 , he was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal , with a related entry in military records reading : " For conspicuous gallantry from May to September , 1915 , at Anzac , as a sniper . His courage and skill were most marked , and he was responsible for a very large number of casualties among the enemy , no risk being too great for him to take . " Apart from the recognition he received from his superiors , Sing 's exploits were also reported in British and American newspapers of the time . = = = Western Front = = = At the end of November 1915 , Sing suffered from myalgia and was confined to the hospital ship HMHS Gloucester Castle for almost two weeks . During this time , he was conveyed to Malta , then Ismaïlia , Egypt . While in Egypt , he was also hospitalised with parotitis and mumps , but rejoined his unit at the end of March 1916 . Sing transferred to the 31st Infantry Battalion on 27 July 1916 at Tel @-@ el @-@ Kibir and sailed to England the following month . Following a brief period of training in England , he sailed for France and entered action on the Western Front in January 1917 . He was wounded in action several times , and commended many times in reports by Allied commanders . In March 1917 , he was wounded in the left leg and hospitalised in England . In May 1917 , while recovering in Scotland , he met waitress Elizabeth A. Stewart ( c . 1896 – unknown ) , who was the daughter of Royal Navy cook George Stewart . The two were married on 29 June 1917 in Edinburgh . In July 1917 , Elizabeth Sing 's address was noted in records as 6 Spring Gardens , Stockbridge , Edinburgh . After a month with his new wife , Sing returned to the trenches in France in August 1917 , but was in very poor health due to his battle wounds and the effects of gas poisoning . It is not clear whether he operated as a sniper on the Western Front , but in September 1917 , he led a unit in the Battle of Polygon Wood in counter @-@ sniper operations . For this action , he was awarded the Oorlogskruis ( Belgian Croix de Guerre ) in 1918 , and was also recommended for the Military Medal — but never received it . In November 1917 , he was confined to hospital again due to problems with his previously wounded leg . In mid @-@ February 1918 , he was hospitalised due to a gunshot wound in the back . Sing suffered lung disease from his exposure to gas , and it soon brought his military career to an end . = = Return to civilian life = = Sing returned to Australia on submarine guard duty in late July 1918 . An army medical report from 23 November 1918 noted that he had gunshot wounds in the left shoulder , back , and left leg , and had suffered gas poisoning . The report stated that his general health was ' good ' but that he complained of coughing upon exertion . It recognised that Sing 's disability were the result of service , was permanent , and recommended that he be discharged as permanently unfit for service . Following his departure from the army , he briefly turned his hand to sheep farming , but the land he was given was of poor quality . He then worked as a gold miner . According to some accounts , Sing and his wife were honoured by the local community when they arrived in Proserpine , Queensland , in late 1918 . Other accounts , however , state that although Sing arranged for passage from Scotland to Australia for his wife , there was no evidence that she made the journey . If Sing 's wife did come to Australia , it appears that she left her husband after a few years ; Tate suggests that the " transition from the green hills and ancient culture of Edinburgh to the dust and rough life of the mining district around Clermont must have been traumatic for Elizabeth Sing " and might have been a reason for her departure . Recent research has shown that Elizabeth remained in Edinburgh . She had had daughter ( Mary ) in 1919 and and a son ( Theo ) in 1924 , to different fathers ( neither of whom was Billy Sing ) . She travelled to Australia sometime between 1925 and 1930 , with her two children . She lived in New South Wales with her son 's father until her death in Wollongong in the 1970s . It is not known whether she had any contact with Billy after her arrival in Australia . = = Later life = = In later life , Sing reported chest , back , and heart pain . His final days were spent in relative poverty and obscurity . His elder sister or half @-@ sister , Mary Ann Elizabeth , had died in childbirth in 1915 . In 1942 , Sing moved from Miclere to Brisbane , telling his surviving sister Beatrice that it was cheaper to live there . His final occupation was as a labourer . Sing died alone in his room in a boarding house in West End , Brisbane , on 19 May 1943 . The cause of death was a ruptured aorta . His only significant possessions were a hut ( worth around £ 20 ) on a mining claim and a mere 5 shillings found with him in his room . There was no sign of his medals from World War I , and his employers owed him around £ 6 in wages . Sing was buried in the Lutwyche War Cemetery , in Kedron , a northern suburb of Brisbane . His grave is now part of the lawn cemetery section of the Lutwyche Cemetery , and the inscription on his headstone reads : AT REST WILLIAM EDWARD ( BILLY ) SING ( DCM ) Born Clermont Qld . 2 – 3 – 1886 — 19 – 5 – 1943 Reg . No. 355 Australian Fifth Light Horse Regiment and later the 31st Infantry Battalion Son of JOHN SING ( bn . SHANGHAI ) and MARY ANN ( nee PUGH bn . ENGLAND ) AND MARRIED FOR A TIME TO ELIZABETH ( STEWART ) IN EDINBURGH 29 – 6 – 1917 A man of all trades , Pte . Sing was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal for conspicuous gallantry , the Belgian Croux [ sic ] De Guerre and mentioned often in despatches . Serving at Gallipoli and in France from 1915 – 1918 , he became known as Australia 's most effective marksman / sniper accounting for more than 150 of the opposing forces . His incredible accuracy contributed greatly to the preservation of the lives of those with whom he served during a war always remembered for countless acts of valour and tragic carnage . = = Legacy = = The Queensland Military Historical Society set up a bronze plaque at 304 Montague Road , South Brisbane , where Sing had died . In 1995 , a statue of Sing was unveiled with honour in his home town of Clermont . In 2004 , an Australian Army sniper team in Baghdad named their post the ' Billy Sing Bar & Grill . ' On 19 May 2009 , the 66th anniversary of Sing 's death , the Chinese Consul @-@ General , Ren Gongping , along with Returned and Services League of Australia officers and community leaders , laid wreaths at his grave . Ren said , " Billy Sing is a symbol of the long history of Chinese in Australia , and the great role they have played in your nation 's past ... It also reminds us that China and Australia were allies through both world wars , and that we have a long and proud shared past . " Sing 's life was recounted in a chapter of Laws and Stewart 's book , There 's always more to the story ( 2006 ) , and in greater depth by Hamilton in his book , Gallipoli Sniper : The life of Billy Sing ( 2008 ) . Hamilton 's book includes a detailed account of how snipers worked at Gallipoli and their contribution to the progress of the campaign . Reviewer John Wadsley wrote that " Hamilton is able to bring together a range of sources to create the story , and while at times , you get the feeling he is padding it out to make up for the lack of direct material about Billy Sing , the book works . " A television mini @-@ series , The Legend of Billy Sing , was in post @-@ production as of 2010 . Despite some reports that it was based on Hamilton 's book , the author maintained that he was never contacted by the film makers . Although Sing and his father were partly Chinese and fully Chinese , respectively , the mini @-@ series portrayed them with actors of European ancestry . The director , Geoff Davis , was criticised for this decision . Politician Bill O 'Chee , a member of the Billy Sing Commemorative Committee , said , " When a person dies , all that is left is their story , and you can ’ t take a person ’ s name and not tell the truth about their story . " Davis has said , " Whatever [ Sing 's ] genetic background , his culture was Australian . To me , he 's very representative of every Australian whose parents were not born here . ... A lot of people are sitting at the back of this bus attacking the driver . A lot of people feel they own the story of Billy Sing . But they 've probably got more resources than me — if they want to tell that story , then tell it . " Hamilton characterised Sing as " a cold @-@ blooded killer ... [ yet ] a man with a sense of humour ... the Anzac angel of death , " and Laws and Stewart described him simply as " one of many Australians of Chinese descent who served with distinction in the Australian forces during World War I. " Around 400 people of Chinese descent served in Australia 's military forces during the 20th century . A memorial to Sing stands at Hood 's Lagoon , in his birthplace of Clermont , Queensland . For the 100th anniversary commemoration of the Gallipoli landings , a monument was erected to Sing in the Lutwyche Cemetery in Brisbane , near his grave stone , by the Billy Sing Memorial Committee . It was officially unveiled on the anniversary of his death .

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