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= Kashimashi : Girl Meets Girl =
Kashimashi : Girl Meets Girl ( かしまし ～ ガール ・ ミーツ ・ ガール ～ , Kashimashi ~ Gāru Mītsu Gāru ~ ) is a Japanese yuri manga series written by Satoru Akahori and illustrated by Yukimaru Katsura . The manga was originally serialized in Dengeki Daioh between the July 2004 and May 2007 issues , and later published in five bound volumes by MediaWorks from January 2005 to May 2007 . The story focuses on Hazumu Osaragi , a normal , albeit effeminate high school boy who is killed when an alien spaceship crash lands on him , only to be restored to health as a girl . This results in a same @-@ sex love triangle that Hazumu finds herself in with two of her best female friends .
A single light novel written by Mako Komao and illustrated by the manga 's artist was published by MediaWorks under their Dengeki Bunko imprint in January 2006 . The manga series was adapted into a twelve @-@ episode anime television series plus a single original video animation ( OVA ) sequel by Studio Hibari . The anime aired in Japan on TV Tokyo between January and March 2006 ; the OVA was released in October 2006 . A visual novel was created based on the series for the PlayStation 2 and was released in March 2006 . Seven Seas Entertainment licensed the manga series for English @-@ language publication in North America and released the five volumes between December 2006 and March 2008 . Media Blasters licensed the anime series , including the OVA , and released three DVD volumes between June and October 2007 with English @-@ subtitles . Media Blasters re @-@ released the anime with an English dub .
The manga has been given positive reviews by the popular anime and manga magazine Newtype USA , and at the online resources Anime News Network and IGN . The first manga volume was Newtype USA 's Book of the Month for December 2006 , and Newtype 's noted Seven Seas Entertainment 's " fan @-@ focused " translation without an effort to localize the humor for the mainstream American market . In July 2007 , Kashimashi was Seven Seas Entertainment 's best @-@ selling title . The anime has been likened to Rumiko Takahashi 's Ranma ½ , though only as far as the mutual transgender themes . Critics of the anime praised the down to earth characters , and the generally great animation quality with its soft and detailed art style .
= = Plot = =
At the start of Kashimashi , a young high school boy named Hazumu Osaragi declares his love to classmate and close friend Yasuna Kamiizumi , but she quickly rejects him . Dejected , Hazumu climbs Mt . Kashima and is killed when an alien spacecraft accidentally crash lands on him . To rectify this , the alien in the ship named Hitoshi Sora brings Hazumu back to life , but inadvertently regenerates him as a female right down to the DNA level . This change in Hazumu serves as the catalyst for the development of character interactions for the remainder of the series .
After Hazumu returns to school , Yasuna unexpectedly professes her love for Hazumu , but this serves only to confuse Hazumu as she adjusts to her new life as a girl . Yasuna , a rather feminine girl , has a unique affliction which makes her incapable of seeing males , and instead sees males as covered in a gray , hazy blur . Hazumu 's childhood friend Tomari Kurusu , an athletic girl and tomboy , finds Hazumu 's change difficult to cope with . Tomari starts to realize her own romantic feelings for Hazumu as Yasuna starts becoming closer to Hazumu , especially after Tomari witnesses Hazumu and Yasuna kissing one day after school . A conflict arises between Yasuna and Tomari who fight for Hazumu 's affection while she is unable to choose between them . This results in a love triangle emerging between the three female main characters . Hazumu 's best male friend Asuta Soro also starts having romantic feelings for Hazumu , but tries his best to repress them . Tomari 's good friend Ayuki Mari , an intelligent girl interested in the sciences , continuously observes the ongoing development of the love triangle while keeping a stance of watching from afar .
The very stoic Hitoshi originally came to Earth in order to study human emotions , especially those related to love , in an attempt to save his species from extinction . His species has long @-@ since given up their emotions resulting in a loss of their sexual urges and thus a continuously dwindling population . Hitoshi moves into Hazumu 's home where he is warmly welcomed by Hazumu 's parents . He brings with him an artificially intelligent gynoid named Jan Pu which serves as the automatic pilot for his spaceship . Jan Pu 's body is modeled after Hazumu 's own female body , and possesses an energetic and childish personality .
While initially citing Hazumu 's change as an accident , Hitoshi later realizes this was an unexpected result of the regeneration process . By the time Hitoshi becomes aware of his mistake , he tells Hazumu and her friends she has only one month left to live . Hitoshi explains to Hazumu 's friends how someone very close to Hazumu has to donate " life grains " to Hazumu to sustain her life . While unaware her friends know about her impending death , Hazumu continues to live her life and comes to fully accept her fate . The day Hazumu is appointed to die , she falls off the school 's roof and Tomari jumps off the roof in an attempt to save her . While in mid @-@ air , Hitoshi interferes by transferring the necessary " life grains " to Hazumu , and both survive the fall . When they later wake up in the infirmary , Hazumu confesses her love to Tomari , effectively choosing her over Yasuna .
The anime ends differently , with no life @-@ threatening situation and Hazumu choosing Yasuna in order to help cure her worsening sight problem as it begins to degrade so she can no longer see girls as well . Afterwards however , Yasuna , who becomes able to see all people again , decides to break up with Hazumu , saying she can stand on her own , and in the follow @-@ up original video animation episode , Hazumu confesses her love to Tomari on Christmas and the two get married in a ceremony held by Hitoshi .
= = Production = =
When it was decided that Kashimashi : Girl Meets Girl would begin serialization in MediaWorks ' manga magazine Dengeki Daioh , Satoru Akahori wondered what kind of a message he could send to the readers , and eventually decided he wanted to write a steady message of " true love " . Akahori noted that up to the creation of Kashimashi , the works that he created were far apart from the concept of true love , and much of his previous work involved a lot of ecchi content which Akahori was attempting to avoid in Kashimashi . He wondered if the story would be interesting , and if he could surprise normal readers and fans of his previous works , if he wrote a true love story without much ecchi or fan service .
When thinking on how to write about true love , Akahori considered laughingly that in normal relationships between boys and girls , it eventually tends towards having sex . In order to avoid this , he chose to have a cast of female main characters , but he felt that audiences have experienced this before and that it thus would not be enough . This is when he thought up the idea of changing the main character from a boy to a girl . Akahori knew this would be a problem , since normally changing a person 's gender would cause complications , one of them being that the now @-@ female character would invariably want to return to being male . He knew that there were a few problems that could not be avoided , but he wanted to remove the desire to turn back into a male . For this reason , Akahori devised that the character would not want to turn back into a male if there was the impact of the entire world already having accepted the fact that his gender had changed . To do this , Akahori decided to have the alien who crashed into the character to not only revive the character as a female , but to broadcast this over the entire world , which is what happens at the beginning of Kashimashi . Afterwards , Akahori felt it necessary to expand on the alien 's role in the story . At this point in the development process , Akahori felt he could now begin writing the story .
The title Kashimashi loosely translates as " noisy , boisterous , or clamorous " and is derived from the Japanese phrase , " When three women gather , it is noisy " ( 女三人寄れば姦しい , Onna sannin yoreba kashimashii ) . The main title was originally romanized as Kasimasi in accordance with Kunrei @-@ shiki romanization , but this was later changed in the English adaptations to Kashimashi in accordance with Hepburn romanization .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
The Kashimashi manga is written by Satoru Akahori and illustrated by Yukimaru Katsura . The original character designs were created by Sukune Inugami and the school uniform was designed by the company Cospa . It was serialized between the July 2004 and May 2007 issues of the monthly manga magazine Dengeki Daioh , sold between May 21 , 2004 and March 21 , 2007 , respectively . Five bound volumes were released in Japan between January 27 , 2005 and May 26 , 2007 published under MediaWorks ' Dengeki Comics imprint , concluding the series at thirty @-@ five chapters .
The manga was licensed for an English @-@ language release in North America by Seven Seas Entertainment using the revised Hepburn romanization of the title , Kashimashi , unlike the traditional name of Kasimasi . The first volume was released on December 25 , 2006 , with volumes released every three to four months until the fifth volume was published on March 18 , 2008 . Seven Seas re @-@ released the manga in a two @-@ volume omnibus collection of roughly 500 pages each ; volume one was published in June 2009 , followed by volume two in December 2009 . The series is also licensed in French by Ki @-@ oon and in Chinese in Taiwan by Kadokawa Media .
= = = Internet radio shows = = =
There have been two Internet radio shows for the Kashimashi series . The first show , entitled Kana , Yui , Yukari 's Kashima Radio ( 佳奈 ・ 由衣 ・ ゆかりのかしましらじお , Kana , Yui , Yukari no Kashima Radio ) , was produced by Beat Net Radio beginning with a pre @-@ broadcast on September 30 , 2005 , and concluding on October 27 , 2006 with fifty @-@ six episodes . As implied in the title , the show was hosted by Kana Ueda , Yui Horie , and Yukari Tamura , who voiced Hazumu , Yasuna , and Tomari in the anime , respectively . Multiple guests appeared on the show such as Yūmao , who sung the anime 's ending theme " Michishirube " , or other voice actors from the anime such as Ryōko Shintani , who voiced Jan Pu , and Daisuke Ono , who voiced Asuta . The radio show 's opening theme song was " Compass : Egao no Yukue " sung by Ueda , Horie , and Tamura . Listeners could submit contributions to the radio show via a form online . An audio CD containing the episodes between broadcast September 2005 and early 2006 went on sale on May 24 , 2006 .
The second Internet radio show , entitled Masumi Ryōko 's Kashima Radio PC ( 真澄 ♥ 良子のかしましらじおPC , Masumi Ryōko no Kashima Radio PC ) , was also produced by Beat Net Radio , but was only available via podcasts on Bandai Visual Podcast . This show was one of only two radio programs ever distributed on Bandai Visual Podcast . The show was broadcast between December 22 , 2005 and April 27 , 2006 , concluding with ten episodes , and was hosted by Masumi Asano and Ryōko Shintani ; Asano voice Ayuki in the anime .
= = = Books = = =
A Kashimashi light novel , written by Mako Komao and illustrated by Yukimaru Katsura , was published by MediaWorks under their Dengeki Bunko imprint on January 10 , 2006 . The novel is told from a first person perspective alternating between Hazumu , Yasuna , and Tomari between chapters . There is a prologue , four chapters , and an epilogue in the novel ; the prologue and the first chapter are told from Hazumu 's perspective , then Yasuna 's for chapter two , followed by Tomari 's for chapter three , and finally back to Hazumu for chapter four and the epilogue . The last three pages of the book contain an afterword written by the author .
A 112 @-@ page artbook entitled Kashimashi Official Fan Book ( かしまし公式ファンブック , Kashimashi Kōshiki Fan Bukku ) was released by MediaWorks on March 27 , 2006 . The book , which is the same size as a manga bound volume , is printed in full @-@ color for the first forty @-@ eight pages which consists of a compilation of promotional art from the separate media types , character profiles with original sketches and comments on the characters , plus interviews from the voice actors of Hazumu , Yasuna , Tomari , Ayuki , and Jan Pu , and lastly original concept drawings of the school uniforms in the series . The middle of the book , which is printed in black @-@ and @-@ white , contains a brief overview of the first twenty @-@ one chapters of the manga , and interviews from the manga author and illustrator , anime director and scenario writer , and the light novel author . There is also a brief explanation of the PlayStation 2 visual novel , of two figurines of Hazumu , and of three audio CDs for the anime version . The last sixteen pages are again in full @-@ color and consist of the anime 's first episode in manga format .
= = = Anime = = =
The anime series of Kashimashi was produced by Studio Hibari and directed by Nobuaki Nakanishi . The series aired on TV Tokyo in Japan from January 11 to March 29 , 2006 , ending with twelve regular episodes . The episodes were released on seven DVD compilations released between April 26 and October 27 , 2006 , each containing two episodes . An original video animation ( OVA ) episode was released with the final DVD which changed the ending from the original television broadcast . There was a small additional portion during the bra shopping scene in episode two that was considered adult enough to be censored out of the television broadcast , but which was included in the DVD release . Bandai Visual released a DVD box set of Kashimashi in Japan on June 25 , 2010 .
The anime series was licensed by Media Blasters in November 2006 . The episodes were not dubbed into English , but still included subtitles in English . The first DVD went on sale on June 12 , 2007 and contained the first five episodes . Extras on the disc included two ten @-@ minute talks between the voice actresses for the three main female characters , a small collection of Japanese television advertisements , and textless opening videos . The second DVD went on sale on August 21 , 2007 , and the third and final DVD went on sale on October 23 , 2007 ; the last two DVDs contain four episodes each , including the OVA episode . A box @-@ set containing all three DVDs was released on October 14 , 2008 . The first episode of the series was included with the June 2007 issue of Newtype USA . A re @-@ release titled Kashimashi : Girl Meet Girl Vocal Collection was released on April 26 , 2011 with an English dub .
= = = Audio CDs = = =
The anime opening theme , " Koisuru Kokoro " by Eufonius , and main ending theme , " Michishirube " by Yūmao , were both released on January 25 , 2006 in Japan by Lantis . The anime used four alternate versions of the ending theme sung by four of the voice actors . In episode eight , it was sung by Masumi Asano , in episode nine by Kana Ueda as Hazumu , in episode ten by Yui Horie as Yasuna , and in episode eleven by Yukari Tamura as Tomari . The opening theme " Koisuru Kokoro " was used as the ending theme for the first episode while the song " Kimi no Tame ni Dekiru Koto " ( キミのためにできること , lit . " Something I Can Do For You " ) by Yūmao was used as the ending theme in the twelfth episode .
Three insert songs sung by the voice actors were used in three of the episodes . In episode seven , the song " Hanaemi to Kasumisō " sung by Ueda was used , while in episode nine the song " Compass : Egao no Yukue " sung by Ueda , Horie , and Tamura was used ; these two songs were from the " Compass : Egao no Yukue " image song single released on December 21 , 2005 . The last insert song , " Hanbun " ( 半分 , lit . " Half " ) sung by Tamura , was used in episode twelve and was featured in the image song album Norte Amour released on April 5 , 2006 . The album also featured other songs by Ueda , Horie , Tamura , Asano , and Ryōko Shintani , who voiced Jan Pu . The Kashimashi Original Soundtrack for the anime version was released on April 26 , 2006 by Lantis .
Finally , a drama CD based on the anime version was released on May 18 , 2006 featuring ten voice actors from the anime . The plot for the drama CD takes place between final aired episode of the anime and the original video animation episode .
= = = Visual novel = = =
A visual novel video game based on the series named Kashimashi : Girl Meets Girl The First Summer Story ( かしまし ～ ガール ・ ミーツ ・ ガール ～ 初めての夏物語 , Kasimasi ~ Gāru Mītsu Gāru ~ Hajimete no Natsu Monogatari ) was first released on the PlayStation 2 on March 30 , 2006 in Japan . The game was developed by Vridge , published by Marvelous Interactive , and released in two editions , limited and regular , on the same day . The limited edition came in a specially made box with an original drama CD called " Kashimashi Triangle Letter " , and a music CD featuring songs from the game in piano arrange versions . The game was later re @-@ released in a Best Collection edition on November 16 , 2006 , which sold at less than half the price of the original game . Kashimashi : Girl Meets Girl The First Summer Story received a total review score of 26 / 40 ( out of the four individual review scores of 7 , 6 , 7 , and 6 ) from the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu .
The game 's story begins on the outset of summer vacation . Hazumu 's homeroom teacher Namiko Tsuki suggests Hazumu and her friends take a one @-@ week trip to a small mountain village with a hot spring resort . Hazumu 's grandparents reside in this town , and are two new characters introduced to the story . Three other female characters are introduced as possible love interests for Hazumu ; two are the same age as her , and the third is the older landlady of the resort . The goal of the game is to pair Hazumu up with one of the five female cast of characters . The gameplay 's main system comes from Hazumu 's indecisive personality . If the player shows more interest in a particular character , the other characters get annoyed that Hazumu is ignoring them , which is displayed in a tension meter . The more Hazumu ignores a particular character , the higher the tension between that character becomes . This ensures Hazumu stays good friends with the possible love interests . In order to view the ending of a particular character , a certain amount of tension will have to be between the other characters , but this cannot be too great or the ending will not show .
The gameplay requires little interaction from the player as most of the duration of the game is spent simply reading the text that appears on the game screen which represents either dialogue between the various characters or the inner thoughts of the protagonist . An important aspect of the game ( as in nearly every visual novel ) are the " decision points " which appear every so often which give the player the chance to choose from a limited number of options . The time between these decision points is variable and can occur anywhere from a minute to much longer . The game pauses at such moments and depending on which choice the player makes , the plot will progress in a specific direction . Each plot line can be achieved through multiple replays .
= = Reception = =
= = = Manga = = =
In July 2007 , the English version of Kashimashi was Seven Seas Entertainment 's best @-@ selling title . The first volume of the manga was given positive reviews from such sources as Newtype USA , a popular anime and manga magazine . The first volume was named as Newtype USA 's Book of the Month for December 2006 , and the review noted Seven Seas Entertainment 's " fan @-@ focused " translation , which retained the honorifics and much of the Japanese wordplay without efforts to localize the humor for the mainstream American market . The review goes on to state that " for fans of more mainstream romantic productions , it 's a neat twist on the traditional love @-@ triangle formula , and a charming alternative to boys meeting girls . " In a review at Anime News Network ( ANN ) , Carlo Santos commented that " the fast @-@ moving events of this first volume combine to form a story of many moods : a gender @-@ bending comedy , but with sci @-@ fi touches , and most of all , a romance more touching than one might expect . The time has come to rethink the love triangle . " In a review at IGN , A. E. Sparrow stated " there 's plenty to enjoy in the first book , however . Hazumu attempting to buy his first bra is pretty humorous , as are the occasional visits from the aliens who put him in this situation in the first place . "
The second volume of the manga was positively reviewed at Anime News Network by Theron Martin , who wrote : " With its second volume the title pushes fully into the realm of romantic comedy , liberally sprinkling its story with humorous asides , pratfalls , and anecdotes while still dealing head @-@ on with the much more serious and involved love triangle springing up around Hazumu . For all its attempts to be funny , though , it is the story 's more dramatic side that will keep you coming back . " In ANN 's review of manga volume three , Theron Martin wrote , " The artistry of Yukimaru Katsura rarely devotes more effort to backgrounds than necessary , but its strength has always lain in the character designs and costuming . The array of the female cast provides a great contrast of looks [ but ] ... the male characters , though easily distinguishable , stand out less . " In ANN 's double review of manga volumes four and five , Martin commented , " these volumes offer a solid conclusion to this lovely little yuri series . It does handle things rather differently than in the anime version , and those irritated by the anime 's ending should find this one more to their liking . "
The first manga volume was generally panned by Deb Aoki at About.com where she felt the characters were " too flat and uninteresting " , and the story being " too far @-@ fetched " and " ridiculous " to make a good story . However , Aoki admitted the art is " quite nice , and there are some moments of genuine tenderness and humor . " In a review of the first manga volume by Matthew Alexander at Mania.com , he thought that while " stories with love triangles or gender @-@ switching protagonists have been done before ... Hazumu 's change into a girl explores romance between people of the same sex in an interesting and comedic way . "
= = = Anime = = =
The anime series has been compared with a similar series that involved gender swapping — Rumiko Takahashi 's Ranma ½ . In a review at T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews , the reviewer wrote , " [ the anime is ] rather aggravating to watch at times , but seems to have no problem raising smiles whenever it wants to , either . The characters , as they are , bring much of the believability of the show , despite the alien elements . It 's very much down to earth and pleasant to look at , if nothing else . The rather soft and detailed art style does help , of course , as does the generally great animation quality . " The conclusion of the anime was positively reviewed by Erica Friedman , who is the president of Yuricon , an anime convention geared towards fans of yuri anime and manga , and ALC Publishing , a publishing house dedicated to yuri . Friedman described the anime 's conclusion as " so normal - so much like a thing that might have actually happened in real life ... that it kind of just went under the radar . So - after all these years of watching crappy unresolved restart endings we FINALLY get a real ending and it 's a yuri ending where the girl remains a girl and get [ s ] the girl and ... thud . Nothing . " The anime was given an overall score of 7 / 10 by Friedman .
The three DVD volumes released by Media Blasters were reviewed by Anime News Network . In the review of the first DVD , the reviewer commented , " The series ' skillful juggling of different characters ' viewpoints puts the audience in a position to sympathize strongly with each one . Director Nobuaki Nakanishi guides the emotional content with a light , gentle touch — wisely forgoing extensive internal monologues , speeches , and emotional outbursts . Instead , he draws you in with soft , effortlessly evocative visuals and a simple , beautifully understated score , relying on subtly shifting facial expressions and meaning @-@ laden actions to communicate the quietly affecting emotional states of his characters . " For the second DVD volume , Theron Martin commented , " Every element of the production , from the style of the artistry to the palette of colors used to the soundtrack , contributes wonderfully to the look and feel of the original story , and the anime script not only exactly duplicates many scenes from the manga but also does everything in its power to stay true to the spirit of the original writing . " Finally , for the third volume , Carl Kimlinger wrote " ... the writers make an ill @-@ advised attempt to remove the " bitter " from " bittersweet " by tacking on some decidedly unconvincing plot developments [ in the OVA , although ] ... it isn 't as awful as it could have been . The third volume of Kashimashi ... creat [ es ] a deeply satisfying conclusion with all of the vicarious emotional thrills you could possibly want . "
The three DVD volumes released by Media Blasters were also reviewed by Mania.com. In the review of the first DVD , the reviewer Chris Beveridge described the anime as " something different from the norm " which " mixes romance and comedy quite well " . However , the pacing early on is felt as being " awkward " which " takes time to really find its rhythm " . For the second DVD volume , Beveridge commented that " the mixing of the relationships continues to be the most interesting part of the show . " Beveridge goes on to state " the mild moments of it are tacky and bad , " but " when it comes to the core cast of characters , it 's all solid material that is very enjoyable . " Finally , for the third volume , Beveridge wrote that " despite the issues with how the series turns in the bonus OVA episode , Kashimashi has proven to be quite a lot of fun for the situations it presented . " The series is seen to " close out rather well , " and " not only is it good fun but it 's also an enjoyable romantic show with lots of heart and emotion . "
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= Priestfield Stadium =
Priestfield Stadium ( popularly known simply as Priestfield and officially known from 2007 to 2010 as KRBS Priestfield Stadium and from 2011 as MEMS Priestfield Stadium for sponsorship purposes ) is a football stadium in Gillingham , Kent . It has been the home of Gillingham Football Club since the club 's formation in 1893 , and was also the temporary home of Brighton & Hove Albion Football Club for two seasons during the 1990s . The stadium has also hosted women 's and youth international matches and from 2013 onwards will play host to London Broncos rugby league matches .
The stadium underwent extensive redevelopment during the late 1990s , which has brought its capacity down from nearly 20 @,@ 000 to a current figure of 11 @,@ 582 . It has four all @-@ seater stands , all constructed since 1997 , although one is only of a temporary nature . There are also conference and banqueting facilities and a nightspot named the Blues Rock Café . Despite having invested heavily in its current stadium , Gillingham F.C. has plans to relocate to a new stadium .
= = History = =
New Brompton Football Club , the forerunner of Gillingham Football Club , formed in June 1893 . At the same time an area of land in Gillingham was acquired by the club 's founders , the purchase being funded through an issue of 1 @,@ 500 £ 1 shares . Sources differ on whether the stadium was named after the road on which the land stood , Priestfield Road , or whether the road was named after the stadium , although until 1947 the stadium itself was officially named Priestfield Road . A pitch was laid and a pavilion erected , and the first matches at Priestfield were staged on 2 September 1893 . New Brompton 's reserve team played Grays , followed immediately by the first match for the club 's first team , against Woolwich Arsenal 's reserves . The admission charge for the two matches was 3d . A newspaper report on the matches noted that the club had recently purchased an additional acre and three @-@ quarters of ground and had accepted a contract for the construction of a stand containing 500 seats . Most spectators stood on terracing , banked earth , or simply along the perimeter of the pitch , as was the case at most football grounds at the time . In order to raise funds to assist with the running of the football club , New Brompton allowed the ground to be used for other events , such as smoking concerts , fêtes , athletics meetings and a ladies ' football match . Sheep were allowed to graze on the pitch during the week , a common practice at many grounds at that time . In 1899 , a second stand was added along part of the Gordon Road side of the ground , reportedly built by off @-@ duty dock workers in exchange for beer and cigarettes .
By 1908 , the total number of seats had been increased to 800 and terracing added at the Rainham end of the ground . In 1912 , the club 's first Supporters ' Association was formed , its initial project being to raise the necessary funds to construct terracing at the opposite end of the ground . Two years later the club , which had changed its name to Gillingham F.C. in 1913 , secured a bank loan of £ 1 @,@ 570 which was used to build a new grandstand , but just a month after it was completed the stand was severely damaged by high winds , which ripped off the roof and twisted most of the ironwork . The club sued the contractors , but it took a further three months for the damage to be repaired .
A new attendance record was set in 1924 when an FA Cup match against First Division leaders Cardiff City drew a crowd of 19 @,@ 472 . This record stood until 1948 , when 23 @,@ 002 fans watched Gillingham take on Queens Park Rangers in the FA Cup , with many more turned away . In the same year the club , which had lost its place in the Football League ten years earlier after failing to gain re @-@ election , produced a glossy brochure as part of its bid to be elected back into the league . The facilities at Priestfield were highlighted as one of the club 's strengths in the brochure , which listed the ground 's capacity as " between 25 @,@ 000 and 30 @,@ 000 " but stated that plans had been drawn up to increase the capacity to 50 @,@ 000 , with 5 @,@ 000 seats .
The ground underwent its most extensive redevelopment to date in 1955 , at a total cost of £ 28 @,@ 500 . The previously sloping pitch was levelled , the terracing that occupied part of the Gordon Road side of the ground replaced , and new covered accommodation , known as the Stanley Stand , erected between the Rainham End and Gordon Road Stand . The first floodlights were erected in 1963 , at a cost of over £ 14 @,@ 000 , but this was to be the last significant development work at Priestfield for over thirty years . By the early 1980s the capacity of the ground was listed as 22 @,@ 000 , although this was reduced to 19 @,@ 000 when the Gordon Road Stand was closed for safety reasons . In 1987 , a clock was erected at the corner of the Rainham End and the Stanley Stand , dubbed the Lord Sondes Clock in honour of Henry Milles @-@ Lade , 5th Earl Sondes , a member of the club 's board of directors . The clock was removed during later stadium redevelopment work and its current whereabouts are unknown .
New owner Paul Scally took over at the club in 1995 and soon instigated a programme of redevelopment which completely transformed the formerly run @-@ down ground . The closed stand was replaced with a new Gordon Road Stand in 1997 at a cost of more than £ 2 million . Two years later the Rainham End terracing was replaced with a new all @-@ seater stand , with the sports centre behind it demolished and replaced with a car park .
The main stand on the northern side of the pitch was demolished in 1999 , along with a section of away terracing , to be replaced with a new state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art facility dubbed the Medway Stand , but the work was beset by problems . Due to serious delays with the building of the new stand , the club was forced to spend most of the subsequent season first with that side of the ground completely empty , then later with building work ongoing . Supporters were not able to sit in the new stand until the latter stages of the 1999 – 2000 season , and even then many of the facilities had not been finished . The stand also caused severe financial problems for the club , as its facilities eventually cost significantly more than the original estimate .
The fourth side of the ground was redeveloped in 2003 when the Town End terracing was removed and a temporary stand put in its place , named after the late football commentator and Gillingham supporter Brian Moore . It was hoped that work would begin on a permanent Brian Moore Stand in 2004 , but due to talk of relocating the club to a new ground and the club 's current financial problems , this has been put on hold .
On 1 June 2007 , the stadium was officially renamed KRBS Priestfield Stadium as part of a sponsorship deal that lasted three years with the Kent Reliance Building Society . In 2011 another such deal led to the rebranding of the stadium as MEMS Priestfield Stadium .
= = Structure and facilities = =
The pitch is surrounded by four all @-@ seater stands – the Medway Stand , the Rainham End , the Gordon Road Stand and the Brian Moore Stand . All are covered with the exception of the Brian Moore Stand . The Medway Stand , which replaced the old Main Stand and part of the terracing at each end , is the largest and northernmost of the four . It has two tiers with a row of twenty executive boxes between the top and bottom tier . The stand also contains the changing rooms , physiotherapy facilities , club offices and club shop . The Rainham End , located behind the goal at the eastern end of the pitch , opened in 1999 and houses 2 @,@ 400 fans . This stand , like the terrace it replaced , is known for housing the club 's most vocal supporters . The Gordon Road Stand , which seats 2 @,@ 600 , was opened in 1997 and is opposite the Medway Stand . Due to planning requirements , the stand had a height restriction placed upon it , making it significantly lower than the other three sides of the ground , and due to the road layout behind it is narrower at one end than the other . A gantry for television cameras is located on the roof of this stand .
Opposite the Rainham End is the Brian Moore Stand . This stand is a temporary one , and accommodates visiting supporters . It occupies the site of the former Town End terracing , which was unusual in that it had a pronounced slope , with one end of the terracing being higher up than the other . In 1955 the pitch , which previously sloped at that end of the stadium , was levelled out but the gradient of the Town End was left unchanged .
The state of the stadium 's pitch caused the club severe problems in 2003 . A number of fixtures had to be postponed due to the state of the pitch , which was described as resembling a ploughed field , and the surface had to be heavily sanded before an FA Cup match against Leeds United . At the end of the season , taking advantage of the demolition of the old Town End , which allowed better access to the pitch , the club had the drainage system replaced and a completely new pitch laid .
Added to the new stands were several new developments . The Conference and Banqueting Centre , which is located behind the Rainham End , comprises the Great Hall , which can accommodate up to 600 delegates for events , and twenty smaller delegate rooms . The Centre is connected to the Medway Stand , thus allowing views from the banqueting suite onto the pitch , and is also licensed for wedding ceremonies . The Blues Rock Café nightspot , located within the Medway Stand , is open between four and five nights a week and stages live music and screenings of major sporting events . The club purchased many of the fixtures and fittings for these new developments at discounted prices when the furnishings of the Millennium Dome were sold off upon its closure .
Despite the stadium 's new facilities , Priestfield is still viewed in a negative light in some circles . In 2004 , it was voted the worst football ground in England by a poll in the Observer newspaper , although most of the comments made in the poll concerned the town of Gillingham itself , rather than the actual stadium as a building .
= = Future = =
Gillingham chairman Paul Scally has made it clear that he intends to relocate the club away from its current stadium , announcing in September 2003 that " there is no future for the club at the Priestfield " . In 2004 , the club outlined plans for a new stadium at Cuxton but abandoned them soon afterwards due to the cost of improving transport links to the site . At the time Scally stated that he anticipated the club moving within four years , but by 2007 the proposed date had been pushed back to 2010 .
Despite the proposed move , the club promoted its facilities , in conjunction with Medway Council , as a possible training base for athletes competing in the 2012 Summer Olympics , saying :
In December 2007 , Gillingham shareholders passed a resolution to sell the ground to Priestfield Developments Ltd , a company wholly owned by Paul Scally , for £ 9.8m as part of a restructuring of the club 's debts . The deal was to allow three years use of the stadium at £ 1 p.a. , with the club meeting running costs , with tenure secured for a further seven years at a rent as yet unspecified . In 2011 , however , the club purchased the stadium back for around 10 % of the fee paid by Priestfield Developments .
= = Other uses = =
In April 2006 , the ground hosted the England women 's team 's World Cup Qualifier against Austria , achieving a gate of 8 @,@ 068 ( a higher attendance than Gillingham 's average home gate for the 2005 – 06 season ) . Priestfield has also been the venue for home matches for the England youth team , including a November 2007 match against their counterparts from Ghana .
The stadium has also occasionally been the " home " of clubs other than Gillingham . In 1895 , Woolwich Arsenal played a Second Division home game against Burton Swifts at Priestfield after their own Manor Ground had been closed by the Football League for five weeks after crowd trouble at a match there earlier that year . Over a century later , during the 1997 – 98 and 1998 – 99 seasons Brighton & Hove Albion played their home matches at Priestfield , as they had entered a ground @-@ share agreement with Gillingham as a result of the sale of their Goldstone Ground to property developers . The move , undertaken by the club after a plan to groundshare with nearby Portsmouth fell through , was a controversial one for Brighton 's fans , who faced a 150 @-@ mile ( 240 km ) round trip to each home game . The two clubs subsequently became embroiled in a dispute over the charges levied by Gillingham for the hire of the ground , which was eventually settled out of court in 2001 . In May 2012 the London Broncos hosted a rugby league match at the stadium , the first Super League match to be staged in Kent , and the club later announced the possibility of making Priestfield their permanent home venue with effect from 2013 , although this did not occur .
The social and catering facilities are used for a range of business and entertainment events , and the premises is licensed for marriages . The pitch area and the Gordon Road Stand were used for a Christian outreach festival in May 2000 .
= = Records = =
The highest attendance recorded at Priestfield was 23 @,@ 002 for a match against Queens Park Rangers in the FA Cup 3rd round on 10 January 1948 . The highest Football League attendance was 20 @,@ 128 against Millwall in the Third Division South on 2 September 1950 . The record modern ( all @-@ seated ) attendance is 11 @,@ 418 , set on 20 September 2003 against West Ham United in the First Division .
The highest seasonal average attendance for league matches at Priestfield since Gillingham returned to the Football League in 1950 was 12 @,@ 576 in the 1951 – 52 season . Gillingham 's lowest seasonal average was 2 @,@ 979 in the 1994 – 95 season , although Brighton recorded a lower figure of 2 @,@ 328 in the 1997 – 98 season .
= = Transport = =
The stadium is approximately 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 1 km ) from Gillingham railway station , which lies on Southeastern 's Chatham Main Line from London Victoria to Dover Priory and Ramsgate . The station is also the southern terminus of the North Kent Line , which connects to London Charing Cross . The stadium has no parking facilities for supporters , and the streets around the ground are subject to a residents @-@ only permit parking scheme on match days , which means that supporters have to park a considerable distance away from the ground . For the 2007 – 08 season the club introduced a park and ride scheme whereby supporters leave their cars in a car park approximately one mile from the ground and are transported to the stadium by taxi . Chairman Paul Scally has cited the lack of parking as one of the main reasons why a new stadium is essential .
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= History of the Song dynasty =
The Song dynasty ( Chinese : 宋朝 ; pinyin : Sòng cháo ; 960 – 1279 ) of China was a ruling dynasty that controlled China proper and southern China from the middle of the 10th century into the last quarter of the 13th century . The Song is considered a high point of classical Chinese innovation in science and technology , an era that featured prominent intellectual figures such as Shen Kuo and Su Song and the revolutionary use of gunpowder weapons ( catapult @-@ projected bombs , fire lances , flamethrowers , and land mines ) . However , it was also a period of political and military turmoil , with opposing and often aggressive political factions formed at court , which impeded progress in many ways . The frontier management policies of the Chancellor Wang Anshi exacerbated hostile conditions along the Chinese @-@ Vietnamese border , sparking a border war with the Lý dynasty . Although this conflict was fought to a mutual draw , there was subsequently an enormous military defeat at the hands of invading Jurchens from the north in 1127 during the Jin – Song wars , forcing the remnants of the Song court to flee south from Kaifeng and establish a new capital at Hangzhou . It was there that new naval strength was developed to combat the Jurchen 's Jin dynasty formed in the north . Although the Song dynasty was able to defeat further Jurchen invasions , the Mongols led by Genghis Khan , Ögedei Khan , Möngke Khan , and finally Kublai Khan gradually conquered China , until the fall of the final Song Emperor in 1279 .
= = Founding of the Song = =
The Later Zhou was the last of the Five Dynasties that had controlled northern China after the fall of the Tang dynasty in 907 . Zhao Kuangyin , later known as Emperor Taizu ( r . 960 – 976 ) , usurped the throne from the Zhou with the support of military commanders in 960 , initiating the Song dynasty . Upon taking the throne , his first goal was the reunification of China after half a century of political division . This included the conquests of Nanping , Wu @-@ Yue , Southern Han , Later Shu , and Southern Tang in the south as well as the Northern Han and the Sixteen Prefectures in the north . With capable military officers such as Yang Ye ( d . 986 ) , Liu Tingrang ( 929 – 987 ) , Cao Bin ( 931 – 999 ) and Huyan Zan ( d . 1000 ) , the early Song military became the dominant force in China . Innovative military tactics , such as defending supply lines across floating pontoon bridges led to success in battle such as the Song assault against the Southern Tang state while crossing the Yangzi River in 974 . Using a mass of arrow fire from crossbowmen , Song forces were able to defeat the renowned war elephant corps of the Southern Han on January 23 , 971 , thus forcing the submission of Southern Han and terminating the first and last elephant corps that would make up a regular division within a Chinese army .
Consolidation in the south was completed in 978 , with the conquest of Wu @-@ Yue . Song military forces then turned north against the Northern Han , which fell to Song forces in 979 . However , efforts to take the Sixteen Prefectures were unsuccessful and they were incorporated into the Liao state based in Manchuria to the immediate north instead . To the far northwest , the Tanguts had been in power over northern Shaanxi since 881 , after the earlier Tang court appointed a Tangut chief as a military governor ( jiedushi ) over the region , a seat that became hereditary ( forming the Xi @-@ Xia dynasty ) . Although the Song state was evenly matched against the Liao dynasty , the Song gained significant military victories against the Western Xia ( who would eventually fall to the Mongol conquest of Genghis Khan in 1227 ) .
After political consolidation through military conquest , Emperor Taizu held a famous banquet inviting many of the high @-@ ranking military officers that had served him in Song 's various conquests . As his military officers drank wine and feasted with Taizu , he spoke to them about the potential of a military coup against him like those of Five Dynasties era . His military officers protested against this notion , and insisted that none were as qualified as him to lead the country . The passage of this account in the Song Shi follows as such :
The emperor said , ' The life of man is short . Happiness is to have the wealth and means to enjoy life , and then to be able to leave the same prosperity to one 's descendents . If you , my officers , will renounce your military authority , retire to the provinces , and choose there the best lands and the most delightful dwelling @-@ places , there to pass the rest of your lives in pleasure and peace ... would this not be better than to live a life of peril and uncertainty ? So that no shadow of suspicion shall remain between prince and ministers , we will ally our families with marriages , and thus , ruler and subject linked in friendship and amity , we will enjoy tranquility ' ... The following day , the army commanders all offered their resignations , reporting ( imaginary ) maladies , and withdrew to the country districts , where the emperor , giving them splendid gifts , appointed them to high official positions .
Emperor Taizu developed an effective centralized bureaucracy staffed with civilian scholar @-@ officials and regional military governors and their supporters were replaced by centrally appointed officials . This system of civilian rule led to a greater concentration of power in the central government headed by the emperor than had been possible during the previous dynasties . In the early 11th century , there were some 30 @,@ 000 men who took the prefectural exams per year ( see imperial examination ) , which steadily increased to roughly 80 @,@ 000 by the end of the century , and to 400 @,@ 000 exam takers during the 13th century . Although new municipal governments were often established , the same number of prefectures and provinces were in existence as before the Song came to power . Thus although more people were taking exams , roughly the same number were being accepted into the government as in previous periods , making the civil service exams very competitive amongst aspiring students and scholars .
Emperor Taizu also found other ways to consolidate and strengthen his power , including updated map @-@ making ( cartography ) so that his central administration could easily discern how to handle affairs in the provinces . In 971 , he ordered Lu Duosun to update and ' re @-@ write all the Tu Jing [ maps ] in the world ' ; a daunting task for one individual . Nonetheless , he traveled throughout the provinces to collect illustrative gazetteers and as much data as possible . With the aid of Song Zhun , the massive work was completed in 1010 , with some 1566 chapters . The later Song Shi historical text stated ( Wade – Giles spelling ) :
Yuan Hsieh ( d . + 1220 ) was Director @-@ General of governmental grain stores . In pursuance of his schemes for the relief of famines he issued orders that each pao ( village ) should prepare a map which would show the fields and mountains , the rivers and the roads in fullest detail . The maps of all the pao were joined together to make a map of the tu ( larger district ) , and these in turn were joined with others to make a map of the hsiang and the hsien ( still larger districts ) . If there was any trouble about the collection of taxes or the distribution of grain , or if the question of chasing robbers and bandits arose , the provincial officials could readily carry out their duties by the aid of the maps .
Taizu also displayed a strong interest in science and technology . He employed the Imperial Workshop to support such projects as Zhang Sixun 's hydraulic @-@ powered armillary sphere ( for astronomical observation and time @-@ keeping ) that used liquid mercury instead of water ( because liquid mercury would not freeze during winter ) . Emperor Taizu was also quite open @-@ minded in his affairs , especially with those perceived as foreigners : he appointed the Arab Muslim Ma Yize ( 910 – 1005 ) as the chief astronomer of the Song court . For receiving envoys from the Korean kingdom of Goryeo alone , the Song court had roughly 1 @,@ 500 volumes written about the nuanced rules , regulations , and guidelines for their reception . The Song also sent envoys abroad , such as Wang Yande ( 939 – 1006 ) who was sent as an official envoy to the Uyghur @-@ Turkic city of Gaochang in 981 , then under Kara @-@ Khanid control .
= = Relations with Liao and Western Xia = =
= = = The Great Ditch and Treaty of Shanyuan = = =
Relations between the Song and Liao ( led by the Khitans ) were relatively peaceful in the first two decades after Song was founded , the disputed territories of the Northern Han and the Sixteen Prefectures notwithstanding . In 974 , the two began exchanging embassies on New Years Day . However , in 979 the Song moved against the Northern Han , long under the protection of the Liao dynasty . The Song emperor succeeded in forcing the Northern Han to surrender , but when marching on the Liao Southern Capital ( present @-@ day Beijing ) in the Sixteen Prefectures , Song forces were defeated at the Battle of Gaoliang River . This defeat was politically damaging to the prestige of Emperor Taizong of Song ( r . 976 – 997 ) , so much so that his top military commanders orchestrated an aborted coup to replace him with his nephew Zhao Dezhao .
Relations between the Song and Liao remained tense and hostile : in 986 the Song sent three armies against the Liao in an effort to take advantage of an infant emperor and recapture the Sixteen Prefectures , but the Liao successfully repulsed all three armies . Following this , diplomatic relations were resumed . Relations between Song and Liao worsened in the 990s . From 993 to 1004 , the Liao observed the Song as the latter built a ' Great Ditch ' in northern Hebei province from the Taihang Mountains in the west all the way to the Bohai Sea in the east . This was essentially a series of canals meant to block the advance of Liao cavalry far from the northern border line , although the Liao perceived this engineering project as a means for the Song to dispatch offensive forces more efficiently via new waterways . In 999 the Liao began annual attacks on Song positions , though with no breakthrough victories . The Liao were interested in capturing the Guannan region of northern Hebei , both because the Song general Zhou Shizong had taken it from them and because it contained strategic passes .
In 1004 , Liao forces managed to march deep into Song territory , camping out in Shanyuan , about 100 kilometers ( 62 mi ) north of the Song capital of Kaifeng . However , their forces were greatly overextended and any possible escape route was in danger of being blocked by Song forces . Eventually , the completion of the ' Great Ditch ' as an effective defensive blockade which slowed the advance of Liao cavalry forced the Liao to request a truce . Negotiations resulted in the Treaty of Shanyuan , signed in January 1005 ( some sources cite 1004 due to the Chinese Lunar Calendar ) , which fixed the borders of the Song and Liao as they were before the conflict . The Khitan rulers also wanted to intermarry with the Zhao family line of the Song , an offer that the Song refused in favor of a nominal and figurative imperial kinship . However , the treaty required the Song to make annual tribute payments to the Liao and recognize Liao equality with the Song . The tribute consisted of 283 kg ( 100 @,@ 000 oz ) of silver along with 200 @,@ 000 bolts of silk , increasing to 500 @,@ 000 units by 1042 . However , even with the increase in 1042 , the Song economy was not damaged by this enforced tribute . The bullion holding of the Liao dynasty did not increase with the tribute either , since the Song exported many goods annually to the Liao , dwarfing the amount of imported goods from Liao . Therefore , much of the silver sent to Liao as tribute was used to pay for Song Chinese goods , and the silver wound up back into the hands of Chinese merchants and the Song government .
Until the Song dynasty took advantage of a large rebellion within the Liao Kingdom in 1125 , the Song had to conduct cordial relations with the Liao . Skilled ambassadors were sent on missions to court the Liao and maintain peace , such as the renowned horologist , engineer , and state minister Su Song . The Song also prepared for armed conflict , increasing the overall size of the armed forces to a million soldiers by 1022 . By that time , however , the military was consuming three @-@ quarters of the tax revenues gathered by the state , compared to a mere 2 or 3 percent of state income that would be consumed by just providing the Liao with tribute . Due to these circumstances , intense political rivalries would later arise in the Song court over how to handle these issues .
= = = Conflict and diplomacy in the northwest = = =
The Song came into conflict with the Tanguts of the Western Xia dynasty as early as the 980s , when Song intended to retake the former Ordos prefectures of the late Tang dynasty , then held by the Tanguts . After the Tangut leader Li Jiqian died in 1004 , the Tanguts under his successor Li Deming ( r . 1005 – 1032 ) had initially attacked the Song , but later sought peaceful relations which brought economic benefits until 1038 .
After non @-@ Chinese Song patrol leader Li Jipeng ( aka Zhao Baozhong ) raided Xia 's territory and destroyed some fortified settlements in 1034 , the Tanguts under Li Yuanhao ( 1003 – 1048 ) retaliated . On September 12 , 1034 the Tanguts raided Qingzhou in Huanqing Circuit , but later Li Yuanhao released Song officers and soldiers he had captured ; by January 29 , 1035 relations were restored when Li Yuanhao sent tribute of fifty horses to the Song court and requested a copy of a Buddhist canon in return , which he received . Although he retained some unique Tangut customs and had a Tangut script created , Li 's administration followed the traditional Chinese model of bureaus . Li proclaimed himself the first imperial ruler of Western Xia , ruling as Emperor Jingzong ( r . 1038 – 1048 ) , and on November 10 , 1038 he sent an envoy to the Song capital in order to gain recognition for his new title as " Son of Blue Heaven " and to cease paying tribute to Song to affirm his new status . The Xia began attacks on Song 's borders which were repulsed by Song commander Lu Shouqin ( fl . 1030 – 1050 ) , and on January 9 , 1039 the Song shut down its border markets and soon after a reward of 100 @,@ 000 strings of coin was offered to anyone who could capture Emperor Jingzong . Although he won impressive victories in the initial phase of the war , Jingzong gained no additional territory for Western Xia by war 's end in 1044 , while both sides had lost tens of thousands of troops . Emperor Jingzong also conceded to the Song demand that he refer to himself as an inferior subject when addressing the Song , and that he accept Song ritualists to perform official ceremonies at his court . Throughout the war , the Song had maintained a number of fortified military outposts stretching some 480 km ( 300 mi ) from the westernmost prefectures of Shaanxi to Hedong in what is now Shanxi . Since the Song could not rely on water obstacle defenses in this region — like the Great Ditch of Hebei used against Liao — they instead garrisoned the wide expanse with a recorded 200 imperial battalions and 900 provincial and militia battalions by 1043 .
Relations broke down once more in 1067 with the ascension of Emperor Shenzong of Song , and in the 1070s the Song had considerable success in capturing Tangut territory . A mood of frontier adventurism permeated Shenzong 's court , as well as a desire to reclaim territories he felt belonged to him as the rightful ruler of China ; when a Song general led an unprovoked attack on a Western Xia border town , Shenzong appeared at the border to commend the general himself . To punish the Western Xia and damage their economy , Emperor Shenzong also shut down all commercial border markets along the Song @-@ Western Xia border . The scientist and statesman Shen Kuo ( 1031 – 1095 ) was sent to Yanzhou ( now Yan 'an , Shaanxi province ) in 1080 to stave off Tangut military invasion . He successfully defended his fortified position , yet the new Grand Councillor Cai Que held him responsible for the death of a rival Song military officer and the decimation of that officer 's forces ; as a result , Shen Kuo was ousted from office and the state abandoned the projected land that Shen was able to defend .
When Empress Dowager Gao died in 1093 , Emperor Zhezong of Song asserted himself at court by ousting the political conservatives led by Sima Guang , reinstating Wang Anshi 's reforms , and halting all negotiations with the Tanguts of the Western Xia . This resulted in continued armed conflict between the Song dynasty and the Western Xia . In 1099 , the Northern Song launched a campaign into Xining and Haidong ( in modern Qinghai province ) , occupying territory that was controlled by the Tibetan Gusiluo regime since the 10th century . By 1116 , Song managed to acquire all of its territory and incorporated it into prefectures ; the area became the westernmost frontier against the Western Xia .
= = Relations with Lý of Vietnam and border conflict = =
= = = Background = = =
For roughly a millennium a series of Chinese dynasties had controlled northern Vietnam , until the independence of the Ngô dynasty ( 939 – 967 ) . Early Song armies had fought and lost to the Early Lê dynasty ( 980 – 1009 ) of Vietnam at the Battle of Bạch Đằng in 981 . Subsequently the Zhuang rebel Nong Zhigao ( Nùng Trí Cao ) ( 1025 – 1053 ) attempted to establish his own frontier kingdom in 1042 , 1048 , and 1052 , creating a disturbance on Song 's southern border that prompted an invasion against Nong Zhigao / Nùng Trí Cao 's forces in the 1050s . This invasion resulted in the Song conquest of border regions inhabited by Tai peoples and a border confrontation with the Lý dynasty ( 1010 – 1225 ) that lasted from 1075 to 1077 . The Song court 's interest in maximizing the economic benefits of these frontier zones came into conflict with the Lý dynasty , whose goal was to consolidate their peripheral fiefdoms . In the aftermath , an agreement was negotiated by both sides that fixed the borders ; the resulting line of demarcation " would largely remain in place through to the present day " , according to James A. Anderson , Associate Professor in the History Department at the University of North Carolina .
= = = Border hositilies = = =
The Lý court had not intervened when the Song general Di Qing ( 1008 – 1061 ) crushed the border rebellion of Nùng Trí Cao in 1053 . During the two decades of relative regional peace that followed , the Lý observed the threat of Song expansion , as more Han Chinese settlers moved into areas which the Lý relied upon for the extraction of natural resources . Initially , a division of Di Qing 's soldiers ( originally from Shandong ) had settled the region , followed by a wave of Chinese settlers from north of the Yangzi River .
The Guangnan West Circuit Fiscal Commissioner , Wang Han ( fl . 1043 – 1063 ) , feared that Nùng Trí Cao 's kinsmen Nùng Tông Đán intended to plunder the region after he crossed the Song border in 1057 . Wang Han took a personal visit to Nùng Tông Đán 's camp and spoke with Nùng Trí Cao 's son , explaining that seeking " Interior Dependency " status would alienate them from the Lý court , but if they remained outside of China proper they could safely act as loyal frontier militia . Wang Han then sent a memorial to Emperor Renzong 's ( r . 1022 – 1063 ) court in 1060 , advocating the policy agreed with the Nùng . The Song government rejected his proposal and made the Nùng communities ( along with other ethnic groups ) official dependents of Song imperial authority , and Nùng Tông Đán 's request that the territories under his authority be incorporated into the Song Empire was granted in 1062 . In 1059 — six years before the Song court 's New Policies under Chancellor Wang Anshi ( 1021 – 1086 ) organized new self @-@ sufficient militia units throughout the empire and along the border with Đại Việt — the Lý dynasty ruler Lý Thánh Tông reorganized northern frontier administrative units and raised new militias . This bolstered his kingdom 's strength in a time of conflict with Champa ( located in southern Vietnam ) .
In the spring of 1060 , Giáp Đồng natives under the frontier prefectural leader Thàn Thiệu Thái — an imperial in @-@ law to the Lý court through marriage alliance — raided the Song frontier for cattle and militia recruits . He succeeded in taking the Song military leader Yang Baocai hostage , and in autumn of 1060 Song troops were sent into the frontier to rescue the general but he was not found . The Song court appointed Yu Jing ( 余靖 ; 1000 – 1064 ) as a new military commissioner of the Guangnan region and charged him with the task of quelling the unrest caused by Thàn Thiệu Thái . Yu Jing also sent an agent to Champa to enlist Cham aid against the Song 's enemies in Guangnan .
= = = Tribute and intrigue = = =
The Lý court discovered the Song 's secret attempt to ally with Champa ; while Lý sent a delegation to Yongzhou to thank Song for putting down local rebellions and to negotiate terms of peace , they instructed their agents to gather intelligence on the alleged Champa alliance and the strength of Song 's military presence in the Guangnan Western Circuit . Two Vietnamese envoys were permitted to offer tribute to the court of Renzong in Kaifeng , arriving on February 8 , 1063 to deliver gifts , including nine tamed elephants . On March 30 , 1063 , Emperor Renzong died and was succeeded by Emperor Yingzong ( r.1063 – 1067 ) ; Vietnamese envoys arrived in Kaifeng again to congratulate Yingzong on his ascension , and on April 7 , 1063 , Yingzong sent gifts such as calligraphy works by Renzong to Vietnamese King Lý Thánh Tông . On the day that the Vietnamese envoy Lý Kế Tiên prepared to depart from Kaifeng back to Đại Việt , news arrived that Thàn Thiệu Thái had raided Song 's Guangnan West Circuit again . Although a plea from a Guangnan official urged Kaifeng to take action , Yingzong left defenses up to local Guangnan forces and labeled Thàn Thiệu Thái as " reckless and mad " in an effort to disassociate him from the Lý court .
The minor Song official Lu Shen , a prefect in Guizhou , sent a message to Kaifeng in 1065 which reported that Nùng Tông Đán had apparently switched allegiance from Song to Lý , as well as united with the Quảng Nguyên chieftain Lưu Ký . When the now " mentally weak and distracted ruler " Yingzong — as Anderson describes him — received the report , he took no other action but to reassign Nùng Tông Đán with new honorific titles . The court took no action to resolve the problem , and Nùng Tông Đán later played a key role in the Song @-@ Lý war of 1075 – 1077 . The Song also gave official titles to other Vietnamese leaders despite their involvement in Nùng Trí Cao 's rebellions and their pledged loyalty to Lưu Ký , the latter employed as a tribal official under King Lý Thánh Tông .
Yingzong died on January 8 , 1067 , and was replaced by Emperor Shenzong ( r . 1067 – 1085 ) , who like his father , heaped rewards on Vietnamese leaders but was more observant of the Vietnamese delegations . When Vietnamese envoys arrived in Kaifeng to congratulate Shenzong on his ascension , he sent lavish gifts to the Lý court , including a golden belt , silver ingots , 300 bolts of silk , two horses , a saddle inlaid with gold and silver plating , and on February 9 , 1067 bestowed the Vietnamese ruler Lý Thánh Tông with the official title " King of the Southern Pacified Region " ( Chinese : 南平王 , pinyin : nán píng wáng , Vietnamese : Nam Bình Vương ) . Shenzong also countered Nùng Tông Đán 's defection by recognizing his kinsman Nùng Trí Hội as the Nùng clan leader in 1069 , giving him a title similar to Tông Đán 's and command over Guihua prefecture ( also known as Wuyang grotto settlement ) .
= = = Frontier policy and war = = =
In his New Policies sponsored by Shenzong , Wang Anshi enhanced central authority over Song 's frontier administrations , increased militia activity , increased troop levels and war horses sent to the frontiers ( including the border areas with Đại Việt ) , and actively sought loyal supporters in border regions who could heighten the pace of extraction of local resources for the state 's disposal . Officials at court debated the merits or faults of Wang 's policies , yet criticism of his reforms even appeared in Đại Việt , where the high officer Lý Thường Kiệt ( 1019 – 1105 ) publicly announced that Wang 's policies were deliberate efforts to seize and control their border frontiers . Tensions between Song and Lý were critical , and in these conditions any sign of hostility had potential to ignite a war .
The Quảng Nguyên chieftain Lưu Ký launched an unexpected attack against Yongzhou in 1075 , which was repelled by the Song 's Vietnamese officer Nùng Trí Hội in charge of Guihua . Shenzong then sought to cement an alliance with the " Five Clans " of northern Guangnan by issuing an edict which would standardize their once irregular tribute missions to visit Kaifeng now every five years . Shenzong had officials sent from the capital to supervise militiamen in naval training exercises . Shenzong then ordered that all merchants were to cease trade with the subjects of Đại Việt , a further indication of heightened hostility that prompted the Lý court under Lý Nhân Tông ( r . 1072 – 1127 ) to prepare for war .
In the autumn of 1075 , Nùng Tông Đán advanced into Song territory in Guangxi while a naval fleet commanded by Lý Thường Kiệt captured Qinzhou and Lianzhou prefectures . Lý Thường Kiệt calmed the apprehensions of the local Chinese populace , claiming that he was simply apprehending a rebel who took refuge in China and that the local Song authorities had refused to cooperate in detaining him . In the early spring of 1076 , Thường Kiệt and Nùng Tông Đán defeated the Song militia of Yongzhou , and during a battle at Kunlun Pass , their forces beheaded the Governor @-@ General of Guangnan West Circuit , Zhang Shoujie ( d . 1076 ) . After a forty @-@ two @-@ day siege , Yongzhou was breached and razed to the ground . When Song forces attempted to challenge Lý 's forces , the latter retreated , with their spoils of war and thousands of prisoners .
Lý Thường Kiệt had fought a war with the Cham in 1069 , and in 1076 Song called on the Khmer Empire and Champa to go to war again in 1076 . At the same time , the Song commander Guo Kui ( 1022 – 1088 ) led the combined Song force of approximately 100 @,@ 000 men against Lý . The Song quickly regained Quảng Nguyên prefecture and in the process captured the resistance leader Lưu Ký . By 1077 , the Song had destroyed two other Vietnamese armies and marched towards their capital at Thăng Long ( modern Hanoi ) . Song forces halted at the Nhu Nguyệt River ( in modern Bắc Ninh Province ) , where Lý Thường Kiệt had defensive ramparts built on the southern banks . However , Song forces broke through his defense line and their cavalry advanced to within several kilometers of the capital city . The Vietnamese counterattacked and pushed Song forces back across the river while their coastal defenses distracted the Song navy . Lý Thường Kiệt also launched an offensive , but lost two Lý princes in the fighting at Kháo Túc River . According to Chinese sources , " tropical climate and rampant disease " severely weakened Song 's military forces while the Lý court feared the result of a prolonged war so close to the capital . In 1078 China defeated Đại Việt and overran several districts that would later make up part of Cao Bằng Province .
As a result , Thường Kiệt made peace overtures to the Song ; the Song commander Guo Kui agreed to withdraw his troops , but kept five disputed regions of Quảng Nguyên ( renamed Shun 'anzhou or Thuận Châu ) , Tư Lang Châu , Môn Châu , Tô Mậu Châu , and Quảng Lăng . These areas now comprise most of modern Vietnam 's Cao Bằng Province and Lạng Sơn Province . In 1082 , after a long period of mutual isolation , King Lý Nhân Tông of Đại Việt returned Yong , Qin , and Lian prefectures back to Song authorities , along with their prisoners of war , and in return Song relinquished its control of four prefectures and the county of Đại Việt , including the Nùng clan 's home of Quảng Nguyên . Further negotiations took place from July 6 to August 8 , 1084 and were held at Song 's Yongping garrison in southern Guangnan , where Lý 's Director of Military Personnel Lê Van Thình ( fl . 1075 – 1096 ) convinced Song to fix the two countries ' borders between Quảng Nguyên and Guihua prefectures .
= = Partisans and factions , reformers and conservatives = =
After students passed the often difficult , bureaucratic , and heavily demanding Imperial Exams , as they became officials , they did not always see eye to eye with others that had passed the same examination . Even though they were fully @-@ fledged graduates ready for government service , there was always the factor of competition with other officials . Promotion to a higher post , higher salary , additional honors , and selection for choice assignment responsibilities were often uncertain , as young new officials often needed higher @-@ ranking officials to recommend them for service . Once an official would rise to the upper echelons of central administration based in the capital , they would often compete with others over influence of the emperor 's official adoption of state policies . Officials with different opinions on how to approach administrative affairs often sought out other officials for support , leading to pacts of rivaling officials lining up political allies at court to sway the emperor against the faction they disagreed with .
Factional strife at court first became apparent during the 1040s , with a new state reform initiated by Fan Zhongyan ( 989 – 1052 ) . Fan was a capable military leader ( with successful battles in his record against the Tanguts of Xi @-@ Xia ) but as a minister of state he was known as an idealist , once saying that a well @-@ minded official should be one that was " first in worrying about the world 's troubles and last in enjoying its pleasures " . When Fan rose to the seat of chancellor , there was a growing opposition to him within the older and more conservative crowd . They disliked his pushing for reforms for the recruitment system , higher pay for minor local officials to discourage against corruption , and wider sponsorship programs to ensure that officials were drafted more on the basis of their intellect and character . However , his Qingli Reforms were cancelled within a year 's time ( with Fan replaced as chancellor ) , since many older officials halfway through their careers were not keen on making changes that could affect their comfortably set positions .
After Fan Zhongyan , there was Chancellor Wang Anshi ( 1021 – 1086 ) . The new nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Emperor Shenzong ( r . 1067 – 1085 ) had an instant liking of Wang Anshi when he submitted a long memorial to the throne that criticized the practices of state schools and the examination system itself . With Wang as his new chancellor , he quickly implemented Wang 's New Policies , which evoked some heated reaction from the conservative base . Along with the Baojia system of a community @-@ based law enforcement , the New Policies included :
Low @-@ cost loans for farmers and replaced the labor service with a tax instead , hoping this would ultimately help the workings of the entire economy and state ( as he directly linked state income to the level of prosperity of rural peasants who owned farms , produced goods for the market , and paid the land tax ) . These government loans replaced the system of landlords offering their tenants private loans , which was prohibited under the new laws of Wang 's reforms .
Government monopolies on tea , salt , and wine in order to raise state revenues ( although this would now limit the merchant class ) .
Instituting a more up @-@ to @-@ date land survey system in order to properly assess the land tax .
Introduction of a local militia in order to lessen the budget of expenses paid for upholding the official standing army , which had grown dramatically to roughly 1 million soldiers by 1022 .
The creation of a new government bureau in 1073 called the Directorate of Weapons , which supervised the manufacture of armaments and ensured quality control .
Introduction of the Finance Planning Commission , created in mind to speed up the reform process so that dissident Conservatives would have less time to react and oppose reforms .
The poetry requirement of the civil service examination ( introduced during the earlier Tang dynasty ) was scrapped in order to seek out men with more practical experience and knowledge .
In addition , Wang Anshi had his own commentaries on Confucian classics made into a standard and required reading for students hoping to pass the state examinations . This and other reforms of Wang 's were too much for some officials to bear idly , as there were many administrative disagreements , along with many personal interests at stake . In any case , the rising conservative faction against the reformer Wang Anshi branded him as an inferior @-@ intellect who was not up to par with their principles of governance ( likewise , the reformers branded conservatives in the same labeled fashion ) . The conservatives criticized Wang 's reforms as a means of curbing the influence of landholding families by diminishing their private wealth in favor of self @-@ sufficient communal groups . The conservatives argued that the wealth of the landholding class should not be purposefully diminished by state programs , since the land holding class was the essential socio @-@ economic group that produced China 's scholar @-@ officials , managers , merchants , and landlords .
Reminded of the earlier Fan Zhongyan , Wang was not about to allow ministers who opposed his reforms to have sway at court , and with his prowess ( and perceived arrogance ) was known as ' the bullheaded premier ' . He gathered to his side ministers who were loyal to his policies and cause , an elite social coalition known as the New Policies Group ( 新法 , Xin Fa ) . He had many able and powerful supporters , such as the scientist and statesman Shen Kuo . Ministers of state who were seen as obstructive to the implementation of Wang 's reforms were not all dismissed from the capital to other places ( since the emperor needed some critical feedback ) , but many were . A more extreme example would be " obstructionist " officials sent far to the south to administer regions that were largely tropical , keeping in mind that northern Chinese were often susceptible to malaria found in the deep south of China . Even the celebrated poet and government official Su Shi was persecuted in 1079 when he was arrested and forced into five weeks of interrogation . Finally , he confessed under guarded watch that he had slandered the emperor in his poems . One of them read :
This poem can be interpreted as criticizing the failure of the salt monopoly established by Wang Anshi , embodied in the persona of a hard @-@ working old man who was cruelly denied his means to flavor his food , with the severity of the laws and the only salt available being charged at rates that were too expensive . After his confession , Su Shi was found guilty in court , and was summarily exiled to Hubei Province . More than thirty of his associates were also given minor punishments for not reporting his slanderous poems to authorities before they were widely circulated to the educated public .
Emperor Shenzong died in 1085 , an abrupt death since he was in his mid 30s . His successor Emperor Zhezong of Song was only ten years old when he ascended to the throne , so his powerful grandmother served as regent over him . She disliked Wang 's reforms from the beginning , and sought to appoint more Conservative officials at court who would agree to oppose the Reformists . Her greatest political ally was Sima Guang ( 1019 – 1086 ) , who was made the next Chancellor . Undoing what Wang had implemented , Sima dismissed the New Policies , and forced the same treatment upon Reformers that Wang had earlier meted out to his opponents : dismissal to lower or frontier posts of governance , or even exile . However , there was still mounted opposition to Sima Guang , as many had favored some of the New Policies , including the substitution of tax instead of forced labor service to the state . Sure enough , when Emperor Zhezong 's grandmother died in 1093 , Zhezong was quick to sponsor the Reformists like his predecessor Shenzong had done . The Conservatives once more were ousted from political dominance at court . When Zhezong suddenly died in his twenties , his younger brother Emperor Huizong of Song ( r . 1100 – 1125 ) succeeded him , and also supported the Reformers at court . Huizong banned the writing of Sima Guang and his lackeys while elevating Wang Anshi to near revered status , having a statue of Wang erected in a Confucian temple alongside a statue of Mencius . To further this image of Wang as a great and honorable statesman , printed and painted pictures of him were circulated throughout the country . Yet this cycle of revenge and partisanship continued after Zhezong and Huizong , as Reformers and Conservatives continued their infighting . Huizong 's successor , Emperor Gaozong of Song , abolished once more the New Policies , and favored ministers of the Conservative faction at court .
= = Jurchen invasions and the transition to Southern Song = =
= = = Jingkang Incident = = =
Before the arrival of the Jurchens the Song dynasty was for centuries engaged in a stand @-@ off against the Western Xia and the Khitan Liao dynasty . This balance was disrupted when the Song dynasty developed a military alliance with the Jurchens for the purpose of annihilating the Liao . This balance of power disrupted , the Jurchens then turned on the Song , resulting in the fall of the Northern Song and the subsequent establishment of the Southern Song .
During the reign of Huizong , the Jurchen tribe to the north ( once subordinates to the Liao ) , revolted against their Khitan masters . The Jurchen community already had a reputation of great economic clout in their own region of the Liao and Sungari rivers . They were positioned in an ideal location for horse raising , and were known to muster ten thousand horses a year to sell annually to the Khitans of the Liao dynasty . They even had a martial history of being pirates , in the 1019 Toi invasion of the Heian Japanese islands in modern @-@ day Iki Province , Tsushima Province , and Hakata Bay . From the Jurchen Wanyan clan , a prominent leader Wanyan Aguda ( 1068 – 1123 ) challenged Liao authority , establishing their own Jin ( or ' Golden ' ) dynasty in 1115 . The Song government took notice of the political dissidence of the Jurchens in Liao 's territory , as Council of State Tong Guan ( 1054 – 1126 ) persuaded the emperor to ally with the Jurchens against the Liao . The two nations secretly forged the Alliance on the Sea , so @-@ named because it was negotiated by envoys who crossed the Bohai Sea , and agreed to jointly invade the Liao , and if successful , divide up Liao territory with the Sixteen Prefectures given to the Song .
In 1121 @-@ 23 , Song forces fared badly against the Liao , but the Jin succeeded in driving the Liao to Central Asia . Through the campaign , the Jurchens discovered weaknesses about the Song military based in the north ( as the Chinese for so long had been sending tribute to the Liao instead of actually fighting them ) . Song forces had failed to make a joint attack in a siege with the Jurchens , who viewed the Song generals as incompetent . Banking on the possibility that the Song were weak enough to be destroyed , the Jurchens made a sudden and unprovoked attack against the Song in the north . Soon enough , even the capital at Kaifeng was under siege by Jin forces , only staved off when an enormous bribe was handed over to them . There was also an effective use of Song Chinese war machines in the defense of Kaifeng in 1126 , as it was recorded that 500 catapults hurling debris were used . During the siege of Taiyuan , the Jin employed 30 catapults and over fifty carts protected by rawhide and sheets of iron plating so that Jin troops could be ferried to the walls safely to fill in Taiyuan city 's defensive moat . The eunuch general Tong Guan , who had initially urged for an alliance with the Jurchens , was blamed for causing the war . He was eventually executed by Emperor Qinzong of Song ( r . 1126 – 1127 ) after Huizong abdicated the throne to him .
However , the Jin returned soon after with enough siege machinery to scale Kaifeng 's layer of walls defended by 48 @,@ 000 Song troops . The Jin used siege towers taller than Kaifeng 's walls in order to lob incendiary bombs into the city . The besieged city was captured by the Jurchens in less than two months . Three thousand members of the Emperor 's court were taken as captives , including Huizong and many of his relatives , craftsmen , engineers , goldsmiths , silversmiths , blacksmiths , weavers and tailors , Daoist priests , and female entertainers to label some . The mechanical clock tower designed by Su Song and erected in 1094 was also disassembled and its components carted back north , along with many clock @-@ making millwrights and maintenance engineers that would cause a setback in technical advances for the Song court . According to the contemporary Xia Shaozeng , other war booty included 20 @,@ 000 fire arrows that were handed over to the Jurchens upon taking the city .
After capturing Kaifeng , the Jurchens went on to conquer the rest of northern China , while the Song Chinese court fled south . They took up temporary residence at Nanjing , where a surviving prince was named Emperor Gaozong of Song in 1127 . Jin forces halted at the Yangzi River , but staged continual raids south of the river until a later boundary was fixed at the Huai River further north . With the border fixed at the Huai , the Song government would promote an immigration policy of repopulating and resettling territories north of the Yangzi River , since vast tracts of vacant land between the Yangzi and Huai were open for landless peasants found in Jiangsu , Zhejiang , Jiangxi , and Fujian provinces of the south .
= = = A new capital and peace treaty = = =
In 1129 , Emperor Gaozong designated the site at Hangzhou ( known then as Lin 'an ) to be the temporary settlement of the court , but it was not until 1132 that it was declared the new Song capital . Hangzhou and Nanjing were devastated by the Jin raids ; both cities were heavily repopulated with northern refugees who outnumbered the remaining original inhabitants . Hangzhou was chosen not only for its natural scenic beauty , but for the surrounding topographic barriers of lakes and muddy rice @-@ fields that gave it defensive potential against northern armies comprising mostly cavalry . Yet it was viewed by the court as only a temporary capital while the Song emperors planned to retake Kaifeng . However , the rapid growth of the city from the 12th century to the 13th necessitated long @-@ term goals of residency . In 1133 the modest palatial residence of the imperial family was improved upon from a simple provincial lodging to one that at least accommodated strolls with new covered alleyways to deflect the rain . In 1148 the walls of the small palace compound were finally extended to the southeast , yet this was another marginal improvement .
The new triangular arrangement between the Southern Song , Jin , and Western Xia continued the age of division and conflict in China . The region of Huainan ( between the Yangzi and Huai rivers ) became a new borderland and battleground between Song and Jin from 1128 to 1141 , displacing hundreds of thousands of families who had lived there for generations . The Southern Song deployed several military commanders , among them Yue Fei and Han Shizhong , to resist the Jin as well as recapture territory , which proved successful at times . Yue Fei in particular had been preparing to recapture Kaifeng ( or Bianjing as the city was known during the Song period ) , the former capital of the Song dynasty and the then southern capital of the Jin , after a streak of uninterrupted military victories .
However , the possible defeat of the Jurchens threatened the power of the new emperor of the Southern Song , Gaozong and his premier Qin Hui . The reason for this was that Qinzong , the last emperor of the Northern Song was living in Jin @-@ imposed exile in Manchuria and had a good chance of being recalled to the throne should the Jin dynasty be destroyed . Although Yue Fei had penetrated into enemy territory as far as Luoyang , he was ordered to head back to the capital and halt his campaign . Emperor Gaozong signed the Treaty of Shaoxing in 1141 that fixed the borders at the Huai River , as well as conceded territory regained through the efforts of Yue Fei , while Yue was killed during imprisonment . As part of the treaty , the Song were also forced to pay tribute to the Jin , much as it had to the Liao . With the treaty of Shaoxing , hostilities ceased between the Jin and Song dynasties for the next two decades . In the meantime , Emperor Gaozong negotiated with the Jin over his mother 's ransom while he commissioned a symbolic art project about her , the Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute , originally based upon the life of Cai Wenji ( b . 177 ) . Gaozong 's mother was eventually released and brought south , but Qinzong was never freed from his confinement in the north .
Decades after Yue 's death , the later Emperor Xiaozong of Song honored Yue Fei as a national hero in 1162 , providing him proper burial and memorial of a shrine . As a means to shame those who had pressed for his execution ( Qin Hui and his wife ) , iron statues of them were crafted to kneel before the tomb of Yue Fei , located at the West Lake in Hangzhou .
= = China 's first standing navy = =
As the once great Indian Ocean maritime power of the Chola dynasty in medieval India had waned and declined , Chinese sailors and seafarers began to increase their own maritime activity in South East Asia and into the Indian Ocean . Even during the earlier Northern Song period , when it was written in Tamil inscriptions under the reign of Rajendra Chola I that Srivijaya had been completely taken in 1025 by Chola 's naval strength , the succeeding king of Srivijaya managed to send tribute to the Chinese Northern Song court in 1028 . Much later , in 1077 , the Indian Chola ruler Kulothunga Chola I ( who the Chinese called Ti @-@ hua @-@ kia @-@ lo ) sent a trade embassy to the court of Emperor Shenzong of Song , and made lucrative profits in selling goods to China . There were other tributary payers from other regions of the world as well . The Fatimid @-@ era Egyptian sea captain Domiyat traveled to a Buddhist site of pilgrimage in Shandong in 1008 , where he presented the Chinese Emperor Zhenzong of Song with gifts from his ruling Imam Al @-@ Hakim bi @-@ Amr Allah , establishing diplomatic relations between Egypt and China that had been lost during the collapse of the Tang dynasty in 907 ( while the Fatimid state was established three years later in 910 ) . During the Northern Song , Quanzhou was already a bustling port of call visited by a plethora of different foreigners , from Muslim Arabs , Persians , Egyptians , Hindu Indians , Middle @-@ Eastern Jews , Nestorian Christians from the Near East , etc . Muslims from foreign nations dominated the import and export industry ( see Islam during the Song dynasty ) . To regulate this enormous commercial center , in 1087 the Northern Song government established an office in Quanzhou for the sole purpose of handling maritime affairs and commercial transactions . In this multicultural environment there were many opportunities for subjects in the empire of foreign descent , such as the ( Arab or Persian ) Muslim Pu Shougeng , the Commissioner of Merchant Shipping for Quanzhou between 1250 and 1275 . Pu Shougeng had gained his reputable position by helping the Chinese destroy pirate forces that plagued the area , and so was lavished with gifts and appraisal from Chinese merchants and officials . Quanzhou soon rivaled Guangzhou ( the greatest maritime port of the earlier Tang dynasty ) as a major trading center during the late Northern Song . However , Guangzhou had not fully lost its importance . The medieval Arab maritime captain Abu Himyarite from Yemen toured Guangzhou in 993 , and was an avid visitor to China . There were other notable international seaports in China during the Song period as well , including Xiamen ( or Amoy ) .
When the Song capital was removed far south to Hangzhou , massive numbers of people came from the north . Unlike the flat plains of the north , the mountainous terrain riddled with lakes and rivers in southern China is largely a hindrance and inhospitable to widespread agriculture . Therefore , the Southern Song took on a unique maritime presence that was largely unseen in earlier dynasties , grown out of the need to secure importation of foreign resources . Commercial cities ( located along the coast and by internal rivers ) , backed by patronage of the state , dramatically increased shipbuilding activity ( funding harbor improvements , warehouse construction , and navigation beacons ) . Navigation at sea was made easier by the invention of the compass and Shen Kuo 's treatise of the 11th century on the concept of true north ( with magnetic declination towards the North Pole ) . With military defense and economic policy in mind , the Southern Song established China 's first standing navy . China had a long naval history before that point ( example , Battle of Chibi in 208 ) , and even during the Northern Song era there were concerns with naval matters , as seen in examples such as the Chinese official Huang Huaixin of the Xining Reign ( 1068 – 1077 ) outlining a plan of employing a drydock for repair of ' imperial dragon boats ' ( see Science and technology of the Song dynasty ) . Already during the Northern Song , the Chinese had established fortified trade bases in the Philippines , a noted interest of the court to expand China 's military power and economic influence abroad . Provincial armies in the Northern Song era also maintained naval river units . However , it was the Southern Song court that was the first to create a large , permanent standing naval institution for China in 1132 . The new headquarters of the Southern Song Chinese admiralty was based at Dinghai , the office labeled as the Yanhai Zhizhi Shisi ( Imperial Commissariat for the Control and Organization of Coastal Areas ) . Even as far back as 1129 officials proposed ambitious plans to conquer Korea with a new navy and use Korea as a base for launching invasions into Jin territory , but this scheme was never achieved and was of secondary importance to maintaining defense along the fluctuating border with Jin .
Capturing the essence of the day , the Song era writer Zhang Yi once wrote in 1131 that China must regard the Sea and the River as her Great Wall , and substitute warships for watchtowers . Indeed , the court administration at Hangzhou lived up to this ideal , and were successful for a time in employing their navy to defend their interests against an often hostile neighbor to the north . In his Science and Civilization in China series , Joseph Needham writes :
From a total of 11 squadrons and 3 @,@ 000 men [ the Song navy ] rose in one century to 20 squadrons totalling 52 @,@ 000 men , with its main base near Shanghai . The regular striking force could be supported at need by substantial merchantmen ; thus in the campaign of 1161 some 340 ships of this kind participated in the battles on the Yangtze . The age was one of continual innovation ; in 1129 trebuchets throwing gunpowder bombs were decreed standard equipment on all warships , between 1132 and 1183 a great number of treadmill @-@ operated paddle @-@ wheel craft , large and small , were built , including stern @-@ wheelers and ships with as many as 11 paddle @-@ wheels a side ( the invention of the remarkable engineer Kao Hsuan ) , and in 1203 some of these were armored with iron plates ( to the design of another outstanding shipwright Chhin Shih @-@ Fu ) ... In sum , the navy of the Southern Sung held off the [ Jurchen Jin ] and then the Mongols for nearly two centuries , gaining complete control of the East China Sea .
During the reign of Emperor Xiaozong of Song , the Chinese increased the number of trade missions that would dock at ports throughout the Indian Ocean , where Arab and Hindu influence was once predominant . The Chinese sailed regularly to Korea and Japan in the Far East , westwards towards India and Sri Lanka , and into the Persian Gulf , and the Red Sea . The Chinese were keen to import goods such as rare woods , precious metals , gems , spices , and ivory , while exporting goods such as silk , ceramics , lacquer @-@ ware , copper cash , dyes , and even books . In 1178 , the Guangzhou customs officer Zhou Qufei wrote of an island far west in the Indian Ocean ( possibly Madagascar ) , from where people with skin " as black as lacquer " and with frizzy hair were captured and purchased as slaves by Arab merchants . As an important maritime trader , China appeared also on geographical maps of the Islamic world . In 1154 the Moroccan geographer Al @-@ Idrisi published his Geography , where he described the Chinese seagoing vessels as having aboard goods such as iron , swords , leather , silk , velvet , along with textiles from Aden ( modern @-@ day Yemen ) , the Indus River region , and Euphrates River region ( modern @-@ day Iraq ) . He also commended the silk manufactured at Quanzhou as being unparalleled in the world for its quality , while the Chinese capital at Hangzhou was best known throughout the Islamic world for being a major producer of glass wares . By at least the 13th century , the Chinese were even familiar with the story of the ancient Lighthouse of Alexandria since it is described at length by Zhao Rugua , a Southern Song customs inspector of Quanzhou .
= = Defeat of Jin invasion , 1161 = =
In 1153 the Jin emperor Wanyan Liang moved the empire 's capital from Huining Prefecture in northern Manchuria ( south of present @-@ day Harbin ) to Zhongdu ( now Beijing ) . Four years later in 1157 he razed Beijing , including the nobles ’ residences , and moved the Jin 's southern capital from Beijing to Kaifeng . It was here at the former seat of the Song dynasty that he began a large project of reconstruction ( since the siege against it in 1127 ) . For much of his reign there was peace between Jin and Song , while both states upheld an uninterrupted flow of commercial trade between each other . While amassing tribute from the Southern Song , the Jin dynasty also imported large amounts of tea , rice , sugar , and books from the Southern Song . However , Wanyan Liang reopened the Jin dynasty 's armed conflict with the Song by the 1160s .
Wanyan Liang established a military campaign against the Southern Song in 1161 , with 70 @,@ 000 naval troops aboard 600 warships facing a smaller Song fleet of only 120 warships and 3 @,@ 000 men . At the Battle of Tangdao and the Battle of Caishi along the Yangtze River , Jin forces were defeated by the Southern Song navy . In these battles , the Jin navy was wiped out by the much smaller Song fleet because of their use of fast paddle @-@ wheel crafts and gunpowder bombs launched from trebuchet catapults ( since explosive grenades and bombs had been known in China since the 10th century ) . Meanwhile , two simultaneous rebellions of Jurchen nobles , led by soon @-@ to @-@ be crowned Jin emperor Wanyan Yong and Khitan tribesman , erupted in Manchuria . This forced the reluctant Jin court to withdraw its troops from southern China to quell these uprisings . In the end , Wanyan Liang failed in taking the Southern Song and was assassinated by his own generals in December 1161 . The Khitan uprising was not suppressed until 1164 , while the Treaty of Longxing ( 隆興和議 ) was signed in 1165 between Song and Jin , reestablishing the 1142 border line and ushering in four decades of peace between the two .
= = Rise of the Mongols = =
In the years 1205 and 1209 the Jin state was under raid attacks by Mongols from the north , and in 1211 the major campaign led by Genghis Khan was launched . His army consisted of fifty thousand bowmen , while his three sons led armies of similar size . Patricia Ebrey writes that at this point the Mongol population could not have been greater than 1 @.@ 5 million , yet they boosted their numbers by employing Khitans and Han Chinese " who felt no great loyalty to their Jurchen lords . " After a Jurchen general murdered the Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji in 1213 and placed Emperor Xuanzong on the throne , a peace settlement was negotiated between Jin and the Mongol forces in 1214 , as Genghis made the Jin a vassal state of the Mongol Empire . However , when the Jin court moved from Beijing to Kaifeng , Genghis saw this move as a revolt , and moved upon the old Jin capital at Beijing in 1215 , sacking and burning it . Although the now small Jin state attempted to defend against the Mongols and even fought battles with the Song in 1216 and 1223 , the Jin were attacked by the Mongols again in 1229 with the ascension of Ögedei Khan . According to the account of 1232 , written by the Jin commander Chizhan Hexi , the Jurchens led a valiant effort against the Mongols , whom they frightened and demoralized in the siege of the capital by the use of ' thunder @-@ crash @-@ bombs ' and fire lance flamethrowers . However , the capital at Kaifeng was captured by siege in 1233 , and by 1234 the Jin dynasty finally fell in defeat to the Mongols after the capture of Caizhou .
The Western Xia met a similar fate , becoming an unreliable vassal to the Mongols by seeking to secure alliances with Jin and Song . Genghis Khan had died in 1227 during the 5 @-@ month siege of their capital city , and being held somewhat responsible for this , the last Xia ruler was hacked to death when he was persuaded to exit the gates of his city with a small entourage .
= = Mongol invasion and end of the Song dynasty = =
Following the death of Gaozong and the emergence of the Mongols , the Song dynasty formed a military alliance with the Mongols in the hope of finally defeating the Jin dynasty . Several tens of thousands of carts full of grain were sent to the Mongol army during the siege . Following the destruction of the Jurchens in 1234 , the Southern Song generals broke the alliance , proceeding to recapture the three historical capitals of Kaifeng , Luoyang and Chang 'an . However , the cities , ravaged by years of warfare , lacked economic capacity and yielded little defensibility . This breaking of alliance meant open warfare between the Mongols and the Song Chinese . Ögodei Khan 's forces conquered fifty @-@ four out of Sichuan 's fifty @-@ eight total districts by 1236 , while ordering the slaughter of over a million people that inhabited the city of Chengdu , which was taken by the Mongols with ease .
= = = Möngke 's campaign = = =
The Mongols eventually gained the upper hand under Möngke Khan , famed for his battles in Russia and Hungary in Eastern Europe , and ushered in the final destruction of the ruling Ch 'oe family of Korea in 1258 . In 1252 Möngke commissioned his younger brother Kublai to conquer the Kingdom of Dali in the southwest ( modern Yunnan province ) , which was a successful campaign from the summer of 1253 to early 1254 . Möngke also sent a military campaign into northern Vietnam ( which was a failure ) . Möngke sent his renowned general and brother Hulagu east to face Syria and Egypt , after he had sacked and razed medieval Baghdad to the ground in 1258 during the sack of Baghdad , bringing an end to the Abbasid Caliphate and the Islamic Golden Age . Meanwhile , Möngke infiltrated Song territory further , until he died while battling the Song Chinese at Diaoyu Fortress , Chongqing on August 11 , 1259 . There are several different claims as to how he died ; the causes of death include either an arrow wound from a Chinese archer during the siege , dysentery , or cholera epidemic . Whatever the cause , his death halted the invasion of the Southern Song , and sparked a succession crisis that would ultimately favor Kublai Khan as the new Khaghan of the Mongols . Möngke 's death in battle also led to the recall of the main Mongol armies led by Hulagu campaigning in the Middle East . Hulagu had to travel back to Mongolia in order to partake in the traditional tribal meeting of the khuriltai to appoint a new successor of the Mongol Khanate . In Hulagu 's absence , the emboldened Mamluks of Egypt were ready to face the Mongols . Mongol forces under Christian Kitbuqa 's command were defeated in a decisive blow at Ain Jalut . This marked the extent of Mongol conquests west , but in the east , the Song dynasty had to be dealt with .
= = = A fluctuating border = = =
Although Möngke 's forces stalled the war effort immediately after his death , his younger brother Kublai continued to fight the Southern Song along the Yangzi River for the next two months into the autumn of 1259 . Kublai made a daring advance across the river during a storm , and assaulted the Southern Song troops on the other side . Both sides suffered considerable casualties , but Kublai 's troops were victorious and gained a foothold south of the Yangzi . Kublai made preparations to take the heavily fortified city of Ezhou . Meanwhile , the Song chancellor Jia Sidao dispatched General Lü Wende to lead the reinforcements in the defense of Ezhou , and on October 5 Lü slipped past Kublai 's ill @-@ prepared forces and entered the city . Jia Sidao then sent his general and emissary Song Jing to negotiate a tributary settlement with Kublai . He offered Kublai annual tribute of silver like in the earlier treaty with the Khitans , in return for the territories south of the Yangzi that had been taken by the Mongols . Kublai rejected the proposal since he was already in a favorable strategic position on the other side of the Yangzi . However , Kublai had to suspend the war and travel north with the majority of his forces due to the Toluid Civil War . His rival brother Ariq Böke led a sudden movement of troops towards Kublai 's home base of Xanadu .
Kublai 's absence from the war front was seen by Chancellor Jia Sidao as an opportune moment , so he ordered to resume armed conflict . The Song army routed the small armed detachment that Kublai had stationed south of the Yangzi , and the Song regained its lost territory . With his ally Hulagu busy fighting the Golden Horde and his own forces needed in the north against the rival Khagan claimant Ariq Böke , Kublai was unable to focus on hostilities in the south . On May 21 , 1260 , Kublai sent his envoy Hao Jing and two other advisors to negotiate with the Southern Song . Upon their arrival and attempts to solve the conflict through diplomatic means , Jia Sidao ordered Kublai 's embassy to be detained . Although Kublai would not forget this slight of imprisoning his ambassadors , he nonetheless had to focus on more pressing affairs with the threat of his brother and rival Khan . From 1260 to 1262 the Song forces raided Kublai 's southern border which forced Kublai to retaliate with some minor incursions until 1264 , when his brother finally surrendered and ended the civil war . In 1265 the first major battle in five years erupted in Sichuan province , where Kublai gained a preliminary victory and considerable war booty of 146 Song naval ships .
= = = Growing discontent = = =
While Kublai attended to other matters in the north , the Song court was mobilizing its populace for war and all available resources that could be rendered and drained into the war effort . In the mid 13th century , the Song government led by Jia Sidao began confiscating portions of estates owned by the rich in order to raise revenues in a land nationalization scheme . This had the negative effect of alienating the wealthy landowners and hastening the collapse of the empire , as wealthy landlords and merchants favored what they deemed the inevitable Mongol conquest and rule than the other alternative of paying higher taxes for continual , exhaustive warfare .
There was also mounting political opposition against Chancellor Jia Sidao . Jia had purged several dissident officials who were opposed to his reforms aimed at limiting official corruption and personal profiteering . When he replaced some of these officials with his own cronies , however , political conditions were ripe for a schism at court and within the gentry class that would be favorable to a strong , unified force led by Kublai . Kublai used various ploys and gestures in order to entice defectors from the Southern Song to his side . Kublai Khan established Dadu ( Beijing ) as his new capital in 1264 , catering to the likes of the Chinese with his advisor Liu Bingzhong and the naming of his dynasty with the Chinese word for " primal " ( " Yuan " ) . He made it a policy to grant land , clothing , and oxen to Song Chinese who defected to his side . Kublai Khan chose the moral high ground of releasing Song captives and prisoners while Jia Sidao refused to release Kublai 's emissary Hao Jing . In 1261 Kublai personally released seventy @-@ five Song merchants captured at the border ; in 1263 he released fifty @-@ seven merchants ; in 1269 he released forty @-@ five merchants . In 1264 he publicly reprimanded his own officers for executing two Song generals without trial or investigation . With these acts his reputation and legitimacy in the eyes of the Chinese were greatly enhanced .
= = = Battle of Xiangyang = = =
The siege of the city Xiangyang was a long , drawn out conflict from 1268 to 1273 . Xiangyang and the adjacent town of Fancheng were located on the opposite bank of the Han River and were the last fortified obstacles in Kublai 's way towards the rich Yangzi River basin . Kublai made an attempt to starve the city of its supply lines by gaining naval supremacy along the Han River in a gigantic blockade . It was the Song defector Liu Zheng who was the main proponent in advising Kublai Khan to expand the Yuan 's naval strength , which was a great factor in their success . An international force — composed of Chinese , Jurchens , Koreans , Mongols , Uyghur Turks , and Middle Eastern Muslims — contributed to Kublai 's siege effort in crafting ships and artillery . On several occasions — August 1269 , March 1270 , August 1271 , and September 1272 — the Southern Song attempted to break the Yuan blockade with its own navy , yet each attempt was a costly failure of thousands of men and hundreds of ships . After the siege , in the summer of 1273 , Kublai appointed the Chinese general Shi Tianze and Turkic general Bayan as the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces . However , Shi Tianze died in 1275 ; Bayan was then granted a force of 200 @,@ 000 ( composed mostly of Han Chinese ) to assault Song .
= = = Final resistance = = =
In March 1275 the forces of Bayan faced the army of Chancellor Jia Sidao , which was 130 @,@ 000 strong ; the end result was a decisive victory for Bayan , and Jia was forced to retreat after many deserted him . This was the opportune moment for his political rivals to smite him . Jia was effectively stripped of rank , title , and office and banished to Fujian in exile from the court ; while en route to Fujian , he was killed by the same commander that was appointed to accompany him . After his death many of his supporters and opposing ministers submitted to Bayan . By 1276 the Yuan army had conquered nearly all of the Southern Song 's territory , including the capital at Hangzhou .
Meanwhile , the rebel remnants of the Song court fled to Fuzhou . Emperor Gong was left behind as the empress dowager submitted to Bayan , horrified by reports of the total slaughter of Changzhou . Before the capital was taken , Empress Dowager Xie ( 1208 – 1282 ) made attempts to negotiate with Bayan , promising annual tribute to the Yuan dynasty , but he rejected these proposals . After her attempts at diplomacy had failed , she handed over the Song dynasty 's imperial seal to Bayan , " an unambiguous symbol of capitulation . " With the submission of Emperor Gong , Bayan ordered that the Song imperial family should be respected , and forbade the pillaging of their imperial tombs or treasuries . Kublai granted the deposed emperor the title " Duke of Ying " , but he was eventually exiled to Tibet where he took up a monastic life in 1296 .
Any hope of resistance was centered on two young princes , Emperor Gong 's brothers . The older boy , Zhao Shi , who was nine years old , was declared emperor on June 14 , 1276 , in Fuzhou . The court sought refuge in Quanzhou , seeking an alliance with the Superintendent of Maritime Shipping , the Muslim Pu Shougeng . However , he secretly formed an alliance with Kublai , so the Song court was forced to flee in 1277 . The court then sought refuge in Silvermine Bay ( Mui Wo ) on Lantau Island . The older brother became ill and died on May 8 , 1278 at age ten , and was succeeded by his younger brother who became Emperor Huaizong of Song , aged seven . The Sung Wong Toi monument in Kowloon commemorates his enthronement . On March 19 , 1279 the Song army was defeated in its last battle , the Battle of Yamen , fought against the Yuan army led by the Chinese general Zhang Hongfan in the Pearl River Delta . Song Prime Minister Lu Xiufu is said to have taken the boy emperor in his arms and jumped from his sinking ship into the sea , drowning both of them .
With the death of the last remaining emperor , Song China was eliminated , while Kublai Khan established the realm of the Yuan dynasty over China proper , Mongolia , Manchuria , Tibet , and Korea . For nearly a century to follow , the Chinese would live under a dynasty established by Mongols . However , a native Han Chinese dynasty would be established once more with the Ming dynasty in 1368 .
= = Historical literature = =
During the Song dynasty , the Zizhi Tongjian ( Chinese : 資治通鑒 / 资治通鉴 ; Wade – Giles : Tzu @-@ chih t 'ung @-@ chien ; literally " Comprehensive Mirror for / to Aid in Government " ) was an enormous work of Chinese historiography , a written approach to a universal history of China , compiled in the 11th century . The work was first ordered to be compiled by Emperor Yingzong of Song in 1065 , the team of scholars headed by Sima Guang , who presented the completed work to Emperor Shenzong of Song in 1084 . Its total length was 294 volumes containing roughly 3 million Chinese characters . The Zizhi Tongjian covers the people , places , and events of Chinese history from the beginning of the Warring States in 403 BC until the beginning of the Song dynasty in 959 . Its size , brevity , and scope has often been compared to the groundbreaking work of Chinese historiography compiled by the ancient historian Sima Qian ( 145 BC – 90 BC ) , known as the Shiji . This historical work was later compiled and condensed into fifty nine different books by the Neo @-@ Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi in 1189 , yet his pupils had to complete the work shortly after his death in 1200 . During the Manchu Qing dynasty , the book was reprinted in 1708 , while the European Jesuit Father Joseph Anne Maria de Moyriac de Mailla ( 1679 – 1748 ) translated it shortly after in 1737 . It was later edited and published by the Jesuit Abbé , Jean Baptiste Gabriel Alexandre Grosier ( 1743 – 1823 ) , in part with Le Roux des Hauterays , where a thirteenth volume and a title page were added . It was also translated and published by the Jesuit astronomer Antoine Gaubil in 1759 , whose pupils founded a Russian school of sinology .
Another historical source was the enormous encyclopedia Prime Tortoise of the Record Bureau published by 1013 , one of the Four Great Books of Song . Divided into 1000 volumes of 9 @.@ 4 million written Chinese characters , this book provided important information on political essays of the period , extensive autobiographies on rulers and various subjects , as well as a multitude of memorials and decrees brought forth to the imperial court . However , the official history of the Song dynasty was the Song Shi , compiled in 1345 during the Yuan dynasty . The recorded history of the Jurchen Jin dynasty , the Jin Shi , was compiled in the same year . This historical book is one of the classic Twenty @-@ Four Histories of China .
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= Sørkjosen Airport =
Sørkjosen Airport ( Norwegian : Sørkjosen lufthavn ; IATA : SOJ , ICAO : ENSR ) is a regional airport located at Sørkjosen in Nordreisa , Norway , 4 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 8 mi ) from the municipal center of Storslett . Owned and operated by the state @-@ owned Avinor , it handled 15 @,@ 198 passengers in 2014 . The airport has a 880 @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 890 ft ) runway and is served by Widerøe , which operates regional routes using the Dash 8 @-@ 100 to Tromsø and communities in Finnmark on public service obligation contracts . The airport opened in 1974 and was originally served using de Havilland Canada Twin Otter aircraft . Dash 8s were introduced in 1995 and two years later ownership was transferred from Nordreisa Municipality to the state .
= = History = =
Sørkjosen was launched as part of a national network of regional short take @-@ off and landing airport which was proposed in the mid @-@ 1960s . The final decision to build the airport was taken by Parliament in 1972 . Both Widerøe and Norving applied to operate the subsidized regional routes in Finnmark , which included the route to Sørkjosen . Widerøe was awarded the contract in 1973 . Sørkjosen Airport opened on 1 August 1974 , the same day as four regional airports in Finnmark .
A new fire station , serving both the airport and the municipality , was completed in 1992 , costing 3 @.@ 2 million Norwegian krone . A five @-@ week strike by three employees took place in 1992 , where they demanded a collective agreement . The strike stopped all traffic at the airport , but the employees never received their demands . The Civil Aviation Administration ( later renamed Avinor ) recommended in 1994 that Sørkjosen and eight other airports be considered closed , as they had high costs and low patronage . Widerøe served the airport using Twin Otters until 1995 , when they were replaced by the Dash 8 . The airport received subsidies of 3 @.@ 9 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) in 1996 , which allowed the airport to operate with a profit of NOK 1 @.@ 4 million . The state and the Civil Aviation Administration took over ownership and operations of the airport from 1 January 1997 , in exchange for NOK 3 @.@ 9 million being paid to Nordreisa Municipality . Ground handling remained a municipal responsibility . Flights to Sørkjosen have been subject to public service obligations since 1 April 1997 .
In the mid @-@ 1990s , Nordreisa Municipal Council attempted to change the airport 's name from Sørkjosen to Nordreisa . They argued that it was necessary to use the Nordreisa name to market the region as a tourist destination . The application was rejected by the Ministry of Transport and Communications , who stated that airports were required by regulation to be named after a settlement rather than a municipality . Airport security was introduced on 1 January 2005 . This required the terminal to be slightly rebuilt ; while it previously had a common departure and arrivals hall , it had to be separated into two areas . The municipality therefore decided to transfer the ownership of the ground handling service to the three employees . Avinor carried out a major upgrade to the runway safety area and landing lights in 2008 and 2009 . The investments cost NOK 40 million . The expansion of the safety area resulted in part of the lot of Birkelund Sawmill being expropriated .
= = Facilities = =
The airport has a 880 @-@ by @-@ 30 @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 887 by 98 ft ) asphalt runway aligned 15 – 33 ( roughly north – south ) . The airport consists of a passenger terminal and an operations building . The terminal has a capacity of sixty passengers per hour and one airliner on the apron . Twenty people work at the airport , which is five minutes from Storslett . Free parking , taxis and car rental is available .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
Sørkjosen Airport is served by Widerøe with Dash 8 @-@ 100 aircraft connecting the community with Tromsø and airports in Finnmark . The routes are operated on public service obligation with the Ministry of Transport and Communications . The airport had 15 @,@ 198 passengers , 2 @,@ 343 aircraft movements and handled 0 tonnes of cargo in 2014 . Sørkjosen 's catchment area covers northern Troms and the airport is the only regional airport in the county .
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= Tranmere Rovers F.C. =
Tranmere Rovers Football Club is a professional association football club founded in 1884 , and based in Birkenhead , Wirral , England . Originally known as Belmont Football Club , they adopted their current name in 1885 . They were a founder member of Division Three North in 1921 , and were a member of The Football League until 2015 , when they were relegated to the National League , the fifth tier of English football .
During the 1980s , they were beset by financial problems and , in 1987 , went into administration . However , this was a prelude to the most successful period in Tranmere 's history ; under manager John King , the team reached the play @-@ offs for promotion to the Premier League in three successive seasons . Under King 's successor , John Aldridge , Tranmere experienced a number of cup runs , most notably reaching the 2000 Football League Cup Final . Other cup runs include reaching FA Cup quarter @-@ finals in 2000 , 2001 and 2004 .
Tranmere 's regular kit is an all @-@ white strip with blue trim , their main colours since 1962 . The club moved to its current home , Prenton Park , in 1912 . In 1995 , the ground had a major redevelopment in response to the Taylor Report . It now seats 16 @,@ 567 in four stands : the Main Stand , the Kop , the Johnny King Stand and the Cowshed .
= = History = =
= = = Formative years = = =
Tranmere Rovers were , initially , formed as Belmont Football Club when the football arms of two cricket clubs – Lyndhurst Wanderers and Belmont – came together in 1884 . On 15 November 1884 , they won their first game 4 – 0 against Brunswick Rovers . This was a friendly match , as there were no leagues until 1888 . Under the presidency of James McGaul , the team had a successful inaugural season , losing only one of their fifteen matches . An unrelated , disbanded side had played under the name " Tranmere Rovers Cricket Club ( Association football section ) " in 1881 – 82 . On 16 September 1885 , before their second season began , Belmont F.C. adopted this name Tranmere Rovers .
Tranmere played their first matches at Steeles Field in Birkenhead . In 1887 , they bought Ravenshaws Field from Tranmere Rugby Club . In 1895 , their ground was renamed Prenton Park , although it was 25 years later that the team moved into the current stadium of the same name . Tranmere first wore a kit of blue shirts , white shorts and blue socks . In 1889 they adopted orange and maroon shirts , but in 1904 returned to wearing their original kit .
In 1886 , Tranmere entered their first competition : the Liverpool and District Challenge Cup ; in 1889 , they entered the West Lancashire League . They joined the Combination , a much stronger league , in 1897 , and won the championship in 1908 . In 1910 , continuing their movement through the leagues , they entered the Lancashire Combination and in 1912 they showed their ambition by moving to the present Prenton Park site , with an 800 @-@ seat stand . Tranmere won the Lancashire Combination Championship in 1914 and Stan Rowlands became the first Tranmere player to receive an international cap when he was selected to play for Wales .
Rovers continued to play throughout the First World War , although their players were criticised for avoiding military service , despite being employed in the local shipyards .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
Following the expulsion of Leeds City Reserves in 1919 , Tranmere were able to enter the Central League . Their timing was excellent as the following season , four Central League clubs – including Tranmere – were invited to join the new Division Three North . On 27 August 1921 , as founder members of the division , they won their first Football League match 4 – 1 against Crewe Alexandra at Prenton Park . At this time the team were managed by Bert Cooke , who did so for 23 years in total , the club record for longest serving manager .
In 1924 , local youngster Dixie Dean made his debut aged 16 years 355 days . He played 30 games for Rovers , scoring 27 goals , before being transferred to Everton for £ 3 @,@ 000 . In the 1927 – 28 season , Dean scored a record 60 League goals for Everton . After Dean 's departure , a string of talented youngsters also left for Division One clubs , leading to Cooke 's reputation as a shrewd businessman . Among those sold was Pongo Waring who – having scored six goals in the 11 – 1 victory over Durham City – went to Aston Villa for £ 4 @,@ 700 . Waring retains the record of scoring most goals for Villa in a single season .
In 1934 , an FA Cup tie between Rovers and Liverpool was watched at Anfield by 61 @,@ 036 fans , then a record crowd for a game involving Rovers . One year later , Bunny Bell netted 57 goals during the 1933 – 34 season , and nine goals in the 13 – 4 Boxing Day 1935 victory over Oldham Athletic . As of 2011 , the aggregate of 17 goals in one game remains a league record .
During this same period , Tranmere made several appearances in the Welsh Cup , reaching the Final on two occasions . In 1934 , they lost 3 – 0 to Bristol City in a replay , after a 1 – 1 draw . The following season , they went one better by beating local rivals Chester 1 – 0 to win their first silverware since joining the Football League .
Rovers won their first championship in the Football League in 1938 with victory in Division Three North and , hence , promotion to Division Two for the first time . It is still Rovers ' only championship in the Football League . However , they were relegated the next season winning six matches – the record for the worst performance of any team in Division Two .
= = = Creation of the Superwhites = = =
Prenton Park emerged from the Second World War largely unscathed . Tranmere rejoined the peacetime Football League in Division Three North and stayed there until the 1958 restructuring of the football league 's lower divisions . Manager Peter Farrell led Tranmere to finish 11th in the final season of the Northern Section , securing a place in the new national Division Three where they were , again , founder members . The final match against Wrexham , also fighting for a place in the higher league , attracted a crowd of 19 @,@ 615 , which remains the highest ever attendance at a Prenton Park league match .
In 1961 , Tranmere 's inspirational captain Harold Bell left the club . Bell had been picked in the first game after the Second World War in the 1946 season and did not miss a match until he was dropped on 30 August 1955 , a total of 459 consecutive appearances for a British team , a record which still holds in 2011 . Rovers certainly missed their captain , and were relegated to Division Four for the first time in 1961 .
The club brought in Dave Russell as manager who made some revolutionary changes . Tranmere had worn a kit of blue shirts , white shorts and blue socks since 1904 – the same colours as local rivals , Division One club Everton . Russell introduced an all @-@ white strip to set the teams apart ; these have been Tranmere 's usual colours since . Russell also developed a successful youth policy which included England international Roy McFarland among its graduates . Russell guided Rovers back to Division Three in 1967 , a year before a new 4 @,@ 000 @-@ seater main stand was opened , and Rovers reached the fifth round of the FA Cup for the first time . Three years later the club 's record attendance at Prenton Park was established as 24 @,@ 424 supporters witnessed Rovers draw 2 – 2 with Stoke City in the FA Cup .
In 1972 , Ron Yeats was installed as player / manager . He strengthened Tranmere 's connections with local rivals Liverpool by recruiting several former team @-@ mates such as Ian St John , and bringing in Bill Shankly in a consultancy role . This team saw one of the most memorable Rovers results of all time when , in a League Cup tie in 1973 , Tranmere beat First Division Arsenal 1 – 0 at their former Highbury home . However , Tranmere returned to the Fourth Division in 1975 . The following decade was among the bleakest times in the club 's history , with the team usually in the lower reaches of the Fourth Division , beset by financial problems , and attaining crowds of less than 2 @,@ 000 .
In 1979 , Steve Mungall joined Tranmere from Motherwell . He went on to make more than 500 league appearances for Rovers in a 17 @-@ year period . This spell saw Rovers rise up the league and make several appearances at Wembley . He remained with the club on the coaching staff before leaving in October 2000 to pursue business interests .
= = = 1980s = = =
Another relegation to Division Four in 1979 put the club in financial difficulties . Debts mounted throughout the 1980s , with insolvency forestalled through a series of friendly fixtures , contributions from fans and a £ 200 @,@ 000 loan from Wirral Council . This partnership proved an enduring one , as Wirral 's logo still appeared on the shirts until 2011 . Nonetheless , in 1987 the club went into administration , with local businessman Peter Johnson taking over control and ownership . This proved to be a turning point in Tranmere 's history , the club under his ownership enjoying by far the most successful period in its history , in which manager John King took the team from the bottom of Division Four to the brink of English football 's top league . King 's first task was to avoid the team finishing bottom of Division Four , which would have resulted in their relegation from the football league . Safety was guaranteed on the last game of the season with a 1 – 0 home win over Exeter City .
The first full season ( 1987 – 88 ) of King 's second managerial spell in charge saw Tranmere make their first appearance at Wembley stadium when a good mid @-@ season run of form saw them qualify for the Football League Centenary Tournament . Tranmere were the surprise stars of the event , beating Division One Wimbledon and Newcastle United before losing on penalties to eventual winners Nottingham Forest . The following season , King guided Tranmere to promotion as Division Four runners @-@ up . Their final game played to clinch promotion was against Crewe Alexandra , and was notable for the fact that both teams needed a point to gain promotion . The first half was contested as usual , but the second half , with the score at 1 – 1 , both teams failed to attack each other 's goals , leading to combined celebrations at the final whistle .
In the same season , they achieved a string of cup successes including beating Division One Middlesbrough . Promotion was almost achieved in their first season in Division Three , losing 2 – 0 in the Play @-@ off Final to Notts County . , a week after Tranmere 's 2 – 1 victory over Bristol Rovers at Wembley in the final of the Leyland DAF Trophy had clinched the club 's first trophy . A key element in Tranmere 's success during this period was the form of striker Ian Muir . He joined the club in 1985 and scored 180 goals in eleven seasons . He is the club 's record scorer , and the first inductee to their hall of fame . Fellow hall of fame member John Morrissey joined the club in 1986 . The winger spent 14 seasons at the club , making 585 appearances .
= = = Wembley years = = =
In the 1990 – 91 season , Tranmere won promotion to Division Two for the first time since the 1930s , with a 1 – 0 play @-@ off win over local rivals Bolton Wanderers . Once again , Rovers made an appearance in the Leyland DAF Trophy final , this time losing 3 – 2 to Birmingham City . This made the play @-@ off victory over Bolton Tranmere 's fourth appearance in a Wembley final in just over a year .
Former Liverpool player John Aldridge joined the club in summer of 1991 , signing from Spain 's Real Sociedad for £ 250 @,@ 000 ; he would remain on the club 's payroll for the next 10 years , scoring 170 times to put him behind only Ian Muir in the all @-@ time scoring charts . Aldridge also received 30 caps for the Republic of Ireland , and was the first Tranmere player to score at a World Cup . In 1993 , Scotland international Pat Nevin joined the team , forming a four @-@ man attack alongside Aldridge , Malkin and Morrissey . Tranmere reached the play @-@ offs in three successive seasons missing out on promotion to the newly formed Premier League through defeat to Swindon Town in 1993 , Leicester City in 1994 , and Reading in 1995 . 1994 also saw Tranmere progress to the League Cup semi @-@ final , where they faced Aston Villa over two legs . The home leg was won 3 – 1 by Tranmere , with Villa scoring their only goal in the 94th minute . The away leg was 2 – 1 to Villa until the 88th minute with Villa finally winning 3 – 1 , so the match went to extra time and penalties . Tranmere went 3 – 1 up in the shoot out , but eventually lost 4 – 3 . A reconstructed Prenton Park was opened in March 1995 , with the all seater stadium now holding just under 17 @,@ 000 supporters . One year later , John Aldridge was appointed player / manager and held that position for five years ; he retired from playing in 1999 .
= = = 2000 and beyond = = =
In the 1999 – 2000 season , despite severe financial constraints , victories over a succession of Premiership sides led not only to a place in the sixth round of the FA Cup but a place in the 2000 Football League Cup Final against Leicester City – the first time Rovers had ever reached a major final . Matt Elliott scored Leicester 's opening goal , before Tranmere 's Clint Hill was sent off for a second bookable offence . Despite being reduced to ten men , David Kelly equalised ; but Elliot soon netted Leicester 's second goal and Tranmere lost the match 2 – 1 . It was the last League Cup game to be played at the original Wembley stadium .
In 2000 , the all @-@ white kit was reintroduced and is still used in 2014 . That season they enjoyed yet another run in Cup competitions beating local Premier League rivals Everton 3 – 0 at Goodison Park , then Southampton 4 – 3 ( after being 0 – 3 down ) , before finally bowing out to Liverpool . They nevertheless struggled in League matches ; Aldridge quit before Tranmere 's relegation to Division Two ended a spell of ten years in Division One .
Brian Little was appointed as manager in 2003 . He took Rovers to a play @-@ off semi final in 2004 – 05 and a best ever 6th round replay in the 2004 FA Cup where they lost to eventual finalists , Millwall . At the end of the 2005 – 06 season , Little left the club and was replaced by former player Ronnie Moore . In Moore 's three seasons in charge , the club finished 9th , 11th and 7th , just missing out the play @-@ offs in the final season . Despite this , he was sacked in 2009 and replaced by former England winger John Barnes , whose only previous domestic managerial experience was with Celtic 10 years earlier . It was whilst Barnes was manager that long serving Kitman , Mark Trevor , ended his 12 @-@ year ' Labour of Love ' washing the kit of his local team . Having been at the club since 1997 , he washed his last kit in August 2009 ready for the home game with Charlton Athletic . Barnes ' reign lasted considerably less , it was a mere five months before long @-@ serving club physiotherapist Les Parry was given temporary charge . Rovers finished the season in 19th place in League One , avoiding relegation on the final day of the season with a 3 – 0 victory at Stockport County . In June 2010 , Parry was given the manager 's job on a permanent basis . He was sacked on 4 March 2012 , after a 1 – 0 defeat by Chesterfield left them only one point above the relegation zone , and replaced by Ronnie Moore for the remainder of the season . Moore won six of his thirteen games in charge at the end of the season , guiding Tranmere to a comfortable mid @-@ table position , as they finished the season in the top half for the first time in several years . Moore then signed a new one @-@ year deal with Tranmere , keeping him at the club until the end of the 2012 – 13 season .
Towards the end of the 2013 – 14 season , Moore admitted breaking the Football Association 's betting rules , and was sacked by Tranmere when the club were just outside the relegation zone . Assistant John McMahon took over as caretaker manager , but Tranmere were relegated to League Two on the final game of the season . Rob Edwards was subsequently appointed as new manager .
On 11 August 2014 , it was announced that former player and Football Association chief executive Mark Palios and his wife Nicola were taking a controlling interest in the club from outgoing chairman Peter Johnson . Mark Palios would become Executive Chairman of the club , with Johnson becoming Honorary President .
After a poor start to the season , the home loss to Plymouth Argyle on 11 October 2014 saw Tranmere in last place in the Football League for the first time since 27 August 1987 after they had lost their first two matches of that season . Edwards was sacked as manager on 13 October . Mickey Adams took over a week later , with the aim of saving the club from relegation to the Conference . However , on 25 April 2015 Tranmere were relegated from the Football League after another defeat to Plymouth Argyle in the reverse fixture , ending their 94 @-@ year stay in the leagues . Gary Brabin was appointed as manager on 5 May 2015 .
= = Colours and crest = =
Belmont F.C. , the forerunners of today 's Rovers , wore blue shirts and white shorts , as did the early Rovers , until a radical change in 1889 , when a combination of maroon and orange shirts and navy blue shorts was introduced to " dazzle " their opponents in the West Lancashire League . These were abandoned in 1904 in favour of the earlier blue and white colours which have , in some form or other , remained until the present day . In 1962 , Dave Russell introduced a white strip with blue trim , saying " Tranmere Rovers should have a specific identity of its own , so on Merseyside there 's now Liverpool 's Red , Everton 's blue and Tranmere 's white " . Since then , the team have worn varying combinations of blue and white , moving back towards a more predominantly white kit in 2000 . The team 's colours are reflected in their nickname of the " Superwhites " .
Tranmere first introduced a badge on their shirt in 1962 , wearing the coat of arms of the borough of Birkenhead , along with adopting their motto " Ubi fides ibi lux et robur " , meaning " Where there is faith there is light and strength " . The crest was replaced in 1972 by a monogram , and in 1981 by a simple blue and white shield . In 1987 , a complicated and confusing crest was introduced , adapting the Birkenhead crest through the inclusion of a football and a TRFC logo . Today 's simpler badge was adopted in 1997 , and modified slightly in 2009 to mark the club 's 125 @-@ year anniversary .
= = Stadium = =
Rovers played their first matches at Steeles Field in Birkenhead but , in 1887 , they bought a new site from Tranmere Rugby Club . The ground was variously referred to as the " Borough Road Enclosure " , " Ravenshaw 's Field " and " South Road " . The name " Prenton Park " was adopted in 1895 as a result of a suggestion in the letters page of the Football Echo . Because the land was required for housing and a school , Tranmere were forced to move and the name went with them . The present Prenton Park was opened on 9 March 1912 . There were stands ( also known as bleachers ) on both sides of the pitch , a paddock and three open terraces , the general format which remained until 1994 .
Many improvements to the ground were driven by changes in legislation . The biggest change of all took place during 1994 and 1995 . The Taylor Report suggested that all stadia in the top two divisions of English football should no longer permit standing . The club 's response was to redevelop three sides of the ground with entirely new all @-@ seater stands created – the Borough Road Stand ( now the Johnny King Stand ) , the Cowshed and the new Kop , in addition to the existing Main Stand . Capacity in the ground thus increased from 14 @,@ 200 to the 16 @,@ 567 of today . On 11 March 1995 , the new ground was officially opened at a cost of £ 3 @.@ 1 million .
Attendances at the ground have fluctuated over its hundred @-@ year history . Around 8 @,@ 000 visitors watched the first game at the stadium , as Tranmere beat Lancaster Town 8 – 0 . Prenton Park 's largest @-@ ever crowd was 24 @,@ 424 for a 1972 FA Cup match between Tranmere and Stoke City . In 2010 , an average of 5 @,@ 000 fans attended each home game .
= = Supporters and rivalries = =
Tranmere Rovers had an average home attendance of 5 @,@ 467 during the 2010 – 11 season , making them the twelfth best supported club in League One and 61st in The Football League as a whole . The club has a number of supporters ' groups , including the Tranmere Rovers Supporters Trust ; in 2010 , the trust raised £ 12 @,@ 500 for the club to sign Andy Robinson on loan . In 2011 , they raised £ 200 @,@ 000 and plan to purchase a controlling interest in Tranmere . TSB ( Tranmere Stanley Boys ) is the hooligan firm associated with the club . The club has been the subject of an independent supporters ' fanzine Give Us an R since the 1990s .
Despite being geographically closest to Everton and Liverpool , Tranmere 's time in the lower leagues has meant that they have formed rivalries with other clubs against whom they regularly compete . According to the Football Fans Census of 2003 , Tranmere fans listed Bolton Wanderers as their main rivals , followed by Chester City and Everton . In a more recent census , Oldham Athletic overtook Bolton as their main rivals , with Everton and Liverpool in joint third , although the census is debatable as it does not contain non @-@ league clubs , of whom Chester and Wrexham would likely feature . As of the end of the 2011 – 12 season , Tranmere had met the following teams most times in the Football League :
= = Tranmere Rovers Ladies = =
Tranmere Rovers Ladies Football Club were founded in 1990 . Based in the Wirral , they are affiliated with the men 's team , and play home games at Villa Park , the home of Ashville F.C. in Wallasey . Between 1996 and 2004 they competed in the FA Premier League National Division , then the top tier of the English women 's football pyramid . Since 2011 , they have played in the North West Regional League , Premier Division . As of the start of the 2011 – 12 season , they have won the Cheshire Cup a record 11 times .
= = Players = =
= = = First team squad = = =
Where a player has not declared an international allegiance , nation is determined by place of birth . Squad correct as of 6 May 2016 .
= = = Former players = = =
As part of the club 's 125 @-@ year anniversary celebrations in 2010 , a hall of fame was announced , initially honouring seven former players and managers : Ian Muir , John Aldridge , John King , Ray Mathias , Steve Mungall , John Morrissey and Pat Nevin . Harold Bell holds the record for the most consecutive league appearances for a British team . He was picked for the first game after the Second World War in the 1946 – 47 season and did not miss a match until 30 August 1955 , a total of 401 consecutive matches in the Third Division North .
= = Officials = =
= = = Current coaching staff = = =
= = = Managers = = =
As of the start of the 2011 – 12 season , the club has had 24 managers . The first man to hold this position was Bert Cooke , appointed in 1912 . He oversaw the club 's entry into the Football League and remained in charge for 23 years , the longest spell of any manager at the club . Major changes were not seen until businessman Dave Russell took over in 1961 . His introductions included the team 's current all @-@ white kit and regularly arranged floodlit home fixtures on Friday evenings rather than the usual Saturday afternoon . Rock band and Tranmere fans Half Man Half Biscuit described the practice in their song " Friday Night And The Gates Are Low " .
Tranmere 's most successful period came at the end of the twentieth century . John King returned for his third spell at the club in 1987 , having previously both played and managed the team . He led them to a victory in the League Trophy , and from the bottom of the Fourth Division to reach the play @-@ offs for promotion to the Premier League on three occasions . Success continued under King 's replacement , John Aldridge , including an appearance in the 2000 Football League Cup Final . From 2009 , they were managed by former club physiotherapist , Les Parry , until he was sacked on 4 March 2012 , and replaced by Ronnie Moore . In February 2014 it was reported that Moore was under investigation by The Football Association , for breaching its rules against betting on competitions in which his club were involved . Three days later , he was suspended , and after admitting the FA 's charges he was sacked on 9 April 2014 .
On 27 May 2014 , the club announced that Rob Edwards had been appointed as their new manager . He was sacked on 13 October 2014 .
Moving quickly to arrest the decline which had seen Tranmere slump to the bottom of League Two , former Port Vale manager Micky Adams ' appointment was announced on 16 October 2014 He left the club by mutual consent on 19 April 2015 , when the club were bottom of the league with two matches remaining .
Recent managers have had varied levels of success :
= = Honours = =
= = = League = = =
First Division ( tier 2 )
4th in 1992 – 93 ( highest league position )
Play @-@ offs : 1992 – 93 , 1993 – 94 , 1994 – 95
Third Division / Second Division / League One ( tier 3 )
Promotion : 1990 – 91
Play @-@ offs : 1989 – 90 , 2004 – 05
Third Division North ( tier 3 )
Winner : 1937 – 38
Fourth Division ( tier 4 )
Promotion : 1966 – 67 , 1975 – 76 , 1988 – 89
Lancashire Combination
Winner : 1913 – 14 , 1918 – 19
The Combination
Winner : 1907 – 08
= = = Cup = = =
FA Cup
Quarter @-@ final : 1999 – 2000 , 2000 – 01 , 2003 – 04
Welsh Cup
Winner : 1934 – 35
Runner @-@ up : 1933 – 34
Football League Cup
Runner @-@ up : 1999 – 2000
Semi @-@ final : 1993 – 94
League Trophy
Winner : 1989 – 90
Runner @-@ up : 1990 – 91
= = Records = =
Scoreline : 13 – 4 , against Oldham Athletic , on 26 December 1935 . The aggregate of 17 goals in one game remains a league record .
Attendance : 74 @,@ 313 , against Leicester City on 27 February 2000 , in the League Cup final at Wembley Stadium .
Home attendance : 24 @,@ 424 , for an FA Cup tie against Stoke City on 5 February 1972 .
Goals ( total ) : 180 , by Ian Muir .
Goals ( season ) : 40 , by both Bunny Bell ( 1934 – 35 ) and John Aldridge ( 1991 – 92 ) .
Appearances : 637 , by Ray Mathias .
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= Nels Nelsen Hill =
Nels Nelsen Hill , originally Big Hill , is an abandoned ski jumping hill located in Mount Revelstoke National Park near the town of Revelstoke , British Columbia , Canada . The original hill , Big Hill , was built in 1916 and was the first permanent ski jump in Canada . By 1933 , four world length records had been set on the Big Hill . It fell out of use in 1939 , with Revelstoke instead using the Big Bend Ski Jump .
Big Hill was rebuilt to a K @-@ 80 hill in 1948 and was named in honor of Nels Nelsen , a local ski jumper who had set two world records on the hill . Among the events hosted there were the annual Tournament of Champions and the 1949 edition of the Western Canada Ski Championships . In the vicinity was a K @-@ 60 hill and other smaller hills . The hill record of 94 @.@ 5 meters ( 310 ft ) was set by Kjell Sjöberg in 1967 . The last major tournament was held in 1974 . The venue has not been used since 1975 and has fallen into disrepair .
= = First hill = =
Skiing in Revelstoke started in 1890 with the influx of Norwegian immigrants who brought with them their tradition of home @-@ made skies . By the early 1910s , ski jumping was a major pastime during winter , with small ski jumps being built all around the town . Revelstoke Ski Club was founded in 1914 and reached 102 members within a year . Starting in 1915 , the club 's annual high point was the Winter Carnival Tournament . The first tournament was held in 1915 , and featured competitions in cross @-@ country skiing and ski jumping for boys under 16 , and awarded the title of Champion of British Columbia . The inaugurate tournament was won by Nels Nelson .
One of the jury members for the jumping competition , Ambassador Iverson of Norway , helped find a suitable location for a new , permanent ski jumping hill . The hill selected was located in Mount Revelstoke National Park near Revelstoke , British Columbia . It would allow for world @-@ record jumps , and the natural inclination of the hill allowed this to be done without an artificial tower . As the site was located within the national park , a lease was obtained , which was financed through a $ 1 @,@ 200 grant from the chamber of commerce and the municipality . Revelstoke was the largest town in the British Columbia Interior at the time , and easily accessible due to its location on the Canadian Pacific Railway mainline .
Big Hill was first used for the 1916 Winter Carnival , in which Nelsen set a hill record at 56 meters ( 183 ft ) . He beat his own record several times and kept the hill record until 1921 . The tournament was gradually expanded , and by 1921 it cost $ 5 @,@ 800 to arrange . That year , Henry Hall set a world length record in the hill , jumping 70 meters ( 229 ft ) . Three thousand spectators watched the games , in which many of the world 's elite skiers competed . To accommodate the extra spectators , Canadian Pacific Railway stationed sleeping cars at Revelstoke to supplement the hotels . In 1922 , Isabel Coursier debuted as Big Hill 's first women jumper . In 1923 , the tournament climaxed with 99 participating ski jumpers . In 1925 , while sick with the flu , Nelsen beat Hall 's world record by jumping 73 meters ( 240 ft ) . The record would remain until 1930 .
In 1928 , the hill was expanded to allow for jumps to 79 meters ( 260 ft ) . A car was offered to anyone able to beat Nelsen 's record jump at the Big Hill , provided that at least three outside jumpers participated in the competition . The prize was offered by local fur dealer J. H. Munro , who hoped to attract the world 's elite ski jumpers to Revelstoke . Many of the world 's best ski jumpers attended that year 's tournament , such as Henry Hall , Henry Lien , Ivan Knudsen and Alf Engen . Nelsen won the race , but failed to break his own record . The record was eventually broken by Adolph Badrut at Tremplin de Bretaye in Swtizerland in 1930 , who jumped 75 meters ( 246 ft ) . However , Bob Lymburne was able to again claim the world record for the Big Hill , when he jumped 82 meters ( 269 ft ) in 1932 . He lost the record to Sigmund Ruud the following year , but by the end of the season , Lymburne reclaimed the title with a jump of 87 @.@ 5 meters ( 287 ft ) . Birger Ruud exceeded Lymbourne 's record in 1934 and no further world records were set in Revelstoke . Big Hill is the only ski jumping venue in Canada to have set world records .
= = Hill replaced = =
On 15 January 1939 , the Big Bend Ski Jump replaced Big Hill . It was located just north of town , allowing for a short walk to the venue and easier maintenance . It had been built to allow Revelstoke to host the Western Canada Ski Championships . It was a success for Revelstoke , with " ski trains " being set up from Vancouver to bring people in from the city to watch the events . The championships were broadcast on radio and received unprecedented newspaper attention for a Revelstoke skiing event . During the Second World War , only junior tournaments were contested . In 1946 , the Big Bend was renamed Hans Gunnarsen Ski Jump in honor of local jumper Hans Gunnarsen who had died in action . In 1947 , Revelstoke again hosted the Western Canadian Ski Championships .
= = Last hill = =
In April 1948 , the Big Hill was rebuilt and renamed Nels Nelsen Hill . With grants from the National Parks Department , Revelstoke Ski Club rebuilt the hill to meet the profile criteria set by the International Ski Federation , giving the hill a construction point of 80 meters ( 260 ft ) . The first tournament was the International Invitational Ski Jumping Tournament held in March 1949 , and attended by 2 @,@ 500 people . It was inaugurated by local ski jumper Art Johnson and the tournament was won by Petter Hugsted of Norway , who jumped 75 meters ( 247 ft ) . In 1950 , the first Tournament of Champions was held to which seven Norwegian jumpers were invited . Art Johnson re @-@ mortgaged his home for $ 8000 to pay for the expenses of the Norwegians . The event was won by Arnfinn Bergmann . The tournament was held throughout the 1950s and started attracting jumpers from Sweden , Finland , Germany and Japan . The 1958 edition was the first to be televised , although this resulted in fewer spectators . That year 's event saw a new hill record of 82 meters ( 270 ft ) be set by Norway 's Odd Brevik . The following year , Finland 's Kalevi Kärkinen broke the record , reaching 85 meters ( 278 ft ) .
In 1961 , the wooden judge 's tower was replaced by a new one in steel . Tournaments were held every year except in 1963 , when it was canceled because of lack of snow . The 1960s also saw the construction of a smaller hill with a construction point of 60 meters ( 200 ft ) which was used for Olympic trials . The town even considered placing a bid for the 1968 Winter Olympics . However , throughout the 1960s , the interest in ski jumping was declining , resulting in lower attendance . The North American Nordic Championship was held in 1962 , and two years later Nels Nelsen Hill hosted the Canadian Nordic Championships , attracting crowds of up to 3 @,@ 000 spectators . In 1967 , Kjell Sjöberg set a Canadian jumping record of 94 @.@ 5 meters ( 310 ft ) . The Tournament of Champions , which had with a few interruptions been running since the inauguration , continued into the early 1970s .
The hill required a lot of volunteer work to maintain and run during the season and particularly for the tournament . It also lacked a ski lift . Combined , this made it increasingly difficult to recruit new ski jumpers during the 1960s , particularly after a lift was installed on Mount Revelstoke in 1961 . Skiing activities moved to Mount Mackenzie during the 1960s and in 1973 , the ski club also relocated to there . The Tournament of Champions during 1971 and 1972 incurred a heavy loss . The last major tournaments in Nels Nelson Hill were the Western Canadian Ski Jumping Tournament , the Canadian Junior and Senior Ski Jumping Championship and the International Cross Country Championship , held in February and March 1974 . The last tournament was a junior event held in 1975 . The venue has since fallen into disrepair .
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= Rough Landing , Holly =
" Rough Landing , Holly " is a song by the American pop punk band Yellowcard . The song was written collaboratively by all the band members for their fifth album , Lights and Sounds ( 2006 ) . The track is built around an introductory guitar sound , followed by a soaring chorus , and heavy beating drums . " Rough Landing , Holly " is one of the songs from the album that is based on a character , Holly Wood , that Yellowcard had developed while working on Lights and Sounds .
The song was released on May 6 , 2006 , as the second single from Lights and Sounds and reached number 27 on Billboard 's Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart . Internationally , the track appeared for one week in the Australian and New Zealand charts at number 49 . " Rough Landing , Holly " was well received by music critics , who noted the track 's general sound . After its release , it was featured in the soundtrack of the 2006 video game , FlatOut 2 .
The music video was directed by Marc Webb , who had previously collaborated with the band on their previous music videos . In an interview , Webb revealed the video was the sequel to the band 's 2004 video " Ocean Avenue " . Webb also revealed that unlike " Ocean Avenue " , in which Key is running away from bad guys , this video shows Key running away from his " own personal demons " .
= = Background = =
While Yellowcard was working on their upcoming album , Lights and Sounds , they developed a character , Holly Wood , who served as a narrator and protagonist for the album 's storyline . The character also came about when the band began writing about their hatred for life in Los Angeles . Vocalist Ryan Key , in discussion of the character , said , " Holly became this person on the record who appears in a lot of the songs , and at times you love her and at times you hate her . At times she 's good to you and sometimes she 's bad . " Violinist Sean Mackin , also in discussion of the character , said : " ... Ryan didn ’ t have a romantic interest in his life and he didn ’ t want to write ' Only One ' again , and he wanted to create something new . A lot of songwriters narrate and create fictional characters ... and Holly was a character where sometimes you love her and sometimes you hate her , and she was someone he could get all his emotions out through . " Key revealed that the song " Rough Landing , Holly " , which features the Holly character , was his " favorite song " from Lights and Sounds .
Written in the key of E major , the beat is set in common time and moves at a moderate 175 beats per minute . The song 's musical structure features an introductory guitar sound , followed by a soaring chorus , and heavy beating drums . Sean Mackin plays the violin in " Rough Landing , Holly " . During discussion of the track listing in Lights and Sounds , Yellowcard revealed that " Rough Landing , Holly " spoke about the " difficulty of giving up its allure " . The band explained the lyrics , " And I still can 't get out / She 's all I think about / Can 't let her go / ... She moves fast , takes control / And like a heart attack I know I can 't turn back " , were written because of that particular reason .
= = Release and promotion = =
Yellowcard released " Rough Landing , Holly " in the United States on May 6 , 2006 , as the second single from Lights and Sounds . The song peaked at number 27 on Billboard 's Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart . Internationally , the track appeared on both the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) and New Zealand charts at the number 49 position , and individually spent one week on the charts . " Rough Landing , Holly " was featured in the soundtrack of the 2006 video game , FlatOut 2 .
The song received positive reception from critics . Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone wrote that " Rough Landing , Holly " and " Lights and Sounds " , the latter being the title track , " boast seismic alt @-@ rock riffs and mosh @-@ worthy refrains . " Tom Beaujor of Entertainment Weekly reported that the song was a " blustery tale of puppy love gone to the dogs that will surely make for a great ringtone . " Sputnikmusic wrote : " So how typical to have the next song , ' Rough Landing , Holly ' , slap you right on the mouth with a face @-@ melting violin solo . Yeah , a violin solo . And its pretty damn good . The beat follows right along with impossible @-@ sounding drum rolls while the guitar distortion is the backbone of the song . " In the Allmusic review , critic Heather Phares wrote , " ... Yellowcard expands on its expected sound . Songs like the title track , ' Rough Landing , Holly , ' and ' Down on My Head ' are tightly crafted , state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art examples of shiny , earnest punk @-@ pop that sounds sunny even when it 's sad " . Tony Pascarella of AbsolutePunk.net noted that " we see flashes of the ' old ' band on ' Rough Landing , Holly ' , but it ’ s not nearly widespread enough for my liking ( although the song is possibly the best one on the new album ) . " Bart Gottula of The Clarion commented that the song " is probably one of the best songs " off Lights and Sounds and concluded that it was because of its " effective use of every instrument , a soulful blend of guitar , and excellent lyrics . "
= = Music video = =
The video for " Rough Landing , Holly " was shot in Los Angeles in February 2006 . The music video was directed by Marc Webb , who had previously worked with Yellowcard on their earlier videos , " Ocean Avenue " ( 2004 ) and " Lights and Sounds " ( 2005 ) . The video took three days to film in and around Los Angeles County .
In an interview with MTV News , Webb revealed that the video was a sequel of the music video " Ocean Avenue " ; " The ' Holly ' video expands on some of the elements of the ' Ocean Avenue ' clip . There are references to it , particularly some scenes involving a suitcase . It refers to that world , and I liked the idea of paralleling the band 's experiences over the past two years with some of the things [ frontman ] Ryan [ Key ] is going through in this video . " Webb went on to add that the reason Key is sprinting through Los Angeles , once again , is not bad guys that are after him , it is his " own personal demons " . Webb concluded that before filming began for the video , he had wanted to learn the experience that Key and bassist Peter Mosely were going through in New York , as they moved there to begin working on Lights and Sounds , and about the things they saw while they were there .
The video begins with Ryan Key lying on his bed in an apartment . Suddenly , he gets swallowed by the bedsheets ( this is where the track starts to play ) . The scene then shifts to Key in another dimension , ending up next to the wife of another man . The man notices Key , and he runs away from the man . Hiding in the bathroom , Key escapes through a window , where he ends up on a neighborhood street . Someone dressed in dark clothing gestures to offer him a drink , when Key notices he is in a bar filled with Asian people . During part of the video , it features the band performing in front of a crowd wearing suits . The chase continues through a hallway , underwater , to a hospital bed , and back . The video is based in a scene of the 1999 film Being John Malkovich , where Cameron Diaz chases Catherine Keener within the subconscious of Malkovich .
= = Track listing = =
AU Single :
" Rough Landing , Holly " – 3 : 33
" Holly Wood Died " ( live ) – 3 : 55
" Cigarette " ( live ) – 4 : 56
= = Chart positions = =
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= Citizen 's Briefing Book =
Citizen 's Briefing Book is a compilation book of recommendations made to President Barack Obama by visitors to the Change.gov website , given to the President after his January 20 , 2009 inauguration . Internet users were able to post recommendations of changes they would like to see made in the United States , and they were also able to vote on other users ' recommendations , as well as participate in a comment process .
The Minnesota @-@ based company called Reside helped develop the functionality , using technology from Salesforce.com. Co @-@ chair of the Obama @-@ Biden Transition Team , Valerie Jarrett , stated that the Citizen 's Briefing Book was a way for the Obama transition process to remain open and transparent . Popular recommendations included ending the prohibition on marijuana use in the United States and the legalization of online poker . Citizen 's Briefing Book received positive comments from writers for the Christian Science Monitor and Business Week , and criticism from writers for Chicago Tribune and Indianapolis Business Journal .
= = Comment process = =
Citizen 's Briefing Book is a work of suggestions by individuals compiled into a book format and submitted to President Barack Obama after his inauguration on January 20 , 2009 . Internet users originally posted their suggestions at Change.gov , with the plan that after Barack Obama was sworn in as President the website hosting the recommendations would direct users to Whitehouse.gov. The option to participate in the request for comment format was open until January 20 , 2009 , where users were able to post suggestions to the President , read others ' recommendations , and comment on each other 's ideas . Users voted on individual recommendations with an up or down vote for each suggestion .
The web function was developed for the Obama transition team by the Minnesota @-@ based company called Reside , and utilizes technology from Salesforce.com. Co @-@ chair of the Obama @-@ Biden Transition Team , Valerie Jarret , stated : " The Citizen 's Briefing Book will come directly from the American people . It is yet another way that we will ensure that this transition is the most open and transparent one in history . " Members of Obama 's transition team interacted with users and responded to the voting . Beth Noveck , a law professor at NYU Law School and a member of the Obama Administration 's " Technology , Innovation and Government Reform Team " , stated that the book would help the government " get the best ideas for the beginning of the administration " .
= = Top recommendations = =
According to the Change.gov site the best @-@ rated ideas would " rise to the top " of the list , to later be given to the President . As of January 17 , 2009 the most popular suggestion , with 70 @,@ 520 points , advocated ending the prohibition on marijuana use in the United States . By January 19 , 2009 , over 500 @,@ 000 people had voted on thousands of suggestions posted by 70 @,@ 000 individuals . In total over 44 @,@ 000 suggestions were submitted , with over 1 @.@ 4 million votes cast for the various recommendations .
Other popular ideas included legalizing online poker in the United States , and focusing on green initiatives . One post suggested the administration investigate UFOs , and another suggested Obama hire entertainment personalities including Michael Moore , Jon Stewart , Bill Maher , and Stephen Colbert . After voting had closed , the most popular suggestion with 92 @,@ 000 votes was " Ending marijuana prohibition " , and the third most popular : " Stop using federal resources to undermine states ' medicinal marijuana laws . " A representative for President Obama , Jen Psaki , told Reuters : " President Obama does not support the legalization of marijuana . "
= = Release = =
The Obama Administration released the Citizen 's Briefing Book to the public on May 11 , 2009 , the same day that President Obama announced the renaming of the White House Office of Public Liaison to the Office of Public Engagement . " Many of the ideas you offer , from improving light rail transit to modernizing our energy grid to creating a new service corps , have been embraced by my administration , " said President Obama in a video released along with the briefing book .
= = Reception = =
Writing for the Christian Science Monitor , David Peck described the initiative as part of " a good foundation " of reaching out to individuals . Douglas MacMillan of Business Week noted that the Obama transition site Change.gov " won praise for its clean look and Citizen 's Briefing Book feature " . Joel Hood of the Chicago Tribune highlighted some of the more eccentric suggestions posted , commenting : " As if President Barack Obama doesn 't have enough on his plate , he 's about to hear the voice of the people , in all its eccentric glory . "
Morton Marcus commented in the Indianapolis Business Journal : " I see the virtue of being open to the public ’ s concern . I cannot imagine that the president will give attention to issues based on their popularity . " In noting that the first and third @-@ most popular items voted upon involved the legalization of marijuana , Andy Sullivan of Reuters commented on President Obama 's efforts to solicit opinions from citizens on legislation : " That approach can deliver unexpected results . "
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= Duchess Violante Beatrice of Bavaria =
Violante Beatrice of Bavaria ( Violante Beatrix ; 23 January 1673 – 30 May 1731 ) was Grand Princess of Tuscany as the wife of Grand Prince Ferdinando of Tuscany and Governor of Siena from 1717 until her death . Born a Duchess of Bavaria , the youngest child of Elector Ferdinand Maria , she married the heir to the Tuscan throne , Ferdinando de ' Medici , in 1689 . Violante Beatrice loved him but Ferdinando did not return her affection , declaring her too ugly and too dull . Her brother @-@ in @-@ law , Prince Gian Gastone , befriended her out of sympathy , a friendship that lasted until Violante Beatrice 's demise .
Grand Prince Ferdinando expired from syphilis in 1713 , leaving his childless widow without purpose at the Tuscan court . Upon the return of the Electress Anna Maria Luisa de ' Medici , daughter of the then reigning , Cosimo III , thus Violante Beatrice 's sister @-@ in @-@ law , the Dowager Grand Princess contemplated retiring to her brother 's court at Munich ; however , Gian Gastone convinced her to stay , and Cosimo III appointed her Governor of Siena , where she then resided . As Governor , she formally defined the boundaries , names and number of Sienese Contrade — akin to administrative divisions — in 1729 . During Grand Duke Gian Gastone 's rule , the Governor was responsible for formal court audiences . Violante Beatrice , in collaboration with the Electress Anna Maria Luisa , attempted to withdraw Gian Gastone from the Ruspanti , his salacious entourage , by arranging banquets and public appearances . Gian Gastone , however , was immune to these approaches and spent the last eight years of his reign confined to bed , entertained by the myriad Ruspanti .
= = Childhood and marriage = =
Violante Beatrice , the youngest child of the Elector of Bavaria , Ferdinand Maria , and Henriette Adelaide of Savoy , was born on 23 January 1673 in Munich , the capital of Bavaria . Her siblings were Maria Anna Victoria , Dauphine of France , Elector Maximilian II and Joseph Clemens , Archbishop of Cologne .
Grand Duke Cosimo III of Tuscany in 1688 sought Violante Beatrice as a prestigious bride — Bavaria was one of the most powerful states of the Holy Roman Empire — for his elder son and heir , Ferdinando , Grand Prince of Tuscany . As Cosimo 's father , Ferdinando II , had embroiled Elector Ferdinand Maria in an abortive financial venture costing him 450 @,@ 000 ungheri worth of gold , relations between Munich and Florence were sour .
In order to acquire Violante Beatrice 's hand for the Grand Prince , Cosimo was obliged to reimburse Ferdinand Maria 's son Maximilian II . With this obstacle surmounted , the marriage contract was signed on 24 May 1688 , granting Violante Beatrice a dowry of 400 @,@ 000 thalers in cash and the same amount in jewellery . She married the Grand Prince by proxy in Munich on 21 November 1688 and was married in person on 9 January 1689 . The wedding reception was held at the Palazzo Medici Riccardi in Florence . The new Grand Princess was instantly enamoured with the bridegroom , in spite of the fact he loathed her . Cosimo III , however , could not find fault in his daughter @-@ in @-@ law , saying , " I have never known , nor do I think the world can produce , a disposition so perfect " .
= = Grand Princess = =
The grand princely couple 's lack of offspring after six years of marriage perturbed the Grand Duke . Consequently , much to the Grand Princess 's mortification , he commissioned three days ' religious observance to remedy their lack of children in April 1694 . Any hopes of an heir were dashed when Ferdinando contracted , in 1696 , syphilis during the Carnival of Venice , a disease to which he succumbed seventeen years later . The Grand Princess , meanwhile , fell victim to a state of melancholy , which did not escape the notice of her brother @-@ in @-@ law , Prince Gian Gastone , who befriended her as a result . Violante Beatrice rarely alluded to her emotional pain in conversation , but , on one documented occasion , in the presence of her ladies , branded Ferdinando 's lover Cecchino de Castris the focus of her woes . That Ferdinando often openly declared his wife " too dull and too ugly " only worsened matters .
The Grand Princess found herself , in 1702 , in the middle of a protocolary spat between Tuscany and Spain . The Grand Duke sent an agent to the court of Philip V of Spain with the objective of procuring a license for the Grand Prince and Princess — who , hypothetically , acquired royal dignity with Cosimo III on 5 February 1691 from the Holy Roman Emperor , Leopold I 's , diploma — to use the style Royal Highness in correspondence with Spain . Philip V initially deigned only to sanction his aunt Violante Beatrice 's use ; however , the agent , Pucci , eventually requisitioned full recognition .
King Philip V and Frederick IV of Denmark paid Violante Beatrice visits in 1703 and 1709 , respectively . The former chose to ignore the other members of the Tuscan Royal Family and reluctantly deigned only speak to her . The latter , on the other hand , was taken with Violante , going as far as to refuse to leave the room while she was changing clothes .
The Grand Prince , after much suffering , died from syphilis on 31 October 1713 , sparking a succession crisis and leaving his wife a childless and therefore purposeless widow . The Dowager was so distraught that she had to be bled by doctors in order to calm her down . Cosimo III gave her a set of blue sapphires as a token of mourning . Violante Beatrice considered returning to her homeland when she caught wind of the Electress Anna Maria Luisa de ' Medici 's , born a Tuscan princess , impending return ; the two did not get along . Violante Beatrice , additionally , would be usurped as first @-@ lady of Tuscany . To quell any future tiffs regarding precedence , Cosimo III appointed Violante Beatrice Governor of Siena , whose duties as such kept her away from the Tuscan court , and gave her possession of the Villa di Lappeggi , which became , in the words of historian Harold Acton , " a sort of literary academy " . Here , she feted poets Lucchesi , Ghivanizzi and Morandi . Although precedence was laid out cognisant of Violante Beatrice 's dignity , the Electress on several occasions disregarded it . Thus , Violante Beatrice refused to appear with her in public .
= = Governor of Siena = =
The Governor entered her domain in April 1717 , taking up residence in the city @-@ centre . Violante Beatrice 's most memorable act as Governor was the reorganisation of the Sienese Contrade — akin to administrative divisions — whose names , number and boundaries she formally defined which remain there to this day . The Grand Duke Cosimo III died on 31 October 1723 ; Gian Gastone ascended to the throne . He immediately recalled Violante Beatrice to Florence and banished his sister to the Villa La Quiete . Violante Beatrice dominated the royal court as Gian Gastone resigned his public duties to her , and literally chose to spend most of his time in bed . The " religious gloom " of Cosimo III gave way to a period of rejuvenation : Violante Beatrice instituted French fashions at court , compelled myriad Ecclesiastes to retire and patronised Siense poets Perfetti and Ballati . Violante Beatrice brought Perfetti to Rome in 1725 and stayed at the Palazzo Madama . During her time in the Papal States , she met Pope Benedict XIII , who found her so agreeable that he bestowed upon her the golden rose , a great mark of Papal favour .
Upon her return from Rome , Violante Beatrice and the Electress Anna Maria Luisa decided to do something about Gian Gastone 's public image and the Ruspanti , his entourage . In order to distract him from the Ruspanti , Violante Beatrice threw banquets , to which she invited the foremost members of Tuscan society . The Grand Duke 's behaviour , vomiting , belching and cracking rude jokes , literally sent the guests scrambling to leave . The Electress was more fortunate for her part . She succeeded in making Gian Gastone appear on Saint John the Baptist 's day , 1729 . However , during the ceremony , the Grand Duke became so intoxicated that he had to be dragged back to his palace , the Pitti , on a litter .
Just five months before the arrival of troops on behalf of Gian Gastone 's Spanish heir , Violante Beatrice of Bavaria , Dowager Grand Princess of Tuscany , Governor of Siena , died . During the funeral procession , her hearse briefly paused before the Pitti , an action that incensed the Grand Duke , who ordered the hearse to move along in words a contemporary dubbed " unfit for the lowest of harlots , let alone for a gentle high @-@ born princess " . The bulk of Violante Beatrice 's remains were interred in the Convent of Saint Teresa , Florence ; her heart was placed in her husband 's coffin in the Medicean necropolis , San Lorenzo . When in 1857 her sarcophagus was re @-@ discovered , it bore the imperial stamp of Napoleon I of France , who had had it moved from the convent to San Lorenzo . On 26 February 1858 , she was restored to the convent , brought there in the royal hearse .
= = Ancestors = =
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
23 January 1673 – 9 January 1689 : Her Serene Highness Princess Violante Beatrice of Bavaria , Duchess of Bavaria
9 January 1689 – 5 February 1691 : Her Highness The Grand Princess of Tuscany
5 February 1691 – 31 October 1713 : Her Royal Highness The Grand Princess of Tuscany
31 October 1713 – 12 April 1717 : Her Royal Highness The Dowager Grand Princess of Tuscany
12 April 1717 – 30 May 1731 : Her Royal Highness The Governor of Siena
= = = Honours = = =
Dame of the Golden Rose ( 1725 )
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= Leslie Grinsell =
Leslie Valentine Grinsell ( 14 February 1907 – 28 February 1995 ) was an English archaeologist . He became noted within the discipline for his studies of the prehistoric barrows found across southern England , and published widely on archaeological subjects during his lifetime .
Born in London and raised largely in Brighton , Grinsell developed an early interest in archaeology through visits to Brighton Museum . Later working as a bank clerk in London , he embarked on archaeological research in an amateur capacity , visiting prehistoric barrows during his weekends and holidays in order to record their shape , dimensions , and location . On the basis of his research , he published a range of academic articles and books on the subject of barrows during the 1930s , gaining recognition as Britain 's foremost expert on the subject . In 1933 , he carried out his only archaeological excavation , at the Devil 's Humps in Sussex .
During the Second World War he joined the Royal Air Force and served in Egypt , where he acquainted himself with the archaeological remains of Ancient Egyptian society ; after the war he published a book on the Egyptian pyramids . On his return to Britain , Grinsell became the treasurer of the Prehistoric Society , a position that he held from 1947 till 1970 . Moving to Devizes , in 1949 he entered the archaeological profession as an assistant to Christopher Hawkes and Stuart Piggott at the Victoria County History project . From 1952 to 1972 , Grinsell worked as Keeper of Anthropology and Archaeology at Bristol City Museum , during which time he continued his examination of barrows , focusing on those in south @-@ west England . On retirement , he was appointed to the Order of the British Empire and a festschrift was published in his honour .
Over the course of his lifetime , Grinsell examined and catalogued around 10 @,@ 000 barrows and advanced the archaeological understanding of such monuments . His use of non @-@ excavatory fieldwork influenced much British archaeology in the latter part of his 20th century , while his willingness to pay attention to other sources of information , such as folklore and place @-@ names , has been deemed to be ahead of his time .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early Life : 1907 – 45 = = =
Grinsell was born in London on 14 February 1907 . With his family , he moved to Brighton shortly after the First World War . There , his interest in archaeology was encouraged by H. S. Toms , the curator of Brighton Museum who had formerly been an assistant to the archaeologist Augustus Pitt Rivers . Moving back to London , in 1925 Grinsell became a clerk for Barclays Bank . Although he had developed his interest in prehistory through an examination of stone tools , he came to focuse his attention on barrows , recognising that these were among the least well understood prehistoric monuments in the British landscape and one of the few that could be studied from the position of an amateur . At the time , a number of antiquarians were still active in southern England , with Grinsell being encouraged in his interests by prominent figures in this milieu such as Eliot Curwen and Hadrian Allcroft .
Grinsell 's techniques of conducting archaeological fieldwork were entirely self @-@ taught , and from the start of his investigations he was very interested in understanding both the distribution and the chronology of the barrows . During the 1930s , Grinsell personally visited and catalogued all of the extant barrows in the counties of Surrey , Sussex , Berkshire , Hampshire , and the Isle of Wight , establishing himself as the " pre @-@ eminent " figure in the study of British barrows . The archaeologist Nicholas Thomas later noted that despite Grinsell 's status as an amateur , by 1932 he had established himself as being " without parallel " in British archaeology , with his accomplishments surpassing even the work of professionals like O. G. S. Crawford . Never having learned to drive , Grinsell conducted all his visits through the use of buses , trains , and on foot .
In 1932 Grinsell attended the First International Prehistoric Congress , held in London ; it was here that he was introduced to Crawford , with the two becoming close acquaintances , both sharing an interest in the use of maps as part of their archaeological fieldwork . It was also here that he met the Dutch archaeologist Albert Egges van Giffen ; they discussed whether the bell barrows of Sussex were related to the palisade barrows of the Netherlands which van Giffen had been investigating . Seeking an answer to this question , Grinsell conducted his only excavation , an examination of one of several bell barrows – collectively known as the known as the Devil 's Humps – atop Bow Hill in Sussex . Conducted in April 1933 with the help of two members of the Brighton and Hove Archaeological Society , publication of the results was delayed until 1942 . In 1936 he published The Ancient Burial Mounds of England , and then followed this with The Bronze Age Round Barrows of Wessex in 1941 .
Around 1937 he met the painter and amateur archaeologist Heywood Sumner while conducting an exploration of the barrows of Hampshire , with his own hand @-@ drawn plans of barrows becoming influenced by Sumner 's illustrative style . With the archaeologist R. F. Jessup he began conducting a survey of the barrows in Kent , although their notes for this were later destroyed in an air raid during the Second World War before they could be published . With the archaeologist R. Rainbird Clarke he then conducted a survey of the barrows of Norfolk ; their findings were stored in an archive although never published .
After the outbreak of the Second World War , Grinsell became a Pilot Officer in the Air Photographic Branch of the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in 1941 . During he conflict , he was stationed in Egypt , where he spent time studying the archaeological remains of Ancient Egypt and visiting al of the pyramids near to Cairo . Based on these experiences , at his own expense he published Egyptian Pyramids in 1947 . Designed as a guide to the sites , it was ( as Grinsell acknowledged ) heavily reliant on the earlier plans of Egyptologists but with additional aerial photographs that Grinsell had obtained through his involvement with the RAF . The book was largely ignored by Britain 's Egyptological establishment .
= = = Life as a Professional Archaeologist : 1945 – 95 = = =
On returning to Britain , Grinsell went back to his job at Barclays Bank . In 1947 he became the treasurer of the Prehistoric Society , a position that he retained until 1970 , during which he helped to secure the organisation 's post @-@ war reconstruction . In 1949 the archaeologist Christopher Hawkes invited Grinsell to join him and Stuart Piggott as a project assistant at Victoria County History in order to compile the Victoria County History of Wiltshire . Grinsell accepted , leaving his bank job and moving to the Wiltshire town of Devizes , thus becoming a professional archaeologist . Thomas later stated that the Victoria County History of Wiltshire " represents the high point in [ Grinsell 's ] combined powers of fieldwork , grasp of secondary sources and handling of a great deal of detailed information . " Grinsell later published the book The Archaeology of Wessex , which was based on his experience during this period .
Leaving Devizes , in 1952 Grinsell became Keeper of Anthropology and Archaeology at Bristol City Museum , remaining there until his retirement in 1972 . He also published a number of academic articles and book reviews . During his holidays he often visited the Mediterranean , where he examined various prehistoric tombs . He also continued pursuing his interest in barrows , and by the 1970s had also catalogued those examples in Dorset , Gloucestershire , Somerset , and Devon .
Bristol University awarded him an honourary degree on the basis of his work , while he was appointed to the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in 1972 . That same year a festschrift was issued in his honour , edited by Nichols Fowler . In 1989 , Grinsell published an autobiography ; reviewing it for the Folklore journal , the historian Hilda Ellis Davidson praised it but noted that it does not " tell us very much about the inner life of the author " . According to the archaeologist Paul Ashbee , Grinsell 's " directness , whimsical humour and sound common sense were legendary , as were his walking , youth @-@ hostelling and penchant for traditional afternoon teas of the cream variety . " A bachelor , he never married .
= = Legacy = =
Over the course of his career , Grinsell had examined and recorded around 10 @,@ 000 barrows . Thomas stated that Grinsell 's " astonishing volume of published fieldwork ... assured for him a place without equal in the history of British archaeological studies " . This recording was particularly valuable for archaeologists because it occurred before large numbers of British barrows were heavily damaged as a result of deep ploughing and land development . It also demonstrated the spread of barrows within particular regions and confirmed the older assumption that these barrows were heavily concentrated on areas of chalk geology . Many of the barrows that Grinsell discovered – such as Lambourn long barrow in Berkshire – were previously unrecorded , while he was also responsible for the discovery of rock art on the face of an Early Bronze Age grave slab at Pool Farm in West Harptree , Somerset .
According to Thomas , Grinsell 's career illustrated the validity of amateur archaeologists , the importance of publishing one 's research , and the significance of archaeological fieldwork other than excavation . The archaeologist Paul Ashbee expressed the view that " to a great extent [ he ] determined the direction of field archaeology in the second half " of the 20th century .
Interested in using sources other than archaeology , Grinsell made use of documents , place @-@ names , folklore , and the accounts of antiquarians as part of his research . According to later archaeologists Amy Gazin @-@ Schwartz and Cornelius Holtfdorf , Grinsell was one of the few archaeologists of his generation who was interested in the relationship between folklore and archaeology , comparing him in this way to continental European scholars Paul Saintyves , Horst Ohlhaver , and Karel C. Peeters .
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= Knitta Please =
Knitta Please , also known as simply Knitta , is the group of artists who began the " knit graffiti " movement in Houston , Texas in 2005 . They are known for wrapping public architecture — e.g. lampposts , parking meters , telephone poles , and signage — with knitted or crocheted material . It has been called " knit graffiti " , " yarn storming " and " yarnbombing " . The mission is to make street art " a little more warm and fuzzy . "
Knitta grew to eleven members by the end of 2007 , but eventually dwindled down to its founder , who continues to travel and knit graffiti . Internationally , as many as a dozen groups have followed Knitta 's lead . Sayeg and the group have shown their art across the United States and around the world .
= = History = =
The group began with a self @-@ taught knitter known as PolyCotN . She founded the group with anonymous member AKrylik in October 2005 as a way to deal with frustration over their own unfinished knitting projects . It started with a doorknob cosy for the front door of Sayeg 's Houston boutique . She loved it and , unexpectedly , so did the passersby . That inspired them to make more . "
The name of the group and the nicknames of the members were inspired by a desire to " resemble graffiti , but with knitted items " . The group mixed crafting terminology with a hip @-@ hop style , then changed the spelling " to represent traditional street art monikers " . PolyCotN and AKrylik came up with their own names , then invented names for other members . Some former member names include Knotorious N.I.T. , SonOfaStitch and P @-@ Knitty .
By 2007 , Knitta 's membership had grown twelve members and there were an estimated five to twelve copycat groups internationally . By 2009 , there was a groundswell , according to Sydney , Australia author and academic Emily Howes , who identified groups in Scandinavia , Japan , South Africa , and the United States . However , membership in Knitta eventually dwindled , leaving only the founder .
= = Art = =
Usually tagging on Friday nights and Sunday mornings , Knitta taggers would leave a paper tag on each work , bearing the slogan " knitta please " or " whaddup knitta ? " . They tagged trees , lamp posts , railings , fire hydrants , monuments and other urban targets , Another popular piece involved hanging knitted @-@ bagged sneakers over aerial telephone cable . The crew would mark holidays by doing themed work , using , for example , pink yarn for Valentine 's Day pieces and sparkly yarn for New Years . When Knitta was not working with a theme , they would work on projects , tagging specific targets or specific areas . The group and their followers consider their graffiti " a method of beautifying public space " . However , such work is considered vandalism in some U.S. States .
In 2006 the group decided to visit New York City , where they did their first large scale piece . Using more than 50 feet ( 15 m ) of knitted material donated by volunteers of the crew 's mailing list , they wrapped the top half of a monorail column . Knitta also called on others across the U.S. to get tagging and send in their images .
For another large project , the group tagged all 25 trees in the median of Allen Parkway in Houston for the annual Art Car parade in May 2006 , wrapping them in blankets measuring two feet tall by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half feet long . A year later , they were invited to the Standard Hotel in Los Angeles , which caters to an edgy clientele , to tag a glass box featuring trendsetters ' designs and concepts .
To celebrate the 60th anniversary of Bergère de France , the first manufacturer of French yarn , the company invited Knitta to Paris to " revitalize urban landscapes with knitted pieces " . While there , they also tagged the Notre Dame de Paris . Knitta 's work has also been seen in London , Sydney , Rome , Milan , Prague , Sweden , Montreal , Mexico City , El Salvador , Netherlands , Germany , Luxembourg and atop the Great Wall of China .
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= Loud ( Rihanna album ) =
Loud is the fifth studio album by Barbadian singer Rihanna . It was released on November 12 , 2010 , by Def Jam Recordings and SRP Records . It was recorded between February and August 2010 , during the singer 's Last Girl on Earth Tour and the filming of her first feature film Battleship . Rihanna was the executive producer of Loud and worked with various record producers , including StarGate , Sandy Vee , The Runners , Tricky Stewart and Alex da Kid . The record features several guest vocalists , including rappers Drake , Nicki Minaj and Eminem , who is featured on the sequel to " Love the Way You Lie " , titled " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " .
The album differs from Rihanna 's 2009 album , Rated R , which incorporates a prominently foreboding and angry tone and dark themes . Loud features up @-@ tempo and pop genres , ranging from R & B and dance @-@ pop to electro music , and marks the return to dancehall ; a genre prominent on Rihanna 's first two albums Music of the Sun ( 2005 ) and A Girl like Me ( 2006 ) . It also incorporates rock in " California King Bed " and reggae in the Caribbean inspired " Man Down " .
Loud received generally positive reviews from music critics , who complimented its upbeat material and Rihanna 's vocal performances , while others stated that although the songs were solid , they were unfocused to each other . The album was a commercial success internationally ; it debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 chart , with first week sales of 207 @,@ 000 copies , the highest first week sales of her career at the time . The album entered the Canadian , Swiss and UK album charts at number one . As of November 2011 , it had sold over 8 million copies worldwide .
The album produced seven singles , including the international hits " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , " What 's My Name ? " , and " S & M " . All three singles reached number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 . " S & M " was Rihanna 's tenth number one song in the US , making Rihanna the youngest recording artist to accumulate the plateau in the shortest time , surpassing Mariah Carey . " Only Girl ( In the World ) " won the Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording in February 2011 ; additionally , the album was nominated for three more Grammy Awards , including for Album of the Year . To support the album , Rihanna embarked on her third worldwide concert tour , entitled the Loud Tour .
= = Background = =
Following a domestic violence case between Rihanna and her boyfriend American entertainer Chris Brown , media speculated as to whether any song featured on her fourth studio album would be about him . The album was released in November 2009 , under the title Rated R. Primarily a pop and R & B album , it also incorporates musical elements of hip hop , rock , and dancehall . Rated R was commercially successful and spawned five singles , including the international hit , " Rude Boy " . Six months after releasing the record , Rihanna began planning a fifth studio album , promising that her new material would be " more energetic " than her previous works .
StarGate 's Tor Erik Hermansen , said " Rihanna came to us before we started recording " Only Girl ( In the World ) " and said ‘ I feel great about myself . I want to go back to having fun , I want to make happy and up @-@ tempo records ' . " Sean Garrett compared the sound of the new tracks with her previous hit singles " Umbrella " and " Rude Boy " . In an interview for MTV UK , the vice president of Def Jam Recordings compared the upcoming Rihanna album with Michael Jackson 's Thriller saying , " Rihanna is coming along incredibly . I ’ m trying to push her to where every song will be a hit from one to 12 . I ’ m talking about NO album fillers . Our bar for this album is Michael Jackson 's ‘ Thriller ’ . "
= = Recording and title = =
Rihanna and Antonio " L.A. " Reid assembled a group of songwriters and record producers at several recording studios in Los Angeles for two weeks to write songs for Rihanna ; they wrote approximately 200 songs , eleven of which were included on the album . Def Jam rented out nearly every recording studio in Los Angeles in order to create as many songs as possible . Ray Daniels , the manager of musical duo Rock City ( brothers Theron and Timothy Thomas ) , was present during the sessions , and stated that a writing camp typically involves the label hiring ten recording studios for two weeks at the cost of $ 25 @,@ 000 per day . Daniels revealed that it is where songwriters have lyrics but no music , and where producers have music but no lyrics .
Singer @-@ songwriters and producers Taio Cruz , Alex da Kid , Sean Garrett , Ne @-@ Yo , Rico Love , Timbaland , Shontelle , David Guetta , and Drake contributed to the album . " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " was written for Rihanna , but the song was rejected and was subsequently sent to Usher . With regard to " What 's My Name ? " , Rihanna thought Drake could understand the melody of the song and invited him to work on the track when she played him the finishbozed recording . The collaboration was originally planned to be a remix , but later it was decided that the version featuring Drake would be used as the original .
Loud was recorded in various recording studios worldwide including the Larrabee Sound Studios , The Village and Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles , Platinum Sound Recording Studios , and Roc the Mic Studios in New York City and The Bunker Studios in Paris . In September 2010 , during a webchat with her fansite Rihannadaily.com , Rihanna announced that the album would be called Loud , saying " get Loud everybody , get crazy , get excited , because I 'm pumped . I 'm just gonna be me , because that 's what you guys love the most , and that 's what makes me feel best . Just being normal , normal for me is Loud ! Sassy , fun , flirty , energetic . " While Rihanna was filming Battleship , she explained in an interview with Entertainment Tonight , " Loud is , the word , the name of the album definitely reflects the attitude of it , it 's really sassy and flirty and it grabs your attention and that 's why I enjoy it . It takes you through a really really interesting ride . So colorful the album . "
= = Composition = =
= = = Influence and sound = = =
Loud is a departure from the personal , melodramatic themes of Rated R. Stylistically , it is a return to the Caribbean @-@ inspired dance @-@ pop of Rihanna 's earlier work . Ryan Burleson of Consequence of Sound described the album as " a dynamic R & B and dance @-@ pop record " . In an interview with MTV , Rihanna said " I wanted songs that were all Rihanna songs , that nobody else could do . I didn 't want the generic pop record that Ke $ ha or Lady Gaga or Katy Perry could just do and it 'll work . I wanted a song , or songs , that were Rihanna songs , that only I could do , had that little West Indian vibe to it , had that certain tone , a certain sass and a certain energy . " During the promotion of Loud , Rihanna said that much of the music was born out of frustration . She explained : " When you go to a club and have to listen to bad music you revert to the liquor , because you want to have a good time . I hate having to skip a track . I wanted to make an album you can just play . "
= = = Songs = = =
The opening track " S & M " is an up @-@ tempo eurodance song produced by Norwegian producers StarGate and Sandy Vee . The song is reminiscent of Depeche Mode 's 1984 song " Master and Servant " and contains lyrical thoughts of sadomasochism . Andy Kellman of Allmusic regarded " S & M " as a dance @-@ pop song which efficiently balanced " Rihanna 's playful and sinister sides " . " What 's My Name ? " was also produced by StarGate and features guest vocals from Canadian rapper Drake . It is a mid @-@ tempo , electro @-@ R & B song with a back track consisting of heavy reggae . The song also sees Rihanna 's return to the " Island @-@ pop " style of her early career " . " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " is a pop rock song produced by The Runners , and interpolates Avril Lavigne 's 2002 single " I 'm with You " . Mark Savage from BBC News described the song as a funky , loping guitar groove for a night out on the town . " Only Girl ( In the World ) " was the third song from the album produced by StarGate . It is an up @-@ tempo dance @-@ pop song that incorporates elements of eurodance in its production . Brad Wete , a reviewer of Entertainment Weekly , described Rihanna 's vocals as " seductive " and reminiscent of a " stronger , sexier version " of her 2007 single , " Don 't Stop the Music " .
" California King Bed " is a rock power ballad ; Ryan Dombell of Pitchfork Media compared it to the Aerosmith song , " I Don 't Want to Miss a Thing " . The Shama Joseph produced " Man Down " is a reggae song with an electro rhythm , in which Rihanna sings in a West Indian accent . " Raining Men " is a hip @-@ hop song , which features rap vocals from Trinidadian rapper Nicki Minaj . Rihanna described the song as a fun song that differs from the original , referring to the 1979 single by The Weather Girls with similar title " It 's Raining Men " . " Complicated " was produced by Tricky Stewart and Ester Dean . Leah Greenblatt from Entertainment Weekly said " Even while telling a recalcitrant man how hard he is to love , she [ Rihanna ] sounds almost buoyant , her newly expanded vocals eager to scale the song 's high @-@ altitude house beat " . The final track is the sequel to Rihanna 's duet with Eminem , " Love the Way You Lie " . " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " , which was produced by Alex da Kid , features Rihanna as the protagonist and lead vocalist , viewing aspects of a relationship from a female perspective , unlike the original , which featured Eminem as lead vocalist and was from a male perspective .
= = Singles = =
" Only Girl ( In the World ) " was released as the album 's lead single on September 10 , 2010 . The song was sent to US mainstream and rhythmic radio on September 21 , 2010 . It received positive reviews from music critics , who praised its chorus and thunderous dance beats . The song reached number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , in the UK , Canada , Australia , Austria , Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Ireland , Israel , Italy , New Zealand , Norway and Slovakia , becoming one of her best charting songs to date . At the 53rd Grammy Awards , held at the Staples Center in Los Angeles on February 13 , 2011 , " Only Girl ( In the World ) " won the award for Best Dance Recording .
" What 's My Name ? " , which features guest vocals by Canadian recording artist Drake , was released as the album 's second single ; it was sent to US mainstream and rhythmic radios on September 21 , 2010 . Music critics praised the song as some of Rihanna 's best vocal work to date , noting the romantic nature of the song and its sexual tones . The song peaked at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , giving Rihanna her eighth number @-@ one on the chart , while " Only Girl ( In the World ) " became her ninth number @-@ one song two weeks after " What 's My Name ? " . It reached number one in the United Kingdom and became Rihanna 's fifth UK number one single and Drake 's first .
The collaboration with Nicki Minaj , " Raining Men " , was sent to urban radio on December 7 , 2010 as an urban radio single and third track from Loud as a single in the US . It peaked at number 48 on the US Billboard R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . " Raining Men " received mixed reviews from critics who praised the chemistry between Rihanna and Minaj but criticised the song for failing to create anything new or original . " S & M " , the album 's fourth US single and third international single , was solicited to US mainstream radio on January 25 , 2011 . Reception of " S & M " was mixed ; some reviewers criticized the overt use of sexual lyrics while others noted it as a stand @-@ out track from Loud . A remix of the song which features guest vocals by Britney Spears , was digitally released on April 11 , 2011 . " S & M " reached the top ten in twenty @-@ four countries and peaked at number one in Australia , Canada and the United States .
" Man Down " was released as the fifth international single in some European countries in July 2011 . It received positive reviews from critics , who called it a return to Rihanna 's Caribbean @-@ tinged rhythm . " Man Down " reached a peak of 59 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . In France , it peaked at number one for five consecutive weeks . " California King Bed " was released as the fourth international single on May 13 , 2011 , and as the sixth US single . It was sent to US Hot / Modern adult contemporary radio on May 16 , 2011 . The song peaked at number four in Australia and New Zealand and number eight on the UK Singles Chart . On July 24 , 2011 , Rihanna announced the release of " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " as the seventh single from the album . The single was released to US mainstream and rhythmic radio on August 2 , 2011 . The song peaked at number seven on the US Billboard Hot 100 , and number twelve on the US Pop Songs chart .
= = Release and promotion = =
Loud was released on November 12 , 2010 , in four separate editions : a standard edition ; a deluxe edition , packaged in a digipak exclusively for the US and Australia , that features a 30 @-@ minute documentary Making of Loud DVD ( Directed by Brian and Brad Palmer ) ; a Couture Edition containing the deluxe edition of Loud with a deluxe cover art lithograph , a box set with enhanced clear couture cover and a full @-@ size photo book . An Ultra Couture Edition was also produced , containing a copy of the Deluxe Edition of Loud signed by Rihanna , the MP3 download of Loud on street date and all the features of the Couture Edition . The Ultra Couture Edition sold out and is no longer available neither on Amazon or her online store . An explicit version of Loud was also released and features a Parental Advisory label due to some of the lyrical content . The Japanese edition of the album was released with two additional remixes of " Only Girl ( In the World ) " . The piano version of " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " was only available with the iTunes edition of the album . However , the version which features Eminem was available for purchase .
= = = Live performances = = =
Rihanna embarked on a promotional tour across Europe and North America to promote the album 's release . The singer performed " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , the lead single , live for the first time in North America on Saturday Night Live on October 30 , 2010 , and debuted the second single , " What 's My Name ? " , later on in the show . The following day in the United Kingdom , Rihanna sang " Only Girl ( In the World ) " on series seven of The X Factor . Rihanna performed " Only Girl ( In the World ) " at the MTV Europe Music Awards 2010 in Madrid , Spain , on November 7 , 2010 , on The X Factor in Italy on November 9 , 2010 , and on Le Grand Journal in France on November 10 , 2010 . On November 11 , 2010 , Rihanna appeared on a pre @-@ recorded edition of The Graham Norton Show in the United Kingdom , where she gave an interview and sang " Only Girl ( In the World ) " . On November 15 , before the album 's US release , Rihanna reprised her performance of " What 's My Name ? " for MTV 's The Seven , live from Times Square , New York City . The next day , Rihanna performed " What 's My Name ? " on the Late Show with David Letterman . On November 17 , 2010 , Rihanna was interviewed and performed " Only Girl ( In the World ) " and " What 's My Name ? " on Good Morning America . Rihanna performed a medley of " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " , " What 's My Name ? " and " Only Girl ( In the World ) " at the American Music Awards of 2010 on November 21 , 2010 , where she won the award for Favorite Soul / R & B Female Artist . Rihanna opened with an a cappella version of " Love The Way You Lie Part II " .
On December 11 , 2010 , Rihanna returned to series seven of the UK 's The X Factor , to perform " Unfaithful " with finalist Matt Cardle , as well as a solo of " What 's My Name ? " . The finale was watched by fifteen million viewers ; however , the episode generated thousands of complaints about Rihanna 's choice of outfit and sexual performance . Rihanna performed the song with Drake for the first time at the 53rd Grammy Awards on February 13 , 2011 . Rihanna also appeared at the 2011 BRIT Awards on February 15 , 2011 , where she performed " S & M " for the first time , as a medley with " Only Girl ( In the World ) " and " What 's My Name ? " . Rihanna was requested to " tone down " her performance of " S & M " by the show 's producers , and she performed only one verse and chorus in between " Only Girl ( In The World ) " and " What 's My Name ? " . The BRIT Awards corporation wanted to avoid receiving complaints similar to those received by the X @-@ Factor . Rihanna was a special guest at the NBA All Star Game on February 20 , 2011 , where she performed a medley of " Umbrella " , " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , " Rude Boy " , " What 's My Name ? " ( with Drake ) and " All of the Lights " ( with Kanye West ) .
Rihanna performed " California King Bed " in the style of a country music song for the first time with Sugarland front woman Jennifer Nettles , during the ACM Awards held by the Academy of Country Music on April 3 , 2011 . She was a guest on the tenth season of the US series American Idol on April 14 , 2011 , where she performed " California King Bed " . Rihanna promoted " California King Bed " with performances in Milan , Paris and Hamburg , because she was appointed ambassador for Nivea skincare . Rihanna opened the Billboard Music Awards on May 22 , 2011 , performing the remix of " S & M " with Britney Spears at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas . The performance attracted complaints about the overt sexual nature of the broadcast on a publicly owned television channel . Rihanna performed on NBC 's Today show on May 27 , 2011 as part of a Summer Concert Series . She performed " S & M " , " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , " What 's My Name ? " and " California King Bed " .
= = = Tour = = =
To further promote Loud , Rihanna embarked on her fourth concert tour , the Loud Tour , in June 2011 , having announced it on February 9 , 2011 . The tour comprised 101 show dates , 32 in North America , 1 in Central America , 4 in South America and 64 in Europe . Tickets sold well in the United Kingdom and some additional shows were added . She performed ten shows at London 's O2 Arena . Rihanna was interviewed by Ryan Seacrest on American Idol , and talked about the design of the stage , stating : " We 've just designed the stage and we have a section that we are building ... where the fans can actually be in the show and in the stage and be closer than they 've ever been . It 's real VIP . " The North American leg of the tour began on June 4 , 2011 in Baltimore , United States . Originally , J. Cole and Cee Lo Green were planned as supporting acts for the North American leg . However , Green left the tour , citing schedule conflicts . Rappers Drake , Kanye West and Jay @-@ Z made guest appearances on some dates to perform their collaborations " What 's My Name ? " , " Run This Town " , " All of the Lights " and " Umbrella " , respectively . The tour was received positively by critics , with some calling it " Rihanna 's best tour yet " . Jane Stevenson of the Toronto Sun commented that " the two @-@ hour , larger @-@ than @-@ life show lived up to the billing . " Jon Brean of the Minneapolis " Star Tribune " remarked , " The Barbadian singer is more visually and vocally dynamic than she has ever been before . "
= = Critical reception = =
Loud received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 given to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 67 , based on 22 reviews . Jon Pareles of The New York Times perceived a " hermetic , cool calculation " on the album , writing that it " works the pop gizmos as neatly as any album this year , maintaining the Rihanna brand " . Entertainment Weekly 's Leah Greenblatt commented that Loud shows Rihanna " undefeated by her worst circumstances — and finding redemption in exactly the kind of pop nirvana that made her famous in the first place " . James Reed of The Boston Globe called the album " an unabashed return to where Rihanna belongs : the dance floor " and stated : " As if liberating herself from the depths , she 's a force on these 11 songs " . Stacey Anderson of Spin commended Rihanna 's " full , healthy claim to her sexuality " and wrote that the album " offers a confident female ethos on par with the best of Shakira or Beyoncé " .
Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club commended Rihanna for elevating the album 's generic sound , writing that she " does sound invigorated , delivering charismatic vocal performances of material that doesn ’ t always warrant them " . Emily Mackay of NME felt that its " experiments feel more organic , its tone better paced " than Rated R. Thomas Conner of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote that " the celebratory atmosphere of Rihanna 's sassy new jams are seasoned with some of the darker flavors from ' Rated R ' " . Pitchfork Media 's Ryan Dombal complimented the album 's " effervescent pop " and stated : " Her laissez @-@ faire attitude toward hit @-@ making on Loud can result in too @-@ safe moves or semi @-@ experiments that come off surprisingly great " . Ed Power of Hot Press complimented its " unabashedly subtext @-@ free " songs and found its hooks " way beyond addictive . "
In a mixed review , Andy Kellman of Allmusic found the album 's material " slapdash " and " uneven " , and called it " more an unfocused assortment of poor @-@ to @-@ solid songs than a unified set " . Andy Gill of The Independent felt that " the more interesting tracks are those with less salacious demands on her vulnerability " . Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani commended that " the subtle West Indian flavor with which Rihanna and company have smartly imbued " most of the album , although he noted some flaws in its production and wrote that " Rihanna has always had trouble fitting into one genre ... and for better or worse , Rihanna continues to stylistically branch out on Loud " . Hugh Montgomery of The Observer commented that " sonically , it 's fairly unremarkable ... but its strident buoyancy is difficult to resist " .
" Only Girl ( in the World ) " won the Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording at the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards and the album was nominated for three awards at the 54th Grammy Awards , including Album of the Year , Best Pop Vocal Album and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration for " What 's My Name ? " .
= = Commercial performance = =
Loud debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 chart , with first @-@ week sales of 207 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , giving Rihanna her highest first @-@ week sales in the US at that time . It also debuted at number one on Billboard 's R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart . In its second week , the album dropped to number six on the Billboard 200 and sold 141 @,@ 000 copies . By its thirteenth week , the album returned to its peak at number three and sold 62 @,@ 000 copies . However , in its fourteenth week , the album dipped to number ten on the Billboard 200 with 45 @,@ 000 copies sold . In its fifteenth week , Loud rose to number eight , selling an additional 33 @,@ 000 copies in the US . By July 3 , 2011 , Loud was the eleventh @-@ best selling album of 2011 in the United States , selling 598 @,@ 000 copies between January 1 , 2011 and July 3 , 2011 . On January 25 , 2011 , Loud was certified platinum in the United States , denoting shipments of over one million . Loud ranked as Billboard magazine 's ninth @-@ most successful album of 2011 on their year @-@ end charts . As of June 2015 , the album has sold 1 @.@ 8 million copies in the United States .
Loud was also a commercial success outside of the United States . In Canada , it debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart , selling 27 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Loud sold more than 80 @,@ 000 units in Canada , achieving platinum status by the first week of December 2010 . By September 8 , 2011 , Loud had sold more than 240 @,@ 000 copies in Canada . In France , the album debuted at number three with first @-@ week sales of 17 @,@ 304 copies . By its sixth week on the French charts , Loud achieved platinum status , reaching the 100 @,@ 000 copies mark . In France , the album has sold 355 @,@ 000 copies as of April 2013 . In its second week on the Australian Albums Chart , Loud was certified platinum for shipments of over 70 @,@ 000 copies . In Italy , the album reached number eleven . It became Rihanna 's highest charting album there until her sixth studio album Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) surpassed the record . Loud was her third consecutive number @-@ one album in Switzerland . Loud debuted at number two on the German Albums Chart .
The album debuted at number two in the United Kingdom , with first week sales of 91 @,@ 000 units . In its fifth week , the album sold 306 @,@ 107 copies in the United Kingdom , giving the singer her first platinum @-@ selling week in her career . In its seventh week on the chart , Loud reached number one , giving Rihanna her second UK number @-@ one album . After seven weeks of sales , the album became the fourth best @-@ selling album of 2010 in the UK . The album had sold 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom by September 4 , 2011 . By December 16 , 2011 , Loud was certified six @-@ times platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , marking shipments of 1 @.@ 8 million copies to retailers . It was the biggest selling R & B album of 2011 in the UK . As of August 2012 , Loud is the fifth biggest selling digital album of all time . As of March 2015 , Loud is the 45th best @-@ selling album of the millennium in the United Kingdom . As of November 2011 , the album has sold over 8 million copies worldwide .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ a signifies a vocal producer
" Cheers ( Drink to That ) " contains samples from " I 'm with You " ( 2002 ) , as performed by Avril Lavigne and written by Lavigne , Scott Spock , Graham Edwards and Lauren Christy .
= = Release formats = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Loud adapted from Allmusic .
Musicians
Production
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Shackleton – Rowett Expedition =
The Shackleton – Rowett Expedition ( 1921 – 22 ) was Sir Ernest Shackleton 's last Antarctic project , and the final episode in the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration . The venture , financed by John Quiller Rowett , is sometimes referred to as the Quest Expedition after its ship Quest , a converted Norwegian sealer . Shackleton had originally intended to go to the Arctic and explore the Beaufort Sea , but this plan was abandoned when the Canadian government withheld financial support ; Shackleton thereupon switched his attention to the Antarctic . Quest , smaller than any recent Antarctic exploration vessel , soon proved inadequate for its task , and progress south was delayed by its poor sailing performance and by frequent engine problems . Before the expedition 's work could properly begin , Shackleton died on board the ship , just after its arrival at the sub @-@ Antarctic island of South Georgia .
The major part of the subsequent attenuated expedition was a three @-@ month cruise to the eastern Antarctic , under the leadership of the party 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Frank Wild . The shortcomings of Quest were soon in evidence : slow speed , heavy fuel consumption , a tendency to roll in heavy seas , and a steady leak . The ship was unable to proceed further than longitude 20 ° E , well short of its easterly target , and its engine 's low power was insufficient for it to penetrate southward through the pack ice . Following several fruitless attempts , Wild returned the ship to South Georgia , on the way visiting Elephant Island where he and 21 others had been stranded after the sinking of the ship Endurance , during Shackleton 's Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition six years earlier .
Wild had thoughts of a second , more productive season in the ice , and took the ship to Cape Town for a refit . Here , in June 1922 , he received a message from Rowett ordering the ship home to England , so the expedition ended quietly . The Quest voyage is not greatly regarded in the histories of polar exploration , the event that defines it in public memory , overshadowing its other activities , being Shackleton 's untimely death .
= = Background = =
= = = Shackleton after the Endurance = = =
Shackleton returned to Britain from the Endurance expedition in late May 1917 , while World War I was raging . Too old to enlist , he nevertheless sought an active role in the war effort , and eventually departed for Murmansk with the temporary army rank of major , as part of a military mission to North Russia . Shackleton expressed his dissatisfaction with this role in letters home : " I feel I am no use to anyone unless I am outfacing the storm in wild lands . " He returned to England in February 1919 and began plans to set up a company that would , with the cooperation of the North Russian Government , develop the natural resources of the region . This scheme came to nothing , as the Red Army took control of that part of Russia during the Russian Civil War ; to provide himself with an income , Shackleton had to rely on the lecture circuit . During the winter of 1919 – 20 he lectured twice a day , six days a week , for five months .
= = = Canadian proposal = = =
Despite the large debts still outstanding from the Endurance expedition , Shackleton 's mind turned to his next exploration venture . He decided to turn away from the Antarctic , go northwards and , as he put it , " fill in this great blank now called the Beaufort Sea " . This area of the Arctic ocean , to the north of Alaska and west of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago , was largely unexplored ; Shackleton believed , on the basis of tidal records , that it contained large undiscovered land masses that " would be of the greatest scientific interest to the world , apart from the possible economic value " . He also hoped to reach the northern " pole of inaccessibility " , the most remote point in the Arctic regions . In March 1920 , his plans received the general approval of the Royal Geographical Society ( RGS ) and were supported by the Canadian government . On this basis Shackleton set about acquiring the necessary funding , which he estimated at £ 50 @,@ 000 ( about £ 1 @.@ 6 million , 2008 value ) . Later that year , Shackleton met by chance an old school @-@ friend , John Quiller Rowett , who agreed to put up a nucleus of cash to enable Shackleton to get started . With this money Shackleton was able , in January 1921 , to acquire the wooden Norwegian whaler Foca I , and to proceed with the purchase of other equipment and the hiring of a crew .
In May 1921 the policy of the Canadian government towards the funding of expeditions changed with the advent of a new Prime Minister , Arthur Meighen , who withdrew support from Shackleton 's proposal . Shackleton was required to rethink his plans , and decided to sail for the Antarctic after all . A varied programme of exploration , coastal mapping , mineral prospecting and oceanographic research in southern waters would replace the abandond Beaufort Sea venture .
= = Antarctic preparation = =
= = = Objectives = = =
Even before his problems with the Canadian government , Shackleton had been considering a southern expedition as a possible alternative to the Beaufort Sea . According to the RGS librarian Hugh Robert Mill , as early as March 1920 Shackleton had talked about two possible schemes — the Beaufort Sea exploration , and " an oceanographical expedition with the object of visiting all the little @-@ known islands of the South Atlantic and South Pacific " . By June 1921 , it had expanded to include a circumnavigation of the Antarctic continent and the mapping of around 2 @,@ 000 miles ( 3 @,@ 200 km ) of uncharted coastline . It would also encompass a search for " lost " or wrongly charted sub @-@ Antarctic islands ( including Dougherty Island , Tuanaki , and the Nimrod Islands ) , investigations of possible mineral resources to be exploited in these rediscovered lands , and an ambitious scientific research program . This was to include soundings around Gough Island to investigate an alleged " underwater continental connection between Africa and America . " Shackleton biographer Margery Fisher calls the plan " diffuse " , and " far too comprehensive for one small body of men to tackle within two years " . According to biographer Roland Huntford the expedition had no obvious goal and was " only too clearly a piece of improvisation , a pretext [ for Shackleton ] to get away " .
Fisher describes the expedition as representing " the dividing line between what has become known as the Heroic Age of Antarctic exploration and the Mechanical Age " . Shackleton called the voyage " pioneering " , referring specifically to the aeroplane that was taken ( but ultimately not used ) on the expedition . In fact this was only one of the technological " firsts " that marked the venture ; there were gadgets in profusion . The ship 's crow 's nest was electrically heated ; there were heated overalls for the lookouts , a wireless set , and a device called an odograph which could trace and chart the ship 's route automatically . Photography was to figure prominently , and " a large and expensive outfit of cameras , cinematographical machines and general photographic appliances [ was ] acquired " . Among the oceanographical research equipment was a Lucas deep @-@ sea sounding machine .
This ample provision arose from the sponsorship of Rowett , who had extended his original gift of seed money to an undertaking to cover the costs of the entire expedition . The extent of Rowett 's contribution is not recorded ; in an ( undated ) prospectus for the southern expedition Shackleton had estimated the total cost as " about £ 100 @,@ 000 " . Whatever the total , Rowett appears to have funded the lion 's share , enabling Frank Wild to record later that , unique among Antarctic expeditions of the era , this one returned home without any outstanding debt . According to Wild , without Rowett 's actions the expedition would have been impossible : " His generous attitude is the more remarkable in that he knew there was no prospect of financial return , and what he did was in the interest of scientific research and from friendship with Shackleton . " His only recognition was the attachment of his name to the title of the expedition . Rowett was , according to Huntford , " a stodgy , prosaic looking " businessman , who was , in 1920 , a co @-@ founder and principal contributor to an animal nutrition research institute in Aberdeen known as the Rowett Research Institute ( now part of the University of Aberdeen ) . He had also endowed dental research work at the Middlesex Hospital .
= = = Quest = = =
In March 1921 , Shackleton renamed his expedition vessel Quest . She was a small ship , 125 tons according to Huntford , with sail and auxiliary engine power purportedly capable of making eight knots , but in fact rarely making more than five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half . Huntford describes her as " straight @-@ stemmed " , with an awkward square rig , and a tendency to wallow in heavy seas . Fisher reports that she was built in 1917 , weighed 204 tons , and had a large and spacious deck . Although she had some modern facilities , such as electric lights in the cabins , she was unsuited to long oceanic voyages ; Shackleton , on the first day out , observed that " in no way are we shipshape or fitted to ignore even the mildest storm " . Leif Mills , in his biography of Frank Wild , says that had the ship been taken to the Beaufort Sea in accordance with Shackleton 's original plans , she would probably have been crushed in the Arctic pack ice . On her voyage south she suffered frequent damage and breakdowns , requiring repairs at every port of call .
= = = Personnel = = =
The Times newspaper had reported that Shackleton planned to take a dozen men to the Arctic , " chiefly those who had accompanied him on earlier expeditions " . In actuality , Quest left London for the south with 20 men , of whom eight were old Endurance comrades ; another , James Dell , was a veteran from the Discovery , 20 years previously . Some of the Endurance hands had not been fully paid from the earlier expedition , but were prepared to join Shackleton again out of personal loyalty .
Frank Wild , on his fourth trip with Shackleton , filled the second @-@ in @-@ command post as he had on the Endurance expedition . Frank Worsley , Endurance 's former captain , became captain of Quest . Other old comrades included the two surgeons , Alexander Macklin and James McIlroy , the meteorologist Leonard Hussey , the engineer Alexander Kerr , seaman Tom McLeod and cook Charles Green . Shackleton had assumed that Tom Crean would sign up , and had assigned him duties " in charge of boats " , but Crean had retired from the navy to start a family back home in County Kerry , and declined Shackleton 's invitation .
Of the newcomers , Roderick Carr , a New Zealand @-@ born Royal Air Force pilot , was hired to fly the expedition 's aeroplane , an Avro " Antarctic " Baby : an Avro Baby modified as a seaplane with an 80 @-@ horsepower engine . He had met Shackleton in North Russia , and had recently been serving as Chief of Staff to the Lithuanian air force . In fact , the aeroplane was not used during the expedition due to some missing parts , and Carr therefore assisted with the scientific work . The scientific staff included Australian biologist Hubert Wilkins , who had Arctic experience , and the Canadian geologist Vibert Douglas , who had initially signed for the aborted Beaufort Sea expedition . The recruits who caught the most public attention were two members of the Boy Scout movement , Norman Mooney and James Marr . As the result of publicity organised by the Daily Mail newspaper , these two had been selected to join the expedition out of around 1 @,@ 700 Scouts who had applied to go . Mooney , who was from the Orkney Islands , soon dropped out , leaving the ship at Madeira after suffering chronic seasickness . Marr , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old from Aberdeen , remained with the expedition throughout , winning plaudits from Shackleton and Wild for his application to the tasks at hand . After being put to work in the ship 's coal bunkers , according to Wild , Marr " came out of the trial very well , showing an amount of hardihood and endurance that was remarkable " .
= = Expedition = =
= = = Voyage south = = =
Quest sailed from St Katharine Docks , London , on 17 September 1921 , after inspection by King George V. Large crowds gathered on the banks of the river and on the bridges , to witness the event . Marr wrote in his diary that it was as though " all London had conspired together to bid us a heartening farewell " .
Shackleton 's original intention was to sail down to Cape Town , visiting the main South Atlantic islands on the way . From Cape Town , Quest would head for the Enderby Land coast of Antarctica where , once in the ice , it would explore the coastline towards Coats Land in the Weddell Sea . At the end of the summer season the ship would visit South Georgia before returning to Cape Town for refitting and preparation for the second year 's work . However , the ship 's performance in the early stages of the voyage disrupted this schedule . Serious problems with the engine necessitated a week 's stay in Lisbon , and further stops in Madeira and the Cape Verde Islands . These delays and the slow speed of the ship led Shackleton to decide that it would be necessary to sacrifice entirely the visits to the South Atlantic islands , and instead he turned the ship towards Rio de Janeiro , where the engine could receive a thorough overhaul . Quest reached Rio on 22 November 1921 .
The engine overhaul , and the replacement of the damaged topmast , delayed the party in Rio for four weeks . This meant that it was no longer practical to proceed to Cape Town and then on to the ice . Shackleton decided to sail directly to Grytviken harbour in South Georgia . Equipment and stores that had been sent on to Cape Town would have to be sacrificed , but Shackleton hoped that this shortfall could be made up in South Georgia . He was vague about the direction the expedition should take after South Georgia ; Macklin wrote in his diary , " The Boss says ... quite frankly that he does not know what he will do . "
= = = Death of Shackleton = = =
On 17 December , the day before Quest was due to leave Rio , Shackleton fell ill . He may have suffered a heart attack ; Macklin was called , but Shackleton refused to be examined and declared himself " better " the next morning . On the ensuing voyage to South Georgia he was , from the accounts of his shipmates , unusually subdued and listless . He also began drinking champagne each morning , " to deaden the pain " , contrary to his normal rule of not allowing liquor at sea . A severe storm ruined the expedition 's proposed Christmas celebrations , and a new problem with the engine 's steam furnace slowed progress and caused Shackleton further stress . By 1 January 1922 , the weather had abated : " Rest and calm after the storm – the year has begun kindly for us " , wrote Shackleton in his diary . On 4 January 1922 , South Georgia was sighted , and late that morning Quest anchored at Grytviken .
After visiting the whaling establishment ashore , Shackleton returned to the ship apparently refreshed . He told Frank Wild that they would celebrate their deferred Christmas the next day , and retired to his cabin to write his diary . " The old smell of dead whale permeates everything " , he wrote . " It is a strange and curious place .... A wonderful evening . In the darkening twilight I saw a lone star hover , gem like above the bay . " Later he slept , and was heard snoring by the surgeon McIlroy , who had just finished his watch @-@ keeping duty . Shortly after 2 a.m. on the morning of 5 January , Macklin , who had taken over the watch , was summoned to Shackleton 's cabin . He found Shackleton complaining of back pains and severe facial neuralgia , and asking for a painkilling drug . In a brief discussion , Macklin told his leader that he had been overdoing things , and needed to lead a more regular life . Macklin records Shackleton as saying : " You 're always wanting me to give up things , what is it I ought to give up ? " Macklin replied " Chiefly alcohol , Boss , I don 't think it agrees with you . " Immediately afterwards Shackleton " had a very severe paroxysm , during which he died " .
The death certificate , signed by Macklin , gave the cause as " Atheroma of the Coronary arteries and Heart failure " — in modern terms , coronary thrombosis . Later that morning Wild , now in command , gave the news to the shocked crew , and told them that the expedition would carry on . The body was brought ashore for embalming before its return to England . On 19 January , Leonard Hussey accompanied the body on board a steamer bound for Montevideo , but on arrival there he found a message from Lady Shackleton , requesting that the body be returned to South Georgia for burial . Hussey brought the body back to Grytviken , where on 5 March Shackleton was buried in the Norwegian cemetery . Quest had meantime sailed , so only Hussey of Shackleton 's former comrades was present at the interment . A rough cross marked the grave , until it was replaced by a tall granite column six years later .
= = = Voyage to the ice = = =
As leader , Wild had to arrange where the expedition should now go . Kerr reported that the furnace problem was manageable , and after supplementing stores and equipment with what was available in South Georgia , Wild decided to proceed in general accordance with Shackleton 's original plans . He would take the ship eastward towards Bouvet Island and then beyond , before turning south to enter the ice as close as possible to Enderby Land , and begin coastal survey work there . The expedition would also investigate an " Appearance of Land " in the mouth of the Weddell Sea , reported by Sir James Clark Ross in 1842 , but not seen since . Ultimately , however , progress would depend on weather , ice conditions , and the capabilities of the ship .
Quest left South Georgia on 18 January , heading south @-@ east towards the South Sandwich Islands . There was a heavy swell , such that the overladen ship frequently dipped its gunwales below the waves , filling the waist with water . As they proceeded , Wild wrote that Quest rolled like a log , was leaking and required regular pumping , was heavy on coal consumption , and was slow . All these factors led him , at the end of January , to change his plan . Bouvet Island was abandoned in favour of a more southerly course that brought them to the edge of the pack ice on 4 February .
" Now the little Quest can really try her mettle " , wrote Wild , as the ship entered the loose pack . He noted that Quest was the smallest ship ever to attempt to penetrate the heavy Antarctic ice , and pondered on the fate of others . " Shall we escape , or will the Quest join the ships in Davy Jones 's Locker ? " During the days that followed , as they moved southward in falling temperatures , the ice thickened . On 12 February they reached the most southerly latitude they would attain , 69 ° 17'S , and their most easterly longitude , 17 ° 9'E , well short of Enderby Land . Noting the state of the sea ice and fearing being frozen in , Wild retreated to the north and west . He still hoped to tackle the heavy ice , and if possible to break through to the hidden land beyond . On 18 February he turned the ship south again for another try , but was no more successful than before . On 24 February , after a series of further efforts had failed , Wild set a course westward across the mouth of the Weddell Sea . The ship would try to visit Elephant Island in the South Shetlands , before returning to South Georgia on the onset of winter .
For the most part , the long passage across the Weddell Sea proceeded uneventfully . Wild and Worsley were at odds with each other , according to Macklin , and there was other discontent among the crew which Wild , in his own account , dealt with by the threat of " the most drastic treatment " . On 12 March they reached 64 ° 11'S , 46 ° 4'W , which was the area where Ross had recorded an " Appearance of Land " in 1842 , but there was no sign of it , and a depth sounding of over 2 @,@ 300 fathoms ( 13 @,@ 800 ft , 4 @,@ 200 m . ) indicated no likelihood of land nearby . Between 15 – 21 March Quest was frozen into the ice , and the shortage of coal became a major concern . When the ship broke free , Wild set a course directly for Elephant Island , where he hoped that the coal supply could be supplemented by blubber from the elephant seals there . On 25 March the island was sighted . Wild wanted if possible to revisit Cape Wild , the site of the old Endurance expedition camp , but bad weather prevented this . They viewed the site through binoculars , picking out the old landmarks , before landing on the western coast to hunt for elephant seals . They were able to obtain sufficient blubber to mix with the coal so that , aided by a favourable wind , they reached South Georgia on 6 April .
= = = Return = = =
Quest remained in South Georgia for a month , during which time Shackleton 's old comrades erected a memorial cairn to their former leader , on a headland overlooking the entrance to Grytviken harbour . Quest finally sailed for South Africa on 8 May . The first port of call , however , was Tristan da Cunha , a remote inhabited island to the west and south of Cape Town . After a rough crossing of the " Roaring Forties " , Quest arrived at there on 20 May . On the orders of the Chief Scout , Marr presented a flag to the local Scout Troop .
During the five @-@ day stay , with the help of some of the islanders , the expedition made brief landings on the small Inaccessible Island , 20 miles ( 32 km ) south @-@ west of Tristan , and visited the even smaller Nightingale Island , collecting specimens . Wild 's impressions of the stay at Tristan were not altogether favourable . He noted the appalling squalor and poverty , and said of the population : " They are ignorant , shut off almost completely from the world , horribly limited in outlook . " After the Scout parade and flag presentation , Quest sailed on to Gough Island , 200 miles ( 320 km ) to the east , where members of the expedition took geological and botanical samples . They arrived at Cape Town on 18 June , to be greeted by enthusiastic crowds . The South African Prime Minister , Jan Smuts , gave an official reception for them , and they were honoured at dinners and lunches by local organisations .
They were also met by Rowett 's agent , with the message that they should return to England . Wild wrote : " I should have liked one more season in the Enderby Quadrant ... much might be accomplished by making Cape Town our starting point and setting out early in the season . " However , on 19 July they left Cape Town and sailed northwards . Their final visits were to St Helena , Ascension Island and St Vincent . On 16 September , one year after departure , they arrived at Plymouth Harbour .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Assessment = = =
According to Wild , the expedition ended " quietly " , although his biographer Leif Mills writes of enthusiastic crowds in Plymouth Sound . At the end of his account , Wild expressed the hope that the information they had brought back might " prove of value in helping to solve the great natural problems that still beset us " . These results were summarised in five brief appendices to Wild 's book . The summaries reflected the efforts of the scientific staff to collect data and specimens at each port of call , and the geological and survey work carried out by Carr and Douglas on South Georgia , before the southern voyage . Eventually a few scientific papers and articles were developed from this material , but it was , in Leif Mills 's words , " little enough to show for a year 's work " .
The lack of a clear , defined expedition objective was aggravated by the failure to call at Cape Town on the way south , which meant that important equipment was not picked up . On South Georgia , Wild found little that could make up for this loss — there were no dogs on the island , so no sledging work could be carried out , which eliminated Wild 's preferred choice of a revised expedition goal , an exploration of Graham Land on the Antarctic Peninsula . The death of Shackleton before the beginning of serious work was a heavy blow , and questions were raised about the adequacy of Wild as his replacement . Some reports imply that Wild drank heavily — " practically an alcoholic " , according to Huntford . Mills suggests that even if Shackleton had lived to complete the expedition , it is arguable whether under the circumstances it could have achieved more than it did under Wild 's command .
The non @-@ use of the aeroplane was a disappointment ; Shackleton had hoped to pioneer the use of air transport in Antarctic waters , and had discussed this issue with the British Air Ministry . According to Fisher 's account , essential aeroplane parts had been sent on to Cape Town , but remained uncollected . The long @-@ range , 220 @-@ volt wireless equipment did not work properly , and was abandoned early on . The smaller , 110 @-@ volt equipment worked only within a range of 250 miles ( 400 km ) . During the Tristan visit , Wild attempted to install a new wireless apparatus with the help of a local missionary , but this was also unsuccessful .
= = = End of the Heroic Age = = =
An Antarctic hiatus followed the return of Quest , there being no significant expeditions to the region for seven years . The expeditions that then followed were of a different character from their predecessors , belonging to the " mechanical age " that succeeded the Heroic Age .
At the end of his narrative of the Quest expedition , Wild wrote of the Antarctic : " I think that my work there is done " ; he never returned , closing a career which , like Shackleton 's , had bracketed the entire Heroic Age . None of the other Endurance veterans returned to the Antarctic , although Worsley made one voyage to the Arctic in 1925 . Of the other crew and staff of Quest , the Australian naturalist Hubert Wilkins became a pioneer aviator in both the Arctic and Antarctic , in 1928 flying from Point Barrow , Alaska to Spitsbergen . He also made several unsuccessful attempts during the 1930s , in collaboration with the American adventurer Lincoln Ellsworth , to fly to the South Pole . James Marr , the Boy Scout , also became an Antarctic regular after qualifying as a marine biologist , joining several Australian expeditions in the late 1920s and 1930s . Roderick Carr , the frustrated pilot , became an Air Marshal in the Royal Air Force .
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= Tropical Storm Thelma =
Tropical Storm Thelma , known in the Philippines as Tropical Storm Uring , was one of the deadliest tropical cyclones in Philippine history , killing at least 5 @,@ 081 people . Forming out of a tropical disturbance on November 1 , 1991 , several hundred kilometers north @-@ northeast of Palau , the depression that would become Thelma tracked generally westward . After turning southwestward in response to a cold front , the system intensified into a tropical storm on November 4 as it approached the Philippines . Hours before moving over the Visayas , Thelma attained its peak intensity with estimated ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 992 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 29 inHg ) . Despite moving over land , the system weakened only slightly , emerging over the South China Sea on November 6 while retaining gale @-@ force winds . Thelma ultimately succumbed to wind shear and degraded to a tropical depression . On November 8 , the depression made landfall in Southern Vietnam before dissipating hours later .
While passing over the Philippines , Thelma 's interaction with the high terrain of some of the islands resulted in torrential rainfall . Through a process known as orographic lift , much of the Visayas received 150 mm ( 6 in ) of rain ; however , on Leyte Island there was a localized downpour that brought totals to 580 @.@ 5 mm ( 22 @.@ 85 in ) . With the majority of this falling in a three @-@ hour span , an unprecedented flash flood took place on the island . Much of the land had been deforestated or poorly cultivated and was unable to absorb most of the rain , creating a large runoff . This water overwhelmed the Anilao – Malbasag watershed and rushed downstream . Ormoc City , located past where the Anilao and Malbasag rivers converge , suffered the brunt of the flood . In just three hours , the city was devastated with thousands of homes damaged or destroyed . A total of 4 @,@ 922 people were killed in the city alone , with 2 @,@ 300 perishing along the riverbank .
Outside of Ormoc City , 159 people were killed across Leyte and Negros Occidental . Throughout the country , at least 5 @,@ 081 people lost their lives while another 1 @,@ 941 – 3 @,@ 084 were missing and presumed dead . This made Thelma the deadliest tropical cyclone in Philippine history , surpassing a storm in 1867 that killed 1 @,@ 800 , until later surpassed by Typhoon Haiyan ( Yolanda ) in 2013 which killed at least 6 @,@ 300 people . A total of 4 @,@ 446 homes were destroyed while another 22 @,@ 229 were damaged . Total losses amounted to $ 27 @.@ 67 million . Initially , it took over 24 hours for word of the disaster to reach officials due to a crippled communication network around Ormoc City . Within a few days , emergency supply centers were established and aid from various agencies under the United Nations and several countries flowed into the country . A total of $ 5 @.@ 8 million worth of grants and materials was provided collectively in the international relief effort .
= = Meteorological history = =
In late October 1991 , a tropical disturbance developed near the Caroline Islands . Tracking generally west @-@ northwestward , the system gradually became more defined . On October 31 , convection associated with the system quickly increased , prompting the issuance of a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert from the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) . Early on November 1 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) began monitoring the system as a tropical depression , at which time the system was situated roughly 415 km ( 260 mi ) north @-@ northeast of Palau . Following a satellite @-@ derived surface wind estimate of 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) later that day , the JTWC also began monitoring the low as a tropical depression . Initially , forecast models showed the system continuing on an arcing path out to sea ; however , the system turned westward on November 2 and threatened the Philippines . Due to the cyclone 's proximity to the country , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration also monitored the storm and assigned it with the local name Uring . Late on November 3 , the depression turned west @-@ southwestward towards the Visayas in response to an approaching cold front , an event typical of late @-@ season cyclones in the basin . On November 4 , both the JTWC and JMA upgraded the system to a tropical storm , with the latter assigning it the name Thelma .
Hours before striking the Philippines on November 4 , both agencies reported Thelma to have reached its peak intensity . The JTWC estimated the storm to have attained one @-@ minute sustained winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) while the JMA estimated ten @-@ minute sustained winds at 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) . Additionally , its barometric pressure reached 992 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 29 inHg ) . Thelma soon made landfall in Samar before weakening to a minimal tropical storm . Maintaining gale @-@ force winds , the system eventually passed over Palawan Island on November 6 before moving over the South China Sea . Despite being back over water , strong wind shear prevented re @-@ intensification and caused Thelma to weaken to a tropical depression by November 7 . Now moving westward , the depression eventually made its final landfall over the Mekong River Delta in Southern Vietnam on November 8 . Over the next couple of days the system weakened into an area of low pressure as it moved westwards , before it moved into the Andaman Sea during November 10 . Once in the Andaman Sea , the systems remnants contributed to the formation of the Karaikal tropical cyclone during the next day .
= = Impact = =
Tropical Storm Thelma struck the Philippines just five months after the Ultra @-@ Plinian eruption of Mount Pinatubo . The eruption resulted in the deaths of roughly 800 people and left nearly 1 million homeless . The country 's government was reportedly struggling to deal with the scope of the disaster and the addition of Thelma worsened the situation .
Striking the nation as a weak tropical storm , winds from Thelma gusted up to 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) in Tacloban ; these winds caused no known damage . The main destructive force associated with the cyclone was the tremendous rainfall it produced . More than 150 mm ( 6 in ) of rain across much of the Visayas , resulting in widespread flooding . In Tacloban , 140 @.@ 2 mm ( 5 @.@ 52 in ) fell over a 24 ‑ hour span . The heaviest rain occurred on Leyte Island due to orographic lift , which brought large quantities of moisture into the atmosphere over a relatively small area . Additionally , monsoonal winds to the southwest of Thelma converged over the island , further enhancing the precipitation . Near the city of Ormoc , a Philippine National Oil Company rain gauge measured 580 @.@ 5 mm ( 22 @.@ 85 in ) of precipitation , the highest in relation to the storm . Of this , approximately 500 mm ( 20 in ) fell during a three @-@ hour span around noon local time on November 5 . Initially , residents believed that waterspouts transported tremendous amounts of water to the island , triggering the floods . This notion was quickly dismissed as improbable , however .
The hardest hit region was Leyte , where more than 4 @,@ 000 people lost their lives . A total of 4 @,@ 446 homes were destroyed while another 22 @,@ 229 were damaged . The majority of casualties and damage took place in Ormoc when a flash flood devastated the city . At least 81 people were killed outside Ormoc and another 14 went missing ; 42 lost their lives in Burauen . The entire island of Leyte was left without power and many areas were isolated as roads were washed away . Another 78 people perished and 70 others were left missing in Negros Occidental . Losses from the storm amounted to $ 27 @.@ 67 million ; $ 18 @.@ 94 million in Leyte and $ 8 @.@ 73 million in Negros Occidental . A total of 598 @,@ 454 people were affected while an estimated 43 @,@ 000 people were left homeless by the storm across the Philippines .
= = = Ormoc City tragedy = = =
The greatest tragedy during Tropical Storm Thelma took place in the city of Ormoc after torrential rains overwhelmed the Anilao – Malbasag watershed , sending flood waters rushing down the deforested mountainside . This water flowed into the Anilao and Malbasag rivers , located north of Ormoc . The watershed , covering an area of 4 @,@ 567 hectares ( 11 @,@ 285 acres ) , is only 3 @.@ 3 percent forested , with the remainder being used for agricultural and private purposes . According to a study in 1990 , roughly 90 percent of the watershed had been converted into coconut and sugarcane plantations . The majority of this land was improperly cultivated since the 1970s , making conditions worse than they normally would have been . The natural structure of the mountains further contributed to the floods , with slopes as steep as 60 percent grade in some areas . In heavy rain events , this feature leaves the upper two @-@ thirds of the mountain range unstable . In the two hours prior to the heaviest rains , the soil in the watershed became saturated , greatly lessening its effectiveness at absorbing further rains . As a result , the tremendous rains that occurred just prior to the flood , during which rainfall rates reached 167 mm ( 6 @.@ 6 in ) per hour , the land was unable to absorb a majority of the rain . Many landslides ranging from 1 to 3 m ( 3 @.@ 3 to 9 @.@ 8 ft ) deep and 50 to 100 m ( 160 to 330 ft ) wide occurred across the region . Altogether , rains were twice as heavy as the land could handle and the many landslips doubled the volume of fluids . At various points along rivers , temporary dams created by debris , namely trees , allowed a build up of water upstream . In some instances , waters reached a depth of 10 m ( 33 ft ) before the dams collapsed . Normally , it takes water in the Anilao and Malbasag rivers roughly 3 @.@ 6 and 5 @.@ 6 days , respectively , to reach Ormoc City ; however , it only took one hour during the flood .
Ormoc City itself is located in a flood @-@ prone area , with the Anilao and Malbasag rivers converging just north of the city and taking a 90 degree turn towards the bay . In addition to the natural dangers of the river , poorly designed structures on the river made conditions worse . The majority of construction along the river did not take flooding threats into account , and actually increased the threat of these events . Concrete walls and levees were built into the river rather than on the banks , leading to faster debris damming . Lastly , just after the turn was the Cogon Bridge . This structure constricted the river by as much as 50 percent , enhancing the build up of water . The turn became the final trigger in the disaster as it created an " instantaneous backwater effect , " causing massive volumes of water to over @-@ top the riverbank . Around 11 : 00 a.m. local time on November 5 , approximately 22 @,@ 835 km3 ( 5 @,@ 480 mi3 ) of water inundated 25 km2 ( 15 @.@ 5 mi2 ) of the city . In just 15 minutes , the water rose by 2 @.@ 1 m ( 7 ft ) and further rose to 3 @.@ 7 m ( 12 ft ) within an hour . The flooding lasted for roughly three hours , leaving up to 0 @.@ 6 m ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) of sediment behind .
The flood struck the city with little to no warning , catching all those in its path off @-@ guard . Numerous low @-@ income families lived along the banks of the river , despite being such a high @-@ risk area . Residential and commercial areas were also set up along reclaimed embankments that restricted river flow . Additionally , squatters were allowed to live along the banks of the Anilao river in an area called Isle Verde . Roughly 2 @,@ 500 people lived on this reclaimed land prior to the flood . The majority of fatalities took place along the banks of the river , with most drowning or being buried in mud or debris . A survivor described the initial event as a gigantic wave crashing over the banks and flooding the city . Isle Verde was virtually wiped out and out of the original 2 @,@ 500 people that lived there , only 200 survived . It became known as the " Isle of Death " to survivors . Residents reported hundreds of bodies floating down rivers in the area . The force of the water and mud was enough to crack the walls of city hall . Nearly 3 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed and more than 11 @,@ 000 others were damaged . In the city alone , officials confirmed that 4 @,@ 922 people were killed and another 1 @,@ 857 – 3 @,@ 000 were left missing . Additionally , 3 @,@ 020 people were injured . The majority of those missing were likely swept out to sea by the flood and presumed dead . Two days after the storm , several bodies of those swept out to sea washed back ashore . Officials stated that the death toll could have been in the tens of thousands had the flood occurred at night rather than in the middle of the day .
= = Aftermath = =
Initially , it took more than 24 hours for word of the level of devastation to reach officials in Manila as communications across Leyte were largely destroyed . By November 7 , search and rescue operations were underway across Leyte and Negros Occidental . The first shipment of relief supplies , consisting of food rations , rice , sardines , and used clothing , was to be shipped from Cebu later that day . On November 8 , Philippine President Corazon Aquino declared all of Leyte a disaster area . A Philippine Navy vessel set out with heavy earth @-@ moving machinery and the Philippine Air Force deployed aircraft to assist in rescue efforts . Relief efforts in Ormoc City were hampered by a lack of clear roads and fuel . Amateur radio reports stated that an AC @-@ 130 was able to land at a local airport but materials had to be moved by helicopter from there since roads were blocked . Relief efforts were also hampered by continuing rains and the rough terrain of the affected region . By November 11 , approximately 8 @,@ 300 families had been rescued and another 7 @,@ 521 were evacuated from affected regions .
Supply distribution centers were established in Ormoc , providing residents with food , water , and materials , by November 11 . People were given a can of sardines and 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) of rice at these centers . These centers were only able to operate in daylight though due to a lack of fuel and transportation . Water was supplied in limited quantities from Cebu . Medical and sanitation teams were deployed throughout the province , with many coming from surrounding areas . Residents searched through debris for lumber to construct makeshift coffins while others stacked bodies to be picked up by wheelbarrows or trucks . Officials had difficulty determining how to best deal with mass casualties as bodies lay across the Ormoc region . Many were found in the coastal barangays of Linao , Camp Downes , and Bantigue as well as the Ormoc pier . In order to prevent the spread of disease , mass graves were dug , with 700 bodies buried on November 8 . Dump trucks were used to transport the dead to these sites as quickly as possible . As decomposition set in , residents stated that " [ the ] putrid smell was unbearable . " Even months after the storm , bodies were occasionally discovered , some found in drainage systems . By November 10 , four navy vessels were searching debris in the waters near Ormoc for bodies ; 16 were recovered that day with more believed to be submerged in the bay . Roads surrounding the city were finally cleared by November 12 ; however , electricity remained out . With the deployment of medical teams from Japan , hospitals in the region returned to full capacity . By November 22 , electricity and water had been 70 percent and 60 percent restored , respectively . The emergency phase of assistance ended on November 29 and coordination of disaster relief was returned to the Philippines . By that time , national aid to Ormoc reached $ 1 @.@ 1 million , with more than half coming from a presidential grant .
On November 7 , despite no official appeal for international aid , the governments of France and the United States provided $ 34 @,@ 783 and $ 25 @,@ 000 in funds . The request for assistance came the following day , with the Philippines requesting food , water , medicine , emergency supplies , and heavy machinery . A team from the United Nations Disaster Relief Organization , specializing with relief coordination and flood management , was also sent . The Red Cross appealed for $ 418 @,@ 000 to support 15 @,@ 000 families for one month . A cash grant of $ 17 @,@ 300 from the United Kingdom was received on November 8 . Two United States Air Force AC @-@ 130s from Subic bay naval base flew to Cebu carrying ready @-@ to @-@ eat meals . International funding reached $ 2 @.@ 5 million on November 12 , with grants of $ 1 @.@ 05 million , $ 1 million , $ 188 @,@ 000 from the Netherlands , Japan , and Australia respectively . Additionally , the United States provided 55 @,@ 000 packages of food rations . This total nearly doubled two days later with grants from the United Nations Development Programme , World Food Programme , World Vision International , Médecins Sans Frontières , Caritas , various branches of the Red Cross , and the governments of Canada and New Zealand . Ultimately , approximately $ 5 @.@ 8 million was provided in international assistance from 13 nations , the United Nations , the Red Cross , and various non @-@ governmental organizations .
Isle Verde , where approximately 2 @,@ 300 people were killed , was declared uninhabitable by officials ; however , residents still returned to the area due to a need for land . Eventually , signs that used to warn people not to stay on the islet were eventually taken down and people were no longer warned not to live there . A resettlement community was constructed months later , with plans to house 912 of the 2 @,@ 668 families that needed to be moved from the area . Those that were not moved were left on Isle Verde despite orders not to stay there . Another resettlement project for 700 families was planned at the cost of $ 1 million .
The sheer magnitude of the flood event in the Anilao – Malbasag watershed made the region more vulnerable to future flood events . Hillsides became more unstable and the rivers themselves were clogged with debris , raising their water levels and widening their banks . In a post @-@ disaster assessment in October 1992 , it was stated that swift cooperation of all agencies from local to governmental was necessary to prevent tragedies of similar caliber in the future . It was urged that residents still living along the river banks be relocated to safer areas ; however , by the time of the report , people had already begun repopulating the area . As a way of avoiding similar breaching of the riverbank , it was suggested that the two rivers be dredged and possibly re @-@ channeled . Several points were also brought up about rehabilitating the landscape of the watershed : reforestation , contoured farming , and redesigning of plantations to better retain rainwater . Long @-@ term rehabilitation of the watershed was deemed necessary in addition to repairing infrastructure in Ormoc .
In 1993 , following a request by the Philippine Government , the Japan International Cooperation Agency conducted as study on flood control for Ormoc and other cities across the country . In 1998 , a ₱ 800 million ( $ 20 @.@ 6 million USD ) construction project for flood mitigation was approved and later completed in 2001 . That year , Tropical Depression Auring caused flooding of similar magnitude to Thelma ; however , the waters were properly diverted to the sea . A sculpture and monument to the victims , designed by architect Maribeth Ebcas and artist Florence Cinco respectively , called " Gift of Life " was constructed on a 1 @.@ 3 km2 ( 0 @.@ 8 mi2 ) plot of land . It was designed to also depict a need to respect nature and be a message of hope for residents in Ormoc .
Due to the catastrophic loss of life caused by the storm , the name Thelma was retired and replaced with Teresa .
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= Ouvrage La Ferté =
Ouvrage La Ferté , also known as Ouvrage Villy @-@ La Ferté , is a petit ouvrage of the Maginot Line , located in the Fortified Sector of Montmédy , facing Belgium . The ouvrage lies between the towns of Villy and La Ferté @-@ sur @-@ Chiers . It possesses two combat blocks linked by an underground gallery . The westernmost position in its sector , it was a comparatively weakly armed fortification in an exposed position that left it vulnerable to isolation and attack . After a sustained attack during the Battle of France the position was overwhelmed by German forces and was destroyed with its entire garrison killed . The fighting at La Ferté was the heaviest of any position in the Maginot Line . It is preserved as a war memorial .
= = Design and construction = =
La Ferté is one of four positions in the so @-@ called Tête du Pont de Montmédy ( " Montmédy Bridgehead " ) , a salient in the French defensive lines along the Belgian border . The isolated area was one of the " New Fronts " to the west of the main Maginot Line , created to defend against the increased threat of a German advance through Belgium . The New Front positions suffered from restricted funding , as well as discontinuity in the fortification lines . Large distances between fortifications compared to earlier portions of the Line made mutual support between ouvrages difficult .
The site was approved in 1934 , under the supervision of CORF ( Commission d 'Organisation des Régions Fortifiées ) , the Maginot Line 's design and construction agency . Work by the contractor Chanel of Antibes began in 1935 at a cost of 14 @.@ 5 million francs . A second phase was planned to add an artillery block . This was scaled back to a pair of separate artillery casemates . A separate entrance block was proposed in April 1940 , linking to the casemates . As the initial confrontation with Germany was already underway , it was too late to be built , with a projected construction time of 18 months .
Compared to earlier Maginot positions , the La Ferté site suffered from a number of design and construction deficiencies . The site contours around Block 2 required a great deal of rubble fill to cover the sides of the block . This rubble had not yet stabilized by the spring of 1940 and could be dislodged by artillery fire . Block 2 suffered from restricted fields of fire to the west and southwest , which were covered only by an automatic rifle cloche . The nearby road ran in a cutting that could not be swept by direct fire . Since La Ferté lacked mortars , the road was dead ground .
The separate artillery casemates were not habitable for any extended period and lacked close @-@ in defenses . With unusually large gun embrasures measuring 1 @.@ 3 meters ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) by 1 @.@ 7 meters ( 5 @.@ 6 ft ) , they afforded little protection to their crews against accurate fire , while coverage from the main ouvrage was poor .
= = Description = =
La Ferté is a petit ouvrage . It is located immediately to the west of the Chiers river , with two semi @-@ buried reinforced concrete combat blocks containing the position 's armament and observation posts , linked by a deep underground gallery .
Block 1 : infantry / entry block with one automatic rifle cloche ( GFM @-@ B ) , one observation cloche ( VDP ) , two mixed @-@ arms cloches ( AM ) , one twin machine gun embrasure and one machine gun / 47mm anti @-@ tank gun ( JM / AC47 ) embrasure .
Block 2 : infantry block with one retractable mixed @-@ arms turret , one AM cloche , one GFM @-@ B cloche and one GFM @-@ B observation cloche . Block 2 was the principal focus of the German assault .
A separate entry block was planned , adjacent to the Villy Est casemate . The underground gallery system at La Ferté is simple , limited to a gallery linking the two blocks , which were initially designed to function as separate units with separate generating plants and ventilation facilities in each block . The 275 @-@ meter ( 902 ft ) gallery contained some shared facilities , such as a kitchen , a laundry and an infirmary , at an average depth of 24 meters ( 79 ft ) below the surface . The gallery 's small size made it most useful as a link , rather than as the garrison , magazine , command post and long @-@ term shelter afforded by the gallery systems of most Maginot ouvrages . Unlike most ouvrages , La Ferté 's living spaces were near the surface in the two combat blocks . A more typical Maginot position would have such spaces under 30 meters ( 98 ft ) of earth or rock cover . Unlike many Maginot positions , the main drain at La Ferté was not configured as an emergency exit . The mixed @-@ arms turret used on Block 2 was known to be mechanically trouble @-@ prone , and La Ferté 's turret particularly so .
= = = Casemates = = =
A number of small blockhouses are associated with La Ferté , as well as unconnected casemates :
Casemate de Margut : Double block with one JM / AC47 embrasure , one JM embrasure , two AM cloches and one GFM @-@ B cloche , about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) to the east @-@ southeast on the far side of the Chiers .
Casemate de Villy Ouest : Artillery block with one 75mm gun .
Casemate de Villy Est : Artillery block with one 75mm gun .
The Villy gun casemates are close to Block 2 , directly adjacent to the 1940 road . They replaced the planned 75mm gun turret block . The casemates are not connected to each other or to the main ouvrage , a weakness that influenced the 1940 combat action .
= = = Villy = = =
The village of Villy lies about one kilometer to the northwest of ouvrage La Ferté . Villy itself was fortified with more than a dozen blockhouses , along with networks of barbed wire and tank obstacles . The blockhouses were primarily prepared , reinforced firing positions and did not necessarily possess fixed armament .
= = Manning = =
The 1940 manning of the ouvrage under the command of Lieutenant Bourguignon comprised 97 men and 3 officers of the 155th Fortress Infantry Regiment ( 155th RIF ) and the 169th Position Artillery Regiment ( 169th RAP ) . The units were under the umbrella of the Second Army , Army Group 1 . The Casernement de Montmédy provided peacetime above @-@ ground barracks and support services to La Ferté and other fortifications in the area .
Lieutenant Bourguignon had exchanged commands with Lieutenant Guiard on 20 March 1940 , Guiard taking Bourguignon 's former position at the casemate of Thonne @-@ le @-@ Thil . Bourguignon was assisted by Sub @-@ Lieutenant Thouémont , who commanded Block 2 . Thouémont , who had been previously posted to a machine gun battalion in the 149th and 132nd RIF , lacked specific training on Maginot systems . He replaced Captain André , a reservist and mayor of Villy , who had been promoted . Bourguignon was responsible for command of Block 1 , as well as for overall command . Compared to similar positions , La Ferté was understaffed with officers .
= = Strategic situation = =
The Second Army was commanded by General Charles Huntziger , who was responsible for the defense of the Ardennes region of the frontier , including the Fortified Sector of Montmédy . The sector was composed of two parts . The eastern portion was defended by the Maginot positions of La Ferté , Chesnois , Thonnelle and Vélosnes , widely spaced and small , compared to the massive fortifications of other sectors like Thionville . The western portion of the Montmédy sector was even more lightly defended , with several lines of fortifications ranging from fortified houses near the border to small blockhouses farther back . None of the western defenses were of a scale sufficient to support La Ferté or to act as a significant block to an invading force without the organized support of mobile army formations . The relatively weak La Ferté position effectively acted as the western end of fixed fortifications .
On 13 – 14 May , German forces crossed the Meuse near Sedan using integrated land and air tactics that broke the morale of the French 55th Infantry Division , driving them out of the blockhouse line and allowing the Germans to gain a strong position from which to exploit the breakthrough . A progressive collapse of the French Second and Ninth Armies from 14 May to 17 May allowed German forces to move to the west of La Ferté , cutting La Ferté off from much of its mobile support .
= = 1940 = =
See Fortified Sector of Montmédy for a broader discussion of the events of 1940 in the Montmédy sector of the Maginot Line .
On 13 May advance elements of the German 71st Infantry Division approached La Ferté ( which the Germans called Panzerwerke 505 ) and occupied the surrounding area , out of range of fire from the ouvrage . The 71st ID had trained specifically for an assault on the Maginot Line , and were provided with shaped charge explosives of the type used in the assault on the Belgian Fort Eben @-@ Emael a few days before . The night of the 13th and 14th La Ferté installed a periscope in its machine gun turret , which had been just been delivered on the 11th . On 15 May the Villy Est casemate opened fire on German troops advancing on a nearby farm . On the 16th the Germans took nearby Hill 226 , which overlooked La Ferté from the west and attacked the higher Hill 311 ( overlooking La Ferté from the southwest ) despite fire from the Villy Ouest casemate . That evening , German reconnaissance around La Ferté and the Moiry and Sainte Marie casemates drew supporting fire from Ouvrage Chesnois 's 75mm guns . Chesnois fired 1200 rounds in seven hours . On 17 May , German forces made a series of determined attacks on Hill 311 , and German artillery began bombardment of La Ferté with 21 cm mortars and 88mm high @-@ velocity anti @-@ tank guns . About midday on the 17th , La Ferté 's telephone communications were cut , forcing the position to communicate by radio , which could be monitored by the Germans , and which required Bourguignon to transmit through Chesnois to reach headquarters .
The Germans eventually captured Hill 311 just before nightfall , driving off the first battalion of the 23rd Colonial Infantry Regiment with losses . During the afternoon of the 17th , the Villy artillery casemates were evacuated , while German bombardment continued amid French fire from Chesnois . At about this time , General Huntziger ordered that Villy and La Ferté be relieved to prevent their encirclement , emphasizing the importance of French possession of Hill 311 , and directing that the town of Inor to the southwest be held at all costs . General Brochard , responsible for the area , decided to counterattack from the south through Hill 311 to La Ferté using the 3rd North African Infantry Division and the newly arrived 6th Infantry Division . Through the ensuing night La Ferté requested and received supporting fire from Chesnois to suppress German movements on top of the ouvrage .
Telephone service was restored the morning of the 18th , allowing better artillery coordination in support of La Ferté . By the afternoon of 18 May , the Germans had occupied the village of Villy , completing the encirclement of the ouvrage . Between 1400 and 1500 hours on the 18th , Block 2 's automatic rifle / observation ( GFM ) cloche was hit by German fire , killing three . At about the same time , the retractable mixed arms turret on Block 2 became stuck in the opened position , facing to the rear and unable to aim . As this comprised La Ferté 's heaviest armament , it significantly reduced the position 's defensive strength . At 1700 hours , Germans entered the vacant Villy Est casemate , occupying Villy Ouest an hour later . Both had been evacuated by the French amid concerns about the German presence on Hill 311 . From 1800 – 1830 three batteries of German 210mm howitzers fired on La Ferté with supporting fire on the fort 's surroundings from 155mm howitzers . At 1810 four German 88mm guns opened fire on the exposed portions of the main ouvrage . The combined artillery fire destroyed the barbed wire entanglements surrounding La Ferté and cratered the ground . Firing ceased after 20 minutes to allow German sappers to destroy the previously damaged GFM cloche . They then threw smoke bombs into the resulting hole and destroyed the stuck turret and two more cloches , leaving Block 2 incapable of further resistance . Supporting fire from Chesnois was hampered by smoke shells that obscured French observation posts ' view of La Ferté .
The French counterattack was ordered from French lines using ten Char B tanks supported by two battalions of the 119th Infantry Regiment of the 6th Infantry Division . The attack was launched at 1930 hours . With the infantry making a late start , the tanks halted at the saddle between Hill 311 and La Ferté to let them catch up . The infantry was met on the slopes of Hill 311 by two battalions of the German 119th Infantry Regiment , while three tanks were lost , two to enemy fire . The counterattack failed to reach La Ferté . In the meantime , Chesnois was ordered to cease supporting fire for fear of hitting the French rescue force , allowing the Germans to move freely about the surface . After dark on the 18th the Germans opened artillery fire on Block 1 , while at the same time blasting the Block 2 mixed arms turret into the air so that it landed askew in its opening . At 2300 a ground assault on Block 1 was launched . Two hours later all of Block 1 's cloches were out of action . Chesnois was directly ordered not to fire on La Ferté by the 6th ID artillery director , despite continuing assertions from observers that the Germans were on top of the position . Lieutenant Bouguignon repeatedly asked General Aymé , his commander at the 3rd Colonial Infantry Division for permission to abandon the position . Aymé refused Bourguignon permission to evacuate , saying " Your mission has not changed . " The commander of Chesnois , Bourguigonon 's former commander who pleaded with the divisional staff to allow Bourguignon to evacuate , advised him that " A Maginot Line ouvrage is like a submarine . One doesn 't leave a submarine : one sinks with it . " Contact was lost with La Ferté overnight .
By the morning of the 19th , resistance ceased . There was no response to repeated telephone calls from the French headquarters . It became apparent that the interior of Block 2 was on fire . On the 20th , equipped with respirators , the Germans entered Block 2 , encountering no one . The next day they were able to enter Block 1 . Finding no resistance , the Germans moved on to other objectives . French patrols reached La Ferté on the 28th and 29th , reporting dense smoke within , but were unable to advance . On 2 June a German patrol made a full survey of the ouvrage , finding " the most difficult conditions imaginable , " and discovering the corpses of the garrison , apparently suffocated , most wearing gas masks . By 9 June the area was firmly under German control . The bodies of the garrison were recovered by a German disciplinary battalion and buried . Examination indicated that the garrison died of carbon monoxide poisoning . While the gas masks were effective against low concentrations of carbon monoxide , they could not cope with a concentration greater than 2 % .
The entire garrison was posthumously awarded the Ordre de l 'Armée and Bourguigon was made a chevalier of the Legion d 'Honneur . On the German side , Oberleutnant Alfred Germer , who led the assault on Block 2 , was awarded the Knight 's Cross . Belated Unteroffizier Walter Pape was also awarded the Knight 's Cross for conquering Panzerwerk 505 and for his leading of a stormtroop ( Sturmtruppführer ) against Verdun in June 1940 .
= = Current condition = =
La Ferté is preserved as it was in 1940 , with the scars of shellfire visible on cloches and concrete . The site includes a military memorial facing the new road alignment . A small cemetery , established in 1960 opposite the memorial , is the burial site for the majority of the garrison . The ouvrage and surrounding casemates are recorded as French historic monuments . The interior is open to the public on stated days .
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= Golf Ball =
Golf Ball ( sometimes Golfball ) is a 1962 painting by Roy Lichtenstein . It is considered to fall within the art movement known as Pop art . It depicts " a single sphere with patterned , variously directional semi @-@ circular grooves . " The work is commonly associated with black @-@ and @-@ white Piet Mondrian works . It is one of the works that was presented at Lichtenstein 's first solo exhibition and one that was critical to his early association with pop art . The work is commonly critiqued for its tension involving a three @-@ dimensional representation in two dimensions with much discussion revolving around the choice of a background nearly without any perspective .
= = History = =
When Lichtenstein had his first solo show at the Leo Castelli Gallery in February 1962 , it sold out before opening . Golf Ball was one of the works that Lichtenstein exhibited . Later , Lichtenstein included Golf Ball in Still Life with Goldfish Bowl , 1972 , and Go for Baroque , 1979 . The painting exemplifies the novel superimposition of abstraction and figuration . The work also represents abstraction as a result of elimination of three @-@ dimensionality , chiaroscuro and a landscape context .
The use of black and white is regarded as dramatic , and although it may have been influenced by 1940s and 1950s works of Willem de Kooning , Franz Kline and Robert Motherwell , it is more likely a commentary on Mondrian 's 1917 Composition in Black and White . Alternatively , it may have been a reference to another of Mondrian 's Pre @-@ World War I black and white oval paintings , such as Pier and ocean , 1915 . This complementary source art was common of Lichtenstein 's 1960s work on frequently advertised objects . Lichtenstein describes his sources as Mondrian Plus and Minus paintings .
= = Description = =
In 1962 , Lichtenstein produced several works in which he depicted " ... the repetitive regularity of their patterned surfaces ... " Golf Ball is a depiction of a golf ball using a Mondrianesque set of black and white arcs to depict the three @-@ dimensionality of the subject . However , the neutral background manipulates the image and diminishes the volumetric characteristics by stripping the viewer of his perspective . It is described as a " pure graphic mark on a gray ground " as well as a " totality of abstract marks . " Lichtenstein described Golf Ball as " the antithesis of what was thought of as having ' art meaning ' " because of its lack of perspective .
Golf Ball is an example of the emerging " confident authority " of his single @-@ image paintings with its " Rock of Gibraltar @-@ like thereness " . The " frontal and centralized presentation " ' s directness lacked the sophistication to market the images of household goods for advertising but was considered daring artistically . The black and white painting on a grey background challenges both the natural perception of realism and the boundaries of abstraction . The work " gives us both the impression of space and the fact of surface " .
Golf Ball was one of the bases by which " critics aligned him with other practitioners of Pop Art " , although much is made about the painting 's references to abstract painting , especially its likeness to Mondrian 's works . Furthermore , the painting leverages tensions regarding three @-@ dimensional representation in two dimensions resulting from spatial ambiguities caused by the lack of cues in the background .
= = Reception = =
Diane Waldman refers to the subject of Golf Ball as a freestanding form . This is one of the figures in which Lichtenstein demonstrates his draftsman experience . This work demonstrated his maturation as an artist with standardized contours that present uniformity and solidified inflections . This is a strong example of presenting the tension of volumetric potential balanced against two @-@ dimensional presentation . It also shows how placement against a neutral background diminishes three @-@ dimensionality . Despite Lichtenstein 's techniques to display / minimize dimensionality , the viewer imposes his or her own visualization experiences on the painting , which minimizes the effect of spatial illusion .
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= Banded sugar ant =
The banded sugar ant ( Camponotus consobrinus ) , also known as the sugar ant , is a species of ant endemic to Australia . A member of the genus Camponotus in the subfamily Formicinae , it was described by German entomologist Wilhelm Ferdinand Erichson in 1842 . Its common name refers to the ant 's liking for sugar and sweet food , as well as the distinctive orange @-@ brown band that wraps around its gaster .
The ant is polymorphic and relatively large , with two different castes of workers : major workers ( also known as soldiers ) , and minor workers . These two group of workers measure around 5 to 15 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 6 in ) in length , while the queen ants are even larger . Mainly nocturnal , banded sugar ants prefer a mesic habitat , and are commonly found in forests and woodlands . They also occur in urban areas , where they are considered a household pest . The ant 's diet includes sweet secretions that are retrieved from aphids and other insects that it tends . This species is a competitor of the meat ant ( Iridomyrmex purpureus ) , and food robbery and nest @-@ plugging is known to occur between these two ants . Workers prey on insects , killing them with a spray of formic acid . Banded sugar ants are preyed upon by other ants , echidnas , and birds . The eggs of this species were consumed by Indigenous Australians .
= = Taxonomy = =
The banded sugar ant was first described by German entomologist Wilhelm Ferdinand Erichson , who named it Formica consobrina in 1842 . The holotype specimen is a queen collected from Tasmania , which is now housed in the Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin . Formica consobrina was later moved to the genus Camponotus as Camponotus consobrinus , by entomologist Julius Roger in 1863 . In 1933 , American entomologist William Morton Wheeler described some subspecies and variants of the banded sugar ant . These subspecies were C. consobrinus lividipes and C. consobrinus nigriceps , while the variants were C. consobrinus var. obniger and C. consobrinus var. perthianus . Some of these classifications were short @-@ lived ; C. consobrinus nigriceps was later revived as a full species in 1934 as C. nigriceps , while C. consobrinus lividipes was synonymised with C. consobrinus . C. consobrinus lividipes was treated as a subspecies for C. nigriceps in 1985 , now known as C. nigriceps lividipes . In 1996 C. consobrinus perthianus was synonymised with C. nigriceps , and C. consobrinus var. obniger was synonymised with C. consobrinus .
The specific name is derived from the Latin word consobrina , meaning " cousin " . This is in reference to its similar appearance with the species C. herculeanus .
The ant is a member of the Camponotus nigriceps species group , which also includes C. clarior , C. dryandrae , C. eastwoodi , C. loweryi , C. longideclivis , C. nigriceps , C. pallidiceps and C. prostans . The species is commonly known as the banded sugar ant or sugar ant due to its attraction to sweet food and the orange @-@ brown band that is present on its gaster .
= = Description = =
Banded sugar ants appear in different forms , varying from 5 to 15 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 6 in ) in length , making them a large species . Banded sugar ants are polymorphic , and colonies have two types of workers : minor workers and major workers that have different size ranges . The two castes can be identified easily , due to the workers being smaller and more slender , while the soldiers are larger and more robust . Both castes carry a set of powerful mandibles . Queen ants are the largest ants in the colony . Banded sugar ants come in a variety of colours , possibly due to ecological rather than genetic influences . For example , humidity , insolation and temperature may all affect the colour of an individual .
Female banded sugar ants are easily recognised by their black head , orange thorax and the orange @-@ brown band that wraps around their gaster . Males of the species are completely black . The dark sides of the thorax and legs are ferruginous ( rusty in colour ) . The scape ( the base of the antenna ) and mandibles are black , and the head is wider than the thorax . The thorax is longer than its total width and slightly compressed , and the gaster is covered with tiny black dots . Erect setae are golden in colour and absent under the head but present on the mesosoma . The setae on the tibia and scape are shorter than those on the mesosoma . The anterior of the gaster is lighter in colour compared to the posterior , and the dorsum of the mesosoma is outlined and curved . A worker 's metanotum is absent and the eyes are bulging , while a soldier 's metanotum is noticeable and the eyes are flat . The wings on the queen are dark , and the stigmata and nerves are yellow . While many ant species have a metapleural gland , the gland is not present in the banded sugar ant ; the number of malpighian tubules in workers is 21 .
The related black @-@ headed sugar ant ( Camponotus nigriceps ) has a similar appearance and may be mistaken for a banded sugar ant . Black @-@ headed sugar ants are lighter in colour than banded sugar ants and the orange @-@ brown band is absent from their gaster .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The banded sugar ant is one of the most widely distributed ants in Australia , but is most commonly found in south @-@ east Australia . It occurs along the north @-@ east coast of Queensland , from Charters Towers in the north to Brisbane in the south . The ant is widespread in New South Wales , the Australian Capital Territory , Victoria and Tasmania . In South Australia , it is a common household pest in Adelaide , and populations are mostly found in the south @-@ east of the state while the species is absent in the north @-@ west . The banded sugar ant 's presence in Western Australia has yet to be verified . These ants are found in urban areas , eucalypt forests , dry sclerophyll woodland , grasslands and heaths , preferring a mesic habitat . In the drier regions of Australia , the banded sugar ant is absent and is usually replaced by Camponotus nigriceps . Banded sugar ants have been recorded from elevations ranging from 170 to 853 metres ( 558 to 2 @,@ 800 ft ) .
Nests are found in a variety of sites , including holes in wood , roots of plants , twigs of trees and shrubs , between rocks , in the soil , and under paving stones . Sometimes , banded sugar ant colonies form small mounds , which are less than 20 cm ( 8 in ) in diameter and usually funnel @-@ shaped and ephemeral . Mounds are not constructed in undisturbed regions where land degradation has not occurred . Instead , the entrance of a nest consists of a smooth @-@ walled vertical shaft that is 15 to 17 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 59 to 0 @.@ 67 in ) in diameter . Chambers in the nest have a similar appearance to the nest entrance ( shaft @-@ like walls ) , and the floors within the chambers are typically 20 to 30 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) in length with an arched roof that is 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) in height . Excavated meat ant nests show that banded sugar ants will also inhabit them .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Banded sugar ants are the dominant group of nocturnal ants in their range . Workers are mostly encountered at dusk when they are foraging for food on marked trails or on Casuarina and Eucalyptus trees . These ants also forage during the day , but they are more frequently seen at night . They are also more active during the warmer seasons , especially summer . Banded sugar ants use multiple social techniques to make other ants follow them to a food source ; this includes a worker carrying another worker , tandem running , or simply leaving a pheromone trail to the source . Around 2 – 35 % of foraging workers engage in tandem running .
Banded sugar ants will often attack the nests of other ant species at random , while ignoring other ants nearby . They use their mandibles to hold opponents , and use formic acid to kill them . Foraging workers use visual cues to help them find their way around , or to let them determine that they are lost ; workers will identify landmarks they are familiar with to orientate themselves . When provoked , an individual banded sugar ant will lift up its abdomen and use its large mandibles to fend off an attacker . If further provoked , it can defend itself by spraying formic acid from its abdomen to deter predators .
Meat ants have been observed blocking banded sugar ant nesting holes with pebbles and soil to prevent them from leaving their nest during the early hours of the day . The ants counter this by preventing meat ants from leaving their nest by blocking their nesting holes with debris , a behaviour known as nest @-@ plugging . If meat ant nests are encroached by trees or other shade , banded sugar ants may invade and take over the nest , since the health of the colony may deteriorate from overshadowing . Members of an affected meat ant colony later move to a nearby satellite nest that is placed in a suitable area , while invading banded sugar ants fill nest galleries up with a black resinous material . In a 1999 study , Pogonoscopus myrmex leafhoppers were placed in a banded sugar ant colony to test the reaction of non @-@ host ants . These leafhoppers were attacked , suggesting no symbiotic relationship between the two .
Starlings have been observed to rub banded sugar ants on their feathers and skin , a behaviour known as anting .
= = = Diet and predators = = =
Banded sugar ants are omnivores and feed on sweet substances . They tend plant @-@ eating insects such as aphids , and feed on the fluids they secrete . Honeydew secretions are produced from the anus of the aphid , which is later provided to the ants . This behaviour is mutually beneficial to both organisms , as the ants protect the aphids from predation and the aphids provides a nutritious liquid to the ants . Banded sugar ants also tend the larvae of the southern purple azure butterfly ( Ogyris genoveva ) . They are visitors to flowers of Eucalyptus globulus trees , where they can act as pollinators . They may be seen at night foraging under lights in urban areas for arthropod prey , such as termites and the southern cattle tick ( Rhipicephalus microplus ) . During the night , banded sugar ants are known to " rob " food sources excreted by Hemiptera insects that are fed on by meat ants during the day . Banded sugar ants and meat ants tend to nest near one another , and areas where the two ants forage have shorter foraging periods due to interference between the species . However , banded sugar ants are nocturnal while meat ants are not , so foraging periods are extended by one or two hours if no interference occurs .
Banded sugar ants have been found in the feces of the short @-@ beaked echidna ( Tachyglossus aculeatus ) , and non @-@ passerine birds are known to predate them . The blackish blindsnake ( Ramphotyphlops nigrescens ) follows trails laid by banded sugar ants , possibly to locate them as potential prey . Blindsnakes are also known to consume the brood of this species . Nematodes are a parasite to banded sugar ant larvae , as several mermithergate larvae were described . Infected individuals are recognisable by their swollen gasters ; for example , uninfected ants measuring 13 to 14 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 51 to 0 @.@ 55 in ) in length have a gaster length of 4 to 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 16 to 0 @.@ 20 in ) while the gaster of infected individuals who are similar in size is 6 to 7 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 24 to 0 @.@ 28 in ) . Some specimens collected had gasters so swollen that the intersegmental @-@ membrane was exposed .
= = = Life cycle and reproduction = = =
Like all ants , banded sugar ants begin life as eggs . If the egg is fertilised , the ant becomes a female ; if not , it will become a male . They develop through complete metamorphosis , meaning that they pass through a larval and pupal stage before emerging as adults .
Although most banded sugar ant colonies are monogynous ( a nest that contains a single queen ) , some have been found to be polygynous , where a colony will have multiple queens ; this is the fourth Camponotus species that is recognized as exhibiting polygyny . In polygynous colonies , queens are not territorial and free @-@ mixing of offspring is observed . Despite the homogeneous environmental factors , however , different family lineages are strongly correlated with ant caste , suggesting caste is largely genetically determined . Nests containing a single queen are monandrous , where a queen will only mate once with a male . Not much is known about their nuptial flight , although virgin queens and males ( alates ) were observed mating in South Australia in January . This hints that banded sugar ants will mate during mid @-@ summer , and colony foundation occurs at this time . Ideal conditions for nuptial flight is on warm days during the afternoon at temperatures of 20 – 25 ° C ( 68 – 77 ° F ) , which is when the alates begin to swarm . A colony can be long @-@ lived , with queens living for seven years or more . The black carpenter ant ( Camponotus pennsylvanicus ) is known to adopt larvae and pupae from banded sugar ant colonies .
Workers that belong to different matrilines ( female ancestry ) appear significantly different from each other in size . Matrilines are also said to influence caste determination within the species .
= = Interaction with humans = =
The banded sugar ant is considered a household pest and is occasionally seen in houses at night , capable of damaging furniture and fittings by chewing the wood ; carbon disulphide is used to treat and remove a banded sugar ant nest . These ants do not pose any threat to humans , as they are incapable of stinging and can only spray formic acid , however , the larger soldiers are capable of inflicting a painful bite with their powerful jaws , and the formic acid they spray is corrosive to human skin . The eggs of this species were consumed by the Australian Aborigines .
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= Stephen Tomašević of Bosnia =
Stephen Tomašević ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Stjepan / Stefan Tomašević , Стјепан / Стефан Томашевић ; died on 25 May 1463 ) was the last sovereign from the Bosnian Kotromanić dynasty . His father , King Stephen Thomas , arranged for him to marry Maria of Serbia and become Despot of Serbia in April 1459 . The marriage was meant to unite Bosnia and Serbia in their fight against the expanding Ottoman Empire , but failed in that regard . After ruling Serbia for merely two months , Stephen Tomašević surrendered it to the Ottomans and fled back to his father 's court .
Upon his father 's death in 1461 , Stephen Tomašević ascended as King of Bosnia , a kingdom whose existence was being increasingly threatened by the Ottomans . He desperately tried to secure help from Pope Pius II , King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary and monarchs of other neighbouring countries . Confident that they would come to his aid , Stephen Tomašević refused to deliver the customary tribute to Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror and thus provoked the invasion that cost him his life . In 1463 , Mehmed marched into Bosnia , meeting little effective resistance , and captured Stephen Tomašević , who was then beheaded . The execution marks the fall of the Kingdom of Bosnia to the Ottoman Empire .
= = Name = =
Like all Bosnian kings before him , Stephen Tomašević bore the name Stephen . His predecessors , with the exception of his uncle Stephen Ostojić , took the name Stephen upon accession as an honorific that signified their claim to the throne of Serbia , whose Nemanjić rulers had first adopted it . Stephen Tomašević , on the other hand , appears to have been baptized as Stephen ( Stipan ) , the last part of his name being a patronymic . On occasions when his predecessors referred to themselves by their Christian names only , omitting the honorific Stephen , Stephen Tomašević called himself simply Stipan – suggesting that the name was in his case more than an honorific . The same is true for his uncle , Stephen Ostojić . For this reason , Stephen Tomašević has been listed as Stephen II – his uncle being Stephen I – albeit very rarely .
= = Family = =
Stephen Tomašević was born into the House of Kotromanić , as one of the two known sons of Stephen Thomas and a commoner named Vojača . The other son died as an adolescent . Stephen Tomašević 's father was an adulterine son of King Stephen Ostoja and a younger brother of Radivoj , who contested the rule of their cousin King Stephen Tvrtko II . Stephen Thomas was politically inactive and did not take part in the struggle between his brother and cousin , enabling his family to lead a quiet life in a period when the Ottoman state tried to weaken Bosnia by encouraging internal divisions . This all changed when the ailing and childless King Stephen Tvrtko II decreed that Stephen Thomas should succeed him . The King died shortly after , in November 1443 , and Stephen Tomašević 's father ascended the throne . The legal status of his parents ' marriage is ambiguous ; his mother has been described as either his father 's concubine or common @-@ law wife . The marriage ended when Bosnian noblemen , unwilling to recognize a commoner as their queen , requested that Stephen Thomas take a wife of noble birth . The annulment was granted by Pope Eugene IV on 29 May 1445 .
Stephen Thomas , raised as a member of the Bosnian Church , converted to Roman Catholicism in c . 1445 ; Stephen Tomašević later stated that he had been baptized into the Roman Catholic Church as a child , and that he had been taught Latin letters . In 1446 , Stephen Thomas married Catherine of St Sava , by whom Stephen Tomašević had a half @-@ brother named Sigismund and a half @-@ sister named Catherine .
= = Marriage = =
In 1453 , the Ottomans conquered Constantinople and annexed the remnants of the Byzantine Empire . Without an adversary to their rear , the Ottomans were now able to freely campaign against European states , including the Kingdom of Bosnia and the neighbouring Despotate of Serbia . Stephen Thomas thereupon desperately tried to ensure Christendom 's help in case of Ottoman invasion , and entered into negotiations with Francesco Sforza , Duke of Milan , over Stephen Tomašević 's marriage to an illegitimate daughter of the Duke .
Serbia 's despot , Lazar Branković , died in 1458 , and a power vacuum ensued . Having left three daughters and no sons , he was nominally succeeded by his older brother Stephen , but Stephen 's authority was challenged as he was blind and thus considered unfit to rule . Stephen Thomas took advantage of Serbia 's weakness to recapture Eastern Bosnian towns he had lost to Lazar 's and Stephen 's father George . Shortly afterwards , he entered peace negotiations with Lazar 's widow , Helen Palaiologina . Abandoning the prospect of his son 's marriage to a daughter of the Duke of Milan , Stephen Thomas came to an agreement with Helen : Stephen Tomašević was to marry the eldest of the three daughters of her and Lazar , the 11 @-@ year @-@ old Helen , and assume the government of Serbia . The Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus agreed to the arrangement – it was in his interest to create a strong buffer zone between his realm and the Ottoman Empire by uniting the Kingdom of Bosnia and the Despotate of Serbia , which he considered Hungary 's vassal states , under Stephen Tomašević . The Diet of Hungary confirmed Stephen Tomašević 's right to Serbia in January 1459 .
Stephen Tomašević duly set out for Serbia but narrowly escaped imprisonment during an Ottoman raid on the royal residence of Bobovac . He arrived to Smederevo , capital of the Eastern Orthodox despotate , during the Holy Week of 1459 , and ascended the Serbian throne on 21 March . Michael Szilágyi , regent for the underage King Matthias , arrived at the head of an army to ensure that command over the town 's fortress would be assumed by Stephen Tomašević without any difficulties .
= = Despotism = =
Stephen Tomašević 's marriage to Helen took place on 1 April , the first Sunday following Easter . Following the presumably Catholic ceremony , the bride was known as Maria . He assumed the title of despot , despite the fact that the title was neither hereditary nor tied to a specific territory , but a grant from the Byzantine emperor . It is possible that his mother @-@ in @-@ law , a member of Byzantium 's last imperial family , believed that she had the right to grant the title in the absence of an emperor . Within a week of the wedding , Stephen Tomašević exiled his wife 's deposed uncle from Serbia . King Stephen Thomas retold these events in a letter sent to the Duke of Milan , claiming that the title of despot was granted to his son by the King of Hungary " with the agreement and will of all the Rascians " . It is more likely , however , that only Hungarians and the supporters of Stephen Tomašević 's mother @-@ in @-@ law were pleased with his accession to the Serbian throne .
It was clear from the onset that Stephen Tomašević 's reign in Serbia would be short @-@ lived . The Ottoman sultan Mehmed the Conqueror considered Stephen Tomašević 's enthronement an unwarranted violation of his own rights , for the Ottomans too considered Serbia their vassal state . Mehmed promptly launched an attack on Smederevo in June , and there was no serious consideration of trying to defend it . Aware that it could not withstand the attack , Stephen Tomašević surrendered the fortress on 20 June . The Ottoman proceeded to annex the rest of the Serbian state to their empire within a year .
Following the fall of the town which Pope Pius II lamentably termed " the gateway to Rascia " , Stephen Tomašević fled to Bosnia with his wife and in @-@ laws , seeking refuge at the court of his father . The King of Hungary accused Stephen Tomašević and the Bosnians of selling Smederevo Fortress to the Ottomans , and the Pope at first believed the Hungarians . Pius 's own investigation appears to have come to the conclusion that Stephen Tomašević did not sell the fortress , as the Pope did not repeat the claim . Ottoman , Bosnian and Serbian sources say nothing about the supposed betrayal , so the allegation is unlikely to be based on fact . The Serbian @-@ born Janissary Konstantin Mihailović and the Byzantine Greek scholar Laonikos Chalkokondyles maintained Stephen Tomašević 's innocence and pointed out to the strength of the Ottoman army . Both agree that the Serbs within Smederevo were so unhappy with Bosnian rule and convinced that the Ottoman would prevail ( and grant them more religious tolerance than the Hungarians ) that they went out to meet Mehmed and presented him with keys to the city .
= = Kingship = =
= = = Accession and coronation = = =
Stephen Tomašević 's father died in the summer of 1461 . The 16th century Croatian chronicler Ivan Tomašić wrote that the King died on 10 July – more precisely , that he was murdered on the order of his brother Radivoj and with the consent of his son Stephen Tomašević . No contemporary source records that the King was murdered , however , and historians have generally discarded the claim . Stephen Tomašević ascended the throne without difficulty , as he had been appointed his father 's heir @-@ designate already during his brief reign as Despot of Serbia . He ensured that his uncle would not contest the succession by generously endowing him with land . The new monarch assumed the pompous title inherited from Stephen Tvrtko I , the first Bosnian king , styling himself as , " by the Grace of God , King of Serbia , Bosnia , the Maritime Lands , Zachlumia , Dalmatia , Croatia , and the Western lands " – regardless of the fact that Serbia had by then become an Ottoman pashaluk , that Croatia had been lost to Hungary in the 1390s , and that he had to beg the government of the Republic of Venice to allow him to take refuge in Dalmatia in case of an Ottoman attack .
Immediately upon his accession , Stephen Tomašević set out to resolve all disagreements within the royal family in order to strengthen his own position . His relations with his stepmother , the 37 @-@ year @-@ old Queen Catherine , had been strained during his father 's lifetime , but he now guaranteed that she would retain her title and privileges . Her father , Stjepan Vukčić Kosača , wrote to Venetian officials that the King had " taken her as his mother " , Vojača having already died by the time he ascended the throne . Kosača was the kingdom 's most powerful nobleman , and had been engaged in a never @-@ ending conflict with Stephen Tomašević 's father . It appears that he nevertheless refrained from claiming the Bosnian crown for his adolescent grandson Sigismund , Catherine 's son and Stephen Tomašević 's half @-@ brother , probably because he was aware that Bosnia needed a strong , mature monarch more than ever . Stephen Tomašević took the Venetians ' advice to make peace with his stepgrandfather , thus finally ensuring the nobility 's absolute support of their king . He then focused on improving Bosnia 's economy , which became stronger than ever during his reign , and ensuring that the state would collect more profit from the flourishing metalworking trade .
Pope Pius proclaimed Saint Gregory Thaumaturgus " Defender of Bosnia " on Stephen Tomašević 's request on 7 November , and sent a crown to be used for his coronation . On the feast of Saint Gregory ten days later , the newly appointed Bishop Nicholas of Modruš , Pope Pius 's legate , crowned Stephen Tomašević in the Church of Saint Mary in Jajce . The coronation marked the first and last time a Bosnian monarch received his crown from Rome . It exemplified how , with the religious persecution established by Stephen Thomas and Stephen Tomašević 's active correspondence with the papacy , the Kingdom of Bosnia acquired the character of a true Catholic state only at its very end .
= = = Ottoman invasion = = =
Conflict broke out in 1462 between Stephen Tomašević 's stepgrandfather and stepuncle Vladislav Hercegović , and the latter sought Ottoman help in the revolt . The King and Stjepan Vukčić Kosača , along with the papal legate Luke de Tolentis , prepared for an imminent Ottoman attack . The King could not count on Hungarian aid : Pope Pius 's recognition of Stephen Tomašević as a sovereign independent from Hungary gravely insulted King Matthias , who had not forgiven Stephen Tomašević for surrendering Smederevo in the first place . Stephen Tomašević seemingly appeased Matthias by paying him off with a considerable sum of money , ceding a few Bosnian castles , and promising to cancel the tribute due to the Ottomans .
Encouraged by Matthias 's commitment to help and possibly by the Bishop of Modruš , Stephen Tomašević made a tactless and fatal decision in June 1462 . Pope Pius wrote in his diary that , " relying on one knows what hope " , the King " refused the tributes which his ancestors had long been used to pay the Ottomans and had stormed the town which the enemy had built at the confluence of Sava and Bosna to put fear into the Hungarians and Slavs . " According to Chalkokondyles , Stephen Tomašević invited the Ottoman ambassador to his treasure house and showed him the money set aside as tribute , but informed him that he would rather use it to fight off an Ottoman attack or to live off it in exile . Mehmed the Conqueror was enraged by Stephen Tomašević 's insubordinance and audacity . The Pope recounts how , hearing of Sultan Mehmed 's vow to conquer his kingdom and destroy him , Stephen Tomašević summoned the Bishop of Modruš and blamed him for infuriating the Sultan . He commanded Nicholas to go to Hungary and seek immediate action against the Ottomans , but no help ever arrived to Bosnia from Christendom ; Matthias of Hungary , Skenderbeg of Albania and the Ragusans all failed to carry out their promises , while the Venetians flatly refused the King 's pleas .
In the spring of 1463 , Mehmed gathered an army of 150 @,@ 000 men in Adrianople and prepared to march towards Bosnia . In his despair , Stephen Tomašević turned to the Sultan himself and tried at the last moment to procure a 15 @-@ year @-@ long truce with him . Konstantinović claimed that he was present when the Ottomans duped the Bosnian envoys into thinking that the King 's request for truce was granted , and that he tried to warn them about the deceit . Mehmed 's army set out right after the envoys . Fortresses fell rapidly , and Stephen Tomašević fled with his family and possessions from Bobovac to Jajce . The Ottoman army under the leadership of Mahmud Pasha Angelović laid siege to Bobovac on 19 May , with the Sultan joining them the following day . Believing that Bobovac could withstand the siege for two years , Stephen Tomašević planned to assemble an army in Jajce , still counting on foreign aid . He sent his wife with their possessions to Dalmatia , while his stepmother took the rest to Ragusa .
= = = Capture and death = = =
Contrary to Stephen Tomašević 's expectations , Bobovac fell within days . The King had already realized that he had no choice but to take refuge in the neighbouring Croatia or Dalmatia . Angelović tirelessly pursued him , and caught up with him in Ključ . The Ottoman army was reportedly about to pass the city 's fortress , not suspecting that the King was hiding within its walls , when a local man revealed his whereabouts in return for money . A four @-@ day @-@ long siege of the fortress ensued . Eager to capture him , Angelović had his messengers solemnly promise the King that he would be done no harm if he surrendered , and sent him a document guaranteeing him freedom . With food supplies and ammunition running short , Stephen Tomašević decided to surrender himself and his garrison to Angelović . Angelović , in turn , brought him , his uncle Radivoj and 13 @-@ year @-@ old cousin Tvrtko before Mehmed in Jajce .
The captured King sought to ingratiate himself with the Sultan , and sent out orders to commanders and castellans to surrender , enabling Mehmed to take command of more than seventy towns in one week . Mehmed , however , had no intention of sparing Stephen Tomašević 's life and summoned him on 25 May . The King brought Angelović 's document , but Mehmed 's mullah , Ali al @-@ Bistami , issued a fatwah declaring that the Sultan was not bound to keep the promise made by his servant without his knowledge . As if to demonstrate the validity of his fatwah , the elderly mullah took out his sword and beheaded Stephen Tomašević in front of Mehmed . Benedetto Dei , on the other hand , recorded that Mehmed himself decapitated Stephen . The execution of the King , his uncle , cousin and two noblemen took place in a field next to Jajce , which has since been known as Carevo Polje ( " the Emperor 's Field " ) .
= = Assessment and legacy = =
Stephen Tomašević was buried on a hill near Jajce . Europe was stunned to see the Kingdom of Bosnia fall almost completely within weeks of his death . The country 's quick submission is said to be the consequence of a poor cooperation between Stephen Tomašević and his noblemen , but it is perhaps most accurate to attribute it to the people 's low morale and general belief that the conquest was inevitable . Additionally , the religiously diverse Bosnians were aware , much like the neighbouring Serbians , that the country would be overrun by Hungary if not by the Ottomans , and that they would enjoy far less freedom of religion and far higher taxes in that case . Therefore , resistance was not as strong as it could have been . Pope Pius 's claim that adherents of the Bosnian Church betrayed the kingdom is groundless .
Stephen Tomašević 's half @-@ siblings were taken to Constantinople and converted to Islam . Queen Catherine , his stepmother , left for the Papal States and unsuccessfully campaigned for the restoration of the kingdom ; Bosnia only ceased to be part of the Ottoman Empire in 1908 , 445 years after Stephen Tomašević 's death . His widow , Queen Maria , spent the rest of her life in the Empire .
In 1888 , the Croatian archeologist Ćiro Truhelka excavated bones in a settlement close to Jajce known as Kraljev Grob ( King 's Tomb ) and found the skeleton of a decapitated adult male . Though there is no direct evidence that these are the remains of Stephen Tomašević , folk tradition and circumstantial evidence have led to the conclusion that they are . The bones were placed in a glass coffin , and have since been housed in the Franciscan monastery in Jajce .
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= Gastrotrich =
The gastrotrichs ( phylum Gastrotricha ) , commonly referred to as hairybacks , are a group of microscopic ( 0 @.@ 06 @-@ 3 @.@ 0 mm ) , worm @-@ like , pseudocoelomate animals , and are widely distributed and abundant in freshwater and marine environments . They are mostly benthic and live within the periphyton , the layer of tiny organisms and detritus that is found on the seabed and the beds of other water bodies . The majority live on and between particles of sediment or on other submerged surfaces , but a few species are terrestrial and live on land in the film of water surrounding grains of soil . Gastrotrichs are divided into two orders , the Macrodasyida which are marine ( except for two species ) , and the Chaetonotida , some of which are marine and some freshwater . Nearly eight hundred species of gastrotrich have been described .
Gastrotrichs have a simple body plan with a head region , with a brain and sensory organs , and a trunk with a simple gut and the reproductive organs . They have adhesive glands with which they can anchor themselves to the substrate and cilia with which they move around . They feed on detritus , sucking up organic particles with their muscular pharynx . They are hermaphrodites , the marine species producing eggs which develop directly into miniature adults . The freshwater species are parthenogenetic , producing unfertilised eggs , and at least one species is viviparous . Gastrotrichs mature with great rapidity and have lifespans of only a few days .
= = Etymology and taxonomy = =
The name " gastrotrich " comes from the Greek γαστήρ gaster , meaning " stomach " , and θρίξ thrix , meaning " hair " . The name was coined by the Russian zoologist Élie Metchnikoff in 1865 . The common name " hairyback " apparently arises from a mistranslation of " gastrotrich " .
The relationship of gastrotrichs to other phyla is unclear . Morphology suggests that they are close to the Gnathostomulida , the Rotifera , or the Nematoda . On the other hand , genetic studies place them as close relatives of the Platyhelminthes , the Ecdysozoa or the Lophotrochozoa . As of 2011 , around 790 species have been described . The phylum contains a single class , divided into two orders : the Macrodasyida and the Chaetonotida . Edward Ruppert et al. report that the Macrodasyida are wholly marine , but two rare and poorly known species , Marinellina flagellata and Redudasys fornerise , are known from fresh water . The Chaetonotida comprises both marine and freshwater species .
= = Anatomy = =
Gastrotrichs vary in size from about 0 @.@ 06 to 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 002 to 0 @.@ 118 in ) in body length . They are bilaterally symmetrical , with a transparent strap @-@ shaped or bowling pin @-@ shaped body , arched dorsally and flattened ventrally . The anterior end is not clearly defined as a head but contains the sense organs , brain and pharynx . Cilia are found around the mouth and on the ventral surface of the head and body . The trunk contains the gut and the reproductive organs . At the posterior end of the body are two projections with cement glands that serve in adhesion . This is a double @-@ gland system where one gland secretes the glue and another secretes a de @-@ adhesive agent to sever the connection . In the Macrodasyida , there are additional adhesive glands at the anterior end and on the sides of the body .
The body wall consists of a cuticle , an epidermis and longitudinal and circular bands of muscle fibres . In some primitive species , each epidermal cell has a single cilium , a feature shared only by the gnathostomulans . The whole ventral surface of the animal may be ciliated or the cilia may be arranged in rows , patches or transverse bands . The cuticle is locally thickened in some gastrotrichs and forms scales , hooks and spines . There is no coelom ( body cavity ) and the interior of the animal is filled with poorly differentiated connective tissue . In the macrodasyidans , Y @-@ shaped cells , each containing a vacuole , surround the gut and may function as a hydrostatic skeleton .
The mouth is at the anterior end , and opens into an elongated muscular pharynx with a triangular or Y @-@ shaped lumen , lined by myoepithelial cells . The pharynx opens into a cylindrical intestine , which is lined with glandular and digestive cells . The anus is located on the ventral surface close to the posterior of the body . In some species , there are pores in the pharynx opening to the ventral surface ; these contain valves and may allow egestion of any excess water swallowed while feeding .
In the chaetonotidans , the excretory system consists of a single pair of protonephridia , which open through separate pores on the lateral underside of the animal , usually in the midsection of the body . In the macrodasyidans , there are several pairs of these opening along the side of the body . Nitrogenous waste is probably excreted through the body wall , as part of respiration , and the protonephridia are believed to function mainly in osmoregulation . Unusually , the protonephridia do not take the form of flame cells , but , instead , the excretory cells consist of a skirt surrounding a series of cytoplasmic rods that in turn enclose a central flagellum . These cells , termed cyrtocytes , connect to a single outlet cell which passes the excreted material into the protonephridial duct .
As is typical for such small animals , there are no respiratory or circulatory organs . The nervous system is relatively simple . The brain consists of two ganglia , one on either side of the pharynx , connected by a commisure . From these lead a pair of nerve cords which run along either side of the body beside the longitudinal muscle bands . The primary sensory organs are the bristles and ciliated tufts of the body surface which function as mechanoreceptors . There are also ciliated pits on the head , simple ciliary photoreceptors and fleshy appendages which act as chemoreceptors .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Gastrotrichs are cosmopolitan in distribution . They inhabit the interstitial spaces between particles in marine and freshwater environments , the surfaces of aquatic plants and other submerged objects and the surface film of water surrounding soil particles on land . They are also found in stagnant pools and anaerobic mud , where they thrive even in the presence of hydrogen sulphide . When pools dry up they can survive periods of desiccation as eggs , and some species are capable of forming cysts in harsh conditions . In marine sediments they have been known to reach 364 individuals per 10 cm2 ( 1 @.@ 6 sq in ) making them the third most common invertebrate in the sediment after nematodes and harpacticoid copepods . In freshwater they may reach a density of 158 individuals per 10 cm2 ( 1 @.@ 6 sq in ) and are the fifth most abundant group of invertebrates in the sediment .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
In marine and freshwater environments , gastrotrichs form part of the benthic community . They are detritivores and are microphagous , sucking dead or living organic material , diatoms , bacteria and small protozoa into their mouths by the muscular action of the pharynx . They are themselves eaten by turbellarians and other small macrofauna .
Like many microscopic animals , gastrotrich locomotion is primarily powered by hydrostatics , but movement occurs through different methods in different members of the group . Chaetonotids only have adhesive glands at the back and , in them , locomotion typically proceeds in a smooth gliding manner ; the whole body is propelled forward by the rhythmic action of the cilia on the ventral surface . In the pelagic chaetonotid genus Stylochaeta , however , movement proceeds in jerks as the long , muscle @-@ activated spines are forced rhythmically towards the side of the body . By contrast , with chaetonotids , macrodasyidans typically have multiple adhesive glands and move forward with a creeping action similar to that of a " looper " caterpillar . In response to a threat , the head and trunk can be rapidly pulled backwards , or the creeping movement can be reversed . Muscular action is important when the animal turns sideways and during copulation , when two individuals twine around each other .
= = Reproduction and lifespan = =
Gastrotrich reproduction and reproductive behaviour has been little studied . That of macrodasiyds probably most represents that of the ancestral lineage and these more primitive gastrotrichs are simultaneous hermaphrodites , possessing both male and female sex organs . There is generally a single pair of gonads , the anterior portion of which contains sperm @-@ producing cells and the posterior portion producing ova . The sperm is sometimes packaged in spermatophores , and is released through male gonopores that open , often temporarily , on the underside of the animal , roughly two @-@ thirds of the way along the body . A copulatory organ on the tail collects the sperm and transfers it to the partner 's seminal receptacle through the female gonopore . Details of the process and the behaviour involved vary with the species , and there are a range of different accessory reproductive organs . During copulation , the " male " individual uses his copulatory organ to transfer sperm to his partner 's gonopore and fertilisation is internal . The fertilised eggs are released by rupture of the body wall which afterwards repairs itself . As is the case in most protostomes , development of the embryo is determinate , with each cell destined to become a specific part of the animal 's body . At least one species of gastrotrich , Urodasys viviparus , is viviparous .
Many species of chaetotonid gastrotrichs reproduce entirely by parthenogenesis . In these species , the male portions of the reproductive system are degenerate and non @-@ functional , or , in many cases , entirely absent . Though the eggs have a diameter of less than 50 µm , they are still very large in comparison with the animals ' size . Some species are capable of laying eggs that remain dormant during times of desiccation or low temperatures ; these species , however , are also able to produce regular eggs , which hatch in one to four days , when environmental conditions are more favourable . The eggs of all gastrotrichs undergo direct development and hatch into miniature versions of the adult . The young typically reach sexual maturity in about three days . In the laboratory , Lepidodermella squamatum has lived for up to forty days , producing four or five eggs during the first ten days of life .
Gastrotrichs demonstrate eutely , each species having an invariant genetically fixed number of cells as adults . Cell division ceases at the end of embryonic development and further growth is solely due to cell enlargement .
= = Classification = =
Gastrotricha is divided into two orders and a number of families :
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= The Calusari =
" The Căluşari " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It originally aired on the Fox network on April 14 , 1995 . It was written by Sara B. Charno and directed by Michael Vejar . " The Căluşari " is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology , or fictional history . It earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 3 , being watched by 7 @.@ 9 million households in its initial broadcast . Due to perceived inconsistencies in the plot , " The Căluşari " received mixed reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , a photograph taken just before the death of a two @-@ year @-@ old boy yields evidence of some supernatural intervention which piques Mulder and Scully 's curiosity . When another death in the family occurs , the grandmother of the remaining child requests the aid of some Romanian ritualists , named the Calusari , in order to cleanse the home of evil .
The script for " The Căluşari " was inspired by Charno 's experience as a doctor of Eastern medicine . The inspiration for the entry came from an idea series creator Chris Carter had involving someone getting hanged with a garage @-@ door opener . Because " The Căluşari " was heavy in terms of violence , Fox 's standards and practices department took issues with several scenes . In addition , Carter re @-@ cut the episode after it was completed in order to make it scarier .
= = Plot = =
In Murray , Virginia , the Holvey family visits a local amusement park . When the youngest child , Teddy , lets his balloon fly away , his father , Steve , gives him the balloon that belongs to his older brother , Charlie ( Joel Palmer ) . When the boys ' mother , Maggie ( Helene Clarkson ) , is in the bathroom , the strap in Teddy 's stroller comes undone . Teddy follows the balloon floating under its own power out of the restroom and onto the tracks of the park 's tour train , leading to him getting killed by the train . Charlie is the only member of the Holvey family not to grieve Teddy 's death at the scene .
Three months later , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) shows Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) a photo taken moments before Teddy 's death , showing that the balloon moved horizontally against the wind . Chuck Burks ( Bill Dow ) , a digital photo expert , uses software to uncover evidence of electromagnetic disturbances in the shape of a child , holding the balloon . During a visit by the agents , the Holveys adamantly dispute Mulder 's theory that Teddy was led onto the tracks . Scully sees Golda ( Lilyan Chauvin ) , Maggie 's elderly Romanian mother , drawing a swastika on Charlie ’ s hand . Scully hypothesizes that the Holvey children may be victims of Munchausen by proxy , perpetrated by their grandmother . At a meeting with Steve Holvey , he explains that Golda was against his marriage to Maggie , and that strange things began to happen when Teddy was born and Golda came to live with the family . Steve hints that Golda might be hurting Charlie , leading Scully to suggest that they visit a social worker named Karen Kosseff ( Christine Willes ) . While preparing to take Charlie to a session with Kosseff , Steve 's tie is caught in the seemingly @-@ malfunctioning garage door , strangling and hanging him . Charlie , having been mysteriously locked in the car , starts crying over his father 's death .
Investigating Steve 's death , the police find evidence of the ritualistic sacrifices in Golda 's room . Mulder finds a film of fine dust in the garage , which Chuck identifies it as vibhuti , a residual sign of spiritual energy . Golda and three elderly Căluşari mystics conduct a ritual in her room . Meanwhile , during Charlie 's appointment with Kosseff , the child goes into convulsions . Kosseff and Maggie see smoke coming from under Golda 's door , coming across their ritual . Maggie is horrified , and forces the old men to leave the house . However , Golda grabs Charlie and pulls him into her room in an attempt to complete the ritual . However , Charlie quickly gains the upper hand and brings a pair of dead chickens back to life and makes them kill her .
When Kosseff asks Charlie about the incident , he insists that he was not in his grandmother 's room , and that it was a boy named Michael . Maggie is terrified at the claim , explaining to the agents that Michael was Charlie ’ s stillborn twin , about whom she and Steve agreed to never tell Charlie . Maggie also explains that Golda had told the parents that a ritual should be performed to separate the spirits of the twins , but Steve refused . Charlie has another seizure and is hospitalized . Michael knocks out the nurse and afterward convinces Maggie , by pretending to be Charlie , to take him home . Scully sees them leaving , and checks on Charlie . They find the nurse and Charlie still in the hospital room . Mulder , now convinced that Michael 's spirit is behind the killings , sends Scully to the Holvey residence to stop him .
Maggie tries to complete her mother 's ritual , but Michael tries to intervene . Back at the hospital , Mulder joins the Căluşari as they perform an exorcism on Charlie . As Mulder helps with the ritual , Scully arrives at the Holvey house , and finds Maggie being attacked by Michael . Scully is tossed across the room by an unseen force . Just as Michael is about to stab Scully , the exorcism ends , and Michael 's spirit disappears , sparing both Scully and Maggie 's lives . Maggie returns to the hospital and is reunited with Charlie . Before the agents leave , the head elder of the Căluşari says it 's over for the time being and cautiously forewarns Mulder that " it knows you . "
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Sara Charno and directed by Mike Vejar . Before becoming a writer , Charno had been a doctor of Eastern medicine . According to writer Frank Spotnitz , her " esoteric knowledge that none of the rest of [ the writers ] had about all kinds of things " was put to use in the script for " The Calusari " . The episode was based largely on an idea that series creator Chris Carter had ; his thought revolved around a " garage @-@ door opener hanging " . When Charlie stands over his grandmother and begins speaking in Romanian , he utters the words " You are too late to stop us . " Christine Willes , who plays the part of Agent Kosseff , reprises her role ; she originally appeared in the earlier episode " Irresistible " .
During production of the episode , the producers " agonized " over the teaser — due to the fact that it featured the death of a small child — as well as the darkness of the entire episode . Fox 's standards and practices department took issues with Steve 's strangulation scene ; in the end , the sequence was left in the episode , but Steve 's face was obscured to " soften the impact " . Although the episode 's filming went along smoothly , the final cut " didn 't pass muster " . Spotnitz explained that Carter " spent a lot of time in the editing room trying to figure out how to make this more terrifying . " Spotnitz later noted that Carter 's dedication impacted his work ethic and proved that something could be so " much better [ … ] if you didn 't give up . "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Calusari " originally aired on the Fox network on April 14 , 1995 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on February 6 , 1996 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 3 with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 8 @.@ 3 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching TV , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 7 @.@ 9 million households watched this episode during its original airing . " The Calusari " is the only episode of the series to have received an explicit rating of " 18 " in the United Kingdom by the BBFC for " occasional strong horror " and themes involving " demonic possession " .
" The Calusari " received mixed reviews , with critics citing inconsistencies in the plot as the main detractions . Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a " B – " rating , calling it " an Exorcist / Omen rip @-@ off , but a classy one " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave it a " C + " , writing that it was " an episode with a lot of great and spooky moments " , but " a messy , chaotic story that could have been much better developed , and too many things that happen [ ... ] just because the writers thought it would be cool if they happened " . However , while he was " not sure everything hangs together " and he wished for more backstory , VanDerWerff did praise some " really great moments " , particularly the opening teaser . John Keegan from Critical Myth , while calling the episode " a mixed bag " , awarded it a 7 out of 10 . He praised the entry 's " fascinating implications [ about ] the mythology hidden within the events depicted " , and noted that it was " well directed and acted " . Despite this , he was more critical of the episode 's plot and wrote that there were " clear logical flaws [ ... ] and the subject matter can be disturbing . This is an episode that falls heavily to subjective interpretation . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , gave the episode a largely negative review and rated it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two called it a " pale retread of The Exorcist " and noted that many of the episode 's elements , like the chicken @-@ sacrificing grandmother and the Calusari members , were " tremendously crass " . Shearman and Pearson , however , did enjoy the episode 's dialogue , praising one scene in particular where the spirit of Michael torments his mother by asking to be taken to the amusement park and ride the train that killed his younger brother . Regardless , however , the duo concluded that " there 's something stale and pointless at [ the episode 's ] heart . "
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= End Game ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" End Game " is the seventeenth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on February 17 , 1995 . It was directed by Rob Bowman , and written by Frank Spotnitz . " End Game " featured guest appearances by Megan Leitch , Peter Donat , Brian Thompson and saw Steven Williams reprise his role as X. The episode helped explore the series ' overarching mythology . " End Game " earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 2 , being watched by 10 @.@ 7 million households in its initial broadcast . It received positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Scully is kidnapped by an alien bounty hunter and Mulder offers his sister Samantha ( Leitch ) forward as ransom . However , Samantha is merely one of several clones created as part of a human @-@ alien hybrid project , leading Mulder to pursue the bounty hunter for the truth about her disappearance . " End Game " is a two @-@ part episode , continuing the plot from the previous episode , " Colony " .
" End Game " was the first episode of the series written by Spotnitz , who eventually went on to become one of the series ' executive producers .
= = Plot = =
The USS Allegiance , an American nuclear submarine , is patrolling the Beaufort Sea off the coast of Alaska when it comes across a craft below the ice that is emitting a radio signal . The Allegiance is ordered to fire upon the craft by Pacific Command . However , the craft manages to disable the sub using a high @-@ pitched frequency , stranding it far below the ice .
Continuing from the cliffhanger ending in " Colony " , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is beaten and kidnapped by " Mulder " , who is really the Bounty Hunter in disguise . When the real Mulder ( David Duchovny ) finds the wrecked hotel room , his sister Samantha explains that the Bounty Hunter will set up a hostage exchange to swap Scully for her . She further explains that the Bounty Hunter can only be killed by piercing the base of his neck , and that his toxic alien blood is deadly to humans . Finally , Samantha reveals that the clones are the progeny of two original aliens , and worked at abortion clinics to gain access to fetal tissue . Their objective was to set up an extraterrestrial colony on Earth , an effort that has gone as far back as the 1940s . However , because the clones ' experiments were considered to have tainted their alien race , the Bounty Hunter was sent to kill them .
Walter Skinner meets Mulder and Samantha at Mulder 's apartment , telling them that the remaining clones are missing . Mulder receives a call from Scully , who tells him that the Bounty Hunter seeks an exchange for Samantha . Mulder and Samantha are sent to a bridge near Bethesda while Skinner hides nearby with a sharpshooter . After the exchange takes place , Samantha attacks the Bounty Hunter . During the struggle , the sharpshooter fires upon the Bounty Hunter , and both he and Samantha fall into a river . An anguished Mulder tearfully apologizes to his father , Bill , for losing her again . His father leaves him a note from Samantha , which provides Mulder with the address of a Maryland clinic where they can meet if separated . Mulder hopes that she is alive , but soon gets a call from Scully reporting that Samantha 's body has been found . After Scully ends the call , she discovers Samantha 's body dissolving into a green liquid .
Meanwhile , inside the clinic , Mulder finds multiple clones of Samantha working on fetuses in labs similar to that of the clones . They reveal that they manipulated Mulder by sending one of their own to pose as " Samantha " in an effort to have him protect her original clone . They also claim to know the real Samantha 's location . Mulder , realizing he has been duped , initially refuses to help and starts to leave , but is knocked unconscious by the arriving Bounty Hunter , who proceeds to kill the Samantha clones and burn down the clinic . When no trace of the clones are found , Mulder meets with X at the Kennedy Center , demanding to know the Bounty Hunter 's location . X says that the Bounty Hunter 's craft below the Beaufort Sea has been found , and that a naval fleet has been sent to destroy it . Mulder heads there , and e @-@ mails Scully to tell her not to follow him .
Scully goes to Skinner for help , but he initially refuses . Scully also summons X to Mulder 's apartment , but he turns her down . On his way out , X is confronted by Skinner in an elevator . After the two men get into a vicious physical altercation , X divulges Mulder 's whereabouts . Meanwhile , Mulder finds the stranded Allegiance , with its sail broken through a patch of shallow ice . Inside , he finds what seems to be the sub 's only surviving crewman , whom Mulder correctly guesses is the disguised Bounty Hunter . The two struggle , during which Mulder becomes exposed to the Bounty Hunter 's toxic blood . The Bounty Hunter claims that Samantha is still alive before dumping Mulder off the sail and submerging the Allegiance ; Mulder is nearly cut in half with the sub 's diving plane in the process . Mulder is discovered and rushed to the field hospital seen at the beginning of " Colony " , where Scully — having learned that the alien blood contains a retrovirus that dies in cold temperatures — convinces the doctors to take him out of the bath that would warm his body up .
As Mulder 's condition stabilizes , Scully writes a field report crediting science with detecting the retrovirus and saving Mulder . She contends that the retrovirus is of a mysterious origin , and reports that neither the Bounty Hunter nor the Allegiance have been found . When Mulder regains consciousness , he tells Scully that his experiences did not give him the answers he had been searching for , but that they have given him renewed " faith to keep looking " .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
This was the first episode of the series written by Frank Spotnitz . Spotnitz , who came up with the idea to bring back Samantha Mulder in " Colony " , wrote this episode , his first credited work on the show . According to Spotnitz , he along with Chris Carter , were overly ambitious when writing this episode . Since this was Spotnitz 's debut as a television writer , he got significant help from Carter to put the script together . All of the scenes originally pitched by Spotnitz were kept , except for a car chase scene that ended with a crash , and one where Mulder mistakes a federal marshal for the bounty hunter . The scenes were cut due to time restraints during filming . Spotnitz later became a frequent collaborator on many of the subsequent mythology episodes of the show , as well as co @-@ writing the two feature films .
It turned out in this episode that the Samantha Mulder ( Megan Leitch ) who appeared was a clone . Carter did not want it to be the real Samantha , since that would have been " straight science fiction " and it was too " ridiculous " to give too many answers . Spotnitz further explained that the production crew never saw The X @-@ Files as a " science fiction show " , but more of a show that incorporated science fiction , and that this and previous episode " Colony " were more of a " suspense thriller " than any other genre . Chris Carter described the " Colony " and " End Game " two @-@ parter as the " backbone of the show , the romantic quest of Mulder for the truth and Scully as well " , and that it led Scully to believe in the conspiracy .
= = = Filming = = =
The motel scene with the bounty hunter and Dana Scully was shot on a sound stage in Vancouver , Canada in a simple motel room set . The scene featuring Scully being beaten up by the bounty hunter was primarily performed by a stunt woman . The stiletto weapon , often referred to as the " gimlet " , used by the bounty hunter was constructed from aluminium and acrylic , and activated by a pneumatic hose hidden in actor Brian Thompson 's sleeve . The grunt Scully utters when thrown through a table was insisted on by Standards and Practices , giving the reasoning that the show needed to make it clear for the viewers that she was not dead . According to executive producer Frank Spotnitz it was an " arcane , bizarre logic that you have to deal with when you 're putting a show on network television . " As director Rob Bowman was dissatisfied with the first take of Skinner shoving X against the elevator wall , Mitch Pileggi and Steven Williams decided to do the stunt for real , and Pileggi did it with so much strength that it broke the back of the elevator scenery . Williams ' background in fight choreography , stemming from his role in Missing in Action 2 : The Beginning , allowed him to help in choreographing the brawl .
One hundred and forty tons of snow and ice were trucked into a soundstage to create the scene with the submarine towards the end of the episode , and the stage had to be refrigerated for five days . The control tower scenery was able to rise or lower only five feet , leading to restrictions such as filming on black backdrops . A decommissioned destroyer , Her Majesty 's Canadian Ship Mackenzie , was rented from the Royal Canadian Navy and used for the submarine interior . It was reused two episodes later for interior shots in " Død Kalm " .
= = Reception = =
" End Game " premiered on the Fox network on February 17 , 1995 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on December 18 , 1995 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 2 with a 19 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 19 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 10 @.@ 7 million households watched this episode during its original airing .
The episode has been met with positive reviews from critics . In a retrospective of the second season in Entertainment Weekly , the episode was rated an A- , being called " an exhausting , essential chapter , boasting the series ' most visually stunning finale " . Writing for The A.V. Club , Zack Handlen rated the episode an A , noting that it was " X @-@ Files in top form " . He felt that the fight between Skinner and X was " one of the season 's great moments " , although he derided the use of Scully in a " heroine @-@ as @-@ victim " role . Michelle Bush , in her book Myth @-@ X , has noted that " End Game " is " a good example of the basic premises that Mulder and Scully cannot succeed without the other " , and serves to highlight " the danger of making someone else 's choice for them . "
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= Butterflies ( Michael Jackson song ) =
" Butterflies " is a song by Michael Jackson . It was written and composed by Andre Harris and Marsha Ambrosius , and produced by Jackson and Harris . The track appears on Jackson 's tenth studio album , Invincible ( 2001 ) . The song is Michael Jackson 's last single from a studio album . " Butterflies " is a midtempo ballad song with R & B musical styles . The single received generally positive reviews from music critics ; some music reviewers described the song as being one of the best songs on Invincible while others felt that it was a " decent track " .
The song was only released in the United States to radio airplay . It peaked at number fourteen on the Billboard Hot 100 , and also charting at number two and thirty @-@ six , respectively , on alternative Billboard charts in 2001 and 2002 . There was no music video released for the song .
= = Background and development = =
" Butterflies " was recorded by Michael Jackson in 2001 for his tenth studio album , Invincible , which was released the same year . The song was written by Andre Harris and Marsha Ambrosius , who is one half of the London bred neo @-@ soul act Floetry , and was produced by Jackson and Harris . Jackson first met Ambrosius and Natalie Stewart , who is also a member of Floetry , through John McClain , who is DreamWorks 's senior urban executive and Jackson 's manager . Stewart said she was surprised that Jackson invited her and Ambrosius to a studio and asked for their input on the recording of the track . She recalled in an interview with LAUNCH magazine , " It was incredible because he asked , he continually asked , ' Marsh , what 's the next harmony ? Girls , does this sound right ? What do you think ? Is this what you were looking for ? He was so open " .
When Ambrosius first met Jackson , it took a few minutes to calm down . She recalled to the same publication Stewart was interviewed by , " To begin with , I was kinda shook . Because you don 't realize how you 're going to feel until you 're put in that situation . I had the tears in my eyes and got kinda nervous . But as I got into it , I realized it was work , it was a job . I had to vocally conduct a legend . " Harris commented on the single , " He 's showing you , I 'm still the Michael Jackson that did ' Billie Jean ' and ' Rock With You ' because ' Butterflies ' really falls along those lines . " Unlike the previous single released from Invincible , a music video was not made to promote the song .
= = Composition = =
" Butterflies " is a midtempo love ballad song with groove musical influences . The track is cited as having pop and R & B musical styles . Vaughn Watson of the Providence Journal noted that the track is a " velvety old @-@ school soul ballad " with " elegiac horn riffs " and " simple ' 70s @-@ style David Ruffin soul . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine , a writer for Allmusic noted that " Butterflies " had " Bacharach @-@ styled horns . " Lonell Broadnax , Jr . , a contributing writer to the Daily Helmsman Online felt that " Butterflies " is a soulful song which takes Jackson back to his " rhythm and blues roots " . Ben Rayer of the Toronto Star felt that the song had a " oozy slow jam " . " Butterflies " is written in the time signature of common time . Throughout the song Jackson 's vocal range spans from E ♭ 3 to E ♭ 5 . The track is played in the key of A ♭ major . " Butterflies " has a moderately slowly tempo and its metronome is ninety @-@ two beats per minute . Lyrically , " Butterflies " describes the feeling of being in love .
= = Critical response = =
The track received generally positive reviews from music critics . Ken Barnes of USA Today described the song as being a " hopelessly sappy ballad oozing with fuzzy sentiments . I 'd say it 's more like caterpillars . " Frank Kogan of the Village Voice , citing the lyrics , " I would give you anything baby , just make my dreams come true / Oh baby you give me butterflies " wrote " so , would he give her , like , caterpillars in exchange ? birds ? " and added that what grabs his attention about a song like " Butterflies " is not the " melody but the weirdly ringing wrench @-@ against @-@ faucet clang on the backbeat . " Christie Leo of the New Straits Times gave the track a more positive review , calling the song a " luxuriant " ballad . Pop music critic Robert Hilburn , writing for the Los Angeles Times , described " Butterflies " , and another song from Invincible ( " Speechless " ) , as being " as woefully generic as their titles " . A journalist of the same publication felt that track was about romantic " jitters " . Darryl Frierson of University Wire felt that songs like " Butterflies " can set the " mood for any romantic interlude " . Joel Rubinoff of The Record said that " Butterflies " was one of the " only good songs " from Invincible , while a writer for The Atlanta Journal cited the song as being a " decent track " .
A writer for the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution viewed " Butterflies " as being " laid @-@ back " . Mark Anthony Neal of Popmatters wrote in his music review for Jackson 's 2002 album , entitled Love Songs , that in song 's such as " Butterflies " , it shows the " essence " of Jackson 's " genius has been in the boy 's uncanny ability to perform , even the mundane , outside of the box . " Elliot Sylvester of The Independent felt that ballads on Invincible such as " Speechless and " Butterflies " are " almost to a formulaic fault . " Chicago Tribune rock music critic Greg Kot said that Jackson is not " convincing as the vulnerable ladies ' man on drippy ballads " such as " Butterflies " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine , a writer for Allmusic , commented that Invincible was " highlighted " by " lovely ballads " such as " Break of Dawn " and " Butterflies " . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly wrote in his review for Invincible that , " The ballads are a squishy bunch with glaringly banal lyrics , pleasantries like ' Butterflies ' and ' Break of Dawn ' that could emanate from just about " anyone . A journalist for the Philadelphia Inquirer called the track " gorgeous " and Bomani Jones of Salon.com called " Butterflies " a " sparkling " track . Ben Rayer of the Toronto Star wrote that Jackson " fares best " on " Butterflies " .
Catherine Halaby of the Yale Daily News said that songs on the album like " Heaven Can Wait " , " Butterflies " , and " You Are My Life " " fulfill the quota for sugary ballads " . Jon Pareles , writing for The New York Times , said that tracks on Invincible like " Butterflies " ' and " Don 't Walk Away " are " melting love ballads " . Pareles noted in his review for the album that songs on it are recurring themes present on Jackson 's albums , such as love ballads , as well as tracks pertaining to making the world a better place . Tim Perzyk of the Duke Chronicle wrote , " By the time ' Butterflies ' spins on track seven , it 's unclear why Michael didn 't record a collaborative boxed set with Mariah Carey , whose ' Heartbreaker , ' ' Breakdown ' and ' Butterfly ' would fit quite nicely " into Jackson 's Invincible album . Pop music critic Craid Seymour of the Buffalo News wrote that " another winning tune " on the album is the " dreamy ' Butterflies , ' which flows along at a groovy midtempo pace . " Kevin C. Johnson of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch described " Butterflies " as being about the " feeling that special someone gives him . " Music critics writing for the South Florida Sun Sentinel said that the track shows the " shy , loving , gentle side " of Jackson .
= = Chart performance = =
" Butterflies " entered the Billboard Hot 100 chart in early November 2001 , at number sixty . The single eventually peaked at number fourteen on the Billboard Hot 100 the week ending January 26 , 2002 . The track also charted within the top ten , peaking at number two , on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart on January 26 , 2002 ; the song was held from the top position from Ja Rule and Ashanti 's " Always on Time " 2001 single . In 2002 , " Butterflies " also peaked at number thirty @-@ six on the Billboard Top 40 Mainstream chart . The track , which was released as a promotional single internationally , did not chart on any music charts outside of the United States .
= = Track listings = =
Promo - CD @-@ Single ( Epic ESK 54863 )
" Butterflies ( Album Version ) " - 4 : 40
Michael Jackson - Butterflies ( Track Masters Remix )
A1 " Butterflies ( Master Mix ) ( Featuring - Eve ) " - 3 : 47
A2 " Butterflies ( Michael A Cappella ) " - 2 : 13
B1 " Butterflies ( Eve A Cappella ) ( Featuring - Eve ) " - 3 : 47
B2 " Butterflies ( Master Mix Instrumental ) " - 3 : 47
= = Credits and personnel = =
Written and composed by Andre Harris and Marsha Ambrosius
Produced by Michael Jackson and Andre Harris
Lead vocal by Michael Jackson
Background vocals by Michael Jackson and Marsha Ambrosius
All musical instruments performed by Andre Harris
Horns by Norman Jeff Bradshaw and Matt Cappy
Recorded by Andre Harris and Bruce Swedien
Assistant engineering by Vidal Davis
Mixed by Bruce Rammkisoon
Source :
= = Charts = =
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= Lindenwood University =
Lindenwood University , often referred to as Lindenwood or LU , is a private , coeducational , liberal arts Christian @-@ based university located in Saint Charles , Missouri , United States . Founded in 1827 by George Champlin Sibley and Mary Easton Sibley as The Lindenwood School for Girls , it is the second @-@ oldest higher @-@ education institution west of the Mississippi River and since 1990 , the fastest @-@ growing university in the Midwest .
Lindenwood offers undergraduate , graduate , and doctoral degrees through nine colleges and schools . Its annual enrollment is more than 12 @,@ 000 students in all programs , including 5 @,@ 662 undergraduate day students at its main campus in St. Charles . The 500 @-@ acre ( 202 @.@ 3 ha ) main academic and residential campus is located 24 miles ( 39 km ) northwest of St. Louis , Missouri , in St. Charles , the Daniel Boone historic site in Defiance , Missouri 26 miles ( 42 km ) southwest of the St. Charles campus . In addition to numerous satellite campuses , Lindenwood also has an independently accredited sister college in Belleville , Illinois , known as LU – Belleville .
The university offers a number of extracurricular activities to its students , including athletics , honor societies , clubs , and student organizations , as well as fraternities and sororities . Alumni and former students have gone on to prominent careers in government , business , science , medicine , education , sports , and entertainment .
On June 1 , 2015 , Michael Shonrock , President of Emporia State University , succeeded James Evans as the 22nd president , who retired May 31 , 2015 .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and early history = = =
Lindenwood University traces its roots back to George Champlin Sibley , an early 19th @-@ century American explorer , soldier , Indian agent , and politician , and his wife Mary Easton Sibley , an educator . In 1808 , Acting Governor and friend Frederick Bates promoted Sibley to the position of chief factor at Fort Osage in western Missouri , near present @-@ day Kansas City , Missouri . While at Fort Osage , Sibley immediately set to work creating relationships with the neighboring Osage tribes . He also Mary Easton , the daughter of Rufus Easton , a prominent St. Louis attorney and Missouri 's second Attorney General . The couple were married in 1815 . During the Sibleys ' time at Fort Osage , Mary began teaching the children at the fort .
In 1813 , Sibley opened a temporary trading post at Fort Sibley , now known as the town of Arrow Rock , Missouri , which remained in operation until 1822 . After the trading post shut down , George and Mary remained at Fort Osage , with George serving as postmaster until the fort closed in 1825 . The couple then settled in St. Charles , where Mary began teaching family members and later , in 1827 , other young women from the community . Lindenwood University is now considered the second @-@ oldest higher @-@ education institution west of the Mississippi River , after Saint Louis University , as well as the first women 's college west of the Mississippi . In 1829 , the Sibleys purchased 280 acres ( 113 @.@ 3 ha ) of land , known as the " Linden Wood " because of the numerous linden trees . The Sibleys borrowed money and began clearing the overgrown property to convert it into a farm with livestock brought from Fort Osage . They completed construction of a cabin and outhouses and moved into Linden Wood in December 1829 . As the work on Linden Wood continued , the idea of opening a boarding school evolved .
Mary Sibley took in students within a year of moving into the cabin . Her 12 @-@ year @-@ old sister , Alby , became the first student at Linden Wood in the fall of 1830 . A year later , the first two paying students arrived ; in early 1832 , the Sibleys made plans to expand the cabin to create a boarding school for women to over a dozen students During the 1830s , the school was known as The Boarding School for Young Ladies at Linden Wood , Missouri . Mary took charge of the boarding school and developed a strict curriculum that included literature , grammar , writing , spelling , and diction . French , music and piano , landscape painting , flower painting and needle work were available for an additional fee . The school was one of the first to require physical education , which included walking and dancing .
By the 1840s , the boarding school had grown to 30 students . As the enrollment expanded , the Sibleys added new rooms to the cabin . The continued improvements created a financial strain on the school and Mary Sibley traveled to the East Coast to solicit additional funding . In the early 1850s , the school was on the brink of closing when the Sibleys offered the property to the Presbyterian Church . In 1853 , the school was incorporated by special act of the Missouri Legislature and became known as the Lindenwood College for Women . The newly chartered college was placed under the control of 15 directors appointed by the Presbytery of St. Louis . On July 4 , 1856 , the cornerstone was laid for a new permanent brick building to replace the original log cabins . The new building , Sibley Hall , was completed in July 1857 , and at the time contained the entire school . This event marked the beginning of a new era of significant growth for Lindenwood .
George Sibley died in 1863 . Following his death , the college charter was amended in 1870 to provide that the appointment of directors for the management of the college would be under the control of the Synod of Missouri instead of the Presbytery of St. Louis . A south wing was added to Sibley Hall in 1881 and a north wing in 1886 . The school began expanding in the early 20th century with four new buildings constructed between 1900 and 1920 .
In 1913 , the school was accredited as a junior college by the North Central Association . Lindenwood received a $ 4 million bequest in 1918 , the entire estate of the late Margaret Leggat Butler , wife of Colonel James Gay Butler , a Civil War veteran and philanthropist . The college used the funds to establish a permanent endowment and moved from a two @-@ year to a four @-@ year curriculum . A few years later , the college became a full member of the North Central Association .
The college became a co @-@ educational institution in 1969 and changed its name from Lindenwood College for Women to Lindenwood Colleges , with a separate college for men and women . In 1970 , the college started offering evening classes and in 1976 began awarding master 's degrees . That same year , the St. Louis Football Cardinals of the NFL constructed a football field for practices . In 1980 , the college became a member of the NAIA for athletics . Lindenwood Colleges , Lindenwood College for Men and Lindenwood College for Women were merged into Lindenwood College in 1983 . It was known as Lindenwood College until 1997 , at which time the school changed its name to the current name of Lindenwood University .
= = = Recent history and expansion = = =
By 1989 , Lindenwood College was bankrupt with student enrollment below 800 . The college was in danger of closing when the administration hired Dennis Spellmann as the new president . Spellmann immediately began to implement changes , eliminating co @-@ ed dorms and placing the emphasis on a " values @-@ centered " approach in the classroom .
The university began an extensive expansion of academic , residential , and athletic facilities starting in the mid @-@ 1990s which included construction of eight new residence halls , the Spellmann Campus Center , Lou Brock Sports Complex , and Harlen C. Hunter Stadium , as well as extensions to Ayres Hall and Harmon Hall . A change that caused controversy for the school was the " Pork for Tuition " program begun in 2002 and designed to help rural families pay for tuition by the university accepting livestock in return for discounts . The animals were then processed and used in the school cafeteria . At the time , People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals staged a small protest in Saint Charles in response to the program . In 2006 , Dennis Spellmann died by which time the university had seen its endowment grow to more than $ 50 million . Dr. James Evans became Lindenwood 's 21st president on February 9 , 2007 .
Expansion continued under Evans . The J. Scheidegger Center for the Arts , a performance and fine arts center , opened in late 2008 at a cost of $ 32 million . The university also constructed new dormitories and began building a new home for university presidents . Construction of Evans Commons began in 2009 and was completed during the summer of 2011 . In 2011 , Lindenwood University became the Lindenwood University System . Lindenwood University @-@ Belleville transitioned from a satellite campus to a separately accredited college . The university was notified of the accrediting decision in November by the Higher Learning Commission of the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools . Under the new accreditation , Lindenwood University @-@ Belleville will keep the same name and the same governing board as the St. Charles campus , now considered to be a sister school as part of the Lindenwood University System . By 2010 , Lindenwood University 's endowment had reached $ 148 million Early the following year , Lindenwood began construction of a new parking lot to ease congestion on campus . The university announced a new athletic facility would be constructed behind the west end zone stands of Hunter Stadium . The three @-@ story , 43 @,@ 450 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 037 m2 ) building includes new football , men 's and women 's soccer , men 's and women 's lacrosse , and field hockey locker rooms . It also houses a new academic support center for student @-@ athletes , coaches ' offices , and meeting rooms overlooking the stadium . Lindenwood plans to construct a new administrative building , as well as additional dorms and campus facilities , and expand enrollment to over 20 @,@ 000 students . The university and the DESCO Group announced in February 2011 that the St. Charles City Council had approved a resolution supporting the Lindenwood Town Center , a planned $ 30 million development that includes a shopping center , retail / business plaza , hotel , and apartment @-@ style student housing complexes .
In the fall of 2012 , the university announced it had purchased the 28 @-@ acre ( 11 @.@ 3 ha ) property that was previously home to the Barat Academy . The 69 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 6 @,@ 400 m2 ) facility opened in 2007 and was used by the private high school until it was evicted in 2011 and relocated to a smaller property . Lindenwood purchased the facility for $ 8 @.@ 1 million with plans to enlarge classrooms and add chemistry labs . The building became the home of the Lindenwood Nursing and Allied Health Sciences program opening in fall 2013 . It is a BSN completion program for students who hold associate degrees in nursing . The university hired Dr. Peggy Ellis as the dean of the program . Ellis had served since 2005 as the associate dean of graduate studies at the St. Louis University nursing school .
In May 2014 , the Lindenwood University Board of Directors approved plans for a 100 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot Academic Resources Center off First Capitol Drive , adjacent to the Welcome Center on the St. Charles campus . In 2015 , Lindenwood announced the construction of the new facility , which will replace the 36 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot Margaret Leggat Butler Library , built in 1929 . The new Academic Resources Center building will bring together a variety of student services under one roof , including the Writing Center , Student and Academic Support Services ( SASS ) , Career Services , English as a Second Language , the Office of International Students and Scholars , and Lindenwood Online , all of which were involved in putting together the proposal for the new structure . The building will also include classroom space and an expanded coffee shop . Completion is expected in the latter part of 2016 .
= = Campus = =
The 500 @-@ acre ( 202 @.@ 3 ha ) main campus is located in historic St. Charles , Missouri , on high ground overlooking downtown St. Charles and the Missouri River . Its buildings range from historic 19th @-@ century buildings to modern on @-@ going construction projects . The campus stretches roughly one mile from southwest to northeast and is divided by a meandering stream . To the west , the campus is bordered by Duchesne Dr. with Droste Rd. and W. Clay St. forming the southern boundary . First Capitol Drive runs along the eastern edge of the campus and Gamble St. adjoins its north side . The eastern area of campus is the oldest section with the most recent expansion in the central and southern areas . The northwestern area has almost no structures . The university is a dry campus with alcoholic beverages prohibited on campus and in all university buildings .
The eastern part of the LU campus is the oldest part and contains many historic buildings characterized by their early 20th @-@ century architecture and vast numbers of linden trees . This area is located near the site of the original log cabin where Mary Sibley began the Linden Wood School for Girls . The eastern part of campus is the location of many of the academic buildings and contains the Margaret Leggat Butler Library , the university 's main academic library . Roemer Hall , constructed in 1921 , is the main administration building on the campus and home to the president 's office , financial aid office , the registrar , and the business office , as well as the School of Education .
Sibley Hall was built in 1856 and is the oldest building at Lindenwood . It was the original building for the Linden Wood School for Girls , and is still used as a women 's dormitory today ; it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Numerous mysterious incidents have occurred over the years , and legends say that Sibley Hall is haunted by the ghost of Mary Sibley .
The central portion of the Lindenwood campus includes various residence halls and athletic facilities . At the heart of the campus sits the Spellmann Campus Center . It was built in 2002 and is located in the center of campus on the hillside near the highest part of the campus . Spellmann Center overlooks Harlen C. Hunter Stadium and much of the rest of the campus . The modern 112 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 10 @,@ 400 m2 ) student center houses a cafeteria , a coffee shop , the Student Health Center , Student Activities Office , student media publications and student @-@ run radio station , as well as office , classroom , and meeting spaces .
To the west of the Spellmann Center is the 7 @,@ 450 @-@ seat Harlen C. Hunter Stadium , the main athletic stadium on campus . Built in 1976 by the St. Louis Cardinals NFL football team as a training camp location , the stadium opened in 1979 and was renovated in 1988 , 2004 , and 2009 . The stadium is the home of Lindenwood Lions football , men 's and women 's soccer , women 's field hockey , and both men 's and women 's lacrosse programs .
To the northwest of the stadium is the 3 @,@ 270 @-@ seat Robert F. Hyland Performance Arena . This was built in 1997 and is home to both men ’ s and women ’ s basketball , volleyball , wrestling , table tennis , dance , and cheerleading teams . The facility also includes the athletic department offices and classroom space . Evans Commons is being constructed adjacent to the Hyland Arena . Construction for the $ 20 million student center began in May 2009 . The 119 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 11 @,@ 100 m2 ) facility opened in August 2011 and features a second dining hall , three basketball courts , and a roller hockey rink , a suspended jogging track , a fitness center , offices for student activities , quiet study areas , and a US post office .
The southern and western areas of campus contain much of the new construction . The J. Scheidegger Center for the Arts opened in 2008 at a cost of $ 32 million and lies on the southeast edge of campus . The state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art , 138 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 12 @,@ 800 m2 ) building includes space for performance and arts education . It houses classrooms and faculty offices , as well as the 1 @,@ 200 @-@ seat Bezemes Family Theatre , the Emerson Black Box Theatre , the 1 @,@ 200 @-@ seat Boyle Family Gallery , the Charter LUTV HD Studio , and studio space for performing arts and communications students . The Scheidegger Center is also the home of the School of Fine and Performing Arts .
To the northwest of the Scheidegger Center is the Lou Brock Sports Complex . The Sports Complex is home to the Lindenwood Lions baseball and softball teams . The new president 's house , known as Lindenwood House , opened in 2010 , and is located on a hill overlooking the Sports Complex and much of the campus . The western portions of campus contain many of the new residence halls . Reynolds Hall and Pfremmer Hall were constructed in 2008 and sit between the new president 's residence and LU Commons , the new student and recreation center .
= = = Residence halls = = =
Over 3 @,@ 800 students live on campus the university 's 19 residence halls segregated into male and female facilities . Each residence hall has a live @-@ in resident director and three assistant resident directors . Male residence halls include Ayres Hall , Cobbs Hall , Flowers Hall , Guffey Hall , Linden Lodge , Mathews Hall , Parker Hall , Pfremmer Hall , and Reynolds Hall . Female residence halls include Blanton Hall , Calvert Rogers , Eastlick Hall , Irwin Hall , McCluer Hall , New Ayres Hall , Niccolls Hall , Rauch Memorial Hall , Sibley Hall , and Stumberg Hall .
Lindenwood purchased land adjacent to the main campus containing various residential properties to create two large student quarters in adjacent neighborhoods , known as the Linden Terraces and First Capitol Houses . The properties offer on @-@ campus housing for married student couples and single @-@ parent students , and are also available to male and female students . Linden Terrace neighborhood lies just southwest from the main campus . First Capitol Houses and the Powell Terrace Residential Area sit east of campus across First Capitol Drive from the main campus .
= = = Regional centers = = =
The period of growth at Lindenwood started by Spellmann included the opening of regional centers for adult evening education programs in various locations around Greater St. Louis . In 2009 , the university opened a regional center , known as Lindenwood University @-@ St. Louis , at 1409 Washington Avenue in St. Louis. a rapidly growing loft district in the city . Lindenwood also operates regional centers in Daniel Boone Campus , Florissant , Moscow Mills , O 'Fallon , South County , Downtown St. Louis , Westport , Weldon Spring , Wildwood , and the former Southern Air Restaurant in Wentzville .
= = = Lindenwood University @-@ Belleville = = =
In 2008 , Lindenwood University announced plans to expand facilities at Lindenwood University @-@ Belleville and increased academic programs from an adult continuing education structure to offer traditional daytime semester @-@ based programs . Starting in the fall of 2009 , LU @-@ Belleville began offering courses in business administration , communications , criminal justice , and health management . The Lindenwood University at Belleville sports teams are known the " Lynx " and currently compete in the USCAA . Previously , programs were only offered for junior- and senior @-@ level students during the first semester of traditional daytime classes . These programs have now been extended to underclassman . As many as 2 @,@ 000 daytime students are expected to enroll at the Belleville campus within the next 5 to 10 years . In November 2011 , Lindenwood University @-@ Belleville completed the transition from satellite campus of Lindenwood University to a full @-@ fledged , stand @-@ alone college . Lindenwood University @-@ Belleville is now considered to be sister school of Lindenwood University in St. Charles , and while the two schools share a name and governing board , the Belleville campus is no longer under control of the St. Charles campus .
On August 1 , 2015 , Dr. Brett Barger began serving as interim president of the Belleville campus . The interim title was removed and Barger was appointed president of the Lindenwood University Belleville campus in October 2015 . Barger is a longtime member of the Lindenwood family , having first arrived at the St. Charles campus as a student in 1990 . He was hired in 1994 and has three Lindenwood degrees – EdD , MBA , and BA . He previously served as the associate vice president for operations and finance .
Barger replaced Dr. Jerry Bladdick , who left Lindenwood for a new position in Florida .
= = Academics = =
Lindenwood University offers 121 majors in diverse areas of study and confers degrees from 10 colleges and schools . The university is classified as a Master ’ s college and university by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education . In 2007 Lindenwood began offering doctoral programs , starting with a Doctorate of Education program that prepares students for the field of educational administration .
The Lindenwood University Press produces a number of publications in the fields of international and global studies , literary magazines , American studies , and American history .
LU has full accreditation from the Higher Learning Commission ( HLC ) of the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools . Lindenwood has been fully accredited by the North Central Association of the Higher Learning Commission since 1921 and received its ten @-@ year renewal in 2003 – 2004 . In addition , LU has accreditation from the HLC to offer full degree programs online . Since 2010 LU ’ s School of Business and Entrepreneurship has been fully accredited by the Accreditation Council for Business Schools and Programs . The university offers bachelor 's degrees , master 's degrees , and doctoral degrees through its nine schools :
School of Business and Entrepreneurship
School of Communications
School of Education
School of Fine and Performing Arts
School of Human Services
School of Humanities
School of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences
School of Science
School of Sport , Recreation , and Exercise Sciences
College of Individualized Education
= = = Rankings = = =
In the 2015 U.S. News & World Report Best College rankings ( released in September 2014 ) , Lindenwood was unranked among regional universities in the Midwest region . Lindenwood ranked 613 out of 682 in the Masters category of The Washington Monthly 's 2012 University Rankings .
= = = Faculty and research = = =
Lindenwood has a student @-@ faculty ratio of 13 : 1 and an average class size of 25 students . Unlike many universities , Lindenwood does not use graduate students to teach classes . The university currently has 716 faculty , including 233 full @-@ time faculty and 558 adjunct faculty .
Lindenwood is home to the John W. Hammond Institute for Free Enterprise , which was founded in 2013 and comprises three focus centers : the Center for Economics and the Environment , the Liberty and Ethics Center , and the Duree Center for Entrepreneurship . The Hammond Institute is under the direction of Dr. Howard J. Wall , a former vice president and economist at the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis , who joined Lindenwood in 2011 as director of the Institute for the Study of Economics and the Environment .
= = = Speaker series and notable speakers = = =
The university began the Lindenwood Speaker series in 2008 and conducts an annual speaker series throughout the fall and spring semesters in which notable figures in literature , arts , entertainment , science , business , and politics present various issues and topics to students , faculty , and the community . Past speakers include : Tamim Ansary author and Islamic expert ; Dan Cathy , President and COO of Chick @-@ fil @-@ A restaurants ; Arun Gandhi , peace activist and grandson of Mahatma Gandhi ; Temple Grandin , doctor of animal science and Autism advocate ; Navy SEAL , humanitarian and author , Eric Greitens ; Hill Harper , actor ; former MLB pitcher Jim Morris ; P. J. O 'Rourke , political satirist , journalist , and writer ; and Reed Timmer , storm chaser and Meteorologist ;
Along with the speaker series , Lindenwood has hosted various speakers and political candidates throughout its history . Robert A. Taft , United States Senator from Ohio and son of President William H. Taft spoke at Lindenwood in 1948 to discuss the Taft – Hartley Act and his candidacy for the 1948 GOP nomination . John Danforth , in 1970 during his campaign for the US Senate seat representing Missouri . Leonor K. Sullivan , visited Lindenwood in 1973 as the first woman in Congress from Missouri . John Ashcroft made a stop at Lindenwood in 1983 as a campaign stop before he became Missouri 's Governor in 1984 . Richard Gephardt spoke in 1985 as a U.S. Representative of Missouri . Former U.S. Senator from Missouri and Democratic vice presidential nominee , Thomas Eagleton , spoke at Lindenwood after he returned to Missouri from the senate in 1988 . Henry Kissinger , former U.S. Secretary of State spoke on the campus in 1988 . Jim Talent visited LU as a U.S. congressman from Missouri in 1995 . Dora Boyd de Perez Balladares , First Lady of Panama visited the university in 1997 . Matt Blunt came to Lindenwood while serving as the Governor of Missouri . The university hosted 2012 GOP Presidential candidate , Ron Paul at the Hyland Arena on March 10 , 2012 .
= = = Library = = =
The Margaret Leggat Butler Library was constructed in 1930 and is located in the historic eastern region of campus . In addition to 150 @,@ 000 books and periodicals , classroom , research , and quiet study spaces , the library also houses a coffee shop and a writing center . The library is a member of the MOBIUS Consortium , a statewide system that links Lindenwood 's library to libraries at other higher learning institutions across Missouri .
The Library is home to the Mary Ambler Archives . The archives were founded in 1993 and are part of the Missouri Digital Heritage Initiative and the State Historical Society of Missouri . They include a collection of historical documents , official records , and special collections from the 185 @-@ year history of the university . The archives also include historical documents from Missouri during the early American Frontier and Antebellum periods . Other historical materials include information on women 's colleges , the personal papers of George and Mary Sibley , and historical documents from St. Charles County , St. Louis City and St. Louis County together with the surrounding area .
= = = Honor societies and Honors College = = =
Lindenwood University participates in the following national and international Honor Societies . Alpha Chi is a general scholarship honor society for students who are in the top 10 % of their classes . Alpha Lambda Delta is a general scholarship honor society for students who have achieved a 3 @.@ 5 GPA or higher and are in the top 20 % of their class during their first year or term of higher education . Alpha Sigma Lambda , a general scholarship honor society for nontraditional undergraduate students who achieve and maintain outstanding scholastic standards and leadership characteristics . Lindenwood also has a number of other subject @-@ specific honor societies including the honor society for the National Broadcasting Society and electronic media students Alpha Epsilon Rho , the international education honor society Kappa Delta Pi , the national history honor society Phi Alpha Theta , the national French honor society Pi Delta Phi ( Zeta Pi ) , the international honor society for social sciences Pi Gamma Mu , the national mathematics honor society Pi Mu Epsilon , the national political science honor society Pi Sigma Alpha , the international honor society in psychology Psi Chi , and national Spanish @-@ language honor society Sigma Delta Pi .
The Lindenwood University Honors College offers students an opportunity to be recognized for academic excellence at graduation and on official transcripts and diplomas . Eligible students must have a score of 29 or above on the ACT to apply as an incoming freshman and maintain at least a 3 @.@ 3 GPA for upperclass and transfer students . Students must complete 24 hours of Honors credits to graduate with University Honors .
Latin Honors upon graduation are :
Cumulative GPA of a 3 @.@ 70 – 3 @.@ 85 – Cum Laude
Cumulative GPA of a 3 @.@ 86 – 3 @.@ 93 – Magna Cum Laude
Cumulative GPA of a 3 @.@ 94 – 4 @.@ 00 – Summa Cum Laude
= = Athletics = =
Lindenwood University is a member of the NCAA at the Division II level . The university was a provisional member of the NCAA during the 2012 – 13 academic year before becoming a full member in the 2013 – 14 academic year . Lindenwood competes in the Mid @-@ America Intercollegiate Athletics Association ( MIAA ) for its primary conference and competes in the MIAA for all 15 sports sponsored by the conference . In addition to the MIAA , men 's lacrosse competes in the ECAC Division II Lacrosse League , women 's lacrosse compete in the Western Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association ( WILA ) , swimming competes in the Northern Sun Intercollegiate Conference ( NSIC ) , and field hockey competes as an independent Division II program . Lindenwood also sponsors three Division I sports , women 's ice hockey competes at the College Hockey America ( CHA ) , gymnastics competes as a member of the Midwest Independent Conference ( MIC ) , and men 's volleyball competes in the Midwestern Intercollegiate Volleyball Association ( MIVA ) . Lindenwood also sponsors other sports that compete in various other sport organizations for non @-@ NCAA sports .
The university was previously a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics ( NAIA ) and competed within the Heart of America Conference ( HAAC ) as its primary conference in addition to other athletic organizations for sports not sponsored by the HAAC . During the university 's time in the NAIA it had a total of 46 varsity sports teams making LU one of the largest athletic departments in the United States . Lindenwood University competed in NAIA athletics for nearly 40 years before beginning the transition process for NCAA II membership . On July 12 , 2010 Lindenwood was accepted into NCAA Division II and was approved as a member of the MIAA on September 24 , 2010 with the affiliation taking place in 2012 – 2013 academic year . LU plans include the 21 sports that currently compete in NAIA to move to NCAA Division II along with non @-@ NAIA sports field hockey , men ’ s lacrosse , and women ’ s lacrosse . Women ’ s ice hockey and men ’ s volleyball will compete in NCAA Division I , and all other sports will remain in their non @-@ NCAA and non @-@ NAIA sport organizations . Lindenwood officially concluded its NAIA and HAAC membership at the conclusion of the 2010 – 11 academic year . During the university 's 15 seasons as a member of the HAAC the Lions set a conference record , winning 128 HAAC titles . Lindenwood averaged 8 @.@ 5 conference titles a year and won at least one conference championship in sport sponsored by the conference .
= = Student life = =
Lindenwood 's student body comes from various locations across the United States , Canada , and other worldwide locations . Approximately 64 % of student body is from Missouri with the majority of in @-@ state students from St. Charles and St. Louis counties . Out @-@ of @-@ state students represent 22 % of undergraduate enrollment and are made up of students from 45 of the 50 US states . In addition , 13 % of students are from 60 foreign countries .
The university has over 70 clubs and student organizations under the direction of Student Life & Leadership ( SL & L ) . CAB ( Campus Activities Board ) hosts lectures , movie nights , dances , performances , and a wide variety of other events . Lindenwood also offers over 20 Intramural sports . The student organizations at Lindenwood include the student government , various academic , service , religious , Greek , and common interest organizations , and service organizations . Lindenwood Student Government Association ( LSGA ) is the main governing arm of the student body . The student government is the voice for student concerns in cooperation the university . The LSGA , as well as all organizations , sponsor various academic , social , spiritual , and physical events on campus to add to well being of the student body . The Golden Lion Marching Band is the university 's marching band . The band plays at every home football and is the only collegiate marching band in the Greater St. Louis . The Golden Lion Marching Band includes brass , woodwind , percussion , and color guard . A subset , the LU Pep Band plays at various special events and athletic events on campus throughout the school year . The Gateway Battalion is the local chapter of the Army ROTC based out Washington University of St. Louis . ROTC provides officer training and education for LU students in conjunction with Washington University and a number of other universities that make up the Battalion . Officially founded in 1919 and with roots tracing to the 1890s , it is one of the oldest such programs in the nation . After completing the Army ROTC program , LU students receive a commission in either the Regular Army , Army Reserve , or National Guard . LU Crew is a group of students that meet to promote school spirit at home athletic events and other special events . LU Crew can be seen at sporting events with signs , starting cheers , and various other activities in the student sections and stands .
Sibley Day has been held since 2009 and is a new tradition at Lindenwood . The event includes special events and activities for students and faculty , guest speakers , presentations , and other social and educational activities . Past guest speakers has included : Arun Gandhi .
= = = Greek life = = =
The modern era of the Greek system at Lindenwood began in 1992 , when the college announced that two sororities and three fraternities would be established on campus .
Lindenwood is currently home to two chapters of National Panhellenic Conference Sororities. the Omicron Omicron chapter of Delta Zeta ( founded 1992 ) is a chapter of the second largest sorority in the nation . The Theta Delta chapter of Sigma Sigma Sigma officially made Lindenwood their home in the Spring of 2012 . The campus was also at one time home to the Zeta Xi chapter of Alpha Sigma Alpha . In the spring of 2016 , Phi Sigma Sigma was chosen to be the third National Panhellenic Conference Sorority . They will begin their colonization process in the fall of 2016 .
Delta Tau Delta began its colonization process in March 2012 , and it became a chartered chapter in February 2014 . Phi Delta Theta established a colony at Lindenwood in November 2014 and installed as a chapter in October 2015 . Among defunct fraternity groups , Delta Chi colonized at Lindenwood in 1992 and again in 2000 ; however , neither attempt was successful in establishing a fully chartered chapter . Tau Kappa Epsilon also had an interest group on campus in the late 1990s ; however , the TKE group also never became a chartered chapter .
Lindenwood has been home to the Beta Chapter of Phi Lambda Phi since 2002 . Phi Lambda Phi is a regional men 's social fraternity that was founded at Truman State University in 1969 . Truman State , Lindenwood , and Missouri Baptist University are the only campuses with chapters of Phi Lambda Phi .
Lindenwood is also home to chapters of two Greek social music fraternities , Phi Mu Alpha for men and Sigma Alpha Iota for women . The college also has a chapter of Alpha Phi Omega co @-@ ed service fraternity , and Delta Sigma Pi professional business fraternity began the process of colonizing at Lindenwood in Spring 2012 and chartered in May 2014 .
There is currently no Greek housing on campus . Each social fraternity / sorority currently has dormitory rooms reserved for brothers or sisters who wish to live together , along with a chapter room in said building .
= = = Student media and publications = = =
Lindenwood University has a number of student media outlets that serve the campus and surrounding communities of St. Charles County . The official student newspaper is The Legacy . The paper is published every Tuesday . The university hosts a student @-@ operated educational cable station , known as LUTV . It is available on Charter Cable and on AT & T U @-@ Verse throughout Greater St. Louis , as well as streaming live online . LUTV runs educational and cultural , and LU athletic programming and serves as a learning experience for communications students . 89 @.@ 1 The Wood is an FCC @-@ licensed college radio station broadcasting on KCLC @-@ 89 @.@ 1 in the St. Louis Metro Area . The station is student @-@ operated and offers music , news , sports , and specialty programs . The Wood broadcasts from the KCLC studio in the Spellmann Student Center .
= = Notable alumni = =
Alumni of the Lindenwood University have become notable in a variety of different fields including politics and government , business , science , literature , arts and entertainment , and athletics . Alumni in the fields of broadcasting and journalism include : Greg Amsinger , anchor for the MLB Network , Randy Karraker and Bob Ramsey , American sportscasters in St. Louis , Missouri and current hosts of " The Fast Lane " , a sports radio show in St. Louis , on 101 ESPN , Jan Rogers Kniffen , businessman , guest business affairs commentator for CNBC , Dan McLaughlin , professional sports broadcaster who currently works on both St. Louis Cardinals and previously with the St. Louis Blues for telecasts on the cable television channel Fox Sports Midwest , Miriam Goldberg , publisher and editor of the Intermountain Jewish News , Melanie Morgan , American author , columnist , political commentator , and radio personality , Sally Perdue , radio talk show host and is a former 1958 Miss Arkansas and Miss America Pageant contestant , .
Various LU alumni have excelled in art , fashion , movies and music , they include : Alice Baber , American abstract expressionist painter . Tara Bollinger , model and beauty queen from Missouri who has competed in the Miss America Pageant . Ingrid Dahlberg , former theater manager and president of the Swedish Royal Dramatic Theatre , writer , and politician . Lee Daniels , American actor , film producer and director . Nell Donnelly Reed , an American fashion designer famous for her house dresses who , at the time of her attending Lindenwood in the early 1900s , was the only married student there . Thom Donovan , American musician / songwriter , who has toured world @-@ wide with Robert Plant and the Goo Goo Dolls and appeared on Last Call with Carson Daly on NBC . Shandi Finnessey , Miss USA 2004 , Dancing with the Stars . Amber Seyer , Miss Missouri USA 2007 and Miss Missouri Teen USA 2003 . Vocal Spectrum , consisting of Tim Waurick , Eric Dalbey , Jonny Moroni , and Chris Hallam . They are the 2004 Barbershop Harmony Society International Collegiate Quartet Champions , the 2006 Barbershop Harmony Society International Quartet Champions , and 2004 , 2009 , and 2012 Barbershop Harmony Society International Chorus Champions with the Ambassadors of Harmony . , for whom Moroni is co @-@ director .
A number of Lindenwood Lions and lady Lions have gone on to professional sports , they include : Sanel Borić , Bosnian American football ( soccer ) goalkeeper who currently plays for FK Velež Mostar . DeDe Dorsey , professional American football player with the Detroit Lions of the NFL . As a member of the Las Vegas Locomotives of the United Football League , he was the MVP of the 2009 UFL Championship Game . Chase Gormley , American professional mixed martial arts fighter for the UFC . Randal McLelland , an Olympic athlete in skeet shooting . 2008 Summer Olympics . Brian Schaefering , a professional American football player with the Cleveland Browns of the NFL . Roren Thomas , wide receiver for the Hartford Colonials of the United Football League , Alexander Wright , former American football wide receiver with Dallas Cowboys , Los Angeles Raiders , St. Louis Rams and current athletic director and head football coach for San Jacinto Christian Academy and founder of Alexander Wright Ministries . Laura Fonnegra , a Colombian bowler who got the gold medal at the 2011 World Youth Championship , Juan Gomez , a Colombian bowler and a long time member of the Colombian National Bowling team who have won many international medals , and Dean Richards , a bowler member of Team USA who recently won his first professional title .
Alumni involved in government and politics include Andrew Koenig Republican member of the Missouri House of Representatives representing the 88th district. and Gary W. Schenkel , current director of the Office of Emergency Management & Communications for the City of Chicago .
Mike Rio is a junior college national wrestling champion at 149lbs for Harper College in Illinois and then transferred to Lindenwood University to become back @-@ to @-@ back chamapion at the NAIA national wrestling championships , being named Most Outstanding Wrestler of the 2006 national championship tournament . Also , during his time at Lindenwood University he was also the college roommate of now fellow UFC fighter and The Ultimate Fighter 12 winner Jonathan Brookins . Rio is currently a professional mixed martial arts fighter ; formerly competing for the Ultimate Fighting Championship .
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= Vkhutemas =
Vkhutemas ( Russian : Вхутемас , acronym for Высшие художественно @-@ технические мастерские Vysshiye Khudozhestvenno @-@ Tekhnicheskiye Masterskiye ( Higher Art and Technical Studios ) ) was the Russian state art and technical school founded in 1920 in Moscow , replacing the Moscow Svomas . The workshops were established by a decree from Vladimir Lenin with the intentions , in the words of the Soviet government , " to prepare master artists of the highest qualifications for industry , and builders and managers for professional @-@ technical education " . The school had 100 faculty members and an enrollment of 2 @,@ 500 students . Vkhutemas was formed by a merger of two previous schools : the Moscow School of Painting , Sculpture and Architecture and the Stroganov School of Applied Arts . The workshops had artistic and industrial faculties ; the art faculty taught courses in graphics , sculpture and architecture while the industrial faculty taught courses in printing , textiles , ceramics , woodworking , and metalworking . It was a center for three major movements in avant garde art and architecture : constructivism , rationalism , and suprematism . In the workshops , the faculty and students transformed attitudes to art and reality with the use of precise geometry with an emphasis on space , in one of the great revolutions in the history of art . In 1926 , the school was reorganized under a new rector and its name was changed from " Studios " to " Institute " ( Вхутеин , Высший художественно @-@ технический институт , Vkhutein , Vysshiye Khudozhestvenno @-@ Tekhnicheskii Institut ) , or Vkhutein . It was dissolved in 1930 , following political and internal pressures throughout its ten @-@ year existence . The school 's faculty , students , and legacy were dispersed into as many as six other schools .
= = Basic course = =
A preliminary basic course was an important part of the new teaching method that was developed at Vkhutemas , and was made compulsory for all students , regardless of their future specialization . This was based on a combination of scientific and artistic disciplines . During the basic course , students had to learn the language of plastic forms , and chromatics . Drawing was considered a foundation of the plastic arts , and students investigated relationships between color and form , and the principles of spatial composition . Akin to the Bauhaus 's basic course , which all first @-@ year students were required to attend , it gave a more abstract foundation to the technical work in the studios . In the early 1920s this basic course consisted of the following :
the maximal influence of color ( given by Lyubov Popova ) ,
form through color ( Alexander Osmerkin ) ,
color in space ( Aleksandra Ekster )
color on the plane ( Ivan Kliun ) ,
construction ( Alexander Rodchenko ) ,
simultaneity of form and color ( Aleksandr Drevin ) ,
volume in space ( Nadezhda Udaltsova ) ,
history of the Western arts ( Amshey Nurenberg ) and
tutelage by Wladimir Baranoff @-@ Rossine .
= = Art faculty = =
The primary movements in art which influenced education at Vkhutemas were constructivism and suprematism , although individuals were versatile enough to fit into many or no movements — often teaching in multiple departments and working in diverse media . The leader figure of suprematist art , Kazimir Malevich , joined the teaching staff of Vkhutemas in 1925 , however his group Unovis , of the Vitebsk art college that included El Lissitzky , exhibited at Vkhutemas as early as 1921 . While constructivism was ostensibly developed as an art form in graphics and sculpture , it had architecture and construction as its underlying subject matter . This influence pervaded the school . The artistic education at Vkhutemas tended to be multidisciplinary , which stemmed from its origins as a merger of a fine arts college and a craft school . A further contributor to this was the generality of the basic course , which continued after students had specialised and was complemented by a versatile faculty . Vkhutemas cultivated polymath masters in the Renaissance mold , many with achievements in graphics , sculpture , product design , and architecture . Painters and sculptors often made projects related to architecture ; examples include Tatlin 's Tower , Malevich 's Architektons , and Rodchenko 's Spatial Constructions . Artists moved from department to department , such as Rodchenko from painting to metalworking . Gustav Klutsis , who was head of a workshop on colour theory , also moved from painting and sculptural works to exhibition stands and kiosks . El Lissitzky , who had trained as an architect , also worked in a broad cross section of media such as graphics , print and exhibition design .
= = Industrial faculty = =
The industrial faculties had the task of preparing artists of a new type , artists capable of working not only in the traditional pictorial and plastic arts but also capable of creating all objects in the human environment such as the articles of daily life , the implements of labor , etc . The industrial department at Vkhutemas endeavored to create products of viability in the economy and functionality found in society . Class @-@ based political requirements steered artists toward crafts , and the designing of household or industrial goods . There was significant pressure in this respect by the Central Committee of the Communist Party , that in 1926 , 1927 , and 1928 , required a student body composition " of worker and peasant origins " , and several demands for " working class " elements . This push for design economy resulted in a tendency towards working , functional designs with minimised luxuries . Tables designed by Rodchenko were equipped with mechanical moving parts , and were standardised and multi @-@ functional . The products designed at Vkhutemas never bridged the gap between workshops and factory production , although they cultivated a factory aesthetic — Popova , Stepanova , and Tatlin even designed worker 's industrial apparel . Furniture pieces constructed at Vkhutemas explored the possibilities of new industrial materials such as plywood and tubular steel .
There were many successes for the departments , and they were to influence future design thinking . At the 1925 Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes in Paris , the Soviet pavilion by Konstantin Melnikov and its contents attracted both criticism and praise for its economic and working class architecture . One focus of criticism was the " nakedness " of the structure , in comparison to other luxurious pavilions such as that by Émile @-@ Jacques Ruhlmann . Alexander Rodchenko designed a worker 's club , and the furniture that the Wood and Metal Working Faculty ( Дерметфак ) contributed was an international success . The student work won several prizes , and Melnikov 's pavilion won the Grand Prix . As a new generation of artist / designers , the students and faculty at Vkhutemas paved the way for designer furniture by architects such as Marcel Breuer , and Alvar Aalto later in the century .
= = = Metalwork and woodwork = = =
The dean of this department was Alexander Rodchenko , who was appointed in February 1922 . Rodchenko 's department was more expansive than its name would suggest , concentrating on abstract and concrete examples of product design . In a report to the rector of 1923 , Rodchenko listed the following subjects as being offered : higher mathematics , descriptive geometry , theoretical mechanics , physics , the history of art and political literacy . Theoretical tasks included graphic design and " volumetric and spatial discipline " ; while practical experience was given in foundry work , minting , engraving and electrotyping . Students were also given internships in factories . Rodchenko 's approach effectively combined art and technology , and he was offered the deanship of Vkhutein in 1928 , although he refused . El Lissitzky was also a member of the faculty .
= = = Textiles = = =
The textile department was run by the constructivist designer Varvara Stepanova . In common with other departments , it was run on utilitarian lines , but Stepanova encouraged her students to take an interest in fashion : they were told to carry notebooks so that they could note the contemporary fabrics and aesthetics of everyday life as seen on the high street . Stepanova wrote in her 1925 course plan that this was done " with the goal of devising methods for a conscious awareness of the demands imposed on us by new social conditions " . Lyubov Popova was also a member of the textile faculty , and in 1922 , when hired to design fabrics for the First State Textile Print Factory , Popova and Stepanova were among the first women designers in the Soviet textile industry . Popova designed textiles both with asymmetrical architectonic geometries , and also work that was thematic . Before her death in 1924 , Popova produced fabrics with grids of printed hammers and sickles , which would predate work by others in the political climate of the First Five Year Plan .
= = Lenin 's visit = =
Vladimir Lenin signed a decree to create the school although its emphasis was on art rather than Marxism . Three months after its founding , on 25 February 1921 , Lenin went to Vkhutemas to visit the daughter of Inessa Armand and to converse with the students , where in a discussion about art he found an affinity among them for Futurism . There he first viewed avant garde art , such as suprematist painting and he did not wholly approve of it , expressing concern over the connection between the student 's art and politics . After the discussion , he was accepting and stated , " Well , tastes differ " and " I am an old man " .
Although Lenin was not an enthusiast for avant garde art , the Vkhutemas faculty and students made projects to honor him and further his politics . Ivan Leonidov 's final project at Vkhutemas was his design for a Lenin Institute of Librarianship . Vladimir Tatlin 's Monument to the Third International was built by students and displayed at their workshop in Saint Petersburg . Furthermore , Lenin 's Mausoleum was designed by faculty member Aleksey Shchusev . Alexei Gan 's book Constructivism , published in 1922 , provided a theoretical link between the new emerging art and contemporary politics , connecting constructivism with the revolution , and Marxism . The founding decree included a statement that students have an " obligatory education in political literacy and the fundamentals of the communist world view on all courses " . These examples help justify the school 's projects in terms of the early political requirements but others would arise throughout the school 's existence .
= = Comparisons with the Bauhaus = =
Vkhutemas was a close parallel to the German Bauhaus in its intent , organization and scope . The two schools were the first to train artist @-@ designers in a modern manner . Both schools were state @-@ sponsored initiatives to merge the craft tradition with modern technology , with a Basic Course in aesthetic principles , courses in color theory , industrial design , and architecture . Vkhutemas was a larger school than the Bauhaus , but it was less publicised and consequently , is less familiar to the West . Vkhutemas 's influence was expansive however — the school exhibited two structures by faculty and award @-@ winning student work at the 1925 Exposition in Paris . Furthermore , Vkhutemas attracted the interest and several visits from the director of the Museum of Modern Art , Alfred Barr . With the internationalism of modern architecture and design , there were many exchanges between the Vkhutemas and the Bauhaus . The second Bauhaus director Hannes Meyer attempted to organise an exchange between the two schools , while Hinnerk Scheper of the Bauhaus collaborated with various Vkhutein members on the use of colour in architecture . In addition , El Lissitzky 's book Russia – an Architecture for World Revolution published in German in 1930 featured several illustrations of Vkhutemas / Vkhutein projects . Both schools flourished in a relatively liberal period , and were closed under pressure from increasingly totalitarian regimes .
= = Vkhutein = =
As early as 1923 , Rodchenko and others published a report in LEF which foretold of Vkhutemas 's closure . It was in response to students ' failure to gain a foothold in industry and was entitled , The Breakdown of VKhUTEMAS : Report on the Condition of the Higher Artistic and Technical Workshops , which stated that the school was " disconnected from the ideological and practical tasks of today " . In 1927 , the school 's name was modified : " Institute " replaced " Studios " ( Вхутеин , Высший художественно @-@ технический институт ) , or Vkhutein . Under this reorganisation , the ' artistic ' content of the basic course was reduced to one term , when at one point it was two years . The school appointed a new rector , Pavel Novitsky , who took over from the painter Vladimir Favorsky in 1926 . It was under Novitsky 's tenure that external political pressures increased , including the " working class " decree , and a series of external reviews by industry , and commercial organisations of student works ' viability . The school was dissolved in 1930 , and was merged into various other programs . One such merger was with MVTU , forming the Architectural @-@ Construction Institute , which became the Moscow Architectural Institute in 1933 . The Modernist movements which Vkhutemas had helped generate were critically considered as abstract formalism , and were succeeded historically by socialist realism , postconstructivism , and the Empire style of Stalinist architecture .
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= Rain in England =
Rain in England is an ambient hip hop album by Berkeley , California rapper Lil B , released on the label Weird Forest on September 21 , 2010 . Produced by Lil B under his persona " The Based God " , Rain in England is unusual for the hip hop genre because it has no percussive beats . Instead , Lil B raps over new @-@ age @-@ style synthesizer music . The lyrical style , which finds Lil B speaking on topics like family , love and death , has been noted for its sincerity and reflectiveness .
The album had a mixed reception upon release , and many critics were left baffled by the album 's highly unorthodox musical and lyrical content . It has been cited as a particularly idiosyncratic release for hip hop music and an example of Lil B 's artistic eccentricities . According to Louis Pattison of The Guardian , the album " transcended familiar notions of good and bad , being one of the most peculiar rap albums ever pressed . "
= = Background and music = =
Before Rain in England , Lil B had developed a cult following through social media by sharing music through YouTube and MySpace . Lil B wrote the lyrics to Rain in England in a coffee shop over the course of about a month . It was also his first time producing his own music , though he credited the production as a collaboration with his alter ego The Based God . In advance of the album 's release , Lil B told XXL that Rain in England would be " one of the best hip @-@ hop albums to ever come out and one of the most unique albums to ever come out in hip @-@ hop . " Lil B described it as " like a melting pot to the soul , just thinking and melting into your emotions " , and said the album would deal with both dark and positive themes .
Rain in England is described by Lil B as the first ambient hip hop album . The lyrics , described as meditative and surreal , explore themes like death , life , family , God , birth and gender . Most tracks begin with Lil B announcing the theme , which he then contemplates in a zigzag of free associative thought . Lil B took care not to use profanity at all on the album . The synthesizer music is droning and tonally simple ; one critic compared the tonality to the nursery rhyme " Three Blind Mice " . Tom Breihan of Pitchfork called Rain in England " an album of quasi @-@ rap spoken @-@ word over self @-@ produced music even more ambient than the spaced @-@ out , lo @-@ fi synth landscapes he usually raps over . " Nitsuh Abebe wrote in Pitchfork 's " Why We Fight " column that the album is " beatless washes of new @-@ agey synths with Lil B flowing over them more like the host of a self @-@ hypnosis tape than a rapper . " Rain in England has been compared to the music of Brian Eno , Stars of the Lid , Ray Lynch and Tangerine Dream .
= = Release and reception = =
Rain in England was released on September 21 , 2010 on the independent label Weird Forest , which usually focuses on experimental and electronic music . The album was released digitally , as a CD , and as a double LP edition of 1000 copies with a poster . Pitchfork called it " a rare opportunity to own a physical Lil B artifact " . The album officially became available for free from the mixtape website DatPiff on November 22 .
Critical reception to the album was mixed , with writers acknowledging the album 's uniqueness but questioning its lyrical and musical quality . Sam Davies of The Wire wrote , " There are hits and misses : platitudes and cliches , interspersed with bursts of surreal genius . [ ... ] So much indie hiphop [ sic ] tries to challenge mainstream orthodoxy through a cryptic acceleration of thought and voice [ ... ] but Lil B 's slower , more ruminative delivery here feels far braver for being more exposed and vulnerable . " A positive review in Vice called Lil B " the most revolutionary MC of the last 15 years , " but said Rain in England is not a good starting point for people new to his music because the album is " a bit too raw for most life forms to process " . Rating the album a 6 out of 10 , Charles Aaron of Spin said the album was Lil B 's " least accessible " release to date and sounded like " a therapy @-@ session testimony that sounds like Soulja Boy having a Damascus moment in the champagne room over a beatless synth tide . "
Blogger Andrew Nosnitsky of hip hop blog Cocaine Blunts wrote , " while it 's a very personal and honest affair there 's also something , well , not quite good about it . The early buzz about B was that he was making outsider art and England is probably the closest he comes to that standard . He has ideas about what the creation of spoken word poetry and ambient music entails but it 's quite clear he hasn ’ t taken a ton of time to study those forms . " David Morris of Tiny Mix Tapes said that although the album is " conceptually daring " and a showcase for Lil B 's " poetic , philosophical streak " , he called the musical backing " utter garbage " and " pure , unstructured noodling " . Morris blamed what he saw as a misguided effort to be " left @-@ field and trendy " on Lil B 's internet hype and coverage in the indie rock press . The Quietus praised the album as " baffling , flawed but utterly engrossing " , and said Lil B 's flow is " more measured but no less dexterous than his contemporaries , and the pace of his eloquent , brooding verses lend themselves well to the alien , frosted glass synth sounds and syrupy electronics that form the majority of the backing tracks here . Rain In England comes across like the work of some rap savant , a man whose inner filter has been disabled , creating something which may polarise but which is , at least , utterly distinctive . " Daniel Levin Becker wrote in Dusted that , despite its unconventionality , the album is " irredeemably bad " .
= = Legacy = =
Rain in England has been repeatedly referenced for its uniqueness and its demonstration of Lil B 's broad range of styles . Hip hop writer Andrew Nosnitsky remarked in The Wire that Lil B was likely the only rapper who could pull off both an ambient release on Weird Forest and a collaboration with Soulja Boy in the same year . The San Francisco Bay Guardian said the album demonstrated Lil B 's unpredictability ; similarly , SF Weekly called it " a different beast entirely " from the rest of his work . In Seattle Weekly , Eric Grandy called Rain in England an " oddity " and said Lil B 's music is better served by randomly listening to him on YouTube then in a long @-@ form album format . In a 2012 profile of Lil B 's career so far , The Wire 's Lisa Blanning said the album " feels like a new musical expression . " Lil B himself described Rain in England as " my favorite work ... I think that 's my most powerful work , to myself . ... That 's my favorite , because I know no one else has done that , and that 's what I 'm most proud of , when I do things that I know nobody else has done before . "
At the end of the year , the album received one vote in the Village Voice Pazz & Jop music critics poll . Rob Sevier , co @-@ founder of the label The Numero Group , and Games , a collaboration between Daniel Lopatin ( Oneohtrix Point Never ) and Joel Ford , named Rain in England one of their favorite albums of the year . Dean Blunt of the electronic duo Hype Williams admired the album and said , " it was artistic , it was the merit . ... Part of the reason it 's so interesting , part of the reason why I think this is so good , it 's a juxtaposition of two things that you really don 't think are meant to be together . " Oakland , California rapper Kreayshawn said Lil B " was an influence on me . I was starting to listen to his music and hanging out with him a lot when he was working on Rain in England . " Cloud rap duo Main Attrakionz has been compared to the style of Rain in England .
At Lil B 's unscripted lecture at New York University in 2012 , a fan told Lil B , possibly facetiously , that his mom cried while listening to the track " All Women " . Lil B responded :
I love you . Thank you family . I love you man . Respect knowledge . If you see somebody with gray hair , embrace that beauty . Show the world that we are beautiful ! That was me trying to get everybody to rally . Show the world we 're beautiful !
Lil B also said at the lecture that he was " the first artist ever to release an ambient album in history with no cursing , Rain in England . " Portland @-@ based producer E * Rock adapted a transcript of the lecture into an ambient music piece with a synthesized voice , and the result was compared to Rain in England .
= = Track listing = =
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= Deep frying =
Deep frying ( also referred to as deep fat frying ) is a cooking method in which food is submerged in hot fat , most commonly oil , rather than the shallow oil used in conventional frying , done in a frying pan . Normally , a deep fryer or chip pan is used for this ; industrially , a pressure fryer or vacuum fryer may be used . Deep frying may also be performed using oil that is heated in a pot . Deep frying is classified as hot @-@ fat cooking method Typically , deep frying cooks foods quickly : all sides of a food are cooked simultaneously as oil has a high rate of heat conduction .
The term " deep frying " and many modern deep @-@ fried foods were not invented until the 19th century , but the practice has been around for millennia . Early records and cookbooks suggest that the practice began in a few European and Arabian countries before other countries adopted the practice .
Deep frying is popular worldwide , with deep @-@ fried foods accounting for a large portion of global caloric consumption . Many foods are deep @-@ fried and cultures surrounding deep frying have developed , most notably in the Southern United States , where many events dedicated to deep frying food and non @-@ edible items are held .
= = History = =
Although the nouns " deep @-@ fried " , " deep @-@ frying " , and the verb " deep @-@ fry " were not documented until 1916 , 1932 , and 1933 ( respectively ) ; the practice of deep frying food has been around much longer . One of the earliest known practices of deep frying came from the Egyptians in the 5th millennium BCE . Later developments included the Greeks deep frying food in olive oil in the 5th century BCE . In the 1st century CE , a Roman cookbook , Apicius , appears to list the ancient Romans ' first use of deep frying to prepare Pullum Frontonianum , a chicken dish . The practice of deep frying spread to other parts of Europe and Arabia in the following centuries . Deep @-@ fried foods such as funnel cakes arrived in northern Europe by the 13th century , and deep @-@ fried fish recipes have been found in cookbooks in Spain and Portugal at around the same time . Falafel arrived in the Middle East from population migrations from Egypt as soon as the 14th century . The deep frying of food in Japan was likely introduced by Portuguese the 16th century . Evidence of potato frying can be found as early as the late 17th century in Europe .
Modern deep frying began in the 19th century with the growing popularity of cast iron , particularly around the American South which led to the development of many modern deep @-@ fried dishes . French fries , invented in the late 18th century , became popular in the early 19th century western Europe . Doughnuts were invented in the mid @-@ 19th century , with foods such as onion rings , deep @-@ fried turkey , and corn dogs all being invented in the early 20th century . In recent years , the growth of fast food has expanded the reach of deep @-@ fried foods , especially French fries .
= = Technique = =
Deep frying food is defined as a process where food is completely submerged in hot oil at temperatures typically between 350 ° F ( 177 ° C ) and 375 ° F ( 191 ° C ) . One common method for preparing food for deep frying involves adding multiple layers of batter around the food , such as cornmeal , flour , or tempura ; breadcrumbs may also be used . After the food is submerged in oil , the surface of it begins to dehydrate and it undergoes Maillard reactions which break down sugars and proteins , creating the golden brown exterior of the food . Once the surface is dehydrated , it forms a crust which prevents further oil absorption . The heat conducts throughout the food causing proteins to denature , starches to undergo starch gelatinization , and dietary fiber to soften .
While most foods need batter coatings for protection , it is not as necessary for cooked noodles and potatoes because their high starch content enables them to hold more moisture and resist shrinking . Meats may be cooked before deep frying to ensure that they are done inside while keeping juiciness .
When performed properly , deep frying does not make food excessively greasy , because the moisture in the food repels the oil . The hot oil heats the water within the food , steaming it ; oil cannot go against the direction of this powerful flow because ( due to its high temperature ) the water vapor pushes the bubbles toward the surface . As long as the oil is hot enough and the food is not immersed in the oil for too long , oil penetration will be confined to the outer surface . Foods deep @-@ fried at proper temperatures typically absorb " no more than a couple of tablespoons per 2 1 ⁄ 2 cups of oil " used . This oil absorption rate is around the same as occurs with shallow frying , such as in a pan .
However , if the food is cooked in the oil for too long , much of the water will be lost and the oil will begin to penetrate the food . The correct frying temperature depends on the thickness and type of food , but in most cases it lies between 350 – 375 ° F ( 177 – 191 ° C ) . An informal test for a temperature close to this range involves adding a tiny amount of flour into the oil and watching to see if it sizzles without immediately burning . A second test involves adding one piece of food to deep fry and watching it sink somewhat and rise back up . Sinking without resurfacing indicates that the oil is too cold ; not sinking at all indicates that the oil is too hot .
It is recommended that deep fryers be cleaned often to prevent contamination . The process of cooking with oil can also contaminate nearby surfaces as oil may splatter on adjacent areas . Oil vapors can also condense on more distant surfaces such as walls and ceilings . Supplies such as dish detergent and baking soda can effectively clean affected surfaces .
= = Tools = =
Deep frying is done with a deep fryer , a pan such as a wok or chip pan , a Dutch oven , or a cast @-@ iron pot . Additional tools include fry baskets , which are used to contain foods in a deep fryer and to strain foods when removed from the oil , and cooking thermometers , used to gauge oil temperature . Tongs , slotted spoons , wooden spoons , and sieves may be used to remove or separate foods from the hot oil .
Japanese deep frying tools include long metal chopsticks ; the agemono @-@ nabe deep frying pot , which is heavy for retaining heat and deep for holding oil ; the ami @-@ shakushi net ladle used for scooping out batter debris ; and the abura @-@ kiri oil drying rack pan .
Deep frying tools
= = Dishes , foods , and culture = =
Deep @-@ fried foods are common in many countries , and have also been described as " a staple of almost all street cuisines on all continents " . There are hundreds of dishes that are associated with deep frying as most foods can be deep @-@ fried . Examples of food that can be deep @-@ fried include meat , poultry , fish and vegetables . Fish and chips , for instance , combines deep @-@ fried fish and deep @-@ fried potatoes . French fries , doughnuts , onion rings , and hushpuppies are common deep @-@ fried foods . Other common deep @-@ fried foods include Chinese You Bing deep @-@ fried pancakes , Southeast Asian Jin deui , and Japanese tempura . Less common deep @-@ fried foods include maple leaves , peanut butter and jelly sandwiches , pizza , and Snickers bars .
In the United States , the Chicago Tribune notes that " you can deep fry almost anything " . The American South has been noted as a modern center of innovation in the area of deep @-@ fried food . According to the owner of a deep frying restaurant in the South , " If something is edible , you can bet that someone south of the Mason @-@ Dixon line has tried to cook it in oil .
= = = Africa = = =
In Northern Africa , deep @-@ fried dishes are a part of the cuisine . A common food in this region is the deep @-@ fried fritter , also referred to as " sponges " . In areas of Southern Africa , street foods include deep @-@ fried potato and cassava chips . Deep @-@ fried foods in the country of South Africa include fish and chips , vetkoek and koeksisters , among others .
= = = Asia = = =
Japanese tempura is a popular deep @-@ fried food that generally consists of battered and fried seafood and vegetables . Japanese deep @-@ fried dishes , or Agemono , include other styles besides tempura , such as Karaage , Korokke , Kushikatsu , and Tonkatsu . In areas of south @-@ east Asia such as Thailand , insects are commonly deep @-@ fried for human consumption . Western @-@ style fast food items such as donuts , deep @-@ fried chicken , and deep @-@ fried potatoes are also becoming popular in Asia .
Deep @-@ fried fish , tofu , and chả giò are commonly eaten in Vietnamese cuisine . Deep frying is also used to make several kinds of bánh , including bánh rán ( fried rice ball ) , bánh cam ( sesame ball ) , bánh tiêu ( hollow doughnut ) , bánh rế ( sweet potato pancake ) , bánh chuối chiên ( banana fritter ) , Hồ Tây – style bánh tôm ( shrimp fritter ) , and bánh gối ( pillow cake ) .
Deep @-@ fried sticks of dough , known as youtiao in Chinese , are eaten in many East and Southeast Asian cuisines .
In Hong Kong , deep @-@ fried intestine of pigs is a popular food .
= = = Europe = = =
Many countries in Europe use pure or hydrogenated rapeseed oil for deep @-@ frying . The deep @-@ fried Mars bar originated in Scotland , with The Carron Fish Bar in Stonehaven claiming to have invented it in the early 1990s . Fish and chips is a very popular deep @-@ fried dish in England since it originated in London in the 19th century and became popular among the working class . Its popularity continues with 229 million portions of fish and chips being sold annually in England .
There is an annual trade fair devoted to deep @-@ fried foods called the International Symposium on Deep @-@ Fat Frying which features discussions on deep fat frying as well as exhibitions by companies involved with the process .
Belgian tradition requires French fries to be deep @-@ fried in filtered fat of cattle , locally called blanc de boeuf or ossewit .
= = = North America = = =
In the United States , soybean oil is often used for deep @-@ frying . Beignets , originally a French dish , are a popular deep @-@ fried pastry in the U.S. city of New Orleans . Deep @-@ fried food has been a core part of the culture of the American South with many restaurants solely serving deep @-@ fried foods . The owner of one such restaurant has said that the deep @-@ fried food , " in the South it 's a way of life " . Fast food is one of the most common ways to consume deep @-@ fried food in North America .
Novelty deep @-@ fried foods are popular today in American fairs , especially those in the American South . Hundreds of items are served at these fairs . Some of them include deep @-@ fried beer , butter , and bubblegum . Additionally , deep frying can be used as a form of artwork by frying non @-@ edible objects , such as electronics . Artists such as Henry Hargreaves have deep @-@ fried replicas of electronic items such as iPads , Game Boys , and laptops .
Deep @-@ fried food contests are frequently held at fairs such as the Texas State Fair , where they hold an annual contest for the most creative deep @-@ fried food . Notable past winners have included fried Coke and deep @-@ fried butter , both invented by Abel Gonzales . Since 2013 , an American reality competition show called deep @-@ fried Masters , produced by Discovery Networks , holds deep frying competitions at several state fairs across the country .
= = = Oceania = = =
Milk bars in Australia may purvey several types of deep @-@ fried foods , along with other food types .
= = = South America = = =
The buñuelo , a fried dough ball popular in Central America and Greece , is a popular deep @-@ fried snack and street food in South America . Picarone , a Peruvian dessert originated in the colonial period , are deep @-@ fried cakes made with pumpkin and sweet potatoes , popular in Peru and Chile , especially during harvest festivals .
= = Oil deterioration = =
Overheating or over @-@ using the frying oil leads to formation of rancid @-@ tasting products of oxidation , polymerization , and other deleterious , unintended or even toxic compounds such as acrylamide ( from starchy foods ) . Recent research suggests fat deterioration may be worse when fat or oil is fried with food than when fat or oil is tested on its own in a laboratory . Deep @-@ frying under vacuum helps to significantly reduce acrylamide formation , but this process is not widely used in the food industry due to the high investment cost involved .
Some useful tests and indicators of excessive oil deterioration are the following :
Sensory – darkening , smoke , foaming , thickening , rancid taste and unpleasant smell when heating . This is the most unreliable way to decide when to change oil because those are very individual factors and can depend on different causes .
Testing strips – decide when to change oil depending on FFA ( free fatty acids ) only
Oiltester – measurement tool to exactly define the point of change oil by TPM / TPC ( Total polar material / compounds )
Laboratory – acidity , anisidine value , viscosity , total polar compounds , polymeric triglycerides .
Instruments that indicate total polar compounds , currently the best single gauge of how deep @-@ fried an object is , are available with sufficient accuracy for restaurant and industry use .
= = Hazards = =
Cooking oil is flammable , and fires may be caused by it igniting at too high a temperature . Further , attempts to extinguish an oil fire with water cause an extremely dangerous condition , a boilover , as they cause the water to flash into steam due to the high heat of the oil , in turn sending the burning oil in all directions and thus aggravating the fire . This is the leading cause of house fires in the United Kingdom . Instead , oil fires must be extinguished with a non @-@ water fire extinguisher or by smothering . Other means of extinguishing an oil fire include application of dry powder ( e.g. , baking soda , salt ) or fire fighting foam . Most commercial deep fryers are equipped with automatic fire suppression systems using foam .
Spilled hot cooking oil can also cause severe third degree burns , In the worst @-@ case scenario , severe burns can be fatal . The higher temperatures and tendency of oil to stick to the skin make spilled hot cooking oil far more dangerous than spilled hot water . Children can accidentally place their hands on top of the stove , playing with the materials while being cooked , or accidentally pull the pot down , which can cause significant injury . The utmost care should be used when deep frying when children are present , to protect their safety at all times .
= = Effects = =
= = = Environmental = = =
Deep frying produces large amounts of waste oil , which must be disposed of properly . Waste oil can overflow sewage systems , bind to the walls of sewage pipes , and interfere with sewage treatment . Waste oil from deep frying is increasingly being recycled and refined into biodiesel . Potatoes that are stored in artificially humidified warehouses contain more water , which makes the time required to deep fry them into chips longer . This increases the carbon dioxide footprint of commercially producing chips because more energy is required for frying over a longer time . According to one source , an average home appliance deep fryer draws 2 @,@ 000 watts .
= = = Health = = =
The process of deep frying food is generally detrimental to its nutritional value . The oils that foods absorb in their batter typically contain large amounts of fats , especially saturated fats and trans fats . Consumption of large amounts of saturated and trans fats has been linked to a higher risk for some cancers including prostate cancer . Eating deep @-@ fried foods has also been linked to higher cholesterol levels , obesity , heart attacks , and diabetes . Deep @-@ fried foods cooked at certain temperatures can also contain acrylamide , a possible carcinogen . Additionally , fat degradation processes during deep frying results in the loss of nutritional value in deep @-@ fried foods .
Some studies have found that deep frying in olive and sunflower oils has been found to be less of a detriment to health and in some cases have positive effects on insulin levels . Oil can be reused a few times after original use after straining out solids . However , excessive use of the same oil can cause it to break down and release compounds into the food that may be carcinogenic , affect liver health , or influence the body 's ability to absorb vitamins . Some European countries have set public health standards for the safety of frying oil .
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= Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U =
Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Super Smash Bros. for Wii U are fighting video games developed by Sora Ltd. and Bandai Namco Games , with assistance from tri @-@ Crescendo , and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 3DS and Wii U game consoles . Despite being similarly titled games , even with almost similar content , the two titles are officially considered the fourth and fifth installments , respectively , in the Super Smash Bros. series of games by creator and game director Masahiro Sakurai .
Like the rest of the series , Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Super Smash Bros. for Wii U are non @-@ traditional fighting games where players use different attacks to weaken their opponents and knock them out of an arena . The games are crossover titles that feature characters , items , music , and stages from various Nintendo franchises , including Mario , Donkey Kong , Pokémon , Fire Emblem , Kirby , Metroid , Star Fox , The Legend of Zelda , Kid Icarus , and Animal Crossing among others , as well as from several third @-@ party franchises , including Sega 's Sonic the Hedgehog and Bayonetta , Capcom 's Mega Man and Street Fighter , Bandai Namco 's Pac @-@ Man , and Square Enix 's Final Fantasy VII . New features include having up to eight players fighting at a time on the Wii U version , support for Amiibo , using Miis as playable fighters , post @-@ release downloadable content including additional fighters and stages , and customizable special moves unlockable for every non @-@ DLC character . Some features from previous games in the series were removed , such as the story mode in Brawl .
A sequel to Brawl was announced at E3 2011 , but development did not begin until 2012 , and the game 's official unveiling did not come until E3 2013 . The gameplay was designed to be somewhere between that of the faster , more competition @-@ oriented Melee and the slower , more casual @-@ friendly Brawl . The 3DS version was released in Japan in September 2014 , and in North America , Europe , and Australia in October 2014 . The Wii U version was released in North America , Europe , and Australia in November 2014 , and in Japan in December 2014 .
Critics applauded the fine @-@ tuning of existing Super Smash Bros. gameplay elements , but criticized some issues with online play . Both versions sold well , with the 3DS version selling over 8 @.@ 12 million copies worldwide by March 2016 , and the Wii U version selling over 4 @.@ 80 million copies during the same period of time .
= = Gameplay = =
Like in previous games in the series , Super Smash Bros. is a multiplayer fighting game in which the players use various attacks , techniques , and items to deal damage to their opponents and knock their opponents out of the arena . As a character 's damage percentage increases , they fly back further when attacked , and may eventually be knocked far enough out of the playing field to be knocked out . To assist players during battle , items sometimes appear on the battlefield if turned on , most of which represent the various video games represented in the series . An item called a Smash Ball allows players to use a powerful , character @-@ specific attack , otherwise known as the " Final Smash " . Another item is an Assist Trophy , which summons various non @-@ playable characters from a represented series onto the field to assist the summoner . Both of them were previously introduced in Super Smash Bros. Brawl . Like its predecessors , Super Smash Bros. features collectible in @-@ game trophies based on characters or items seen in various Nintendo or third @-@ party games . Each stage now features an alternate Omega form , which replaces the stage 's layout with a flat surface with ledges on both sides and removes all stage hazards . Certain stages , collectible trophies , and game features are exclusive to each version of game , with the Wii U version primarily featuring elements taken from home console titles and the 3DS version taking elements primarily from handheld titles . Both games feature revisited stages from past entries in the series and new stages representing newly @-@ introduced properties or recent entries in existing ones .
New to the series is the ability to customize both existing characters and custom Mii Fighters , altering their attacks and giving them unique power @-@ ups . These characters can be transferred between the 3DS and Wii U versions of the game , as well as certain items earned in specific modes . Additionally , players can use amiibo to train computer controlled players and import them into a match . Both versions of the game support local and online multiplayer . Whereas local and online matches with friends have fully customizable rules , online matches with strangers are divided into two modes : " For Fun " and " For Glory . " For Fun features random stages and items , with time matches only and Omega stages omitted , while For Glory features stock matches with no items exclusively on Omega stages and features both standard Smash and 1 @-@ on @-@ 1 battles , all of which the player 's wins and losses are recorded from For Glory . Customized characters , Mii Fighters , and amiibo cannot be used in online matches against strangers . Additionally , solo play once again features Classic mode , which features an intensity setting directly influenced by Masahiro Sakurai 's previous project Kid Icarus : Uprising , in which players can make the game more difficult by spending in @-@ game currency in order to earn greater rewards . Both versions share two new modes . Target Blast has players beat up a ticking bomb before launching it into a set of targets , with the goal of earning as many points as possible by causing chain reactions . Trophy Rush has players clear out falling crates to build up a Fever meter and quickly earn new trophies and customization items .
In addition to a moderation system to prevent griefing , the game features an online ranking system called " Global Smash Power " for a player 's solo mode score , which shows how many other players someone has outscored , rather than listing their position on a leaderboard . Although the game does not feature a ranking system for online matches , matchmaking between players of similar skill levels was introduced . Online also features Spectator Mode , where spectators can place bets on other players to win more gold , and Conquest , in which players can support selected characters by playing as them online , earning rewards if their supported team wins , and earning bonus rewards for going on a win streak .
= = = Platform @-@ specific features = = =
The Nintendo 3DS version features stereoscopic 3D graphics with optional cel @-@ shaded outlines to make the characters more visible . The game also features two exclusive modes ; Smash Run and StreetSmash . Smash Run , based on the City Trial mode from Kirby Air Ride , has players navigate an open environment , fighting computer @-@ controlled enemies to earn stat @-@ increasing power @-@ ups , before facing each other in a randomly selected match , such as vertical or horizontal races against each other or battles with various special rules . StreetSmash is a StreetPass @-@ based game in which players control a disc on a top @-@ down board and attempt to knock their opponents out of the arena . The 3DS version supports the additional controls featured on the New Nintendo 3DS , such as using the C @-@ Stick to trigger Smash Attacks , but is not compatible with the Circle Pad Pro peripheral because of hardware limitations .
The Wii U version features high @-@ definition graphics ( native 1920x1080p ) and a special mode that allows up to eight players simultaneously . This mode is restricted to certain larger stages and cannot be played online , though additional stages were made available for eight players via post @-@ release update patches . Various modes from the 3DS version , such as Classic mode , feature various changes in the Wii U version , with some modes allowing two players to play cooperatively or against each other in other modes . The Wii U version also features three exclusive new game modes ; Smash Tour , Special Orders , and Event Mode . Smash Tour is a traditional board game @-@ type mode in which up to four players assemble a team of fighters that they pick up on the board . Players have the ability to change size of the game board , the number of turns , and choose if they allow to have custom characters on the board ( not including Miis ) . In this mode , players earn stat increasing power @-@ ups , triggering various battles and events along the way . Special Orders is a series of challenges set by Master Hand and Crazy Hand , which players can attempt to earn rewards . Each time a battle is won , the reward and the stakes will rise , but if a round is lost , all accumulated prizes will be lost . In Event Mode , one or two players can participate in themed challenges , moving along the path by completion . The Wii U version has vast compatibility with controllers ; Wii U GamePad , Wii Remote , Wii Remote and Nunchuk , Classic Controller , Classic Controller Pro , Wii U Pro Controller , GameCube controller through GameCube Controller Adapter for Wii U , and the Nintendo 3DS systems ( using either a copy of the 3DS version , or a Smash Controller app released on June 14 , 2015 ) . Returning features unique to this version include Special Smash , allowing for unique rules , Stage Builder and Photo mode , which allow players to create personalized stages and dioramas ( with a compatible SD card ) , and demo versions of classic games in a " Masterpieces " gallery . An update on April 15 , 2015 added content @-@ sharing features , with a Miiverse stage added for free on June 14 , 2015 . An update released on July 31 , 2015 added an online tournament mode .
= = = Playable characters = = =
Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U features a roster of 58 playable characters ( 51 on @-@ disc and 7 available as downloadable content ) taken from both Nintendo 's first @-@ party franchises and some third @-@ party franchises , including returning character Sonic the Hedgehog . The base game includes 19 newcomers to the series : the Wii Fit Trainer , Animal Crossing 's Villager , Rosalina and Bowser Jr. from the Mario series ( with Rosalina being accompanied by a Luma ) , Little Mac from Punch @-@ Out ! ! , Greninja from Pokémon X and Y , Palutena and Dark Pit from Kid Icarus : Uprising , Lucina and Robin from Fire Emblem Awakening , Shulk from Xenoblade Chronicles , the dog and duck as a duo from Duck Hunt , Capcom 's Mega Man , Bandai Namco 's Pac @-@ Man , and the Mii Fighter , which can be customized with one of three fighting styles : Brawler , Swordfighter , and Gunner .
Some characters such as Wii Fit Trainer and Bowser Jr. have multiple variations , such as different genders and alternate character skins , which are selected in the same manner as alternate colors . Some returning fighters who could change forms during a match in previous titles are now playable solely as individual characters . As such , Zelda , Sheik , Samus , and Zero Suit Samus are now all individual fighters , along with Charizard , who was previously included alongside the now @-@ absent Squirtle and Ivysaur in the Pokémon Trainer 's team in Brawl . Dr. Mario , a cloned fighter based on Mario who first appeared in Super Smash Bros. Melee , makes his return to the roster after his absence in Brawl . The Ice Climbers were originally planned for inclusion , but were removed due to the technical limitations of the 3DS . Wolf O 'Donnell and Solid Snake are also absent following their appearances in the previous game .
= = = = Downloadable characters = = = =
In addition to the main roster , seven additional characters , including three returning characters and four newcomers , were released as downloadable content between April 2015 and February 2016 . Mewtwo , who last appeared in Melee , was released on April 28 , 2015 , but was made available on April 15 , 2015 for Club Nintendo members who purchased and registered both 3DS and Wii U versions of the game before March 31 , 2015 . Roy from Fire Emblem : The Binding Blade and Lucas from Mother 3 , who last appeared in Melee and Brawl respectively , along with Ryu from Capcom 's Street Fighter franchise , were released on June 14 , 2015 . Cloud Strife from Square Enix 's Final Fantasy VII was released on December 15 , 2015 following increasing requests for Final Fantasy series characters . Finally , Corrin from Fire Emblem Fates and Bayonetta from Sega 's Bayonetta series were released on February 3 , 2016 , in North America and in Europe and Japan the next day . Bayonetta was chosen as the overall winner worldwide among " negotiable and realizable " characters in a player @-@ nominated ballot which ran between April 1 , 2015 and October 3 , 2015 , ranking first in Europe and among the top five in North America . Corrin was developed as a downloadable character in response to the critical and commercial success of Fire Emblem Fates in Japan and in anticipation for the game 's worldwide localization .
= = Development = =
Former Nintendo CEO Satoru Iwata first announced that a new Super Smash Bros. game was planned for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U at E3 2011 in June 2011 , but development only officially began following the completion of series creator Masahiro Sakurai 's other project , Kid Icarus : Uprising , in March 2012 . The game was later revealed to be a joint @-@ project between Sora Ltd. and Bandai Namco Games , with various staff members from Bandai Namco 's Soulcalibur and Tekken series assisting Sakurai in development . Sakurai , who was previously the sole person responsible for balance in the series ' multiple fighters , has involved more staff to further improve the game 's competitive balance . The game was officially revealed at E3 2013 on June 11 , 2013 , during a Nintendo Direct . Along with screenshots being posted each weekday on the game 's official website and Miiverse community , various cinematic trailers were released , introducing each of the brand new fighters . Sakurai chose to use these trailers , which benefit from Internet sharing , as opposed to including a story campaign similar to the Subspace Emissary mode featured in Brawl , as he believed the impact of seeing the mode 's cinematic cutscenes for the first time was ruined by people uploading said scenes to video sharing websites .
At E3 2013 , Sakurai stated that the tripping mechanic introduced in Brawl had been omitted , with him also stating that the gameplay was between the fast @-@ paced and competitive style of Melee and the slower and more casual style of Brawl . While the game does not feature cross @-@ platform play between the Wii U and 3DS , due to each version featuring certain exclusive stages and gamemodes , there is the option to transfer customized characters and items between the two versions . The game builds upon the previous game 's third @-@ party involvement with the addition of third @-@ party characters such as Capcom 's Mega Man and Bandai Namco 's Pac @-@ Man , as well as the return of Sega 's Sonic the Hedgehog . This involvement expands beyond playable characters , as other third @-@ party characters , such as Ubisoft 's Rayman , are also included in the game as trophies . The addition of Mii characters was made in response to the growing number of requests from fans to have their dream characters included in the game . To prevent potential bullying , as well as to maintain game balance online , Mii Fighters cannot be used in online matches against strangers . The decision to release the Wii U version at a later date from the 3DS version was made to allow each version to receive a dedicated debugging period . Hardware limitations on the Nintendo 3DS led to various design choices , such as the removal of mid @-@ match transformations , the lack of Circle Pad Pro support , and the absence of the Ice Climbers , from the NES game Ice Climber , who were previously playable in both Melee and Brawl .
In late August 2014 , a series of allegedly leaked photos and videos of the 3DS version were uploaded to the Internet , revealing at the time several unannounced fighters . The original videos were removed shortly thereafter citing a copyright claim by Nintendo of America . These leaks were confirmed on September 11 , 2014 when various gamers in Japan and Taiwan obtained the 3DS version two days prior to its release date and streamed footage of the game on Twitch .
= = = Music = = =
Like previous games in the series , Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U features many original and re @-@ arranged musical pieces from various different gaming franchises . Both versions have multiple musical tracks that can be selected and listened to using the " My Music " feature , including pieces taken directly from earlier Super Smash Bros. titles . The 3DS version features less music altogether than the Wii U version however , and only has two songs per stage because of size limitations . The 3DS version also has a " Play in Sleep Mode " option , allowing players to listen to the game 's music from the sound menu whilst the system is in sleep mode .
On August 22 , 2014 , the Super Smash Bros. website revealed the list of composers and arrangers for the game . Various well known video game composers and musicians such as Masashi Hamauzu , Yuzo Koshiro , Yasunori Mitsuda , Motoi Sakuraba , Yoko Shimomura , Mahito Yokota , Akari Kaida , Michiru Yamane , Koji Kondo , Kazumi Totaka , and Hiroshi Okubo , among many others , contributed new arrangements for the game . The original score was created by Bandai Namco 's in @-@ house sound team .
A two @-@ disc promotional soundtrack , featuring certain selections from the game , was available for Club Nintendo members who registered both versions of the game before January 13 , 2015 .
= = Release = =
In an announcement for the Super Smash Bros. Invitational , a tournament which was held at E3 2014 , Nintendo revealed an official GameCube controller adapter for the Wii U , which allows players to use GameCube controllers with the game , as well as a Smash Bros. themed game controller . The adapter and controllers were released alongside the game and are also available separately , but vary depending on the region .
Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS was released in Japan on September 13 , 2014 , in North America and Europe on October 3 , 2014 , and in Australia on October 4 , 2014 . A playable demo was released on the Nintendo eShop on September 10 , 2014 , in Japan and on September 19 , 2014 , in North America and Europe . Select Club Nintendo Platinum members in North America and Europe received early access to the 3DS demo which , unlike the public demo of the game , had an unlimited number of plays . The Wii U version was released in North America on November 21 , 2014 , in Europe on November 28 , 2014 , in Australia on November 29 , 2014 , and in Japan on December 6 , 2014 . Bundles containing Amiibo figures were available at launch , with plans to eventually release figures of every fighter , including downloadable ones .
On April 15 , 2015 , a software update was released , adding the ability to purchase additional content , such as playable characters , new stages and Mii Fighter costumes , and addressing some balancing issues in the game . It also enabled online sharing of photos , Mii fighters , replays and custom stages . An update released on July 31 , 2015 , added an online tournament mode and the ability to upload replays to YouTube . A Smash Controller app released on Nintendo eShop on June 14 , 2015 , allows players to use the Nintendo 3DS as a controller for the Wii U version without needing a copy of the 3DS version .
= = Reception = =
Reviews for the 3DS version were positive , with a rating of 85 / 100 on Metacritic . The game was praised for its large and diverse character roster , its improvements to game mechanics , and its variety of multiplayer options . Some criticisms include a lack of single player modes and issues concerning the 3DS hardware , such as the size of characters on the smaller screen when zoomed out and latency issues during both local and online multiplayer . There were also reports of players damaging their 3DS Circle Pads while playing the game excessively . The 3DS version sold over a million copies in its first weekend on sale in Japan , and had sold more than 3 @.@ 22 million copies worldwide by the end of October 2014 .
The Wii U version received critical acclaim , receiving praise for its variety of gameplay modes and for improvements upon features in the 3DS version . It has a Metacritic score of 92 / 100 and is among the highest reviewed games of 2014 . Daniel Bischoff of Game Revolution called it " the biggest leap forward Smashers have seen yet , " praising the game for its graphics and " incredibly fast action . " Daniel Starkey at GameSpot criticized the inconsistent performance of online multiplayer , but still called the game " incredible , " noting , " With the Wii U release , Smash Bros. has fully realized its goals . " Jose Otero from IGN praised the game for " appeal [ ing ] to the nostalgia of long @-@ time Nintendo fans " while also being " accessible to new players . " Thomas Schulenberg of Joystiq criticized occasional " matches plagued with stuttering frame rates " during online play and discussed his " indifference toward the Amiibo experience " but praised the game for its " abundance of goals to chase . "
= = = Sales = = =
In 2014 , Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS sold over two million physical and digital copies in the United States . In Japan , nearly 2 @,@ 190 @,@ 000 copies had been sold six months after release .
Super Smash Bros. for Wii U became the fastest @-@ selling Wii U game in the U.S. , with 490 @,@ 000 physical and digital copies sold during its first three days of availability , beating the record previously held by Mario Kart 8 . By the end of 2014 , the number sold had increased to over 1 @.@ 3 million . By the end of March 2015 , 1 @.@ 6 million units had been sold .
By the end of March 2016 , the 3DS version had sold 8 @.@ 12 million copies worldwide , while the Wii U version sold 4 @.@ 80 million copies worldwide .
= = = Accolades = = =
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= Brighton Forum =
Citibase Brighton ( previously known as the The Brighton Forum by Topcentre ) is a complex of serviced offices on a prominent elevated position in the Round Hill area of Brighton , part of the English city of Brighton and Hove . The large Gothic Revival building , by two architect brothers from London , has had three greatly different uses since its construction at the edge of Brighton parish in 1854 : for its first 85 years , it trained Anglican schoolmistresses ; then it became a military base and records office ; and in 1988 it opened as a multipurpose business centre and office complex . The elaborate flint exterior is finely detailed in the Gothic style , especially around the windows . English Heritage has listed it at Grade II for its architectural and historical importance .
= = History = =
The ancient Sussex fishing village of Brighthelmston , which in the 18th and 19th centuries developed into the fashionable seaside resort of Brighton , lay within the Anglican Diocese of Chichester . In the 19th century , before the Elementary Education Act 1870 centralised the provision of primary @-@ level education and established school boards , most 5- to 12 @-@ year @-@ olds were taught ( if at all ) at schools founded and sponsored by charities , private benefactors or churches . There were many such church schools in Brighton : Anglican churches with their own schools included Christ Church , St Bartholomew 's , St John the Evangelist 's , St Mark 's , St Martin 's , St Paul 's and St Stephen 's .
The Diocese established an institute to train female schoolteachers for the Anglican schools in Brighton and the rest of Sussex in Black Lion Street in The Lanes ( the ancient heart of the town ) in April 1842 . This was done in association with the National Society for the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the Established Church . More space was soon needed , so in 1854 it found a site on the west side of Ditchling Road on which to build a larger college . Ditchling Road , which ran across Ditchling Beacon to Ditchling village and then on to Cuckfield and eventually London , became a turnpike in 1770 and was thereafter one of the main north – south routes into and out of Brighton . The chosen site was on the north side of Viaduct Road , which was built to link Ditchling and London Roads and which formed the northern edge of Brighton 's ecclesiastical parish and municipal borough until 1873 .
The architects William and Edward Habershon were commissioned to design the new building . They were based in London but worked extensively in Sussex ; buildings they designed separately or together in the county include St Leonards @-@ on @-@ Sea Congregational Church , St John the Baptist 's Church in Hove , St Helen 's Church in Ore and St Augustine 's Church at Scaynes Hill . They started work at the large corner site in 1854 , and the building was ready later that year . The local firm of Edmund Scott and F.T. Cawthorn extended the building to the rear ( north side ) in 1886 .
Teachers continued to be trained at the college ( officially called the Chichester Diocesan Training College for Schoolmistresses ) until 1939 . As World War II approached , the institution closed and the building was auctioned ; but before it could be sold , the Royal Engineers requisitioned it for their use during wartime . They used it as a base for their operations , then after the war it became their archives and records office . In 1987 , they moved out , and the vacant building was threatened with demolition . A local campaign helped it receive listed status , offering a degree of protection , and the building 's future was secured when it was bought and converted into a complex of serviced offices . It opened in November 1988 as the Brighton Business Centre , and was later renamed the Brighton Forum .
The Brighton Forum was listed at Grade II by English Heritage on 22 March 1988 . This status is given to " nationally important buildings of special interest " . As of February 2001 , it was one of 1 @,@ 124 Grade II @-@ listed buildings and structures , and 1 @,@ 218 listed buildings of all grades , in the city of Brighton and Hove .
= = Architecture = =
Brighton Forum is built on a high , prominent corner position , giving it good visibility from the west and south and long southward views . Knapped flint is the main building material , augmented by stone dressings and some yellow brickwork to the quoins . The roof is laid with tiles .
The two @-@ storey façade to Viaduct Road is E @-@ shaped and regular , with a symmetrical seven @-@ bay plan . The first and seventh bays project further forward than the centre ( fourth ) bay , which is formed by an elevated entrance porch . This has lancet windows on the sides , grouped under single hood moulds and with a string course . The doorway is under a segmental arch which is topped by a gable . The rest of the ground floor has larger lancets arranged in pairs and with a small trefoil above . The south @-@ facing walls have two pairs together , while on the inward @-@ facing walls of the first and seventh bays there are two sets of paired windows placed some distance apart . At first @-@ floor level , similar paired lancets and trefoils rise as gabled dormers above the roofline . The south walls of the first and seventh bays have prominent five @-@ light oriel windows , canted to form a 1 – 3 – 1 pattern of trefoil @-@ headed panes . These oriel windows are supported on ornate corbels . Above these at first @-@ floor level , and also above the entrance porch , there are three @-@ light trefoil @-@ headed windows set under a segmental arch @-@ shaped hood mould . Many of the windows on the south side have plate tracery .
The eastern face ( to Ditchling Road ) has eight bays and a carriage arch at the north end . The first four bays have trefoil @-@ headed lancet windows , while the next four have simpler straight @-@ headed windows . The carriage arch is segmental @-@ headed . The first floor has eight dormers . On the west side , the roof is cross @-@ gabled : the gables are parallel to , rather than perpendicular to , the ridge .
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= Marie @-@ Rosalie Cadron @-@ Jetté =
Marie @-@ Rosalie Cadron Jetté , S.M. , ( née Cadron , January 27 , 1794 – April 5 , 1864 ) , also known as Marie of the Nativity , was a Canadian widow and midwife who undertook the charitable care of unwed and struggling mothers between 1840 and 1864 . Out of this work , she became the foundress of the Congregation of the Sisters of Misericorde . The cause for her canonization is now being studied in the Vatican . Pope Francis declared her " Venerable " in 2013 .
Cadron @-@ Jetté was born and raised in Lavaltrie , Quebec , and in 1811 married Jean @-@ Marie Jetté . They had 11 children , several of whom died young . In 1827 she moved to Montreal and in 1832 her husband died of cholera . From 1840 , in collaboration with Ignace Bourget ( then Bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Montreal ) , she engaged in the charitable care of unwed mothers . At this time in Montreal , unwed mothers and those associating with them attracted a significant social stigma . Cadron @-@ Jetté operated initially out of her own home and the homes of her children , and later , with the aid of other women , worked from a series of buildings known as the Hospice de Sainte @-@ Pélagie . In 1848 , she took religious vows , along with several other women , and founded a Roman Catholic religious institute known as the Sisters of Misericorde , dedicated to the care of unwed mothers and their children . In 1849 she obtained formal midwifery qualifications . In 1853 the Misericorde Sisters built a convent on the corner of Dorchester Boulevard and Saint @-@ André Street and she lived there the remainder of her life .
Cadron @-@ Jetté died in 1864 . After her death , Ignace Bourget , with whom she had worked closely throughout her life , proposed that Cadron @-@ Jetté be considered for canonization by the Roman Catholic Church . Over a century later , in 1989 , the proposal was put into effect and her canonization cause was opened .
= = Early life = =
Rosalie Cadron was born in Lavaltrie , Quebec on January 27 , 1794 , the older of two daughters . Her father was Antoine Cadron , a farmer , and her mother Rosalie Roy , a midwife . Her sister was Sophie Cadron ( born March 21 , 1806 ) . Her family was Roman Catholic and shortly after birth she was baptized by the Abbé Louis Lamotte . She lived at a family home on the Rue Notre @-@ Dame in Lavaltrie until 1822 .
Cadron undertook brief education while boarding at a convent located in Pointe @-@ aux @-@ Trembles in east Montreal , but returned home due to loneliness after only a few weeks . She did not learn to read until later in life , and appears to have never learned to write . After returning from the convent , she was educated at home in housekeeping , sewing and crafts . In 1806 Cadron took First Communion .
At the age of 16 or 17 , Cadron met a travelling salesman named Jean @-@ Marie Jetté , possibly while at a family gathering , and married him on October 7 , 1811 at the Church of Lavaltrie . Jean @-@ Marie was the brother of Paul Jetté , Cadron 's uncle by marriage , and at the time the two met he was in his thirties . After the wedding , Rosalie Cadron took her husband 's name and was known as Rosalie Cadron @-@ Jetté . Jean @-@ Marie moved into Cadron @-@ Jetté 's parents ' house with her , and undertook a new career as a farmer . In 1811 , that house , along with the surrounding land and outbuildings , was donated to Cadron @-@ Jetté and Jean @-@ Marie by Cadron @-@ Jetté 's parents , on the condition that the parents be allowed to live there until their death , and that Cadron @-@ Jetté and Jean @-@ Marie assume the care of Cadron @-@ Jetté 's sister Sophie until her age of majority .
Between 1812 and 1832 Cadron @-@ Jetté and Jean @-@ Marie had 11 children , five of whom died young ( four prior to Jean @-@ Marie 's death , and one afterwards , in 1836 ) . The children were Jean @-@ Marie Junior ( born 1812 ) , Marie @-@ Rose ( born 1813 ) , Pierre ( born 1815 ) , Francois ( born 1817 ) , Léocadie ( born 1819 ) , Joseph @-@ Léonard ( born 1819 ) , an anonymous stillbirth ( 1823 ) , Marie Edwige ( born 1825 – died 1827 ) , Antoine ( born 1827 – died 1827 ) , Hedwige ( born 1830 – died 1831 ) , and Marie Hedwige ( born 1832 – died 1836 ) .
In 1822 , seeking more land in order to provide for their children 's inheritance , the Jetté family sold their farm under a staggered payment arrangement whereby they would not have the full payment for three years . While waiting for the payments to come through , the Jettés lived in Vercheres , either in rented property or residing with relatives . Cadron @-@ Jetté , Jean @-@ Marie and their children were accompanied in the move by Rosalie 's parents and Rosalie 's sister Sophie . In 1823 they moved again to Saint Hyacinthe and in 1824 they bought land there from a Charles Jarret . However , they later discovered the seller did not own the relevant land , leading in late 1826 or early 1827 to the repossession of the majority of the Jetté family 's property . Following this setback the family moved to Montreal , took residence in the borough of Saint @-@ Laurent , and joined the congregation of Saint @-@ Jacques Cathedral .
= = Widowhood = =
On June 14 , 1832 , Cadron @-@ Jetté 's husband Jean @-@ Marie died of cholera , one of many victims of that year 's cholera epidemic , leaving Cadron @-@ Jetté widowed . Cadron @-@ Jetté responded to her husband 's death by vowing to be in mourning , or wear black , for the remainder of her life . At that time , Cadron @-@ Jetté 's eldest two sons , Jean @-@ Marie and Pierre ( 20 and 17 years old , respectively ) , were employed as shoemakers , and the eldest daughter , Rose ( 19 ) was engaged ( and was married in July 1833 ) , while Cadron @-@ Jetté 's other four surviving children still required Cadron @-@ Jetté 's care , as did Cadron @-@ Jetté 's elderly mother . It was not until 1838 , following the death of Cadron @-@ Jetté 's mother and the maturity or death of her remaining children , that she found herself with time free to devote to charitable activities .
= = Hospice de Sainte @-@ Pélagie = =
Several sources describe an incident which purportedly had an influence on Cadron @-@ Jetté 's future career . Between 1830 and 1832 , while living in Montreal , Cadron @-@ Jetté was visited at her house in the middle of the night by a prostitute who was seeking asylum from two sailors with intentions of violence . Cadron @-@ Jetté hid the woman for the night in her cellar , fed her , and counselled her to change her way of life . Subsequently Cadron @-@ Jetté received a letter from the woman informing her the woman had emigrated to the United States and made positive changes to her life , including marriage .
In any case , during her time in Montreal , Cadron @-@ Jetté made the acquaintance of Ignace Bourget , Bishop of the Diocese of Montreal . She met Bourget through her attendance at Saint Jacques Cathedral , where he became her spiritual director . Cadron @-@ Jetté joined his Archiconfrérie du Très Saint et Immaculé Coeur de Marie , a group formed by Bourget to pray for the conversion of sinners . Beginning in 1840 , Bourget began to call upon Cadron @-@ Jetté to find crisis accommodation for unwed mothers who had approached him for confession and help . This accommodation was to be secret , as unwed mothers carried a significant social stigma at the time and were often the targets of hostility , and it was to be " with a kind and prayerful woman " . Cadron @-@ Jetté undertook this work , and between 1840 and 1845 helped around 25 women during their pregnancy , childbirth , and recovery . She would often place the women with her ( now @-@ independent ) children , and sometimes offered the women accommodation in her own home . After the birth of each child , Cadron @-@ Jetté would take the newborn to be baptised at Montreal 's Notre Dame church , and stand as godmother for the child .
In 1845 , in response to growing demand brought about by Montreal 's burgeoning population , Bourget began an organised project to assist unwed mothers in need of crisis accommodation and medical care . Although the Grey Nuns had been doing work in this area since 1754 , their efforts were limited to the care of illegitimate newborns , and no services existed to aid the unwed mothers themselves . In addition , the work of the Grey Nuns did not address the rate of abortions and infanticides among unwed mothers , which was of concern to Bourget due to Roman Catholic Church prohibitions on these activities . Therefore , rather than partnering with an existing religious community for this project , Bourget hoped to create a new one " free of traditions or previous hampering ties " , and asked Rosalie Cadron @-@ Jetté to take a leading role . Cadron @-@ Jetté agreed , and on May 1 , 1845 she founded the Hospice Sainte @-@ Pélagie ( also known as the Maternité de Sainte @-@ Pélagie ) , operating out of the attic of a house on Saint @-@ Simon Street , Montreal , which her son Pierre had leased from a widow named Aurelie Vinét . The hospice derived its name from Saint Pelagia , a 5th @-@ century reformed courtesan who chose to martyr herself rather than be raped by soldiers , to whom the Hospice was blessed and dedicated by Bishop Bourget shortly after its inception .
Early on , conditions in the hospice were rudimentary , consisting only of a table , some chairs , a stove , and a few beds for the mothers ( called " penitents " ) , with Cadron @-@ Jetté herself sleeping on the floor . The attic could only be reached by a ladder on the exterior of the house and was not insulated . For this reason , Cadron @-@ Jetté 's new occupation was unpopular with her ( now mature ) children , who objected to the conditions of dire poverty in the Hospice and attempted to dissuade her from her new calling , on one occasion going so far as to begin moving her belongings out of the Hospice . Despite this , Cadron @-@ Jetté persevered , expanding the Hospice 's operations to provide accommodation for up to seven or eight women at a time , and , from July 1845 , taking on an additional caregiver . This caregiver was Sophie Raymond née Desmarets , herself a widow , who in addition to helping with the mothers , undertook fundraising activities on behalf of the hospice . Through the combined efforts of Raymond and Bourget , the Hospice attracted the attentions of Antoine @-@ Olivier Berthelet , a wealthy philanthropist , who provided money , food and firewood , and later contributed to the building of facilities for the Misericordia Sisters on Dorchester Boulevard .
On May 4 , 1846 , the hospice moved to an address on Wolfe Street in Faubourg Quebec owned by Jean @-@ Baptiste Bourgault . The new premises consisted of two storeys plus an attic , with the Hospice occupying one side of the house and the owner occupying the other . The expanded space provided room for a small chapel featuring Stations of the Cross , where Mass was held twice weekly . It also allowed for the addition of three extra staff at the Hospice , including a Mrs Montrait , a midwife . During the Hospice 's second year of operation it was host to 33 pregnant women and saw the birth of 25 infants .
On July 26 , 1846 , Bishop Bourget unilaterally opened the noviciate of the Saint @-@ Pélagie Community , and placed the assembled female staff of the Hospice as novices within that program . This effectively established the Hospice de Saint @-@ Pélagie as a religious community , of which Bourget proclaimed Sophie Raymond to be the superior . It also allowed for women to join the community as postulants , with the aim of eventually taking religious vows . Bourget designated himself spiritual and canonical director of the novitiate , and delegated a priest , the Abbé Antoine Rey , to be Director of the Hospice . Later that year at the direction of Coadjutor Bishop Jean @-@ Charles Prince ( later Bishop of Saint @-@ Hyacinth ) the Wolfe Street premises were expanded through the acquisition of the first floor adjacent to the hospice .
On September 17 , 1846 , Josephite Malo @-@ Galipeau joined the community , bringing with her a large endowment of funds left to her by her late husband , which substantially enriched the community . Despite these additional funds the women of the Hospice were still forced to do odd jobs outside the hospice to make ends meet . Cadron @-@ Jetté during this time undertook occasional work as a shoemaker . Elections were held within the community on November 6 , 1846 , with the result of Cadron @-@ Jetté being appointed as the new superior for a period of one year , with Malo @-@ Galipeau named as her assistant . From December 1 , 1846 , the women of the community began wearing a religious habit at the direction of Bishop Prince .
In early 1847 , Jean @-@ Baptiste Bourgault , owner of the Wolfe Street premises , notified Cadron @-@ Jetté and the Hospice that he was evicting them , citing concern for his reputation . After exhaustive enquiries , a new premises was located on the corner of Sainte @-@ Catherine and Saint @-@ André streets , provided by John Donegani , a Montreal businessman , at a rent of 60 dollars a year . On April 26 , 1847 the Hospice moved to the new site .
A typhus epidemic swept Montreal in late 1847 and Montreal 's religious communities , including Cadron @-@ Jetté and the staff of the hospice , were called upon by Bishop Bourget to assist in combating it . The hospice 's chaplain and director , Antoine Rey , and its midwife , Madame Montrait , were among the nine priests and 13 Religious Sisters of Montreal who were killed by the disease . One of the hospice 's penitents also died due to the disease . Bishop Bourget subsequently named Father Venant Pilon as Rey 's replacement as Director of the Hospice .
= = Sisters of Misericorde = =
On January 16 , 1848 , at the age of 53 , Cadron @-@ Jetté took Religious vows , along with seven other women who had worked with her at the Hospice . Those in attendance as observers at the profession ceremony included Bishop Ignace Bourget , and Émilie Gamelin , under whose leadership the Sisters of Providence had been founded five years previously . Along with her vows Cadron @-@ Jetté took the religious name Soeur de la Nativité ( Sister Nativity ) , a reference to the role of the Virgin Mary in the birthing of Christ . Together , the eight women of the Hospice formed the Institute of the Misericordia Sisters .
Bourget petitioned the Church of Montreal to recognise the Institute and that recognition was granted . The institute received the ecclesiastical mandate to " live the mercy of Jesus the Saviour with girls and women in a situation of maternity out of wedlock and their children , and with the mothers of families who are having a difficult time with their maternity . " The Institute was the first religious community in Canada to receive such a mission . The vows of the Misericordia Sisters were the traditional vows of poverty , chastity and obedience , together with a fourth vow , being that of " assisting in their labour fallen girls and women " , with a consequence to " form a corps of midwives " .
On January 17 , 1848 , elections were held to determine leadership of the new community , and at the first election Josephite Malo @-@ Galipeau ( now Sister Sainte @-@ Jeanne @-@ de @-@ Chantal ) was appointed mother superior , and Cadron @-@ Jetté made councillor , with responsibility for the infirmary . This position left Cadron @-@ Jetté free to undertake care for the ill and disadvantaged , including home visits and visits to prisons . Sources , including Grégoire 's 2007 book Rosalie Cadron @-@ Jetté . A Story of Courage and Compassion , suggest Cadron @-@ Jetté may have been offered the position of mother superior , but declined it .
Beginning January 17 , 1848 , the eight founders of the Misericorde Sisters , including Cadron @-@ Jetté , commenced practical training in midwifery under Dr Eugène @-@ Hercule Trudele , a young obstetrician . The objective of the training was to better prepare the sisters to meet the obligations of their fourth vow . The training lasted for 18 months and concluded with an examination before two members of the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Lower Canada , with the result that on July 12 , 1849 , the women received formal certificates of midwifery . It is most likely during this period or the years immediately following that Cadron @-@ Jetté learned to read and write .
In 1849 Malo @-@ Galipeau was again elected Mother Superior with Cadron @-@ Jetté being given the position of assistant . Around this time the relationship between the two women became strained . Despite the election result Malo @-@ Galipeau did not bestow formal titles on Cadron @-@ Jetté and is recorded as referring to Cadron @-@ Jetté disrespectfully as " Nativity " ( a short form of her religious name ) and on at least one occasion " fool " . Malo @-@ Galipeau on several occasions during this period reprimanded Cadron @-@ Jetté for decisions Cadron @-@ Jetté had made in discharge of her formal responsibilities , and imposed punishments , including barring Cadron @-@ Jetté from communion . The 1849 election was the last election to be held by the community until late 1858 .
The Misericorde Sisters were not well liked by the Montreal community . Throughout the early years of the Hospice de Sainte @-@ Pélagie and the Institute , the locations in which Jetté and the Sisters worked were kept secret , in order to protect the single mothers from public hostility towards prostitutes and unwed mothers . On some occasions when the Sisters brought newborns to church for baptism , garbage was thrown at them . People in prayer were reported to leave when the Sisters would enter the church .
The Sisters faced controversy not only from public opinion , but also within the medical profession . Initially the response of Montreal doctors was positive , and in 1850 the College of Physicians petitioned Bishop Bourget for permission to send students to the Hospice de Sainte @-@ Pélagie for training , which Bourget granted over the objections of the Sisters . However , friction arose between the Sisters and the students ; the Sisters did not want the students present ( a position shared by many of the unwed mothers ) , while the students were often contemptuous , rude , or dismissive towards their patients . Combined with the competency of the Misericorde Sisters , and their non @-@ profit mandate , this friction bloomed into hostility between the Sisters and Montreal physicians , who came to see the midwives as a professional threat .
On May 13 , 1851 , Antoine @-@ Olivier Berthelet purchased land on the corner of Dorchester Boulevard and Saint @-@ André Street ( in Montreal ) for use by the Misericorde Sisters , and in December 1851 , following renovations to the two pre @-@ existing structures on the land , the Sisters moved to the new address . In 1853 work began on a Mother House ( or convent ) for the Institute . The Motherhouse was planned to be a multistory building , built of grey stone , financed by borrowed money . Plans for the motherhouse had been drawn up in 1852 but the Montreal fires of July 8 , 1852 , which destroyed around 11 @,@ 000 homes along with the Saint @-@ Jacques Cathedral , had the result of delaying construction projects throughout the city .
In 1853 , Bourget met with the Sisters and questioned whether their fourth vow ( that of assisting in labour ) should be abandoned , with the consequence of the medical work of midwifery being done by physicians and lay midwives . Bourget 's concerns stemmed both from pressure and criticism from the Montreal medical community , and from a desire to expand the membership of the Sisters , as he feared potential candidates would be deterred by the necessity of learning and practicing the craft of midwifery . Cadron @-@ Jetté took the firm position that the vow should be retained , citing the general contempt held by physicians for the Sisters and their patients , the incompetence of the student doctors who were the Sisters ' primary competition , and the expressed preference of her patients to deal with the Sisters rather than doctors . Bourget retreated in the face of Cadron @-@ Jetté 's opposition and the matter was not raised again for some years .
In 1856 the City of Montreal donated a building located across the street from the convent for the use of the Misericordia Sisters . Called " Corporation House " it was put to use as a residence for the single mothers cared for by the Institute , with the mothers being charged rent by the Sisters while they stayed there . In late 1858 new elections were held by the Sisters , with Malo @-@ Galipeau reappointed as mother superior and Cadron @-@ Jetté given the position of Councillor . Around this time of these elections Bishop Bourget also gave the Sisters permission to baptise children at the Hospice , rather than take them to Notre Dame Cathedral for baptism , which was significant as by 1858 the Sisters were supervising around 137 births per year , each requiring a trip to the Cathedral for baptism .
By 1858 , Malo @-@ Galipeau had become widely recognised as foundress of the Misericordia Sisters , partly due to her role as Mother Superior and partly due to the endowment she had brought to the community upon her arrival . This understanding was reflected in published works of the time , including a souvenir album prepared by the City of Montreal in 1853 . However , during Bourget 's visit to the Institute in late 1858 , he made a speech to the assembled community confirming that in the eyes of himself and of the Church , Cadron @-@ Jetté should receive credit as the foundress of the congregation . He also bestowed upon Cadron @-@ Jetté the title of Mother ( such that her religious name became Mother Mary of the Nativity , or Mère de la Nativité ) and confirmed that she was second in authority only to the current Mother Superior of the community .
For some years , beginning prior to 1853 , the Institute had been taking in what were called " madeleines " or " magdalens " , and in 1859 this practice was formally recognised with the Magdalens made a secondary order of the Misericordia Sisters . The practice of taking in Magdalens followed a tradition originating in Europe , where religious orders would take in " repentants " or " penitents " and place them under the protection of Mary Magdalene , a famous reformed sinner of Roman Catholic tradition , and from whom they took the name . In the case of the Misericordia Sisters , Magdalens were recruited from those unwed mothers who did not wish to leave the care of the sisters even after recovering from giving birth . They were allowed to take religious vows and live within the Misericordia Sisters community , obeying particular rules of dedication to contemplation . During the time the program lasted , about 1 % to 1 @.@ 5 % of mothers helped by the Institute stayed on as Magdalens .
= = Later life and death = =
By 1859 , Rosalie Cadron @-@ Jetté 's health was worsening significantly . Information about the particular conditions she was afflicted with is contradictory . Testimony from Cadron @-@ Jetté 's family suggests that Cadron @-@ Jetté had become ill when she was 36 years old and never fully recovered . Other sources suggest generalised edema , known at the time as dropsy , while still others diagnose her with chronic nephritis , known at the time as Bright 's disease , which worsened over the following years . Symptoms observed in Cadron @-@ Jetté by her contemporaries included difficulty breathing , almost constant coughing , fits of breathlessness while standing and at rest , and swollen legs displaying open sores .
In any case , from around 1859 , due to declining health , Cadron @-@ Jetté ceased her work as a midwife , and from 1862 stopped making house visits to care for the ill . As the convent did not yet have an infirmary , she spent most of her days during this time in the convent 's dormitory , until 1861 , when at Bishop Bourget 's request a private room was prepared for Cadron @-@ Jetté by Malo @-@ Galipeau . In 1863 , Cadron @-@ Jetté , by then bedridden , was moved to a room adjoining the convent 's newly constructed chapel .
Advised of her failing health , Bishop Ignace Bourget visited Cadron @-@ Jetté on April 4 , 1864 , and administered to her the last rites . Rosalie Cadron @-@ Jetté died shortly thereafter , during the early hours of April 5 , 1864 . Her death was witnessed by Sister Marie @-@ des @-@ Saints @-@ Anges , who said this of the occasion : " I witnessed her blessed death . I was sitting vigil with our good sister Sainte @-@ Béatrix . Around 2 a.m. she made the sign of the cross and asked us to recite the Litanies of the Virgin Mary ; then she arranged herself as if to prepare for sleep , then in a high pitched voice she said : O my Jesus ! Then I noticed she was getting weaker ; we brought the light closer to her and realized she had already passed over to a better life . "
Several unexplained incidents are associated with Cadron @-@ Jetté 's death . According to Hélène Grégoire 's 2007 book Rosalie Cadron @-@ Jetté . A Story of Courage and Compassion , at the moment of Cadron @-@ Jetté 's death an " unknown , elderly sister " holding a lantern was observed by women in the Magdalens ' dormitory . The " elderly sister " is recorded as addressing one of the Magdalens who was ill and telling her that " if she is very brave and prays with confidence , she will be healed " . The unknown sister then left the dormitory . Grégoire also claims that the other Sisters were mysteriously awakened during the night of Cadron @-@ Jetté 's death , and that following Cadron @-@ Jetté 's death the wounds on Cadron @-@ Jetté 's legs were observed to be inexplicably healed over .
A funeral was held for Cadron @-@ Jetté on April 8 , 1864 at the chapel of the Misericordia Sisters , with Bishop Bourget and several dignitaries of the Church of Montreal in attendance . At the time of her death , the Institute of Misericordia Sisters comprised 33 professed religious , 11 novices and postulants , and 25 magdalens and other women .
= = Cause for canonization = =
In 1879 , Ignace Bourget suggested to Sister St @-@ Thérèse de Jésus ( then mother superior of the Misericordia Sisters ) that she gather testimonials from Cadron @-@ Jetté 's contemporaries for use in a possible future canonization cause . In 1881 , in a letter to the Misericordia community , he said , " Your Mother of the Nativity must be canonized ; you must have enough faith and confidence in her protection to obtain miracles from her , then the Church will make a formal declaration . "
In 1989 , Cardinal Paul Grégoire ( then Archbishop of Montréal ) , signed a degree opening a canonical inquiry into Rosalie Cadron @-@ Jetté , beginning a process within the Roman Catholic Church which as of 2011 is still ongoing and which may eventually result in the elevation of Cadron @-@ Jetté to sainthood . The process is overseen by the Congregation for the Causes of Saints ( the CCS ) in Rome . On November 6 , 1990 , the Diocesan Tribunal tasked with investigation of Cadron @-@ Jetté 's cause was officially opened , granting to Cadron @-@ Jetté the title of " Servant of God " , the first of four steps which may culminate in canonization . An inquiry was then made into whether Cadron @-@ Jetté was the object of any public cult . Diocesan Acts of the Trial were drawn up for scrutiny by the under @-@ secretary of the CCS , and on January 29 , 1993 a decree was signed sanctioning those Acts by Jean @-@ Claude Turcotte , Archbishop of Montréal , and read by Michel Parent , chancellor of the Montréal diocese .
Following the decree , a positio was drafted in Montréal by Sister Gisèle Boucher for presentation in Rome , presenting the evidence collected during the diocesan enquiry and creating a foundation for further enquiry into the elevation of Cadron @-@ Jetté . The 856 @-@ page positio was tabled at the CSS on July 1 , 1994 . In 2011 , the positio was presented to a committee of expert theologians . Pope Francis , in an audience at the Vatican on Monday , December 9 , 2013 , with the Cardinal Prefect of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints , Angelo Amato , S.D.B. , gave his assent to the finding that she had lived such a life of heroic virtue , and so she may now be known as Venerable .
= = Legacy = =
As of 2010 , the Misericordia Sisters are still operating , with a presence in several countries and on multiple continents .
A number of buildings throughout North America are named after Rosalie Cadron @-@ Jetté , including :
Rosalie Manor in Milwaukee , established by the Misericordia Sisters in 1908 .
Rosalie Hall in Toronto , a young parent resource centre .
Rosalie Hall in the Bronx , New York , a care and comfort centre for pregnant and parenting teens , originally part of the former Misericordia Hospital founded by the Sisters .
Villa Rosa in Winnipeg , a care centre for mothers and babies .
Rosalie Cadron @-@ Jetté 's childhood home in Lavaltrie is today known as the Maison Rosalie @-@ Cadron and since 2006 has been open to the public between the months of May and October .
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= Newton 's theorem of revolving orbits =
In classical mechanics , Newton 's theorem of revolving orbits identifies the type of central force needed to multiply the angular speed of a particle by a factor k without affecting its radial motion ( Figures 1 and 2 ) . Newton applied his theorem to understanding the overall rotation of orbits ( apsidal precession , Figure 3 ) that is observed for the Moon and planets . The term " radial motion " signifies the motion towards or away from the center of force , whereas the angular motion is perpendicular to the radial motion .
Isaac Newton derived this theorem in Propositions 43 – 45 of Book I of his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica , first published in 1687 . In Proposition 43 , he showed that the added force must be a central force , one whose magnitude depends only upon the distance r between the particle and a point fixed in space ( the center ) . In Proposition 44 , he derived a formula for the force , showing that it was an inverse @-@ cube force , one that varies as the inverse cube of r . In Proposition 45 Newton extended his theorem to arbitrary central forces by assuming that the particle moved in nearly circular orbit .
As noted by astrophysicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar in his 1995 commentary on Newton 's Principia , this theorem remained largely unknown and undeveloped for over three centuries . Since 1997 , the theorem has been studied by Donald Lynden @-@ Bell and collaborators . Its first exact extension came in 2000 with the work of Mahomed and Vawda .
= = Historical context = =
The motion of astronomical bodies has been studied systematically for thousands of years . The stars were observed to rotate uniformly , always maintaining the same relative positions to one another . However , other bodies were observed to wander against the background of the fixed stars ; most such bodies were called planets after the Greek word " πλανήτοι " ( planētoi ) for " wanderers " . Although they generally move in the same direction along a path across the sky ( the ecliptic ) , individual planets sometimes reverse their direction briefly , exhibiting retrograde motion .
To describe this forward @-@ and @-@ backward motion , Apollonius of Perga ( c . 262 – c . 190 BC ) developed the concept of deferents and epicycles , according to which the planets are carried on rotating circles that are themselves carried on other rotating circles , and so on . Any orbit can be described with a sufficient number of judiciously chosen epicycles , since this approach corresponds to a modern Fourier transform . Roughly 350 years later , Claudius Ptolemaeus published his Almagest , in which he developed this system to match the best astronomical observations of his era . To explain the epicycles , Ptolemy adopted the geocentric cosmology of Aristotle , according to which planets were confined to concentric rotating spheres . This model of the universe was authoritative for nearly 1500 years .
The modern understanding of planetary motion arose from the combined efforts of astronomer Tycho Brahe and physicist Johannes Kepler in the 16th century . Tycho is credited with extremely accurate measurements of planetary motions , from which Kepler was able to derive his laws of planetary motion . According to these laws , planets move on ellipses ( not epicycles ) about the Sun ( not the Earth ) . Kepler 's second and third laws make specific quantitative predictions : planets sweep out equal areas in equal time , and the square of their orbital periods equals a fixed constant times the cube of their semi @-@ major axis . Subsequent observations of the planetary orbits showed that the long axis of the ellipse ( the so @-@ called line of apsides ) rotates gradually with time ; this rotation is known as apsidal precession . The apses of an orbit are the points at which the orbiting body is closest or furthest away from the attracting center ; for planets orbiting the Sun , the apses correspond to the perihelion ( closest ) and aphelion ( furthest ) .
With the publication of his Principia roughly eighty years later ( 1687 ) , Isaac Newton provided a physical theory that accounted for all three of Kepler 's laws , a theory based on Newton 's laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation . In particular , Newton proposed that the gravitational force between any two bodies was a central force F ( r ) that varied as the inverse square of the distance r between them . Arguing from his laws of motion , Newton showed that the orbit of any particle acted upon by one such force is always a conic section , specifically an ellipse if it does not go to infinity . However , this conclusion holds only when two bodies are present ( the two @-@ body problem ) ; the motion of three bodies or more acting under their mutual gravitation ( the n @-@ body problem ) remained unsolved for centuries after Newton , although solutions to a few special cases were discovered . Newton proposed that the orbits of planets about the Sun are largely elliptical because the Sun 's gravitation is dominant ; to first approximation , the presence of the other planets can be ignored . By analogy , the elliptical orbit of the Moon about the Earth was dominated by the Earth 's gravity ; to first approximation , the Sun 's gravity and those of other bodies of the Solar System can be neglected . However , Newton stated that the gradual apsidal precession of the planetary and lunar orbits was due to the effects of these neglected interactions ; in particular , he stated that the precession of the Moon 's orbit was due to the perturbing effects of gravitational interactions with the Sun .
Newton 's theorem of revolving orbits was his first attempt to understand apsidal precession quantitatively . According to this theorem , the addition of a particular type of central force — the inverse @-@ cube force — can produce a rotating orbit ; the angular speed is multiplied by a factor k , whereas the radial motion is left unchanged . However , this theorem is restricted to a specific type of force that may not be relevant ; several perturbing inverse @-@ square interactions ( such as those of other planets ) seem unlikely to sum exactly to an inverse @-@ cube force . To make his theorem applicable to other types of forces , Newton found the best approximation of an arbitrary central force F ( r ) to an inverse @-@ cube potential in the limit of nearly circular orbits , that is , elliptical orbits of low eccentricity , as is indeed true for most orbits in the Solar System . To find this approximation , Newton developed an infinite series that can be viewed as the forerunner of the Taylor expansion . This approximation allowed Newton to estimate the rate of precession for arbitrary central forces . Newton applied this approximation to test models of the force causing the apsidal precession of the Moon 's orbit . However , the problem of the Moon 's motion is dauntingly complex , and Newton never published an accurate gravitational model of the Moon 's apsidal precession . After a more accurate model by Clairaut in 1747 , analytical models of the Moon 's motion were developed in the late 19th century by Hill , Brown , and Delaunay .
However , Newton 's theorem is more general than merely explaining apsidal precession . It describes the effects of adding an inverse @-@ cube force to any central force F ( r ) , not only to inverse @-@ square forces such as Newton 's law of universal gravitation and Coulomb 's law . Newton 's theorem simplifies orbital problems in classical mechanics by eliminating inverse @-@ cube forces from consideration . The radial and angular motions , r ( t ) and θ1 ( t ) , can be calculated without the inverse @-@ cube force ; afterwards , its effect can be calculated by multiplying the angular speed of the particle
<formula>
= = Mathematical statement = =
Consider a particle moving under an arbitrary central force F1 ( r ) whose magnitude depends only on the distance r between the particle and a fixed center . Since the motion of a particle under a central force always lies in a plane , the position of the particle can be described by polar coordinates ( r , θ1 ) , the radius and angle of the particle relative to the center of force ( Figure 1 ) . Both of these coordinates , r ( t ) and θ1 ( t ) , change with time t as the particle moves .
Imagine a second particle with the same mass m and with the same radial motion r ( t ) , but one whose angular speed is k times faster than that of the first particle . In other words , the azimuthal angles of the two particles are related by the equation θ2 ( t ) = k θ1 ( t ) . Newton showed that the motion of the second particle can be produced by adding an inverse @-@ cube central force to whatever force F1 ( r ) acts on the first particle
<formula>
where L1 is the magnitude of the first particle 's angular momentum , which is a constant of motion ( conserved ) for central forces .
If k2 is greater than one , F2 − F1 is a negative number ; thus , the added inverse @-@ cube force is attractive , as observed in the green planet of Figures 1 – 4 and 9 . By contrast , if k2 is less than one , F2 − F1 is a positive number ; the added inverse @-@ cube force is repulsive , as observed in the green planet of Figures 5 and 10 , and in the red planet of Figures 4 and 5 .
= = = Alteration of the particle path = = =
The addition of such an inverse @-@ cube force also changes the path followed by the particle . The path of the particle ignores the time dependencies of the radial and angular motions , such as r ( t ) and θ1 ( t ) ; rather , it relates the radius and angle variables to one another . For this purpose , the angle variable is unrestricted and can increase indefinitely as the particle revolves around the central point multiple times . For example , if the particle revolves twice about the central point and returns to its starting position , its final angle is not the same as its initial angle ; rather , it has increased by 2 × 360 °
= 720 ° . Formally , the angle variable is defined as the integral of the angular speed
<formula>
A similar definition holds for θ2 , the angle of the second particle .
If the path of the first particle is described in the form r =
g ( θ1 ) , the path of the second particle is given by the function r |
= g ( θ2 / k ) , since θ2 =
k θ1 . For example , let the path of the first particle be an ellipse
<formula>
where A and B are constants ; then , the path of the second particle is given by
<formula>
= = Orbital precession = =
If k is close , but not equal , to one , the second orbit resembles the first , but revolves gradually about the center of force ; this is known as orbital precession ( Figure 3 ) . If k is greater than one , the orbit precesses in the same direction as the orbit ( Figure 3 ) ; if k is less than one , the orbit precesses in the opposite direction .
Although the orbit in Figure 3 may seem to rotate uniformly , i.e. , at a constant angular speed , this is true only for circular orbits . If the orbit rotates at an angular speed Ω , the angular speed of the second particle is faster or slower than that of the first particle by Ω ; in other words , the angular speeds would satisfy the equation ω2 |
= ω1 + Ω . However , Newton 's theorem of revolving orbits states that the angular speeds are related by multiplication : ω2 =
kω1 , where k is a constant . Combining these two equations shows that the angular speed of the precession equals Ω = ( k − 1 ) ω1 . Hence , Ω is constant only if ω1 is constant . According to the conservation of angular momentum , ω1 changes with the radius r
<formula>
where m and L1 are the first particle 's mass and angular momentum , respectively , both of which are constant . Hence , ω1 is constant only if the radius r is constant , i.e. , when the orbit is a circle . However , in that case , the orbit does not change as it precesses .
= = Illustrative example : Cotes 's spirals = =
The simplest illustration of Newton 's theorem occurs when there is no initial force , i.e. , F1 ( r )
= 0 . In this case , the first particle is stationary or travels in a straight line . If it travels in a straight line that does not pass through the origin ( blue line in Figure 6 ) the equation for such a line may be written in the polar coordinates ( r , θ1 ) as
<formula>
where θ0 is the angle at which the distance is minimized ( Figure 6 ) . The distance r begins at infinity ( when θ1 – θ0 =
− 90 ° ) , and decreases gradually until θ1 – θ0 |
= 0 ° , when the distance reaches a minimum , then gradually increases again to infinity at θ1 – θ0 =
90 ° . The minimum distance b is the impact parameter , which is defined as the length of the perpendicular from the fixed center to the line of motion . The same radial motion is possible when an inverse @-@ cube central force is added .
An inverse @-@ cube central force F2 ( r ) has the form
<formula>
where the numerator μ may be positive ( repulsive ) or negative ( attractive ) . If such an inverse @-@ cube force is introduced , Newton 's theorem says that the corresponding solutions have a shape called Cotes 's spirals . These are curves defined by the equation
<formula>
where the constant k equals
<formula>
When the right @-@ hand side of the equation is a positive real number , the solution corresponds to an epispiral . When the argument θ1 – θ0 equals ± 90 ° × k , the cosine goes to zero and the radius goes to infinity . Thus , when k is less than one , the range of allowed angles becomes small and the force is repulsive ( red curve on right in Figure 7 ) . On the other hand , when k is greater than one , the range of allowed angles increases , corresponding to an attractive force ( green , cyan and blue curves on left in Figure 7 ) ; the orbit of the particle can even wrap around the center several times . The possible values of the parameter k may range from zero to infinity , which corresponds to values of μ ranging from negative infinity up to the positive upper limit , L12 / m . Thus , for all attractive inverse @-@ cube forces ( negative μ ) there is a corresponding epispiral orbit , as for some repulsive ones ( μ < L12 / m ) , as illustrated in Figure 7 . Stronger repulsive forces correspond to a faster linear motion .
One of the other solution types is given in terms of the hyperbolic cosine :
<formula>
where the constant λ satisfies
<formula>
This form of Cotes 's spirals corresponds to one of the two Poinsot 's spirals ( Figure 8 ) . The possible values of λ range from zero to infinity , which corresponds to values of μ greater than the positive number L12 / m . Thus , Poinsot spiral motion only occurs for repulsive inverse @-@ cube central forces , and applies in the case that L is not too large for the given μ .
Taking the limit of k or λ going to zero yields the third form of a Cotes 's spiral , the so @-@ called reciprocal spiral or hyperbolic spiral , as a solution
<formula>
where A and ε are arbitrary constants . Such curves result when the strength μ of the repulsive force exactly balances the angular momentum @-@ mass term
<formula>
= = Closed orbits and inverse @-@ cube central forces = =
Two types of central forces — those that increase linearly with distance , F |
= Cr , such as Hooke 's law , and inverse @-@ square forces , F =
C / r2 , such as Newton 's law of universal gravitation and Coulomb 's law — have a very unusual property . A particle moving under either type of force always returns to its starting place with its initial velocity , provided that it lacks sufficient energy to move out to infinity . In other words , the path of a bound particle is always closed and its motion repeats indefinitely , no matter what its initial position or velocity . As shown by Bertrand 's theorem , this property is not true for other types of forces ; in general , a particle will not return to its starting point with the same velocity .
However , Newton 's theorem shows that an inverse @-@ cubic force may be applied to a particle moving under a linear or inverse @-@ square force such that its orbit remains closed , provided that k equals a rational number . ( A number is called " rational " if it can be written as a fraction m / n , where m and n are integers . ) In such cases , the addition of the inverse @-@ cubic force causes the particle to complete m rotations about the center of force in the same time that the original particle completes n rotations . This method for producing closed orbits does not violate Bertrand 's theorem , because the added inverse @-@ cubic force depends on the initial velocity of the particle .
Harmonic and subharmonic orbits are special types of such closed orbits . A closed trajectory is called a harmonic orbit if k is an integer , i.e. , if n |
= 1 in the formula k =
m / n . For example , if k |
= 3 ( green planet in Figures 1 and 4 , green orbit in Figure 9 ) , the resulting orbit is the third harmonic of the original orbit . Conversely , the closed trajectory is called a subharmonic orbit if k is the inverse of an integer , i.e. , if m =
1 in the formula k |
= m / n . For example , if k =
1 / 3 ( green planet in Figure 5 , green orbit in Figure 10 ) , the resulting orbit is called the third subharmonic of the original orbit . Although such orbits are unlikely to occur in nature , they are helpful for illustrating Newton 's theorem .
= = Limit of nearly circular orbits = =
In Proposition 45 of his Principia , Newton applies his theorem of revolving orbits to develop a method for finding the force laws that govern the motions of planets . Johannes Kepler had noted that the orbits of most planets and the Moon seemed to be ellipses , and the long axis of those ellipses can determined accurately from astronomical measurements . The long axis is defined as the line connecting the positions of minimum and maximum distances to the central point , i.e. , the line connecting the two apses . For illustration , the long axis of the planet Mercury is defined as the line through its successive positions of perihelion and aphelion . Over time , the long axis of most orbiting bodies rotates gradually , generally no more than a few degrees per complete revolution , because of gravitational perturbations from other bodies , oblateness in the attracting body , general relativistic effects , and other effects . Newton 's method uses this apsidal precession as a sensitive probe of the type of force being applied to the planets .
Newton 's theorem describes only the effects of adding an inverse @-@ cube central force . However , Newton extends his theorem to an arbitrary central forces F ( r ) by restricting his attention to orbits that are nearly circular , such as ellipses with low orbital eccentricity ( ε ≤ 0 @.@ 1 ) , which is true of seven of the eight planetary orbits in the solar system . Newton also applied his theorem to the planet Mercury , which has an eccentricity ε of roughly 0 @.@ 21 , and suggested that it may pertain to Halley 's comet , whose orbit has an eccentricity of roughly 0 @.@ 97 .
A qualitative justification for this extrapolation of his method has been suggested by Valluri , Wilson and Harper . According to their argument , Newton considered the apsidal precession angle α ( the angle between the vectors of successive minimum and maximum distance from the center ) to be a smooth , continuous function of the orbital eccentricity ε . For the inverse @-@ square force , α equals 180 ° ; the vectors to the positions of minimum and maximum distances lie on the same line . If α is initially not 180 ° at low ε ( quasi @-@ circular orbits ) then , in general , α will equal 180 ° only for isolated values of ε ; a randomly chosen value of ε would be very unlikely to give α = 180 ° . Therefore , the observed slow rotation of the apsides of planetary orbits suggest that the force of gravity is an inverse @-@ square law .
= = = Quantitative formula = = =
To simplify the equations , Newton writes F ( r ) in terms of a new function C ( r )
<formula>
where R is the average radius of the nearly circular orbit . Newton expands C ( r ) in a series — now known as a Taylor expansion — in powers of the distance r , one of the first appearances of such a series . By equating the resulting inverse @-@ cube force term with the inverse @-@ cube force for revolving orbits , Newton derives an equivalent angular scaling factor k for nearly circular orbits
<formula>
In other words , the application of an arbitrary central force F ( r ) to a nearly circular elliptical orbit can accelerate the angular motion by the factor k without affecting the radial motion significantly . If an elliptical orbit is stationary , the particle rotates about the center of force by 180 ° as it moves from one end of the long axis to the other ( the two apses ) . Thus , the corresponding apsidal angle α for a general central force equals k × 180 ° , using the general law θ2 = k θ1 .
= = = Examples = = =
Newton illustrates his formula with three examples . In the first two , the central force is a power law , F ( r ) |
= rn − 3 and , hence , C ( r ) is proportional to rn . The formula above indicates that the angular motion is multiplied by a factor k =
1 / √ n , so that the apsidal angle α equals 180 ° / √ n .
This angular scaling can be seen in the apsidal precession , i.e. , in the gradual rotation of the long axis of the ellipse ( Figure 3 ) . As noted above , the orbit as a whole rotates with a mean angular speed Ω = ( k − 1 ) ω , where ω equals the mean angular speed of the particle about the stationary ellipse . If the particle requires a time T to move from one apse to the other , this implies that , in the same time , the long axis will rotate by an angle β |
= ΩT =
( k − 1 ) ωT |
= ( k − 1 ) × 180 ° . For an inverse @-@ square law such as Newton 's law of universal gravitation , where n equals 1 , there is no angular scaling ( k =
1 ) , the apsidal angle α is 180 ° , and the elliptical orbit is stationary ( Ω |
= β =
0 ) .
As a final illustration , Newton considers a sum of two power laws
<formula>
which multiplies the angular speed by a factor
<formula>
Newton applies both of these formulae ( the power law and sum of two power laws ) to examine the apsidal precession of the Moon 's orbit .
= = Precession of the Moon 's orbit = =
The motion of the Moon can be measured accurately , and is noticeably more complex than that of the planets . The ancient Greek astronomers , Hipparchus and Ptolemy , had noted several periodic variations in the Moon 's orbit , such as small oscillations in its orbital eccentricity and the inclination of its orbit to the plane of the ecliptic . These oscillations generally occur on a once @-@ monthly or twice @-@ monthly time @-@ scale . The line of its apses precesses gradually with a period of roughly 8 @.@ 85 years , while its line of nodes turns a full circle in roughly double that time , 18 @.@ 6 years . This accounts for the roughly 18 @-@ year periodicity of eclipses , the so @-@ called Saros cycle . However , both lines experience small fluctuations in their motion , again on the monthly time @-@ scale .
In 1673 , Jeremiah Horrocks published a reasonably accurate model of the Moon 's motion in which the Moon was assumed to follow a precessing elliptical orbit . A sufficiently accurate and simple method for predicting the Moon 's motion would have solved the navigational problem of determining a ship 's longitude ; in Newton 's time , the goal was to predict the Moon 's position to 2 ' ( two arc @-@ minutes ) , which would correspond to a 1 ° error in terrestrial longitude . Horrocks ' model predicted the lunar position with errors no more than 10 arc @-@ minutes ; for comparison , the diameter of the Moon is roughly 30 arc @-@ minutes .
Newton used his theorem of revolving orbits in two ways to account for the apsidal precession of the Moon . First , he showed that the Moon 's observed apsidal precession could be accounted for by changing the force law of gravity from an inverse @-@ square law to a power law in which the exponent was 2 + 4 / 243 ( roughly 2 @.@ 0165 )
<formula>
In 1894 , Asaph Hall adopted this approach of modifying the exponent in the inverse @-@ square law slightly to explain an anomalous orbital precession of the planet Mercury , which had been observed in 1859 by Urbain Le Verrier . Ironically , Hall 's theory was ruled out by careful astronomical observations of the Moon . The currently accepted explanation for this precession involves the theory of general relativity , which ( to first approximation ) adds an inverse @-@ quartic force , i.e. , one that varies as the inverse fourth power of distance .
As a second approach to explaining the Moon 's precession , Newton suggested that the perturbing influence of the Sun on the Moon 's motion might be approximately equivalent to an additional linear force
<formula>
The first term corresponds to the gravitational attraction between the Moon and the Earth , where r is the Moon 's distance from the Earth . The second term , so Newton reasoned , might represent the average perturbing force of the Sun 's gravity of the Earth @-@ Moon system . Such a force law could also result if the Earth were surrounded by a spherical dust cloud of uniform density . Using the formula for k for nearly circular orbits , and estimates of A and B , Newton showed that this force law could not account for the Moon 's precession , since the predicted apsidal angle α was ( ≈ 180 @.@ 76 ° ) rather than the observed α ( ≈ 181 @.@ 525 ° ) . For every revolution , the long axis would rotate 1 @.@ 5 ° , roughly half of the observed 3 @.@ 0 °
= = Generalization = =
Isaac Newton first published his theorem in 1687 , as Propositions 43 – 45 of Book I of his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica . However , as astrophysicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar noted in his 1995 commentary on Newton 's Principia , the theorem remained largely unknown and undeveloped for over three centuries .
The first generalization of Newton 's theorem was discovered by Mahomed and Vawda in 2000 . As Newton did , they assumed that the angular motion of the second particle was k times faster than that of the first particle , θ2 |
= k θ1 . In contrast to Newton , however , Mahomed and Vawda did not require that the radial motion of the two particles be the same , r1 =
r2 . Rather , they required that the inverse radii be related by a linear equation
<formula>
This transformation of the variables changes the path of the particle . If the path of the first particle is written r1
= g ( θ1 ) , the second particle 's path can be written as
<formula>
If the motion of the first particle is produced by a central force F1 ( r ) , Mahomed and Vawda showed that the motion of the second particle can be produced by the following force
<formula>
According to this equation , the second force F2 ( r ) is obtained by scaling the first force and changing its argument , as well as by adding inverse @-@ square and inverse @-@ cube central forces .
For comparison , Newton 's theorem of revolving orbits corresponds to the case a =
1 and b |
= 0 , so that r1 =
r2 . In this case , the original force is not scaled , and its argument is unchanged ; the inverse @-@ cube force is added , but the inverse @-@ square term is not . Also , the path of the second particle is r2 = g ( θ2 / k ) , consistent with the formula given above .
= = Derivations = =
= = = Newton 's derivation = = =
Newton 's derivation is found in Section IX of his Principia , specifically Propositions 43 – 45 . His derivations of these Propositions are based largely on geometry .
Proposition 43 ; Problem 30
It is required to make a body move in a curve that revolves about the center of force in the same manner as another body in the same curve at rest .
Newton 's derivation of Proposition 43 depends on his Proposition 2 , derived earlier in the Principia . Proposition 2 provides a geometrical test for whether the net force acting on a point mass ( a particle ) is a central force . Newton showed that a force is central if and only if the particle sweeps out equal areas in equal times as measured from the center .
Newton 's derivation begins with a particle moving under an arbitrary central force F1 ( r ) ; the motion of this particle under this force is described by its radius r ( t ) from the center as a function of time , and also its angle θ1 ( t ) . In an infinitesimal time dt , the particle sweeps out an approximate right triangle whose area is
<formula>
Since the force acting on the particle is assumed to be a central force , the particle sweeps out equal angles in equal times , by Newton 's Proposition 2 . Expressed another way , the rate of sweeping out area is constant
<formula>
This constant areal velocity can be calculated as follows . At the apapsis and periapsis , the positions of closest and furthest distance from the attracting center , the velocity and radius vectors are perpendicular ; therefore , the angular momentum L1 per mass m of the particle ( written as h1 ) can be related to the rate of sweeping out areas
<formula>
Now consider a second particle whose orbit is identical in its radius , but whose angular variation is multiplied by a constant factor k
<formula>
The areal velocity of the second particle equals that of the first particle multiplied by the same factor k
<formula>
Since k is a constant , the second particle also sweeps out equal areas in equal times . Therefore , by Proposition 2 , the second particle is also acted upon by a central force F2 ( r ) . This is the conclusion of Proposition 43 .
Proposition 44
The difference of the forces , by which two bodies may be made to move equally , one in a fixed , the other in the same orbit revolving , varies inversely as the cube of their common altitudes .
To find the magnitude of F2 ( r ) from the original central force F1 ( r ) , Newton calculated their difference F2 ( r ) − F1 ( r ) using geometry and the definition of centripetal acceleration . In Proposition 44 of his Principia , he showed that the difference is proportional to the inverse cube of the radius , specifically by the formula given above , which Newtons writes in terms of the two constant areal velocities , h1 and h2
<formula>
Proposition 45 ; Problem 31
To find the motion of the apsides in orbits approaching very near to circles .
In this Proposition , Newton derives the consequences of his theorem of revolving orbits in the limit of nearly circular orbits . This approximation is generally valid for planetary orbits and the orbit of the Moon about the Earth . This approximation also allows Newton to consider a great variety of central force laws , not merely inverse @-@ square and inverse @-@ cube force laws .
= = = Modern derivation = = =
Modern derivations of Newton 's theorem have been published by Whittaker ( 1937 ) and Chandrasekhar ( 1995 ) . By assumption , the second angular speed is k times faster than the first
<formula>
Since the two radii have the same behavior with time , r ( t ) , the conserved angular momenta are related by the same factor k
<formula>
The equation of motion for a radius r of a particle of mass m moving in a central potential V ( r ) is given by Lagrange 's equations
<formula>
Applying the general formula to the two orbits yields the equation
<formula>
which can be re @-@ arranged to the form
<formula>
This equation relating the two radial forces can be understood qualitatively as follows . The difference in angular speeds ( or equivalently , in angular momenta ) causes a difference in the centripetal force requirement ; to offset this , the radial force must be altered with an inverse @-@ cube force .
Newton 's theorem can be expressed equivalently in terms of potential energy , which is defined for central forces
<formula>
The radial force equation can be written in terms of the two potential energies
<formula>
Integrating with respect to the distance r , Newtons 's theorem states that a k @-@ fold change in angular speed results from adding an inverse @-@ square potential energy to any given potential energy V1 ( r )
<formula>
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= Mother and Child Reunion ( Degrassi : The Next Generation ) =
" Mother and Child Reunion " is the two @-@ part pilot episode of the Canadian teen drama television series Degrassi : The Next Generation , which premiered on October 14 , 2001 on the CTV Television Network . The episode was written by story editor Aaron Martin and series co @-@ creator / creative consultant Yan Moore , and directed by Bruce McDonald . As with the majority of Degrassi : The Next Generation episodes , " Mother and Child Reunion " takes its title from a pop song , " Mother and Child Reunion " , written and performed by Paul Simon .
Degrassi : The Next Generation is the fourth series in the fictional Degrassi universe created in 1979 . The preceding series , Degrassi High , ended in 1991 , although a television movie , School 's Out , aired in 1992 and wrapped up the storylines of the characters . " Mother and Child Reunion " reunited some of those characters in a ten @-@ year high school reunion , while also introducing a new generation of Degrassi Community School students : Emma Nelson , Manny Santos , J.T. Yorke and Toby Isaacs .
The episode received mixed reviews from the mass media , with the Ottawa Citizen saying that it offers " nothing new to viewers familiar with the groundbreaking preceding series " , and The Seattle Times saying it " soft @-@ pedals through the issues " , although the acting from the new generation of children was lauded as " stellar ... solid [ and ] believable " by Canoe.ca 's AllPop . It was nominated for two Gemini Awards and two Directors Guild of Canada Awards , winning in the " Outstanding Achievement in a Television Series – Children 's " category .
= = Plot = =
= = = Part One = = =
Archie " Snake " Simpson ( played by Stefan Brogren ) , a former student of Degrassi High , and now teacher at Degrassi Community School , has arranged a mixed reunion for the classes of 1991 and 1992 . Spike Nelson ( Amanda Stepto ) , Caitlin Ryan ( Stacie Mistysyn ) , and Lucy Fernandez ( Anais Granofsky ) , who also attended Degrassi High , plan on attending and try to persuade Joey Jeremiah ( Pat Mastroianni ) to join them . Joey , however , is reticent as he is still dealing with his grief over the death of his wife . Along with Caitlin 's fiancé Keith ( Don McKellar ) , the five friends go out to a bar for the night , reminiscing about the past and discussing their present lives .
Spike 's daughter , Emma ( played by Miriam McDonald ) is told by her online boyfriend , Jordan , that he is coming to Toronto for a school field trip , and asks her if she would like to meet him for the first time . Her friends , Manny Santos ( Cassie Steele ) , J.T. Yorke ( Ryan Cooley ) and Toby Isaacs ( Jake Goldsbie ) warn her of the potential dangers of meeting somebody she only knows from the Internet , and tell her that he could be an Internet stalker , pointing out that schools do not take field trips in the middle of summer . However , Emma is undeterred , convinced that Jordan is just a normal boy with whom she shares the same interests .
= = = Part Two = = =
At the reunion party , Joey and Caitlin meet Alison Hunter ( Sara Holmes ) , another Degrassi High attendee . As the evening progresses , Joey overhears Keith and Alison flirting with each other and Keith reveals he does not want to marry Caitlin . When Joey confronts Keith , their argument turns into a physical altercation , and Alison has to tell Caitlin about Keith 's hesitance over getting married . Joey and Caitlin have a heart @-@ to @-@ heart discussion about their past and their relationships , and after ten years , finally make amends , while Wheels ( Neil Hope ) apologizes to Lucy for crippling her while driving drunk nine years ago .
While her mother attends the reunion , Emma visits Jordan at his hotel where she meets his teacher , Mr. Nystrom ( Jeff Gruich ) . He takes her up to Jordan 's hotel room but as they enter , Emma sees that it is completely empty except for a video camera which has been set up . She immediately becomes suspicious and tries to escape but Nystrom blocks her access to the bedroom door . She locks herself in the bathroom , and comes to the startling realization that Nystrom is Jordan . Nystrom apologizes and tells Emma he will let her go , but when she comes out of the bathroom he grabs and restrains her .
Unable to get in contact with Emma , Manny tells Toby and J. T. that she is afraid that Emma may have gone to meet Jordan . They hack into Emma 's email account and realize that Jordan has told her a number of lies . After discovering which hotel Emma is meeting Jordan at , they rush to the school to inform Spike . As Nystrom attempts to rape Emma , Spike and Snake arrive just in time to save her . Emma manages to break free from Nystrom and rushes out of the hotel room . Snake restrains Nystrom until the police arrive to take him away .
= = Production = =
Linda Schuyler had co @-@ created The Kids of Degrassi Street in 1979 with Kit Hood , and Yan Moore was a writer on that series . As the children grew up , the Degrassi franchise developed into Degrassi Junior High and Degrassi High . In 1999 two episodes of Jonovision , a CBC Television talk show aimed at teenagers , reunited some of the cast members from the series . At the same time , Schuyler and Moore were developing a new television drama . When the Jonovision reunion episode proved to be popular , Schuyler and Moore wondered about reuniting the characters , too . As the months passed , they began thinking about what might have happened to the characters of Degrassi High and realized that the character Emma Nelson , born at the end of Degrassi Junior High 's second season , would soon be entering junior high school . Stephen Stohn , Schuyler 's husband suggested Degrassi : The Next Generation as the name for the new sequel series , borrowing the concept from Star Trek : The Next Generation , of which he was a fan .
The new series was offered a place on a number of television networks , with CTV and CBC ( the franchise 's former network ) vying as the top contenders . CTV won through , offering $ 10 million for a fifteen @-@ episode season . The project was greenlit in May 2000 , with the originally planned reunion episode serving as the pilot to the new series . CTV announced the new series at its annual press conference in June 2001 , and said the pilot would air in the fall .
In contrast to the previous Degrassi series , which were filmed on and around De Grassi Street in Riverdale , Toronto , Degrassi Junior High used Vincent Massey Public School , then known as Daisy Avenue Public School , as its primary filming location , and Centennial College was used in Degrassi High . Degrassi : The Next Generation is filmed at Epitome Pictures ' studios in North York , Toronto . A 100 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 9 @,@ 300 m2 ) former printing factory was converted in 1997 for Epitome , consisting of four soundstages and a backlot . The exterior of Degrassi Community School was located on the studio 's backlot , and used the same colours and glass pattern as Degrassi High 's Centennial College .
Production on " Mother and Child Reunion " began earlier than expected , as CTV initially planned to launch the series in January 2002 . At the eleventh hour the broadcaster decided to bring it forward to October 2001 to coincide with the back @-@ to @-@ school season . The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Moore , also credited as creative consultant , and script editor Aaron Martin . Co @-@ creator Schuyler , with her husband and Epitome Pictures partner Stohn , served as executive producers . The line producer was David Lowe . " Mother and Child Reunion " was directed by Bruce McDonald , who had previously directed the films Roadkill ( 1989 ) , Highway 61 ( 1991 ) , Hard Core Logo ( 1996 ) , and the television series Queer As Folk ( 2001 – 2005 ) . Epitome Pictures sought funding from the Government of Canada , through its two Crown corporations , Telefilm Canada and the Canadian Television Fund , which provide financial support to Canadian audiovisual productions . Filming began on July 3 , before Epitome Pictures could finalize their contracts with Telefilm and the Television Fund . Other financial contributors included Royal Bank of Canada , Cogeco , Shaw Communications , and Bell Canada .
To appeal to Degrassi 's established audience , a number of references to events which occurred in Degrassi Junior High , Degrassi High and School 's Out were written into the episode . Throughout those two series , Joey would frequently wear a fedora which became that character 's trademark prop . The fedora made a reappearance in this episode , and was worn by Manny , Spike , Snake , Caitlin and Lucy , but not Joey , and it appeared in every scene which featured a character from the old series . The accident in School 's Out when Wheels hit Lucy while drink @-@ driving was discussed twice , first at the bar when the characters were discussing their lives , and a second time when Wheels came to the reunion to apologize to Lucy . Finally , Joey and Caitlin made amends ; their relationship had ended when he cheated on her with Tessa in School 's Out .
Prior to the episode airing , a website was created with a " virtual school " in which fans could " enrol " in order to receive regular emails from their character " classmates " and discuss ongoing plots , in an effort to provide a complete viewing experience for the audience . As the broadcast date of the episode neared , more content was added to the website to make it appear as if it were a true school reunion website . The website was actually seen on screen when the characters Spike and Caitlin were reminiscing about their high school days .
" Mother and Child Reunion " aired on the terrestrial television network CTV on October 14 , 2001 and was advertised as a television special . In the United States it was broadcast on July 1 , 2002 on The N , a digital cable network , and served as the final episode of season one . In Australia , the episode aired on the terrestrial network ABC TV on August 1 , 2002 . The episode has been released on DVD as part of the complete first season DVD boxset , which was released in Canada on October 19 , 2004 , in the U.S. on September 28 , 2004 , and in Australia on September 8 , 2010 . The episode is also available at iTunes Stores to download and watch on home computers and certain iPod models , and at Zune Marketplace for the Xbox 360 and Zune media players .
= = Cast = =
Producers were able to bring back a number of actors from Degrassi High to guest star as their characters for the reunion storyline . Stefan Brogren , Pat Mastroianni , Stacie Mistysyn and Amanda Stepto agreed early on to return for the episode to play their characters Archie " Snake " Simpson , Joey Jeremiah , Caitlin Ryan and Christine " Spike " Nelson respectively , and appeared at the CTV press conference in June to publicize the new series . Brogren and Stepto signed contracts to appear in the entire season . Dan Woods also returned to play Dan Raditch , now principal of Degrassi Community School . By the time " Mother and Child Reunion " began to shoot , twelve more former Degrassi High cast members had agreed to appear : Danah Jean Brown ( Trish Skye ) , Darrin Brown ( Dwayne Myers ) , Michael Carry ( Simon Dexter ) , Irene Courakos ( Alexa Pappadopoulos ) , Chrissa Erodotou ( Diana Economopoulos ) , Anais Granofsky ( Lucy Fernandez ) , Rebecca Haines ( Kathleen Mead ) , Sara Holmes ( Alison Hunter ) , Neil Hope ( Derek " Wheels " Wheeler ) , Kyra Levy ( Maya Goldberg ) , Cathy Keenan ( Liz O 'Rourke ) , and Siluck Saysanasy ( Yick Yu ) all reprised their roles .
For the new generation of students , the producers chose from six hundred auditionees , all of whom were children in an attempt to provide a group of characters that the target audience of teenagers could relate to , rather than actors in their twenties pretending to be teenagers , something other shows of the same period and target audience such as Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Dawson 's Creek were doing . Miriam McDonald first auditioned in October 2000 to play Emma Nelson , Spike 's daughter , and was selected for the role after a callback and three screen tests . Ryan Cooley appeared as J.T. Yorke , Jake Goldsbie as Toby Isaacs , and Cassie Steele as Manny Santos . All signed their contracts just days before appearing at the CTV press conference . Christina Schmidt appeared briefly as Terri McGreggor , and Melissa McIntyre appeared in just one scene as Ashley Kerwin ; she had no lines to speak in this episode . Cassie Steele 's sister , Alex Steele , made her first appearance as Angela Jeremiah , Joey 's six @-@ year @-@ old daughter . She returned with Mastroianni to the series at the beginning of season two to take on more permanent roles .
Film director Kevin Smith , who had been a fan of Degrassi from the early 1990s when he worked at a convenience store in Leonardo , New Jersey , has paid homage to Degrassi by making reference to it in several of his films . For example , he named a Clerks character Caitlin Bree after Caitlin Ryan , his favorite Degrassi character , wrote Shannen Doherty 's character Rene wearing a Degrassi jacket throughout his Mallrats film , and had Jason Lee 's character in Chasing Amy specifically mention Degrassi Junior High as the television show he would rather be watching , instead of going out . At the press conference for the new series , Schuyler announced that Smith would appear in " Mother and Child Reunion " as Caitlin 's boyfriend , but due to scheduling conflicts he was unable to film the role and it was passed on to Don McKellar . Smith and his View Askewniverse sidekick Jason Mewes later guest starred in Degrassi : The Next Generation for three episodes of season four , two episodes of season five , and four episodes of season eight .
= = Reception = =
" Mother and Child Reunion " received mixed reviews from the media . Stephanie McGrath of Canoe.ca 's AllPop acknowledged Miriam McDonald 's portrayal of Emma Nelson as " stellar acting abilities in a super creepy storyline ... high on tension , low on cheese [ and ] top @-@ notch " , and continued , " The young actors actually showed up their classic Degrassi counter @-@ parts in the pilot episode . Their acting was solid , believable and age @-@ appropriate , while some of the older crowd 's dialogue sounded a bit stilted and over @-@ rehearsed . Slightly wooden acting aside , it was still good to see Joey , Caitlin and the gang together again . Emma 's story @-@ line demonstrates that the creative forces behind The Next Generation haven 't lost touch with teens yet , showing that one instalment of Degrassi : The Next Generation is worth 20 episodes of Dawson 's Creek . "
Tony Atherton of the Ottawa Citizen had mixed feelings of the new incarnation , saying it " has a cleaner , more polished look , has lost its edge [ and offers ] nothing new to viewers familiar with the groundbreaking preceding series , nor to anyone else who has watched the deluge of teen dramas since " , adding that because there is " little ground left to break in teen drama there is a sense of déjà vu with regards to the plots and characters " . He did , however , praise the show for having " the same simple narrative told from a kid 's viewpoint , and the same regard for unvarnished reality [ as Degrassi Junior High and Degrassi High ] . It is light years from far @-@ fetched high @-@ school melodramas like Boston Public and Dawson 's Creek ... is every bit as good as its beloved predecessor . In fact , in some respects it is even better " .
When the series began in the U.S. , The Seattle Times ' Melanie McFarland was unsure whether its success and popularity in Canada would continue across the border . " As popular as Degrassi was , it was still a mere cult hit in the United States ; the crowd that had access to it initially on PBS might not be able to tune into [ The N ] . Soft @-@ pedaling through the issues might work for today 's family of viewers , but what 's gentle enough for Mom and Dad 's peace of mind might not be enough to hook Junior or the original Degrassi 's older fans " . She was , however , " happy The N chose Degrassi students to navigate teen perils instead of digging up Screech and the gang characters from Saved by the Bell , a popular children 's sitcom from the early 1990s for another nauseating go @-@ round " .
" Mother and Child Reunion " was nominated for two Directors Guild of Canada Awards , winning in the " Outstanding Achievement in a Television Series – Children 's " category , and picked up two Gemini Award nominations in the categories for " Best Photography in a Dramatic Program or Series " and " Best Short Dramatic Program " .
|
= Whedonesque.com =
Whedonesque.com ( also referred to as Whedonesque and spelled in the site 's logo as WHEDONESQUE ) is a collaborative weblog devoted to the works of Joss Whedon . At its inception in 2002 , Whedonesque covered Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel , but has since expanded to follow Whedon 's professional output , as well as the careers of cast and crew associated with Whedon projects . Since 2004 , the site has been recognized in other media outlets by awards and citations of Whedon 's writings originally posted to Whedonesque .
Beyond simply being an informational site , Whedonesque has been referenced in books and cited in academic papers . It is used by marketers to drum up interest in Buffy products and by comic book editors to gauge reader reactions . Whedon has occasionally posted his personal political views to the site , such as during the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . This led some to mistakenly believe that Whedonesque is Whedon 's personal or official site and prompted some fans to take up the writers ' cause .
Posters to the site are usually referred to as " Whedonesquers " . User registration is required to post , but is often closed .
= = History = =
= = = Origin : 2002 through 2003 = = =
Whedonesque was started in mid @-@ 2002 by Caroline van Oosten de Boer , who remains the site owner as of February 2009 , and Milo Vermeulen . Whedonesque started with a set of rules designed to mandate linking to external sites , encourage civil conduct , discourage copyright violations , and minimize discussion of perpetually contentious issues . The first print media mention of Whedonesque was a one sentence blurb in USA Today a month after its launch . In 2003 , it was cited as one of two top Buffy Internet sites in an article commemorating the show 's end .
= = = Growth : 2004 through 2006 = = =
The site 's popularity grew even further once Whedon himself started posting . Whedon first acknowledged reading Whedonesque in late 2004 , and the account ' joss ' was created for his use on August 15 , 2004 . Whedon 's first post directly to the site was on April 27 , 2005 , announcing preview screenings of Serenity . He later extended his involvement , using the site as a means of communication with fans on topics including his own fandom of Veronica Mars , the canonicity of Buffy Season 8 comic books , and status updates on his projects . Through the use of tagging , Whedonesque maintains a list of threads Whedon has started or in which he has posted . In 2006 , Angel : After the Fall comic book author Brian Lynch began posting to Whedonesque as well .
Late 2004 saw the first two recognitions of Whedonesque.com by major Internet media . On November 22 , 2004 , Whedonesque was selected as SciFi.com 's Site of the Week , which commented " first @-@ rate weblog on all things Joss @-@ related " that " has very clearly laid @-@ out guidelines for posting and a solid policy on how to label spoilers . " On December 14 , 2004 USA Today 's Pop Candy selected " the Whedonesque gang " as the 70th of its " top 100 people of 2004 " , calling it " ... comforting to visit Whedonesque.com each day , where piles of links are posted by my fellow Joss Whedon obsessives . " In 2005 , Whedonesque was cited as a case study in marketing success .
= = = Recognition : 2007 through 2008 = = =
In early 2007 , Whedon announced the end of his relationship with the Wonder Woman movie in a Whedonesque post , which was directly cited in traditional media , including Reuters , the Los Angeles Times , and industry press . That year Whedonesque was also cited in much more modest coverage of Whedon 's involvement with Runaways and The Office . In February 2008 , Whedonesque was cited as a source in a New York Times piece on Steven Brust 's Firefly novel , My Own Kind of Freedom . Later that year , Whedonesque was cited in mainstream media treatment of Dollhouse ( especially Whedon 's post explaining the new pilot ) and Dr. Horrible 's Sing @-@ Along Blog . The site was taken offline for a day by the attention prompted by the release of Dr. Horrible , resulting in the site 's movement from Pair.com , where it had originated , to Mediatemple.net. Unlike previous mainstream media mentions , Dollhouse and Dr. Horrible have garnered Whedonesque mainland European media attention . In August 2008 , Wired cited Whedonesque in its coverage of the YouTube leak of a demo reel for the never @-@ produced Buffy the Animated Series .
At the same time as major media outlets began noting Whedonesque.com as a source , it also received more recognitions , including The Times Online 's Blog of the Week , awarded to Whedonesque on March 4 , 2006 . The Times review stated that " All the latest news items , rumours and sightings concerning the one @-@ time wonder boy and the creator of Buffy the Vampire Slayer are logged daily by the kind of people who appreciate smart , sophisticated dialogue and plotting . " Whedonesque won SyFy Portal 's Genre Award for Best Web Site of 2006 , and was nominated for same award in 2007 , 2008 and 2009 . Entertainment Weekly selected Whedonesque as one of the 100 Greatest Websites on December 20 , 2007 . In May 2008 , EW selected Whedonesque as eighth on their list of 25 Essential Fansites , calling it " a reservoir of material about anyone who 's starred in ( or , it would seem , breathed near ) his nerd @-@ magnet projects : Buffy , Angel , and Firefly / Serenity . "
Whedon has used Whedonesque as a personal blog , comparing the Stoning of Du 'a Khalil Aswad to the Captivity advertising controversy . He also posted multiple messages during the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . While Whedon has no official website , that role is sometimes erroneously attributed to Whedonesque.com , while other media outlets scrupulously describe the relationship between Whedon and the site .
= = = Institution : 2009 = = =
In 2009 , media websites continued to cite Whedonesque in discussions of Whedon 's work . In coverage of Dollhouse , Anna Pickard of The Guardian 's " TV & Radio Blog " called Whedonesque the " ultimate Joss @-@ fansite " and later quoted van Oosten de Boer and another Whedonesque administrator in a follow @-@ up piece , while Rick Porter of Zap2it referred to it as " the clearinghouse for all things Joss " . While an account for frequent Whedon collaborator Tim Minear had been created in 2005 , Minear himself first began posting to Whedonesque in March , 2009 . One of his first posts , regarding the " Epitaph One " episode of Dollhouse , was quoted by The Washington Post .
= = Impact = =
= = = Books and academic papers = = =
In addition to news outlets which have picked up stories and quotes from Whedonesque , the site has been referenced in a number of books and academic papers . It is cited as a general reference in The Physics of the Buffyverse and the Angel guide Once Bitten . Specific URL citations to Whedonesque posts are included in Reading Angel . Likewise , the academic Buffy studies journal Slayage has included papers which cited Whedonesque in issues 16 , 22 , 23 , and 25 . The issue 22 reference included URLs to specific topics and posts , which have been " permalinks " since the site 's inception . In September 2007 , Whedonesque was one website cited in an MIT masters ' thesis entitled Television 2 @.@ 0 : Reconceptualizing TV as an Engagement Medium .
There has been a positive reaction at Whedonesque to academic interest in Buffy and other Whedon works . Whedonesque maintains a category for " academic " posts , which includes notices of public lectures , calls for papers , and academic analyses of Whedon projects . A separate category is maintained for Whedonesque posts about Slayage content .
= = = Marketing and fandom = = =
Even though site owner van Oosten de Boer stated that Whedonesque is " there to provide a service , not to influence anyone . " the site has been recognized by vendors as a place to gauge fan reactions to merchandise . In April , 2008 , Dark Horse Comics said it would release images of a later @-@ cancelled Buffy the Vampire Slayer tarot card set exclusively through Whedonesque . Buffy Season 8 comic editor Scott Allie wrote in his editorial column that he read Whedonesque for reactions to Buffy 's same @-@ sex encounter in issue 12 , while Duke University Press credits Whedonesque with helping to sell its Undead TV : Essays on " Buffy the Vampire Slayer " .
Whedonesque was one of six fan websites featured in Click Critics : The Power of Fan Websites , held May 19 , 2008 at The Paley Center for Media in New York . Other attendees included Lostpedia and Television Without Pity . The event highlighted six popular fan @-@ run websites focused on current media . One participant remarked that " The Paley Center itself is trying kind of hard to figure out what this whole blogging thing is , and doesn ’ t quite get it , as evidenced by the fact that no urls appeared in the program for the event . "
= = = 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike = = =
In late 2007 , Whedon 's posts about the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike prompted reader support for the writers which grew into a multi @-@ fandom movement dubbed Fans4Writers . The Wall Street Journal noted this novel use of Whedonesque and similar sites . Rolling Stone featured Whedonesque.com as one of four websites mentioned in " The Best Strike Writing " and Buffy writer Jane Espenson specifically credited Whedonesque readers for providing pizza to the striking writers .
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= Frank McGee ( ice hockey ) =
Francis Clarence McGee , ( November 4 , 1882 – September 16 , 1916 ) was an ice hockey player during the early days of hockey for the Ottawa Hockey Club , nicknamed the Silver Seven . Though blind in one eye , McGee was a legendary player of his era , and known as a prolific scorer . He once scored 14 goals in a Stanley Cup game and eight times scored five or more . Despite a brief senior career — only 45 games over four seasons — he led the Silver Seven in its reign as Stanley Cup champions during this time ( 1903 – 06 ) , playing both centre and rover . During World War I , he enlisted in the Canadian Army and died in battle in France . When the Hockey Hall of Fame was founded in 1945 , McGee was one of the original nine inductees .
= = Personal life = =
Frank McGee came from a prominent Canadian family . His late uncle , Thomas D 'Arcy McGee , had been a Father of Confederation . His father , John Joseph McGee , was clerk of the Privy Council ( considered the top civil servant position ) . Frank was one of nine children born to John Joseph McGee and Elizabeth Crotty . Frank had five brothers and three sisters , Thomas D 'Arcy , Jim , John , Walter , Charles , Katharine , Mary and Lillian . His brother Jim was also a noted athlete in football and ice hockey before dying in a horse @-@ riding accident in May 1904 . Charles , like Frank , also died in World War I.
After his education in Ottawa , McGee worked for the Canadian government Department of Indian Affairs , but he had a passion for sports and played lacrosse and rugby and excelled at ice hockey . While playing half @-@ back for his rugby team , Ottawa City , he was a member of the team that won the Canadian championship in 1898 . He played for the Ottawa Hockey Club from 1902 until 1906 .
He enlisted in the military and fought in World War I for the 43rd Regiment ( Duke of Cornwall ’ s Own Rifles ) as a lieutenant in the 21st Infantry Battalion , starting in May 1915 . That December he suffered a knee injury , and was sent to England to recover . He was given the choice of a posting in Le Havre away from the action , but chose to return to his battalion at the front . He returned to the 21st Battalion in August 1916 for the Battle of the Somme and was killed in action on September 16 , 1916 near Courcelette , France . His body was never recovered . His brother Charles died in action in May 1915 .
It is not known how McGee was allowed into the army with sight in only one eye . In his certificate of examination , the medical officer wrote that McGee could " see the required distance with either eye . " According to McGee 's nephew , Frank Charles McGee , his uncle tricked the doctor . When he was asked to cover one eye and read the chart he covered his blind eye , and when required to cover the other eye he switched hands instead of eyes . His medical history only lists " good " for his vision .
= = Hockey career = =
On March 21 , 1900 , the young and promising McGee lost use of an eye during an amateur game for a local Canadian Pacific Railway team from a " lifted puck . " He retired from playing , becoming a referee . By 1903 , he missed playing the sport so much that he joined the Ottawas despite the risk of permanent blindness . McGee was the youngest member of the team and stood only five feet six inches tall in a brutal sport ; regardless , he excelled .
McGee was considered an outstanding playmaker and deadly scorer . He scored two goals in his first game with Ottawa . On a number of occasions , he scored several goals in a single game , the most famous being his 14 @-@ goal effort in a 23 @-@ 2 victory over the team from Dawson City , on January 16 , 1905 . Those 14 goals , which included eight consecutive goals scored in less than nine minutes , remain to this day the most goals scored by a single player in a Stanley Cup hockey game , and has not been surpassed in any professional match . It was the most lopsided playoff game in Stanley Cup history . He scored five or more goals in eight other senior matches ; his highest single @-@ game total in regular season play was eight on March 3 , 1906 against the Montreal Hockey Club .
His linemates included future Hall of Famers Alf Smith , Harry Westwick , Billy Gilmour and Tommy Smith . Frank Patrick , a contemporary of McGee 's and like him a member of the Hockey Hall of Fame , described McGee : " He was even better than they say he was . He had everything - speed , stickhandling , scoring ability and was a punishing checker . He was strongly built but beautifully proportioned and he had an almost animal rhythm . "
After Ottawa lost the Stanley Cup to the Montreal Wanderers in 1906 , McGee retired at just 23 years old . His retirement is attributed to his government position not allowing him to travel . He had briefly retired after his brother Jim 's death in 1904 . McGee retired after scoring 135 goals in only 45 games ( both league and challenge ) . Only Russell Bowie rivals his average of 3 goals per game .
McGee was one of the original players inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame at its founding in 1945 . Five years later , a poll of sports editors of Canadian newspapers selected the Silver Seven as the country ’ s outstanding team in the first half of the 20th century . In 1966 , he was inducted into the Ottawa Sports Hall of Fame .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = Records = =
Stanley Cup Finals records
Most goals in playoffs : 63 in 22 playoff games
Most goals in one playoff series : 15 in two games in 1905 at Ottawa versus Dawson City .
Most goals , one playoff game : 14 , January 16 , 1905 at Ottawa versus Dawson City .
Source : Diamond ( 2000 ) , p . 91
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= Murder of Udin =
Fuad Muhammad Syafruddin ( 18 February 1963 – 16 August 1996 ) , best known by his pen name Udin , was an Indonesian journalist who was murdered in 1996 . A reporter at the Yogyakarta , Java , daily newspaper Bernas , he published a series of articles on corruption in the Bantul Regency in the months before his death . On 13 August , he was attacked at his house by two unidentified assailants using a metal rod and taken to the hospital . He died three days later without regaining consciousness .
His murder became a national cause célèbre . Several independent inquiries concluded that local government officials had been involved . However , the Bantul police early on discounted a political motive . Instead , they arrested a local driver named Dwi Sumaji for the murder , alleging a motive of jealousy . Sumaji was later acquitted after the prosecution withdrew its case owing to a lack of evidence . The police in turn were successfully sued for their mishandling of the case and deliberate destruction of evidence . The murder has never been solved , and is expected to be unprosecutable after 2014 due to Indonesia 's 18 @-@ year statute of limitations on murder .
= = Life and journalism = =
Udin was born on 18 February 1963 , a date considered unlucky in the Javanese calendar as it fell on a kliwon Monday . His father was Wagiman Dzuchoti , a mosque watchman , and his mother was Mujiah ; Udin had five siblings . As a young man , Udin had wanted to join the Indonesian military , but was unable due to his family 's lack of political connections . Instead , he worked various manual labour jobs , including stonemason .
In the ten years prior to his death , Udin was a freelance reporter for Bernas , a daily newspaper of Yogyakarta , Java , owned by the Kompas Gramedia Group . He was known for writing about crime and local politics , and would also take pictures to illustrate his articles . Aside from his reporting , Udin and his wife Marsiyem owned a small store which developed pictures and sold stationary ; Marsiyem would usually manage the store .
In 1996 , Udin began a series of articles reporting on corruption in the regency of Bantul , a suburb of Yogyakarta , focusing particularly on the activities of Bantul 's regent Colonel Sri Roso Sudarmo . In one report , Udin stated that Sudarmo had paid a bribe of Rp . 1 billion ( US $ 111 @,@ 000 ) to President Suharto 's Dharmais Foundation to secure his reappointment that year . Udin also reported that Sudarmo had demanded that village heads guarantee a " 200 per cent " victory for Golkar ( President Suharto 's party ) in the upcoming legislative elections .
Following the publication of these articles , Udin began to complain of what he considered a campaign of official harassment . Some district officials had reportedly spoken to him about his writings , and others had threatened him with a libel action . As a result of this perceived harassment , Udin had filed multiple complaints with the Legal Aid Institute ( Lembaga Bantuan Hukum ) in Yogyakarta . Udin had also been offered bribes to cease his reporting and received threats of violence . When his wife asked him about the threats , he responded , " What I write is the facts . If I have to die , I will accept it . " The night of his murder , two men came to the Bernas office looking for him , but a secretary sent them away .
= = Murder = =
On 13 August 1996 at around 10 : 30 pm local time ( UTC + 7 ) , Udin received two visitors outside his home in Bantul , off Parangtritis Road . The visitors claimed to want to leave a motorcycle with him for safekeeping , and reportedly had come the day before as well . While his wife Marsiyem was preparing tea , the men attacked him with a metal rod , striking him in the head and stomach . The assailants then escaped on a motorcycle they had parked in front of his home . Marsiyem found Udin unconscious on the ground , bleeding from his ears .
With the help of six youths passing in a jeep and a neighbour , Marsiyem took Udin to a small hospital nearby . The hospital was not equipped to treat Udin 's wounds , so he was transferred to Bethesda Hospital , a Protestant institution in Yogyakarta . In a coma , he was diagnosed with a fractured skull ; a shard of bone had also punctured his skull .
Initially , coverage of the assault in Bernas was slow . The murder had occurred too late in the evening to be covered in the 14 August edition , and head editor Kusfandhi – due to press censorship – was uncomfortable with covering a politically charged case . However , other staff members convinced him to give greater coverage , and the front page of the 15 August edition showed Udin covered in bandages and gave detailed information about the case . On 16 August , Udin died without having regained consciousness ; on the morning of his death , a breathing tube had been inserted .
After his death , Udin 's body was autopsied then brought to the Bernas office for a quick memorial service , in which the staff sang " Gugur Bunga " ( " Fallen Flowers " ) . The following day , Udin was buried in a small cemetery in Trirenggo , Bantul ; his burial attracted 2 @,@ 000 people . Udin was survived by his wife Marsiyem and two children , Krisna and Wikan .
= = Investigation and cause célèbre = =
Investigation into the assault began even before Udin 's death . The police began their investigation on 13 August , but were hampered as the crime scene had been contaminated during the commotion after the assault . Under the command of Sergeant Major Edy Wuryanto , the police began by collecting Udin 's notes and blood from his family ; the family had received several bags of blood from Bethesda and were planning to bury it with the body .
Meanwhile , five members of the Indonesian Journalists ' Association ( Perhimpunan Wartawan Indonesia , or PWI ) formed a fact @-@ finding team on 14 August under the leadership of Putut Wiryawan and Asril Sutan . The team read the articles written by Udin in the previous six months , looking for any coverage which could have led to the attack ; they concluded that most of his articles could have been a trigger . The committee eventually focused on the bribery allegations against Sudarmo , as those were the only ones exclusively covered in Bernas , as well as a case of election rigging . Another team , from Bernas , known as the " White Kijang " team for the type of car they drove , investigated the case independently when the PWI team failed to share the information they had gathered .
Udin 's death swiftly became a national cause célèbre , with the circumstances of his death and the resulting investigation covered extensively in national media . Muslim prayer services held by Bernas seven days after Udin 's death attracted hundreds of mourners and saw several community leaders give speeches on politics and Udin 's death . Others , such as Goenawan Mohamad , wrote poems and flowery obituaries .
Though police ruled out Udin 's political reporting as a motive in the early stages of the investigation , many reports focused on the theory that his killing had been related to his reporting on Sudarmo . One journalist quoted the regent as having said shortly before the murder that he would like to teach Udin " a lesson " . The police focused instead on allegations of infidelity ; in late August the police stated that Udin had been murdered by a jealous husband as a result of an extramarital affair with a woman named Tri Sumaryani , a Citizens Band radio enthusiast who had once dated Udin 's younger brother . However , Sumaryani soon admitted to the press that she had been paid to fabricate this testimony by a nephew of Sri Roso .
Meanwhile , the PWI and Bernas teams concluded that Udin had been murdered by a government official intent on saving face . By late September , Bernas was under political pressure to cease coverage of the case . One of the PWI team members , Putut , reported that his daughter had been nearly kidnapped and his home broken into . Several journalistic and human rights organisations stated their belief that the murder was likely connected with Udin 's reporting , including Amnesty International , which expressed its concern that allegations about the involvement of government officials had " not been properly investigated " . The Committee to Protect Journalists sent a letter to President Suharto that demanded a full investigation into Udin 's death , with the results made public . An independent report by the Indonesian Alliance of Independent Journalists praised the courage and neutrality of Udin 's reporting , stating , " he was not an NGO activist , nor was he involved in the student movement . He was just an ordinary journalist who did an average job for a regional newspaper . " However , the regent denied these reports and rumours ; in a press conference on 23 August 1996 , he said that he was " at the receiving end of over @-@ dramatization " .
= = Arrest of Dwi Sumaji = =
On 21 October , the police arrested Dwi Sumaji , an advertising company driver , for the murder ; they alleged that Sumaji had killed Udin for having an affair with his wife , Sunarti . After Sumaji confessed to the crime , police announced that an iron bar and a T @-@ shirt , both stained with Udin 's blood , had been found in Sumaji 's home . Though Sumaji 's police @-@ appointed lawyer agreed that Sumaji had confessed to the crime , within a week Sumaji obtained independent counsel through whom he attempted to withdraw the confession . Marsiyem , who had seen her husband 's attackers , insisted that Sumaji was innocent . On 23 October , Bernas published a sketch of Udin 's attacker , drawn soon after the murder based on Marsiyem 's description , with a picture of Sumaji ; under Sumaji 's photograph , they wrote " Ditolak " ( " rejected " ) , drawing attention to the dissimilarities between the two .
Sumaji withdrew his confession , then alleged that police had encouraged him to confess after plying him with alcohol and bribing him with money , a prostitute , and a better job if he confessed to the crime . Sunarti , incredulous that her husband could be a murderer , wrote letters to several high @-@ ranking officials and bodies , including President Suharto . Only one , to the National Commission on Human Rights ( Komnas HAM ) , received a reply : on 28 October , the commission announced that it would investigate irregularities in Sumaji 's arrest and internment . Meanwhile , Sumaji 's counsel and the White Kijang team located several witnesses to corroborate Sumaji 's account , including the prostitute .
The police continued the investigation , under pressure to finish quickly . Two reconstructions of the murder were conducted , drawing hundreds of spectators . One was done with Sumaji playing the role of the murderer , without his lawyers ' knowledge ; when the counsel found out , they removed him from the reconstruction . Eventually , police agreed to a deal with the counsel , in which Sumaji 's pre @-@ trial release was guaranteed in exchange for a promise from his lawyers to not sue for wrongful arrest . Sumaji was released on 17 December , awaiting trial . In early 1997 , Sumaji 's case was refused by the prosecutor 's office several times due to weak evidence .
= = Mishandling charges = =
On 7 November , Udin 's family announced their intention to sue the city for improper use of evidence . This announcement followed a report from police chief Mulyono that Udin 's blood had been disposed of in the southern sea off Parangtritis Beach as an offering to Nyai Roro Kidul , the area 's deity , to ensure quick resolution of the investigation . Marsiyem 's lawyers from the Legal Aid Institute ( Lembaga Bantuan Hukum ) filed a case in January 1997 against the police ( national , provincial , and local ) , and Edy Wuryanto . The lawsuit demanded Rp . 1 million ( US $ 36 @,@ 400 ) in damages . The police countered that the blood had been given voluntarily , and that Marsiyem hoped to exploit the situation .
The hearing began on 21 January 1997 , under the supervision of a three @-@ judge panel led by Mikaela Warsito . After both sides were unable to come to an amicable settlement , a several @-@ month @-@ long trial began , in which Udin 's family , Bernas reporters , and the police testified . On 7 April 1997 , Wuryanto was convicted of destroying evidence for taking the blood , which Marisyem 's lawyers speculated was used to frame Sumaji . Only a small percentage of the damages were awarded , after the court ruled that testimony from Udin 's family – whom they saw as having a conflict of interest in the outcome of the case – was ineligible .
= = Trial of Sumaji = =
Shortly before Marsiyem 's case concluded , the members of the White Kijang team were assigned to other , distant cities . After a final , unsuccessful , plea by Sumaji 's council on 5 May 1997 to drop the case , the prosecutor 's office appointed Amrin Naim to lead the case against Sumaji . On 15 July , after the legislative elections , the office filed charges ; the trial began on 29 July , with two members of the three @-@ judge panel that served in the Marsiyem case .
After a failed attempt by the defence to question the court 's jurisdiction , several witnesses were questioned over a period of several weeks , including Udin 's neighbours and wife , as well as Sudarmo 's nephew . The hearings , which were held on Mondays and Thursdays , were filled with spectators . At the trial , the defence suggested that a government conspiracy may have been responsible , but were told by the tribunal to focus on the case at hand . Further witnesses , including a key witness for the prosecution , came across as unconvincing ; they also changed their stories , reneging statements which they had made before the trial . Other witnesses for the prosecution , including several of Sumaji 's neighbours , testified that the driver could not have committed the murder because he was at home on the night of 13 August . Another said that the steel pipe said to be the murder weapon in court was different from that found with Udin 's blood on it .
On 2 October 1997 , the prosecution began to call more witnesses . Although attendance did not abate , most observers were police officers or paid spectators . One witness , who claimed to have participated in a sting operation to arrest Sumaji , was arrested for perjury . An officer who investigated Sumaji reported that he had pursued the driver based on instinct , not evidence . Wuryanto , while presenting his account , was contemptuous towards the defence and ordered by the judge several times to answer truthfully . On 3 November , the prosecution withdrew its case . Under Indonesian law , the judges had the right to find the subject guilty despite the prosecution 's withdrawal ; after further consideration , on 27 November , the tribunal acquitted Sumaji . Following the acquittal , Bantual police refused to investigate Udin 's murder further ; several of Yogyakarta 's police chiefs stated that the department had fulfilled its duty by arresting a suspect and sending him to trial .
= = Aftermath = =
On 6 June , several weeks after President Suharto resigned , Sudarmo was ousted from his office after students conducted a sit @-@ in at the Bantul Assembly House . He was soon convicted of corruption for his payment to the Dharmais Foundation , but the conviction was overturned by a higher court , after which Sudarmo retired . Wuryanto never served time for his disposal of Udin 's blood .
Sumaji 's defence initially prepared a legal case for wrongful imprisonment , but the driver chose not to pursue it . He was unable to work for three years due to the infamy he had acquired from the case , but by 2000 was driving a public bus near Mount Merapi . By 2000 , Marsiyem had married a neighbour , with whom she had a child .
The Alliance of Independent Journalists created the " Udin Award " in Udin 's honour , " given for exceptional contribution to press freedom " . In 2010 , the organisation also petitioned the National Police to take over the case , noting that under Indonesian law , the case could be declared " expired " in 2014 .
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= Parsnip =
The parsnip ( Pastinaca sativa ) is a root vegetable closely related to the carrot and parsley . It is a biennial plant usually grown as an annual . Its long , tuberous root has cream @-@ colored skin and flesh ; and left in the ground to mature , it becomes sweeter in flavor after winter frosts . In its first growing season , the plant has a rosette of pinnate , mid @-@ green leaves . If unharvested , it produces its flowering stem , topped by an umbel of small yellow flowers , in its second growing season . By this time , the stem is woody and the tuber is inedible . The seeds are pale brown , flat , and winged .
The parsnip is native to Eurasia . It has been used as a vegetable since antiquity and was cultivated by the Romans , although some confusion exists in the literature of the time between parsnips and carrots . It was used as a sweetener before the arrival in Europe of cane sugar . It was introduced into the United States in the 19th century .
The parsnip is usually cooked , but can also be eaten raw . It is high in vitamins and minerals , especially potassium . It also contains antioxidants and both soluble and insoluble dietary fiber . It can be cultivated in deep , stone @-@ free soils . It is attacked by the carrot fly and other insect pests , viruses , and fungal diseases , of which canker is the most serious . Handling the stems and foliage can cause a skin rash if the skin is exposed to sunlight after handling .
= = Description = =
The parsnip is a biennial plant with a rosette of roughly hairy leaves that has a pungent odor when crushed . Parsnips are grown for their fleshy , edible , cream @-@ colored taproots . The roots are generally smooth , although lateral roots sometimes form . Most are cylindrical , but some cultivars have a more bulbous shape , which generally tends to be favored by food processors as it is more resistant to breakage . The plant 's apical meristem produces a rosette of pinnate leaves , each with several pairs of leaflets with toothed margins . The lower leaves have short stems , the upper ones are stemless , and the terminal leaves have three lobes . The leaves are once- or twice @-@ pinnate with broad , ovate , sometimes lobed leaflets with toothed margins ; they grow up to 40 cm ( 16 in ) long . The petioles are grooved and have sheathed bases . The floral stem develops in the second year and can grow to more than 150 cm ( 60 in ) tall . It is hairy , grooved , hollow ( except at the nodes ) , and sparsely branched . It has a few stalkless , single @-@ lobed leaves measuring 5 to 10 cm ( 2 to 4 in ) long that are arranged in opposite pairs .
The yellow flowers are in a loose , compound umbel measuring 10 to 20 cm ( 4 to 8 in ) in diameter . Six to 25 straight pedicels are present , each measuring 2 to 5 cm ( 1 to 2 in ) that support the umbellets ( secondary umbels ) . The umbels and umbellets usually have no upper or lower bracts . The flowers have tiny sepals or lack them entirely , and measure about 3 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 14 in ) . They consist of five yellow petals that are curled inward , five stamens , and one pistil . The fruits , or schizocarps , are oval and flat , with narrow wings and short , spreading styles . They are colored straw to light brown , and measure 4 to 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 to 0 @.@ 31 in ) long .
Despite the slight morphological differences between the two , wild parsnip is the same taxon as the cultivated version , and the two readily cross @-@ pollinate . Parsnip has a chromosome number of 2n = 22 .
= = History = =
Like carrots , parsnips are native to Eurasia and have been eaten there since ancient times . Zohary and Hopf note that the archaeological evidence for the cultivation of the parsnip is " still rather limited " , and that Greek and Roman literary sources are a major source about its early use . They warn that " there are some difficulties in distinguishing between parsnip and carrot ( which , in Roman times , were white or purple ) in classical writings since both vegetables seem to have been sometimes called pastinaca , yet each vegetable appears to be well under cultivation in Roman times " . The parsnip was much esteemed , and the Emperor Tiberius accepted part of the tribute payable to Rome by Germany in the form of parsnips . In Europe , the vegetable was used as a source of sugar before cane and beet sugars were available . As pastinache comuni , the " common " pastinaca figures in the long list of comestibles enjoyed by the Milanese given by Bonvesin da la Riva in his " Marvels of Milan " ( 1288 ) .
This plant was introduced to North America simultaneously by the French colonists in Canada and the British in the Thirteen Colonies for use as a root vegetable , but in the mid @-@ 19th century , it was replaced as the main source of starch by the potato and consequently was less widely cultivated .
In 1859 , a new cultivar called ' Student ' was developed by James Buckman at the Royal Agricultural College in England . He back @-@ crossed cultivated plants to wild stock , aiming to demonstrate how native plants could be improved by selective breeding . This experiment was so successful , ' Student ' became the major variety in cultivation in the late 19th century .
= = Taxonomy = =
The parsnip was first officially described by Carolus Linnaeus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum . It has acquired several synonyms in its taxonomic history :
Pastinaca fleischmannii Hladnik , ex D.Dietr.
Pastinaca opaca Bernh. ex Hornem .
Pastinaca pratensis ( Pers . ) H.Mart.
Pastinaca sylvestris Mill .
Pastinaca teretiuscula Boiss .
Pastinaca umbrosa Steven , ex DC .
Pastinaca urens Req. ex Godr .
Like most plants of agricultural importance , several subspecies and varieties of P. sativa have been described , but these are mostly no longer recognized as independent taxa , but rather , morphological variations of the same taxon .
P. s. subsp. divaricata ( Desf . ) Rouy & Camus
P. s. subsp. pratensis ( Pers . ) Čelak .
P. s. subsp. sylvestris ( Mill . ) Rouy & Camus
P. s. subsp. umbrosa ( Steven , ex DC . ) Bondar. ex O.N.Korovina
P. s. subsp. urens ( Req. ex Godr . ) Čelak .
P. s. var. brevis Alef .
P. s. var. edulis DC .
P. s. var. hortensis Ehrh. ex Hoffm .
P. s. var. longa Alef .
P. s. var. pratensis Pers .
P. s. var. siamensis Roem . & Schult. ex Alef .
In Eurasia , some authorities distinguish between cultivated and wild versions of parsnips by using subspecies P. s. sylvestris for the latter , or even elevating it to species status as Pastinaca sylvestris . In Europe , various subspecies have been named based on characteristics such as the hairiness of the leaves , the extent to which the stems are angled or rounded , and the size and shape of the terminal umbel .
The etymology of the generic name Pastinaca is not known with certainty , but is probably derived from either the Latin word pastino , meaning " to prepare the ground for planting of the vine " or pastus , meaning " food " . The specific epithet sativa means " sown " .
= = Uses = =
Parsnips resemble carrots and can be used in similar ways , but they have a sweeter taste , especially when cooked . They can be baked , boiled , pureed , roasted , fried , or steamed . When used in stews , soups , and casseroles , they give a rich flavor . In some cases , parsnips are boiled and the solid portions are removed from the soup or stew , leaving behind a more subtle flavor than the whole root , and starch to thicken the dish . Roast parsnip is considered an essential part of Christmas dinner in some parts of the English @-@ speaking world and frequently features in the traditional Sunday roast . Parsnips can also be fried or thinly sliced and made into crisps . They can be made into a wine with a taste similar to Madeira .
In Roman times , parsnips were believed to be an aphrodisiac . However , parsnips do not typically feature in modern Italian cooking . Instead , they are fed to pigs , particularly those bred to make Parma ham . In traditional Chinese medicine , the root of Chinese parsnip is used as a herbal medicine ingredient .
= = Nutritients = =
A typical 100 @-@ g parsnip contains 75 Calories ( 230 kJ ) of energy . Most parsnip cultivars consist of about 80 % water , 5 % sugar , 1 % protein , 0 @.@ 3 % fat , and 5 % dietary fiber . The parsnip is rich in vitamins and minerals , and is particularly rich in potassium with 375 mg per 100 g . Several of the B @-@ group vitamins are present , but levels of vitamin C are reduced in cooking . Since most of the vitamins and minerals are found close to the skin , many will be lost unless the root is finely peeled or cooked whole . During frosty weather , part of the starch is converted to sugar and the root tastes sweeter .
The consumption of parsnips has potential health benefits . They contain antioxidants such as falcarinol , falcarindiol , panaxydiol , and methyl @-@ falcarindiol , which may potentially have anticancer , anti @-@ inflammatory and antifungal properties . The dietary fiber in parsnips is partly of the soluble and partly the insoluble type and comprises cellulose , hemicellulose , and lignin . The high fiber content of parsnips may help prevent constipation and reduce blood cholesterol levels .
= = Etymology = =
While folk etymology sometimes assumes the name is a portmanteau of parsley and turnip , it actually comes from Middle English pasnepe , alteration ( influenced by nep , turnip ) of Old French pasnaie ( now panais ) from Latin pastinum , a kind of fork . The word 's ending was changed to -nip by analogy with turnip because it was mistakenly assumed to be a kind of turnip .
= = Cultivation = =
The wild parsnip from which the modern cultivated varieties were derived is a plant of dry rough grassland and waste places , particularly on chalk and limestone soils . Parsnips are biennials , but are normally grown as annuals . Sandy and loamy soils are preferable to silt , clay , and stony ground ; the latter produces short , forked roots . Parsnip seed significantly deteriorates in viability if stored for long . Seeds are usually planted in early spring , as soon as the ground can be worked to a fine tilth , in the position where the plants are to grow . The growing plants are thinned and kept weed @-@ free . Harvesting begins in late fall after the first frost , and continues through winter . The rows can be covered with straw to enable the crop to be lifted during frosty weather . Low soil temperatures cause some of the starches stored in the roots to be converted into sugars , giving them a sweeter taste .
= = = Cultivation problems = = =
Parsnip leaves are sometimes tunnelled by the larvae of the celery fly ( Euleia heraclei ) . Irregular , pale brown passages can be seen between the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves . The effects are most serious on young plants , as whole leaves may shrivel and die . Treatment is by removing affected leaflets or whole leaves , or by chemical means .
The crop can be attacked by larvae of the carrot fly ( Chamaepsila rosae ) . This pest feeds on the outer layers of the root , burrowing its way inside later in the season . Seedlings may be killed while larger roots are spoiled . The damage done provides a point of entry for fungal rots and canker . The fly is attracted by the smell of bruised tissue .
Parsnip is used as a food plant by the larvae of some lepidopteran species , including the parsnip swallowtail ( Papilio polyxenes ) , the common swift moth ( Korscheltellus lupulina ) , the garden dart moth ( Euxoa nigricans ) , and the ghost moth ( Hepialus humuli ) . The larvae of the parsnip moth ( Depressaria radiella ) , native to Europe and accidentally introduced to North America in the mid @-@ 1800s , construct their webs on the umbels , feeding on flowers and partially developed seeds .
Parsnip canker is a serious disease of this crop . Black or orange @-@ brown patches occur around the crown and shoulders of the root accompanied by cracking and hardening of the flesh . It is more likely to occur when seed is sown into cold , wet soil , the pH of the soil is too low , or the roots have already been damaged by carrot fly larvae . Several fungi are associated with canker , including Phoma complanata , Ilyonectria radicicola , Itersonilia pastinaceae , and I. perplexans . In Europe , Mycocentrospora acerina has been found to cause a black rot that kills the plant early . Watery soft rot , caused by Sclerotinia minor and S. sclerotiorum , causes the taproot to become soft and watery . A white or buff @-@ colored mold grows on the surface . The pathogen is most common in temperate and subtropical regions that have a cool wet season .
Violet root rot caused by the fungus Helicobasidium purpureum sometimes affects the roots , covering them with a purplish mat to which soil particles adhere . The leaves become distorted and discolored and the mycelium can spread through the soil between plants . Some weeds can harbour this fungus and it is more prevalent in wet , acid conditions . Erysiphe heraclei causes a powdery mildew that can cause significant crop loss . Infestation by this causes results in yellowing of the leaf and loss of foliage . Moderate temperatures and high humidity favor the development of the disease .
Several viruses are known to infect the plant , including seed @-@ borne strawberry latent ringspot virus , parsnip yellow fleck virus , parsnip leafcurl virus , parsnip mosaic potyvirus , and potyvirus celery mosaic virus . The latter causes clearing or yellowing of the areas of the leaf immediately beside the veins , the appearance of ochre mosaic spots , and crinkling of the leaves in infected plants .
= = Toxicity = =
While the root of the parsnip is edible , handling the shoots and leaves of the plant requires caution as the sap is toxic . Like many other members of the family Apiaceae , the parsnip contains furanocoumarins as a defense against herbivory , photosensitive chemicals that causes a condition known as phytophotodermatitis . The condition is a type of chemical burn rather than an allergic reaction , and is similar to the rash caused by poison ivy ( Toxicodendron radicans ) . Symptoms include redness , burning , and blisters ; afflicted areas can remain discolored for up to two years . Although some reports of gardeners experiencing toxic symptoms after coming into contact with foliage have been made , these have been small in number compared to the number of people who grow the crop . The problem is most likely to occur on a sunny day when gathering foliage or pulling up old plants that have gone to seed . The symptoms have mostly been mild to moderate .
The toxic properties of parsnip extracts are resistant to heating , or a storage period of several months . Toxic symptoms can also affect livestock and poultry in parts of their bodies where their skin is exposed . Polyynes can be found in Apiaceae vegetables such as parsnip , and they show cytotoxic activities .
= = = Cited literature = = =
Cain , Nancy ; Darbyshire , Stephen J. ; Francis , Ardath ; Nurse , Robert E. ; Simard , Marie @-@ Josée ( 2010 ) . " The biology of Canadian weeds . 144 . Pastinaca sativa L. " ( PDF ) . Canadian Journal of Plant Science 90 ( 2 ) : 217 – 240 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 4141 / CJPS09110 .
Rubatsky , V.E. ; Quiros , C.F. ; Siman , P.W. ( 1999 ) . Carrots and Related Vegetable Umbelliferae . CABI Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 85199 @-@ 129 @-@ 0 .
= = = General = = =
Pastinaca sativa profile on the USDA plants database Retrieved 2015 @-@ 10 @-@ 25 .
Pastinaca sativa profile on missouriplants.com Retrieved 2015 @-@ 10 @-@ 25 .
Pastinaca sativa List of Chemicals ( Dr. Duke 's ) Retrieved 2015 @-@ 10 @-@ 25 .
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= Serjeant @-@ at @-@ law =
A Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law ( SL ) , commonly known simply as a Serjeant , was a member of an order of barristers at the English bar . The position of Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law ( servientes ad legem ) , or Sergeant @-@ Counter , was centuries old ; there are writs dating to 1300 which identify them as descended from figures in France prior to the Norman Conquest . The Serjeants were the oldest formally created order in England , having been brought into existence as a body by Henry II . The order rose during the 16th century as a small , elite group of lawyers who took much of the work in the central common law courts . With the creation of Queen 's Counsel ( or " Queen 's Counsel Extraordinary " ) during the reign of Elizabeth I , the order gradually began to decline , with each monarch opting to create more King 's or Queen 's Counsel . The Serjeants ' exclusive jurisdictions were ended during the 19th century , and with the Judicature Act 1873 coming into force in 1875 , it was felt that there was no need to have such figures , and no more were created . The last Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law was Serjeant Sullivan ( d . 1959 ) . The last purely English Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law was Lord Lindley ( d . 1921 ) .
The Serjeants had for many centuries exclusive jurisdiction over the Court of Common Pleas , being the only lawyers allowed to argue a case there . At the same time they had rights of audience in the other central common law courts ( the Court of King 's Bench and Exchequer of Pleas ) and precedence over all other lawyers . Only Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law could become judges of these courts right up into the 19th century , and socially the Serjeants ranked above Knights Bachelor and Companions of the Bath . Within the Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law were more distinct orders ; the King 's Serjeants , particularly favoured Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law , and within that the King 's Premier Serjeant , the Monarch 's most favoured Serjeant , and the King 's Ancient Serjeant , the oldest . Serjeants ( except King 's Serjeants ) were created by Writ of Summons under the Great Seal of the Realm and wore a special and distinctive dress , the chief feature of which was the coif , a white lawn or silk skullcap , afterwards represented by a round piece of white lace at the top of the wig .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The history of Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law goes back to within a century of the Norman Conquest ; Alexander Pulling argues that Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law existed " before any large portion of our law was formed " , and Edward Warren agrees , supporting him with a Norman writ from approximately 1300 which identifies Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law as directly descending from Norman conteurs ; indeed , they were sometimes known as Serjeant @-@ Conteurs . The members of the Order initially used St Paul 's Cathedral as their meeting place , standing near the " parvis " where they would give counsel to those who sought advice . Geoffrey Chaucer makes reference to the Serjeants in the Canterbury Tales , writing :
A serjeant of the law , ware and wise ,
That often hadde ben at the parvis ,
Ther was also , full rich of excellence .
Discreet he was and of great reverence ,
He sened swiche ; his wordes were so wise ,
Justice he was ful often in assise ,
By patent , and by pleine commissiun ;
For his science , and for his high renoun ,
Of fees and robes had he many on .
The Order certainly existed during the reign of Henry II from 1154 – 1189 , who created a dozen Serjeants and thus moved the order 's existence " out of the realm of conjecture " and into recorded fact . As such it is the oldest royally created order ; the next is the Order of the Garter , created in 1330 . Serjeants at Law existed in Ireland from at least 1302 , and were appointed by letters patent in a similar way to English Serjeants . Henry de Bracton claimed that , for the trial of Hubert de Burgh in 1239 the king was assisted by " all the serjeants of the bench " , although it is not known who they were . By the 1270s there were approximately 20 recorded Serjeants ; by 1290 , 36 . This period also saw the first regulation of Serjeants , with a statutory power from 1275 to suspend from practise any Serjeant who misbehaved ( enacted as chapter 29 of the Statute of Westminster 1275 ) . The exclusive jurisdiction Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law held over the Court of Common Pleas slowly came about during the 1320s , squeezing the size of the bar until only a consistent group reappeared . From this period , Serjeants also began to be called in regular groups , rather than individually on whatever date was felt appropriate .
= = = Rise = = =
During the 16th century the Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law were a small , though highly respected and powerful , elite . There were never more than ten alive , and on several occasions the number dwindled to one ; William Blendlowes bragged that he had been " the only Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law in England " in 1559 . Over these 100 years , only 89 Serjeants were created . At the time they were the only clearly distinguishable branch of the legal profession , and it is thought that their work may have actually created barristers as a separate group ; although Serjeants were the only lawyers who normally argued in court , they occasionally allowed other lawyers to help them in special cases . These lawyers became known as outer or " utter " barristers ( because they were confined to the outer bar of the court ) ; if they were allowed to act they had " passed the bar " towards becoming a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law .
Despite holding a monopoly on cases in the Court of Common Pleas , Serjeants also took most of the business in the Court of King 's Bench . Although required to make the Common Pleas their principal place of work , there is evidence of Serjeants who did not ; one , Robert Mennell , worked entirely in the North of England after his creation in 1547 and was not known in Westminster , where the Common Pleas was located . This was also a time of great judicial success for the Serjeants ; since only Serjeants could be appointed to the common law courts , many also sat in the Exchequer of Pleas , a court of equity . This period was not a time of success for the profession overall , however , despite the brisk business being done . The rise of central courts other than the Common Pleas allowed other lawyers to gain advocacy experience and work , drawing it away from the Serjeants , and at the same time the few Serjeants could not handle all the business in the Common Pleas , allowing the rise of barristers as dedicated advocates .
= = = Decline and abolition = = =
The decline of the Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law started in 1596 , when Francis Bacon persuaded Elizabeth I to appoint him " Queen 's Counsel Extraordinary " ( QC ) , a new creation which gave him precedence over the Serjeants . This was not a formal creation , in that he was not granted a patent of appointment , but in 1604 James I saw fit to finally award this . The creation of Queen 's ( or King 's ) Counsel was initially small ; James I created at least one other , and Charles I four . Following the English Restoration this increased , with a few appointed each year . The largest change came about with William IV , who appointed an average of nine a year , and following him approximately 12 were created a year , with an average of 245 at any one time .
Every new Queen 's Counsel created reduced the Serjeants in importance , since even the most junior QC took precedence over the most senior Serjeant . Although appointments were still made to the Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law , the King 's Serjeant and the King 's Ancient Serjeant , and several Serjeants were granted patents of precedence which gave them superiority over QCs , the Victorian era saw a decline in appointments . The rule that all common law judges must be Serjeants was circumvented : anyone chosen to be a judge would be appointed a Serjeant , and immediately thereafter a judge . In 1834 Lord Brougham issued a mandate which opened up pleading in the Court of Common Pleas to every barrister , Serjeant or not , and this was followed for six years until the Serjeants successfully petitioned the Queen to overturn it as invalid .
The Serjeants only enjoyed their returned status for another six years , however , before Parliament intervened . The Practitioners in Common Pleas Act 1846 , from 18 August 1846 , allowed all barristers to practice in the Court of Common Pleas . The next and final blow was the Judicature Act 1873 , which came into force on 1 November 1875 . Section 8 provided that common law judges need no longer be appointed from the Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law , removing the need to appoint judicial Serjeants . With this Act and the rise of the Queen 's Counsel , there was no longer any need to appoint Serjeants , and the practice ended .
The equivalent Irish rank of Serjeant @-@ at @-@ law ( Ireland ) survived until 1919 . Alexander Sullivan , the last Irish serjeant , spent the second half of his career at the English Bar , and as a matter of courtesy was always addressed as Serjeant .
= = Organisation = =
= = = Serjeant 's Inn = = =
Serjeant 's Inn was an Inn of Court restricted to Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law . It operated from three locations , one in Holborn , known as Scroope 's Inn , which was abandoned by 1498 for the one in Fleet Street , which was pulled down during the 18th century , and one on Chancery Lane , pulled down in 1877 . The Inn was a voluntary association , and although most Serjeants joined upon being appointed they were not required to . There were rarely more than 40 Serjeants , even including members of the judiciary , and the Inns were noticeably smaller than the Inns of Court . Unlike the Inns of Court , Serjeant 's Inn was a private establishment similar to a gentlemen 's club .
The Inn on Fleet Street existed from at least 1443 , when it was rented from the Dean of York . By the 16th century it had become the main Inn , before being burnt down during the Great Fire of London . It was rebuilt by 1670 , but the end finally came in 1733 . The Fleet Street Inn had fallen into a " ruinous state " , and the Serjeants had been unable to obtain a renewal of their lease . They abandoned the property , and it returned to the Dean .
The property on Chancery Lane consisted of a Hall , dining room , a library , kitchens and offices for the Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law . This Inn was originally known as " Skarle 's Inn " from about 1390 , named after John Scarle , who became Master of the Rolls in 1394 . By 1404 it was known as " Farringdon 's Inn " , but although the Serjeants were in full possession by 1416 it was not until 1484 that the property became known as Serjeant 's Inn . Newly promoted Serjeants had to pay £ 350 in the 19th century , while those promoted solely to take up judicial office had to pay £ 500 . The Hall was a large room hung with portraits of various famous judges and Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law , with three windows on one side each containing the coat of arms of a distinguished judge . Around the room were the coats of arms of various Serjeants , which were given to their descendants when the Inn was finally sold . When the Fleet Street Inn was abandoned , this location became the sole residence of the Serjeants . With the demise of the order after the Judicature Act 1873 , there was no way to support the Inn , and it was sold in 1877 for £ 57 @,@ 100 . The remaining Serjeants were accepted into their former Inns of Court , where judicial Serjeants were made Benchers and normal Serjeants barristers .
= = = Call to the Coif = = =
The process of being called to the order of Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law stayed fairly constant . The traditional method was that the Serjeants would discuss among themselves prospective candidates , and then make recommendations to the Chief Justice of the Common Pleas . He would pass these names on to the Lord Chancellor , who would appoint the new Serjeants . This was intended to provide a way to select possible judges in a period where political favouritism was rampant – since only Serjeants could become judges , making sure that Serjeants were not political appointees was seen to provide for a neutral judiciary . Serjeants were traditionally appointed by a writ directly from the King . The writ was issued under the Great Seal of the Realm and required " the elected and qualified apprentices of the law to take the state and degree of a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law " . The newly created Serjeants would then assemble in one of the Inns of Court , where they would hear a speech from the Lord Chancellor or Lord Chief Justice and be given a purse of gold . The Coif was then placed on the Serjeant 's head . The Serjeants were required to swear an oath , which was that they would :
" serve the King 's people as one of the Serjeants @-@ at @-@ law , and you shall truly counsel them that you be retained with after your cunning ; and you shall not defer or delay their causes willingly , for covetness of money , or other thing that may turn you to profit ; and you shall give due attendance accordingly . So help you God . "
The new Serjeants would give a feast to celebrate , and gave out rings to their close friends and family to mark the occasion . The King , the Lord Chancellor and other figures also received rings . The major courts would be suspended for the day , and the other Serjeants , judges , leaders of the Inns of Court and occasionally the King would attend . Serjeant 's Inn and the Inns of Court were not big enough for such an occasion , and Ely Place or Lambeth Palace would instead be used . The feasts gradually declined in importance , and by the 17th century they were small enough to be held in the Inns . The last recorded feast was in 1736 in Middle Temple , when fourteen new Serjeants were raised to the Coif .
= = = Robes = = =
The traditional clothing of a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law consisted of a Coif , a robe and a furred cloak . The robe and cloak were later adapted into the robe worn by judges . The cut and colour of this robe varied – records from the King 's Privy Wardrobe show judges being instructed to wear robes of scarlet , green , purple and miniver , and Serjeants being ordered to wear the same . In 1555 new Serjeants were required to have robes of scarlet , brown , blue , mustard and murrey . By the time the order came to an end the formal robes were red , but Mr. Serjeant Robinson recalled that , towards the end days of the order , black silk gowns were the everyday court garb and the red gown was worn only on certain formal occasions . The cape was originally a cloak worn separately from the robe , but gradually made its way into the uniform as a whole . John Fortescue described the cape as the " main ornament of the order " , distinguished only from the cape worn by judges because it was furred with lambskin rather than miniver . The capes were not worn into court by the advocates , only by the serjeants .
The Coif was the main symbol of the Order of Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law , and is where their most recognisable name ( the Order of the Coif ) comes from . The Coif was white and made of either silk or lawn . A Serjeant was never obliged to take off or cover his Coif , not even in the presence of the King , except as a judge when passing a death sentence . In that situation he would wear a Black cap intended to cover the Coif , although it is often confused with the coif itself . When wigs were first introduced for barristers and judges it caused some difficulty for Serjeants , who were not allowed to cover the Coif . Wigmakers got around this by adding a small white cloth to the top of the wig , representing the Coif .
= = = King 's or Queen 's Serjeants = = =
A King 's or Queen 's Serjeant was a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law appointed to serve the Crown as a legal adviser to the monarch and their government in the same way as the Attorney @-@ General for England and Wales . The King 's Serjeant ( who had the postnominal KS , or QS during the reign of a female monarch ) would represent the Crown in court , acting as prosecutors in criminal cases and representatives in civil ones , and would have higher powers and ranking in the lower courts than the Attorney- or Solicitor General . King 's Serjeants also worked as legal advisers in the House of Lords , and were not allowed to act in cases against the Crown or do anything that would harm it ; in 1540 Serjeant Browne was heavily punished for creating a tax avoidance scheme . The King 's Serjeants would wear a black Coif with a narrow strip of white , unlike the all @-@ white Coif of a normal Serjeant . The King 's Serjeants were required to swear a second oath to serve " The King and his people " , rather than " The King 's people " as a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law would swear . The King 's favoured Serjeant would become the King 's Premier Serjeant , while the oldest one was known as the King 's Ancient Serjeant .
= = = Precedence , status and rights of audience = = =
For almost all of their history , Serjeants at Law and King 's Serjeants were the only advocates given rights of audience in the Court of Common Pleas . Until the 17th century they were also first in the order of precedence in the Court of King 's Bench and Court of Chancery , which gave them priority in motions before the court . Serjeants also had the privilege of being immune from most normal forms of lawsuit – they could only be sued by a writ from the Court of Chancery . It was held as an extension of this that servants of Serjeants could only be sued in the Common Pleas . As part of the Court of Common Pleas the Serjeants also performed some judicial duties , such as levying fines . In exchange for these privileges , Serjeants were expected to fulfil certain duties ; firstly , that they represent anybody who asked regardless of their ability to pay , and secondly that , due to the small number of judges , they serve as deputy judges to hear cases when there was no judge available .
Only Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law could become judges of the common law courts ; this rule came into being in the 14th century for the Courts of Common Pleas and King 's Bench , and was extended to the Exchequer of Pleas in the 16th century ; it did not apply to the Court of Chancery , a court of equity , or the Ecclesiastical Courts . The Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law also had social privileges ; they ranked above Knights Bachelor and Companions of the Bath , and their wives had the right to be addressed as " Lady - " , in the same way as the wives of Knights or Baronets . A Serjeant made a King 's Counsel or judge would still retain these social privileges . As the cream of the legal profession , Serjeants earned higher fees than normal barristers .
In the order of precedence King 's Serjeants came before all other barristers , even the Attorney @-@ General , until the introduction of King 's Counsel . This state of affairs came to an end as a result of two changes – firstly , during the reign of James I , when a royal patent gave the Attorney General precedence over all King 's Serjeants " except the two ancientiest " , and secondly in 1814 when the Attorney General of the time was a barrister and the Solicitor General ( politically junior to the Attorney General ) a King 's Serjeant . To reflect the political reality , the Attorney General was made superior to any King 's Serjeant , and this remained until the order of Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law finally died out .
= = In Literature = =
The main character in C.J. Sansom 's ' Shardlake ' novels , hunchback lawyer Matthew Shardlake , is a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law during the reign of King Henry VIII of England .
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= Jack Thompson ( activist ) =
John Bruce " Jack " Thompson ( born July 25 , 1951 ) is an American activist and disbarred attorney , based in Coral Gables , Florida . Thompson is known for his role as an anti @-@ video @-@ game activist , particularly against violence and sex in video games . During his time as an attorney , Thompson focused his legal efforts against what he perceives as obscenity in modern culture . This included rap music , broadcasts by shock jock Howard Stern , the content of computer and video games and their alleged effects on children .
He is also known for his unusual filings to the Florida Bar , including challenging the constitutionality of the Florida Bar itself in 1993 . Later the Florida Supreme Court described his filings as " repetitive , frivolous and insulting to the integrity of the court " . On March 20 , 2008 , the Florida Supreme Court imposed sanctions on Thompson , requiring that any of his future filings in the court be signed by a member of the Florida Bar other than himself . In July 2008 , Thompson was permanently disbarred by the Supreme Court of Florida for inappropriate conduct , including making false statements to tribunals and disparaging and humiliating litigants .
= = Background = =
Thompson grew up in Cleveland , Ohio , attended Cuyahoga Falls H.S. and attended Denison University . He received media attention when he hosted his own political talk show on the college radio station . He then attended Vanderbilt University Law School , where he met his wife , Patricia . In 1976 , they moved to Florida , where Thompson , working as a lawyer and then a fund @-@ raiser for a Christian ministry , began attending the Key Biscayne Presbyterian Church and became a born @-@ again Christian . Thompson admits to having a " colorful disciplinary history " as an attorney .
= = The Neil Rogers Show = =
In 1988 , Thompson became involved in a feud with WIOD Radio host Neil Rogers , after Thompson was instrumental in persuading the FCC to fine WIOD $ 10 @,@ 000 for airing such parody songs as " Boys Want Sex in the Morning " on Rogers ' show . Thompson also sued the station for violating a December 1987 agreement to end on @-@ air harassment against him . For the next eight months , Thompson recorded all of Rogers ' broadcasts and documented 40 @,@ 000 mentionings of his name . Thompson claimed that one of the terms of his agreement with the station was that the station would pay him $ 5 @,@ 000 each time his name was mentioned , totaling $ 200 million in the suit .
= = Janet Reno = =
Thompson first met Janet Reno in November 1975 , when he applied for a job as an assistant State 's Attorney in Dade County , but was not hired . In 1988 , he ran for prosecutor against then incumbent Dade County State Attorney Janet Reno , after she had declined his request to prosecute Neil Rogers . Thompson gave Reno a letter at a campaign event requesting that she check a box to indicate whether she was homosexual , bisexual , or heterosexual . Thompson said that Reno then put her hand on his shoulder and responded , " I 'm only interested in virile men . That ’ s why I 'm not attracted to you . " He filed a police report accusing her of battery for touching him . In response , Reno asked Florida governor Bob Martinez to appoint a special prosecutor to investigate . The special prosecutor rejected the charge , concluding that it was " a political ploy " . Reno was ultimately re @-@ elected with 69 % of the vote . Thompson repeated allegations that Reno was a lesbian when she was nominated as U.S. Attorney General , leading one of her supporters , lieutenant governor Buddy MacKay , to dismiss him as a " kook " .
In 1990 , after his election loss , Thompson began a campaign against the efforts of Switchboard of Miami , a social services group of which Reno was a board member . Thompson charged that the group placed " homosexual @-@ education tapes " in public schools . Switchboard responded by getting the Florida Supreme Court to order that he submit to a psychiatric examination . Thompson did so and passed . Thompson has since stated on more than one occasion that he is " the only officially certified sane lawyer in the entire state of Florida " .
= = Rap music = =
Thompson came to national prominence in the controversy over 2 Live Crew 's As Nasty As They Wanna Be album . ( Luke Skyywalker Records , the company of 2 Live Crew 's Luther Campbell , had previously released a record supporting Reno in her race against Thompson . ) On January 1 , 1990 , he wrote to Martinez and Reno asking them to investigate whether the album violated Florida obscenity laws . Although the state prosecutor declined to proceed with an investigation , Thompson pushed local officials in various parts of the state to block sales of the album , along with N.W.A ’ s Straight Outta Compton . In sending documents to opponents , Thompson would frequently attach a photocopy of his driver 's license , with a photo of Batman pasted over his own . Thompson said , " I have sent my opponents pictures of Batman to remind them I 'm playing the role of Batman . Just like Bruce Wayne helped the police in the movie , I have had to assist the sheriff of Broward County . " He also wore a Batman wristwatch . Thompson compared Campbell to the Joker . Thompson also said , " I understand as well as anybody that the First Amendment is a cornerstone of a free society — but there is a responsibility to people who can be harmed by words and thoughts , one of which is the message from Campbell that women can be sexually abused . "
Thompson also took issue with another 2 Live Crew song , " Banned in the U.S.A. " . He sent a letter to Jon Landau , manager of Bruce Springsteen , whose song " Born in the U.S.A. " was to be sampled by the group . Thompson suggested that Landau " protect ' Born in the U.S.A. ' from its apparent theft by a bunch of clowns who traffic toxic waste to kids , " or else Thompson would " be telling the nation about Mr. Springsteen 's tacit approval " of the song , which , according to Campbell , " expresses anger about the failure of the First Amendment to protect 2 Live Crew from prosecution " . Thompson also said , " the ' social commentary ' on this album is akin to a sociopath 's discharging his AK @-@ 47 into a crowded schoolyard , with the machine gun bursts interrupted by Pee @-@ wee Herman 's views on politics " .
The members of 2 Live Crew responded to these efforts by suing the Broward County sheriff in federal district court . The sheriff had previously told local retailers that selling the album could result in a prosecution for obscenity violations . While they were granted an injunction because law enforcement actions were an unconstitutional prior restraint on free speech , the court ruled that the album was in fact obscene . However , an appellate court reversed the obscenity ruling , because simply playing the tape was insufficient evidence of the constitutional requirement that it had no artistic value .
As the debate continued , Thompson wrote , " An industry that says a line cannot be drawn will be drawn and quartered . " He said of his campaign , " I won 't stop till I get the head of a record company or record chain in jail . Only then will they stop trafficking in obscenity " . Bob Guccione , Jr . , founder of Spin magazine , responded by calling Thompson " a sort of latter @-@ day Don Quixote , as equally at odds with his times as that mythical character was , " and argued that his campaign was achieving " two things ... : pissing everybody off and compounding his own celebrity " . Thompson responded by noting , " Law enforcement and I put 2 Live Crew 's career back into the toilet where it began . "
Thompson wrote another letter in 1991 , this time to the Minnesota attorney general Skip Humphrey , complaining about the N.W.A album Niggaz4Life . Humphrey warned locally @-@ based Musicland that sales of the album might violate state law against distribution of sexually explicit material harmful to minors . Humphrey also referred the matter to the Minneapolis city attorney , who concluded that some of the songs might fit the legal definition if issued as singles , but that sales of the album as a whole were not prosecutable . Thompson also initiated a similar campaign in Boston . Later , Thompson would criticize the Republican Party for inviting N.W.A member and party donor Eric " Eazy @-@ E " Wright to an exclusive function .
In 1992 , Thompson was hired by the Freedom Alliance , a self @-@ described patriot group founded by Oliver North , described as " far @-@ right " by The Washington Post . By this time , Thompson was looking to have Time Warner , then being criticized for promoting the Ice @-@ T song " Cop Killer " , prosecuted for federal and state crimes such as sedition , incitement to riot , and " advocating overthrow of government " by distributing material that , in Thompson 's view , advocated the killing of police officers . Time Warner eventually released Ice @-@ T and his band from their contract , and voluntarily suspended distribution of the album on which " Cop Killer " was featured .
Thompson ’ s push to label various musical performances obscene was not entirely limited to rap . In addition to taking on 2 Live Crew , Thompson campaigned against sales of the racy music video for Madonna 's " Justify My Love " . Then in 1996 , he took on MTV broadcasts for " objectification of women " by writing to the station 's corporate parent , Viacom , demanding a stop to what he called " corporate pollution " . He also went after MTV 's advertisers and urged the United States Army to pull recruiting commercials , citing the Army ’ s recruitment of women and problems with sexual harassment scandals .
= = Video games = =
Thompson has heavily criticized a number of video games and campaigned against their producers and distributors . His basic argument is that violent video games have repeatedly been used by teenagers as " murder simulators " to rehearse violent plans . He has pointed to alleged connections between such games and a number of school massacres . According to Thompson , " In every school shooting , we find that kids who pull the trigger are video gamers . " Also , he claims that scientific studies show teenagers process the game environment differently from adults , leading to increased violence and copycat behavior . According to Thompson , " If some wacked @-@ out adult wants to spend his time playing Grand Theft Auto : Vice City , one has to wonder why he doesn 't get a life , but when it comes to kids , it has a demonstrable impact on their behavior and the development of the frontal lobes of their brain . " Thompson has described the proliferation of games by Sony , a Japanese company , as " Pearl Harbor 2 " . According to Thompson , " Many parents think that stores won ’ t sell an M @-@ rated game to someone under 17 . We know that 's not true , and , in fact , kids roughly 50 percent of that time , all the studies show , are able to walk into any store and get any game regardless of the rating , no questions asked . "
Thompson has rejected arguments that such video games are protected by freedom of expression , saying , " Murder simulators are not constitutionally protected speech . They ’ re not even speech . They ’ re dangerous physical appliances that teach a kid how to kill efficiently and to love it , " as well as simply calling video games " mental masturbation " . In addition , he has attributed part of the impetus for violent games to the military , saying that it was looking " for a way to disconnect in the soldier 's mind the physical act of pulling the trigger from the awful reality that a life may end " . Thompson further claims that some of these games are based on military training and simulation technologies , such as those being developed at the Institute for Creative Technologies , which , he suggests , were created by the Department of Defense to help overcome soldiers ' inhibition to kill . He also claims that the PlayStation 2 's DualShock controller " gives you a pleasurable buzz back into your hands with each kill . This is operant conditioning , behavior modification right out of B. F. Skinner 's laboratory . "
Although his efforts dealing with video games have generally focused on juveniles , Thompson got involved in a case involving an adult on one occasion in 2004 . This was an aggravated murder case against 29 @-@ year @-@ old Charles McCoy , Jr . , the defendant in a series of highway shootings the previous year around Columbus , Ohio . When McCoy was captured , a game console and a copy of The Getaway were in his motel room . Although not representing McCoy and over the objections of McCoy 's lawyers , Thompson succeeded in getting the court to unseal a search warrant for McCoy 's residence . This showed , among other things , the discovery of additional games State of Emergency , Max Payne , and Dead to Rights . However , he was not allowed to present the evidence to McCoy , whose defense team was relying on an insanity defense based on paranoid schizophrenia . In Thompson 's estimation , McCoy was the " functional equivalent of a 15 @-@ year @-@ old , " and " the only thing insane about this case is the ( insanity ) defense " .
= = = Early litigation = = =
Thompson filed a lawsuit on behalf of the parents of three children killed in the Heath High School shooting in 1997 . Investigations showed that the perpetrator , 14 @-@ year @-@ old Michael Carneal , had regularly played various computer games ( including Doom , Quake , Castle Wolfenstein , Redneck Rampage , Nightmare Creatures , MechWarrior , and Resident Evil ) and accessed some pornographic websites . Carneal had also owned a videotape of The Basketball Diaries , which includes a high school student dreaming about shooting his teacher and some classmates . The suit sought $ 33 million in damages , alleging that the producers of the games , the movie , and the operators of the Internet sites were negligent in distributing this material to a minor because it would desensitize him and make him more prone to violence . Additional claims included product liability for making " defective " products ( the defects alleged were violent features and lack of warnings ) and violation of the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act for distributing this material to minors . Said Thompson , " We intend to hurt Hollywood . We intend to hurt the video game industry . We intend to hurt the sex porn sites . "
The suit was filed in federal district court and was dismissed for failing to present a legally recognizable claim . The court concluded that Carneal 's actions were not reasonably foreseeable by the defendants and that in any case , his actions superseded those of the defendants , so that the latter could not be the proximate cause of the harm . In addition , the judge determined that " thoughts , ideas and images " in the defendants ' materials did not constitute " products " that could be considered defective . The ruling was upheld on appeal .
= = = Grand Theft Auto = = =
In February 2003 , Thompson asked permission to file an amicus curiae ( or " friend of the court " ) brief in the Ohio case of Dustin Lynch , 16 , who was charged with aggravated murder in the death of JoLynn Mishne ; Lynch was " obsessed " with Grand Theft Auto III . When Judge John Lohn ruled that Lynch would be tried as an adult , Thompson passed a message from Mishne 's father to the judge , asserting that " the attorneys had better tell the jury about the violent video game that trained this kid [ and ] showed him how to kill our daughter , JoLynn . If they don 't , I will . " In a motion sent to the prosecutor , the boy 's court @-@ appointed lawyer , and to reporters , Thompson asked to be recognized as the boy 's lawyer in the case . However , Medina County Prosecutor Dean Holman said Thompson would be faced with deeply conflicting interests if he were to represent Dustin Lynch because he also advised Mishne 's parents . Claiming that delays had weakened his case , Thompson asked Medina County Common Pleas Judge Christopher Collier to disqualify himself from presiding over the case because the judge had not ruled on Thompson 's request for two months . Lynch himself eventually rejected Thompson 's offer , withdrawing his insanity plea . Lynch 's mother , Jerrilyn Thomas , who previously demanded that Collier appoint Thompson to defend her son , said she changed her mind after visiting with her boy in jail , saying , " It has nothing to do with video games or Paxil , and my son 's no murderer . "
Thompson returned to file a lawsuit in Tennessee state court in October 2003 on behalf of the victims of two teenage stepbrothers who had pleaded guilty to reckless homicide , endangerment , and assault . Since the boys told investigators they were inspired by Grand Theft Auto III , Thompson sought $ 246 million in damages from the publisher , Take @-@ Two Interactive , along with PlayStation 2 maker Sony Computer Entertainment America and retailer Wal @-@ Mart . The suit charged that the defendants knew or should have known that the game would cause copycat violence . On October 22 , 2003 , the case was removed to the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Tennessee . Two days later , the plaintiffs filed a Notice of Voluntary Dismissal , and the case was closed .
Thompson was involved in another similar suit in Alabama in 2005 on behalf of the families of police personnel killed by Devin Moore , a teenager who was reportedly a compulsive Grand Theft Auto player . However , his participation in the case ran into a dispute over his pro hac vice admission to practice law in that state . The opposing attorneys sought removal of this privilege by arguing that his conduct was unethical and claiming he had threatened and harassed them in letters and emails . The judge added that Thompson had violated his gag order during Moore ’ s criminal trial . Thompson tried to withdraw from the case , but his request was denied by the judge , who went ahead and revoked Thompson 's temporary admission to the state bar . For his part , Thompson said he thought the judge was trying to protect Moore 's criminal conviction at any cost . He also complained about the judge 's ethics , saying a local attorney who claimed to have influence on the judge had assured him the case would be dismissed unless the attorney was on Thompson 's team , and also claimed that Rockstar Entertainment and Take Two Interactive posted slanderous comments about him on their website .
In the aftermath of this lawsuit , Thompson lobbied Alabama attorney general Troy King to file a civil suit and call on retailers not to sell " cop @-@ killing games " . After the slaying of another police officer in Gassville , Arkansas by Jacob D. Robida , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old fugitive , Thompson again raised the possibility of a connection to Grand Theft Auto , but investigators found no evidence that video games were involved .
Thompson once reported that he had videotaped a Miami Best Buy selling a copy of Grand Theft Auto : Vice City to his son who was 10 at the time . In a letter to Best Buy , he wrote , " Prosecutions and public relations consequences should fall on your Minneapolis headquarters like snowflakes . " He eventually sued the company in Florida , arguing that it had violated a law against sale of sexual materials deemed harmful to minors . In January 2005 , Best Buy agreed that it would enforce an existing policy to check the identification of anyone who appeared to be 17 or under and tried to purchase games rated " M " ( for mature audiences ) . No law in effect at the time prohibited selling " M " rated video games to juveniles .
In September 2006 , Thompson filed a suit in Albuquerque , New Mexico against Sony , Take @-@ Two , Rockstar Games , and Cody Posey , for the wrongful death of three members of Posey 's family . The 69 @-@ page complaint filed by Thompson and Albuquerque attorney Steven Sanders argued that " obsessively " playing Grand Theft Auto : Vice City made violence " pleasurable and attractive , " disconnected violence from consequences , and caused Posey to " act out , copycat , replicate and emulate the violence " when he shot and killed his father , stepmother , and stepsister , and then buried them under a manure pile at a ranch owned by former ABC News reporter Sam Donaldson in July , 2004 . Thompson and Sanders filed the lawsuit on behalf of the surviving family members of Posey 's father . According to Thompson , " Posey essentially practiced how to kill on this game . If it wasn 't for Grand Theft Auto , three people might not now be dead . " The lawsuit claims that Thompson was told by a sheriff 's deputy that the game and a Sony PlayStation 2 were found at the ranch . The suit also claims that the game taught Posey " how to point and shoot a gun in a fashion making him an extraordinarily effective killer without teaching him any of the constraints or responsibilities needed to inhibit such a killing capacity " . Gary Mitchell , Posey 's criminal defense attorney , said Thompson contacted him " numerous times " before the trial , urging Mitchell to highlight the game in Posey 's defense , but Mitchell said he " just didn 't find it had any merit whatsoever " .
On March 14 , 2007 , Take @-@ Two filed a lawsuit to prevent Thompson from preventing the sale of Grand Theft Auto IV and Manhunt 2 to minors , claiming that Thompson 's effort to block sales of its games through lawsuits violates the company 's First Amendment rights . Responding , Thompson said , " I have been praying , literally , that Take @-@ Two and its lawyers would do something so stupid , so arrogant , so dumb , even dumber than what they have to date done , that such a misstep would enable me to destroy Take @-@ Two . " On April 19 , 2007 , Thompson and Take @-@ Two settled their suit , with Thompson agreeing not to restrict sales through any court worldwide of Take @-@ Two 's games , threaten to sue the company , or accuse Take @-@ Two of any wrongdoing based on the sale of any of its games . One analyst said that the settlement was likely to mute his public pronouncements and lawsuits against the company . However , upon the game 's 2008 release , Thompson called Grand Theft Auto IV " the gravest assault upon children in this country since polio , " and asked Minnesota Governor Tim Pawlenty to " pursue and file criminal charges against [ Minnesota @-@ based retailers ] Target and Best Buy " . He also sent a letter to Take @-@ Two chairman Strauss Zelnick 's attorney , addressed to Zelnick 's mother , in which Thompson accused her son of " doing everything he possibly can to sell as many copies of GTA : IV to teen boys in the United States , a country in which your son claims you raised him to be a ' a Boy Scout ' . ... More like the Hitler Youth , I would say . " On May 1 , 2008 Thompson appeared on the CNN Headline News program Glenn Beck , asserting that the game 's sexual content made its sale to minors illegal , and that he was working with law enforcement to have criminal prosecutions brought . Thompson also filed a complaint with the Chicago Transit Authority about poster ads for the game at Chicago , Illinois bus stops .
In September 2013 , Thompson expressed his hatred of Grand Theft Auto V during a series of e @-@ mails exchange with GameZone writer Lance Liebl during its launch week . The game happened to launch around the same time as the Washington Navy Yard shooting . Traditional media outlets such as FOX News sought out to find proof that violent video games , such as Grand Theft Auto V , had a role in the brutal killings . Gamezone responded by writing an article that disagrees with this . These caught Thompson 's attention , who then sent an e @-@ mail to the site . " Look , Lance , " he wrote in an email , " The American Psychological Association has established a causal link between these games and increased aggression . The Dept. of Defense uses them for that purpose . " Lance responded by offering Thompson a chance to come on the site and explain his stance , which he refused , describing gamers as " too brain @-@ impaired to get it . "
= = = Bully = = =
Beginning in 2005 , Thompson supported a campaign to discourage Take @-@ Two ’ s subsidiary , Rockstar Games , from releasing a game called Bully , in which , according to Thompson , " what you are in effect doing is rehearsing your physical revenge and violence against those whom you have been victimized by . And then you , like Klebold and Harris in Columbine , become the ultimate bully . " According to Thompson , the game " shows you how to — by bullying — take over your school . You punch people ; you hit them with sling shots ; you dunk their heads in dirty toilets . There 's white @-@ on @-@ black crime in the game . You bludgeon teachers and classmates with bats . It 's absolutely nuts . " Thompson sued Wal @-@ Mart , Best Buy , Target , Circuit City , GameStop , and Toys ' R ' Us , seeking an order to bar the game ’ s release . He also participated in a protest at Rockstar 's office that also included students from Peaceaholics , a Washington , D.C. mentoring organization . Thompson said he hoped that the pressure would get retailers to refuse to carry the game . In March 2006 , a Florida school board he had lobbied passed a resolution criticizing the game , but only urged retailers not to sell the game to minors .
Thompson also criticized Bill Gates and Microsoft for contracting with Rockstar Games to release the game on the Xbox . The Xbox version has since been canceled for undisclosed reasons , but a version was released years later on the Xbox 360 . In August 2006 , Thompson requested a congressional subpoena for an early copy , threatening to file suit in Miami if he did not gain help from U.S. Rep. Cliff Stearns . Once the game is out , according to Thompson , " the horse will be out of the barn and it will be too late to do anything about it " . Thompson argued that it violated Florida 's public nuisance laws , which prohibit activities that can injure the health of the community .
Rockstar Games co @-@ founder Terry Donovan responded , saying " I would prefer it if we could simply make great games and not have to deal with misunderstanding and misperception of what we do . " After receiving no response from Rockstar regarding an advance copy , Thompson filed the public nuisance complaint against Wal @-@ Mart , Take @-@ Two Interactive , and GameStop , demanding that he be allowed to preview the game before its October 17 release date . Take @-@ Two offered to bring in a copy and let both Judge Ronald Friedman and Thompson view the game in the judge 's chambers on October 12 , 2006 . The judge ultimately saw no reason to restrict sales and dismissed the complaint the next day .
Thompson was critical of the judge 's decision , telling the judge " You did not see the game ... You don 't even know what it was you saw , " as well as accusing the Take @-@ Two employee who demonstrated the game of avoiding the most violent parts . Blank Rome subsequently filed a motion to have Thompson 's behavior declared " contempt for the court " . Judge Friedman then recused himself from ruling , and instead filed a complaint against Thompson with the Florida Bar , calling Thompson 's behavior " inappropriate by a member of the bar , unprofessional and contemptible " .
Thompson later drew attention to the game 's main character , a 15 @-@ year old male , being able to kiss other boys . Thompson wrote to ESRB president Patricia Vance , " We just found gay sexual content in Bully as Jimmy Hopkins makes out with another male student . Good luck with your Teen rating now . " The ESRB responded by saying they were already aware that the content was in the game when they rated it .
= = = Manhunt = = =
During the aftermath of the murder of Stefan Pakeerah , by his friend Warren Leblanc in Leicestershire , England , the game Manhunt was linked after the media wrongfully claimed police has found a copy in Leblanc 's room . Although the police officially denied any link , citing drug @-@ related robbery as the motive and revealing that the game had been found in Pakeerah 's bedroom , not Leblanc 's , Thompson , who had heard of the murder , claimed that he had written to Rockstar after the game was released , warning them that the nature of the game could inspire copycat killings ; " I wrote warning them that somebody was going to copycat the Manhunt game and kill somebody . We have had dozens of killings in the U.S. by children who had played these types of games . This is not an isolated incident . These types of games are basically murder simulators . There are people being killed over here almost on a daily basis . " Soon thereafter , the Pakeerah family hired Thompson with the aim of suing Sony and Rockstar for £ 50 million in a wrongful death claim .
Jack Thompson would later vow to permanently ban the game during the release of the sequel Manhunt 2 . Thompson said he planned to sue Take @-@ Two / Rockstar in an effort to have both Manhunt 2 and Grand Theft Auto IV banned as " public nuisances " , saying " Killings have been specifically linked to Take @-@ Two 's Manhunt and Grand Theft Auto games . [ I have ] asked Take @-@ Two and retailers to stop selling Take @-@ Two 's " Mature " murder simulation games to kids . They all refuse . They are about to be told by a court of law that they must adhere to the logic of their own " Mature " labels .
The suits were eradicated when Take @-@ Two petitioned U.S. District Court , SD FL to block the impending lawsuit , on the grounds that video games purchased for private entertainment could not be considered public nuisances . The following day , Thompson wrote on his website ; " I have been praying , literally , that Take @-@ Two and its lawyers would do something so stupid , that such a misstep would enable me to destroy Take @-@ Two . The pit Take @-@ Two has dug for itself will be patently clear next week when I strike back . "
= = = Mortal Kombat = = =
In October 2006 , Thompson sent a letter to Midway Games , demanding they cease and desist selling the latest game in the Mortal Kombat series , Mortal Kombat : Armageddon , claiming that the game was illegally profiting on his likeness , because gamers could use the Kreate a Fighter option to make a character who looked like Thompson . Midway did not respond to his letter .
= = = Activism and lobbying = = =
In addition to filing lawsuits , Thompson has pushed for measures against similar games in a variety of public settings . He wrote a joint article in the Christian Science Monitor with Eugene F. Provenzo , a University of Miami professor who studies the effects of video games on children . Originally brought together to provide opposing viewpoints on 60 Minutes in the aftermath of the Columbine High School massacre , they said they had become friends and were collaborating on a book . They described themselves as having " a shared belief that first @-@ person shooter video games are bad for our children , teaching them to act aggressively and providing them with efficient killing skills and romanticized and trivialized scenarios for killing in the real world " .
Thompson has supported legislation in a number of states that would ban sales of violent and sexually explicit video games to minors . In response to First Amendment concerns , he argued that the games were a " public safety hazard . " However , he rejected as " completely unconstitutional " Hillary Clinton 's proposed legislation to ban sales to minors of games rated " M " for Mature by the Entertainment Software Rating Board . Thompson contended that the government could not enforce a private @-@ sector standard but had to depend on a Miller obscenity test . He charged that Clinton was simply positioning herself politically , with the support of the gaming industry , by proposing a bill which he felt she knew would be unconstitutional .
In July 2005 , Thompson sent a letter to several politicians urging them to investigate The Sims 2 , alleging that the game contained nudity accessible by entering special codes . Thompson called the nudity inappropriate for a game rated " T " for Teen , a rating which indicates suitability for anyone 13 and older . Manufacturer Electronic Arts dismissed the allegations , with vice president Jeff Brown explaining that game characters have " no anatomical detail " under their clothes , effectively resembling Barbie dolls . Although the game does display blurred @-@ out patches over body regions when characters are naked , such as when taking a shower , Brown said that was for " humorous effect " and denied there was anything improper about the game . Nevertheless , a command that could be entered into the in @-@ game console in order to disable the blur effect was removed from the game in an expansion . No official reason was given for the change .
In Louisiana , Thompson helped draft a 2006 bill sponsored by state representative Roy Burrell to ban the sale of violent video games to buyers under 18 ( HB1381 ) . In an effort to avoid constitutional problems , it avoided trying to define " violent " and instead adopted a variation of the Miller obscenity test : sales to minors would be illegal based on community standards if the game appealed to " the minor 's morbid interest in violence " , was patently offensive based on adult standards of suitability for minors , and lacked serious literary , artistic , political , or scientific value for minors . The bill was passed unanimously by the state House and approved by the Senate Judiciary A Committee , despite industry opposition and predictions that it too would be unconstitutional . The Shreveport Times editorialized that Thompson 's support of the bill " should immediately set off alarms " and described Thompson as someone who " thrives on chasing cultural ambulances " . In defense of the bill , Thompson said that it was needed for public safety , and that it was a " miracle " that a Columbine @-@ type event hadn 't happened yet in Louisiana . However , the ESA filed suit under Entertainment Software Association v. Foti , and U.S. District Judge James Brady issued a preliminary injunction , temporarily blocking the law from taking effect until full judicial review can be done . The law was permanently enjoined in late November 2006 , and the state was ordered to pay the legal fees of the plaintiffs . Judge Brady was " dumbfounded " that state legislators and Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco wasted taxpayer money by trying to enact the law .
At one point , Thompson was asked by the National Institute on Media and the Family to stop invoking the organization 's name in his campaigns . NIMF president David Walsh felt Thompson cast the organization in a bad light whenever he brought up their name . " Your commentary has included extreme hyperbole and your tactics have included personally attacking individuals for whom I have a great deal of respect , " Walsh said in an open letter to Thompson .
Thompson has additionally worked to influence police investigations concerning violent acts which he views as being connected to violence in video games media . On June 2 , 2006 , Thompson suggested that West Feliciana Parish , Louisiana police detectives , investigating the murder of 55 @-@ year @-@ old Michael Gore by 17 @-@ year @-@ old Kurt Edward Neher , should look into the video games played by Neher . According to Sheriff J. Austin Daniel , an autopsy showed Gore was beaten to death as well as shot in the face . Concerning this , Thompson stated that " nobody shoots anybody in the face unless you 're a hit man or a video gamer . "
= = = Other public commentary = = =
Thompson predicted that the perpetrator of the Beltway sniper attacks would be " a teenaged boy , who plays video games " and speculated incorrectly that he " may indeed ride a bicycle to and from his shooting locations , his gun broken down and placed in a backpack while he pedals . " Saying that the shooter , Lee Boyd Malvo , had " trained " on Halo , Thompson later claimed credit for this on The Today Show : " I predicted that the beltway sniper would be a teen @-@ aged boy that trained on a game switched to sniper mode . And three months later , NBC reported that that 's exactly what Malvo did . And Muhammed had him train on the game to suppress his inhibition to kill . " John Muhammad was a Gulf War veteran and earned an expert marksmanship badge in the U.S. Army .
Thompson has also criticized a Christian video game based on the Left Behind series . In Left Behind : Eternal Forces , players participate in " battles raging in the streets of New York , " according to the game 's fact sheet . They engage in " physical and spiritual warfare : using the power of prayer to strengthen your troops in combat and wield modern military weaponry throughout the game world . " Thompson claims that the makers of the game are sacrificing their values . He said , " Because of the Christian context , somehow it 's OK ? It 's not OK . The context is irrelevant . It 's a mass @-@ killing game . " Left Behind author Tim LaHaye disagrees , saying " Rather than forbid young people from viewing their favorite pastime , I prefer to give them something that 's positive . " The dispute over the game has caused Thompson to sever ties with Tyndale House , which publishes both the Left Behind books and Thompson 's book , Out of Harm 's Way . Thompson has not seen the game , which he says has " personally broken my heart , " but claims , " I don 't have to meet Abraham Lincoln to know that he was the 16th president of the United States . "
In April 2007 , only hours after the Virginia Tech shooting ( and before Seung @-@ Hui Cho was actually identified ) , Thompson predicted that the shooter had trained on the game Counter @-@ Strike . According to Thompson , the game " drills you and gives you scenarios on how to kill them [ and ] gets you to kill them with your heart rate lower . " He says that Seung @-@ Hui " was in a hyper @-@ reality situation in virtual reality . " Though Seung @-@ Hui had last been known to have played Counter @-@ Strike in high school , four years prior to the shooting , Thompson asserts that " you don 't drop it when you go to college , typically . " Thompson disputed Seung @-@ Hui 's roommate 's claim that Seung @-@ Hui only used his computer to write fiction , on the grounds that " Cho was able to go room to room calmly , efficiently , coolly killing people . " Prior to being identified , Thompson attributed the " flat effect [ sic ] on [ Seung @-@ Hui 's ] face " and the efficiency of his attack to video game rehearsals of the shooting . However , a search warrant released , listing the items found in Cho 's dorm room , did not contain any video games , and a Washington Post story cited by Thompson later removed a paragraph stating that Seung @-@ Hui enjoyed violent video games in high school . Despite all evidence indicating that Seung @-@ Hui had not played Counter @-@ Strike in years , Thompson continued to insist that " this is not rocket science . When a kid who has never killed anyone in his life goes on a rampage and looks like the Terminator , he 's a video gamer . " Thompson also sent a letter to Bill Gates , saying , " Mr. Gates , your company is potentially legally liable ( for ) the harm done at Virginia Tech . Your game , a killing simulator , according to the news that used to be in the Post , trained him to enjoy killing and how to kill . " However , Microsoft did not create Counter @-@ Strike - they only published the Xbox version of the game . The official Virginia state panel commissioned to investigate the shooting determined that Seung @-@ Hui " played video games like Sonic the Hedgehog , " and that " none of the video games [ he had played ] were war games or had violent themes . "
In December 2007 , Thompson filed suit against Omaha , Nebraska Police Chief Thomas Warren , asking him to produce information on all " violent entertainment material " belonging to Robert Hawkins , who killed nine people , including himself , in a shooting at the Westroads Mall earlier that month . According to Omaha police , such information is not a matter of public record , as it is part of an ongoing criminal investigation .
On February 15 , 2008 , Jack Thompson claimed that the actions of Steven Kazmierczak , who the previous day killed five people at Northern Illinois University before committing suicide , were influenced by the game Counter @-@ Strike . In a subsequent news release , Thompson claimed that " We have a nation of Manchurian Candidate video gamers out there who are ready , willing , and able to massacre , and some of them will . " Thompson also threatened the university with a lawsuit if the school did not provide copies of " all documents that reveal [ Kazmierczak 's ] play of violent videogames . "
= = = Relationship with the gaming industry and gamers = = =
Thompson 's " high @-@ profile crusades " have made him an enemy of video game aficionados . On occasion , Thompson has sparred directly with the gaming industry and its fans . In 2005 , he wrote an open letter to Entertainment Software Association president Doug Lowenstein , making what he described as " a modest video game proposal " ( an allusion to the title of Jonathan Swift 's satirical essay , A Modest Proposal ) to the video game industry : Thompson said he would donate $ 10 @,@ 000 to a charity designated by Take @-@ Two CEO Paul Eibeler if any video game company would create a game including the scenario he described in the letter . The scenario called for the main character , whose son was killed by a boy who played violent video games , to murder a number of industry executives ( including one modeled on Eibeler ) and go on a killing spree at the Electronic Entertainment Expo . Video game fans promptly began working to take Thompson up on his offer , resulting in the game I 'm O.K – A Murder Simulator , among others . Afterwards , he claimed that his proposal was satire , and refused to make the promised donation .
In response , Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik , the creators of gaming webcomic Penny Arcade and of the children 's charity Child 's Play , stepped in to make the $ 10 @,@ 000 donation instead , writing in the memo field of their cheque , " For Jack Thompson , Because Jack Thompson Won 't . " Afterwards , Thompson tried unsuccessfully to get Seattle police and the FBI to investigate Holkins and Krahulik for orchestrating " criminal harassment " of him through articles on their site . Other webcomics have regularly incorporated references to Thompson , alluding to this incident as well as others .
In 2006 , two Michigan gamers began a project dubbed " Flowers for Jack " , soliciting donations to deliver a massive floral arrangement to Thompson ’ s office . The flowers were delivered in February along with a letter aimed at opening a dialogue between Thompson and the video gaming community . Thompson rejected this overture and forwarded the flowers to some of his industry foes , with such comments as " Discard them along with the decency you discarded long ago . I really don 't care . Grind them up and smoke them if you like . "
Gamers have responded to Thompson 's attempt to link the Virginia Tech massacre to the game Counter @-@ Strike . Video game Web sites and young gamers on Internet message boards " teemed with anger " at what San Francisco Chronicle reporter Peter Hartlaub called " his serial misstatements , " in some cases linking to YouTube videos of Thompson and dissecting his claims point by point . Jason Della Rocca , executive director of the International Game Developers Association , said , " It 's so sad . These massacre chasers — they 're worse than ambulance chasers — they 're waiting for these things to happen so they can jump on their soapbox . " In response , Thompson referred to Della Rocca as an " idiot " and a " jackass [ ... ] paid not to connect the dots [ connecting shootings to video games ] , " and compared himself to people who warned that the government should be more concerned about terrorism before the September 11 , 2001 attacks . According to Della Rocca , Thompson then challenged him to a series of gaming debates , claiming that they could each make more than $ 3 @,@ 000 per event . When Della Rocca suggested that neither he nor Thompson accept any money for the events , Thompson refused .
In July 2009 , Entertainment Consumers Association ( ECA ) president Hal Halpin posted a copy of an email exchange between himself and Thompson , stating , " I get messages ( IMs , emails , FB notes , etc . ) from members all the time , asking what the ( almost daily ) notes are from JT . Since this one 's fairly harmless and I 've redacted anything personal ( not that I don 't love getting his threatening cease and desist letters ) , I thought I 'd share it as a pretty typical exchange . " Halpin and Thompson have been vocal opponents since 1998 , when Halpin ran the game retail trade association IEMA . The exchange was sparked by a guest editorial that Halpin entitled , " Perception is Everything " for IndustryGamers.com where he called for consumers and the industry to speak out against negative stereotyping of gamers .
In March 2011 , in response to the creation of a school shooter mod entitled School Shooter : North American Tour 2012 , developed by Checkerboarded Studios on Valve Corporation 's Source engine , Thompson emailed Valve 's managing director , Gabe Newell , demanding that the mod be removed , as he speculated that Valve played a part in the mod 's development . In the letter , Thompson stated that Half @-@ Life was directly responsible for the Erfurt massacre , as well as the Virginia Tech massacre and that Valve had until 5 : 00 PM on March 18 to remove the mod .
= = The Howard Stern Show = =
In 2004 , Thompson helped get Howard Stern 's show taken off a radio station in Orlando , Florida by filing a complaint with the Federal Communications Commission . Thompson objected to Stern ’ s use of perceived obscenities on the air . He argued that " Either broadcasters will accept the light harness of decency that has been the law for decades and start cleaning up their acts , or the public 's deepening outrage will foster a more fearsome governmental response . " Thompson claimed to have received death threats from listeners of Stern 's show , noting that " you 'd expect that considering the IQ of people who listen to Howard Stern . Apparently they fail to realize that I might have caller ID . "
During his opposition to Howard Stern , Thompson was asked in an interview with a reporter if , by his standards , he would blame Christianity for the murders committed by Michael Hernandez , a fourteen @-@ year @-@ old who murdered one of his classmates in 2004 , because Hernandez wrote a diary in which he constantly spoke about praying to God . Thompson replied , " The Bible doesn 't promote killing innocent people , Grand Theft Auto does . Islam does . " Thompson then expanded his comments in the same interview by saying , " Islam promotes the killing of innocent people . The Quran requires the infidel , whether Jew or Christian , to be killed . ... That 's a core essence of the religion . ... Muhammad was a pirate who killed infidels and who advocated the killing of infidels — not a nice guy . Osama bin Laden is in keeping with his fine tradition . "
He later spoke in defense of Stern during the latter ’ s legal dispute with CBS over promoting Sirius on @-@ air before his switch to satellite radio . Thompson contended that the technology added by CBS to edit out profanity also could have worked to edit out Stern 's references to Sirius . According to Thompson , " The reason why CBS chose not to edit Stern is that Stern 's Arbitron ratings remained high and were arguably even enhanced by people tuning in to hear daily about Stern 's running feud with CBS and his move to Sirius . In other words , CBS actually used Stern 's discussion of his move to Sirius to make more money for CBS . "
CBS President Leslie Moonves responded , saying " You know what ? You can ’ t let people like that tell you what to put on the air or what not to put on the air . That would only open the door when suddenly next week , he says , ' Take David Letterman off the air or take C.S.I. off the air . ' Or you know what ? Everybody Loves Raymond was about , you know , sex last week or about a 70 @-@ year @-@ old man — you know , we dealt with Peter Boyle having sex with Doris Roberts . ' Take that off the air . ' That 's something we can ’ t let happen . "
= = The Florida Bar = =
= = = Actions against the bar = = =
In 1993 , Thompson asked a Florida judge to declare The Florida Bar unconstitutional . He said that the Bar was engaged in a vendetta against him because of his religious beliefs , which he said conflicted with what he called the Bar 's pro @-@ gay , humanist , liberal agenda . He also said that the " wedding of all three functions of government into The Florida Bar , the ' official arm ' of the Florida Supreme Court , is violative of the bedrock constitutional requirement of the separation powers and the ' checks and balances ' which the separation guarantees . " Thompson accepted a $ 20 @,@ 000 out @-@ of @-@ court settlement .
On January 7 , 2002 , Thompson sent the Supreme Court of Florida a letter regarding The Florida Bar 's actions . The letter was filed with the court on January 10 , 2002 and was treated as a petition for a writ of mandamus against The Florida Bar . Before any action was taken on the petition , Thompson sent the court another letter on January 28 , 2002 voluntarily dismissing the case . The letter was filed with the court on January 30 , 2002 , and the Florida Supreme Court issued an order of dismissal on February 28 , 2002 .
In January 2006 , Thompson asked the Justice Department to investigate The Florida Bar 's actions . " The Florida Bar and its agents have engaged in a documented pattern of this illegal activity , which may sink to the level of criminal racketeering activity , in a knowing and illegal effort to chill my federal First Amendment rights , " Thompson wrote in a letter to Alex Acosta , interim U.S. attorney for the Southern District of Florida .
In April 2006 , Thompson filed another suit against The Florida Bar , this time in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Florida , alleging that the Bar harassed him by investigating what he called baseless complaints made by disgruntled opponents in previous disputes . His five @-@ count complaint asked for more than $ 1 million in damages . The lawsuit alleged that the Bar was pursuing baseless ethics complaints brought against Thompson by Tew Cardenas attorneys Lawrence Kellogg and Alberto Cardenas of Miami , and by two lawyers from the Philadelphia office of Blank Rome , in violation of Thompson 's constitutional rights . According to the lawsuit , the Bar looked at Thompson for violations of a bar rule that prohibits attorneys from making disparaging remarks about judges , other attorneys , or court personnel . Thompson also filed a motion with the court to order the mediation of his dispute with the Bar . Thompson commented , " I enjoy doing what I do and I think I 've got a First Amendment right to annoy people and participate in the public square in the cultural war . " Thompson also said he is optimistic his federal lawsuit will be successful . " I 'm 100 percent certain that it will effect change , otherwise I would not have filed it . "
On April 25 , 2006 , The Florida Bar filed a motion to dismiss Thompson 's complaint . The Bar argued that Thompson 's complaint should be dismissed for a number of reasons , including the fact that the complaint failed to state a claim on which he could be granted relief . The Bar also argued that it was absolutely immune from liability for actions arising out of its disciplinary functions , that the Eleventh Amendment barred Thompson 's recovery of damages , and that the court should dismiss the case pursuant to the abstention doctrine of Younger v. Harris . On May 4 , 2006 , Thompson filed a motion asking Judge Federico Moreno to recuse himself from the case , as Judge Moreno was a member of the Florida Bar . Citing an " abundance of caution , " Judge Moreno recused himself on May 9 , 2006 and referred the case to Chief Judge William Zloch for further action . Thompson did not , however , respond to the Bar 's motion to dismiss the case . Finally , on May 17 , 2006 , Thompson filed a Notice of Voluntary Dismissal with the court , and the case was dismissed without prejudice .
= = = Filings = = =
In October 2007 , then @-@ Chief U.S. District Judge Federico Moreno sealed court documents submitted by Thompson in the Bar case that depicted " gay sex acts . " Thompson 's submission prompted U.S. District Judge Adalberto Jordan on to order Thompson to show cause why his actions should not be filed as a grievance with the court 's Ad Hoc Committee on Attorney Admissions , Peer Review and Attorney Grievance , but the order was dismissed after Thompson promised not to file any more pornography . Thompson then sent letters to acting U.S. Attorney General Peter Keisler and U.S. Senators Patrick Leahy and Arlen Specter demanding that Jordan be removed from his position for failing to prosecute Florida attorney Norm Kent , who Thompson claimed had " collaborated " with the Bar for 20 years to discipline him .
In February 2008 , the Florida Supreme Court ordered Thompson to show cause as to why it should not reject future court filings from him unless they are signed by another Florida Bar member . The Florida Supreme Court described his filings as " repetitive , frivolous and insult [ ing to ] the integrity of the court , " particularly one in which Thompson , claiming concern about " the court 's inability to comprehend his arguments , " filed a motion which he called " A picture book for adults " , including images of " swastikas , kangaroos in court , a reproduced dollar bill , cartoon squirrels , Paul Simon , Paul Newman , Ray Charles , a handprint with the word ' slap ' written under it , Bar Governor Benedict P. Kuehne , Ed Bradley , Jack Nicholson , Justice Clarence Thomas , Julius Caesar , monkeys , [ and ] a house of cards . " ( see ) Thompson claimed that the order " wildly infringes " on his constitutional rights and was " a brazen attempt " to repeal the First Amendment right to petition the government to redress grievances . In response , he sent a letter to U.S. Attorney General Michael Mukasey , referring to the show @-@ cause order as a criminal act done in retaliation for his seeking relief with the court .
On March 20 , 2008 , the Florida Supreme Court imposed sanctions on Thompson , requiring that any of his future filings in the court be signed by a member of The Florida Bar other than himself . The court noted that Thompson had responded to the show cause order with multiple " rambling , argumentative , and contemptuous " responses that characterized the show cause order as " bizarre " and " idiotic . "
= = = Disbarment = = =
In February 2007 , The Florida Bar filed disbarment proceedings against Thompson over allegations of professional misconduct . The action was the result of separate grievances filed by people claiming that Thompson made defamatory , false statements and attempted to humiliate , embarrass , harass or intimidate them . According to the complaint , Thompson accused Alberto Cardenas of " distribution of pornography to children , " claimed that the Alabama judge presiding over the Devin Moore case " breaks the rules , even the Alabama State Bar Rules , because he thinks that the rules don 't apply to him , " and sent a letter to Blank Rome 's managing partner , saying , " Your law firm has actively and knowingly facilitated by various means the criminal distribution of sexual material to minors . " Thompson claims that the complaints violate state religious protections because his advocacy is motivated by his Christian faith .
In May 2008 , Miami @-@ Dade Circuit Judge Dava Tunis , after reviewing 2 @,@ 400 pages of transcripts and 1 @,@ 700 pages of exhibits , recommended that Thompson be found guilty of 27 of the 31 violations of which he had been accused , including making false statements to tribunals , disparaging and humiliating litigants and other lawyers , and improperly practicing law outside of Florida . Thompson filed a motion with the Florida Supreme Court the day after the report was issued to strike Tunis ' recommendations as vague for lack of detail . Previously , Thompson had attempted to have Tunis thrown off his case , and filed a complaint against her with the state Judicial Qualifications Commission , which is responsible for investigating judges .
On June 4 , 2008 , prosecutor Sheila Tuma recommended ' enhanced disbarment ' for Thompson , saying that Thompson demonstrated continued misconduct , a pattern of misconduct and persistently failed to admit any wrongdoing . Enhanced disbarment lengthens the period before an attorney may reapply for admission to the bar from five years to ten . After being prevented from making a speech to begin the disciplinary hearing , Thompson distributed his written objections to lawyers , a court reporter , and a newspaper reporter , departed the courtroom , and called the proceedings against him a " star chamber " and " kangaroo court " .
On July 8 , 2008 , Judge Tunis recommended permanent disbarment and a $ 43 @,@ 675 @.@ 35 fine for Thompson to the Florida Supreme Court , citing " cumulative misconduct , a repeated pattern of behavior relentlessly forced upon numerous unconnected individuals , a total lack of remorse or even slight acknowledgment of inappropriate conduct , and continued behavior consistent with the previous public reprimand ... Over a very extended period of time involving a number of totally unrelated cases and individuals , the Respondent has demonstrated a pattern of conduct to strike out harshly , extensively , repeatedly and willfully to simply try to bring as much difficulty , distraction and anguish to those he considers in opposition to his causes ... He does not proceed within the guidelines of appropriate professional behavior , but rather uses other means available to intimidate , harass , or bring public disrepute to those whom he perceives oppose him . " The court approved the recommendation and fine on September 25 , 2008 , and ordered that Thompson be permanently disbarred effective 30 days from the date of the order so Thompson could close out his practice . He later filed for an emergency stay of the Florida Supreme Court 's order with the U.S. District Court , which was ultimately denied . In an e @-@ mail to media outlets , Thompson responded to the court 's decision by stating , " The timing of this disbarment transparently reveals its motivation : This past Friday Thompson filed a federal civil rights action against The Bar , the Supreme Court , and all seven of its Justices . This rush to disbarment is in retribution for the filing of that federal suit . With enemies this foolish , Thompson needs only the loyal friends he has . " He closed the email — in which he included the court ruling — with , " ... this should be fun , starting now " .
On September 19 , 2009 , Thompson announced that he intended to resume practicing law as of October 1 , 2009 , claiming that he was " never disbarred " because all of the orders resulting in his disbarment were legal nullities . He dared The Florida Bar to get a court order to stop him .
= = Other activities = =
In 1992 , a complaint from Thompson led Florida Secretary of State Jim Smith to withhold a $ 25 @,@ 000 grant to the Miami Film Festival ; Thompson claimed that the festival was using state money to show pornographic films . In response , Thompson was named an " Art Censor of the Year " by the ACLU . The next month , Thompson faced disbarment over allegations that he lied while making accusations against prominent Dade County lawyer Stuart Z Grossman . Thompson ultimately admitted violating bar rules of professional conduct , including charges that he contacted people represented by an attorney without first contacting their attorneys , and agreed to pay $ 3 @,@ 000 in fines and receive a public reprimand .
In 1999 , Thompson represented the parents of Bryce Kilduff , an 11 @-@ year @-@ old boy who committed suicide by hanging himself . Police believed that the death was an accident , and that Kilduff was imitating Kenny , a character from the Comedy Central series South Park , which Bryce , according to his parents , had never watched . Thompson called for Comedy Central to stop marketing the show and toys based on the series to children . " You see , the whole show — thrust of the show is it 's — it 's cool for kids to act like the characters in South Park . "
Prior to Thompson 's disbarment , attorney Norm Kent filed a personal lawsuit against him , which eventually resulted in Thompson paying Kent $ 50 @,@ 000 for defamation . Thompson reacted to the suit by threatening employees at one of Kent 's clients , Beasley Broadcast Group , with lawsuits and depositions unless they got Kent to drop his case .
In January 2005 , Beasley hired attorney Lawrence A. Kellogg of law firm Tew Cardenas , LLP , to manage Thompson 's threats . Because Kellogg delayed arranging a meeting with him , Thompson on March 17 began a campaign targeting the firm 's name partner Al Cardenas , a former chair of the Republican Party of Florida , accusing him of personally being involved in " a statewide racketeering activity " in a letter sent to the media , Florida Attorney General Charlie Crist , and Florida Governor Jeb Bush . Kellogg then filed a complaint to the Florida bar that figured largely in Thompson 's disbarment .
On April 30 , Thompson extended his campaign against Cardenas to an attempt at embarrassing him as a trustee of Florida A & M University , a historically black university . In an email sent to FAMU interim president Castell V. Bryant , the media , the FCC , and Governor Bush , he cites racist remarks made by a caller to The Howard Stern Show to suggest that Cardenas put " profit ahead of race relations " , even though Beasley , which owned a station broadcasting Stern 's show , was not among Cardenas 's clients .
On February 21 , 2007 , Thompson filed a complaint with the Florida Judicial Qualifications Commission against Judge Larry Seidlin , accusing Seidlin of " violating nearly every judicial canon " in conducting a hearing on the disposition of the body of Anna Nicole Smith . On June 28 , 2007 , Thompson filed a complaint with the State Attorney 's Office , asking for an investigation and possible prosecution regarding accusations that Seidlin inappropriately accepted expensive gifts .
In March 2008 , Thompson called for the New York State Supreme Court ’ s Appellate Division to immediately suspend the law license of former state governor Eliot Spitzer , who had resigned from the position amidst reports he was a client of a prostitution ring . Thompson said that the Disciplinary Committee for the Appellate Division 's First Department should stop Spitzer from practicing law until the matter was resolved , noting that Spitzer did not claim innocence in his initial public apology .
= = = Facebook lawsuit = = =
Thompson filed a lawsuit for $ 40 million against Facebook in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Florida on September 29 , 2009 . Thompson claimed that the social networking site had caused him " great harm and distress " by not removing angry postings made by users in several Facebook groups . Thompson quietly dismissed his case less than two months later . According to Parry Aftab , a cyber @-@ law attorney , Thompson would likely not have had any success because the U.S. Communications Decency Act provides that companies such as Facebook have no liability for what users do with their services in most cases .
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= Walking Liberty half dollar =
The Walking Liberty half dollar was a silver 50 @-@ cent piece or half dollar coin issued by the United States Mint from 1916 to 1947 ; it was designed by Adolph A. Weinman .
In 1915 , the new Mint Director , Robert W. Woolley , came to believe that he was not only allowed but required by law to replace coin designs that had been in use for 25 years . He therefore began the process of replacing the Barber coinage : dimes , quarters and half dollars , all bearing similar designs by long @-@ time Mint Engraver Charles E. Barber , and first struck in 1892 . Woolley had the Commission of Fine Arts conduct a competition , as a result of which Weinman was selected to design the dime and half dollar .
Weinman 's design of Liberty striding towards the Sun for the half dollar proved difficult to perfect , and Treasury Secretary William G. McAdoo , whose department included the Mint , considered having Barber create his own design . Mint officials were successful in getting Weinman 's design into production , although it never struck very well , which may have been a factor in its replacement by the Franklin half dollar beginning in 1948 . Nevertheless , art historian Cornelius Vermeule considered the piece to be among the most beautiful US coins . Since 1986 , a modification of Weinman 's obverse design has been used for the American Silver Eagle , and the half dollar is being issued in gold for its centennial in 2016 .
= = Inception = =
On September 26 , 1890 , the United States Congress passed an act providing :
The Director of the Mint shall have power , with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury , to cause new designs ... to be prepared and adopted ... But no change in the design or die of any coin shall be made oftener than once in twenty @-@ five years from and including the year of the first adoption of the design ... But the Director of the Mint shall nevertheless have power , with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury , to engage temporarily the services of one or more artists , distinguished in their respective departments of art , who shall be paid for such service from the contingent appropriation for the mint at Philadelphia .
The Barber coinage was introduced in 1892 ; dimes , quarter dollars , and half dollars with similar designs by Mint Engraver Charles E. Barber . The new pieces attracted considerable public dissatisfaction . Beginning in 1905 , successive presidential administrations had attempted to bring modern , beautiful designs to United States coins . Following the redesign of the double eagle , eagle , half eagle and quarter eagle in 1907 and 1908 , as well as the cent and nickel redesigns of 1909 and 1913 respectively , advocates of replacing the Barber coins began to push for the change when the coins ' minimum term expired in 1916 . As early as 1914 , Victor David Brenner , designer of the Lincoln cent , submitted unsolicited designs for the silver coins . He was told in response that Secretary of the Treasury William G. McAdoo was completely occupied with other matters .
On January 2 , 1915 , an interview with Philadelphia Mint Superintendent Adam M. Joyce appeared in the Michigan Manufacturer and Financial Record :
So far as I know ... there is no thought of issuing new coins of the 50 @-@ cent , 25 @-@ cent , and 10 @-@ cent values . If , however , a change is made we all hope that more serviceable and satisfactory coins are produced than the recent Saint @-@ Gaudens double eagle and eagle and the Pratt half and quarter eagle . The buffalo nickel and the Lincoln penny are also faulty from a practical standpoint . All resulted from the desire by the government to mint coins to the satisfaction of artists and not practical coiners .
In January 1915 , Assistant Secretary of the Treasury William P. Malburn sent McAdoo a memorandum about the silver subsidiary coinage , noting that " the present silver half dollar , quarter , and dime were changed in 1892 , and a new design may , therefore , be adopted in 1916 . This can be done any time in the year . " In reply , McAdoo wrote " let the mint submit designs before we try anyone else " on the memorandum .
In April 1915 , Robert W. Woolley took office as Mint Director . On April 14 , he asked Joyce to request Engraver Barber , then in his 36th year in office , to prepare new designs . The same day , Malburn requested the opinion of the Treasury Department 's Solicitor concerning the Mint view that it could strike new designs for the three denominations in 1916 . On April 17 , the Solicitor 's Office responded that the Mint could change the designs . At the time , the Mint was intensely busy producing the Panama @-@ Pacific commemorative coin issue , and immediate action was not taken . In October , Barber was summoned to Washington to discuss coin designs with Woolley , although it is uncertain whether or not he had by then prepared sketches for the new coinage .
On December 3 , Woolley met with the Commission of Fine Arts . Woolley asked the Commission to view sketches produced by the Mint 's engraving department . Barber was present to explain the coinage process to the Commission members . Woolley suggested to the members that if they did not like the Mint 's work , they should select sculptors to submit designs for the new pieces . It was Woolley 's intent to have distinct designs for the dime , quarter and half dollar — previously , the three pieces had been near @-@ identical . The director informed the Commission that as the existing coinage had been in use for 25 years , it would have to be changed — which numismatic historian David Lange calls a " misinterpretation of the coinage laws " .
The Commission disliked the sketches from the Mint ( submitted by Barber ) and selected sculptors Adolph Weinman , Hermon MacNeil and Albin Polasek to submit proposals for the new coins . The sculptors could submit multiple sketches . Although the Mint could decide to use a design on a denomination not intended by its sculptor , the designs were not fully interchangeable — by statute , an eagle had to appear on the reverse of the quarter and half dollar , but could not appear on the dime . Woolley hoped that each sculptor would be successful with one piece .
The three sculptors submitted design sketches in mid @-@ February , and on February 23 met with Woolley in New York City to make presentations of their work and answer his questions . After discussions between Woolley and McAdoo , Weinman was notified on February 28 that five of his sketches had been selected — for the dime and half dollar , and the reverse of the quarter . The same day , Woolley wrote to MacNeil to tell him he would sculpt the quarter 's obverse , and to Polasek to inform him of his lack of success . Members of the Commission persuaded Woolley that so much should not be entrusted to a single artist , and MacNeil was allowed to design both sides of the quarter , subject to the sculptor producing a design satisfactory to Woolley .
On March 3 , the new coins were publicly announced , with the Treasury noting , " [ d ] esigns of these coins must be changed by law every 25 years and the present 25 @-@ year period ends with 1916 . " The press release indicated that the Treasury hoped production of the new coins would begin in about two months , once the designs were finalized . The same day , Woolley wrote to Mint Engraver Barber , telling him that his sketches were rejected , and that models from Weinman and MacNeil would arrive at the Philadelphia Mint no later than May 1 . According to numismatic historian Walter Breen , Barber became " sullen and totally uncooperative " . Lange notes that " numerous delays were encountered as the artists fine @-@ tuned their models while simultaneously avoiding obstacles thrown in their path by Barber . While his observations regarding many aspects of practical coinage were quite accurate , they clearly could have been presented in a more constructive manner . " In his book on Mercury dimes , Lange notes that Barber , by then aged 75 , had been " compelled over the past ten years to participate in the systematic undoing of a lifetime 's achievements " ; he had to participate in the process which resulted in coins designed by others replacing ones designed by him .
With the new pieces , all American coins would have had a recent change of design ( the Morgan dollar was not then being struck . ) According to a column in The Art World magazine later in 1916 @,@
Since that day [ the 19th century ] much artistic progress has taken place in our coinage . Sculptors of reputation have been employed with admirable results ... And now we are to have a new half dollar and a new dime by Weinman and a new quarter by McNeill [ sic ] . Altogether , in the retrospect , it seems an incredible achievement .
= = Design = =
According to Secretary McAdoo in his 1916 annual report ,
The design of the half dollar bears a full @-@ length figure of Liberty , the folds of the Stars and Stripes flying to the breeze as a background , progressing in full stride toward the dawn of a new day , carrying branches of laurel and oak , symbolical of civil and military glory . The hand of the figure is outstretched in bestowal of the spirit of liberty . The reverse of the half dollar shows an eagle perched high upon a mountain crag , his wings unfolded , fearless in spirit and conscious of his power . Springing from a rift in the rock is a sapling of mountain pine , symbolical of America .
Weinman 's obverse bears a resemblance to Oscar Roty 's " Sower " design for French coins ; according to numismatic historian Roger Burdette , " Weinman has taken the ideal of a nineteenth century provincial figure and turned it into an American icon . " Burdette ties both the appearance of the head of Liberty and of the branches which she carries to Baltimore 's Union Soldiers and Sailors ' Monument , designed by Weinman . The sculptor may also have drawn inspiration from a 1913 bust he did of his tenant , Elsie Stevens , wife of lawyer and poet Wallace Stevens . Elsie Stevens is generally believed to have been a model for Weinman 's Mercury dime ; her daughter Holly wrote in 1966 that her mother had been the model for both coins . The reverse is similar to Weinman 's medal for the American Institute of Architects , although the sculptor replaced the laurel on the medal with a pine sapling . Weinman 's work on the medal had been widely admired for the power of the depicted eagle .
Breen , in his comprehensive volume on US coins , said of the half dollar , " Ms. Liberty wears the American flag , anticipating a rebellious counterculture by half a century . " Though admiring the piece generally , he noted that Liberty is striding towards the east , that is towards war @-@ torn Europe , and wrote , " she points into the sky at nothing visible ( perhaps aiming a warning at German warplanes ? ) " Breen objects to the use of the mountain pine on the reverse , calling it not particularly American nor especially notable except for an ability to thrive near the tree line .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule wrote that the Walking Liberty half dollar " really treat [ s ] the obverse and reverse as a surface sculptural ensemble . The ' Walking Liberty ' design particularly gives the true feeling of breath and sculptural services on the scale of a coin . " Vermeule noted the resemblance of the half dollar to Roty 's " Sower " but states that Weinman 's piece " is an original creation , not a slavish copy " . On the reverse , Vermeule admired the eagle , which dominates but does not overwhelm the design , and stated that the bird 's feathers are " a marvelous tour de force " , showing the influence of Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens , under whom Weinman studied . Vermeule characterized the Walking Liberty half dollar to be " one of the greatest coins of the United States — if not of the world " .
= = Preparation = =
The three sculptors met with Woolley on March 6 , 1916 at the New York Assay Office to be formally told of the outcome of the competition , including the change in the outcome for the quarter , and to receive back rejected models and sketches . Polasek , who received his participation fee of $ 300 on March 10 , never again had any connection with the Mint or coinage design . Until a plaster model of one of his submissions was discovered at the Polasek Museum ( formerly his house ) in 2002 , his participation was known only through the Mint 's records .
After Weinman 's success in the competition , he visited the Mint to discuss conversion of his models to finished dies . On his first visit , he found Barber absent , but had a productive talk with long @-@ time Assistant Engraver George T. Morgan . Other visits followed , and on March 29 , Woolley wrote to Superintendent Joyce , " confidentially , the sculptors designing the new coins felt that on their last trip Mr. Morgan was much more cordial and cooperative than Mr. Barber was . I realize I am dealing with artistic temperaments at both ends . " Woolley came to New York twice in April to examine MacNeil 's evolving reverse design for the quarter , on May 26 he also visited Weinman 's studio and viewed progress on the models of his designs . A severe case of tonsillitis delayed Weinman 's work , and caused him to request an extension of the May 1 deadline . On May 29 , Woolley wrote Weinman that the designs , both for the dime and half dollar , were accepted by the Mint .
During June , the Mint 's engraving department , headed by Barber , reduced the models to coin @-@ sized hubs and prepared dies for experimental pattern coins , which were subsequently struck . Woolley hoped to begin production of the new coins of all three denominations by July 1 , but the grant of time to Weinman required the Mint to act with greater speed . Burdette suggests the haste with which the dies were prepared caused coins struck with them to appear worn and without sharp detail . By June 22 , Weinman had viewed the first patterns , as he wrote to Woolley stating that he did not like the way the word " Liberty " on the obverse had turned out , and asking for the loan of two patterns so he could redo the lettering . On June 24 , Woolley wrote to Joyce , informing him of the loan and stating of the new pieces ,
The model of the obverse on the half dollar will have to be made over and Mr. Weinman informs me he is now at work on it . The same is true of the quarter dollar . The reverse of both the quarter dollar and the half dollar , as shown on the coins struck from the polished dies , are satisfactory ... Everyone to whom the coins have been shown here thinks they are beautiful .
With Woolley 's permission to redo the obverse , Weinman decided to remove the word " Liberty " from above the figure and place it above " In God We Trust " to the right of it . This permitted him to extend Liberty 's head almost to the top of the coin , maximizing the size of the depiction . The letter " L " was placed in the concavity formed by the flag as it drapes under the figure 's left elbow , and the rest of the word extended to the right from there , with the letter T in larger print , actually saving room as the larger size allowed the crossbar of the " T " to extend above the capitalized letters " R " and " Y " . This allowed the letters to be squeezed closer together . When Woolley resigned on July 15 to become director of publicity for the Wilson reelection campaign ( a function he also fulfilled for Democratic candidates in 1912 and 1920 ) , he mentioned in his resignation letter to Secretary McAdoo , " in working over the model for the obverse side of the half dollar Mr. Weinman is making a slight rearrangement of the word ' Liberty ' , and will have it ready for your inspection in a few days . I like it and believe you will . " Weinman wrote to the former director on July 20 that increasing the size of the figure of Liberty improved its appearance .
McAdoo accepted Weinman 's revised design on July 26 ; at that time Adjuster of the Bureau of the Mint Fred H. Chaffin was serving as Acting Mint Director until President Wilson could nominate a replacement for Woolley and have him confirmed by the Senate . Weinman decided , on his own initiative , to rearrange the legends on the reverse . On the original pattern , " United States of America " is at the top of the reverse , with " Half Dollar " directly below and " E Pluribus Unum " at the bottom of the coin . Weinman 's revision has the legends in the places they would occupy on the circulation strikes , and was approved by McAdoo on August 10 . On August 18 , Wilson nominated Woolley 's successor , Friedrich Johannes Hugo von Engelken , who was promptly confirmed by the Senate . Von Engelken was supposed to be sworn in on the August 21 ; his swearing in was delayed until September 1 by President Wilson 's failure to sign his commission .
= = Modification = =
When von Engelken took office as Mint Director on September 1 , 1916 , the half dollar had been approved , and pattern coins had been struck . Actual production of the 50 @-@ cent piece was delayed as the Mint struggled to finalize Weinman 's Mercury dime . On September 6 , production of the dime was halted as companies testing the new 10 @-@ cent piece found that the new pieces would not work in vending machines . The defect was found to be a " fin " , excess metal at the edge of the coin , making it seem too thick when inserted in machines . The fin could also break off , leaving the silver coins underweight . The problem was found on the pattern half dollars as well . On September 6 , von Engelken wrote to Assistant Secretary Malburn , using information that Burdette suggests came from Barber :
I am sending you with this letter ten of the new dimes and one of the new half dollars . If you examine these coins carefully , you will find that they are decidedly imperfect . You will note both on the half dollar and the ten cent piece a sharp projection of the metal on the edge , which is the " fin " to which I have referred . You will note also , particularly on the half dollar on account of its size , a variation in the thickness of the coin , specifically noticeable at the edge . I went to Philadelphia yesterday to ascertain whether or not this could be overcome , and I find that we are faced with certain mechanical restrictions which make it impossible to produce a coin of uniform thickness of edge , and to obviate the fin edge , as long as we maintain the high relief of the coin as it is at present .
Von Engelken 's letter caused concern in the Secretary 's office — McAdoo feared that if the Mint proved unable to successfully issue new coins , the Republicans might exploit the failure as an issue in the presidential race . The Secretary enquired how long it would take " our Mr. Barber " to produce new designs ; after consultation with officials at the Philadelphia Mint , von Engelken replied that it would take six to eight months . The two officials decided that Weinman must be asked to modify his design for the half dollar — it was hoped that if Weinman shrank the figure of Liberty , and lowered the relief , the piece would prove coinable .
Weinman arrived at the Mint on September 11 . He left with two pattern half dollars and instructions to reduce the size of the figure of Liberty . Barber appealed to Joyce for permission to make major changes to Weinman 's design , but this was initially refused . However , when an additional change by Weinman failed to eliminate the fin problem , Joyce gave in and allowed Barber a free hand . Engraver Barber shrank the design , moving the design further from the edge , and creating a wide space between design and rim . Barber insisted that this was the only way to prevent a fin and uneven edge . A beaded border was added within the rim . According to Burdette , patterns struck from the new dies were dull and uninteresting , as the size of the figures had lent them strength .
On October 18 , Weinman wrote to Joyce , asking how the Mint was getting on with the dies for the half dollar and dime , and expressing his willingness to come to Philadelphia . Joyce replied two days later , informing him that the design of the half dollar was being reduced in size to prevent recurrence of the edge difficulties , and informing him of the beaded border . Weinman responded hoping that Joyce would prevent the figure of Liberty from being unduly reduced , and rendering his account . As the sculptor and superintendent corresponded , the Mint began the work of converting the Barber @-@ modified designs to working dies from which circulation coins could be struck , but Joyce interceded before coining could begin . The Philadelphia Mint superintendent , who had the support of von Engelken , felt that Barber 's modifications were unnecessary . Joyce believed that coins closer to Weinman 's concept could be struck by lowering the relief slightly , adjusting the force with which the Mint 's presses struck the planchets or blanks , and better preparing the planchets for striking . Joyce 's position prevailed , and Barber and his department prepared working dies for striking of circulation pieces , omitting Barber 's beaded border and wide space between rim and design . Working dies were at the Denver and San Francisco Mints on November 27 , and production began at all three mints soon after .
In late December Weinman , who had received no update from the Mint since being told of the Barber modifications , but who had read in the newspapers that the half dollars were being struck , sent a $ 10 money order to Joyce with a request for 20 of the new coins . On January 2 , 1917 , Weinman wrote to Joyce again , telling him the new pieces had been received in time to be given as New Year 's gifts , and wishing the superintendent " every good wish to you for every day of the New Year and with thanks to the Almighty and yourself that the beads are not on the border of the Half Dollar " .
= = Reception = =
Although the dime 's debut on October 30 , 1916 had seen considerable publicity , the Mint had little comment on the release of the half dollar and Standing Liberty quarter the following January . There were few newspaper mentions of the new half dollar ; the United States was moving towards war with Germany , and the dime release had exhausted much of the public interest in the novelty of new coins . The quarter dominated what public attention there was with argument over whether the eagle on its reverse was portrayed accurately . Despite the minimal publicity , according to a January 1917 report from Mint Adjuster Chaffin , all three mints initially had trouble keeping up with public demand for the new half dollars .
The New York Times noted on January 3 that the new pieces had been received by the Sub @-@ Treasury and would be released two to a customer , starting on January 9 . It stated that the Mint was working as hard as possible to keep up with demand , but that initially quantities would be limited . Banking , the journal of the American Bankers Association stated that " The designs of the new coins have been highly praised by those having expert knowledge of such matters . " A Connecticut newspaper predicted readers would like the new half dollar five times as much as the new dime .
The Huntsville ( Alabama ) Mercury , however , expressed its dislike of the new half dollar . In a piece entitled " New half dollar is sick " , it stated :
The new coin is radically different from all other monies produced by the government mints . A suffragette is shown sowing small stars in a western field that hasn ’ t been plowed very deeply . The sun is setting and the old girl looks rather tired from her day ’ s labors , in fact perspiration can be seen trickling from her forehead . The lady wears sandals and her feet are rather dusty . She also appears , to have on overalls under her thin dress . She carries a load of firewood in one arm and wears a large napkin around her neck which leads to the belief that she left a small child at the house . The wind is blowing from the north and the sun has a blizzardly appearance . In great letters LIBERTY is spelled , extending more than half way around the entire surface . On the other side appears an eagle , grown to enormous size and marching madly toward Mexico , a cactus bush being shown in the background . The eagle has raised his wing , as if to strike ; the old fellow looks like he could put up a good fight if aroused but he has a swell crop of feathers on his legs .
= = Production and collecting = =
The mint marks had initially been placed on the obverse , the first time that had been done for a regular issue US half dollar since 1839 . On February 14 , 1917 , von Engelken ordered that the mint mark be moved from the obverse to the reverse , stating that the obverse placement had the appearance of a die defect . At that time , Von Engelken had resigned pending appointment to the post of president of the Federal Land Bank for the Third District ; once he left to take that position , he was succeeded by Raymond T. Baker . In April , Joyce asked Baker for written confirmation of von Engelken 's order , and after he obliged , the mint mark was duly moved . The majority of the 1917 half dollars struck at Denver ( 1917 @-@ D ) and San Francisco ( 1917 @-@ S ) bear the mint mark on the reverse .
Throughout the time in which the Mint struck the Walking Liberty half dollar , it had difficulty bringing out the design fully . According to Breen ,
Mint authorities knew well that the Weinman design , despite its great artistic merit , no matter how thorough Barber 's original attempt to reduce relief , was technically unsatisfactory . Areas of highest relief still opposed relief areas on the other side .
The San Francisco Mint especially had difficulty with the coins ; many pieces struck there are noticeably weak . In 1918 Morgan , who had succeeded Barber as Engraver after the latter 's death the previous year , modified the design , incising some of the details at Liberty 's neck . According to Breen , " The attempt was a failure . " Morgan 's successor , John R. Sinnock made additional attempts in 1937 and 1938 , with little better results . Breen suggested that the difficulties in striking the piece contributed to the willingness to replace it after World War II .
No Walking Liberty half dollar is especially rare , but many dates are scarce in Mint State condition , particularly the 1921 and 1921 @-@ D. The Mint struck proof coins in 1916 – 1917 and 1936 – 1942 , all at Philadelphia . The 1916 pieces were struck in very small numbers — Breen stated that he had seen only four — and only three 1917 proof coins are confirmed , most likely struck for VIPs at a time when proof coins were not sold to the public . A number of the later proof coins lack Weinman 's monogram , apparently lost through overpolishing of dies . This is most common with the 1941 proof pieces — much of the year 's production lacks the monogram — but is known for other years . A total of 74 @,@ 400 proof coins were struck for the series .
There are few varieties in the series , and they are relatively minor . They principally involve the mint mark : several repunchings , one overpunching of a D over an S in 1942 , and some changes in size . One oddity is the 1943 / 1942 , which is not a true overdate but was formed by a working die struck once from a 1942 @-@ dated master die , and once from one dated 1943 . Some 1946 half dollars show a doubled die on the reverse .
= = Replacement and design reuse = =
In 1947 , Mint Director Nellie Tayloe Ross asked Engraver Sinnock to produce a design for a half dollar featuring Founding Father Benjamin Franklin . Ross had long been an admirer of Franklin , and wanted to see him on a coin . Mint officials had considered putting Franklin on the dime in 1941 , but the project was shelved owing to heavy demands on the Mint for coins as the United States entered World War II . During the war , the Mint contemplated adding one or more new denominations of coinage ; Sinnock prepared a Franklin design in anticipation of a new issue , which did not occur . In 1946 , the Treasury replaced the Mercury dime with a piece depicting the recently deceased president , Franklin Roosevelt , who had been closely associated with the March of Dimes . With the Lincoln cent popular and politically inexpedient to replace , the half dollar was the only piece being struck which was available for redesign without congressional permission . The Treasury approved the new design . Although Sinnock died before the coin was issued , the Franklin half dollar went into production at the start of 1948 , ending the Walking Liberty series . A total of 485 @,@ 320 @,@ 340 Walking Liberty half dollars were struck .
Since 1986 , Weinman 's obverse design has been used as the obverse design for the American Silver Eagle bullion coin . In adapting the design , Mint Sculptor @-@ Engraver John Mercanti and other members of the engraving staff strengthened many of the details . Mercanti noted that Weinman 's original plaster was only 6 inches ( 150 mm ) in diameter , and was softly modelled . Mercanti increased the detail so that the design , struck on a larger coin , would be bolder and would have a more even metal flow when struck than Weinman 's original coin . Treasury Secretary James Baker chose a heraldic eagle design , by Mercanti , as the reverse of the American Silver Eagle .
In December 2010 , President Barack Obama signed legislation authorizing bullion coins made of palladium . The obverse would be taken from the Mercury dime ; the reverse would follow Weinman 's architectural award medal on which he based the half dollar 's reverse . The Mint was directed to obtain an independent study of whether there would be enough market demand to justify the issuance of the piece ; it voided its first contract for such a study on learning that the contracted firm had ties to the palladium industry . The contract was re @-@ awarded to New York @-@ based CPM Group , which conducted the necessary research between May and July 2012 . On March 1 , 2013 , the Mint submitted a report to Congress based on the study , finding that demand would most likely not be sufficient to sustain a market in palladium bullion coins .
The United States Mint in 2015 announced plans to restrike for collectors , in gold , the three silver coins first issued in 1916 . The half dollar will have its weight and fineness inscribed on the reverse . The mockups of the half dollar released by the Mint show the mint mark on the obverse .
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= Atlantic campaign of 1806 =
The Atlantic campaign of 1806 was a complicated series of manoeuvrees and counter @-@ manoeuveres conducted by squadrons of the French Navy and the British Royal Navy across the Atlantic Ocean during the spring and summer of 1806 , as part of the Napoleonic Wars . The campaign followed directly from the Trafalgar campaign of the year before , in which the French Mediterranean fleet had crossed the Atlantic , returned to Europe and joined with the Spanish fleet . On 21 October 1805 , this combined force was destroyed by a British fleet under Lord Nelson at the Battle of Trafalgar , although the campaign did not end until the Battle of Cape Ortegal on 4 November 1805 . Believing that the French Navy would not be capable of organised resistance at sea during the winter , the First Lord of the Admiralty Lord Barham withdrew the British blockade squadrons to harbour . Barham had miscalculated – the French Atlantic fleet , based at Brest , had not been involved in the Trafalgar campaign and was therefore at full strength . Taking advantage of the reduction in the British forces off the port , Napoleon ordered two heavy squadrons to sea , under instructions to raid British trade routes while avoiding contact with equivalent Royal Navy forces .
Departing from Brest on 13 December 1805 , it was 12 days before the Admiralty in London were aware of the French movements , by which time the French squadrons were deep in the Atlantic , one under Vice @-@ Admiral Corentin @-@ Urbain Leissègues intending to cruise in the Caribbean and the other , under Contre @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez , sailing for the South Atlantic . Two British squadrons were hastily mustered and dispatched in pursuit , one under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Richard Strachan and the other under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren . These squadrons were joined by a third under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir John Thomas Duckworth , who had deserted his station off Cadiz when he learned news of a French squadron to his south and subsequently crossed the Atlantic in pursuit of Willaumez . Although Willaumez managed to escape into the South Atlantic , Leissègues was less successful and was discovered and destroyed at the Battle of San Domingo in February 1806 by a combined force under Duckworth and Rear @-@ Admiral Alexander Cochrane . Other squadrons already at sea became embroiled in the campaign : a smaller squadron that had been raiding the African coast under Commodore Jean @-@ Marthe @-@ Adrien L 'Hermite since August 1805 provided a diversion to the major campaign but failed to draw off significant British forces , while the remnants of a French squadron under Contre @-@ Admiral Charles @-@ Alexandre Durand Linois that had been operating in the Indian Ocean since 1803 was intercepted and defeated by Warren in March , after a chance encounter on its journey back to France .
Willaumez achieved minor success in his operations in the South Atlantic and Caribbean , but was caught in a summer hurricane on his return journey and his ships were scattered along the Eastern Seaboard of North America . One was intercepted and destroyed by British forces and others were so badly damaged in the storm that they were forced to shelter in American ports . The survivors gradually returned to Brest during the autumn , the last arriving in early 1807 . The campaign was the last significant operation in the Atlantic for the remainder of the war , and no French squadron of any size left any of the Biscay ports until 1808 . The losses suffered by the Brest fleet weakened it so severely that it would not participate in a major operation until 1809 , when an attempt to break out of Brest ended in defeat at the Battle of Basque Roads .
= = Background = =
= = = Trafalgar = = =
On 30 March 1805 , the French Mediterranean Fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve successfully broke out of Toulon harbour , avoiding the British blockade fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Nelson and sailing westwards out of the Mediterranean and into the Atlantic , Nelson following several days behind . Villeneuve , joined by a Spanish squadron , crossed the ocean to the Caribbean and anchored at Martinique , while Nelson arrived at Barbados on 11 June . Panicked by the British arrival , Villeneuve immediately returned to Europe , with Nelson again close behind . Villeneuve 's orders had specified that he sail to Brest , the French naval port on the Bay of Biscay , and join there with the fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Honoré Ganteaume . Together this force would drive the Royal Navy out of the English Channel in preparation for an invasion of Britain . However , as he passed the Spanish port of Ferrol on 22 July 1805 , Villeneuve was intercepted by a British fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Robert Calder . At the ensuing Battle of Cape Finisterre , Calder captured two Spanish ships but failed to inflict a decisive blow on Villeneuve 's squadron , which later sailed to Cadiz , Spain 's principal Atlantic seaport . Nelson arrived shortly afterwards and initiated a blockade of the port .
On 21 October 1805 , Villeneuve 's combined Franco @-@ Spanish fleet sailed from Cadiz and was intercepted by Nelson , resulting in the Battle of Trafalgar . Although Nelson was killed at the height of the battle , his squadron inflicted a devastating defeat on the combined fleet , capturing or destroying 17 French or Spanish ships , including Villeneuve 's flagship . The battered remnants of the French Mediterranean and Spanish Atlantic fleets retreated to Cadiz , although four French ships fled north and were intercepted and captured at the Battle of Cape Ortegal two weeks later . In total , the campaign cost Napoleon 13 French and 12 Spanish ships , eliminating any possibility of even regional superiority at sea and therefore preventing the planned invasion of Britain , which had already been indefinitely postponed . The elimination of the French and Spanish fleets and the end of the threat of French invasion was widely celebrated in Britain , and seen by First Lord of the Admiralty Lord Barham , as an opportunity to reduce costs and damage to his ships by withdrawing the Atlantic blockade to Britain during the winter under the assumption that the battered French Navy would be unable and unwilling to operate at sea during the period . He wrote : " It is of little purpose now , to wear out our ships in a fruitless blockade during the winter . "
= = = French plans = = =
Barham had seriously miscalculated the strength of the Brest fleet , which had been uninvolved in the campaign of 1805 and was therefore at full strength . He also underestimated Napoleon , who had observed that Villeneuve 's brief stay in the Caribbean had acted as a major threat to British trade , delaying convoys and causing panic among the West Indian merchants . The French naval authorities were also inspired by the effect of a raiding squadron under Contre @-@ Admiral Zacharie Allemand , which had escaped from Rochefort on 17 July 1805 , caused significant disruption to British trade in the Atlantic and remained at sea off the North African coast . Seeking to repeat these effects , Napoleon sent orders to the commander at Brest , Vice Admiral Honoré Ganteaume , in November 1805 for two strong squadrons to be prepared for service in the Atlantic . These were to leave Brest under cover of darkness on 13 December , with orders to strike deep into the Atlantic and intercept any merchant convoys that they encountered . Subsequently the squadrons were to separate , one to the South Atlantic and the other to the Caribbean , there to cause as much disruption to British intercontinental trade as possible . The orders encouraged the admirals not to engage any Royal Navy force of equivalent size or larger and thus avoid the risk of being captured or destroyed .
Ganteaume selected 11 ships of the line for the operation , including the 120 @-@ gun first rate Impérial , flagship of Vice Admiral Corentin @-@ Urbain Leissègues , who was to sail to the Caribbean with four other ships of the line , two frigates and a corvette . His squadron carried over 1 @,@ 000 French soldiers to augment the garrison on Santo Domingo under General Jean @-@ Louis Ferrand , and was then required to spend two months blockading Jamaica before cruising along the American Eastern Seaboard to Newfoundland , returning to France when food supplies ran low . The other squadron was given to Contre @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez in Foudroyant , with orders to cruise the shipping lanes of the South Atlantic before sailing to the Leeward Islands , communicating with the French colonies of Martinique , Guadeloupe and Cayenne and blockading Barbados . When British opposition became too strong , he was to return to the South Atlantic off Saint Helena , also returning to France once food supplies ran low . His squadron consisted of six ships of the line , two frigates and two brigs , and included among its captains Jérôme Bonaparte , the Emperor 's younger brother . Although both squadrons carried six months provisions , they were expected to capture more during their voyages and it was intended that their raiding operations should last as long as 14 months , causing severe indirect damage to the British economy by restricting the movement of trade .
= = December 1805 = =
On 13 December 1805 , with the majority of the British blockade squadron anchored in Cawsand Bay and the remainder driven far offshore by a winter gale , the French squadrons sailed from Brest into the Bay of Biscay unnoticed . Within two days they had passed nearly 500 nautical miles ( 930 km ) into the Atlantic Ocean and had encountered a British merchant convoy , Willaumez detaching in pursuit . The convoy was sailing to Britain from Gibraltar , escorted by the 64 @-@ gun HMS Polyphemus under Captain Robert Redmill and the frigate HMS Sirius under Captain William Prowse . Heavily outnumbered , the convoy turned away and ran before the wind , Willaumez in close pursuit . Later in the day a second convoy appeared to the north , of 23 ships sailing from Cork to the Caribbean escorted by the frigates HMS Arethusa under Captain Charles Brisbane , HMS Boadicea under Captain John Maitland and the brig HMS Wasp . With Willaumez distracted , Leissègues ordered his squadron in pursuit .
Willaumez 's ships captured a number of stragglers from Redmill 's convoy and managed to isolate Sirius , which only just escaped after narrowly avoiding an unequal encounter with four French ships of the line . With the convoy dispersed , Willaumez gathered his scattered forces and despatched the frigate Volontaire to the Spanish island of Tenerife with the prizes , before turning the remainder of his squadron southwards for his designated cruising grounds . To the north , Leissègues gradually approached Brisbane 's convoy during the night but did not close with him until the morning of 16 December . In response , Brisbane formed his three warships into a line of battle , accompanied by three of the larger merchant ships . This force could not hope to resist Leissègues ' main force , but would enable the 17 other vessels to escape by blocking the French squadron 's frigates from chasing them . Ignoring the escaping convoy , Leissègues formed his own line of battle and continued to close with Brisbane , whose faster ships steadily pulled away from the French throughout the day . As darkness fell , Leissègues abandoned the pursuit and turned to the south and Brisbane immediately despatched Boadicea to Brest and Wasp to the blockade squadrons along the Atlantic Seaboard with urgent warnings of the French operations in the Eastern Atlantic . Brisbane himself remained in distant contact with Leissègues for another day before the French squadron sheered away . Brisbane continued southwards with the remainder of his convoy , seeking the British blockade squadron at Cadiz .
= = = Duckworth 's cruise = = =
On 20 November 1805 , the French squadron under Contre @-@ Admiral Allemand encountered a British convoy off the Savage Islands . Allemand 's squadron was on its return journey to France when he encountered the convoy , consisting of six merchant ships sailing from Britain to Gorée under the escort of the brig HMS Lark under Commander Frederick Langford . Langford gave orders for his convoy to scatter as the French approached , Lark turning northwards in search of Rear @-@ Admiral Sir John Thomas Duckworth and the Cadiz squadron , reaching it on 26 November . Duckworth immediately sailed in pursuit of Allemand , leaving behind only two frigates to watch Cadiz in his absence .
Sailing south from Cadiz , Duckworth 's squadron reached Madeira on 5 December , passing Tenerife ten days later without sighting any French ships . Continuing south to the Cape Verde Islands , Duckworth reluctantly conceded that the French squadron had escaped and he retired northwards until he encountered Brisbane 's reduced convoy on 23 December . Tracking the presumed course of Leissègues ' ships , Duckworth continued northwards on a course that would intercept the French squadron . At 06 : 45 on 25 December , at 30 ° 52 ′ N 20 ° 16 ′ W , approximately 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ) northwest of the Canary Islands , lookouts in Duckworth 's squadron spotted nine sails in the distance . As Allemand 's squadron was estimated to have approximately nine ships , Duckworth initially believed that his enemy was Allemand , possibly accompanied by prizes captured on his cruise . However , as he closed with the French , it became clear that this was a different squadron altogether . In fact his target was Willaumez , and despite the French admiral 's efforts , Duckworth was steadily gaining on him , the ships of the line HMS Superb , HMS Spencer and HMS Agamemnon outstripping the rest of the British squadron .
By 13 : 00 on 26 December , the flagship Superb was just 7 nautical miles ( 13 km ) behind the rearmost French ship , with Spencer 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) further back and Agamemnon another 5 nautical miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km ) distant . The rest of the squadron was more than 22 nautical miles ( 41 km ) behind the leaders , almost completely out of sight , with the rearmost ship , HMS Donegal , more than 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ) behind Superb . The more compact French squadron was therefore at an advantage . The British were too dispersed to be able to bring a powerful enough force to engage the French in equal battle and the distance between the individual British ships was too great to allow them to provide mutual support if Willaumez turned to face them . Therefore , to the fury of his officers , Duckworth called off the pursuit . This decision was heavily criticised , both at the time and subsequently : historian William James commenting that " had the Superb brought to action , as in the course of a few hours she might , the sternmost French ship . . . the issue , in all reasonable calculation , would have been favourable to the British " .
Gathering his scattered squadron , Duckworth despatched the frigate HMS Amethyst to Britain with the news of the French activity in the Eastern Atlantic , his message suggesting that the French were probably destined for the Dutch East Indies . He himself turned southwest towards the Leeward Islands , where he could resupply his ships in preparation for resuming the blockade at Cadiz . On 2 January 1806 he ordered HMS Powerful under Captain Robert Plampin to sail for the Indian Ocean and reinforce the British squadron there , in case Willaumez 's squadron reached Asian waters .
= = = British response = = =
Word of the French break @-@ out did not reach Britain until 24 December , when a cartel arrived from Gibraltar with the news . The report understated the size of the French forces , claiming seven rather than eleven ships of the line had broken out , with four frigates . Recognising his error in withdrawing the blockade , Barham immediately ordered two squadrons to prepare for sea : one under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren gathered at Spithead , including the second rate HMS London and six other ships of the line . The other formed in Cawsand Bay under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Richard Strachan and consisted of the second rate HMS St George and five other ships of the line . Both were ordered to cruise the mid @-@ Atlantic in search of the missing French squadrons , Warren in the vicinity of Madeira and subsequently the West Indies , eventually joining with the squadrons there under Rear @-@ Admiral Alexander Cochrane and Vice @-@ Admiral James Richard Dacres . Strachan was to pass Saint Helena and cruise the West African coast to the Cape of Good Hope , guarding the vital trade route in the Eastern Atlantic that connected Britain with India . If he was unable to discover the French he was instructed to attach his squadron to that under Commodore Home Riggs Popham that had been sent to invade the Dutch base at the Cape of Good Hope in the autumn of 1805 .
= = Battle of San Domingo = =
On 12 January 1806 , Duckworth 's squadron anchored in Carlisle Bay , Barbados , sending HMS Acasta to St. Kitts for additional water supplies . On 19 January the whole squadron sailed to Basseterre at St. Kitts , where they anchored and took on fresh food and water . On 21 January two ships of the West Indian squadron joined them : HMS Northumberland under Captain John Morrison and HMS Atlas under Captain Samuel Pym . Northumberland was the flagship of Rear @-@ Admiral Alexander Cochrane , who met with Duckworth but had no new information about French movements in the region . In fact , Leissègues had arrived in the Caribbean on 20 January , his passage delayed since departing from Brisbane 's convoy in December and his ships damaged and dispersed by a series of winter storms off the Azores . Disembarking the troops at Santo Domingo , the French admiral made repairs to his ships , awaited the arrival of the missing Alexandre and Brave , and took on supplies over the next two weeks in preparation for raiding operations in the West Indies .
On 1 February , the British sloop HMS Kingfisher arrived at St. Kitts with news that three French ships of the line had been spotted off Santo Domingo . Duckworth immediately weighted anchor and sailed for the port , passing St. Thomas on 3 February and though the Mona Passage the following day . On 5 February , the frigate HMS Magicienne under Captain Adam Mackenzie joined the squadron , accompanied by a captured Danish schooner that had recently departed Santo Domingo and whose crew were able to give a precise account of the French squadron at anchor in the harbour . Before the Danish ship had left port , a number of French officers had been concerned that the schooner might reveal details of their presence to the British and had demanded that Leissègues seize and burn the vessel , but the admiral had refused .
In the early morning of 6 February 1806 , Duckworth 's scouting frigates sighted Leissègues ' squadron off the port of Santo Domingo . French lookouts reported the British squadron to the admiral , who ordered his ships to sail in a line of battle westwards along the coast , in the direction of Nizao . Duckworth closed with Leissègues ' leading ships in his flagship Superb , followed by Cochrane in Northumberland and Spencer . The rest of the ships formed a second division led by Rear @-@ Admiral Thomas Louis in HMS Canopus , which rapidly fell behind the leading division . At 10 : 10 , Duckworth opened fire on Alexandre , while Northumberland and Spencer engaged the next two French ships in line , Leissègues ' flagship Impérial and Diomède . Within 15 minutes , Alexandre had fallen out of the line , dragging Spencer with her to the south , while Northumberland had suffered severe damage from Impérial 's heavy gun batteries . At 10 : 35 , Louis ' squadron arrived , each ship raking Alexandre as they passed and leaving her dismasted and shattered . Canopus then passed on towards the melee surrounding Impérial while HMS Donegal targeted Brave and HMS Atlas attacked Jupiter , both of which rapidly surrendered , followed shortly afterwards by Alexandre .
With the French rear defeated , the remaining British ships focused their attack on Impérial and Diomède , but the intense smoke blocked the British view and caused Atlas to collide with Canopus , while fire from Impérial disabled Northumberland . At 11 : 30 , surrounded by enemies and with escape impossible , Leissègues ' decided to drive his remaining ships on shore rather than surrender . Steering for the beach and closely pursued by Canopus , both Impérial and Diomède were deliberately grounded . With the enemy line destroyed , Duckworth anchored offshore to observe French activity on the grounded ships and conduct hasty repairs . Out of range of British fire , small boats evacuated most of the remaining sailors from Impérial and Diomède , which had lost all their masts and were rapidly filling with water . When Duckworth sent in his frigates on 8 February it was clear that both ships were beyond repair , the British boarding parties removing the remaining 156 crew as prisoners and setting fire to the hulls . British casualties in the engagement had been 74 killed and 264 wounded , while the French total was estimated at 1 @,@ 510 , although accurate counts were not taken in the aftermath of the battle .
With his enemy defeated , Duckworth detached Northumberland and HMS Agamemnon to Barbados and took the rest of the squadron to Jamaica with the prizes . There he was acclaimed , and his victory was also celebrated in Britain when the news reached Europe in the brig HMS Kingfisher . Awards were distributed among the officers of the squadron but Duckworth was overlooked : his abandonment of Cadiz and the failure to bring Willaumez to battle in December had earned the enmity of Lord Collingwood , commander in chief of the Mediterranean Fleet , who blocked any awards to his subordinate . Historians William James and William Laird Clowes have both suggested that if Duckworth had not been victorious at San Domingo then he would probably have faced a court martial .
= = Willaumez 's cruise = =
= = = South Atlantic = = =
After outrunning Duckworth on 26 December , Willaumez sailed for the South Atlantic , intending to pass into the Indian Ocean and cruise off the Cape of Good Hope in anticipation of the arrival of the British China Fleet . The China Fleet was a large annual convoy of East Indiamen that originated in Canton and passed through the Malacca Straits , across the Indian Ocean , around the Cape of Good Hope and then north through the Atlantic Ocean , arriving in British waters six to eight months after departure . During the passage , the convoy gathered ships from the various British colonies in the Indian Ocean and by the time it passed the southern tip of Africa it often contained dozens of vessels . By combining the heavy armaments of the East Indiamen with a strong Royal Navy escort , the China Fleet became a formidable target for French raiding squadrons : at the Battle of Pulo Aura in February 1804 , an unescorted China Fleet drove off a powerful French squadron under Contre @-@ Admiral Charles @-@ Alexandre Durand Linois after a sharp encounter .
Willaumez had planned to resupply his squadron at the Cape itself before searching for the China Fleet , but the crew of a merchant ship captured in the South Atlantic informed him that the Dutch governors had surrendered on 10 January 1806 to an expeditionary force under General Sir David Baird and Commodore Popham after five days of fighting . Turning away from the Cape , Willaumez decided to continue operations in the South Atlantic until April , when he put into Salvador in Brazil for supplies . Willaumez was fortunate to have collected this information before attempting to anchor in Table Bay : Popham had ordered all ships and shore facilities to continue to fly the Dutch flag in the hope that enemy ships would be lured within range of the port 's gun batteries . On 4 March this ruse worked successfully when the frigate Volontaire , detached from Willaumez 's squadron in December , anchored in the midst of Popham 's squadron without realising their identity . Hopelessly outnumbered , Captain Bretel had no choice but to surrender , the British boarding party discovering 217 British soldiers in the hold , captured by Willaumez from Redmill 's convoy .
= = = Destruction of Linois = = =
While Willaumez operated in the South Atlantic , the British squadrons under Strachan and Warren hunted for him hundreds of miles to the north . Warren 's squadron cruised the eastern Atlantic , monitoring the trade routes than ran along the coast of West Africa while Strachan focused on the western Atlantic , particularly the southern approaches to the Caribbean . Although neither was in a position to intercept Willaumez until he began the return journey north , Warren 's position afforded him the opportunity to watch for any French or allied vessels returning to Europe from the East . At 03 : 00 on 16 March 1806 , lookouts on HMS London reported sails to the northeast and Captain Sir Harry Burrard @-@ Neale ordered his ship in pursuit . Although no other ships in the squadron could see anything , Warren gave the order to follow London in case the sails proved to be French .
The distant ships were in fact the remains of Linois 's squadron , which had put to sea on 13 March 1803 and operated in the Indian Ocean ever since . There Linois conducted a string of commerce raids that achieved minimal success , hampered by both the lack of naval stores at Île de France and Linois 's hesitation in the face of the enemy . The squadron had missed opportunities at Pulo Aura and the Battle of Vizagapatam in 1804 and against a conovy escorted by Sir Thomas Troubridge in 1805 . Much reduced by detachments and shipwreck , Linois 's squadron now consisted only of his ship of the line Marengo and the frigate Belle Poule . At 03 : 00 on 13 March , lookouts on Marengo sighted sails to the southwest and despite his officers ' misgivings Linois ordered Marengo to investigate , in the hope that he had discovered another merchant convoy .
At 05 : 30 , London and Marengo almost collided in the darkness , Linois recognising the strange ship as a Royal Navy second rate and desperately turning away in an effort to escape . Marengo was too slow and Neale opened fire , rapidly inflicting serious damage to the French flagship . Captain Bruilhac on Belle Poule assisted his admiral for as long as possible , but at 06 : 15 swung away with British frigate HMS Amazon pursuing closely . The fighting continued for another four and a half hours , Linois defending his ship against mounting odds as the rest of Warren 's squadron came into range . To the northeast , Amazon succeeded in catching Belle Poule , the British frigate inflicting serious damage on the French ship as she closed . Unable to escape or continue the fight , both Linois and Bruilhac surrendered at 11 : 00 , although by that time the French admiral had been severely wounded and taken below . French losses were 69 killed and 106 wounded to British casualties of 13 killed and 27 wounded . Following the engagement Warren returned to Britain with his prizes , leaving the eastern half of the Atlantic temporarily unguarded .
= = Willaumez in the Caribbean = =
At the beginning of April 1806 , Strachan was the only British admiral still hunting for Willaumez 's squadron , following the withdrawal of Duckworth and Warren . Strachan 's squadron was hampered in its movements by the presence of the 98 @-@ gun HMS St George , which was much too slow to operate effectively with Strachan 's fast response force . Returning to Britain in early April to resupply , Strachan detached St George and HMS Centaur ( the new flagship of the Rochefort blockade ) at Plymouth and was joined by three additional ships of the line and two frigates , all fast ships capable of extended operations . In early May , news reached Britain of Willaumez 's stay at Salvador and his subsequent departure in mid @-@ April , and Strachan was again ordered in pursuit , sailing for the West Indies .
On leaving Brazil , Willaumez first steered for the French colony of Cayenne , where he divided his ships into three squadrons to increase his raiding operations throughout the West Indies . In May he briefly considered an attack on Carlisle Bay , Barbados , but withdrew claiming that the wind and tide were against him . Cochrane , whose squadron was based at Carlisle Bay , came out in pursuit of the French and almost captured Jérôme Bonaparte in Vétéran with his flagship Northumberland , forcing the French ship to withdraw to Fort @-@ de @-@ France on Martinique on 9 June . Cochrane blockaded the port and was joined by HMS Elephant under Captain George Dundas and HMS Canada under Captain John Harvey , but Northumberland was damaged by a storm and the British temporarily withdrew to Saint Lucia , allowing Éole and Impétueux to reach Fort @-@ de @-@ France on 15 June . Over the following week the rest of Willaumez 's squadron joined Vétéran , ignoring Cochrane 's efforts to intercept his ships as they entered the harbour .
On 1 July Willaumez left Fort @-@ de @-@ France with two ships and sailed to Montserrat , seizing three merchant ships in the harbour . The British governor on Montserrat sent urgent messages to Nevis and St. Kitts , where the authorities hastily evacuated a 65 @-@ ship convoy anchored at Sandy Point under the meagre protection of the 28 @-@ gun frigate HMS Carysfort . However , 13 ships from other harbours missed the warning and on 3 July four ships that had detached from Willaumez 's squadron the day before descended on the islands , seizing four vessels on Nevis and attacking the remaining nine that had gathered under Brimstone Hill . There gunfire from the Brimstone Hill batteries drove off the attacking French ships . On 4 July Willaumez rejoined the squadron from Montserrat with news that the annual Jamaica convoy , a large collection of merchant ships that sailed each year from the Caribbean to Britain during the summer , was anchored off Tortola . Cochrane had already recognised the danger to the Jamaica squadron and had overtaken Willaumez while he was at Montserrat , waiting for the French squadron off St. Thomas with four ships of the line and four frigates . On 6 July Willaumez sighted Cochrane south @-@ east of St. Thomas and , heeding his orders from Napoleon not to risk battle , turned away and passed between St. Thomas and the Passage Islands . With the French driven off , Cochrane sailed to Tortola where nearly 300 ships had gathered to prepare the convoy for the journey to Europe .
Frustrated in his efforts to intercept the convoy at anchor , Willaumez determined to meet it at sea , sailing to the Bahama Banks . There he waited for the convoy , seizing any ships that came within sight of his squadron , including neutral vessels , in case they revealed his position . For several weeks Willaumez 's lookouts saw nothing , the British holding the convoy back until they obtained some information about the location of the French squadron . During the night of 31 July , bored with waiting for the convoy , Captain Jérôme Bonaparte sailed northwards away from the squadron , acting without orders or even notifying his admiral . When dawn broke on 1 August , Willaumez was panicked by the disappearance of Vétéran and , assuming that the ship had somehow been accidentally separated , began to search for the missing vessel and its important commander .
While Willaumez was distracted by his missing ship , Cochrane had finished preparing the convoy . Unable to delay its departure any longer , he sent 109 large merchant ships eastwards under the protection of one small ship of the line , two frigates and two sloops , a significantly inferior force to the one under Willaumez . The convoy passed across Willaumez 's cruising ground during August while the French admiral was to the north searching for Vétéran , and by the time the he returned the convoy was far to the east , was well on its journey to Britain . Willaumez 's absence also meant that he missed a potential encounter with Admiral Warren , who had returned to the Atlantic in search of Willaumez following his victory over Linois in March . Warren had sailed from Spithead on 4 June and by 12 July had anchored at Barbados . During August he searched for Willaumez in the eastern Bahamas but failed to discover the French squadron , which at that time was still searching for Vétéran far to the north .
= = Hurricane = =
With his squadron unexpectedly depleted , his principal target escaped and food supplies running low , Willaumez decided to begin the final stage of his cruise and sail for Newfoundland , thereby escaping pursuit from Cochrane and Warren and preying on the convoys and fishing fleets that crossed the area . Turning northwards on 18 August , Willaumez was at 22 ° N 63 ° W , 324 nautical miles ( 600 km ) north @-@ east of Puerto Rico , when his squadron was struck by a fierce hurricane . When the storm abated , Willaumez found that his flagship Foudroyant was badly damaged and entirely alone . Rigging jury masts , Foudroyant began slowly limping for the Spanish port of Havana on Cuba , where she could make the repairs needed for the journey back to France . For nearly a month Willaumez encountered nothing , but on 15 September , with Havana in sight , the heavy British frigate HMS Anson under Captain Charles Lydiard appeared . Willaumez sent a boat into Havana for assistance as the frigate approached and at 13 : 15 Lydiard opened fire . Although Foudroyant was far larger than Anson she was significantly damaged and incapable of rapid manoeuvres , which gave Lydiard some hope of capturing her . However the fire of Willaumez 's flagship proved too strong and at 13 : 45 Anson sheered away with two men killed and eight wounded . Spanish ships , including the ship of the line San Lorenzo came out to assist Foudroyant and within a few hours she was safely anchored in the heavily fortified harbour .
The rest of Willaumez 's squadron was less successful in their attempts to reach safety . All were badly damaged and most had been blown north @-@ west towards the Eastern Seaboard of the United States . There they encountered Strachan 's squadron , which had passed through the Bahamas while Willaumez searched for Vétéran and been 60 nautical miles ( 110 km ) from Willaumez when they were caught in the same hurricane that had dispersed the French squadron . Less damaged than their opponents , Strachan 's ships began gathering off Chesapeake Bay with the intention of continuing their search once temporary repairs had been completed . On 14 September the ships of the line HMS Belleisle under Captain William Hargood , HMS Bellona under Captain John Erskine Douglas and the frigate HMS Melampus under Captain Stephen Poyntz were cruising off Cape Henry in search of Strachan 's flagship HMS Caesar when they spotted a ship sailing under jury masts to the southwest . Closing to investigate , they discovered that the stranger was the French ship Impétueux , left in a dismasted and leaking state by the hurricane and desperately attempting to reach a harbour in the United States . Commodore Alain @-@ Joseph Le Veyer @-@ Belair immediately steered Impétueux towards the coast to avoid the unequal combat and drove his ship on shore at 08 : 15 . Although Impétueux was now on United States soil , Melampus opened fire , the attack followed at 10 : 00 by boats from Belleisle and Bellona . Boarding parties seized Impétueux but the appearance of two sails on the horizon , later discovered to be British , convinced Hargood to abandon the wreck to Melampus . By 20 : 00 the remaining French crew had been taken aboard the frigate as prisoners and Poyntz gave orders for the wreck to be burnt .
The destruction of Impétueux on United States territory prompted complaints from the French consul at Norfolk , Virginia and from the captains of Éole and Patriote , which had sheltered in Annapolis following the storm . Badly damaged by the high winds , repairs on Patriote took over a year , Commodore Joseph @-@ Hyacinthe @-@ Isidore Khrom waiting until 16 December 1807 to make the journey back to France . He arrived at Ile d 'Aix on 17 January 1808 , narrowly avoiding the blockade squadron under Strachan that was temporarily out of position to take on fresh supplies . Éole was never repaired : the difficulty in obtaining the required naval stores proved too great and she was broken up at Annapolis in 1811 . Another ship that never returned to France was the frigate Valeureuse , which sheltered in the Delaware River following the hurricane but was later forced to sail up river to Philadelphia to avoid attacks by British raiding parties . As with Éole , repairs proved too complex and Valeureuse was also broken up some years later . The flagship Foudroyant did succeed in returning to France , sailing from Havana late in 1806 and arriving at Brest in February 1807 .
Of the original squadron only two ships returned to France immediately : Vétéran had separated before the storm and Captain Bonaparte , assisted by a specially selected veteran crew , managed to intercept a convoy travelling from Quebec to Britain escorted only by the 22 @-@ gun HMS Champion under Captain Robert Howe Bromley on 10 August . Although Bromley made a desperate attempt to draw off the French ship of the line , Vétéran ignored the small escort ship and seized six merchant vessels , setting them on fire . Champion and the transport Osborne escaped , accompanied by nine other merchant ships . On 26 August 26 days after he deserted Willaumez 's squadron , Bonaparte was nearing the French coast when he was chased by the 80 @-@ gun HMS Gibraltar under Captain Willoughby Lake and the frigates HMS Penelope and HMS Tribune under Captains William Robert Broughton and Thomas Baker . Closely pursued , the reliable officers placed under Bonaparte abandoned the intended destination of Lorient and instead used their expert local knowledge to direct Vétéran to the tiny port of Concarneau , the first time a ship of the line had ever successfully anchored in the harbour . Although another captain might have been court martialed for abandoning his admiral without orders or permission , the Emperor 's brother was instead praised for intercepting the Quebec convoy and promoted soon afterwards . The other surviving ship of Willaumez 's squadron was Cassard , which passed through the hurricane relatively intact and made its way to Europe alone , arriving at Rochefort several weeks later .
= = Minor operations = =
In addition to the squadrons of Willaumez , Leissègues and Linois , the French authorities sent several other forces into the Atlantic during the campaign ; either separate operations intended to pass unnoticed under the cover of the major campaign or deliberate diversionary expeditions to draw British forces away from the main theatre of operations . The first of these was L 'Hermite 's expedition , a expedition to West Africa under Commodore Jean @-@ Marthe @-@ Adrien L 'Hermite that had sailed from Lorient towards the end of the Trafalgar campaign with orders to attack undefended merchant shipping off West Africa and await reinforcements under Jérôme Bonaparte . Before Bonaparte could sail , the Battle of Trafalgar changed the strategic situation and the reinforcements were never despatched . L 'Hermite conducted an effective but minor raiding operation of his own , cruising off West Africa and capturing a number of merchant ships and slave ships , eventually sailing for Cayenne and then back to France in September 1806 . A second force was less planned and more opportunistic : Lamellerie 's expedition was drawn from frigates that had survived the Battle of Trafalgar and were sheltering in Cadiz . Duckworth withdrew from the blockade of Cadiz in November 1805 , and inadequate replacements were provided by Collingwood . In February 1806 , a British plan to lure the French squadron out of port by withdrawing all of the available forces except the frigate HMS Hydra and a brig backfired when a storm blew Hydra out of position on 26 February 1806 and La Meillerie escaped with four frigates and a brig . Hydra gave chase , and La Meillerie abandoned the slower brig to avoid combat with the British frigate , eventually escaping with his remaining ships . La Meillerie 's expedition then visited Senegal and Cayenne , failing to make any impact on British merchant shipping despite orders to commerce raid when possible . After four months , La Meillerie decided to return to France , reaching the Bay of Biscay on in July 1806 .
As well as the squadrons under Warren and Strachan , the British authorities had deployed additional forces in response to the French operations , in particular with the intention of intercepting and capturing Willaumez during his return journey to France . To this end , Rear @-@ Admiral Louis was given a squadron to patrol in the English Channel and Admiral William Cornwallis maintained a powerful force off Brest , which was so successful in cutting off the seaport that L 'Hermite 's Régulus was the only ship of the line to enter or leave the port during 1806 . Other squadrons were stationed off the remaining French Biscay ports , including a force of five ships of the line under Commodore Richard Goodwin Keats off Rochefort . One of Keats ' ships , HMS Mars under Captain Robert Dudley Oliver was able to intercept La Meillerie 's squadron on his return journey and capture the frigate Rhin on 17 July .
In September , Keats was replaced off Rochefort by Commodore Sir Samuel Hood , who achieved a significant success when he intercepted a French squadron of seven frigates and corvettes under Commodore Eleonore @-@ Jean @-@ Nicolas Soleil sailing from Rochefort to the French West Indies with supplies and reinforcements at the Action of 25 September 1806 . Hood , commanding six ships of the line , sighted Soleil 's force at 01 : 00 on 25 September , within hours of it leaving Rochefort . Giving chase , conditions suited Hood 's larger ships and by 04 : 00 Soleil recognised that he would be caught by the advancing British and detached three ships southwards and one to the north , retaining three others to delay the approaching British squadron , which had become separated during the pursuit . Engaging the lead ship , HMS Monarch under Captain Richard Lee , Soleil ordered his frigates to target her rigging in the hope of slowing Monarch 's advance and escaping . Monarch was damaged in the battle , but remained in contact with the French long enough that Hood 's flagship HMS Centaur and later HMS Mars could come up and join the engagement . In all four of the French frigates were captured , including the vessel sent north , which was caught by Mars . British casualties were nine killed and 29 wounded , the latter including Hood , who lost an arm .
L 'Hermite 's force had been caught in the same hurricane that had dispersed Willaumez , and as a result his ships were scattered and damaged on 20 August , one frigate joining the remains of Willaumez 's squadron in the United States and the others limping back to France . Most succeeded in slipping through the British blockade independently , including Régulus , which arrived at Brest on 5 October , but one ship was less successful : on 27 September 1806 the frigate Président became the final French casualty of the campaign when it was trapped in the Bay of Biscay by Louis ' squadron . Closed in from all sides , the approach of Louis ' flagship Canopus convinced Captain Labrosse that continued resistance was impossible and he struck his colours without a fight .
= = Aftermath = =
Although Allemand led a minor expedition from Brest to Toulon in 1808 , and the Brest fleet under Willaumez made a determined if ineffectual effort to break into the Atlantic in early 1809 which ended at the Battle of Basque Roads , there were no other large scale naval campaigns fought in the Atlantic Ocean during the Napoleonic Wars . Minor operations by individual French ships and small squadrons continued , but the losses of 1805 and 1806 , combined with the barring of Spanish ports after the Dos de Mayo Uprising and the seizure of much of the French West Indies in 1809 , reduced both the need and the ability of the French to operate on a large scale in the Atlantic : Lord Barham recognised this when he commented on hearing the news of the victory at San Domingo that it " puts us out off all fear from another predatory war in the West Indies " .
In Britain the campaign emphasised the important lesson previously demonstrated in the Trafalgar campaign of the year before , that it was immensely difficult in the vastness of the Atlantic Ocean to detect and intercept French squadrons at sea : only off their own harbours and in the confined waters of the Caribbean were they vulnerable to detection and attack by British squadrons . The inadequate size and power of convoy escorts and the expense in resources employed in chasing French squadrons at sea meant that British trade was placed at risk by the depredations of independent French squadrons , and the maintenance of a tight blockade was essential . The British grip on French maritime travel was a constant source of irritation to Napoleon , who instigated a massive shipbuilding program with the intention of breaking the blockade : by 1808 he was able to muster over 80 ships of the line against the British blockade squadrons .
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= Cyrus B. Comstock =
Cyrus Ballou Comstock ( February 3 , 1831 – May 29 , 1910 ) was a career officer in the Regular Army of the United States . After graduating from the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1855 , Comstock served with the Army Corps of Engineers . At the beginning of the American Civil War , he assisted with the fortification of Washington , D.C. In 1862 , he was transferred to the field , eventually becoming chief engineer of the Army of the Potomac . In 1863 during the Siege of Vicksburg , he served as the chief engineer of the Army of the Tennessee .
The most significant phase of Comstock 's career began in November 1864 when he was appointed to the staff of Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant , becoming Grant 's senior aide @-@ de @-@ camp . In 1865 , Comstock was appointed the senior engineer in the assault on Fort Fisher , North Carolina , and the assault on Mobile , Alabama , both of which were successful . By the end of the war , Comstock had earned the awards of the honorary grades of brevet major general in the Volunteer Army and brevet brigadier general in the Regular Army .
After the close of the war , Comstock served on the military commission for the trial of the conspirators in the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln . He was dismissed from the commission for his criticism of the proceedings . Later Comstock continued with the Army Corps of Engineers , took part in several engineering projects , and served on the Mississippi River Commission , of which he was president .
= = Early life = =
Born in Wrentham , Massachusetts , to Nathan and Betsy Comstock on February 3 , 1831 , Cyrus Comstock attended the United States Military Academy at West Point . He graduated first in his class in 1855 . Following his graduation , Comstock was assigned to the Army Corps of Engineers and assisted with the design and construction of several fortifications . He also served as an instructor of engineering at West Point .
= = Civil War service = =
At the commencement of the Civil War , Comstock , then holding the rank of first lieutenant in the Regular Army , was transferred from West Point to Washington , D.C. He became an assistant to Brig. Gen. John G. Barnard , the engineer in charge of the fortifications of Washington and later chief engineer of the Army of the Potomac .
= = = Army of the Potomac = = =
When the Army of the Potomac took the field in the spring of 1862 during Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan 's Peninsular Campaign , Comstock continued to serve as Barnard 's assistant . On June 1 , 1862 , during the Peninsular Campaign , Comstock was appointed chief engineer of the II Corps . He continued with the Army of the Potomac through the remainder of the Peninsular Campaign and through the Maryland Campaign .
Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside succeeded McClellan and appointed Comstock the chief engineer of the Army of the Potomac . During the Fredericksburg Campaign , Comstock was faced with the difficult task of constructing pontoon bridges over the Rappahannock River , a debacle which proved to be one of the most challenging of his career . Due to confusion in Washington , D.C. at the War Department , the materials necessary for the construction of the bridges did not arrive at Falmouth , Virginia at the same time as the Army of the Potomac . Despite Comstock 's urgent telegraphs and messages , which went unanswered , it took nearly a month for the pontoons to arrive during which time the Union army had completely lost the element of surprise , the Confederate army had dug in at Fredericksburg , Virginia and morale within the Army of the Potomac had sunk . When the material for the bridges finally did arrive , Comstock personally led men from the 50th New York Engineers in seeing to the task of construction . In piecing together the bridges on the Rappahannock River , Comstock and other soldiers were dangerously exposed to enemy fire .
When Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker reorganized the Army of the Potomac in the spring of 1863 , Comstock was removed as chief engineer of that army and placed in command of a battalion of engineers . In that capacity , he played an important role in the Battle of Chancellorsville , overseeing the construction of pontoon bridges over various rivers which first allowed the advance of the Army of the Potomac and later facilitated its retreat after Union forces were defeated .
= = = Siege of Vicksburg = = =
After the Battle of Chancellorsville , Comstock was transferred to the Army of the Tennessee which was , at that time , involved in the Siege of Vicksburg , Mississippi , under the command of Maj. Gen. Ulysses Grant . Comstock arrived at Vicksburg in June 1863 and set to work on improving the siege works . His efforts earned Grant 's respect . Comstock was soon promoted to major and appointed chief engineer of the Army of the Tennessee . The Siege of Vicksburg was successful , in part due to Comstock 's supervision of the overall siege works , and the city surrendered to Union forces on July 4 , 1863 . This victory marked a major turning point in the war as the Union Army gained control of the Mississippi River . The impression that Comstock made on Grant would have a significant impact on Comstock 's career later in the war .
Comstock remained with the Army of the Tennessee into the fall of 1863 . On November 19 , he became assistant inspector general of the Department of the Mississippi and promoted to lieutenant colonel of volunteers . He served in this role until March 1864 .
= = = General Grant 's staff = = =
On March 12 , 1864 , Grant was appointed general @-@ in @-@ chief of the United States Army and moved his headquarters to the eastern theater in Virginia . Grant asked Comstock to come with him as his senior aide @-@ de @-@ camp . Grant determined to command in the field , following and directing the movements of the Army of the Potomac in a major offensive during the summer of 1864 known as the Overland Campaign . During the campaign , Comstock played a key role in coordinating the movements of the various corps of the army and personally conveying Grant 's orders to the corps commanders . His efforts were particularly successful during the Battle of the Wilderness for which Comstock won a commendation from Grant and a brevet promotion to lieutenant colonel in the Regular Army .
Comstock was temporarily detached from Grant 's staff and appointed by Grant to the post of chief engineer of the Department of North Carolina in January 1865 . The transfer was prompted by Maj. Gen. Benjamin Butler 's failure to take Fort Fisher in December 1864 . The fort was the last Confederate stronghold on the east coast . Serving under the command of Maj. Gen. Alfred Terry , Comstock assisted in planning a second and successful assault on Fort Fisher . Following this victory , Comstock was awarded the grade of brevet colonel in the Regular Army . Comstock also was nominated by President Abraham Lincoln on January 23 , 1865 for the award of the honorary grade of brevet brigadier general , U.S. Volunteers , to rank from January 15 , 1865 , for gallant services in the capture of Fort Fisher and the U.S. Senate confirmed the award on February 14 , 1865 . He returned to Virginia and to his role as Grant 's senior aide , but did not remain long .
In March 1865 , Grant again dispatched Comstock to aid in a key siege operation — this time to Mobile , Alabama , the last Confederate stronghold on the Gulf of Mexico . There Comstock served under Maj. Gen. Edward Canby and assisted in operations leading to the surrender of Mobile after the Battle of Spanish Fort and the Battle of Fort Blakely in April 1865 . While Comstock was serving in Alabama , Gen. Robert E. Lee surrendered to Grant after the Battle of Appomattox Courthouse , essentially ending the Civil War . On January 13 , 1866 , President Andrew Johnson nominated Comstock for the award of the honorary grade of brevet major general , U.S. Volunteers , to rank from March 26 , 1865 , for faithful and meritorious services during the campaign against the city of Mobile and its defenses , and the U.S. Senate confirmed the award on March 12 , 1866 . On April 10 , 1866 , President Andrew Johnson nominated Comstock for the award of the honorary grade of brevet brigadier general , U.S. Army , ( Regular Army ) , to rank from March 13 , 1865 , for gallant and meritorious services in the campaign ending with the capture of Mobile , Alabama , and the U.S. Senate confirmed the award on May 4 , 1866 .
= = Post @-@ war life = =
= = = Lincoln assassination = = =
In May 1865 , while still serving on Grant 's staff , Comstock was called to serve as one of the nine military commissioners to oversee the trial of the conspirators in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln . At first , Comstock was eager to see the prosecution of the conspirators , writing that , for them , " death is too good . " However , as the trial proceeded , Comstock became disturbed by the secrecy of the military proceedings . Concerned about the violation of the defendants ' rights , he began to openly argue for the case to be transferred to a civilian court . President Andrew Johnson removed Comstock from the commission due to Comstock 's protests . The rationale for the removal , as explained to Comstock by Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton , was that Grant had also been a potential target of the conspirators and the commissioners felt that Comstock , due to his closeness to Grant , could not be counted on to act impartially .
= = = Later career = = =
Comstock served on Grant 's staff until 1866 , then returned to service with the Corps of Engineers and remained on active duty until 1895 when he retired with the rank of colonel . In the course of his post @-@ war duty , he served with several boards and commissions including the Permanent Board of Engineers in New York City , the geodetic survey of the north and northwestern lakes of the United States , and was president for many years of the Mississippi River Commission .
Comstock was a prominent member of the National Academy of Sciences and bequeathed a fund to the Academy to support an award to a scientist conducting innovative work in the investigation of electricity , magnetism , or radiant energy . Today known as the Comstock Prize in Physics , the award in the amount of $ 20 @,@ 000 is granted every five years by the Academy .
= = = Family = = =
In 1869 , Comstock married Elizabeth Blair , daughter of Montgomery Blair who had served as United States Postmaster General during the Lincoln administration . They had a daughter , Elizabeth Marion Comstock , who was born in Detroit , Michigan in 1872 while Comstock was at work on the geodetic survey of the Great Lakes .
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= Nuremberg Laws =
The Nuremberg Laws ( German : Nürnberger Gesetze ) were antisemitic laws in Nazi Germany . They were introduced on 15 September 1935 by the Reichstag at a special meeting convened at the annual Nuremberg Rally of the Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) . The two laws were the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour , which forbade marriages and extramarital intercourse between Jews and Germans and the employment of German females under 45 in Jewish households , and the Reich Citizenship Law , which declared that only those of German or related blood were eligible to be Reich citizens ; the remainder were classed as state subjects , without citizenship rights . A supplementary decree outlining the definition of who was Jewish was passed on 14 November , and the Reich Citizenship Law officially came into force on that date . The laws were expanded on 26 November to include Romani people and Afro @-@ Germans . Out of foreign policy concerns , prosecutions under the two laws did not commence until after the 1936 Summer Olympics , held in Berlin .
After they seized power in 1933 , the Nazis began to implement their policies , which included the formation of a Volksgemeinschaft ( people 's community ) based on race . Chancellor and Führer ( leader ) Adolf Hitler declared a national boycott of Jewish businesses on 1 April 1933 , and the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service , passed on 7 April , excluded most Jews from the legal profession and civil service . Books considered un @-@ German , including those by Jewish authors , were destroyed in a nationwide book burning on 10 May . Jewish citizens were harassed and subjected to violent attacks . They were actively suppressed , stripped of their citizenship and civil rights , and eventually completely removed from German society .
The Nuremberg laws had a serious economic and social impact on the Jewish community . Persons convicted of violating the marriage laws were imprisoned , and ( subsequent to 8 March 1938 ) upon completing their sentences were re @-@ arrested by the Gestapo and sent to Nazi concentration camps . Non @-@ Jews gradually stopped socialising with Jews or shopping in Jewish @-@ owned stores , many of which closed due to lack of customers . As Jews were no longer permitted to work in the civil service or government @-@ regulated professions such as medicine and education , many middle class , business owners , and professionals were forced to take menial employment . Emigration was problematic , as Jews were required to remit up to 90 per cent of their wealth as a tax upon leaving the country . By 1938 it was almost impossible for potential Jewish emigrants to find a country willing to take them . Mass deportation schemes such as the Madagascar Plan proved to be impossible for the Nazis to carry out , and starting in mid @-@ 1941 , the German government started mass exterminations of the Jews of Europe . The total number of Jews murdered during the resulting Holocaust is estimated at 5 @.@ 5 to 6 million people , and estimates of the number of Romani killed in the Porajmos range from 150 @,@ 000 to 1 @.@ 5 million .
= = Background = =
Prior to the formation of the German Empire in 1871 , the legal status of Jews varied from place to place within the German Confederation and the Kingdom of Prussia . Jews became equal citizens with the creation of the new constitution that soon followed . However , they still faced discrimination and antisemitism . Nationalist sentiments and the idea of Germans as a separate race took hold at the beginning of the 20th century . Jews , with their different culture and ancestry , were viewed ( particularly by proponents of the Völkisch movement ) as being members of a separate and inferior race . Several nationalistic and antisemitic groups ( some with memberships of hundreds of thousands of people ) formed after the First World War . These groups committed acts of violence against Jews and lobbied for their disenfranchisement and removal from German society .
The National Socialist German Workers ' Party ( NSDAP ; Nazi Party ) was one of several far @-@ right political parties active in Germany at the time . The party platform included removal of the Weimar Republic , rejection of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles , radical antisemitism , and anti @-@ Bolshevism . They promised a strong central government , increased Lebensraum ( living space ) for Germanic peoples , formation of a ' Volksgemeinschaft ( people 's community ) based on race , and racial cleansing via the active suppression of Jews , who would be stripped of their citizenship and civil rights . The Nazis proposed national and cultural renewal based upon the Völkisch movement .
= = = Nazi eugenics and racial belief = = =
Nazi racial beliefs arose from earlier proponents of a supremacist conception of race such as Arthur de Gobineau , who published a four @-@ volume work titled An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races ( translated into German in 1897 ) . In it , de Gobineau proposed that the Aryan race was superior , and urged the preservation of its cultural and racial purity . Houston Stewart Chamberlain 's work The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century ( 1900 ) , one of the first to combine Social Darwinism with antisemitism , describes history as a struggle for survival between the Germanic peoples and the Jews , whom he characterized as an inferior and dangerous group . The two @-@ volume book Foundations of Human Hereditary Teaching and Racial Hygiene ( 1920 – 21 ) by Eugen Fischer , Erwin Baur , and Fritz Lenz , used pseudoscientific studies to conclude that the Germans were superior to the Jews intellectually and physically , and recommended eugenics as a solution . Madison Grant 's work The Passing of the Great Race ( 1916 ) advocated Nordicism and proposed using a eugenic program to preserve the Nordic race . After reading the book , Hitler called it " my Bible " . The Nazis embraced the concept of Nordicism and wished for the Nordic race to dominate Germany , but they did not discriminate against Aryans who did not have Nordic physical characteristics .
While imprisoned in 1924 after the failed Beer Hall Putsch , Hitler dictated Mein Kampf to his deputy , Rudolf Hess . The book is an autobiography and exposition of Hitler 's ideology in which he laid out his plans for transforming German society into one based on race . In it he outlined his belief in Jewish Bolshevism , a conspiracy theory that posited the existence of an international Jewish conspiracy for world domination in which the Jews were the mortal enemy of the German people . Throughout his life Hitler never wavered in his world view as expounded in Mein Kampf . The NSDAP advocated the concept of a Volksgemeinschaft ( " people 's community " ) with the aim of uniting all Germans as national comrades , whilst excluding those deemed either to be community aliens or of a foreign race ( Fremdvölkische ) .
= = Nazi Germany = =
Discrimination against Jews intensified after the NSDAP seized power ; following a month @-@ long series of attacks by members of the Sturmabteilung ( SA ; paramilitary wing of the NSDAP ) on Jewish businesses , synagogues , and members of the legal profession , on 1 April 1933 Hitler declared a national boycott of Jewish businesses . By 1933 , many people who were not NSDAP members advocated segregating Jews from the rest of German society . The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service , passed on 7 April 1933 , forced all non @-@ Aryans to retire from the legal profession and civil service . Similar legislation soon deprived Jewish members of other professions of their right to practise . In 1934 , the NSDAP published a pamphlet titled " Warum Arierparagraph ? " ( " Why the Aryan Law ? " ) , which summarized the perceived need for the law . As part of the drive to remove Jewish influence from cultural life , members of the National Socialist Student League removed from libraries any books considered un @-@ German , and a nationwide book burning was held on 10 May . Violence and economic pressure were used by the regime to encourage Jews to voluntarily leave the country . Legislation passed in July 1933 stripped naturalised German Jews of their citizenship , creating a legal basis for recent immigrants ( particularly Eastern European Jews ) to be deported . Many towns posted signs forbidding entry to Jews . Throughout 1933 and 1934 , Jewish businesses were denied access to markets , forbidden to advertise in newspapers , and deprived of access to government contracts . Citizens were harassed and subjected to violent attacks .
Laws promulgated in this period that were not aimed directly at Jews included the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring ( passed on 14 July 1933 ) , which called for the compulsory sterilisation of people with a range of hereditary , physical , and mental illnesses . Under the Law against Dangerous Habitual Criminals ( passed 24 November 1935 ) , habitual criminals were forced to undergo sterilisation as well . This law was also used to force the incarceration in prison or Nazi concentration camps of " social misfits " such as the chronically unemployed , prostitutes , beggars , alcoholics , homeless vagrants , and Romani people .
= = = " The Jewish problem " = = =
Disenchanted with the unfulfilled promise of the NSDAP to eliminate Jews from German society , SA members were eager to lash out against the Jewish minority as a way of expressing their frustrations . A Gestapo report from early 1935 stated that the rank and file of the NSDAP would set in motion a solution to the " Jewish problem ... from below that the government would then have to follow " . Assaults , vandalism , and boycotts against Jews , which the Nazi government had temporarily curbed in 1934 , increased again in 1935 amidst a propaganda campaign authorised at the highest levels of government . Most non @-@ party members ignored the boycotts and objected to the violence out of concern for their own safety . The Israeli historian Otto Dov Kulka argues that there was a disparity between the views of the Alte Kämpfer ( longtime party members ) and the general public , but that even those Germans who were not politically active favoured bringing in tougher new antisemitic laws in 1935 . The matter was raised to the forefront of the state agenda as a result of this antisemitic agitation .
The Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick announced on 25 July that a law forbidding marriages between Jews and non @-@ Jews would shortly be promulgated , and recommended that registrars should avoid issuing licenses for such marriages for the time being . The draft law also called for a ban on marriage for persons with hereditary illnesses .
Dr. Hjalmar Schacht , the Economics Minister and Reichsbank president , criticised the violent behaviour of the Alte Kämpfer and SA because of its negative impact on the economy . The violence also had a negative impact on Germany 's reputation in the international community . For these reasons , Hitler ordered a stop to " individual actions " against German Jews on 8 August 1935 , and the Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick threatened to take legal action against Party members who ignored the order . From Hitler 's perspective , it was imperative to quickly bring in new antisemitic laws to appease the radical elements in the NSDAP who persisted in attempting to remove the Jews from German society by violent means . A conference of ministers was held on 20 August 1935 to discuss the question . Hitler argued against violent methods because of the damage being done to the economy , and insisted the matter must be settled through legislation . The focus of the new laws would be marriage laws to prevent " racial defilement " , stripping Jews of their German citizenship , and laws to prevent Jews from participating freely in the economy .
= = = Events at Nuremberg = = =
The seventh annual Nazi Party Rally , held in Nuremberg from 10 – 16 September 1935 , featured the only Reichstag session held outside Berlin during the Nazi regime . Hitler decided that the rally would be a good opportunity to introduce the long @-@ awaited anti @-@ Jewish laws . In a speech on 12 September , leading Nazi physician Gerhard Wagner announced that the government would soon introduce a " law for the protection of German blood " . The next day , Hitler summoned the Reichstag to meet in session at Nuremberg on 15 September , the last day of the rally . Franz Albrecht Medicus and Bernhard Lösener of the Interior Ministry were summoned to Nuremberg and directed to start preparing a draft of a law forbidding sexual relations or marriages between Jews and non @-@ Jews . The two men arrived on 14 September . That evening , Hitler ordered them to also have ready by morning a draft of the Reich citizenship law . Hitler found the initial drafts of the Blood Law to be too lenient , so at around midnight Frick brought him four new drafts that differed mainly in the severity of the penalties they imposed . Hitler chose the most lenient version , but left vague the definition of who was a Jew . Hitler stated at the rally that the laws were " an attempt at the legal settlement of a problem , which , if this proved a failure , would have to be entrusted by law to the National Socialist Party for a definitive solution . " Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels had the radio broadcast of the passing of the laws cut short , and ordered the German media to not mention them until a decision was made as to how they would be implemented .
= = Text of the laws = =
The two Nuremberg Laws were unanimously passed by the Reichstag on 15 September 1935 . The Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour prohibited marriages and extramarital intercourse between Jews and Germans , and forbade the employment of German females under 45 in Jewish households . The Reich Citizenship Law declared that only those of German or related blood were eligible to be Reich citizens ; the remainder were classed as state subjects , without citizenship rights . The wording in the Citizenship Law that a person must prove " by his conduct that he is willing and fit to faithfully serve the German people and Reich " meant that political opponents could also be stripped of their German citizenship . Over the coming years , an additional 13 supplementary laws were promulgated that further marginalised the Jewish community in Germany .
= = = Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour = = =
Moved by the understanding that purity of German blood is the essential condition for the continued existence of the German people , and inspired by the inflexible determination to ensure the existence of the German nation for all time , the Reichstag has unanimously adopted the following law , which is promulgated herewith :
Article 1
Marriages between Jews and subjects of the state of German or related blood are forbidden . Marriages nevertheless concluded are invalid , even if concluded abroad to circumvent this law .
Annulment proceedings can be initiated only by the state prosecutor .
Article 2
Extramarital relations between Jews and subjects of the state of German or related blood are forbidden .
Article 3
Jews may not employ in their households female subjects of the state of German or related blood who are under 45 years old .
Article 4
Jews are forbidden to fly the Reich or national flag or display Reich colours .
They are , on the other hand , permitted to display the Jewish colours . The exercise of this right is protected by the state .
Article 5
Any person who violates the prohibition under Article 1 will be punished with prison with hard labour [ Zuchthaus ] .
A male who violates the prohibition under Article 2 will be punished with prison [ Gefängnis ] or prison with hard labour .
Any person violating the provisions under Articles 3 or 4 will be punished with prison with hard labour for up to one year and a fine , or with one or the other of these penalties .
Article 6
The Reich Minister of the Interior , in co @-@ ordination with the Deputy of the Führer and the Reich Minister of Justice , will issue the legal and administrative regulations required to implement and complete this law .
Article 7
The law takes effect on the day following promulgation , except for Article 3 , which goes into force on 1 January 1936 .
= = = Reich Citizenship Law = = =
The Reichstag has unanimously enacted the following law , which is promulgated herewith :
Article 1
A subject of the state is a person who enjoys the protection of the German Reich and who in consequence has specific obligations toward it .
The status of subject of the state is acquired in accordance with the provisions of the Reich and the Reich Citizenship Law .
Article 2
A Reich citizen is a subject of the state who is of German or related blood , and proves by his conduct that he is willing and fit to faithfully serve the German people and Reich .
Reich citizenship is acquired through the granting of a Reich citizenship certificate .
The Reich citizen is the sole bearer of full political rights in accordance with the law .
Article 3
The Reich Minister of the Interior , in co @-@ ordination with the Deputy of the Führer , will issue the legal and administrative orders required to implement and complete this law .
= = Classifications under the laws = =
= = Impact = =
While both the Interior Ministry and the NSDAP agreed that persons with three or more Jewish grandparents would be classed as being Jewish and those with only one ( Mischlinge of the second degree ) would not , a debate arose as to the status of persons with two Jewish grandparents ( Mischlinge of the first degree ) . The NSDAP , especially its more radical elements , wanted the laws to apply to Mischlinge of both the first and second degree . For this reason Hitler continued to stall , and did not make a decision until early November 1935 . His final ruling was that persons with three Jewish grandparents were classed as Jewish ; those with two Jewish grandparents would be considered Jewish only if they practised the faith or had a Jewish spouse . The supplementary decree outlining the definition of who was Jewish was passed on 14 November , and the Reich Citizenship Law came into force on that date . Jews were no longer German citizens and did not have the right to vote . Civil servants who had been granted an exemption to the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service because of their status as war veterans were forced out of their jobs on this date . A supplementary decree issued on 21 December ordered the dismissal of Jewish veterans from other state @-@ regulated professions such as medicine and education .
While Frick 's suggestion that a citizenship tribunal before which every German would have to prove that they were Aryan was not acted upon , proving one 's racial heritage became a necessary part of daily life . Non @-@ government employers were authorised to include in their statutes an Aryan paragraph excluding both Mischlinge and Jews from employment . Proof of Aryan descent was achieved by obtaining an Aryan certificate . One form was to acquire an Ahnenpass , which could be obtained by providing birth or baptismal certificates that all four grandparents were of Aryan descent . The Ahnenpass could also be acquired by citizens of other countries , as long as they were of " German or related blood " .
Under the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour ( 15 September 1935 ) , marriages were forbidden between Jews and Germans ; between Mischlinge of the first degree and Germans ; between Jews and Mischlinge of the second degree ; and between two Mischlinge of the second degree . Mischlinge of the first degree were permitted to marry Jews , but they would henceforth be classed as Jewish themselves . All marriages undertaken between half @-@ Jews and Germans required the approval of a Committee for the Protection of German Blood . Few such permissions were granted . A supplementary decree issued on 26 November 1935 extended the law to " Gypsies , Negroes , and their bastards . " Estimates of the death toll of Romani people in the Porajmos range from 150 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 .
Persons suspected of having sexual relations with non @-@ Aryans were charged with Rassenschande ( racial defilement ) and tried in the regular courts . Evidence provided to the Gestapo for such cases was largely provided by ordinary citizens such as neighbours , co @-@ workers , or other informants . Persons accused of race defilement were publicly humiliated by being paraded through the streets with a placard around their necks detailing their crime . Those convicted were typically sentenced to prison terms , and ( subsequent to 8 March 1938 ) upon completing their sentences were re @-@ arrested by the Gestapo and sent to Nazi concentration camps . As the law did not permit capital punishment for racial defilement , special courts were convened to allow the death penalty for some cases . From the end of 1935 through 1940 , 1 @,@ 911 people were convicted of Rassenschande . Over time , the law was extended to include non @-@ sexual forms of physical contact such as greeting someone with a kiss or an embrace .
For the most part , Germans accepted the Nuremberg Laws , partly because Nazi propaganda had successfully swayed public opinion towards the general belief that Jews were a separate race , but also because to oppose the regime meant leaving oneself open to harassment or arrest by the Gestapo . Citizens were relieved that the antisemitic violence ceased after the laws were passed . Non @-@ Jews gradually stopped socialising with Jews or shopping in Jewish @-@ owned stores . Wholesalers who continued to serve Jewish merchants were marched through the streets with placards around their necks proclaiming them as traitors . The Communist party and some elements of the Catholic Church were critical of the laws . Concerned that international opinion would be adversely swayed by the new laws , the Interior Ministry did not actively enforce them until after the 1936 Summer Olympics , held in Berlin that August .
The Interior Ministry estimated there were 750 @,@ 000 Mischlinge as of April 1935 ( studies done after the war put the number of Mischlinge at around 200 @,@ 000 ) . As Jews became more and more excluded from German society , they organised social events , schools , and activities of their own . Economic problems were not so easily solved , however ; many Jewish firms went out of business due to lack of customers . This was part of the ongoing Aryanization process ( the transfer of Jewish firms to non @-@ Jewish owners , usually at prices far below market value ) that the regime had initiated in 1933 , which intensified after the Nuremberg laws were passed . Former middle @-@ class or wealthy business owners were forced to take employment in menial jobs to support their families , and many were unable to find work at all .
Although a stated goal of the Nazis was that all Jews should leave the country , emigration was problematic , as Jews were required to remit up to 90 per cent of their wealth as a tax upon leaving the country . Anyone caught transferring their money overseas were sentenced to lengthy terms in prison as " economic saboteurs " . An exception was money sent to Palestine under the terms of the Haavara Agreement , whereby Jews could transfer their wealth and emigrate to that country . Around 52 @,@ 000 Jews emigrated to Palestine under the terms of this agreement between 1933 and 1939 .
By the start of the Second World War in 1939 , around 250 @,@ 000 of Germany 's 437 @,@ 000 Jews had emigrated to the United States , Palestine , Great Britain , and other countries . By 1938 it was becoming almost impossible for potential Jewish emigrants to find a country that would take them . After the 1936 – 39 Arab revolt , the British were disinclined to accept any more Jews into Palestine for fear it would further destabilize the region . Nationalistic and xenophobic people in other countries pressured their governments not to accept waves of Jewish immigrants , especially poverty @-@ stricken ones . The Madagascar Plan , a proposed mass deportation of European Jews to Madagascar , proved to be impossible to carry out . Starting in mid @-@ 1941 , the German government started mass exterminations of the Jews of Europe . The total number of Jews murdered during the resulting Holocaust is estimated at 5 @.@ 5 to 6 million people .
= = Legislation in other countries = =
Some of the allies of the Nazis passed their own versions of the Nuremberg laws . In 1938 , Fascist Italy passed the Italian Racial Laws , which stripped Jews of their citizenship and forbade marriages between Jewish and non @-@ Jewish Italians . Hungary passed laws on 28 May 1938 and 5 May 1939 banning Jews from various professions . A third law , added in August 1941 , defined Jews as anyone with at least two Jewish grandparents , and forbade sexual relations or marriages between Jews and non @-@ Jews . In 1940 the ruling Iron Guard in Romania passed the Law Defining the Legal Status of Romanian Jews , in 1941 the Codex Judaicus was enacted in Slovakia , in 1941 Bulgaria passed the Law for Protection of the Nation , and in 1941 the Ustasha in Croatia passed legislation defining who was a Jew and restricting contact with them . Imperial Japan did not draft or pass any such legislation .
= = Existing copies = =
An original typescript of the laws signed by Hitler was found by the US Army 's Counter @-@ Intelligence Corps in 1945 . It ended up in the possession of General George S. Patton , who kept it , in violation of orders that such finds should be turned over to the government . During a visit to Los Angeles , he handed it over to the Huntington Library , where it was stored in a bomb @-@ proof vault . The library revealed the existence of the document in 1999 , and sent it on permanent loan to the Skirball Cultural Center , which placed it on public display . The document was transferred to the National Archives and Records Administration in Washington in August 2010 .
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= Castle Park , Bristol =
Castle Park ( sometimes referred to as Castle Green ) is a public open space in Bristol , England , managed by Bristol City Council . It is bounded by the Floating Harbour and Castle Street to the south , Lower Castle Street to the east , and Broad Weir , Newgate and Wine Street to the north . Its western boundary is less obviously defined and has been the subject of controversy , perhaps because the area around High Street and St Mary @-@ le @-@ Port Church , though not part of the park and always intended for development , is often considered at the same time as the park . The park was completed and opened on 30 September 1978 , and occupies most of the site which had contained Bristol 's main shopping area . Much of this area was heavily damaged in the Blitz during the Second World War , and that which remained was subsequently demolished .
The ruined tower of St Mary @-@ le @-@ Port church stands to the west of the park , surrounded by derelict financial office buildings . Adjoining the ruins of St Peter 's church in the middle of the park is a sensory herb garden , and five silver birch trees as a memorial to the beaches of the D @-@ Day landings . To the east is a grassy arena , and the partially excavated remains of Bristol Castle with a preserved vaulted chamber . There is also a bandstand and a children 's play area .
Tree @-@ lined St Peter 's Square , to the north of St Peter 's church , has been home to various events including German Christmas markets . In recent summers a tethered balloon has been placed near the bandstand , offering ascents to sightseers .
Recent attempts to develop the area between the park 's western edge and High Street have proved controversial ; Bristol City Council are keen to replace derelict buildings with a mixed @-@ use development to help reconnect the Old City to Broadmead and raise funds to improve the park ; others would rather see the park extended to High Street .
= = History = =
The town of Bristol was settled at some time in the Anglo @-@ Saxon period on the northern or Mercian side of a crossing point of the River Avon , at or near to the present Bristol Bridge . The town lay entirely between the Avon and the Frome , which at that time emerged into the Avon just downstream of Bristol Bridge .
Archaeological excavations of the area in 1962 @-@ 1963 suggest that the original settlement was centred to the east of St Peter 's Church , with Mary @-@ le @-@ Port on its western limit . The building of Bristol Castle in the latter part of the 11th century resulted in the focus of the settlement being moved to the west , where it developed into a symmetrical plan centred on the crossroads of High Street , Wine Street , Broad Street and Corn Street . The area around Mary @-@ le @-@ Port Street was thus the most ancient part of the mediaeval city . Bristol Castle was home to the Norman garrison , and was a massive structure whose keep was comparable to that of the Tower of London . The castle occupied the whole of the eastern end of today 's Castle park , from just east of St Peter 's Church to Lower Castle Street .
In 1612 Robert Aldworth , Mayor of Bristol , rebuilt St Peter 's Hospital on a site between St Peter 's Church and the Floating Harbour . This ' beautiful house with its elaborate carving ' became the Bristol Mint in 1695 , and was considered to be Bristol 's greatest architectural loss of the Second World War .
By the 16th century the castle was ' tending to ruin ' , and following his victory in the English Civil War Oliver Cromwell decreed its destruction in 1655 , a process which was completed within a fortnight . The castle had stood on the main route from Bristol to London , and following its destruction a commercial avenue opened along Castle Street from the mediaeval city towards Old Market . The demolition of Lawford 's Gate at the eastern end of Old Market Street extended this into West Street , creating an uninterrupted route into the bustling heart of Bristol .
Wine Street and Castle Street became the main shopping streets , where retailers such as Boots , Jones 's ( later to become part of the Debenhams group ) , the Co @-@ op and Marks & Spencer traded . Baker Baker had large stores in Bridge Street , Wine Street and Mary @-@ le @-@ Port Street ; two of these were connected by a high bridge across Mary @-@ le @-@ Port Street . The area also hosted a cinema ( the News Theatre ) and its narrow winding back @-@ streets contained many independent shops , hotels , and pubs . At the corner of High Street and Wine Street stood the ' most loved fragment of Old Bristol ' : The Dutch House .
= = = 24 November 1940 = = =
On the afternoon of 24 November 1940 , 148 aircraft of the Luftwaffe left airfields in Northern France heading for Bristol . The concentration point was to be the City Docks , and their objective was to destroy Bristol 's industry and port facilities . 135 aircraft reached the target area , and dropped 156 @,@ 250 kg ( 344 @,@ 470 lb ) of high explosives , 4 @,@ 750 kg ( 10 @,@ 470 lb ) of oil bombs and 12 @,@ 500 incendiaries . As the raid progressed , the fires could be seen from 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) away . Wide areas of the city were struck , but the most concentrated damage occurred in the area between Broad Quay and Old Market where fierce fires burnt through the night . By the morning , 200 Bristolians were dead and 689 injured , four Luftwaffe crewmen were dead , one injured and four captured , two aircraft were lost , and a large part of the historic heart of Bristol was a smouldering ruin .
The destruction was not total , however . Post @-@ war photographs show that buildings survived intact on Bridge Street , High Street , Castle Street and Peter Street . The west end of Narrow Wine Street , a ' fantastic little old thoroughfare ' , was more or less intact ; Castle Mill Street and Castle Green received little damage , and Upper , Middle and Lower Terrace survived . More importantly , the irreplaceable mediaeval street plan remained .
= = = Replanning = = =
The idea that Bristol 's main shopping area should be moved away from the Castle Street and Wine Street area was first proposed to Bristol Corporation 's Planning and Reconstruction Committee by the Multiple Traders ' Federation ( MTF ) , representing the larger retailers and chain @-@ stores , in October 1943 . They suggested that the pre @-@ war shopping area should be set aside as a civic area with perhaps a concert hall or similar building and an open space , and that the central shopping area should be moved to a less @-@ constrained site . This suggestion formed part of the City Engineer 's Master Plan of February 1944 , which envisaged that the area would contain a limited number of buildings such as a conference hall , with underground parking for 2 @,@ 000 cars . The removal of the shopping area was considered desirable because the fire that had destroyed so much of the area was in large part sustained by its congested nature , and in any case many of the chain @-@ stores represented by the MTF wanted larger sites .
The main objection to this plan came from the independent traders who did not wish to relocate because they felt that the proposed new shopping area was ' off the beaten track ' . This objection was not unreasonable , as in its pre @-@ war topography Bristol had a long shopping axis that started at Stapleton Road to the east , passed through Old Market into Castle Street , Wine Street , and the City Markets , and then via The Centre and Park Street to Queens Road and Whiteladies Road . Moving the central shopping area would break this axis . There was also concern about the serious negative social and economic impacts of ' sterilising ' such a large area in the centre of the city . However , when the Bristol Retail Traders Federation , representing the small traders , produced a poll showing that 13 @,@ 000 people wished to retain the shopping centre on its current site whereas only 400 preferred to see it moved , the local Labour party dismissed the poll describing it as ' undemocratic ' and comparing the Federation 's methods to those of Hitler .
By 1966 , the shops had been rebuilt in ' barren ' Broadmead ( at the expense of demolishing an area of Victorian , Georgian and Tudor buildings that had escaped the wartime bombing more or less unscathed ) , and the Wine Street and Castle Street area was being used for car parking . The picturesque area around Narrow Wine Street and Castle Mill Street had been demolished to create modern Newgate , and Old Market , severed from Bristol 's shopping axis by the new Temple Way Underpass and the destruction of Castle Street , was in serious decline . The plan for Castle Park was crystallising , however . The ruined St Peter 's Church would be surrounded by a museum and an art gallery ; to the east of this there would be an arts centre and the remaining area east to Lower Castle Street would be a park . The south @-@ western corner nearest Bristol Bridge would contain a riverside hotel , and the north @-@ western corner would be home to ' a block for cultural , professional and exhibition purposes ' .
In the event , the north @-@ western corner was leased to the Bank of England and Norwich Union Insurance ( whose offices now stand derelict ) , and the critical corner site where the Dutch House had stood was replaced by a link road to a short section of dual @-@ carriageway linking High Street with Wine Street . Plans for a civic centre were dropped as being too expensive .
Finally , in 1977 , work began on an ' emasculated ' version of the new park . This was designed by Bristol City Council 's parks department and , largely for financial reasons , it contained few of the features intended by earlier plans but was much larger than that originally planned . The last remaining vestiges of the mediaeval street plan , Dolphin Street and Peter Street , were buried .
= = = Mary @-@ le @-@ Port development = = =
In 2006 , Bristol City Council announced its intention to redevelop the area to the west of Castle Park , known as the ' Mary @-@ le @-@ Port ' site . These plans encompassed the by then derelict financial buildings , and the area to the west of St Peter 's church , about 5 % of the park . It was to be a 400 @,@ 000 square feet ( 37 @,@ 000 m2 ) mixed @-@ use development to ' regenerate this historic heart of Bristol ' and to ' improve connections between Broadmead , the Old City and Redcliffe ' and ' enhance the setting of St Mary @-@ le @-@ Port church ' . The council selected Deeley Freed as its preferred developer . The scheme provoked opposition from park users who felt that any reduction in the area of the park was not acceptable . ' Surprised by the extent of feeling ' , Bristol City Council decided to revise the plans . Campaigners then applied to have ' Town Green ' status applied to the park , but this was declined in 2009 .
In 2010 , the Mary @-@ le @-@ Port site was listed as being ' for sale ' by Bristol City Council .
= = = Footbridge = = =
In March 2016 , Bristol City Council approved plans for an S @-@ shaped footbridge over the Floating Harbour , linking the park to the Finzels Reach development .
= = Sites of Interest = =
Very little of Bristol Castle remains above ground . The most tangible survival is a vaulted chamber of the King 's Hall , formerly on Tower Street near the now @-@ truncated Castle Street . Other than that , the excavated remains of the south wall can be seen near the landing stage , and near St Peter 's Church the sally port and traces of the west wall are visible . The foundations of the keep are on show next to the public toilets on Newgate .
The park contains a number of memorials . The ruins of St Peter 's Church are a memorial to the civilians and auxiliary personnel killed in the aerial bombing of Bristol , and a plaque on its wall lists their names . Adjoining the church is a sensory herb garden and The Normandy Garden of Peace , which was opened on 5 November 1995 , with five Silver Birch trees trees , managed by Bristol 's D @-@ Day veterans , in memory of the five D @-@ Day beaches . There are also memorials for trees for Anne Frank and the victims of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki .
The ruined tower of St Mary @-@ le @-@ Port church , subject of a painting by John Piper that appeared on a 1968 1s . 6d. postage stamp , stands on the western edge of the park , surrounded by now @-@ derelict buildings .
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= Castell Coch =
Castell Coch ( Welsh pronunciation : [ ˈkastɛɬ koːχ ] ; Welsh for Red Castle ) is a 19th @-@ century Gothic Revival castle built above the village of Tongwynlais in South Wales . The first castle on the site was built by the Normans after 1081 , to protect the newly conquered town of Cardiff and control the route along the Taff Gorge . Abandoned shortly afterwards , the castle 's earth motte was reused by Gilbert de Clare as the basis for a new stone fortification , which he built between 1267 and 1277 to control his freshly annexed Welsh lands . This castle was likely destroyed in the native Welsh rebellion of 1314 . In 1760 , the castle ruins were acquired by John Stuart , 3rd Earl of Bute as part of a marriage settlement that brought the family vast estates in South Wales .
John Crichton @-@ Stuart , the 3rd Marquess of Bute , inherited the castle in 1848 . One of Britain 's wealthiest men , with interests in architecture and antiquarian studies , he employed the architect William Burges to reconstruct the castle , " as a country residence for occasional occupation in the summer " , using the medieval remains as a basis for the design . Burges rebuilt the outside of the castle between 1875 and 1879 , before turning to the interior ; he died in 1881 and the work was finished by Burges 's remaining team in 1891 . Bute reintroduced commercial viticulture into Britain , planting a vineyard just below the castle , and wine production continued until the First World War . The Marquess made little use of his new retreat and in 1950 his grandson , the 5th Marquess of Bute , placed it into the care of the state . It is now controlled by the Welsh heritage agency Cadw .
Castell Coch 's external features and the High Victorian interiors led the historian David McLees to describe it as " one of the greatest Victorian triumphs of architectural composition . " The exterior , based on 19th @-@ century studies by the antiquarian George Clark , is relatively authentic in style , although its three stone towers were adapted by Burges to present a dramatic silhouette , closer in design to mainland European castles such as Chillon than native British fortifications . The interiors were elaborately decorated , with specially designed furniture and fittings ; the designs include extensive use of symbolism drawing on classical and legendary themes . Joseph Mordaunt Crook wrote that the castle represented " the learned dream world of a great patron and his favourite architect , recreating from a heap of rubble a fairy @-@ tale castle which seems almost to have materialised from the margins of a medieval manuscript . "
The surrounding beech woods contain rare plant species and unusual geological features and are protected as a Site of Special Scientific Interest .
= = History = =
= = = 11th – 14th centuries = = =
The first castle on the Castell Coch site was probably built after 1081 , during the Norman invasion of Wales . It formed one of a string of eight fortifications intended to defend the newly conquered town of Cardiff and control the route along the Taff Gorge . It took the form of a raised , earth @-@ work motte , about 35 metres ( 115 ft ) across at the base and 25 metres ( 82 ft ) on the top , protected by the surrounding steep slopes . The 16th @-@ century historian Rice Merrick claimed that the castle was built by the Welsh lord Ifor ap Meurig , but there are no records of this phase of the castle 's history and modern historians doubt this account . The first castle was probably abandoned after 1093 when the Norman lordship of Glamorgan was created , changing the line of the frontier .
In 1267 , Gilbert de Clare , who held the Lordship of Glamorgan , seized the lands around the town of Senghenydd in the north of Glamorgan from their native Welsh ruler . Caerphilly Castle was built to control the new territory and Castell Coch — strategically located between Cardiff and Caerphilly — was reoccupied . A new castle was built in stone around the motte , comprising a shell @-@ wall , a projecting circular tower , a gatehouse and a square hall above an undercroft . The north @-@ west section of the walls was protected by a talus and the sides of the motte were scarped to increase their angle , all producing a small but powerful fortification . Further work followed between 1268 and 1277 , which added two large towers , a turning @-@ bridge for the gatehouse and further protection to the north @-@ west walls .
On Gilbert 's death , the castle passed to his widow Joan and around this time it was referred to as Castrum Rubeum , Latin for " the Red Castle " , probably after the colour of the sandstone defences . Gilbert 's son , also named Gilbert , inherited the property in 1307 . He died at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 , triggering an uprising of the native Welsh in the region . Castell Coch was probably destroyed by the rebels in July 1314 , and possibly slighted to put it beyond any further use ; it was not rebuilt and the site was abandoned .
= = = 15th – 19th centuries = = =
= = = = Bute ownership = = = =
Castell Coch remained derelict ; the antiquarian John Leland , visiting around 1536 , described it as " all in ruin , no big thing but high " . The artist and illustrator Julius Caesar Ibbetson painted the castle in 1792 , depicting substantial remains and a prominent tower , with a lime kiln in operation alongside the fortification . Stone from the castle may have been robbed and used to feed the kilns during this period . A similar view was sketched by an unknown artist in the early 19th century , showing more trees around the ruins ; a few years later , Robert Drane recommended the site as a place for picnics and noted its abundance in wild garlic .
The ruins were acquired by the Earls of Bute in 1760 , when John Stuart , the 3rd Earl and , from 1794 , the 1st Marquess , married Lady Charlotte Windsor , adding her estates in South Wales to his inheritance . John 's grandson , John Crichton @-@ Stuart , developed the Cardiff Docks in the first half of the 19th century ; although the docks were not especially profitable , they opened opportunities for the expansion of the coal industry in the South Wales valleys , making the Bute family extremely wealthy . The 2nd Marquess carried out exploration for iron ore at Castell Coch in 1827 and considered establishing an ironworks there .
The 3rd Marquess of Bute , another John Crichton @-@ Stuart , inherited the castle and the family estates as a child in 1848 . On his coming of age , Bute 's landed estates and industrial inheritance made him one of the wealthiest men in the world . He had a wide range of interests including archaeology , theology , linguistics and history . Interest in medieval architecture increased in Britain during the 19th century , and in 1850 the antiquarian George Clark surveyed Castell Coch and published his findings , the first major scholarly work about the castle . The ruins were covered in rubble , ivy , brushwood and weeds ; the keep had been largely destroyed and the gatehouse was so covered with debris that Clark failed to discover it . Nonetheless , Clark considered the external walls " tolerably perfect " and advised that the castle be conserved , complete with the ivy @-@ covered stonework .
In 1871 , Bute asked his chief Cardiff engineer , John McConnochie , to excavate and clear the castle ruins . The report on the investigations was produced by William Burges , an architect with an interest in medieval architecture who had met Bute in 1865 . The Marquess subsequently employed him to redevelop Cardiff Castle in the late 1860s , and the two men became close collaborators . Burges 's lavishly illustrated report , which drew extensively on Clark 's earlier work , laid out two options : either conserve the ruins or rebuild the castle to create a house for occasional occupation in the summer . On receipt of the report , Bute commissioned Burges to rebuild Castle Coch in a Gothic Revival style .
= = = = Reconstruction = = = =
The reconstruction of Castell Coch was delayed until 1875 , because of the demands of work at Cardiff Castle and an unfounded concern by the Marquess 's trustees that he was facing bankruptcy . On commencement , the Kitchen Tower , Hall Block and shell wall were rebuilt first , followed by the Well Tower and the Gatehouse , and the Keep Tower last . Burges 's drawings for the proposed rebuilding survive at the Bute seat of Mount Stuart . The drawings were supplemented by a large number of wooden and plaster models , from smaller pieces to full @-@ size models of furniture .
The bulk of the external work was complete by the end of 1879 . The result closely followed Burges 's original plans , with the exception of an additional watch tower intended to resemble a minaret , and some defensive timber hoardings , both of which were not undertaken . Clark continued to advise Burges on historical aspects of the reconstruction and the architect tested the details of proposed features , such as the drawbridge and portcullis , against surviving designs at other British castles .
Burges 's team of craftsmen at Castell Coch included many who had worked with him at Cardiff Castle and elsewhere . John Chapple , his office manager , designed most of the furnishings and furniture , and William Frame acted as clerk of works . Horatio Lonsdale was Burges 's chief artist , painting extensive murals at the castle . His main sculptor was Thomas Nicholls , together with another long @-@ time collaborator , the Italian sculptor Ceccardo Fucigna .
Stimulated by antiquarian writings about British viticulture , Bute decided to reintroduce commercial grape vines into Britain in 1873 . He sent his gardener Andrew Pettigrew to France for training and planted a 1 @.@ 2 @-@ hectare ( 3 @-@ acre ) vineyard just beneath the castle in 1875 . The first harvests were poor and the initial harvest in 1877 produced only 240 bottles . Punch magazine claimed that any wine produced would be so unpleasant that " it would take four men to drink it — two to hold the victim and one to pour the wine down his throat " . By 1887 , the output was 3 @,@ 000 bottles of sweet white wine of reasonable quality . Bute persevered , commercial success followed and 40 hogsheads of wine , including a red varietal using Gamay grapes , were produced annually by 1894 to positive reviews .
Burges died in 1881 after catching a severe chill during a site visit to the castle . His brother @-@ in @-@ law , the architect Richard Pullan , took over the commission and delegated most of the work to Frame , who directed the work on the interior until its completion in 1891 . Bute and his wife Gwendolen were consulted over the details of the interior decoration ; replica family portraits based on those at Cardiff were commissioned to hang on the walls . Clark approved of the result , commenting in 1884 that the restoration was in " excellent taste " . An oratory originally built on the roof of the Well Tower was removed before 1891 but in other respects the completed castle was left unaltered .
The castle was not greatly used ; the Marquess rarely visited after its completion . The property had probably only been intended for limited , informal use , for example as a retreat following picnics . Although it had reception rooms suitable for large gatherings , it had only three bedrooms and was too far from Cardiff for casual visits . The restored castle initially received little interest from the architectural community , possibly because the total rebuilding of the castle ran counter to the increasingly popular late @-@ Victorian philosophy of conserving older buildings and monuments .
= = = 20th – 21st centuries = = =
Bute died in 1900 and his widow , the Marchioness , was given a life interest in Castell Coch ; during her mourning , she and her daughter , Lady Margaret Crichton @-@ Stuart , occupied the castle and made occasional visits thereafter . Production in the castle vineyards ceased during the First World War due to the shortages of the sugar needed for the fermentation process , and in 1920 the vineyards were uprooted . John , the 4th Marquess , acquired the castle in 1932 but made little use of it . He also began to reduce the family 's investments in South Wales . The coal trade had declined after 1918 and industry had suffered during the depression of the 1920s ; by 1938 , the great majority of the family interests , including the coal mines and docks , had been sold off or nationalised .
The 5th Marquess of Bute , another John , succeeded in 1947 and , in 1950 , he placed the castle in the care of the Ministry of Works . The Marquess also disposed of Cardiff Castle , which he gave to the city , removing the family portraits from the castle before doing so . In turn , the paintings in Castell Coch were removed by the ministry and sent to Cardiff , the National Museum of Wales providing alternatives from their collection for Castell Coch . Academic interest in the property grew , with publications in the 1950s and 1960s exploring its artistic and architectural value . Since 1984 , the property has been administered by Cadw , an agency of the Welsh Government , and is open to the public ; it received 69 @,@ 466 visitors in 2011 . The castle has also been used as a location for filming .
The castle 's exposed position causes it to suffer from penetrating damp and periodic restoration work has been necessary . The stone tiles on the roof were replaced by slate in 1972 , a major programme was carried out on the Keep in 2007 and interior conservation work was undertaken in 2011 to address problems in Lady Bute 's Bedroom , where damp had begun to damage the finishings .
The original furnishings , many of which the Marquess removed in 1950 , have mostly been recovered and returned to their original locations in the castle . Two stained @-@ glass panels from the demolished chapel , lost since 1901 , were rediscovered at an auction in 2010 and were bought by Cadw for £ 125 @,@ 000 in 2011 .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Overview = = =
Castell Coch occupies a stretch of woodland on the slopes above the village of Tongwynlais and the River Taff , about 10 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 6 mi ) north @-@ west of the centre of Cardiff . The architecture is High Victorian Gothic Revival in style , influenced by contemporary 19th @-@ century French restorations . Its design combines the surviving elements of the medieval castle with 19th @-@ century additions to produce a building which the historian Charles Kightly considered " the crowning glory of the Gothic Revival " in Britain . It is protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building due to its exceptional architectural and historical interest .
= = = Exterior = = =
The castle comprises three circular towers — the Keep , the Kitchen Tower and the Well Tower — along with the Hall Block , the Gatehouse and a shell wall ; the buildings almost entirely encase the original motte in stone . The older parts of the castle are constructed from crudely laid red sandstone rubble and grey limestone , the 19th @-@ century additions in more precisely cut red Pennant sandstone . A ditch is cut out of the rock in front of the Gatehouse and leads to an eastern approach road . The castle is surrounded by woodland and the 19th @-@ century vineyards below it have been converted into a golf course . In 1850 , George Clark recorded an " outer court " of which nothing remains ; this may , in fact , have been the traces of the earlier lime kiln operations around the site .
The Gatehouse is reached across a wooden bridge , incorporating a drawbridge . Burges intended the bridge to copy those of medieval castles , which he believed were designed to be easily set on fire in the event of attack . The Gatehouse was fitted with a wooden defensive bretache and , above the entrance , Burges sited a portcullis and a glazed statue of the Madonna and Child sculpted by Ceccardo Fucigna .
The Keep is 12 metres ( 39 ft ) in diameter with a square , spurred base ; in the 13th century there would have been an adjacent turret , on the south @-@ west side , containing latrines , but few traces remain . There is no evidence that the tower that Burges termed a keep would have fulfilled this function in the medieval period and he appears to have chosen the name because of his initial decision to locate the bedrooms of Lord and Lady Bute in the rebuilt tower . The Kitchen Tower is also 12 metres ( 39 ft ) across and rests on a square , spurred base . It was originally two storeys high and contained the medieval kitchen ; Burgess raised its height and gave it a conical roof and chimneys . The walls of these two towers are around 3 @.@ 0 metres ( 10 ft ) thick at the base , thinning to 0 @.@ 61 metres ( 2 ft ) at the top . The Well Tower at 11 @.@ 5 metres ( 38 ft ) in diameter is slightly narrower than the Keep or Kitchen Tower , with a well in its lowest chamber sunk into the ground . The Well Tower lacks the spurs of the other two towers and has a flat rather than curved back , facing onto the courtyard , similar to some of the towers built at Caerphilly by the de Clares .
The towers contribute to what the architectural writer Charles Handley @-@ Read considered the castle 's " sculptural and dramatic exterior " . Almost equal in diameter , but of differing conical roof designs and heights , and topped with copper @-@ gilt weather vanes , they combine to produce a romantic appearance , which Matthew Williams described as bringing " a Wagnerian flavor to the Taff Valley " .
The design of the towers was influenced by the work of the contemporary French architect Eugène Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc , including his restorations of Carcassone and the châteaus of Aigle and Chillon . While the exterior of Castell Coch is relatively true to English 13th @-@ century medieval design — albeit heavily influenced by the Gothic Revival movement — the inclusion of the conical roofs , which more closely resemble those of fortifications in France or Switzerland than Britain , is historically inaccurate . Although he mounted a historical defence ( see box ) , Burges chose the roofs mainly for architectural effect , arguing that they appeared " more picturesque " , and to provide additional room for accommodation in the castle .
The three towers lead into a small oval courtyard that sits on the top of the motte , about 19 @.@ 5 metres ( 64 ft ) across lengthways . Cantilevered galleries and wall @-@ walks run around the inside of the courtyard with neat and orderly woodwork ; the historian Peter Floud critiqued it as " perhaps too much like the backcloth for an historical pageant " . Burges reconstructed the shell wall that runs along the north @-@ west side of the courtyard 0 @.@ 99 metres ( 3 ft 3 in ) thick , complete with arrow holes and a battlement .
= = = Interior = = =
The Keep , the Well Tower and the Kitchen Tower incorporate a series of apartments , of which the main sequence , the Castellan 's Rooms , lies within the Keep . The Hall , the Drawing Room , Lord Bute 's Bedroom and Lady Bute 's Bedroom form a suite of rooms that exemplify the High Victorian Gothic style of 19th century Britain . Unlike the exterior of the castle , which deliberately imitated the architecture of the 13th century , the interior was purely High Victorian in style . On Burges 's decoration of Cardiff Castle and Castell Coch , Handley @-@ Read wrote : " I have yet to see any High Victorian interiors from the hand , very largely , of one designer , to equal either in homogeneity or completeness , in quality of execution or originality of conception the best of the interiors of the Welsh castles . For sheer power of intoxication , Burges stand [ s ] unrivalled . "
= = = = The Banqueting Hall = = = =
The Banqueting Hall is 6 @.@ 1 by 9 @.@ 1 metres ( 20 by 30 ft ) across with an 11 @-@ metre ( 35 ft ) ceiling , and occupies the whole of the first floor of the Hall Block . Burges persuaded Bute and the antiquarian George Clark that the medieval hall would have stood on the first floor . His original plan saw access via one of two equally circuitous routes through the Well Tower or around the entire internal gallery to enter the hall through a passage next to the Drawing Room . Neither approach was acceptable to Bute and at a late stage , around 1878 / 9 , the present entrance was created by expanding a window at the head of the internal gallery .
The hall is austere ; the architect John Newman critiqued its decoration as " dilute " and " unfocused " , Crook as " anaemic " . It features stencilled ceilings and murals which resemble medieval manuscripts . The murals were designed by Horatio Lonsdale and executed by Campbell , Smith & Company . The furniture is by John Chapple , made in Lord Bute 's workshops at Cardiff . The tapered chimney of the room , modelled on 15th @-@ century French equivalents , contains a statue carved by Thomas Nicholls . Although the architectural historian Mark Girouard suggested that the statue depicts the Hebrew King David , most historians believe that it shows Lucius of Britain , according to legend the founder of the diocese of Llandaff in nearby Cardiff .
= = = = The Drawing Room = = = =
The octagonal Drawing Room occupies the first and second floors of the Keep . The ceiling is supported by vaulted stone ribs modelled on Viollet @-@ Le @-@ Duc 's work at Château de Coucy and the lower and upper halves of the room are divided by a minstrels ' gallery . The original plans for the space involved two chambers , one on each floor , and the new design was adopted only in 1879 , Burges noting at the time that he intended to " indulge in a little more ornament " than elsewhere in the castle .
The decoration of the room focuses on what Newman described as the " intertwined themes [ of ] the fecundity of nature and the fragility of life " . A fireplace by Thomas Nicholls features the Three Fates , the trio of Greek goddesses who are depicted spinning , measuring and cutting the thread of life . The ceiling 's vaulting is carved with butterflies , reaching up to a golden sunburst at the apex of the room , while plumed birds fly up into a starry sky in the intervening sections . Around the room , 58 panels , each depicting a unique plant , are surmounted by a mural showing animals from Aesop 's Fables . Carved birds , lizards and other wildlife decorate the doorways .
The historian Terry Measham wrote that the Drawing Room and Lady Bute 's Bedroom , " so powerful in their effect , are the two most important interiors in the castle . " The architectural writer Andrew Lilwall @-@ Smith considered the Drawing Room to be " Burges 's pièce de résistance " , encapsulating his " romantic vision of the Middle Ages " . The decoration of the ceiling , which was carried out while Burges was alive , differs in tone from the treatment of the murals , and the decoration of Lady Bute 's Bedroom , which were both completed , under the direction of William Frame and Horatio Lonsdale respectively , after Burges 's death . Burges 's work is distinctively High Gothic in style , while the later efforts are more influenced by the softer colours and character of the Aesthetic movement , which had grown in popularity by the 1880s .
= = = = Lord Bute 's Bedroom = = = =
In comparison to other rooms within the castle , Lord Bute 's Bedroom , sited above the Winch Room , is relatively small and simple . The original plan had Bute 's personal accommodation in the Keep but the expansion of the Drawing Room to a double @-@ height room in 1879 required a late change of plan . The bedroom contains an ornately carved fireplace . Doors lead off the room to an internal balcony overlooking the courtyard and to the bretache over the gate arch . The furniture is mainly by Chapple and post @-@ dates Burges , although the washstand and dressing table are pared @-@ down versions of two pieces – the Narcissus Washstand and the Crocker Dressing Table – that Burges made for his own home in London , The Tower House .
This bedroom is also less richly ornamented than many in the castle , making extensive use of plain , stencilled geometrical patterns on the walls . Crook suggested this provided some " spartan " relief before the culmination of the castle in Lady Bute 's Bedroom but Floud considered the result " thin " and drab in comparison with the more richly decorated chambers . The bedroom would have been impractical for regular use , lacking wardrobes and other storage .
= = = = Lady Bute 's Bedroom = = = =
Lady Bute 's Bedroom comprises the upper two floors of the Keep , with a coffered , double @-@ dome ceiling that rises up into the tower 's conical roof . The room was completed after Burges 's death and , although he had created an outline model for the room 's structure , which survives , he did not undertake detailed plans for its decoration . His team attempted to fulfil his vision for the room — " would Mr Burges have done it ? " William Frame asked Nicholls in a letter of 1887 — but the interior decoration was the work of Lonsdale between 1887 and 1888 , with considerable involvement from Bute and his wife .
The room is circular , with the window embrasures forming a sequence of arches around the outside . It is richly decorated , with love as the theme , displaying carved monkeys , nesting birds and pomegranates , images taken from 15th @-@ century manuscripts . Lord Bute thought the monkeys inappropriately " lascivious " . Above the fireplace is a winged statue of Psyche , the Greek goddess of the soul , carrying a heart @-@ shaped shield which displays the arms of the Bute family . The washbasin , designed by John Chapple , has cisterns for hot and cold water , covered with crenellated towers . The Marchioness 's scarlet and gold bed is the most notable piece of furniture in the room , modelled on a medieval original drawn by Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc . Crook described the bed as being " medieval to the point of acute discomfort " .
The bedroom is Moorish in style , a popular inspiration in mid @-@ Victorian interior design , and echoes earlier work by Burges in the Arab Room at Cardiff Castle and in the chancel at St Mary 's Church at Studley Royal in Yorkshire . Lilwall @-@ Smith likened the chamber , with its " Moorish @-@ looking dome , maroon @-@ and @-@ gold painted furniture and large , low bed decorated with glass crystal orbs " , to a scene from the Arabian Nights . Peter Floud criticised the eclectic nature of this Moorish theme and contrasted it unfavourably with the more consistent style Burges applied to the Arab Room , suggesting that it gave the bedroom an overly theatrical , even pantomime @-@ like , character . The historian Matthew Williams considered that Lonsdale 's efforts lack the imagination and flair that Burges himself might have brought to the room .
= = = = Other rooms = = = =
The Windlass Room , or Winch Room , is in the Gatehouse , entered from the Drawing Room . It contains a working mechanism for operating the drawbridge and the portcullis . The equipment was originally intended for the second floor , which Burges considered the most historically authentic location . When later design modifications led him to move Lord Bute 's Bedroom into that space , the equipment was simplified and placed on the first floor . The Windlass Room includes murder holes , which Burges thought would have enabled medieval inhabitants of the castle to pour boiling water and oil on attackers .
An oratory , originally fitted to the roof of the Well Tower but removed before 1891 , was decorated with twenty stained glass windows . Ten of these windows are displayed at Cardiff Castle , while the other ten are displayed on site ; two missing windows having been returned to the castle in 2011 . Other rooms in the castle include Lady Margaret Bute 's Bedroom , the servants ' hall and the kitchen .
= = = Interior design details = = =
Interior design details at Castell Coch
= = Landscape – Site of Special Scientific Interest = =
The woods surrounding the castle , known as the Taff Gorge complex , are among the most westerly natural beech woodlands in the British Isles . They contain dog 's mercury , ransoms , sanicles , bird 's @-@ nest orchid , greater butterfly @-@ orchid and yellow bird 's nest plants . The area has unusual rock outcrops , which show the point where Devonian Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous Limestone beds meet ; the Castell Coch Quarry is in the vicinity . To the southeast of the castle , a nine @-@ hole golf course occupies the site of the former vineyard . The area is protected as the Castell Coch Woodlands and Road Section Site of Special Scientific Interest .
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= Jenna Haze =
Jenna Haze ( born February 22 , 1982 ) is an American director , model and former pornographic actress . Haze has won numerous adult industry awards , including the 2003 AVN Award for Best New Starlet and the 2009 AVN Award for Female Performer of the Year , making her the second performer in history to ever win both awards in the course of her career , after Missy . In 2012 , she was inducted into both the AVN and XRCO Halls of Fame .
= = Career = =
Haze entered the adult film industry on July 18 , 2001 . Between 2002 and 2005 , she was a contract girl for the film company Jill Kelly Productions . During most of her time at the company , she performed exclusively with women , out of loyalty to her then boyfriend , an industry cameraman . She returned to working with men in the 2006 multi @-@ award winning release Jenna Haze Darkside , produced by Jules Jordan .
Her first scene was for The Oral Adventures of Craven Moorehead 8 with her agent Slim Shady ( Dez ) and his best friend , Moorehead . It was intended to only be an oral scene , but in the heat of the moment she had intercourse with both . The next day she shot a scene with Miles Long in Joey Silvera 's Service Animals 4 . A few months later , she realized that she did not need an agent and started to represent herself .
In February 2002 , Haze appeared in a scene for Jill Kelly Productions ( JKP ) , directed by Jill Kelly herself . Kelly was impressed by her performance and JKP offered Haze an exclusive performing contract . This was soon followed by offers from other companies , but in April 2002 Haze decided to sign with JKP , as they offered the extra flexibility she needed to make money and build her career . The company to her was more than just a business , but a family too . She also enjoyed the idea of having a group of girls around her and working for a company run by a woman . Soon after signing with JKP , she formed a serious relationship with an industry cameraman and began a three @-@ year period of performing exclusively with women . At the 2003 AVN Awards ceremony , Haze was named Best New Starlet and her masturbation scene in Big Bottom Sadie was awarded Best Solo Sex Scene . In 2004 , she appeared on the HBO show Pornucopia , a six @-@ part documentary on the pornography industry in California .
Haze became a free agent in April 2005 , after deciding not to renew her contract with JKP , partly because Jill Kelly had recently left the company . After leaving JKP and splitting with her boyfriend , Haze returned to working with male performers . The April 2006 release Jenna Haze Darkside featured her first boy @-@ girl scenes in over three years . The film was produced and directed by her new boyfriend Jules Jordan . Later in the year , she began writing a sex advice column for the pornographic magazine , Fox .
In 2006 she also started feature dancing , represented by the agency Lee Network . The first achievement in her feature dancing career was a nomination for Best Feature Entertainer at the 2007 Night Moves Awards . Her film work was also rewarded in 2007 , with AVN Awards for Best Oral Sex Scene ( Video ) and Best Group Sex Scene ( Video ) , as well as a nomination for Female Performer of the Year .
In April 2007 , Jenna Haze Oil Orgy became the first adult movie to be released on Blu @-@ ray format . Meanwhile , in the same month , her official website was launched by Premium Multimedia .
In January 2008 , her scene with Manuel Ferrara in Evil Anal 2 won the AVN Award for Best Couples Sex Scene ( Video ) . In August 2008 , Haze achieved the first feature dancing award of her career winning Adult Movie Entertainer of the Year in the 11th annual Adult Nightclub and Exotic Dancer Awards . On January 10 , 2009 , Haze and Belladonna hosted the 2009 AVN Awards , and Haze won Female Performer of the Year .
In 2010 , Complex ranked Haze sixteenth on their list of " The 50 Prettiest Porn Stars of All Time " and fifth on their list of " The 10 Hottest Orange County Women . " Complex also ranked her twentieth on their list of " The Top 100 Hottest Porn Stars ( Right Now ) " in 2011 . She was also placed on CNBC 's yearly list of " The Dirty Dozen : Porn 's Most Popular Stars " in 2011 and 2012 .
On February 7 , 2012 , Haze announced her retirement from performing via a homemade YouTube video , followed by a press release . She revealed that she hadn 't shot a scene since April 2011 but would possibly continue to direct and produce .
= = = Jennaration X Studios = = =
In 2009 Jenna Haze launched her own production company , Jennaration X Studios , headed by Haze and distributed through Jules Jordan Video . Haze is directing and performing in her production films .
Jennaration X debut film , Cum @-@ Spoiled Sluts , ( featuring scenes with Haze , Johnny Sins , Nikki Rhodes and James Deen ) was released March 23 , 2009 , followed by Anal Academics which was released July 6 , 2009 .
= = = Appearances = = =
In the 2007 mainstream comedy film , Superbad , Haze made a short appearance in the role of Vagtastic Voyage Girl # 2 . Haze made a short appearance in the 2009 action / thriller film Crank : High Voltage as a porn star on strike .
Published in 2007 , Haze was among the adult stars featured in the erotic photography book Naked Ambition : An R @-@ Rated Look at an X @-@ Rated Industry . The special edition of the book included a fine art photograph of Haze signed by the photographer Michael Grecco .
Shortly after retiring 2012 , Haze appeared in the March edition of the men 's magazine FHM in a layout with former Gossip Girl star Taylor Momsen , and shortly thereafter had a cameo in Momsen 's band The Pretty Reckless ' music video for the song " My Medicine " . She then appeared onstage with the band at their March 13 Los Angeles House Of Blues performance and gave Momsen an impromptu lapdance .
= = Awards = =
= = Personal life = =
Haze was born in Fullerton , California and grew up mainly in La Habra , California , but also spent time in Lancaster , California and Inver Grove Heights , Minnesota . Haze grew up as the youngest of four children whose parents were divorced . She is of Spanish , German and Irish descent .
She received good grades in school , until about junior high school when she " discovered boys and sex " . By age 15 she had dropped out of high school , had to receive homeschooling and found her first job . She had a series of low wage jobs such as a fast food manager , oil change girl and a Christmas job stocking shelves at a toy store .
When Haze turned 18 , she tried stripping for a day , but did not enjoy being a house girl , giving lap dances to men she had to pretend to like for low wages . At age 19 , while at her favorite nightclub in Anaheim , California , her boyfriend introduced her to a friend who knew the adult actor Peter North and the actor / director Craven Moorehead . She gladly accepted an offer from Moorehead to participate in a film and two days later she shot her first scene .
Haze is bisexual .
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= Chuck Versus Agent X =
" Chuck Versus Agent X " is the 22nd episode of the fourth season of the American action @-@ comedy television series Chuck , and the 76th overall episode of the series . The episode was written by Phil Klemmer and Craig DiGregorio and directed by Robert Duncan McNeill . It originally aired on May 2 , 2011 .
In the episode , Chuck Bartowski 's ( Zachary Levi ) bachelor party turns up some uninvited guests . Meanwhile , Ellie Bartowski @-@ Woodcomb ( Sarah Lancaster ) discovers the true identity of Agent X while investigating her father Stephen 's computer .
" Chuck Versus Agent X " received generally positive reviews from critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , it drew 4 @.@ 097 million viewers , the second @-@ lowest number in Chuck 's history , after " Chuck Versus the Family Volkoff " . It had a 2 @.@ 5 / 4 share among all households and 1 @.@ 4 / 4 share among those aged 18 – 49 .
= = Plot = =
As Chuck Bartowski ( Zachary Levi ) contemplates confronting his sister Ellie ( Sarah Lancaster ) about her secret research into their late father Stephen 's laptop , Chuck and his fiancée Sarah Walker ( Yvonne Strahovski ) prepare for their bachelor and bachelorette parties .
At her bachelorette party , hosted by Ellie , Sarah is notified by General Diane Beckman that Stephen 's laptop is being tracked by Volkoff Industries agents Riley ( Ray Wise ) and Jasmine ( India de Beaufort ) , who , due to the imprisonment of international arms dealer Alexei Volkoff , are now under the leadership of Volkoff 's daughter Vivian . Thinking that Riley and Jasmine are going to arrive at Ellie 's apartment , Sarah tells Ellie that Chuck knows Ellie lied to him and still has the laptop . However , Ellie and Sarah then realize that the laptop has been mistakenly taken by Ellie 's husband Devon Woodcomb ( Ryan McPartlin ) to Chuck 's bachelor party .
Meanwhile , despite Chuck and his guests ' belief that Devon was hosting Chuck 's bachelor party in Las Vegas , Nevada , they are taken to Las Vecas National Park . As some of the guests attempt to escape the camping trip , they are ambushed by Riley 's mercenaries , who are tracking the laptop Devon unknowingly brought with him . Chuck and his friends escape , but the laptop is stabbed by Jasmine in the process .
When Chuck returns , he and Ellie tell each other the truth , with Ellie revealing that she is still investigating her father 's research , and Chuck revealing that he is still a CIA agent . Chuck then brings Ellie to Castle and demonstrates martial arts skills from the Intersect . When Chuck claims to be Agent X , the first human Intersect , Ellie informs him that , according to the laptop , someone had originally uploaded the Intersect to their brain before Chuck 's birth . After Chuck repairs the computer , they find a redacted file on British scientist Hartley Winterbottom .
Chuck , Sarah , and John Casey ( Adam Baldwin ) travel to Winterbottom 's home in Somerset , UK , and confront Winterbottom 's mother ( Millicent Martin ) , who blames the CIA for corrupting her son . However , Chuck is revealed to be Stephen Bartowski 's son , earning her trust , as Hartley and Stephen were once colleagues and close friends . When Riley and Jasmine arrive with an assault team , Mrs. Winterbottom sends Chuck and Sarah to retrieve Hartley 's " spy will " while she and Casey fight back the assault team . When they run out of ammunition , Mrs. Winterbottom sets a trap that explodes and kills Jasmine and the assault team . When Ellie , Chuck , Sarah , Casey , and Morgan Grimes ( Joshua Gomez ) return to the Castle , open Hartley 's spy will , they discover a photograph of Volkoff , realizing that Volkoff is actually Agent X - Hartley .
Startled , The team reads the files on his last mission ; which was to assist on a complicated cover @-@ up black operation posing as an international arms dealer ; Alexei Volkoff . Stephen Bartowski created the original Intersect prototype and first used it on Hartley , which was updated with the personality , knowledge and identity of Volkoff , a manufactured identity . However , the Intersect was so unstable that it plagued Hartley 's mind and deleting his personality as Hartley Winterbottom , instead he started to believe that he was Alexei Volkoff , an international arms dealer , and as such he established the Volkoff Industries and became an international terrorist and gun manucafturer .
With the realization , Casey closes the spy will and orders everyone to keep quiet about this , since the information about CIA creating its " own worst enemy " was simply hidden and buried to ensure secrecy , and that they will be most likely eliminated if anything is told . However , Ellie objects and dedicates herself to help Volkoff restore his identity , to which Chuck agrees . Casey grudgingly and reluctantly supports them , before sealing the will in a secret safe deep in the Castle .
= = Production = =
" Chuck Versus Agent X " was one of many episodes to be directed by producer Robert Duncan McNeill , and was written by Phil Klemmer and Craig DiGregorio . It originally aired in the United States on May 2 , 2011 , on NBC as the 22nd episode of Chuck 's fourth season and the 76th episode overall .
Chuck cast members revealed at the 2011 Chicago Comic & Entertainment Expo that the season would include a " funny , camping @-@ themed " bachelor party episode featuring Casey , Big Mike , and the fictional band Jeffster ! . The cast also confirmed that Ray Wise would reprise his role of Alexei Volkoff 's lawyer , Riley . India de Beaufort guest starred as Jasmine , and Millicent Martin as Hartley Winterbottom 's mother . Sarah Lancaster revealed to IGN that the Snakes of Toluca Lake , the strippers which Ellie hires for Sarah , were played by the real @-@ life Hollywood Men . Lancaster enjoyed filming the scene , which took hours to perform , solely due to Yvonne Strahovski 's discomfort . Strahovski stated that the men became " bolder " with each take , gradually moving closer to her . Principal photography for " Chuck Versus Agent X " ended on April 10 .
Series co @-@ creator Chris Fedak stated in a later interview that the inspiration for Volkoff 's true identity being a gun @-@ shy British scientist was Timothy Dalton 's portrayal of Gregory Tuttle , Volkoff 's guise as Mary Elizabeth Bartowski 's MI6 handler , in his first appearance on the series . A photograph of Dalton before his portrayal of James Bond is used to represent a young Hartley Winterbottom .
= = Cultural references = =
Osama bin Laden 's image is featured on a target for Casey 's shooting range . Coincidentally , bin Laden was killed in a raid on May 1 , 2011 , around 16 : 00 Eastern Daylight Time , one day before the episode was aired .
In the Somerset home of Agent X , Casey briefly wields an M60 machine gun during the shoot @-@ out . In the film Full Metal Jacket , Adam Baldwin 's character Animal Mother wields an identical weapon during the Vietnam War .
The scene of Winterbottom 's mother wielding the machine gun is an homage to the machine gun @-@ toting senior citizen in Goldfinger .
= = Reception = =
" Chuck Versus Agent X " drew 4 @.@ 097 million viewers , the second @-@ lowest number in Chuck 's history , after " Chuck Versus the Family Volkoff " . According to the Nielsen ratings system , it had a 2 @.@ 5 / 4 share among all households and 1 @.@ 4 / 4 share among those aged 18 – 49 .
The episode received positive reviews from critics . Ryan McGee of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A- on an A + to F scale . He found the episode 's " reconfiguration of previous mythology " successful , and , though he found it obvious that Volkoff was Agent X , McGee wrote that " seeing a pre @-@ Bond Dalton inside that spy will was great payoff all the same . " However , McGee continued , " Much less successful was anything involving Chuck 's bachelor party and Big Mike / Jeffster 's subsequent desire to save their manly weekend . " Eric Goldman of IGN gave this episode a score of 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , writing that " the best element in all of this was the introduction of Volkoff , or make that Hartley Winterbottom 's , mother and the bonding that occurred between her and John Casey . " HitFix Senior Editor Alan Sepinwall , however , wrote that the episode " was kind of a hodge podge . It 's a transitional episode setting up the end game with Volkoff that the season 's final two episodes will focus on , but it also felt like an hour comprised of two or three different ideas that nobody could quite flesh out to fill up an entire episode , and so were compressed together . " Like McGee , Sepinwall enjoyed Wise 's return , though he felt that the actor was given little to do .
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= Henry P. Caulfield , Jr . =
Henry P. Caulfield , Jr . ( November 25 , 1915 – June 11 , 2002 ) was an American political scientist who had a long and distinguished career in public service with the U.S. Department of the Interior , culminating as the first Director of its U.S. Water Resources Council , before becoming Professor of Political Science at Colorado State University . He served on many boards and advisory committees and as a consultant to water resources agencies worldwide , and received awards for his service . Caulfield was born in New York City , and died in Fort Collins , Colorado where he retired in 1986 .
= = Early life = =
Caulfield grew up with his parents , Henry P. Caulfield and Grace Nelson Caulfield , along with his brother Edward Nelson Caulfield , in Hollywood , California , graduating from Hollywood High School in 1931 . He attended the California Institute of Technology , Lingnan University , Canton , China , and Oxford University , England before earning his undergraduate degree at Harvard College in Government and Economics in 1940 , an MPA degree from Harvard University 's Littauer School of Public Administration ( now the John F. Kennedy School of Government ) in 1949 and completing his comprehensive examination for the Ph.D. in Political Economy and Government there in 1950 . He began his public service career as an economist with the Works Projects Administration ( 1940 – 41 ) before serving in the U.S. Navy , where he was assigned to the Office of the Secretary ( 1942 – 45 ) and received a Commendation Award from the Secretary of the Navy , eventually retiring as Lieutenant Commander . He served briefly as Executive Assistant to the Director , White House Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion in 1946 , before being named Assistant for International Affairs to the Assistant Director for Statistical Standards of the U.S. Bureau of the Budget ( 1946 – 48 ) , predecessor of the current Office of Management and Budget . Caulfield married Violet M. Green in April 1956 , with whom he had four children .
= = Public service = =
Best known for his work on water resources policy , Caulfield was a member of the Program Staff , Office of the Secretary , U.S. Department of the Interior ( 1951 – 55 ) , and Research Associate on Energy Policy at Resources for the Future , Inc . ( 1955 – 61 ) . He returned to the Department of the Interior in February 1961 as Assistant Director and then Director of the Resources Program Staff , Office of the Secretary , and served as first Director of the U.S. Water Resources Council from April 1966 to August 1969 .
Caulfield was chairman of the committee that drafted the policies , standards and procedures for water resources planning that became known as Senate Document 97 , subjecting new federal water projects to benefit / cost analysis for the first time . He was the staff leader in drafting the Water Resources Planning Act of 1965 and was instrumental in its passage through the U.S. Congress ; becoming the first Director of the Water Resources Council , a cabinet @-@ level interagency advisory committee created by that Act . From October 1961 to August 1969 he was the leading professional official within the United States government developing and implementing policies for comprehensive river basin planning . In 1968 he drafted and gained political acceptance of a Water Resources Councils ' regulation changing the discount rate used in planning water projects from a formula based on the coupon rate of government bonds to one based on the yield rate — a substantial and important policy change . He also had a leading role in early development of the Water Resources Council 's Principles and Standards for water project planning promulgated in September 1973 .
Caulfield participated in drafting and securing passage by the U.S. Congress of important environmental legislation : the Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1964 , the Federal Water Research Act of 1964 , the Federal Water Projects Recreation Act of 1965 , the Delaware Watergap National Recreation Act of 1966 , the Clean Rivers Restoration Act of 1966 , and the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 . Observing a time @-@ honored tradition among top Washington bureaucrats , Caulfield is widely recognized as the anonymous author of an article published during his employment in the U.S. Department of the Interior and attributed to " Mr. Z , " which proposed consolidation of natural resources and conservation functions of the national government ( e.g. , U.S. Forest Service , National Park Service , Corps of Engineers , and others ) into a single cabinet @-@ level Department of Natural Resources . He was one of a few political appointees who , at the end of the Johnson Administration , declined to automatically submit his resignation , apparently feeling it was a mark of distinction to be fired by President Nixon .
Caulfield was a member of the Water Board of the City of Fort Collins , Colorado ( 1974 – 88 ) , and its Vice President ( 1984 – 88 ) . In this capacity he played a leading role in development of the city 's policies with respect to water rights , treatment capacity , water meters and rates , wastewater treatment , environmental impacts and drought .
= = Professor = =
From 1969 to 1986 Caulfield was Professor of Political Science at Colorado State University , where with Phillip O. Foss and Norman I. Wengert he helped establish its doctoral program in Environmental Politics and Policy , and on his retirement , was Emeritus Professor . One of his principal graduate courses was the Politics of Water Resources Planning and Management . During his career , Caufield was invited to lecture during visiting academic appointments on the faculties of many universities , including :
University of Washington
University of Massachusetts
University of California , Davis
Duke University
Virginia Polytechnic and State University
University of North Carolina
University of Wisconsin
University of Georgia
Caulfield also lecture during shorter appointments at some 30 institutions within the U.S. and overseas , including :
Institute of Water Resources , Army Corps of Engineers , Fort Belvoir , Virginia
University of Sarajevo , Yugoslavia
University of Alberta , Canada
Western Executive Training Center , U.S. Office of Personnel Management
Zhongshan University , Peoples Republic of China
East China Technical University of Water Resources
Yangtze River Planning Office , Ministry of Water Conservancy and Electric Power
Water Conservancy and Hydroelectric Power Research Institute , Academy of Sciences
Japan Institute of Energy Law
Yamanashi University , Japan
Economic Research Institute , Kyoto University , Japan
= = Advisory committees and consultancies = =
Indicative of the extent of his national and international reputation , Caulfield served on many advisory committees including those of the National Academy of Science and the National Science Foundation . For many years he was a delegate to the Universities Council on Water Resources ; a member of its Executive Board ( 1978 – 81 ) ; and its President ( 1979 – 80 ) . Caulfield served as a consultant to many organizations , including the United Nations Panel of Experts on Water Resources Development Policies , ( 1970 – 73 ) ; the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( 1973 ) ; Colorado Department of Natural Resources ( 1976 – 78 ) ; U.S. Water Resources Council ( 1976 , 1978 , 1979 , 1980 ) ; U.S. Agency for International Development , African Bureau , Department of State ( 1978 ) ; The Conservation Foundation ( 1978 ) ; International Training Center for Water Resources , Sofia Antipolis , Valbonne , France ( 1978 ) ; Upper Mississippi River Basin Commission ( 1979 ) ; Great Lakes Basin Commission ( 1981 ) ; Western Governor 's Policy Office ( 1982 , 1987 ) ; U.S. Council on Environmental Quality , ( 1984 ) ; U.S. Geological Survey ( 1986 ) ; and the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources ( 1987 ) .
= = Awards = =
Caulfield received a Citation for Distinguished Service from Secretary of the Interior Stuart Udall in 1968 during the administration of President John F. Kennedy which said in part :
Since the start of his Government service in 1940 , Mr. Caulfield has steadily demonstrated qualities of the exceptionally able public servant . He is a person of unfailing high standards of integrity , loyalty and devotion to public service . His quiet but persistent powers of persuasion and his ability to resolve complex resources problems have characterized his career as an effective advisor .
He also received the Iban Award in 1975 from the American Water Resources Association ( AWRA ) , a national organization of over 2800 members , for promotion of multidisciplinary approaches to water resource problems .
= = Henry P. Caulfield Medal = =
Annually since 1988 AWRA has awarded its Henry P. Caulfield , Jr . Medal for Contributions to National Water Policy to an individual who has achieved a status of eminence in shaping national water policy . On presentation of the first medal to Caulfield in 1988 , AWRA President Raymond Herrmann stated that " this medal was established to honor an individual whose record of achievements and contributions in setting , designing , and implementing water resources policies at the national level have been extraordinary . "
Recipients of the Medal are :
Henry P. Caulfield , Jr . - 1988
Gilbert E. White - 1989
Theodore M. Schad - 1990
Luna B. Leopold - 1991
R. Frank Gregg - 1992
Leonard B. Dworsky - 1994
Warren " Bud " Viessman , Jr . - 1996
Leo M. Eisel - 2004
Richard A. Engberg - 2007
= = Scholarly and professional writing = =
Caulfield was the author or coauthor of over 60 scholarly journal articles , chapters in books , and papers published in proceedings , in addition to numerous other papers , addresses , testimony before Congressional Committees , U.S. government publications , and anonymous articles related to policy matters .
= = = Selected publications = = =
" Welfare , economics , and resources development . " In Land , Water Planning for Economic Growth . Boulder : University of Colorado Press , 1961 .
" Municipal water in federal programs . " In Water : Development , Utilization , Conservation . Boulder : University of Colorado Press , 1963 .
" Urban waterfront redevelopment . " In Beauty for America . Proceedings of the White House Conference on Natural Beauty . Washington , D.C. : U.S. Government Printing Office 1965 .
" Partnership in comprehensive river basin planning . " Journal of the American Water Works Association 59 ( October ) : Part I , 1967 .
" Environmental management : Water and related land . Public Administration Review 28 ( July – August ) , 1968 .
" Planning the earth ’ s surface . " In No Deposit @-@ No Return , Huey D. Johnson , ed . Reading , MA : Addison @-@ Wesley , 1970 .
" The concilar approach to organization for water resources planning and action within a federal system of government . In Proceedings of the interregional seminar on water resources administration , New Delhi , India , 22 January @-@ 2 February 1973 , 113 – 119 . New York : United Nations , 1975 .
" Policy goals and values in historical perspective . " In Values and choices in the development of the Colorado River basin , Dean F. Peterson and A. Barry Crawford , eds . Tucson : University of Arizona Press , 1976 .
" Water resources management in river basin planning and development in the United States . In Towards a rational policy in river basin development in the Sahel . Washington , D.C. : U.S Agency for International Development , 1976 .
" Establishing federal @-@ state @-@ local goals for water resource programs and projects . " In Financing water resources : Cost allocation , cost sharing and incentives , R.M. North and S.H. Hanke , eds . Atlanta : University of Georgia , 1982 .
" U.S. water resources development policy and intergovernmental relations . " In Western public lands : The management of natural resources in a time of declining federalism , John G. Francis and Richard Ganzel , eds . Totowa , NJ : Rowman & Allenheld , 1984 .
" Strategies for maintaining agricultural viability with limited water supplies . " In Water scarcity : Impacts on western agriculture , Ernest A. Engelbert and Ann F. Scheuring , eds . Berkeley : University of California Press , 1984 .
" Comments from a political science perspective . " In Social and environmental objectives in water resources planning and management , 137 @-@ 41 . W. Wiessman and K.E. Schilling , eds . New York : American Society of Civil Engineers , 1986 .
" The conservation and environmental movements : An historical analysis . " In Environmental politics and policy : Theories and evidence , 2d ed . , James Lester , ed . Durham , NC : Duke University Press , 1989 .
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= History of the Houston Rockets =
The Houston Rockets are an American professional basketball team based in Houston , Texas . The team plays in the Southwest Division of the Western Conference in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . The team was established in 1967 , and played in San Diego , California for four years , before moving to Houston , Texas .
In the Rockets ' debut season , they won 15 games . After drafting Elvin Hayes first overall in the 1968 NBA Draft , they made their first appearance in the playoffs in 1969 . After Hayes was traded , Moses Malone replaced him . Malone won two Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) awards during his time in Houston , and he led the Rockets to the 1978 conference finals in his first year with the Rockets . He also took the Rockets to the NBA Finals in 1981 , but they were defeated in six games by the Boston Celtics .
Two years after advancing to the finals , the Rockets traded Malone and had two losing seasons , with the first having a franchise @-@ low 14 victories . This gave Houston two straight first overall picks , used to bring future Hall of Famers Ralph Sampson and Hakeem Olajuwon , who eventually got the Rockets all the way to the 1986 Finals , where they lost again to Boston . In the next seven seasons , they lost in the first round of the playoffs five times . They did not win their first championship until 1994 , when Olajuwon led them to a franchise @-@ best 58 wins , and the championship . The Rockets repeated the feat in 1995 , but in the following seasons , they did not advance to the finals again . They missed the playoffs from 1999 to 2003 , and did not reach the playoffs again until they drafted Yao Ming in 2003 . However , they would not advance past the first round of the playoffs for 13 years . In the 2007 – 08 NBA season , the Rockets had their most successful campaign in the 2000s , winning 55 games , with 22 of those victories in a row , but still lost in the first round . The following season , the team managed to win a playoff series for the first time since 1997 , defeating the Portland Trail Blazers in the first round of the 2009 NBA Playoffs and pushed the eventual champion Los Angeles Lakers to seven games in the 2009 Western Conference Semifinals .
During the next decade , the Rockets rehauled their roster and were again contenders for the NBA title . In the 2014 – 15 NBA season , led by head coach Kevin McHale and guard James Harden , the Rockets won their first division title in 21 years , and reached the Western Conference Finals for the first time since 1997 .
= = San Diego Rockets ( 1967 – 1971 ) = =
Once National Basketball Association commissioner J. Walter Kennedy visited San Diego in 1966 and saw the passionate support for the Western Hockey League 's San Diego Gulls , he invited Robert Breitbard , owner of the Gulls and their arena , the San Diego International Sports Center , to the next NBA owners ' meeting . The league wanted to add other franchises in the Western United States , by then only represented through the Los Angeles Lakers and the San Francisco Warriors , and the owners liked Breitbard 's input during the meeting . Combining the city economic and population growths with the Gulls ' success , San Diego was chosen to receive an expansion team in 1967 . Breitbard paid an 1 @.@ 75 million dollars entry fee to join the NBA as an expansion team for the 1967 – 68 NBA season , along with the Seattle SuperSonics . The resulting contest to name the franchise chose the name " Rockets " , homaging San Diego 's theme of " a city in motion " and the local arm of General Dynamics developing the Atlas missile and booster rocket program . Breitbard brought in Jack McMahon , then coach of the Cincinnati Royals , to serve as the Rockets ' coach and general manager . The team then built its roster with both veteran players at an expansion draft , and college players in the 1967 NBA draft , where San Diego 's first ever draft pick was Pat Riley . The Rockets ' inaugural game was held on October 14 , 1967 at the International Sports Center , with 8000 fans seeing the Rockets lose closely to the St. Louis Hawks by 99 @-@ 98 . The Rockets lost 70 games in their inaugural season , which was then an NBA record for losses in a season . Attendance ranked as eighth among the league 's twelve teams , leading to financial losses . The sole bright spot of the inaugural season was forward Don Kojis , whose good numbers earned him a spot at the 1968 NBA All @-@ Star Game .
In 1968 , after the Rockets won a coin toss against the Baltimore Bullets to determine who would have the first overall pick in the 1968 NBA Draft , they selected Elvin Hayes from the University of Houston . Hayes led the team to the franchise 's first ever playoff appearance in 1969 , but the Rockets lost in the semi @-@ finals of the Western Division to the Atlanta Hawks , four games to two . In 1970 NBA Draft , the Rockets drafted Calvin Murphy and Rudy Tomjanovich , who would both spend their whole careers with the Rockets .
Despite being coached by Hall of Fame coach Alex Hannum , the Rockets only tallied a 57 – 97 record and did not make the playoffs in the next two seasons . Because of poor performance and attendance , Breitbard sold the team in 1971 to Texas Sports Investments , which was led by real estate broker Wayne Duddleston and banker Billy Goldberg . The group bought the franchise for $ 5 @.@ 6 million , and immediately moved the team to Houston . The franchise became the first NBA team in Texas , and the team 's nickname of " Rockets " took on even greater relevance after the move since Houston is home to NASA 's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center .
= = Improving in Houston with Murphy & Rudy @-@ T ( 1971 – 1976 ) = =
Upon their arrival , many were in disbelief that the Rockets could thrive in Houston . They were coming to a city that did not have a suitable arena , and had not shown much interest in professional basketball . Houston was previously home to the Houston Mavericks of the American Basketball Association for only two seasons between 1967 and 1969 , where the average attendance was only 200 . The city 's largest indoor arena was 34 @-@ year @-@ old Sam Houston Coliseum , but the Rockets quickly ruled out playing there even on a temporary basis . As the team owners planned out on building a proper arena , the Rockets were forced to play most of their games at the University of Houston 's Hofheinz Pavilion , while playing occasional games at the Astrodome and San Antonio 's HemisFair Arena .
Before the start of the 1971 – 72 NBA season , Hannum left for the Denver Rockets ( later renamed Denver Nuggets ) of the American Basketball Association , and Tex Winter was hired in his place . However , Winter , who said that Hayes had " the worst fundamentals of any player " he had ever coached , applied a system that contrasted with the offensive style to which Hayes was accustomed . Because of the differences between Winter and Hayes , Houston traded Hayes , who had led the Rockets in scoring for four straight years , to the Baltimore Bullets for Jack Marin at the end of the 1971 – 72 season . Winter left soon after , being fired in January 1973 following a ten @-@ game losing streak and with the Rockets as the second worst team of the league , and was replaced by Johnny Egan .
With a 41 @-@ 41 record , the Rockets would earn their first NBA Playoff berth in the 1975 NBA Playoffs since moving from San Diego as well as winning their first playoff series in franchise history by defeating the New York Knicks led by Walt Frazier and Earl Monroe in a 3 @-@ game mini series , but would ultimately bow to the upcoming champions Boston Celtics in 5 games in the semi @-@ finals . The Rockets would move into their own arena , The Summit , the following season . The arena was located near Greenway Plaza , whose developer Kenneth Schnitzer became the Rockets ' primary owner
= = 1976 – 1982 : The Moses Malone era = =
Due to Egan 's failure to qualify for the playoffs , as soon as the season ended he was replaced by coach Tom Nissalke . Nissalke knew the Rockets had firepower but needed a rebounding center and a play @-@ making guard , and he pressed the Rockets management to acquire college standout John Lucas – drafted first overall in the 1976 NBA draft , a pick Houston acquired by sending Gus Bailey , Joe Meriweather and the ninth pick to the Atlanta Hawks – and his former player at the ABA 's Utah Stars Moses Malone – while Malone started the 1976 – 77 season with the Buffalo Braves , Houston acquired him by sending Buffalo first @-@ round picks in the next two drafts . After Malone led the Rockets in rebounding for the first of six straight times , and established a then @-@ NBA record for offensive rebounds in a season , the Rockets posted a franchise @-@ best 49 @-@ wins and won the franchise 's first Division Title finishing on top of the Central Division . After a first round bye in the playoffs , Houston defeated the Washington Bullets led by former Rocket Elvin Hayes as well as Wes Unseld in seven games in the Eastern Conference semi @-@ finals , and advanced to the conference finals for the first time in their history , but they lost to the top @-@ seeded Philadelphia 76ers led by former ABA superstar Julius Erving . 4 – 2 .
Early into 1977 – 78 season , at a game on December 9 , 1977 , Kevin Kunnert got into a fight with Kermit Washington of the Los Angeles Lakers . As Tomjanovich approached the altercation , Washington turned and punched Tomjanovich squarely in the face , causing numerous fractures in his face . Tomjanovich spent the next five months in rehabilitation and returned to appear in the 1978 All @-@ Star Game , but his averages significantly declined after the injury , and Houston finished with just 28 wins in the season .
In the following season , Malone , Murphy , and Tomjanovich all played in the 1979 NBA All @-@ Star Game , and Malone received the 1979 MVP Award . The Rockets also sent John Lucas II to the Golden State Warriors in exchange for Rick Barry , who went on to set the NBA record at the time for free throw percentage in a season by shooting 94 @.@ 7 % . The Rockets went 47 – 35 in Nissalke 's last season as coach , and finished second in the Central Division , but they lost to Atlanta in a best @-@ of @-@ three first round series .
In 1979 George Maloof , a businessperson from Albuquerque , New Mexico , bought the Rockets for $ 9 million . He died the following year , and while the Maloof family expressed interest in selling the team , George 's 24 @-@ year @-@ old son Gavin took over the Rockets . A buyer was eventually found in 1982 as businessman Charlie Thomas purchased the franchise for $ 11 million . The Maloof period of ownership marked the first dominant period of the Rockets , led by new coach Del Harris . In Houston 's 1979 – 80 campaign , the team finished with a 41 – 41 record , tying the San Antonio Spurs for second place in the Central Division . The Rockets defeated the Spurs two games to one in their first round playoff series , they were swept by the Boston Celtics in the Eastern Conference semi @-@ finals .
In the 1980 – 81 season , after the newly established Dallas Mavericks became the third NBA team in Texas , the NBA restructured the conferences and sent the Rockets , who had previously played in the Eastern Conference , to the Midwest Division of the Western Conference . In Harris 's second season , Houston tied with Kansas City for second place in the Midwest Division behind San Antonio with a 40 – 42 record , and qualified for the playoffs with just one game left . During the season , Murphy set two NBA records , by sinking 78 consecutive free throws to break Rick Barry 's mark of 60 set in 1976 , and achieving a free @-@ throw percentage of .958 , breaking Barry 's record set with the Rockets in 1979 . In the playoffs , Houston began a run that began when they upset Los Angeles two games to one , and then defeated George Gervin 's Spurs four games to three in the Western Conference semifinals . This resulted in a conference finals matchup with the Kansas City Kings , who were led by Otis Birdsong , Scott Wedman , and Phil Ford . When the Kings fell to the Rockets in five games , the Rockets became the only team in NBA history to advanced to the Finals after having a losing record in the regular season . However , after splitting the first four games of the series with Boston , Houston eventually lost in six games . The following season , the Rockets improved their regular season mark to 46 – 36 but were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs . Although Malone won the MVP in that season , and new owner Charlie Thomas expressed interest in renewing his contract , in the following offseason , the Rockets traded him to the Philadelphia 76ers for Caldwell Jones , to avoid paying his salary . When the Rockets finished a league worst 14 – 68 , Celtics coach Bill Fitch was hired to replace outgoing Del Harris , and after winning a coin flip with the Indiana Pacers to obtain the first pick of the 1983 NBA Draft , the Rockets selected Ralph Sampson from the University of Virginia . Sampson had good numbers as the Rockets finished only 29 – 53 in the 1983 – 1984 season , averaging 21 points and 11 rebounds per game and earning the NBA Rookie of the Year award .
= = The Hakeem Olajuwon era : 1984 – 2001 = =
= = = The Twin Towers era : 1984 – 1987 = = =
Houston was again given the first pick of the 1984 NBA Draft , and they used it to select Hakeem Olajuwon from the University of Houston . In his first season , Olajuwon finished second to Michael Jordan in NBA Rookie of the Year balloting , and the Rockets record improved by 19 games , although they were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs .
In the following season , both Olajuwon and Sampson were named to the Western Conference All @-@ Stars in that year 's all @-@ star game , and the duo was nicknamed the " Twin Towers " . Houston won the Midwest Division title with a 51 – 31 record . In contrast to the other guard @-@ oriented teams of the Western Conference , the Rockets had a high rotation on the position – John Lucas left the team 65 games into the season , Allen Leavell replaced him for twelve games before breaking his wrist , and Robert Reid took over as the starter from the final game of the regular season on . During the playoffs , the Rockets swept the Sacramento Kings before a hard @-@ fought series with Alex English 's Denver Nuggets , including one game going to double overtime in the exhausting altitude of the Mile @-@ High City . The young squad grinded it out and eventually pulled away with the victory over the Nuggets 4 – 2 . When faced with defending champion Lakers in the Conference Finals , the Rockets were ready to knock off their rivals who had the best of them during the regular season . The Rockets , however , were blown out of Game 1 with Olajuwon 's spinning reverse dunks and Sampson 's alley @-@ oops notwithstanding . Embarrassed by the loss , Olajuwon and the Rockets stormed back to shock the star @-@ studded defending champions with 4 straight wins in an impressive four games to one series victory , a feat that no other Western Conference team had come close to doing against the Showtime Lakers . Sampson 's buzzer beater that won Game 5 was described by him as " the greatest moment of my basketball career " . The Rockets competed in the finals for only the second time in team history , once again facing the Celtics . Boston sportswriters were not happy about not getting a shot at revenge against the Lakers who had beaten the Celtics in the Finals the year before , yet the matchup was interesting with the young front court challenging the playoff @-@ hardened Celtics front court of Bird , McHale and Parish . The Celtics won the first two games at the Boston Garden , only for the Rockets to win two games once the series went back to Houston – a close game 3 under Sampson 's leadership , and a 15 point @-@ leading game 5 without him as he got ejected – while also losing game 4 due to late Larry Bird 3 pointers and untimely turnovers by Rockets guard Mitch Wiggins . Game 6 went back to Boston with Sampson finding himself again in foul trouble and of little effect against the older and wiser Celtics . After the series , Boston coach KC Jones called the Rockets , " the new monsters on the block " with the future looking very bright for the Rockets . During the six @-@ game championship series loss against the Celtics , Sampson averaged 14 @.@ 8 points on .438 shooting , 9 @.@ 5 rebounds and 3 @.@ 3 assists per game .
In the next year , the Rockets started poorly , winning only 15 of the first 33 games amidst injuries among the star players and off @-@ court controversies for the rest of the roster , such as Lewis Lloyd and Mitchell Wiggins getting suspended for cocaine use . The team still made the playoffs , and advanced to the second round past favored Clyde Drexler and his Portland Trail Blazers ( eventually proving to be their last playoff victory until 1993 ) , before being eliminated by the Seattle SuperSonics in Game 6 , a double @-@ overtime classic in which Olajuwon scored 49 points in the losing cause .
While Sampson signed a new deal prior to the 1987 – 88 NBA season , he was traded early in the season to the Golden State Warriors in exchange for Joe Barry Carroll and Sleepy Floyd . Sampson only learned of the trade once he arrived in Houston after a road game . The Twin Towers were split just 18 months after their finals appearance .
= = = 1987 – 1992 : Lean Years = = =
During the next three seasons , the Rockets were eliminated three straight times in the first round of the playoffs , with the first of those in 1988 leading to Fitch 's dismissal . Don Chaney was hired to replace him .
Chaney was named the Coach of the Year for the 1990 – 91 season , after leading the Rockets to a 52 @-@ 30 record despite Olajuwon 's absence due to injury for 25 games . The Rockets were once again eliminated in the first round of the playoffs , 3 – 0 to the Lakers . Midway through the next season , with the Rockets ' record only 26 – 26 , Chaney was fired and replaced by one of his assistants , former Houston player Tomjanovich . Although the Rockets did not make the playoffs , in the next year , the Rockets won @-@ loss record improved by 13 games , as they won 55 games . Olajuwon won the NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award , and the Rockets clinched the Midwest title . The playoffs started with Houston 's first series victory in 5 years by defeating the Los Angeles Clippers , before an elimination by the SuperSonics during a game 7 overtime loss .
= = = Back to Back Championships : 1993 – 1995 = = =
On July 30 , 1993 , Leslie Alexander purchased the Rockets for $ 85 million . In Tomjanovich 's second full year as head coach , the Rockets began the 1993 – 94 season by tying an NBA record with start of 15 – 0 . Led by Olajuwon , who was named the MVP and Defensive Player of the Year , the Rockets won a franchise @-@ record 58 games . The Rockets recovered from being two games down to the Phoenix Suns in the second round of the playoffs , to advance to the finals . Houston was once again down by three games to two to the New York Knicks , but they managed to win the last two games on their home court , and claim their first championship in franchise history . Olajuwon was awarded the Finals MVP , after averaging 27 points , nine rebounds and four blocked shots a game .
The Rockets initially struggled in the first half of the 1994 – 95 season , and ended up winning only 47 games , which was 11 games lower than their previous year 's total . In a midseason trade with Portland , the Rockets obtained guard Clyde Drexler , a former teammate of Olajuwon at the University of Houston , in exchange for Otis Thorpe . Houston entered the playoffs as the sixth seed in the Western Conference , but then started a strong playoff run that earned the nickname " Clutch City " . After pushing the 60 – 22 Utah Jazz to five games , the Rockets were down by seven points with 5 : 40 remaining before Drexler led a comeback . They fell behind 3 – 1 to the 59 – 23 Phoenix Suns in the second round , but won three straight to win the series , and became only the first team in NBA history to overcome both a 2 – 0 and a 3 – 1 series deficit in a seven @-@ game series . The Rocket then beat in the conference finals the 62 – 20 San Antonio Spurs , which included that season 's MVP David Robinson , with Olajuwon , averaging 35 @.@ 3 points and 12 @.@ 5 rebounds . The return to the Finals was against the Orlando Magic , led by Shaquille O 'Neal and Penny Hardaway . When Houston swept the series in four straight games , they became the first team in NBA history to win the championship as a sixth seed – still the champion with the lowest seed , and the only without home court in any round – and the first to beat four 50 @-@ win teams in a single postseason en route to the championship . Olajuwon was named the Finals MVP , becoming only the second player after Michael Jordan to win the award two years in a row .
During the offseason , the Rockets went for a change of visual identity , making navy blue and silver the new primary colors while adopting a new cartoon @-@ inspired logo and pinstriped jerseys . The Rockets won 48 games in the 1995 – 96 campaign , in which Olajuwon became the NBA 's all @-@ time leader in blocked shots . They beat the Lakers in the first round of the playoffs , but were swept by the Seattle SuperSonics in the second round .
= = = The Big Three Era : 1996 – 1999 = = =
Before the start of the succeeding season , the Rockets made a dramatic trade that sent four players to Phoenix in exchange for Charles Barkley . The resulting " Big Three " of Olajuwon , Drexler , and Barkley led the Rockets to a 57 – 25 record , and Houston swept Minnesota in the first round . However , after a 7 @-@ game battle with Seattle , the Rockets fell in the Western Conference finals to the Utah Jazz , a team they had beaten on their way to championships in 1994 and 1995 .
The 1997 – 98 season was marked by injuries , and the team finished 41 – 41 with the eighth seed in the Western Conference . Houston once again faced the Jazz , this time in the first round , and they lost the series 3 – 2 . Drexler retired after the season , and the Rockets made another bold trade to bring in Scottie Pippen to take his place . In the strike @-@ shortened 1998 – 99 season , the Rocket went 31 – 19 , but lost to the Lakers in the first round 3 – 1 of the playoffs .
= = = The End of The Big Three Era = = =
After the 1999 draft , the Rockets traded for the third overall pick Steve Francis from the Vancouver Grizzlies , in exchange for four players and a first round draft pick . However , after Houston traded a discontented Pippen to Portland ( stating chemistry problems with old rival and now teammate Barkley ) , and Barkley suffered a career @-@ ending injury , the rebuilt Rockets went 34 – 48 and missed the playoffs , for only the second time in 15 years . In the 2000 – 01 season , the Rockets worked their way to a 45 – 37 record , but still did not make the playoffs . In the following offseason , a 38 @-@ year @-@ old Olajuwon requested a trade , and , despite stating their desire to keep him , the Rockets reached a sign and trade agreement , sending him to the Toronto Raptors . The proceeding season was unremarkable , as Houston 's first season without Hakeem in almost 20 years was a disappointing 28 – 54 .
= = 2002 – 2011 : The Yao Ming era = =
However , after Houston was awarded the first overall pick in the 2002 NBA Draft , they selected Yao Ming , a 7 @-@ foot 6 @-@ inch Chinese center . The Rockets ' record improved by 15 games , but they missed the playoffs by one game .
In the following season , Houston began playing in their new arena , the Toyota Center , and redesigned their uniforms and logo , as long @-@ time coach Tomjanovich resigned after being diagnosed with bladder cancer , and was replaced by Jeff Van Gundy . The Rockets finished the regular season with a record of 45 – 37 , and earned their first playoff berth since 1999 , but the Lakers again handed the Rockets a loss in the first round .
= = = 2004 – 2010 : Ming and McGrady duo = = =
In the offseason , Houston saw major changes in the roster as the Rockets acquired Tracy McGrady in a seven @-@ player deal with the Orlando Magic . The 2004 – 05 season saw McGrady and Yao lead the Rockets to their best record in 10 years , finishing at 51 – 31 and seeded fifth in the Western Conference playoffs . However , their season ended in the first round of the playoffs as they lost to their in @-@ state rival , the Dallas Mavericks , in seven games , despite leading the series 2 – 0 .
The following season , after an injury @-@ plagued year in which McGrady and Yao missed a total of 70 games , the team finished with only 34 wins , and missed the playoffs . The Rockets improved by 18 games the next year , with 52 wins , but once again lost in the first round after leading 2 – 0 , when they lost in seven games to Utah . After the loss , Van Gundy was fired , and the Rockets hired Rick Adelman to replace him . In the following year , despite Yao suffering a season @-@ ending injury for the third year in a row , the Rockets won 22 consecutive games , which is the second longest winning streak in NBA history . This streak included going 13 @-@ 0 in the month of February , making them the first team since the 1996 Chicago Bulls to finish an entire month undefeated . Houston finished their season 55 – 27 , but were eliminated for the second year in row by the Jazz in the first round of the playoffs , 4 games to 2 .
The next off @-@ season , the Rockets acquired Ron Artest from the Sacramento Kings . The new " Big Three " of McGrady , Yao , and Artest barely played any games together due to nagging injuries . McGrady 's knee bothered him for much of the year , hampering his performance , and he eventually opted for mid @-@ season microfracture surgery which would keep him out for the season . Despite this , the team then went on to win 53 games that season and earned themselves a first @-@ round match @-@ up with the Portland Trail Blazers . Houston struck fast , blowing the Trailblazers out on the road in game one en route to a 4 – 2 series win and their first time advancing from the first round since 1997 . The games against the Blazers were also the last ever of Dikembe Mutombo 's career , as he injured his knee and was forced to retire after 18 seasons in the NBA . However , despite winning the first game of the 2009 Western Conference Semifinals against the Los Angeles Lakers , the Rockets ended up losing a tough @-@ fought series in seven games , and saw Yao leave with an injury , that eventually sidelined him for the upcoming season . During the off @-@ season , sixth man Von Wafer left for Greece , and Artest left the team after signing with the Lakers , but the Rockets acquired Laker defensive star Trevor Ariza using the Disabled Player Exception granted by the league due to Yao 's injury .
On September 23 , 2009 , the Rockets unveiled new alternate uniforms , which were inspired by the 1994 – 95 championship uniforms and featured similar colors . On February 18 , 2010 , hours before the trade deadline , the Rockets acquired Kevin Martin , Jordan Hill , Hilton Armstrong , and Jared Jeffries in a three @-@ team trade that sent Tracy McGrady to the New York Knicks , and Joey Dorsey and Carl Landry to the Sacramento Kings . Despite the stellar play of Martin and Aaron Brooks , with the latter being named the NBA Most Improved Player , the Rockets could not make it to the playoffs , finishing 42 – 40 , 3rd in the Southwest Division . At that time , the Rockets set an NBA record for best record by a team with no All @-@ Stars .
The Rockets drafted Patrick Patterson of Kentucky with the 14th pick in the 2010 NBA Draft . On July 15 , the Rockets signed free agent Brad Miller . About one month later , Trevor Ariza was traded to the New Orleans Hornets in a four @-@ team , five @-@ player trade . The Rockets received Courtney Lee from the New Jersey Nets in return .
The 2010 – 11 NBA season started badly for the Rockets , who lost the first five games . In the seventh , Yao Ming injured his left ankle in what was just his fifth game that season . After being examined , what was thought to be a mild sprain turned out to be a stress fracture which kept Yao off of the court for another season . In July 2011 , Yao , only 30 , retired after a series of unfortunate injuries cut his career short .
By the All @-@ Star break in February 2011 , the Rockets were 26 @-@ 31 . On February 24 , 2011 , the Rockets traded Shane Battier to the Memphis Grizzlies for Hasheem Thabeet and a first round pick . They also traded Aaron Brooks to the Phoenix Suns for Goran Dragić and a first round pick . Afterwards the team won 15 games out of 20 , reaching a winning record and contending for a playoff spot . The team entered April with chances of qualifying for the postseason , but for the second straight season the Rockets failed to make the playoffs after losing to the New Orleans Hornets in Louisiana with three games remaining . The team still finished the year with a 43 @-@ 39 winning record . Head coach Rick Adelman left the Rockets right after the season . On June 1 , 2011 , the Rockets named Kevin McHale their next head coach . With the 14th pick of the 2011 NBA Draft , the Houston Rockets selected Marcus Morris from the University of Kansas . With the 38th pick in that same draft , they selected Chandler Parsons from the University of Florida .
During an offseason extended by the 2011 NBA lockout , the Rockets ' front office started to plan a roster overhaul , and after the lockout ended , the team tried to use their cap space to attract many high @-@ profile free agents , including Chris Paul , Nenê and Pau Gasol .
Nearing the trade deadline on March 15 , 2012 , the Rockets traded Hasheem Thabeet and Jonny Flynn to the Portland Trail Blazers for Marcus Camby . The Rockets also sent Jordan Hill to the Lakers in return for Derek Fisher ( who was waived shortly after and signed with the Thunder ) and a first round pick in the 2012 NBA Draft . During the strike @-@ shortened 2011 – 12 season , the Rockets were eliminated from playoff contention during the season 's penultimate game against eventual champions Miami Heat .
Before the 2012 NBA Draft , the Milwaukee Bucks traded the 12th overall pick , Shaun Livingston , Jon Brockman , and Jon Leuer to the Rockets for the 14th overall pick and Samuel Dalembert . The Minnesota Timberwolves also traded the 18th pick in the draft to Houston for Chase Budinger . In the 2012 NBA Draft , Houston drafted Jeremy Lamb of Connecticut , Royce White of Iowa State , and Terrence Jones of Kentucky with the 12th , 16th , and 18th picks , respectively .
= = James Harden era ( 2012 – present ) = =
During the 2012 NBA offseason , the Rockets made significant changes to their roster . Early in July , they traded Kyle Lowry to the Toronto Raptors , let Goran Dragić return to the Phoenix Suns via free agency , and saw the arrival of 201 pick Donatas Motiejūnas from Lithuania , who was signed to a multiyear deal . On July 13 , the Rockets released veteran forward Luis Scola using their one @-@ time amnesty clause . On July 18 , The Rockets signed Jeremy Lin , a restricted free agent , to a three @-@ year , $ 25 @.@ 1 million contract after the New York Knicks decided not to match the Rockets ' offer sheet . Lin achieved worldwide fame with a 25 @-@ game stretch of high performance basketball play known as " Linsanity " , where he stepped up in place of the Knicks ' injured players . On July 20 , Ömer Aşık , a restricted free agent from the Chicago Bulls , signed a three @-@ year , $ 25 @.@ 1 million offer sheet with the Rockets . The Bulls decided to not match the offer , and on July 24 , Asik officially joined the Rockets . On October 27 , 2012 , the Rockets traded Kevin Martin , Jeremy Lamb , and two future first @-@ round picks to the Oklahoma City Thunder for reigning sixth man of the year James Harden , along with Cole Aldrich , Daequan Cook , and Lazar Hayward . Harden stepped out of his previous sixth man role and into the starting lineup for the Rockets . He had 37 points , 12 assists , 6 rebounds , 4 steals , and a block in his debut as a Rocket , while Jeremy Lin had 12 points , 4 rebounds , 8 assists , and 4 steals . Harden also signed a 5 @-@ year contract extension with the Rockets worth approximately $ 80 million a few days after the trade was completed . Harden scored a then career @-@ high 45 points in his second game with the Rockets against the Atlanta Hawks . Jeremy Lin tied a career @-@ high of 38 points in an overtime loss to the Spurs while Harden sat out with an ankle sprain . Harden was selected to the 2013 NBA All @-@ Star Game , which was held in Houston . On February 5 , 2013 , the Houston Rockets made 23 3 @-@ point field goals in a game against the Golden State Warriors , equaling the NBA team record . In this game , the Rockets also achieved a home game record for most points scored at the Toyota Center with a 140 @-@ 109 victory .
On February 20 , 2013 , the Rockets acquired Thomas Robinson , the fifth overall pick in the 2012 NBA Draft , in a trade with the Sacramento Kings where Houston sent Marcus Morris and Patrick Patterson . On that same night , the Rockets defeated the Oklahoma City Thunder 122 @-@ 119 after trailing by 14 with 6 : 58 remaining in the game . James Harden scored a then career high of 46 points in the win over his former team . Despite being the youngest team in the NBA , the Rockets became one of the highest scoring offenses in the NBA . Even more remarkable was that only two players – starting forward Chandler Parsons and backup forward / center Greg Smith ( who rarely played in his rookie season ) – were left from the 2011 – 12 roster . Head coach Kevin McHale ran an up @-@ tempo offense that put emphasis on transition baskets , shooting three @-@ pointers , and playing at a fast pace . As a result , the Rockets became one of the highest scoring offenses in the NBA , leading the league in scoring for the majority of the season . In the post @-@ season , the Rockets fell to the Oklahoma City Thunder in the first round , losing the series 4 @-@ 2 . In the 2012 – 13 NBA season , James Harden evolved into franchise player for the Rockets , averaging 25 @.@ 9 points a game .
= = = 2013 – 2016 : Harden and Howard duo = = =
Eager to add another franchise player to their team , the Rockets heavily pursued free agent center Dwight Howard in the 2013 offseason . On July 5 , 2013 , Howard announced via his Twitter account that he intended to sign with the Houston Rockets after the July moratorium period ended . The NBA fined the Rockets $ 150 @,@ 000 for talking about Howard during this moratorium period . Dwight Howard officially signed with the Rockets on July 13 , 2013 . Led by the new inside @-@ out combination of Howard and James Harden , and with a strong supporting cast including Chandler Parsons , Jeremy Lin , and Ömer Aşık , the Rockets were expected to jump into title contention in the upcoming season . However , in the post @-@ season , the Rockets were defeated in the first round by the Portland Trail Blazers , losing the series 4 @-@ 2 .
Following a season of ups @-@ and @-@ downs with injury and form , Jeremy Lin was traded to the Lakers on July 13 , 2014 . That same day , the Rockets declined to match the three @-@ year , $ 46 million offer sheet that Chandler Parsons received from the Mavericks , and to compensate for his departure , the Rockets agreed to bring back Trevor Ariza on a four @-@ year , $ 32 million deal in free agency . The deal was officially completed as a three @-@ team trade , in which the Rockets received Ariza in a sign and trade from the Washington Wizards and traded Ömer Aşık to the New Orleans Pelicans .
With double @-@ digits wins against the Lakers , Utah , Boston and Philadelphia to start the 2014 – 15 NBA season , the Rockets recorded a 4 @-@ 0 start for the first time since they won their first six games of the 1996 – 97 season . By recording double @-@ digit wins against Miami and San Antonio in their next two games , the Rockets won each of their first six games by 10 points or more , and became the first team to accomplish the feat since the 1985 – 86 Denver Nuggets . In December , the Rockets acquired Corey Brewer and Josh Smith , two veterans who added depth to the roster . While the Rockets had many key players miss time throughout the entire season , James Harden took it upon himself to keep the Rockets near the top of the conference ; turning him into an MVP front @-@ runner . On March 20 , 2015 , James Harden scored a career @-@ high 50 points in a 118 – 108 victory over the Nuggets . Harden became the first Rocket to score 50 points since Hakeem Olajuwon scored 51 against the Celtics in 1996 . On April 1 , Harden scored 51 points in a 115 – 111 win over the Sacramento Kings , becoming the first player in franchise history to record multiple 50 point games in a season . On April 15 , 2015 , the Rockets won their 56th game of the season and finished with the third @-@ best regular season record in franchise history . On that same night , the Rockets claimed their first ever Southwest Division title and first Division crown since 1994 . In the playoffs , the Rockets beat the Mavericks 4 @-@ 1 in the first round . In the Conference Semifinals , the Los Angeles Clippers built a 3 @-@ 1 lead over the Rockets , before the Rockets won the last three games in the series to return to the Conference Finals for the first time in 18 years , this time against the Golden State Warriors . With their win over the Clippers , the Rockets became just the ninth team in NBA history to win a playoff series in which they faced a 3 @-@ 1 deficit . In the Conference Finals , the Warriors won the first three games before Harden scored 45 points to win Game 4 at the Toyota Center . The Warriors then finished the series in Game 5 , winning 4 @-@ 1 .
Prior to the 2015 – 16 season , the Rockets drafted Sam Dekker and Montrezl Harrell , and acquired Ty Lawson from the Denver Nuggets by sending them Joey Dorsey , Nick Johnson , Kostas Papanikolaou , Pablo Prigioni , and a 2016 first round draft pick . Kevin McHale was fired at the beginning of the season , as the Rockets only won 4 of the first 11 games . His assistant J. B. Bickerstaff took over coaching duties . Inconsistent play led to the Rockets struggling to remain in the playoff qualifying zone , and there has been a recent spate of trade rumors , mostly involving Ty Lawson and Dwight Howard . The Miami Heat have been pursuing Howard in trade talks , and have been rumored to offer up Hassan Whiteside plus salary cap filler . Houston only clinched its 2016 playoffs spot by winning its last game against the Kings , finishing the season 41 @-@ 41 to earn an eight seed . The adversary was again the Warriors , who had a record @-@ breaking regular season . The Rockets would once again lose in 5 games , this time in the first round of the Playoffs .
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= Panggilan Darah =
Panggilan Darah ( Indonesian for Call of Blood ) is a 1941 film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) written and directed by Sutan Usman Karim and produced by Tjho Seng Han for Oriental Film . The black @-@ and @-@ white film starred Dhalia and Soerip as orphaned sisters trying to make a living in the colonial capital of Batavia ( now Jakarta ) before moving to Kudus to work at a clove cigarette factory .
Shot on location at an orphanage and two factories in central Java , Panggilan Darah was a modest commercial success in the Indies and Singapore . Its soundtrack , which featured nine kroncong songs , received popular acclaim , and the film 's acting received critical praise . Despite this success , Oriental was unable to recoup its expenses , and merged into Multi Film soon afterwards . Panggilan Darah , which was screened as late as 1952 , may now be lost .
= = Plot = =
Orphaned sisters Dhalia and Soerip ( themselves ) leave their village in an attempt to make a living in the colonial capital of Batavia ( now Jakarta ) . After a long period of misery , they are accepted as housemaids at the home of Hajji Iskak ( Mochtar Widjaja ) . Although initially elated , they find that Iskak 's wife ( Wolly Sutinah ) is a cruel mistress who often beats them . Meanwhile , Iskak 's would @-@ be son @-@ in @-@ law is constantly flirting with Dhalia , much to his fiancée 's dismay .
The sisters decide to run away from Iskak 's home . They make their way to Kudus and find work at the Nitisemito clove cigarette factory with the help of their friend ( S. Poniman ) . Not long after their escape , Iskak receives a guest who reveals that the two were his nieces . This revelation spurs Iskak to take out advertisements in newspapers , looking for the young women and asking them to return to Batavia .
Iskak 's search has little success until the sisters receive news that he is looking for them , and they quickly return to Batavia . There , the sisters are greeted with open arms . Iskak 's wife regrets her earlier treatment of the girls and repents , treating them splendidly and supporting Dhalia 's plans to open an orphanage .
= = Production = =
Panggilan Darah was the directorial debut of Sutan Usman Karim , commonly known as Suska , a journalist and former member of the touring theatrical group Bolero under Andjar Asmara . With Panggilan Darah , which he also wrote , Suska became one of several reporters who entered the film industry in the 1940s . He directed the film for the Batavia @-@ based film company Oriental , run by the ethnic Chinese producer Tjho Seng Han . The production house had previously released three films , all directed by Njoo Cheong Seng , but after Njoo departed for Fred Young 's Majestic , Oriental had required a new director .
The film was shot in black @-@ and @-@ white by the Indo cameraman J. J. W. Steffens , with editing handled by Soemardjan . Scenes were shot at an orphanage for Muslims owned by S. Z. Gunawan ( who played herself in the film ) , as well as at the Nitisemito cigarette factory in Kudus and at a batik factory in Pekalongan owned by Tan Jauw Lin . Writing in 2009 , the Indonesian film historian Misbach Yusa Biran suggested that the film may have been partly sponsored by Nitisemito — one of the largest cigarette factories in the Indies in the 1940s — based on the factory 's prominence in the plot .
Dhalia , Soerip , and S. Poniman , already known for their singing prowess , starred in Panggilan Darah , which featured nine kroncong songs . Additional roles were taken by Wolly Sutinah and Mochtar Widjaja . The film marked Sutinah 's debut for the company ; the other cast members had previous screen credits with Oriental .
= = Release and reception = =
Panggilan Darah debuted at the Orion Theatre in Batavia on 30 June 1941 . It was reported as a modest success , making most of its money from lower class audiences . It was screened in Surabaya , East Java , by August , and by September it had been shown in Singapore , then part of British Malaya . A novelisation by Roestam Sutan Palindih was published by the Yogyakarta @-@ based Kolff @-@ Buning Publishers that year .
Reviews of Panggilan Darah were mixed to positive . The journalist Soerono , writing in the entertainment magazine Pertjatoeran Doenia dan Film , was pleased with the film 's depiction of the Islamic mandate to take care of orphans . An anonymous review in the Surabaya @-@ based daily Soerabaijasch Handelsblad found the film " something special " and praised Soerip 's spontaneity in her role . Biran wrote that lower @-@ class audiences enjoyed the film 's music , while the intelligentsia scoffed at the idea that a factory supervisor would bring a guitar to work . He found the plot illogical , asking why the sisters would not have worked in their own home village and how the destitute sisters could have made the journey from Batavia to Kudus , over 400 kilometres ( 250 mi ) away .
= = Legacy = =
Unable to recoup its expenses , Oriental later merged into the Dutch @-@ owned Multi Film and ceased producing works of fiction . Suska left the company and joined The Teng Chun 's Java Industrial Film , for which he directed Ratna Moetoe Manikam . Most of the cast remained active in cinema for the remainder of their lives . Both Dhalia and Soerip remained in the film industry for the next fifty years ; they acted in their last feature films , Pendekar Jagad Kelana ( Warrior of Jagad Kelana ) and Sejak Cinta Diciptakan ( Since Love was Created ) respectively , in 1990 . Poniman and Sutinah would remain active in the industry until 1975 and 1986 . Only Widjaja is not recorded as performing in any more films .
Panggilan Darah was screened as late as August 1952 , but may now be lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . The American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider writes that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , J. B. Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Otis ( song ) =
" Otis " is a song by American hip hop artists Kanye West and Jay @-@ Z , from their first collaborative album Watch the Throne ( 2011 ) . The song posthumously features soul singer Otis Redding , whose version of " Try a Little Tenderness " is sampled in the song . The production was covered solely by West . The track was premiered by Funkmaster Flex 's Hot 97 radio show and was released onto the Internet the day afterward . Lyrically , the song has the two rappers sharing lines discussing wealth , decadence and fame . The track received highly positive reviews from music critics who praised the trading off of verses by the two rappers and the Redding @-@ sampled beat , which was compared to the style heard on West 's The College Dropout . Several publications placed the song amongst the best of the year .
The track was released as the second single from Watch the Throne on July 20 , 2011 . The song peaked at number 12 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and reached position 2 on both the Billboard Hot Rap Songs and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs charts . The song has since been certified Platinum for sales exceeding 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . The song received a music video directed by Spike Jonze on August 2011 . The video primarily shows West and Jay @-@ Z modifying a Maybach luxury car and then driving around in it with no doors or windows , while four girls are smiling in the backseat . After its release , the video was met with positive reception . The cover art was designed by Italian fashion designer Riccardo Tisci .
Jay and West performed the song at all the stops on their 2011 Watch the Throne Tour . It was also performed at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards and at the 2012 Radio 1 's Big Weekend musical festival . At the 54th Grammy Awards in 2012 , " Otis " was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rap Song and won a Grammy for Best Rap Performance .
= = Background and release = =
On July 7 , 2011 , " Otis " was previewed along with the other songs from Watch the Throne by Jay @-@ Z at a private listening session at the Mercer Hotel in New York City . A select group of reporters , music journalists , and contest winners were present at the listening session . After the listening session , it was confirmed that a song called " Otis " , would appear on the album . It was reported that the song would sample soul music singer Otis Redding 's version of " Try a Little Tenderness " . On July 20 , " Otis " was premiered on Funkmaster Flex 's Hot 97 radio show and subsequently was released for download to the Internet as a way to promote the upcoming album . On July 22 , the song was released to the iTunes Store and was a free download for those who pre @-@ ordered the album . It was sent by The Island Def Jam Music Group to rhythmic contemporary and urban contemporary radio on August 9 . The cover art for " Otis " was designed by Italian fashion designer Riccardo Tisci , who had previously designed the artwork for the " H • A • M " single cover and the Watch the Throne album cover . It features the American flag , both artists names and the name of the song and the album . The artwork was released onto the internet following the song 's release and could be downloaded along with the song .
Bu Thiam , Def Jam Vice @-@ President of A & R , was with West and Jay @-@ Z throughout the recording process and saw how the duo came up with several of the Watch the Throne tracks . He recalled the story of the song " Otis " : " [ Kanye ] was late for his flight , we were in the studio working all day and he was late for his flight . As we were leaving he was like , ' Yo hold on for a second . ' So he drops his bags and goes to the MPC ( beat machine ) and his assistant is rushing him and he 's just f----ing with [ the beat ] . What 's so crazy is the whole time he 's doing that Jay is writing his verses in his head . But Jay is watching the NBA playoffs , I think it was the championship ; Miami Heat & Dallas Mavericks . So Jay is watching the playoffs . I 'm not even thinking Jay is paying attention to what ' Ye is doing and by the time he is finished it 's like ' I invented swag ... ' And I 'm like , ' What the f--- just happened ? ' "
= = Composition = =
" Otis " is two minutes and fifty @-@ eight seconds long and is a mid @-@ tempo hip @-@ hop song . The song , which was produced by West , is built upon a sample of Try a Little Tenderness by Otis Redding . Jay @-@ Z and West promptly rap over the sample in style reminiscent to past Kanye productions . Pitchfork Media 's Tom Breihan summarized the composition , writing
... here 's Jay @-@ Z on the " Otis " intro : " It sounds so soulful ! Don 't you agree ? " Well , yeah . If you 're willing to plunk down enough money to sample " Try a Little Tenderness " , that 'll happen . But even if the sample works as a sort of audio money @-@ flaunt , it 's also a tough and hard chop from Kanye — Otis Redding 's magnificent voice mostly limited to a couple of hellfire grunts , the song itself held to a sharp guitar stab . "
Alexis Petridis of The Guardian stated
the single Otis boldly samples Otis Redding 's Try a Little Tenderness , an idea that veers wildly from inspired – at one point the ballad is manipulated into a propulsive sweaty grunt @-@ a @-@ thon – to a clubfooted mess .
The song ends with sampled screaming . Some people believe the song also includes a part from Datsik 's " Swagga , " which is a dubstep track . The part is included when Jay @-@ Z says , " guess I got my swagga back . " This is a common misconception . Jay @-@ Z is making a reference to one of his earlier songs " All I Need " from The Blueprint which Datsik samples the line from .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received highly positive reviews from critics and the style has been compared to that of West 's The College Dropout album . Pitchfork Media 's Tom Breiham praised the song , saying " Jay and Kanye trade off verses and never pause for a chorus , each one building on whatever the last one said-- an old @-@ school rap @-@ collab style you almost never hear anymore . And since these guys are working loose and casual , it gives them chances to show how funny and clever they are without telegraphing their own importance . Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Rolling Stone gave the song a four stars rating out of five wrote that " West twists a few seconds of Otis Redding ’ s " Try a Little Tenderness " into a Blueprint @-@ style barrage , setting the stage for some slick collar @-@ popping from Jay @-@ Z ( " Photo shoot fresh , looking like wealth / I ’ m about to call the paparazzi on myself " ) . Jay ’ s performance , in turn , inspires Ye to step up his wordplay ( " Luxury rap , the Hermes of verses / Sophisticated ignorance , write my curses in cursive " ) ; the younger star sounds like he pulled an all @-@ nighter trying to outdo his mentor ’ s rhymes . " Frank Berg of NME gave the song a mostly positive review , stating that " What we have here are two titans of black music duetting with another from beyond the grave . For that reason , it 's unquestionably An Event " , though feeling " In all honesty , if this winds up being the highlight of Watch the Throne we 'll all be a bit disappointed . "
Seattle Weekly 's Joe Williams enjoyed the song , writing " even with the slow , bubbling beat and energetic keyboards , topped with top @-@ notch delivery by Jay and Kay , it 's Redding in the background that gives the single its true life and flair . " Josiah Hughes of Exclaim ! magazine commented that " if the over @-@ the @-@ top aggression of " H • A • M " had you worried that this would be a Waka Flocka ripoff , fear not , as " Otis " makes the most of its Otis Redding sample with some soulful feel @-@ good boom @-@ bap . " Sam Gould ' ' ' The Independent ' ' ' remarked " having seen oddball rap collective Odd Future become the talking point of the blogosphere , Eminem and old partner @-@ in @-@ crime Royce da 5 ' 9 " start work on their own bruising collaborative effort , and hazy vibe rappers Wiz Khalifa and Curren $ y take steps in the same direction , Jay and Ye have recognised the throne is far from unchallenged , and have come together in the most remarkable dual alliance since André 3000 and Big Boi became Outkast . " ' ' ' The New York Observer ' ' ' writer Foster Kamer mused , " remember early Kanye ? These guys finally do . ' Otis ' is the perfect anti @-@ single for this album , because it 's a reminder that what we always loved about these two collaborating is still very much there . Not only do they not need hooks , neither of them need to remind us that they don 't . There was that first line of ' ' ' My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy ' ' ' , ' I fantasized ' bout this back in Chicago , ' and then , the relief after it , where you didn 't have to worry about the rest of that album " , and Billboard claimed " Otis gets better with each play " .
However , Chicago Tribune writer Greg Kot was less enthusiastic about the track , musing that " the references to luxury cars and private jets quickly lose their escapist luster , grossly out of step with a summer in which joblessness and foreclosure are becoming all too common for many Americans " and that " just as disappointing is that the Redding sample – a thrilling burst of agitated vocals , classic Memphis horns , organ and drums – never goes anywhere . " In an interview with Redding 's widow , Zelma Redding , Us Weekly reported that Mrs. Redding approved the song , saying " We are proud that Otis ' legacy continues to inspire some of today 's popular artists . We like ' Otis ' and thank Kanye and Jay @-@ Z for honoring our Otis through their music . "
Pitchfork Media named the song the 42nd best song of 2011 . XXL named the song the fifth best of the year , and Spin named the song the 17th . Time 's Claire Suddath placed the song at number four on her best of the year list , writing " the lead single off Watch the Throne mixes and loops Otis Redding 's passionate shouts and screams from " Try a Little Tenderness , " paying homage to his soulful style while mixing it up by adding heavy beats and chopping up the original track 's piano tune . " Complex named the song the 100th best Jay @-@ Z song of all time . At the 54th Grammy Awards in 2012 , " Otis " was nominated for Best Rap Song and Best Rap Performance , winning the latter .
= = Personnel = =
Produced by Kanye West
Recorded by Noah Goldstein
Mixed by Anthony Kilhoffer
Mixed and recorded at The Mercer Hotel
= = Remixes = =
Papoose remixed the song and performed a freestyle over it . Papoose released a music video of his version of the song . Rappers Tinie Tempah , Chipmunk , Wretch 32 , and Jadakiss with Styles P of The LOX also released a remix and freestyle . Rapper The Game used some of this song 's content to record a diss track named " Uncle Otis " , referring to Otis Redding 's vocal sample on the track . He insulted Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West along with musicians Big Sean , Kreayshawn amongst others . The Game however has gone on record , saying that " It ’ s poking jokes and taking shots , but that ’ s what I do " and that song wasn 't serious in nature . Writing about the song , Pop Crush commented that " an obvious attempt to get some promotion for his upcoming disc , The R.E.D. Album . Later Game used the " Otis " instrumental for a twenty @-@ minute freestyle entitled " Daytona 500 ( 500 Bars ) . " Cassidy did his . Rappers DMX and Busta Rhymes also made a collaborative " Otis " remix . Singer Ne @-@ Yo also recorded a freestyle rap over " Otis " for a mixtape . Teen singer Justin Bieber also rapped a written verse over the track during a live radio show . YG and Reem Riches collaborated for their version of the song along with a music video . Angel Haze and Iggy Azalea also remixed the track for a live show .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Spike Jonze and was filmed in Downey , California , USA . Pitchfork Media reported that " Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West are doing something big for the video for Otis . " The video , featuring a cameo by Aziz Ansari , was released on Thursday , August 2011 on MTV and affiliated networks at 8 : 56 pm ET / PT with an encore showing at 11 : 00 pm ET / PT on MTV2 . The video was uploaded on music video site VEVO on the same day .
The video primarily shows West and Jay @-@ Z destroying and then customizing a Maybach 57 and then racing around an industrial lot in it ( with no doors or windows ) , while four models smile and laugh from the backseat . The " dynamic duo take a saber saw to a glistening new Maybach and turn it into a tricked @-@ out ' Thunderdome ' cruiser , then do doughnuts in a parking lot with a gaggle of models packed in the back . " The video " eschews the narrative spazzouts and stoner @-@ boggling tricks of previous Jonze videos " preferring instead to " luxuriate in the icon status of its two principals . We get fireworks , fist bumps , a fast car , and general larger @-@ than @-@ life camaraderie rather than , say , guys on fire running in slow @-@ motion . It 's like The Expendables , if that movie only starred two guys , and both of them were rappers who didn 't do any onscreen fighting . " The car was put up for auction , and the proceeds donated toward the East African Drought Disaster .
Pitchfork Media named the video amongst the best of the year . As of January 2015 , Billboard named the video as one of the 20 best of the 2010s ( so far ) .
= = Live performances = =
On August 28 , 2011 , Jay @-@ Z & Kanye West performed the song for the first time at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards . The two rappers marched down the runaway with " flames erupting in the background . " The song was performed at all stops of their 2011 – 12 Watch the Throne Tour , generally as one of the opening tracks . It was performed " with a Givenchy @-@ designed American flag flashing on the stage 's main screen . " During Jay @-@ Z 's setlist at the 2012 Radio 1 's Big Weekend festival , West joined Jay @-@ Z to perform " Otis " and other Watch the Throne hits like " Niggas in Paris " and " No Church in the Wild " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Otis " debuted at position 47 on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending August 6 , 2011 , after a partial week of sales and airplay in which it sold 44 @,@ 000 digital copies and received an audience of 22 million impressions on all radio formats . The following week , " Otis " jumped into the Hot Digital Songs top 10 at number 9 selling 113 @,@ 000 copies , and reached number 12 on the Hot 100 . The song also debuted at 15 on Billboard 's R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and 13 on Billboard 's Hot Rap Songs . Following the same week , the song debuted at number 89 on the Canadian Hot 100 and rose to number 37 the next week . In the UK , the song debuted at 67 on the Singles Chart , and 26 on the R & B Chart .
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Hurricane Maria ( 2005 ) =
Hurricane Maria was a hurricane which formed in September 2005 during the annual hurricane season . Maria was the thirteenth named storm , sixth hurricane , and fourth major hurricane of the record @-@ breaking season . Hurricane Maria formed in the central Atlantic on September 1 and tracked to the northwest , strengthening as it moved over warm waters . The storm reached its peak strength on September 5 east of Bermuda and gradually weakened before becoming extratropical on September 10 . Hurricane Maria did not affect any land as a tropical system , but it brought tropical storm @-@ force winds to Iceland as an extratropical cyclone and produced heavy rain and three fatalities in Norway .
= = Meteorological history = =
A powerful tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 27 . As it moved west into the Atlantic , it became more organized and the system developed into Tropical Depression Fourteen about midway between Cape Verde and the Lesser Antilles on September 1 . Shear from an upper @-@ level low to the southwest slowed the development of the storm and caused uncertainties in the National Hurricane Center 's forecasts , as some models indicated that the depression would dissipate and others that it would become a hurricane . The depression gradually strengthened as it moved to the northwest across the open Atlantic Ocean , becoming Tropical Storm Maria on September 2 and reaching hurricane strength on September 4 .
In the central Atlantic , Hurricane Maria continued to strengthen in favorable conditions , and on September 5 briefly became a Category 3 hurricane with 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) winds while 480 miles ( 770 km ) east of Bermuda . Increasing shear and cooler waters caused the storm to rapidly weaken to a minimal hurricane on September 7 . Operationally , the NHC believed that Maria had briefly weakened further into a tropical storm , but post @-@ season analysis confirmed this did not occur .
As Hurricane Maria moved to the northeast the official forecasts called for the storm to continue to weaken slowly but an interaction with an upper @-@ level trough caused Maria to strengthen again . It was also predicted that the storm would rapidly become extratropical , but Maria retained tropical characteristics for 48 hours longer than some forecasts indicated . Maria weakened into a tropical storm on September 9 before finally becoming extratropical about midway between the Azores and Newfoundland early on September 10 .
The extratropical system intensified considerably , achieving hurricane intensity once again on September 11 at about 52 ° N , with a minimum pressure of 962 mbar ( hPa ) — equal to its minimum pressure as a tropical cyclone . It passed just to the south of Iceland on September 13 as a hurricane @-@ strength extratropical system ( although the center stayed offshore ) . As the storm approached Norway on September 14 it merged with another strong extratropical system .
= = Impact and records = =
While Maria remained far from the U.S. East Coast , rip currents caused by the combined effects of the distant Maria and the closer Hurricane Nate ( which was near Bermuda at the time ) killed one person and seriously injured another in New Jersey .
Maria never approached any land areas while a tropical system , but tracked toward northern Europe after becoming an extratropical storm on September 10 . The first land effects were felt in Iceland on September 12 , where tropical storm @-@ force winds were reported . The strongest winds were recorded in Vestmannaeyjar where sustained winds in excess of 67 mph ( 107 km / h ) were reported as well as a minimum pressure of 979 mbar . The storm then brushed the northernmost part of Scotland , with no reported damage there either . The extratropical Maria merged with another system and this storm made landfall in Norway . This storm brought tropical storm force winds and heavy rainfall to that country , and caused flooding and several mudslides , particularly around Bergen , the most important of which occurred in Hatlestad . One person was killed immediately , at least nine others were injured , and numerous homes were destroyed . Marine interests were also affected , as a large number of ferries were docked in the Baltic Sea . On September 18 , a woman died of injuries . Her daughter died on February 7 , 2006 , after having been kept alive in a respirator since the accident . After the storm , kr18.8 million ( 2005 NOK , $ 3 @.@ 1 million in 2005 USD ) in compensation was given for the damage .
When Maria developed on September 2 , it was the earliest ever in a season that the 13th named tropical storm developed , beating the previous record held by Hurricane Thirteen of the 1933 season by six days .
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= 1985 Pacific typhoon season =
The 1985 Pacific typhoon season has no official bounds ; it ran year @-@ round in 1985 , but most tropical cyclones tend to form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean between May and November . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean . Tropical Storms formed in the entire west pacific basin were assigned a name by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center . Tropical depressions that enter or form in the Philippine area of responsibility are assigned a name by the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration or PAGASA . This can often result in the same storm having two names .
A total of 29 tropical depressions formed this year in the Western Pacific , of which 28 became tropical storms . 17 storms reached typhoon intensity , of which one typhoon reached super typhoon strength . The strongest cyclone of the season , Dot , reached category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale to the east of the Philippines . Typhoon Cecil was the deadliest storm of the season , accounting for nearly half of the deaths from western Pacific tropical cyclones in 1985 .
= = Season summary = =
A total of 29 tropical depressions formed this year in the Western Pacific , of which 28 became tropical storms . 17 storms reached typhoon intensity , of which 1 reached super typhoon strength . Only four tropical cyclones moved through the Philippines this season , while eight moved into China , three moved into Vietnam , and three moved into Japan . Tropical cyclones brought Hong Kong 40 percent of its annual rainfall . The strongest cyclone of the season , Dot , reached category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . However , it weakened slightly before moving into the Philippines at the high end of category 3 status . Typhoon Cecil was the deadliest storm of the season , accounting for nearly half of the deaths from western Pacific tropical cyclones in 1985 .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Elsie = = =
This was the first tropical cyclone to form in the northwest Pacific basin in January in six years . Forming along the near equatorial trough , two circulations formed on either side of Guam . Elsie formed from the eastern circulation , appearing southwest of Pohnpei on January 4 . On January 5 , further convective development occurred which formed a low level circulation on January 6 . Becoming a tropical depression late that day and a tropical storm on January 7 , the system moved northwest , reaching its peak intensity late in the day . Thereafter , strong southerly winds aloft arrested development , and weakening began . Tropical depression status was regained on January 8 , and its circulation dissipated early January 9 .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Fabian ( Atring ) = = =
The initial tropical disturbance formed on the west end of the near @-@ equatorial , or monsoon , trough . Due to strong high pressure due its north , and the associated high winds associated with the northern Asian monsoon , strongest winds within the system were on its western periphery . Strong southerly winds aloft led to persistent vertical wind shear , which limited its intensification is it moved west to northwest . It passed nearby Yap , and caused crop damage as it passed by the island group .
= = = Tropical Depression = = =
A tropical depression formed 740 kilometres ( 460 mi ) east of Luzon on April 22 . Moving east @-@ northeast for a couple days , the system dissipated on April 24 770 kilometres ( 480 mi ) north @-@ northwest of Guam .
= = = Typhoon Gay ( Bining ) = = =
Gay was the third tropical cyclone and first typhoon of the 1985 Pacific typhoon season . After over four months of inactivity , on May 16 , a strong atmospheric circulation formed 380 nmi ( 700 km ) west of Koror , now part of Palau . The circulation began to develop convection and by May 20 had organized into a depression . Heading north , the storm took two days to gain tropical storm strength , likely because a tropical upper tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) was so close to the north , restricting outflow . However , the trough soon weakened and outflow improved and the storm began to intensify faster . Gay became a typhoon early on May 23 , continuing to intensify , Gay came under influence of a frontal boundary to the northwest and began to recurve to the northeast , through a weakness in the subtropical ridge created by the trough associated with the frontal boundary . This trough began to build and dig southeastward , pouring fuel into Gay 's engine . Typhoon Gay reached its peak intensity of 100 knots ( 115 mph , 185 km / h ) on May 24 . As cool , dry air became entrained within Gay 's circulation , the cyclone began to weaken . Gay underwent extratropical transition as it interacted with the frontal boundary . Gay became extratropical shortly after weakening to a tropical storm early on May 26 .
= = = Tropical Storm 04W = = =
This system formed within the northern portion of the monsoon trough on June 16 . Strong northeast winds aloft kept its circulation center on the northeast side of its stronger thunderstorm activity . The system drifted generally northwest , making landfall on Hainan Island before dissipating . While never upgraded by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center , the Japanese Meteorological Agency considered the system a weak tropical storm ,
= = = Typhoon Hal ( Kuring ) = = =
Typhoon Hal , which formed on June 19 east of the Philippines , passed just north of Luzon on the 22nd as a 95 mph ( 153 km / h ) typhoon . After briefly weakening Hal restrengthened to a peak of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) before weakening back to a minimal typhoon . Sustained winds reached 48 knots ( 89 km / h ) at Lan Yu , Taiwan . The 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) typhoon hit 75 nautical miles ( 139 km ) east @-@ southeast of Hong Kong in southeastern China on the 24th , and dissipated the next day . In Hong Kong , winds peaked at 74 knots ( 137 km / h ) at Kwai Chung , and a total of 285 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 11 @.@ 24 in ) fell at Tate 's Cairn which led to landslides across the region . Heavy rain associated with the typhoon caused 38 deaths ( with 14 missing ) and widespread crop and structural damage . Damage totalled US $ 12 @.@ 3 million ( 1985 dollars ) .
= = = Typhoon Irma ( Daling ) = = =
First noted southwest of Ponape on June 17 , the tropical disturbance moved westward for the next several days without significant development . As it turned northwest on June 25 , the system strengthened rapidly into a tropical storm , reaching typhoon intensity on June 27 as it turned more poleward . The system recurved just offshore the southern islands of Japan before striking southwest of Tokyo , Japan as a typhoon on July 1 . Weakening as it accelerated northeast , Irma regained tropical storm intensity later that day and became an extratropical cyclone that night . As Irma passed to the east of the Philippines the system enhanced the Monsoon Trough causing heavy rains over Luzon Island . A total of 46 people were killed and 1 @,@ 500 homes were destroyed . In Japan Irma killed 3 people and left 5 missing . Over 20 @,@ 000 houses were damaged and 50 @,@ 000 hectares of farmland were ruined . Damage across the Philippines and Japan totalled US $ 80 million ( 1985 dollars ) .
= = = Tropical Depression 07W ( Elang ) = = =
A tropical depression formed 1 @,@ 050 kilometres ( 650 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Manila on July 4 . Moving west @-@ northwest , the system crossed the central Philippines on July 5 , moving into the South China sea on July 6 . Moving more towards the north on July 7 , the depression moved inland into southern China east of Hong Kong on July 8 . In Hong Kong , winds gusted to 47 knots ( 87 km / h ) at Tate 's Cairn , where 114 @.@ 1 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 49 in ) fell . While Hong Kong considered it a tropical depression throughout its life cycle , PAGASA named the system and considered it a tropical storm .
= = = Typhoon Jeff ( Goring ) = = =
The monsoon trough spawned a tropical depression in northwest of Guam on July 21 . It tracked northward , becoming a tropical storm on the 22nd and reaching its first peak of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) winds on the 23rd . An upper level trough outran the system , forcing Jeff westward into a shearing environment and weakening it to a depression on the 26th . The shear abated , and Jeff was able to restrengthen , becoming a storm on the 27th and a typhoon on the 29th . The 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) typhoon hit eastern China on the 30th . It brought the heaviest rain to Shanghai since 1962 . Jeff weakened rapidly to a depression , but upon reaching the Yellow Sea , it again restrengthened to a tropical storm on the 1st . Jeff reached a third peak of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) winds before becoming extratropical on the 2nd . A total of 245 people were killed from this storm , with moderate to heavy damage to crops .
= = = Typhoon Kit = = =
Typhoon Kit was the first of seven tropical cyclones to form in the West Pacific in August . It formed from a disturbance at the north end of a monsoon trough . The disturbance quickly gained organization and formed into a tropical depression on August 2 . The storm moved steadily to the northwest and steadily intensified . The depression became Tropical Storm Kit on August 4 . The storm became a typhoon as it made a temporary jog to the north before continuing its northwest motion . The typhoon , small in size , reached its peak intensity of 85 knots ( 90 mph , 157 km / h ) while south of Kyūshū on August 8 . Kit recurved in the East China Sea in the face of an approaching trough which caused a weakness in the subtropical ridge . Kit made landfall on the south @-@ western tip of South Korea as a weak typhoon . The storm killed twelve people from resultant flooding and caused significant property damage on Cheju Island and the southern coast of South Korea . Kit became an extratropical cyclone in the Sea of Japan . A total of US $ 3 @.@ 7 million ( 1985 dollars ) of damage were caused by Kit across South Korea and Japan .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Lee ( Huling ) = = =
Lee formed within the monsoon trough , and was initially influenced by Kit to its north . Kit 's movement to the north reoriented the trough into a more north @-@ south orientation , and a broad circulation formed 890 km south of Okinawa . Moving north @-@ northeast , convection around the system began to organize into a more consolidated tropical storm . The system turned northwest , but development was halted by northerly vertical wind shear . Its circulation center remained fairly broad while it continued to deepen , more like a monsoon depression than a tropical cyclone . As the system passed close to Okinawa , winds remained fairly light . However , winds increased as it pulled away , due to the pressure gradient / strongest winds being well removed from the center . Continuing to move north into a break in the subtropical ridge , Lee moved through the East China Sea to about 445 km west of Kyūshū and stayed about 220 km offshore the western Korean peninsula . By this time , the system was evolving into a more typical tropical cyclone , with stronger winds closer to the center . Accelerating across the Yellow Sea on August 14 , Lee began to recurve across North Korea and subsequently weakened rapidly across the mountainous terrain . A total of US $ 3 @.@ 9 million ( 1985 dollars ) in damage was caused by Lee .
= = = Typhoon Mamie = = =
On August 15 , a tropical depression formed from the monsoon trough a short distance of northern Taiwan . It headed northeastward , becoming a tropical storm later that day . The building of the subtropical ridge to its east forced Mamie northwestward , where it became a typhoon on August 17 . On August 18 , the typhoon hit near Shanghai , China , and paralleled the east coast of China . The storm turned to the northeast , hit near Dairen , China , and dissipated on August 20 . Mamie was responsible for 44 fatalities and heavy crop damage . Total damage amounted to US $ 13 @.@ 7 million ( 1985 dollars ) .
= = = Typhoon Nelson ( Ibiang ) = = =
Typhoon Nelson , which developed on August 16 , moved northwest until reaching typhoon intensity , when a blocking ridge turned the system more to the west . The cyclone brushed northern Taiwan on August 23 as a 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) typhoon . Later that day , it made landfall on eastern China before dissipating on August 24 . Nelson caused 55 deaths and heavy damage across eastern China . In addition , the remnants of the storm stalled over the area , killing an additional 147 people .
= = = Typhoon Odessa = = =
Typhoon Odessa was a tropical system that was active from August 23 through the 1st of September in the Western Pacific Ocean . Odessa was one of three tropical cyclones to exist in the area of Japan at around the same time . Odessa and Pat would pass very close together with Ruby impacting Tokyo . Odessa formed from an area of disturbed weather that persisted on the eastern end of a monsoon trough . The disturbance organized into a depression on August 23 and continued to develop and it was a tropical storm before the day was over . Odessa assumed a northerly track as it continued to strengthen , reaching typhoon intensity late on October 24 . Odessa had become a compact storm with a very symmetrical structure . Its eye was very well defined , despite its peak intensity of 90 knots ( 100 mph , 165 km / h ) . Odessa was observed by STS 51 as they passed overhead . Odessa was one of the most powerful , circular tropical cyclone patterns ever seen by spacecraft crew . After moving westward and stalling southwest of Japan , it turned the northeast , travelling along the south @-@ western coast of Japan , weakening along the way , before becoming extratropical on September 1 .
= = = Typhoon Pat ( Luming ) = = =
Typhoon Pat developed from the Monsoon Trough situated to the east of Taiwan on August 27 . Pat quickly was upgraded to tropical storm status and was named . Due to a probable Fujiwara Interaction between Pat and Typhoon Odessa , Pat moved toward the northeast . Just before making a turn towards the northwest Pat was upgraded to a typhoon on the 28th . Typhoon Pat began to accelerate in the direction of Japan . Pat made landfall on southern Kyūshū on the 30th before accelerating through the Sea of Japan and turning extratropical . Pat killed 23 people through Kyūshū and Hokkaidō and destroyed 3 @,@ 000 homes .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Ruby = = =
Forming east of Odessa and Pat , the initial disturbance developed near a location with an upper level low interacted with the monsoon trough . The low pressure area formed on August 25 to the south @-@ southeast of Okinawa , moving around the southern periphery of Odessa and Pat . Thunderstorm activity concentrated near its low level center , and the system rapidly moved through the tropical depression stage into the tropical storm stage on August 26 , developing an elliptical eye . Vertical wind shear from Odessa kept Ruby from becoming a typhoon . Weaving its way northward , Ruby moved across Tokyo early on August 31 as it lost its central convection . Later that day , the system evolved into an extratropical cyclone . Six perished due to Ruby . Damage totalled US $ 14 million ( 1985 dollars ) from Odessa , Pat , and Ruby .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Skip = = =
The initial tropical disturbance formed well south of Hawaii along the near @-@ equatorial trough on August 28 , moving briskly to the west . The system developed into Tropical Depression Two @-@ C on August 30 and crossed the dateline the next day . It strengthened into a tropical storm and typhoon while moving northwest . It briefly threatened Wake Island as a typhoon before a Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough ( TUTT ) recurved Skip off to the northeast . It then recrossed the date line as a tropical storm . Skip became an extratropical cyclone on September 8 as it turned to the north and northeast .
= = = Typhoon Tess ( Miling ) = = =
On August 28 , a tropical disturbance formed south of Guam . On September 1 , the system strengthened into a tropical depression and then tropical storm . Throughout its lifetime , Tess moved generally to the west @-@ northwest . On September 3 , Tess became a typhoon just before moving across Luzon , with four perishing from the resultant floods . A tornado was spawned by the system in Lemery . Briefly dropping to tropical storm strength , the cyclone turned to the west upon entering the South China Sea . On September 5 , Tess strengthened into a typhoon while moving northwest towards China and Hong Kong . Winds gusted to 65 knots ( 120 km / h ) at Hong Kong 's international airport and 88 knots ( 163 km / h ) at Green Island . Tate 's Cairn measured 204 @.@ 4 millimetres ( 8 @.@ 05 in ) of rainfall . Flooding and crop damage was reported across southern China near where Tess moved inland and dissipated . One perished in the Philippines , and two in Hong Kong .
= = = Tropical Storm Val ( Narsing ) = = =
The initial tropical disturbance formed west of Truk / Chuuk within the monsoon trough , and moved northwestward . After developing into a tropical depression early on September 15 , the system moved around a west @-@ north @-@ westerly course , becoming a tropical storm on September 15 . As Val passed south of Naha , the system turned more westward blocked by the subtropical ridge and passed south of Taiwan , which caused its center to become ill defined . The resultant tropical depression moved inland into southeast China on September 18 . Winds remained below tropical storm force in Hong Kong , and rainfall amounts were light .
= = = Tropical Storm Winona = = =
The initial disturbance formed within the South China sea along the monsoon trough on September 18 . Moving northwest , the system developed into a tropical depression on September 19 and a tropical storm on early on September 21 . Turning more to the north , Winona missed Hainan Island to the east , and moved into southern China west of Hong Kong on September 22 , before quickly dissipating early on September 23 . Floods across southeast China trapped 57 @,@ 000 people , and at least 7500 homes were damaged .
= = = Tropical Depression Openg = = =
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Andy = = =
The initial tropical disturbance formed across the Philippine Sea within the monsoon trough on September 25 , moving westward across Luzon on September 26 . As it moved across the South China Sea , a surge in the northeast flow helped the system develop into a tropical depression on September 27 before strengthening into a tropical storm on September 28 . Typhoon intensity was reached on September 29 , and its center moved along the south coast of Hainan Island where winds gusted to 80 knots ( 150 km / h ) . The storm continued south of due west across the Gulf of Tonkin into Vietnam late on October 1 , killing 46 people across central portions of the country . The weakening cyclone crossed central Laos before dissipating in northeast Thailand on October 2 .
= = = Typhoon Brenda ( Pining ) = = =
A tropical disturbance was tracked south of Ponape in late September before consolidating into a tropical depression on the 29th to the east of the Philippines . The depression moved towards the west and was named Tropical Storm Brenda on the 30th and became a typhoon the same day . Brenda then completed a small cyclonic loop on 1 October before turning towards the northwest and strengthening to a peak of 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) . Brenda turned more northerly and skimmed the southern coast of South Korea before turning extratropical in the Sea of Japan . Nearly 12 inches ( 300 mm ) of rain fell on the South Korean Peninsula heavy flooding on Cheju Island and near Pusan killed 14 people and left 43 missing . The damage from the system totalled US $ 10 million ( 1985 dollars ) .
= = = Super Typhoon Dot ( Saling ) = = =
The monsoon trough spawned a tropical depression over the open West Pacific on October 11 . It headed west @-@ northwestward , strengthening to a tropical storm on the 13th and a typhoon on the 14th . Dot rapidly intensified to a 175 mph ( 282 km / h ) Super Typhoon on the 16th , the only one of the year , and steadily weakened until hitting eastern Luzon as a 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) typhoon on the 18th . It crossed the South China Sea and hit southern Hainan Island . In Hong Kong , winds gusted to 61 knots ( 113 km / h ) at Tate 's Cairn , but rainfall amounts were light as the system mainly bypassed the protectorate to the south . Dot made its final landfall on northern Vietnam on the 21st as a 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) tropical storm . Dot caused 101 fatalities and 2 @.@ 13 billion Philippine Pesos ( 1987 pesos ) in damage , or US $ 103 @.@ 6 million ( 1987 dollars ) .
= = = Typhoon Cecil ( Rubing ) = = =
An area of convection organized into a tropical depression on October 12 in the southeastern South China Sea . It tracked to the west @-@ northwest , becoming a tropical storm later that day and a typhoon on the 13th . Cecil continued to intensify , and reached a peak of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) winds before hitting north @-@ central Vietnam and dissipating on the 16th . Torrential flooding and wind damage to the area caused 702 casualties , with widespread structural and crop damage .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Ellis = = =
The initial disturbance formed west of Kosrae on October 13 , moving west @-@ northwest . Slow to organize , the system evolved into a tropical depression on October 16 and a tropical storm late that day . Soon afterwards , Ellis turned westward and slowed due to a weakness in the subtropical ridge to its north caused by a system passing well to the north of Ellis . The storm turned southwest on October 17 due to the building in of a stronger high pressure system to its northwest . By October 20 , Ellis weakened into a tropical depression while resuming a westward course as it passed under an upper level low which increased vertical wind shear and disrupted its associated thunderstorm activity . The cyclone turned west @-@ northwest on October 21 for a couple days before dissipating east of the Philippines .
= = = Typhoon Faye ( Tasing ) = = =
The initial tropical disturbance formed in the South China sea , and was swept eastward through the Philippines due to Dot 's movement to its north . The system emerged east of the Philippines and developed into a tropical depression and tropical storm on October 23 . Turning northwest , Faye crossed central Luzon on October 24 , weakening back into a tropical depression . Back in the South China sea , Faye regained tropical storm strength . The cyclone made a small cyclonic loop between October 25 and October 26 as a system over China approached Faye from the northwest . The tropical cyclone accelerated east @-@ northwest , passing just north of Luzon . By October 28 , Faye 's motion slowed and the system strengthened into a typhoon early on October 29 . After passing Okinawa , strong westerly winds aloft caused the typhoon to begin to weaken . Early on November 1 , Faye weakened into a tropical storm before it evolved into an extratropical cyclone later that day .
= = = Tropical Storm Gordon = = =
The initial disturbance formed in the southern South China sea and moved eastward . Its initial intensification to a tropical storm was caused by a surge in the northeast flow to its north and west , and the system turned to the north . As the cyclone became warm core , Gordon was able to restrengthen into a tropical storm after the monsoon wind surge slackened . Throughout its life cycle , thunderstorm activity was removed to the northwest of Gordon 's low level circulation . Soon after becoming a tropical storm again , Gordon turned to the west @-@ northwest and made landfall in Vietnam .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Irving = = =
This system formed at the west end of the near @-@ equatorial trough . Winter gales in the South China Sea masked this system 's existence . The cyclone was first noted just west of the Philippines on December 18 and moved westward , becoming a tropical storm on December 19 . As it approached southern Vietnam , the cyclone turned southwest and weakened , dissipating as it made landfall along the Malay peninsula .
= = = Typhoon Hope ( Unsing ) = = =
A tropical disturbance formed along the near @-@ equatorial trough on December 13 between Truk and Pohnpei . The system moved westward , and slowly developed . By early on December 18 , a tropical depression had formed , and intensification continued for the next couple days as Hope became an intense typhoon on the afternoon of December 20 . Weakening was seen later that day , and its eye disappeared . The system moved west @-@ northwest , threatening Luzon for a time . Just before landfall , Hope recurved north and eastward , sparing the Philippines , and becoming an extratropical cyclone on December 24 .
= = Storm names = =
During the season 25 named tropical cyclones developed in the Western Pacific and were named by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center , when it was determined that they had become tropical storms . These names were contributed to a revised list which started on 1979 .
= = = Philippines = = =
The Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration uses its own naming scheme for tropical cyclones in their area of responsibility . PAGASA assigns names to tropical depressions that form within their area of responsibility and any tropical cyclone that might move into their area of responsibility . Should the list of names for a given year prove to be insufficient , names are taken from an auxiliary list , the first 6 of which are published each year before the season starts . Names not retired from this list will be used again in the 1993 season . This is the same list used for the 1986 season . PAGASA uses its own naming scheme that starts in the Filipino alphabet , with names of Filipino female names ending with " ng " ( A , B , K , D , etc . ) . Names that were not assigned / going to use are marked in gray .
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= Leprechaun ( film ) =
Leprechaun is a 1993 American horror comedy film written and directed by Mark Jones . It stars Warwick Davis in the title role and Jennifer Aniston in her film debut . Davis plays a vengeful leprechaun who believes a family has stolen his pot of gold . As he hunts them , they attempt to locate his gold to mollify him . The film was originally meant to be more of a straight horror film , but Davis injected humor into his role . Re @-@ shoots also added increased gore to appeal to older audiences .
It was the first film produced in @-@ house by Trimark to be theatrically released and grossed $ 8 @.@ 6 million in North America against a budget of less than $ 1 million . Reviews on release were negative and focused on the film 's acting , humor , and directing , all of which were criticized ; it has also been called Aniston 's worst film . It is the first entry in the Leprechaun horror film series and was followed by five sequels and a remake . Leprechaun is often broadcast on St. Patrick 's Day .
= = Plot = =
In 1983 , Dan O 'Grady returns to his home in North Dakota from a trip to Ireland , where he stole the pot of gold from a leprechaun . After burying the gold , O 'Grady discovers that the evil leprechaun has followed him home and murdered his wife . O 'Grady uses a four @-@ leaf clover to suppress the leprechaun 's powers and trap it inside a crate . Before he can burn it , he suffers a stroke .
Ten years later , J. D. Redding and his teenage daughter Tory rent the O 'Grady farmhouse for the summer . Contract workers Nathan Murphy , his 14 @-@ year @-@ old brother Alex , and their dimwitted friend Ozzie Jones help re @-@ paint the farmhouse . While looking around the basement , Ozzie hears the leprechaun 's cry for help and mistakes him for a little child . He brushes the old four @-@ leaf clover off the crate , freeing the leprechaun . After failing to convince the others that he met a leprechaun , Ozzie spots a rainbow and chases it , believing he will find a pot of gold at the end . Alex accompanies him for fear Ozzie might hurt himself . A bag of one hundred gold pieces magically appears before Ozzie . After Ozzie tests the gold and accidentally swallows a piece , they stash it in an old well and plot to keep it for themselves , hoping to fix Ozzie 's brain .
At the farm , the leprechaun lures J. D. into a trap by imitating a cat , biting and injuring his hand . Tory and the others rush him to the hospital , and the leprechaun follows on a tricycle . Alex and Ozzie visit a pawn shop to see if the gold is pure , and the leprechaun kills several townspeople . The leprechaun returns to the farmhouse , where he searches for his gold and shines every shoe . After leaving J. D. at the hospital , the group drives back to the farmhouse . Finding it ransacked , Nathan checks outside , where he is injured by a bear trap set by the leprechaun .
After finding a shotgun in the farmhouse , they shoot the leprechaun several times . When this has no effect , they attempt to flee the farm , but their truck 's engine has been sabotaged by the leprechaun . After ramming the truck with a go @-@ kart , the leprechaun terrorizes the group until Ozzie reveals that he and Alex found the pot of gold . Tory recovers the bag from the well and gives it to the leprechaun . Believing the worst to be over , they leave for the hospital . While counting his gold , the leprechaun discovers that he is missing the gold piece Ozzie swallowed . Thinking that they have tricked him , he menaces them until Ozzie tells them about O 'Grady , who was taken to a nursing home after his stroke . Tory visits the home to learn how to kill the leprechaun .
At the nursing home , the leprechaun pretends to be O 'Grady . After he chases Tory to an elevator , the leprechaun throws O 'Grady 's bloodied body down the shaft as Tory flees . Before dying , O 'Grady tells her that the only way to kill the leprechaun is with a four @-@ leaf clover . Tory returns to the farmhouse , where she searches for a clover until she is attacked by the leprechaun ; Nathan and Ozzie save her . Alex sets a trap near the well , but the leprechaun almost kills him . Ozzie reveals he swallowed the last gold coin , and the leprechaun critically wounds him to get at it . Before the leprechaun can kill Ozzie , Alex takes a four @-@ leaf clover Tory has found , sticks it to a wad of gum , and shoots it into the leprechaun 's mouth , taking away his power . The leprechaun falls into the well , but his skeleton climbs out . Nathan pushes the leprechaun back into the well and blows up both the well and leprechaun with gasoline . The police arrive , and Tory is reunited with her father . As the police investigate the remains of the well , the leprechaun vows he will not rest until he recovers every last piece of his gold .
= = Cast = =
Warwick Davis as The Leprechaun
Jennifer Aniston as Tory Redding
Ken Olandt as Nathan Murphy
Mark Holton as Ozzie Jones
Robert Hy Gorman as Alex Murphy
David Permenter as Deputy Tripet
William Newman as Sheriff Roy Cronin
Shay Duffin as Daniel O 'Grady
Pamela Mant as Mrs. O 'Grady
John Sanderford as J. D. Redding
John Voldstad as Joe Voldstad
= = Production = =
Mark Jones , the writer @-@ director , had a career in American television shows . Desiring to make a film , he decided that a low budget horror film was his best opportunity . Jones was inspired by the Lucky Charms commercials to create a leprechaun character , only his twist was to turn the character into an antagonist . Jones was further influenced by the film Critters , which featured a small antagonist . Jones brought the concept to Trimark , who were looking to get into film production and distribution . Leprechaun became the first film produced in @-@ house by Trimark to be theatrically released . Entertainment Weekly quoted the budget at " just under $ 1 million " . Warwick Davis , who had experienced a dry spell after playing the protagonist in Willow , liked the script and was excited to play against type . Jennifer Aniston , who was an unknown at the time , impressed Jones , and he fought to have her cast .
Shooting occurred over three weeks , beginning at Valencia Studios , where Terminator 2 : Judgment Day had recently finished production . Several violent scenes were filmed at Big Sky Ranch , where Little House on the Prairie and The Waltons were shot . Davis later said it felt " a little blasphemous " . Davis performed most of his own stunts . For the scene where Davis chases Aniston in a wheelchair , Aniston had to run in slow motion so that Davis could keep up with her , as he had trouble manipulating the wheels . The film was initially more of a straightforward horror film , but Davis sought to add more comedic elements . Jones agreed with this tonal shift , and they shot it as a horror comedy . Several scenes had to be re @-@ shot after the producers insisted that the film be made gorier to appeal to older audiences .
Gabe Bartalos performed the make @-@ up effects . Trimark contacted Bartalos to produce a sample . Bartalos 's early efforts were not to his liking , and he pushed the design in a more grotesque direction , as that was what he wanted to see on the screen as a horror fan . Bartalos 's design impressed Trimark , and he got the account . Applying the make @-@ up took three hours , and taking it off took another 40 minutes . Davis described the experience as " not a pleasant sensation " . To pass the time while the make @-@ up was being applied , Davis said he had bizarre conversations with Bartalos , with whom he got along well . Davis was conscious of the need to stay relaxed and not move , and he channelled his confidence that the make @-@ up effects were properly applied into his acting .
= = Release = =
Leading up to the film 's release , Trimark engaged in an aggressive marketing campaign , partnering with the National Basketball Association , American Stock Exchange , and , after failing to secure deals with either corporate headquarters , individual franchisees of Domino 's Pizza and Subway . Leprechaun opened on January 8 , 1993 , in 620 theatres and took in $ 2 @,@ 493 @,@ 020 its opening week , ultimately earning $ 8 @,@ 556 @,@ 940 in the United States . Vidmark released it on VHS in April 1993 , and it sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies . The film score was released on March 9 , 1993 , by Intrada Records . The film was released on DVD in August 1998 . Lionsgate released a triple feature collection on March 11 , 2008 . All seven films in the series were released on Blu @-@ ray in a collection in September 2014 . The film is often broadcast on cable channels such as Syfy on Saint Patrick 's Day .
= = = Sequels = = =
Leprechaun was followed by five sequels : Leprechaun 2 ( 1994 ) , Leprechaun 3 ( 1995 ) , Leprechaun 4 : In Space ( 1997 ) , Leprechaun in the Hood ( 2000 ) , and Leprechaun : Back 2 tha Hood ( 2003 ) . In 2014 , a reboot , Leprechaun : Origins was released . After Leprechaun 2 's theatrical gross disappointed Trimark , Leprechaun 3 was released direct @-@ to @-@ video . Origins was theatrically released .
= = Reception = =
On release , critical reception for the film was negative . Writing for The Deseret News , Chris Hicks said that the film should have been released direct @-@ to @-@ video . Also criticizing Trimark 's release of the film , The Austin Chronicle 's Marc Savlov called it cliched , uninteresting , and an " utter waste of perfectly good Kodak film stock " . Internet @-@ based critic James Berardinelli called it " unwatchable " and not even enjoyably bad , and Matt Bourjaily of the Chicago Tribune wrote that the film " has brought new meaning to the term ' bad ' " . At the Los Angeles Daily News , Robert Strauss called it " as witless and worthless a horror film as could possibly be conjured " . Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette critic Ron Weiskind called the film incompetent and criticized the film 's acting , lack of suspense , and production values . Weiskind concluded , " Forget about the proverbial pot of gold . The movie Leprechaun is a crock . "
Michael Wilmington of the Los Angeles Times called the cast " the usual all @-@ formula grab @-@ bag " , and The Washington Post 's Richard Harrington said the human actors are all bland . Berardinelli described the characters as " a group of morons who act like they flunked kindergarten " but said Aniston " might be competent " in a better film . Weiskind instead called Aniston 's character a " Beverly Hills brat " who audiences will want to die . Of Davis , Harrington wrote that he " imbues a weak character with a strong presence " , saying the film is only interesting while Davis is on @-@ screen . Harrington concludes that the film is notable only for Davis ' performance . Vincent Canby of The New York Times called the leprechaun " no more than dangerously cranky " and reminiscent of Chucky from Child 's Play ; Hicks also described the leprechaun as similar to Chucky . Wilmington wrote that while a killer Leprechaun logically follows a trend of gimmicky antagonists , it is still a bad idea .
Of the film 's humor , Wilmington wrote that Leprechaun " isn 't dumb enough to be fun " . Hicks described the film 's humor as " ill @-@ advised slapstick " , and Canby wrote that it is " neither scary nor funny " . Berardinelli called the leprechaun 's one @-@ liners " more idiotic than pithy " . Writing in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , critic Jeff Makos unfavorably compared the film 's tone to that of Tremors , which he posited as an influence . Makos said Davis does his best to be funny , but the film has no funny jokes , making audience feedback probably more entertaining than the film itself . The use of Lucky Charms as humor also received commentary . Harrington wrote that Jones is " so bereft of inventive ideas that he refers to Lucky Charms cereal not once but three times " , and Bourjaily criticized the Lucky Charms jokes as unfunny .
Berardinelli said director Mark Jones has no style evident in the film . Wilmington described it as a " dingy , drab , pointless little movie ... made without flair or imagination , seemingly enervated by its own bad taste and low intentions " . Canby called the screenplay and direction amateurish , and Hicks wrote that Jones is bereft of ideas and should go back to his day job , describing the plot as " by @-@ the @-@ numbers killings with no rhyme or reason " . Harrington wrote that the film " has major continuity and credibility problems " . Strauss identified the theme as anti @-@ greed but said the writing is " simultaneously prosaic and murky " , causing Jones to miss his mark . Wilmington wrote that the leprechaun 's cries for his gold reflects the filmmakers ' cynical desire for box office success . Sight & Sound described Leprechaun as a film which seems to have no concept of a target audience , stating , " Jones wants this to be a lively romp for older kids in the mould of Time Bandits ... but also wants to corner the lucrative horror market . " The review concluded , " Unsuitable for adults or kids , this is ultimately for completists . " Harrington called the make @-@ up " quite evil @-@ looking " , though Strauss wrote that " effects are strictly so @-@ so " .
Rotten Tomatoes , a review aggregator , reports that 23 % of 13 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review ; the average rating is 4 / 10 . A 2014 retrospective from Entertainment Weekly identified it as Aniston 's worst role to date , and Aniston herself has expressed embarrassment over the film . In 2009 , Tanya Gold of The Guardian selected it as one of her ten favorite scary films to watch on Halloween .
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= Alphonse Alley =
Alphonse Amadou Alley ( April 9 , 1930 – March 28 , 1987 ) was a Beninese army officer and political figure . He was most active when his country was known as Dahomey . He was born in Bassila , central Dahomey , and enrolled in schools in Togo , Cote d 'Ivoire , and Senegal before enlisting in the French army in 1950 . He saw combat in Indochina from 1950 to 1953 , in Morocco from 1955 to 1956 , and in Algeria from 1959 to 1961 . After the coup in 1965 , President Christophe Soglo promoted Alley Chief of Staff of the Army . Young army officer Maurice Kouandété was appointed Alley 's chef de cabinet in 1967 .
Kouandété launched another coup against Soglo on December 17 , but he was forced to hand power to Alley two days later . His administration oversaw the creation of a new constitution and a presidential election , Dahomey 's first since 1964 . The results were annulled because of a boycott that prevented almost three @-@ quarters of the country from voting . Alley lost popularity with the suggestion that the military should retreat back to the barracks , and was eventually reduced to a mouthpiece for Kouandété . On July 17 , 1968 , Alley was forced to hand power to Emile Zinsou , a veteran politician .
Alley 's retirement was marked by a series of discharges from the military , trials , and prison sentences . At one trial , Zinsou 's conduct sparked another coup led by Kouandété . On October 26 , 1972 , Mathieu Kérékou seized power in a coup . He ended Alley 's military career , as well as that of every other senior officer , and named Alley commissioner of the National Oil Wells ( SNADAH ) , a role with very little responsibility . Kérékou accused Alley of plotting against him on February 28 , 1973 , and sentenced the latter to 20 years in prison . He died on March 28 , 1987 .
= = Military background = =
Alley was born on April 9 , 1930 , in Bassila , central Dahomey . He was a member of the small Widji ethnic group , based in the north . His father was also a military commander , who served the French in Syria during 1942 and helped train police in Togo . Alphonse enrolled in schools in Togo , Cote d 'Ivoire , and Senegal until he enlisted in the French army in 1950 . His first combat operation later that year was at the Indochinese Peninsula for the First Indochina War . Alley withdrew in late 1953 , shortly before Operation Castor was launched at Dien Bien Phu . After this wartime experience , he went the Saint Maxient Officer School in France . He saw combat in Morocco from 1955 to 1956 and in Algeria from 1959 to 1961 , where he became a paratrooper .
After Dahomey gained independence in 1960 , Alley travelled back to his homeland and led a paratrooper unit . At first , he was a lieutenant , but he was promoted to captain in 1962 and major in 1964 . Later that year he led several soldiers to the Dahomey @-@ Niger border during a border dispute . Historian Samuel Decalo described Alley as " a jovial , dashing , easygoing and well @-@ liked figure " and was known by diplomats as " the wine , women and song officer " .
In Dahomeyan coups in 1963 and 1965 , Alley urged General Christophe Soglo to seize power . After the 1965 coup , Soglo promoted Alley Chief of Staff of the Army . Alley made known his disagreements with Soglo on several occasions , though he remained loyal nonetheless . Young army officer Maurice Kouandété was appointed Alley 's chef de cabinet in 1967 and his frequent opposition to Alley during staff meetings helped to create factions in the Dahomeyan Army .
= = 1967 coup d 'état = =
Kouandété had aspirations of his own . On December 17 , 1967 , he and 60 other soldiers led a military coup and toppled Soglo . Kouandété seized the presidency , though he was unsure what to do with it . Members of his faction urged the new president to remain at his post , though the general public 's opinion was against him . Meanwhile , France refused to aid Dahomey and would not recognise Kouandété . He was forced to appointed Alley provisional president two days later , although Kouandété had placed Alley under house arrest and accused him of " shirking [ his ] duties " and maintained a " policy of appeasement . " Kouandété served as prime minister thereafter .
= = President of Dahomey = =
Alley was one of the few figures who were trusted by northern and southern Dahomeyans alike . His role was only temporary , until power was to be ceded back to civilians in six months time . Among the events on the official timetable , which the military published on January 17 , 1968 , was the creation of a nonmilitary Constitution Commission on January 31 , which would write a new Dahomeyan constitution . The document granted Alley strong executive power , and was adopted by the Comite Militaire Revolutionaire , Alley 's interim government comprisising only military officers , in early March . A national referendum on the constitution was held on March 31 , which passed with 92 percent in favor .
The Comite decided to ban all former presidents , vice presidents , government ministers , and National Assembly presidents from the upcoming presidential election . This was to prevent Dahomeyan politics from repeating its practices of old . The Supreme Court ruled the proscription was unconstitutional , although Alley overruled the decision . He instead only recognised five candidates as legitimate .
In response to their disqualification , former presidents Hubert Maga and Sourou @-@ Migan Apithy staged protests while Justin Ahomadégbé @-@ Tomêtin , another ex @-@ president , supported an obscure candidate named Basile Adjou Moumouni . The election was held on May 15 , and was Dahomey 's first since 1964 . Moumouni won the election with 80 percent of the vote , but Alley declared the result void because the protest prevented nearly three @-@ quarters of the electorate from voting . This result sparked further demonstrations , and Maga , Apithy , Ahomadégbé @-@ Tomêtin , and former president Christophe Soglo were forbidden to enter the country , in an attempt to crack down on dissent . Alley felt he had made a mistake in disqualifying Maga , Apithy , and Ahomadégbé @-@ Tomêtin , as he believed that only they could bring unity to Dahomey .
In a radio address on May 11 , Alley announced that due to the nullification , the military would heve to stay in power beyond June 17 . He noted that his administration would require extra time to find a successor who was backed by everyone . Alley suggested that the military should retreat back to the barracks at Camp Ghezo and leave Dahomeyan politics to the career politicians . The view was unpopular , and he was outvoted by his military comrades . Alley eventually became little more than Kouandété 's mouthpiece .
Alley attempted to remove Kouandété from the army , though to no avail . In any case , by June his fellow officers had made up their mind as to the next president . After talks with unionists , civil servants , and academics , they " entrust [ ed ] the reins of power to Émile Derlin Zinsou for at least five years " , who was " charged to form a government of national union " , as per a June 28 newspaper article by the state press . On July 17 , Alley handed power to Zinsou , a veteran politician .
= = Later life = =
After Alley was retired from the presidency , he was purged from combat in the army and was assigned the new post of military attaché in Washington , D.C , an appointment he refused to accept . General Etienne Eyadema , the president of neighboring Togo , thought that this " serve [ d Alley ] right , for being stupid enough to give power back to the politicians . Don 't think I 'm ever going to be that dumb . " Alley was discharged from the armed forces altogether in September , with Kouandété taking his place as Chief of Staff .
On July 11 , 1969 , Kouandété accused Alley of plotting to kidnap and murder him . Facing the death penalty , Alley was sentenced to ten years of hard labor at an open trial held on October 4 . Zinsou had intervened for Alley , and it strained relations between the president and Kouandété . The latter decided to lead another coup on December 10 . In the aftermath , Alley was released from incarceration and reinstated in the army . In July 1968 , he was named Secretary General of National Defence . Kouandété ended up becoming Alley 's adjutant .
In 1971 , Alley allowed Togolese refugee Noe Kutuklui protection in Dahomey , despite official government policy to the contrary . On October 26 , 1972 , Mathieu Kérékou seized power in a coup . He ended Alley 's military career , as well as that of every other senior officer , and named him commissioner of the National Oil Wells ( SNADAH ) , a role with very little responsibility . Kérékou accused Alley of plotting against him on February 28 , 1973 , and sentenced him to 20 years in prison . He was released on amnesty on August 1 , 1984 , as well as all other political detainees besides those involved in the " ignoble and barbarous imperialist armed aggression of Sunday , January 16 , 1967 , " as the official press release states .
Alley died on March 28 , 1987 . He was survived by his son , Zacharie . Plans for a mausoleum are in the works , decades after his death .
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= Effects of Hurricane Charley in North Carolina =
The effects of Hurricane Charley in North Carolina were minor to moderate and included $ 25 million ( 2004 USD ) in damage . Hurricane Charley lasted from August 9 to August 15 , 2004 , and at peak intensity it attained 150 miles per hour ( 240 km / h ) winds , making it a strong Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The storm made landfall in southwestern Florida at maximum strength , and moved northward , parallel to the U.S. East Coast before moving ashore on northeastern South Carolina .
The storm caused flooding in seven counties within the state as a result of 5 @.@ 05 inches ( 128 mm ) of rainfall . Winds peaked at 85 miles per hour ( 137 km / h ) which downed trees and power lines , and left 65 @,@ 000 homes without power . A storm surge of 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) was reported , along with moderate waves that caused minor beach erosion . No deaths are attributed to the storm .
= = Preparations = =
On August 13 , 2004 , a tropical storm watch was issued for Cape Fear , southward to South Carolina . The watch was extended northward to Oregon Inlet later that day ; the watch further extended to Chincoteague , Virginia . The tropical storm watch from Cape Lookout to Oregon Inlet was changed to a hurricane warning . A hurricane watch was subsequently put into effect for coastal areas from Oregon Inlet to the North Carolina / Virginia border , although by August 15 all advisories were discontinued . Flood watches were also placed into effect for portions of the state .
Governor Mike Easley declared a state of emergency in advance of the storm , and 200 National Guard troops were dispatched to Charlotte , Raleigh , Kinston and Lumerton , while 800 more were on standby . On Ocracoke Island , authorities ordered mandatory evacuations , while on Bogue Banks voluntary evacuations were in place . Officials in Wrightsville Beach drove along the streets with loudspeakers mounted on trucks , warning tourists that a storm was approaching . The storm forced the University of North Carolina at Wilmington to suspend a planned opening for students moving in to residence halls . Campgrounds at the Cape Hatteras National Seashore were closed by the National Park Service and three boat ramps were closed . Duke Power Co. prepared for Charley by lowering the level of hydroelectric lakes to make room for excessive rainfall . The state Department of Environment and Natural Resources advised hog farmers to pump out their waste lagoon . About 60 Red Cross shelters were opened during the storm and during the peak of Charley , and roughly 1 @,@ 600 people sought protection .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Charley produced moderate to heavy rainfall over the state , peaking at 5 @.@ 05 inches ( 128 mm ) near Greenville ; other rainfall amounts ranged from less than 1 inch ( 25 mm ) – more than 4 inches ( 100 mm ) . The outer rainbands began affecting the region in the early hours of August 14 . Due to widespread debris , storm drains became clogged which left flooding in some areas . Freshwater flooding was reported in seven counties along the coastal plain . State highways 42 and 581 , as well as numerous county and local roads , were covered with at least 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water . Wilmington and surrounding towns were forced to close a total of 20 streets . The heavy precipitation also caused the Neuse River to swell to flood stage . A few businesses throughout the region were damaged ; two in downtown Greenville and five others were flooded .
The storm produced estimated storm surge of 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) , along with waves of up to 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) in height . However , there were isolated reports of 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) surge , particularly along the beaches of Brunswick County . This produced minor beach erosion along the coastline . Winds gusted from 60 – 70 miles per hour ( 95 – 110 km / h ) , causing minor wind damage . The hurricane spawned five weak tornadoes across the state , including an F1 in Nags Head that damaged twenty structures . Charley destroyed 40 houses and damaged 2 @,@ 231 , 231 severely , including 221 damaged beach homes in Sunset Beach . Damage was the greatest in Brunswick County , where wind gusts peaked at 85 miles per hour ( 137 km / h ) . The winds blew down chimneys and damaged a roof on one building , and ripped the siding off another . Crop damage was also heavy in Brunswick County , with 50 % of the tobacco crop lost and 30 % of the corn and vegetable fields destroyed . Strong winds downed trees and power lines , leaving 65 @,@ 000 homes without power . Damage in North Carolina totaled to $ 25 million ( 2004 USD ) .
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= Texas State Highway 151 =
State Highway 151 , or SH 151 , also known as the Raymond E. Stotzer Jr . Freeway is a 10 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 17 @.@ 2 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Texas that runs from Loop 1604 to U.S. Highway 90 ( US 90 ) in San Antonio . SH 151 is a limited @-@ access freeway for its entire length with the exception of its junction with Loop 1604 at its western terminus where a traffic light controls the junction . The routing of the freeway was first conceived in 1983 and construction was conducted in phases through the 1980s and 1990s until completion in 2004 . The freeway provides access to the western part of San Antonio , the SeaWorld San Antonio theme park , Chase , Northwest Vista College , and the future site of a Microsoft data center .
= = History = =
The route of Highway 151 was originally conceived in 1983 by local land developer Charles Martin Wender and later received approval by Raymond Stotzer , the district supervisor of the Texas Department of Transportation at the time and for whom the freeway would later be named . The freeway was a joint effort with landowners providing 85 % of the right @-@ of @-@ way worth US $ 26 million and half of the cost of the frontage roads worth $ 14 million with the city buying the rest . During the construction of the freeway , the Texas Turnpike Authority considered SH 151 as a candidate to become a toll road , but this drew much criticism from local politicians and the Bexar County commissioners and did not come to fruition .
The freeway was built in phases with the frontage roads constructed first followed by the main lanes . The overpasses for Wiseman Boulevard , Westover Hills Boulevard and Military Drive between I @-@ 410 and Loop 1604 were completed over the main lanes of SH 151 in 1987 . In 1988 , the I @-@ 410 overpasses over the SH 151 frontage roads were completed , as was the interchange with US 90 at the eastern terminus . Also completed in 1988 were the frontage road bridges over Leon and Slick Ranch Creek , which enabled traffic to travel the entire corridor from Loop 1604 to US 90 by way of the frontage roads . The main lane overpasses at FM 1957 ( Potranco Road ) and Ingram Road were completed in 1997 . The overpasses at Pinn Road and Enrique M. Barrera Parkway were completed in 1998 , and completed at Callaghan Road in 2000 . Construction of the freeway was completed in 2004 .
= = Route description = =
SH 151 begins at Loop 1604 , the outer loop around San Antonio , on the west side of San Antonio and from there follows a southeastern path through the western part of the city . The highway provides access to the SeaWorld San Antonio theme park as well as industry along its corridor to include Chase , Hyatt Hill Country Resort , World Savings , Philips semiconductor , the National Security Agency campus , QVC , American Funds , Maxim Integrated Products , and the Northwest Vista College , as well as the nearby Southwest Research Institute . Microsoft has also selected the corridor for a $ 550 million data center . The highway continues to the southeast to a junction with Interstate 410 ( I @-@ 410 ) , the inner loop around San Antonio . There is not a direct connect interchange at the junction of I @-@ 410 . It is necessary to travel on both highways ' frontage roads in order to change highways . The highway continues to the southeast through mainly undeveloped land until it merges with US 90 . According to the San Antonio Master Thoroughfare Plan , there are plans to extend SH 151 westward from Loop 1604 to SH 211 . The plan also shows the construction of an interchange at Loop 1604 .
Traffic volumes are low to moderate for the entire length of the freeway ranging from 14 @,@ 500 average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) just east of Loop 1604 to 46 @,@ 000 AADT between Farm to Market Road 1957 ( FM 1957 ) and I @-@ 410 . Between 2003 and 2005 , traffic volumes have remained steady between I @-@ 410 and US 90 . In that same time period , traffic between I @-@ 410 and Loop 1604 has increased by 1 @,@ 100 @-@ 7 @,@ 000 AADT .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in San Antonio , Bexar County . All exits are unnumbered .
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= Danebod =
Danebod ( pronounced " DAHN @-@ a @-@ bo " , or " DAN @-@ a @-@ bo " ) is a historic district at the south edge of the railway town of Tyler in southwestern Minnesota . Founded in 1885 by Danish Evangelical Lutherans led by Rev. Hans Jørgen Pedersen ( 1851 – 1905 ) , the district comprises a group of buildings dating back to 1888 from Minnesota 's oldest Danish immigrant settlement . Danebod remains until this day a predominantly Danish Lutheran , close @-@ knit religious community . An annual celebration named Æbleskiver Days , held on the fourth weekend of July , celebrates Danish heritage and culture and includes a parade that goes down the town 's main street with floats that are made by the various Danebod neighborhoods .
On the basis of its cultural and architectural significance , four buildings from Danebod were added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places on June 30 , 1975 as the " Danebod Historic Complex " .
= = Etymology = =
The name " Danebod " honors Denmark 's first queen , Queen Thyra Danebod , the consort of tenth @-@ century Danish king Gorm the Old . Queen Thyra is thought to have directed the building of a stone wall across the Danish peninsula of Jutland as protection against foes to the south , and in gratitude she was given the name Danebod . The name Danebod originally meant in Danish " one who mends , comforts , or saves the Danes " .
= = History = =
The native inhabitants of the area which later became Danebod were the Dakota Sioux people .
= = = Establishment = = =
On September 8 , 1872 , two Danish pioneer pastors , Adam Dan and Rasmus Andersen , established a small organization in Neenah , Wisconsin , which later became the Danish Evangelical Lutheran Church in America . At one of the churches ' conventions in Clinton , Iowa , in 1884 , the Danish farmer Rasmus Hansen of Elk Horn , Iowa , suggested that " the Danish Church should help all the families living around in cities , who would prefer living in the countryside , where they could find a fitting spot for a Danish colony . " A committee was appointed for the purpose of finding a piece of land for the scattered Danish immigrants to settle . The committee consisted of the Grundtvigian Evangelical @-@ Lutheran pastors F. L. Grundtvig ( the son of N. F. S. Grundtvig ) , Kristian Anker , Rasmus Hansen , Jens C. Kjær , and C. Bruhn . This committee soon made arrangements with Winona and the St. Peter Railroad Company to purchase 35 @,@ 000 acres ( 140 km2 ) of land in the southeastern part of Lincoln County , Minnesota . An agreement with the land agent , A. Bojsen , stipulated that for three years this land was to be sold only to Danish people . The land was rolling prairie by the hills of Buffalo Ridge , just south of the community of Tyler , Minnesota . By June 27 , 1885 , seventy settlers from various states , towns , and communities had made the area their home .
The pioneer settlers were all Grundtvigians ; a faction within the Danish National Church . The Grundtvigians represented a nationalistic and liberal religious tradition , in staunch contrast to pietists and fundamentalists in the Church Association for the Inner Mission in Denmark . Grundtvigians believed in celebrating life , but they lived for the present , and were often nicknamed " Happy Danes " . While salvation was the gift of Christianity , being saved was not a focus . The Bible was the Holy Book , but was not to be taken literally , and the Apostles ' Creed rather than the Bible was their source of Christianity . Grundtvigians were also nationalists who wanted to " rewaken the Danes in appreciation of their identity " , and its founder , Nikolaj Frederik Severin Grundtvig , is quoted for his writing : " first a Dane and then a Christian " in 1848 . The Grundtvigians stressed four elects of a " true people " : a common land , a common language , a common history and forefathers , and common culture through songs , folk dancing , language , cuisine , etc . Grundtvigians established Danebod to " save the Danes from total Americanization " , and the colony 's only written and spoken language remained Danish for several decades after its establishment . On Sunday , June 28 , 1885 , the pioneers arranged a festival to celebrate the new colony . The population grew rapidly in the early 1890s , and by the year 1895 , 222 people lived in the Danish Colony of Danebod .
= = = Late 19th century = = =
On July 11 , 1886 , a meeting was held at the home of P. N. Clausen at which the Danebod congregation was formally organized with fifteen members . The church council consisted of its president , P. N. Clausen , secretary M. Lauritsen , and treasurer Jørgen Jacobsen . At first there were no regular church services and no resident pastor . Instead , the people met in various homes to sing Danish hymns and listen to a reading of the sermon by a layman . The pastor of Sleepy Eye , Minnesota , S. C. Madsen , and other ministers occasionally conducted services in town . The congregation later hired the Danish settler , pastor Hans Jørgen Pedersen ( 1851 – 1905 ) of Gowen , Michigan . He arrived with his family on April 12 , 1888 . Pedersen had a humble upbringing in Denmark , where he later studied at Ryslinge Folk High School before emigrating to America in 1875 . He was an eloquent preacher , resourceful , and became involved in community activities throughout the area . He quickly assumed leadership and thus , in a sense , became the founder of Danebod . One of the pastor 's six children , Sigurd Pedersen , described their first arrival in Danebod in his autobiography : " It was a chilly morning , when the committee stood on the platform to bid welcome to the new pastor and his wife , trailed by six children , and the rear held up by the trusty hired man , Søren Olsen , who was to keep count of the straying flock and see that the last luggage was not forgotten . Friends invited us over for breakfast in the home of H. J. Nelsen , the merchant . Then the committee guided us to a small house on the corner just west of the present @-@ day Chevrolet dealer , where businessman Carl Cold Sorensen brought the first automobiles to the area in the early 1900 's . The committee had left no kindling in this small house , but Søren Olsen soon discovered that the kitchen range was in place and claimed to be able to manipulate the same if kindling could be provided . Across the street was a large general store , and father sent us there to beg Mr. Lauritsen for some kindling . We were given old boxes to break up , and we soon had our arms full and Søren had a blazing fire in a few minutes . " In September 1888 , it was decided at a convention in Elk Horn , Iowa , to give the congregation at Danebod 77 acres ( 0 @.@ 31 km2 ) of land , and the Danebod Lutheran Church was dedicated on Sunday , June 16 , 1895 . Pedersen died in 1905 , and the Reverend Thorvald Knudsen succeeded him at Danebod .
Pastor H. J. Pedersen , like most early pastors in the synod , had received his training in a folk school , and he was convinced that the success of the new congregation and colony depended on the establishment of such a Danish @-@ speaking folk school . Danebod Folk School opened December 1 , 1888 , with Pedersen as president . Other teachers were Carl Hansen and Christian Hansen . Among the first students were Niels Petersen and Kristian Klink , both Danish immigrants . Klink was a stonemason educated in Denmark , and he helped pastor Pedersen in building the Stone Hall . It was built of native rock . Farmers hauled rocks from the shores of Swan Lake just south of Danebod , and Klink and his helpers split and shaped the rocks . The Stone Hall was finished in the fall of 1889 , and the first public gathering in the Stone Hall was at Klink 's funeral in November 1889 . The Stone Hall quickly became the center of the new colony , and Sunday services were conducted here , as well as numerous weddings , baptisms and funerals . The students at the Danebod Folk School used the building as a gym hall , and young people would meet here to socialize , meet up with friends , and participate in singing games . Three years later , the Stone Hall was now too small for worship services . It was decided to build a new church , and the Cross Church at Danebod was dedicated on Sunday , June 16 , 1895 .
= = = Early 20th century = = =
A Ladies ' Aid society was established on July 15 , 1903 , with board members Marie Hovgaard , Anna P. C. Petersen , Henrietta Hansen , and Sine C. Jensen . At first , Sunday school was conducted an hour prior to the church services on Sunday , but in 1907 it was decided to hold Sunday school during the time of worship service . As early as 1904 , the synod had discussed the possibility of establishing a children 's home at Tyler . On November 1 , 1906 , a children 's home opened in the residence of K. H. Duus , who temporarily moved to Askov , Minnesota . A Folk School Association was organized in 1912 . As early as 1888 , the colony organized its first Danish elementary school for its children , Børneskolen , which was in use until 1939 . In her travel diary entitled My Big Adventure of 1915 – 1916 : The joys and hazards of motor touring in 1915 , Danebod local Ragna C. Olson ( 1905 – 2007 ) described the average school day in 1914 : " We had an hour of religion , then learned how to read and write Danish , some history , and the last hour we girls learned work such as knitting , crocheting and embroidery . In the afternoons , they taught us English , writing , reading and arithmetic . " Ragna Olsen ( previously Sorensen ) was the daughter of the Danish pioneers Johanne Marie Sorensen ( 1877 – 1947 ) and Carl Cold Sorensen ( 1879 – 1967 ) , both of whom hold a place in Danebod history for bringing the first motorized vehicles to Tyler in the early 1900s .
On Sunday , February 25 , 1917 , Danebod Folk School burned to the grown . Fortunately , the fire burned slowly . The students and the quickly summoned neighbors had time to rescue much of the furniture and other items of high value . Nearby buildings were saved , but the Folk School was beyond rescue . In the fall of 1917 , nine months after the disastrous fire , a new and larger Folk School was dedicated . Speakers at the dedicatory exercises were Pastor Knudsen , C. P. Højbjerg , Aage Møller , P. Rasmussen , and Kristian Østergaard . Meanwhile , a terrible epidemic of influenza swept the county , and all churches and schools were temporarily closed in an effort to halt the deadly disease ; but many people died . Another catastrophe followed on August 21 , 1918 , when a devastating tornado tore through Lincoln County . It was the fourth most deadly tornado in Minnesota history and took the lives of 36 people and injured a dozen more .
= = Culture = =
Danebod has continued to be a haven for Danish culture through the 20th century and into the 21st . The elementary school , university , library , newspapers , and church services remained Danish language for decades ( and remained the most widely spoken language until the 1940s ) . Danebod remains a predominantly Danish @-@ American town . It is customary to fly the Danish flag , Dannebrog , and Danish cuisine , music , cultural celebrations , language , literature , and the Evangelical Lutheran religious tradition remain important parts of life for the more than 200 inhabitants . Until 1947 church services were held solely in the Danish language , but has since offered one weekly service in Danish . Danebod is sometimes referred to as " the home of the Nissemænd , " a reference to the mythological tomte of folklore . There is a sign on Tyler Street saying : " Welcome to Tyler . Home of the Nissemaend " .
During the 1930s , a combination of financial pressure and low enrollment forced the Danish @-@ language based Danebod Folk School to close down . The building was re @-@ opened in 1946 and has since 1947 offered annual summer family camps . Danebod Folk Camp offers Danish cuisine , Danish folk dance , Danish art , and other Danish cultural experiences . In the spirit of the Danish Folk School system , camp attendees sing Danish songs , dance traditional Danish folk dance , work on crafts and have Danish @-@ based lectures throughout the day .
There are several annual Danish @-@ inspired celebrations in town , including the town parade , Grundlovsdag ( Danish Constitution Day ) , Fastelavn , and Æbleskiver Days . Æbleskiver are traditional Danish pancakes in a distinctive spherical shape . Æbleskiver Days is one of the town 's top attractions , and has been held annually by Danish descendants for more than a hundred years . During this two @-@ day festival held on the 4th weekend of every July , Danebod celebrates its Danish heritage and community . During this festival , there is a parade inspired by Danish traditions and culture that goes down Main Street with floats made by the various neighborhoods . Traditional Danish foods such as medisterpølse , frikadeller , rabarbergrød , rødkål , cream wafers , cinnamon sticks , rosettes , kisses , as well as æbleskiver , smørrebrød , Danish coffee , liver @-@ pâté , and sweets are also popular during the festival . Other activities during Æbleskiver Days include traditional Danish folk dancing , Danish art displays , Danish folk song singing , children 's activities , and the fairground fair called Tivoli The Scandinavian tradition of singing and dancing around the Christmas tree still takes place at the center of the Gym Hall during Christmas time . Some families keep up the tradition of celebrating Christmas Eve on December 24 . There is a town fair on the Danish Constitution Day , June 5 . There are still quite a few Danish speakers , especially among the elders .
= = Danebod Historic Complex = =
Recognized for its architectural and cultural significance , the Danebod Historic Complex , at 101 Danebod Court , was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places on June 30 , 1975 . The complex includes four historic buildings : the Folk School ( built in 1888 , rebuilt in 1917 ) , Stone Hall ( 1889 ) , Cross Church or Danebod Lutheran Church ( 1893 ) , and Gym Hall ( 1904 ) . Most of these buildings survived the disastrous fire of 1917 , except for the Folk School , which burned down and was rebuilt the same year . These buildings also stood through the devastating 1918 tornado , which killed 36 people in the community .
All four structures were built in a simplified Greek Cross floor plan to signify a religious purpose . Closest to Lake Danebod stands the Folk High School , a three @-@ story wooden building with eight gables . Next to the Folk High School stands the multipurpose Stone Hall , and across the street stands the Gym Hall with its iconic twin towers . Danebod Lutheran Church is located on the town 's main street , appropriately named Tyler Street , and is in the shape of a Greek cross on the outside .
The Danebod Lutheran Church ( also known as the Cross Church at Danebod ) was dedicated Sunday , June 16 , 1895 . It is a cruciform clapboard building with a square placed obliquely in the center . The tower in the middle is carried at a 45 degree angle to the arms of the cross . The outside and interior detailing of the church is Eastlake . It was built largely with volunteer labor and money pledged by the early settlers , who had little to give . Points of interest include the altar chairs , kerosene lamps , architectural structure , wainscoting walls and ceiling , porthole windows as in a ship , hand @-@ carving on the altar , pulpit and railing , the candelabra and altar cloth , hand @-@ carved stone baptismal font , the Star of Bethlehem in the ceiling , Bertel Thorvaldsen 's statue of Christ , the Celtic cross , and pictures in the narthex . The church is located at 101 Danebod Court . The church was established by the organization that later became the Danish Evangelical Lutheran Church in America ( DELCA ) . This organization later merged into the Lutheran Church in America ( LCA ) in 1962 and then into the largest Lutheran church in the U.S. in 1988 : the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America ( ELCA ) . Danebod Lutheran Church remains a part of the ELCA still today .
The Danebod Stone Hall was built in 1889 and is a single @-@ floor stone building in the form of a Latin cross . Its entrance wing features medieval @-@ inspired crenellations , but the rest of the building with its pedimented windows are closer to being Greek Revival . It was built from native field rock hauled in by farmers and split and shaped by a Danish stonemason named Kristian Klink . The Stone Hall was used as the first church , later as a gymnasium and assembly hall . Points of interest are the outdoor old bell from the former children 's school , fresco from the Gym Hall , the old chandelier from the Cross Church , old photographs , and handcut field stone in the structure . The Stone Hall is now a museum housing a collection of photographs , publications and objects important in Danebod history . It is also a venue for activities , lectures and discussion groups , and is typically open for public viewing during the Danebod Family Camp sessions .
The Danebod Gym Hall was erected in 1904 and is a cruciform clapboard building . The two sides of the entrance arm project forward to the eaves , and the sides plus a small roof enclose the entrance . It was originally built as a space for Danish gymnastics , folk dancing , music , theatrical performances , larger social gatherings , and worship for the Folk School students and other locals . Every year in the Gym Hall , the Danebod Lutheran Church upholds the Danish tradition of dancing around the Christmas tree . The basement is also commonly used for crafts such as stained glass and woodworking . In 1928 it was enlarged with a stage , basement and furnace . Many home talent plays were presented there , and it is still used for an occasional play , and is also used by the camps and retreats for folk dancing . Points of interest are the statue with an original canvas curtain with advertising , bars used years ago by gymnasts ( on the south wall ) , and the original wainscoting on the walls .
The Danebod Folk School was first built in the year 1888 , but it burned to the ground on February 25 , 1917 . It was soon rebuilt , and nine months later the current school building was completed . A three @-@ story brick building , it has gable ends carried up as parapets . The four @-@ story crenelated corner tower and the pointed arches at the entrance are from Gothic and native Danish architecture . The Folk School was renovated in 1946 and is now used by the Danebod Lutheran Church for camps and retreats , and as a meeting place for local groups and clubs . Points of interest are the hand @-@ carved podium in the lecture hall , the picture behind the podium , the hand @-@ carved wooden cross on the podium , collection plates made by Dr. Thomsen , and also the statuary in the lecture hall and sitting rooms , pictures in the sitting rooms , and the small podium in the dining room . Early settlers of the colony founded a residential school in the Danish tradition of folk High Schools and fostered the concept of " learning for living " , by which individuals sought to become enlightened and thoughtful citizens . The Folk School Building stands as a testament to these values , and continues to serve as a place for fellowship and lifelong learning . Each dormitory style room is unique in plan and decoration . A large kitchen and dining area provide a perfect setting for group meals and activities . A lecture hall and several classrooms allow ample space for programming .
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= The Four Stages of Cruelty =
The Four Stages of Cruelty is a series of four printed engravings published by English artist William Hogarth in 1751 . Each print depicts a different stage in the life of the fictional Tom Nero .
Beginning with the torture of a dog as a child in the First stage of cruelty , Nero progresses to beating his horse as a man in the Second stage of cruelty , and then to robbery , seduction , and murder in Cruelty in perfection . Finally , in The reward of cruelty , he receives what Hogarth warns is the inevitable fate of those who start down the path Nero has followed : his body is taken from the gallows after his execution as a murderer and is mutilated by surgeons in the anatomical theatre .
The prints were intended as a form of moral instruction ; Hogarth was dismayed by the routine acts of cruelty he witnessed on the streets of London . Issued on cheap paper , the prints were destined for the lower classes . The series shows a roughness of execution and a brutality that is untempered by the funny touches common in Hogarth 's other works , but which he felt was necessary to impress his message on the intended audience . Nevertheless , the pictures still carry the wealth of detail and subtle references that are characteristic of Hogarth .
= = History = =
In common with other prints by Hogarth , such as Beer Street and Gin Lane , The Four Stages of Cruelty was issued as a warning against immoral behaviour , showing the easy path from childish thug to convicted criminal . His aim was to correct " that barbarous treatment of animals , the very sight of which renders the streets of our metropolis so distressing to every feeling mind " . Hogarth loved animals , picturing himself with his pug in a self @-@ portrait , and marking the graves of his dogs and birds at his home in Chiswick .
Hogarth deliberately portrayed the subjects of the engravings with little subtlety since he meant the prints to be understood by " men of the lowest rank " when seen on the walls of workshops or taverns . The images themselves , as with Beer Street and Gin Lane , were roughly drawn , lacking the finer lines of some of his other works . Fine engraving and delicate artwork would have rendered the prints too expensive for the intended audience , and Hogarth also believed a bold stroke could portray the passions of the subjects just as well as fine lines , noting that " neither great correctness of drawing or fine engraving were at all necessary " .
To ensure that the prints were priced within reach of the intended audience , Hogarth originally commissioned the block @-@ cutter J. Bell to produce the four designs as woodcuts . This proved more expensive than expected , so only the last two of the four images were cut and were not issued commercially at the time . Instead , Hogarth proceeded to create the engravings himself and announced the publication of the prints , along with that of Beer Street and Gin Lane , in the London Evening Post over three days from 14 – 16 February 1751 . The prints themselves were published on 21 February 1751 and each was accompanied by a moralising commentary , written by the Rev. James Townley , a friend of Hogarth 's . As with earlier engravings , such as Industry and Idleness , individual prints were sold on " ordinary " paper for 1s . ( one shilling , equating to about £ 7 @.@ 10 in 2016 terms ) , cheap enough to be purchased by the lower classes as a means of moral instruction . " Fine " versions were also available on " superior " paper for 1s . 6d . ( one shilling and sixpence , about £ 10 @.@ 60 in 2016 terms ) for collectors .
Variations on plates III and IV exist from Bell 's original woodcuts , bearing the earlier date of 1 January 1750 , and were reprinted in 1790 by John Boydell , but examples from either of the woodcut printings are uncommon .
= = Prints = =
= = = First stage of cruelty = = =
In the first print Hogarth introduces Tom Nero , whose surname may have been inspired by the Roman Emperor of the same name or a contraction of " No hero " . Conspicuous in the centre of the plate , he is shown being assisted by other boys to insert an arrow into a dog 's rectum , a torture apparently inspired by a devil punishing a sinner in Jacques Callot 's Temptation of St. Anthony . An initialled badge on the shoulder of his light @-@ hued and ragged coat shows him to be a pupil of the charity school of the parish of St Giles . Hogarth used this notorious slum area as the background for many of his works including Gin Lane and Noon , part of the Four Times of the Day series . A more tender @-@ hearted boy , perhaps the dog 's owner , pleads with Nero to stop tormenting the frightened animal , even offering food in an attempt to appease him . This boy supposedly represents a young George III . His appearance is deliberately more pleasing than the scowling ugly ruffians that populate the rest of the picture , made clear in the text at the bottom of the scene :
The other boys carry out equally barbaric acts : the two boys at the top of the steps are burning the eyes out of a bird with a hot needle heated by the link @-@ boy 's torch ; the boys in the foreground are throwing at a cock ( perhaps an allusion to a nationalistic enmity towards the French , and a suggestion that the action takes place on Shrove Tuesday , the traditional day for cock @-@ shying ) ; another boy ties a bone to a dog 's tail — tempting , but out of reach ; a pair of fighting cats are hung by their tails and taunted by a jeering group of boys ; in the bottom left @-@ hand corner a dog is set on a cat ; and in the rear of the picture another cat tied to two bladders is thrown from a high window . In a foreshadowing of his ultimate fate , Tom Nero 's name is written under the chalk drawing of a man hanging from the gallows ; the meaning is made clear by the schoolboy artist pointing towards Tom . The absence of parish officers who should be controlling the boys is an intentional rebuke on Hogarth 's part ; he agreed with Henry Fielding that one of the causes for the rising crime rate was the lack of care from the overseers of the poor , who were too often interested in the posts only for the social status and monetary rewards they could bring .
Below the text the authorship is established : Designed by W. Hogarth , Published according to Act of Parliament . 1 Feb .. 1751 The Act of Parliament referred to is the Engraving Copyright Act 1734 . Many of Hogarth 's earlier works had been reproduced in great numbers without his authority or any payment of royalties , and he was keen to protect his artistic property , so had encouraged his friends in Parliament to pass a law to protect the rights of engravers . Hogarth had been so instrumental in pushing the Bill through Parliament that on passing it became known as the " Hogarth Act " .
= = = Second stage of cruelty = = =
In the second plate , the scene is Thavies Inn Gate ( sometimes ironically written as Thieves Inn Gate ) , one of the Inns of Chancery which housed associations of lawyers in London . Tom Nero has grown up and become a hackney coachman , and the recreational cruelty of the schoolboy has turned into the professional cruelty of a man at work . Tom 's horse , worn out from years of mistreatment and overloading , has collapsed , breaking its leg and upsetting the carriage . Disregarding the animal 's pain , Tom has beaten it so furiously that he has put its eye out . In a satirical aside , Hogarth shows four corpulent barristers struggling to climb out of the carriage in a ludicrous state . They are probably caricatures of eminent jurists , but Hogarth did not reveal the subjects ' names , and they have not been identified . Elsewhere in the scene , other acts of cruelty against animals take place : a drover beats a lamb to death , an ass is driven on by force despite being overloaded , and an enraged bull tosses one of its tormentors . Some of these acts are recounted in the moral accompanying the print :
The cruelty has also advanced to include abuse of people . A dray crushes a playing boy while the drayman sleeps , oblivious to the boy 's injury and the beer spilling from his barrels . Posters in the background advertise a cockfight and a boxing match as further evidence of the brutal entertainments favoured by the subjects of the image . The boxing match is to take place at Broughton 's Amphitheatre , a notoriously tough venue established by the " father of pugilism " , Jack Broughton : a contemporary bill records that the contestants would fight with their left leg strapped to the floor , with the one with the fewest bleeding wounds being adjudged the victor . One of the advertised participants in the boxing match is James Field , who was hanged two weeks before the prints were issued and features again in the final image of the series ; the other participant is George " the Barber " Taylor , who had been champion of England but was defeated by Broughton and retired in 1750 . On Taylor 's death in 1757 , Hogarth produced a number of sketches of him wrestling Death , probably for his tomb .
According to Werner Busch , the composition alludes to Rembrandt 's painting , Balaam 's Ass ( 1626 ) .
In an echo of the first plate , there is but one person who shows concern for the welfare of the tormented horse . To the left of Nero , and almost unseen , a man notes down Nero 's hackney coach number to report him .
= = = Cruelty in perfection = = =
By the time of the third plate , Tom Nero has progressed from the mistreatment of animals to theft and murder . Having encouraged his pregnant lover , Ann Gill , to rob and leave her mistress , he murders the girl when she meets him . The murder is shown to be particularly brutal : her neck , wrist , and index finger are almost severed . Her trinket box and the goods she had stolen lie on the ground beside her , and the index finger of her partially severed hand points to the words " God 's Revenge against Murder " written on a book that , along with the Book of Common Prayer , has fallen from the box . A woman searching Nero 's pockets uncovers pistols , a number of pocket watches — evidence of his having turned to highway robbery ( as Tom Idle did in Industry and Idleness ) , and a letter from Ann Gill which reads :
Dear Tommy
My mistress has been the best of women to me , and my conscience flies in my face as often as I think of wronging her ; yet I am resolved to venture body and soul to do as you would have me , so do not fail to meet me as you said you would , for I will bring along with me all the things I can lay my hands on . So no more at present ; but I remain yours till death .
Ann Gill .
The spelling is perfect and while this is perhaps unrealistic , Hogarth deliberately avoids any chance of the scene becoming comical . A discarded envelope is addressed " To Thos Nero at Pinne ... " . Ronald Paulson sees a parallel between the lamb beaten to death in the Second Stage and the defenceless girl murdered here . Below the print , the text claims that Nero , if not repentant , is at least stunned by his actions :
Various features in the print are meant to intensify the feelings of dread : the murder takes place in a graveyard , said to be St Pancras but suggested by John Ireland to resemble Marylebone ; an owl and a bat fly around the scene ; the moon shines down on the crime ; the clock strikes one for the end of the witching hour . The composition of the image may allude to Anthony van Dyck 's The Arrest of Christ . A lone Good Samaritan appears again : among the snarling faces of Tom 's accusers , a single face looks to the heavens in pity .
In the alternative image for this stage , produced as a woodcut by Bell , Tom is shown with his hands free . There are also differences in the wording of the letter and some items , like the lantern and books , are larger and simpler while others , such as the man to the left of Tom and the topiary bush , have been removed . The owl has become a winged hourglass on the clock tower .
= = = The reward of cruelty = = =
Having been tried and found guilty of murder , Nero has now been hanged and his body taken for the ignominious process of public dissection . The year after the prints were issued , the Murder Act 1752 would ensure that the bodies of murderers could be delivered to the surgeons so they could be " dissected and anatomised " . It was hoped this further punishment on the body and denial of burial would act as a deterrent . At the time Hogarth made the engravings , this right was not enshrined in law , but the surgeons still removed bodies when they could .
A tattoo on his arm identifies Tom Nero , and the rope still around his neck shows his method of execution . The dissectors , their hearts hardened after years of working with cadavers , are shown to have as much feeling for the body as Nero had for his victims ; his eye is put out just as his horse 's was , and a dog feeds on his heart , taking a poetic revenge for the torture inflicted on one of its kind in the first plate . Nero 's face appears contorted in agony and although this depiction is not realistic , Hogarth meant it to heighten the fear for the audience . Just as his murdered mistress 's finger pointed to Nero 's destiny in Cruelty in Perfection , in this print Nero 's finger points to the boiled bones being prepared for display , indicating his ultimate fate .
While the surgeons working on the body are observed by the mortar @-@ boarded academics in the front row , the physicians , who can be identified by their wigs and canes , largely ignore the dissection and consult among themselves . The president has been identified as John Freke , president of the Royal College of Surgeons at the time . Freke had been involved in the high @-@ profile attempt to secure the body of condemned rioter Bosavern Penlez for dissection in 1749 . Aside from the over @-@ enthusiastic dissection of the body and the boiling of the bones in situ , the image portrays the procedure as it would have been carried out .
Two skeletons to the rear left and right of the print are labelled as James Field , a well @-@ known boxer who also featured on a poster in the second plate , and Macleane , an infamous highwayman . Both men were hanged shortly before the print was published ( Macleane in 1750 and Field in 1751 ) . The skeletons seemingly point to one another . Field 's name above the skeleton on the left may have been a last minute substitution for " GENTL HARRY " referring to Henry Simms , also known as Young Gentleman Harry . Simms was a robber who was executed in 1747 . The motif of the lone " good man " is carried through to this final plate , where one of the academics points at the skeleton of James Field , indicating the inevitable outcome for those who start down the path of cruelty .
The composition of the scene is a pastiche of the frontispiece of Andreas Vesalius 's De humani corporis fabrica , and it possibly also borrows from Quack Physicians ' Hall ( c . 1730 ) by the Dutch artist Egbert van Heemskerck , who had lived in England and whose work Hogarth admired . An earlier source of inspiration may have been a woodcut in the 1495 Fasciculo di medicina by Johannes de Ketham which , although simpler , has many of the same elements , including the seated president flanked by two windows .
Below the print are these final words :
= = Reception = =
Hogarth was pleased with the results . European Magazine reported that he commented to a bookseller from Cornhill ( a Mr. Sewell ) :
there is no part of my works of which I am so proud , and in which I now feel so happy , as in the series of The Four Stages of Cruelty because I believe the publication of theme has checked the diabolical spirit of barbarity to the brute creation which , I am sorry to say , was once so prevalent in this country .
In his unfinished Apology for Painters he commented further :
I had rather , if cruelty has been prevented by the four prints , be the maker of them than the [ Raphael ] cartoons , unless I lived in a Roman Catholic country .
In his 1817 book Shakespeare and His Times , Nathan Drake credits the representation of " throwing at cocks " in the first plate for changing public opinion about the practice , which was common at the time , and prompting magistrates to take a harder line on offenders . Others found the series less to their liking . Charles Lamb dismissed the series as mere caricature , not worthy to be included alongside Hogarth 's other work , but rather something produced as the result of a " wayward humour " outside of his normal habits . Art historian Allan Cunningham also had strong feelings about the series :
I wish it had never been painted . There is indeed great skill in the grouping , and profound knowledge of character ; but the whole effect is gross , brutal and revolting . A savage boy grows into a savage man , and concludes a career of cruelty and outrage by an atrocious murder , for which he is hanged and dissected .
The Anatomy Act 1832 ended the dissection of murderers , and most of the animal tortures depicted were outlawed by the Cruelty to Animals Act 1835 , so by the 1850s The Four Stages of Cruelty had come to be viewed as a somewhat historical series , though still one with the power to shock , a power it retains for a modern audience .
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= Gill Sans =
Gill Sans is a sans @-@ serif typeface designed by Eric Gill and released by the British branch of Monotype from 1928 onwards .
Gill Sans takes inspiration from the calligrapher and lettering artist Edward Johnston ’ s 1916 " Underground Alphabet " , the corporate font of London Underground , now although not at the time mostly simply called the " Johnston " typeface . Gill as a young artist had assisted Johnston in its early development stages . In 1926 , Douglas Cleverdon , a young printer and later a BBC executive , opened a bookshop in Bristol , and Gill painted a fascia for the shop in sans @-@ serif capitals . In addition , Gill sketched an alphabet for Cleverdon as a guide for him to use for notices and announcements . By this time Gill had become a prominent stonemason , artist and creator of lettering in his own right and had begun to work on creating typeface designs .
Gill was commissioned to develop his design into a full metal type family by Stanley Morison , an influential Monotype executive and historian of printing . Morison hoped that it could be a competitor to a wave of German sans @-@ serif fonts in a new " geometric " style , which included Erbar , Futura and Kabel families , which were being launched to considerable attention in Germany during the latter 1920s . Gill Sans was released in 1928 by Monotype , initially as a set of titling capitals that was quickly followed by a lower @-@ case . Gill 's aim was to blend the influences of Johnston , classic serif typefaces and Roman inscriptions to create a design that looked both cleanly modern and classical at the same time .
Marketed by Monotype as a design of " classic simplicity and real beauty " , it was intended as a display typeface that could be used for posters and advertisements , as well as for the text of documents that need to be clearly legible at small sizes or from a distance , such as book blurbs , timetables and price lists . Designed before setting documents entirely in sans @-@ serif text was common , its standard weight is noticeably bolder than most modern body text fonts .
An immediate success , the year after its release the London and North Eastern Railway chose it for all its posters , timetables and publicity material , a use later extended across all British railways . It also soon became used on the modernist , deliberately simple covers of Penguin books , and was sold up to very large sizes which were often used in British posters and notices of the period . Gill Sans was one of the dominant typefaces in British printing in the years following its release , and remains extremely popular : it has been described as " the English Helvetica " because of its lasting popularity in British design . Gill Sans has influenced many other typefaces , and helped to define a genre of sans @-@ serif , known as the humanist style .
Monotype rapidly expanded the original regular or medium weight into a large family of styles , which it continues to sell . A basic set is included with some Microsoft software and Mac OS X.
= = Characteristics = =
The proportions of Gill Sans stem from monumental Roman capitals in the upper case , and traditional " old @-@ style " serif letters in the lower . This gives Gill Sans a very different style of design to geometric sans @-@ serifs like Futura , based on simple squares and circles , or realist or grotesque designs like Akzidenz @-@ Grotesk , Helvetica and Univers influenced by nineteenth @-@ century lettering styles . For example , compared to realist sans @-@ serifs the " C " and " a " have a much less " folded up " structure , with wider apertures . The " a " and " g " in the roman or regular style are " double @-@ storey " designs , rather than the " single @-@ storey " forms used in handwriting and blackletter often found in grotesque and especially geometric sans @-@ serifs .
The upper @-@ case of Gill Sans is partly modelled on Roman capitals like those found on the Column of Trajan . Edward Johnston in one of his books on lettering had written that " the Roman capitals have held the supreme place among letters for readableness and beauty . They are the best forms for the grandest and most important inscriptions . " While Gill Sans is not based on purely geometric principles to the extent of the geometric sans @-@ serifs that had preceded it , some aspects of Gill Sans do nonetheless have a geometric feel . The " O " is an almost perfect circle and the capital " M " is based on the proportions of a square with the middle strokes meeting at the centre ; this was not inspired by Roman carving but is very similar to Johnston . But the influence of traditional serif letters is clear in the " two @-@ storey " lower @-@ case " a " and " g , " unlike that of Futura , and the " t " with its curve to bottom right and slanting cut at top left , unlike Futura 's which is simply formed from two straight lines . The lower @-@ case " a " also narrows strikingly towards the top of its loop , a common feature of serif designs but rarer in sans @-@ serifs .
Following the traditional serif model the italic has different letterforms from the roman , where many sans @-@ serifs simply slant the letters in what is called an oblique style . This is clearest in the " a " , which becomes a " single storey " design similar to handwriting , and the lower @-@ case " p " , which has a calligraphic tail on the left reminiscent of italics such as those cut by Caslon in the eighteenth century . The italic is nonetheless quite restrained , almost an oblique in many characters such as the " e " with its straight line on the underside of the bowl where serif fonts normally add a curve . Like most serif fonts ( but unlike most sans @-@ serif fonts ) , several weights and releases of Gill Sans use ligatures to allow its expansive letter " f " to join up with or avoid colliding with following letters .
The basic letter shapes do not look consistent across styles ( or even in the metal type era all the sizes of the same style ) , especially in Extra Bold and Extra Condensed widths , while the Ultra Bold style is effectively a different design altogether and was originally marketed as such . Monotype executive Dan Rhatigan , author of an article on Gill Sans 's development after Gill 's death , has commented that " Gill Sans grew organically ... [ it ] takes a very ' asystematic ' approach to type . Very characteristic of when it was designed and of when it was used . " ( At this time the idea that sans @-@ serif typefaces should form a consistent family , with glyph shapes as consistent as possible between all weights and sizes , had not fully developed : it was quite normal for families to vary as seemed appropriate for their weight until developments such as the groundbreaking release of Univers in 1957 . )
In the light weights , the slanting cut at top left of the regular " t " is replaced with two separate strokes . From the bold weight upwards Gill Sans has an extremely eccentric design of " i " and " j " with the dots ( tittles ) smaller than their parent letter 's stroke .
= = Development = =
Morison commissioned Gill to develop Gill Sans after they had begun to work together on Gill 's serif design Perpetua from 1925 onwards . Morison is known to have visited Cleverdon 's bookshop while in Bristol in 1927 where he would have seen Gill 's fascia and alphabet . Gill wrote that " it was as a consequence of seeing these letters " that Morison commissioned him to develop them , although this may not have been the exact point when he started to consider commissioning a sans @-@ serif design from Gill ; they had been collaborating for some years by this point and could have discussed the idea earlier . In the period during and after his closest collaboration with Johnston , Gill had intermittently worked on sans @-@ serif letter designs , including an almost sans @-@ serif capital design in an alphabet for sign @-@ painters in the 1910s , some " absolutely legible @-@ to @-@ the @-@ last @-@ degree ... simple block letters " for Army and Navy Stores in 1925 and some capital letter signs around his home in Capel @-@ y @-@ ffin , Wales . Gill had greatly admired Johnston 's work on their Underground project , which he wrote had redeemed the sans @-@ serif from its " nineteenth @-@ century corruption " of extreme boldness . Johnston apparently had not tried to turn the alphabet ( as it was then called ) that he had designed into a commercial typeface project . He had tried to get involved in type design before starting work on Johnston Sans , but without success since the industry at the time mostly created designs in @-@ house . Morison similarly respected the design of the Underground system , one of the first uses of a standard lettering style as corporate branding , writing that it " conferred upon [ the lettering ] a sanction , civic and commercial , as had not been accorded to an alphabet since the time of Charlemagne . "
Morison and Gill had met with some tension within Monotype while developing Perpetua and while Morison was an enthusiastic backer of the project , Monotype 's engineering manager and type designer F. H. Pierpont was deeply unconvinced , commenting that he could " see nothing in this design to recommend it and much that is objectionable " . ( Pierpont was the creator of Monotype 's previous mainstay sans @-@ serif , a loose family now called Monotype Grotesque . It is a much less sculptured design inspired by German sans @-@ serifs . ) Morison also intervened to insist that the letters " J " and " Q " be allowed to elegantly descend below the baseline , something not normal for titling typefaces which were often made to fill up the entire area of the metal type . In the early days of its existence it was not always consistently simply called " Gill Sans " , with other names such as " Gill Sans @-@ serif " , " Monotype Sans @-@ Serif " ( the latter two both used by Gill in some of his publications ) or its order numbers ( such as Series No. 231 ) sometimes used .
Extensive material on the development of Gill Sans survives through records in Monotype 's archives and in Gill 's papers . While the capitals ( which were prepared first ) resemble Johnston quite closely , the archives document Gill ( and the drawing office team at Monotype 's works in Salfords , who developed a final precise design and spacing ) grappling with the challenge of creating a viable humanist sans @-@ serif lower @-@ case and an italic , which Johnston did not have . Gill 's first draft proposed many slanting cuts on the ends of ascenders and descenders , looking less like Johnston than the final draft did . Early art for the italic looked very different , with swashes on many capitals . However , Gill did not use the calligraphic italic " g " he would later use on his serif designs Perpetua and Joanna , using instead a standard " double @-@ story " " g " in italic .
In the regular or roman style of Gill Sans , some letters were simplified from Johnston , with diamond dots becoming round and the lower @-@ case " L " becoming a simple line , but the " a " became more complex with a curving tail in most versions and sizes . In addition , the design was simply refined in general , for example by making the horizontals slightly narrower than verticals so that they do not appear unbalanced , a standard technique in font design which Johnston had not used . The " R " with its widely splayed leg is Gill 's preferred design , unlike that of Johnston ; historian James Mosley has suggested that this may be inspired by an Italian Renaissance carving in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London . Particular areas of discussion during the design process were the " a " ( several versions and sizes in the hot metal era had a straight tail like Johnston 's or a mildly curving tail ) and the " b " , " d , " " p " and " q , " where some versions ( and sizes , since the same weight would not be identical at every size ) had stroke ends visible and others did not . Rhatigan has commented that Monotype 's archives contain " enough [ material ] for a book just about the " b , " " d " , " p " , and " q " of Gill Sans . "
The titling capitals of Gill Sans were first unveiled at a printing conference in 1928 ; it was also shown in a specimen issued in the Fleuron magazine edited by Morison . While initial response was partly appreciative , it was still considered dubious by some ultra @-@ conservative printers who saw all sans @-@ serif type as modern and unsound ; one called it " typographical Bolshevism " . Sans @-@ serifs were still regarded as vulgar and commercial by purists in this period : Johnston 's pupil Graily Hewitt privately commented of them that :
In Johnston I have lost confidence . Despite all he did for us ... he has undone too much by forsaking his standard of the Roman alphabet , giving the world , without safeguard or explanation , his block letters which disfigure our modern life . His prestige has obscured their vulgarity and commercialism .
Nonetheless , Gill Sans rapidly became popular after its release .
Gill broached the topic of the similarity with Johnston in a variety of ways in his work and writings , writing to Johnston in 1933 to apologise for the typeface bearing his name and describing Johnston 's work as being important and seminal . However , in his Essay on Typography , he proposed that his version was " perhaps an improvement " and more " fool @-@ proof " than Johnston 's . Johnston and Gill had drifted apart by the beginning of the 1920s , something Gill 's groundbreaking biographer Fiona MacCarthy describes as partly due to the anti @-@ Catholicism of Johnston 's wife Greta . Frank Pick , the Underground Electric Railways Company managing director who commissioned Johnston 's typeface , privately thought Gill Sans " a rather close copy " of Johnston 's work . Gill 's biographer Malcolm Yorke has described Gill as " tactless " in his claims that the design was " as much as possible mathematically measurable ... as little reliance as possible should be placed on the sensibility of the draughtsmen and others concerned in its machine facture " , when so much of the development process such as size @-@ specific design and spacing was contributed by Monotype 's largely anonymous but highly experienced drawing office team ; Monotype executive Daniel Rhatigan has made similar comments .
= = = Weights and styles = = =
Following the initial success of Gill Sans , Monotype rapidly produced a wide variety of other variants . In addition , Monotype sold moulds ( matrices ) for Gill Sans in very large sizes for their " Supercaster " type @-@ casting equipment . Popular with advertisers , this allowed end @-@ users to cast their own type at a very competitive price . This made it a popular choice for posters . Gill 's biographer Malcolm Yorke has described it as " the essence of clarity for public notices " .
Versions of Gill Sans exist in a wide range of styles such as condensed and shadowed weights . An ultra @-@ light version slightly lighter than the normal light style was also not digitally available until the 2015 Nova release . Several shadowed designs are currently available , including a capitals @-@ only regular shadowed design and a light @-@ shadowed version with deep relief shadows . In the metal type era , a ' cameo ruled ' design that placed white letters in boxes or against a stippled black background was available . These can be used together with the regular , printing in different colours , to achieve a simple multicolour effect . Some of the decorative versions may predominantly have been designed by the Monotype office , with Gill examining , critiquing and approving the designs sent to him by post . Monotype would later also create a book weight , intermediate between the light and regular weight , suitable for body text . ( Gill 's colleague Robert Harling wrote in his anthology of the density of the basic weight making it ugly in extended passages of text , printing a passage in it as a demonstration . The suspicion that Gill Sans ' lower @-@ case is less of a success than its capitals began early : William Addison Dwiggins called it and Futura " fine in the capitals and bum in the lower @-@ case " while proposing to create an alternative , Metro , for Linotype around 1929 . ) The long series of extensions , redrawings and conversions into new formats of one of Monotype 's most important designs ( extending long beyond Gill 's death ) has left Gill Sans with a great range of alternative designs and releases .
= = = Gill Kayo = = =
In 1936 , Gill and Monotype released an extremely bold design named Kayo ( from KO , or knockout , implying its solidity ) . This has often been branded as Gill Sans Ultra Bold , though in practice many letters vary considerably from the structure of Gill Sans . It is available in regular and condensed widths . Gill , who thought of the design as something of a novelty , considered naming it " Double Elefans " . Gill 's colleague Robert Harling ( who many years later would collect an anthology and assessment of Gill 's lettering ) described it as " dismal " and sarcastically commented that " typographical historians of 2000AD ( which isn 't , after all , so very far away ) will find this odd outburst in Mr Gill 's career , and will spend much time in attempting to track down this sad psychological state of his during 1936 . " In his 1976 book on Gill 's work , he described it as " the most horrendous and blackguardly of these display exploitations " . Some initial drawings of Kayo may have been prepared by Gill 's son @-@ in @-@ law Denis Tegetmeier ; it was particularly popular in graphic design of the 1970s and 80s .
The bold weights of Gill Sans , including Kayo , are particularly controversial for design issues such as the eccentric design of the " i " and " j " , and for their extreme boldness . ( Gill Sans ' standard weight is , as already noted , already quite bold by modern standards . ) Gill argued in his Essay on Typography that the nineteenth @-@ century tendency to make sans @-@ serif typefaces attention @-@ grabbingly bold was self @-@ defeating , since the result was compromised legibility . In the closing paragraph he ruefully noted how he had contributed to the genre :
There are now about as many different varieties of letters as there are different kinds of fools . I myself am responsible for designing five different sorts of sans @-@ serif letters – each one thicker and fatter than the last because each advertisement has to try and shout down its neighbours .
= = = Alternate characters = = =
To cater for the tastes and national printing styles of different countries , Monotype developed a set of alternate characters . These include Futura @-@ inspired designs of " N " , " M " , " R " , " a " , " g " , " t " and others , a four @-@ terminal " W " in the French style , tighter versions of " R " , an alternative " Q " with tail that looped upwards ( similar to that on Century among others , and preferred by the LNER ) , oblique designs as opposed to the standard true italic , a more curving , true @-@ italic " e " and several alternative numeral designs . In particular , in the standard designs for Gill Sans the numeral " 1 " , upper @-@ case " i " and lower @-@ case " L " are all a vertical line and look identical , so an alternate " 1 " with a serif was sold for number @-@ heavy situations where this could otherwise cause confusion , such as on price @-@ lists . ( Not all timetables used it : for example , the L.N.E.R. preferred the simple version . ) Some early versions of Gill Sans also had features later abandoned such as an unusual " 7 " matching the curve of the " 9 " , a " 5 " with a different shape , and a lower @-@ case letter @-@ height " 0 " .
Gill was involved in the design of these alternates , and Monotype 's archive preserves notes that he rethought the geometric alternates . With the increasing popularity of Futura Gill Sans was not alone in being adapted : both Erbar and Dwiggins ' Metro would undergo what historian Paul Shaw has called a " Futura @-@ ectomy " to conform to taste . Monotype would later add text figures to Gill Sans , numbers at the height of lower @-@ case letters . Popular in design for body text , these are a traditional feature on serif fonts which Gill Sans did not originally have .
= = = Phototypesetting = = =
Monotype offered Gill Sans on film in the phototypesetting period . The fonts released in 1961 included Light 362 , Series 262 , Bold 275 , Extra Bold 321 , Condensed 343 , all of which were released in film matrix sets " A " ( 6 – 7 points ) and " B " ( 8 – 22 , 24 points ) . Also after Gill 's death , Monotype created versions for the Greek and Cyrillic alphabets .
= = = Infant and rounded versions = = =
Monotype created an ' infant ' version of Gill Sans using single @-@ storey " a " and " g " , and other more distinguishable characters such as a rounded " y " , seriffed " 1 " and lower @-@ case " L " with a turn at the bottom . Infant designs of fonts are often used in education and toys as the letters are thought to be more recognisable to children being based on handwriting , and are often produced to supplement popular fonts such as Akzidenz @-@ Grotesk and Bembo . Monotype also created a version with rounded stroke ends for John Lewis for use on toys .
= = Digital releases = =
The digital releases of Gill Sans fall into several main phases : releases before 2005 ( which includes most bundled " system " versions of Gill Sans ) , the 2005 Pro edition , and the 2015 Nova release which adds many alternate characters and is in part included with Windows 10 . In general characteristics for common weights the designs are similar , but there are some changes : for example , in the book weight the 2005 release used circular ij dots but the 2015 release uses square designs , and the 2015 release simplifies some ligatures . Digital Gill Sans also gained character sets not present in the metal type , including text figures and small capitals .
Like all metal type revivals , reviving Gill Sans in digital form raises several decisions of interpretation , such as the issue of how to compensate for the ink spread that would have been seen in print at small sizes more than larger . As a result , printed Gill Sans and its digital facsimile may not always match . The digital release of Gill Sans , like many Monotype digitisations , has been criticised , in particular for excessively tight letter @-@ spacing and lack of optical sizes : with only one design released that has to be used at any text size , it cannot replicate the subtlety of design and spacing of the metal type , for which every size was drawn differently . In the hot metal era the structure of the font varied by size as is normal for metal type , with wider spacing and other detail changes at smaller text sizes . In the phototype period Monotype continued to offer two or three sizes of master , but all of this subtlety was lost on transfer to digital . To replicate this , it is necessary to make manual adjustment to spacing to compensate for size changes , such as expanding the spacing and increasing the weight used at smaller sizes .
Former ATypI president John Berry commented of Gill Sans ' modernised spacing that " both the regular weight and especially the light weight look much better when they 're tracked loose . " In contrast , Walter Tracy wrote that he preferred the later spacing : " the metal version ... was spaced , I suspect , as if it were a serif face " .
= = = Gill Sans Nova ( 2015 ) = = =
A massive remastering and expansion , Gill Sans Nova adds many additional variants , including some of the previously undigitised inline versions and stylistic alternates and an ultra @-@ light weight ( once an option in metal type ) which had been digitised for Grazia . The basic set of Regular , Light and Bold weights is bundled with Windows 10 . The fonts differ from Gill Sans MT in their adoption of the hooked 1 as default , while the regular weight is renamed ' Medium ' . Monotype celebrated the release with a London exhibition on Gill 's work , as they had in 1958 to mark the general release of Gill 's serif design Joanna . One addition was italic swash caps , which had been considered by Gill but never released .
= = Usage = =
First unveiled in a single uppercase weight in 1928 , Gill Sans achieved national prominence almost immediately , when it was chosen the following year to become the standard typeface for the LNER railway system , soon appearing on every facet of the company 's identity , from metal locomotive nameplates and hand @-@ painted station signage to printed restaurant car menus , timetables and advertising posters . The LNER promoted their rebranding by offering Gill ( who was fascinated with railway engines ) a footplate ride on the Flying Scotsman express service ; he also painted for it a signboard in the style of Gill Sans , which survives in the collection of the St Bride Library .
When British Railways was created by nationalisation in 1948 , Gill Sans was used in much of its printed output , very often in capitals @-@ only settings for signage . Specially drawn variations were developed by the Railway Executive ( part of the British Transport Commission ) for signs in its manual for the use of signpainters painting large signs by hand . Other users included Penguin Books ' iconic paperback jacket designs from 1935 and British official mapping agency Ordnance Survey . It was also used by London Transport for documents which could not be practically set in Johnston . Paul Shaw , a historian of printing , has described it as a key element of the ' Modernist classical ' style from the 1930s to the 1950s , that promoted clean , spare design , often with all @-@ capitals and centred setting of headings .
Gill Sans remains popular , although a trend away from it towards grotesque and neo @-@ grotesque typefaces took place around the 1950s and 1960s under the influence of continental and American design . Typefaces that became popular around this time included original early " grotesque " sans @-@ serifs , as well as new and more elegant designs in the same style such as Helvetica and Univers . Mosley has commented that in 1960 " orders unexpectedly revived " for the old Monotype Grotesque design : " [ it ] represents , even more evocatively than Univers , the fresh revolutionary breeze that began to blow through typography in the early sixties . " He added in 2007 " its rather clumsy design seems to have been one of the chief attractions to iconoclastic designers tired of the ... prettiness of Gill Sans " . As an example of this trend , Jock Kinneir and Margaret Calvert 's corporate rebranding of BR as British Rail in 1965 introduced Helvetica and Univers for printed matter and the custom but very similar Rail Alphabet for signage , and abandoned the classical , all caps signage style with which Gill Sans is often associated . Kinneir and Calvert 's road signage redesign used a similar approach .
An additional development which reduced Gill Sans ' dominance was the arrival of phototypesetting , which allowed typefaces to be printed from photographs on film and ( especially in display use – hot metal continued for some body text setting for longer ) massively increased the range of typefaces that could cheaply be used . Dry transfers like Letraset had a similar effect for smaller projects ; their sans @-@ serif Compacta and Stephenson Blake 's Impact exemplified the design trends of the period by choosing dense , industrial designs . Of the period from the 1930s to 1950s , when he was growing up , James Mosley would later write :
The Monotype classics dominated the typographical landscape ... in Britain , at any rate , they were so ubiquitous that , while their excellent quality was undeniable , it was possible to be bored by them and to begin to rebel against the bland good taste that they represented . In fact we were already aware by 1960 that they might not be around to bore us for too long . The death of metal type ... seemed at last to be happening .
While extremely popular in Britain , and to a lesser extent in European printing , Gill Sans did not achieve popularity with American printers in the hot metal era , with most preferring gothic designs like Franklin Gothic and geometric designs like Futura and Monotype 's own Twentieth Century . Monotype 's competitor Linotype was dominant in the American market at the time , which may have been a factor in this . The shadow @-@ effect capitals @-@ only fonts appear in some US specimen brochures that otherwise excluded it in this period . Gill Sans therefore particularly achieved worldwide popularity after the close of the metal type era and in the phototypesetting and digital era , when it became a system font on Macintosh computers and Microsoft Office . One use of Gill 's work in the United States in this early period , however , was a custom wordmark and logo made by Gill for Poetry magazine in 1930 based on Gill Sans . Its editor Harriet Monroe had seen Gill 's work in London .
The BBC adopted the typeface as its corporate typeface in 1997 for many but not all purposes , including on its logo . Explaining the change , designer Martin Lambie @-@ Nairn said that " by choosing a typeface that has stood the test of time , we avoid the trap of going down a modish route that might look outdated in several years ' time . " The BBC had an earlier association with Gill , who created some sculptures on Broadcasting House . Other more recent British organisations using Gill Sans have included Railtrack ( and initially its successor Network Rail ) , John Lewis and the Church of England , which adopted Gill Sans as the typeface for the definitive Common Worship family of service books published from 2000 . Notable non @-@ British modern businesses using Gill Sans include United Colours of Benetton ( which commissioned a custom variant ) , Tommy Hilfiger and Saab Automobile . British rock band Bloc Party has used Gill Sans in its logo . AT & T used it until 2006 , before changing it to Clearview after feeling that it was too in keeping with market research that people found the company " monolithic . " Edward Tufte , the information design theorist , uses Gill Sans on his website and in some of his published works . The Wikimedia Foundation uses Gill Sans on its wordmark .
= = Similar fonts = =
= = = Early competitors = = =
An immediate metal type competitor to Gill Sans was Granby from Stephenson Blake ; it was based on Gill Sans and also Johnston . Stephenson Blake had cut the original metal type for Johnston , making them familiar with its design and perhaps explaining its Johnston @-@ influenced diamond @-@ dot tittles . A large family , it also included a " Granby Elephant " weight influenced by Gill Kayo .
Another similar but more eccentric design was created by Johnston 's student Harold Curwen for the use of his family company , the Curwen Press of Plaistow . Named " Curwen Sans " or " Curwen Modern " , it has many similarities to Johnston also , and was occasionally used by London Transport in work printed by the Curwen Press . Curwen described it as based on his time studying with Johnston in the 1900s , although it was not cut into metal until 1928 , around the same time as Gill Sans was released . Jan Tschichold , who would later make extensive use of Gill Sans while designing books for Penguin , created a similar design for an early phototype machine , which was at the time little @-@ used .
Besides similar fonts , many signs and objects made in Britain during the period of Gill Sans ' dominance , such as the famous Keep Calm and Carry On poster , received hand @-@ painted or custom lettering similar to Gill Sans . Fighter Command during the war used a standard set of letters similar to it and Matthew Carter , later a prominent font designer , recalled in a 2005 profile playing with linoleum block letters in the style cut by his mother during the Blitz .
= = = Later and digital @-@ only designs = = =
The category of humanist sans @-@ serif typefaces , which Gill Sans helped to define , saw great attention during the 1980s and 1990s , especially as a reaction against the overwhelming popularity of Helvetica and Univers in the 1960s and 1970s . It can be identified by a tendency to use ' double @-@ storey ' as and gs in the roman and " single @-@ storey " as in italic , like serif fonts .
Modern sans @-@ serif designs inspired by Gill often adapt the concept by creating a design better proportioned and spaced for body text , or create a wider and more homogeneous range of weights , something easier since the arrival of the computer due to the use of multiple master or interpolation . Jeremy Tankard 's Bliss and Volker Küster 's Today Sans are modern variations . Rowton Sans is inspired by Gill but has a nearly upright italic , similar to that used by Gill in his serif font Joanna . More distantly , Arthur Vanson 's Chesham Sans is inspired by the British tradition of sans @-@ serif signpainting , with many similarities to Gill 's work . Bitstream 's Humanist 521 was an unofficial digitisation , to which its Russian licensee ParaType added a Cyrillic version in 1997 . The companies SoftMaker and Fontsite also released Gill Sans digitisations under different names including ' Chantilly ' , ' Gibson ' and others .
More loosely , Syntax by Hans Eduard Meier is similar in some ways . Released in 1968 , it was intended to be a more dynamic , handwriting @-@ influenced sans @-@ serif form . Tschichold , whose serif font Sabon had influenced it , described it as " very easy to read , well designed : better than the related Gill Sans . " Its italic is , however , more of an oblique than Gill 's . Hypatia Sans , designed by Thomas Phinney and released by Adobe , was intended to be a more characterful humanist sans design .
= = = Font superfamilies = = =
A logical extension of the humanist sans @-@ serif concept is the font superfamily : a serif font and a matching humanist sans @-@ serif with similar letterforms . Martin Majoor 's FF Scala Sans is a popular example of this influenced by Gill 's work , as are Charlotte Sans and Serif by Letraset and Mr and Mrs Eaves by Zuzana Licko , which are based on Baskerville . Indeed , Monotype themselves released Joanna Sans in 2015 , as a screen @-@ optimised sans @-@ serif font intended to complement ( but not exactly match ) Gill 's serif design Joanna . It is intended for use at smaller sizes than Gill Sans .
= = Legal aspects = =
Typeface designs are in many countries not copyrightable , while in others such as the United Kingdom the design is out of copyright with 70 years passed since Gill 's death in 1940 , by which time the metal type family was essentially completed . This makes it legally permissible to create alternative digitised versions of Gill Sans ( although not necessarily of later Monotype additions to the font such as the book weight and Euro sign ) . However , the name " Gill Sans " remains a Monotype trademark ( no . 1340167 in the US ) and therefore is not eligible to be used to name any derivative font .
No complete , direct open @-@ source Gill Sans clone has yet been released . One of the most extensive is Gillius , a derivative by the Arkandis Digital Foundry project and designer Hirwen Harendal , which includes bold , italic , condensed and condensed bold styles . It is not a pure clone , but rather partly created by modifying Bitstream Vera , and adds influences from geometric fonts particularly visible in the design of the " w " . K22 , a foundry in Quezon City operated by the designer " Toto G " , has released two Gill Sans shadowed variants as K22 EricGill Shadow ( digitising the Gill Sans Shadow 338 design ) and K22 EricGill Shadow Line , an inline variant , for free for " personal , private and non @-@ commercial purposes " and for sale for commercial use . A direct clone of the medium weight , Sans Guilt , was released by Brussels open source design group OSP in 2011 , but it contains several obvious glitches such as misaligned " w " and " x " characters . As a pioneering example of the humanist sans @-@ serif style , many other designs are influenced by Gill Sans to some extent .
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= Think of the children =
" Think of the children " ( also " What about the children ? " ) is a phrase which evolved into a rhetorical tactic . Literally it refers to children 's rights ( as in discussions of child labor ) . In debate , however , as a plea for pity , used as an appeal to emotion , it is a logical fallacy .
Art , Argument , and Advocacy ( 2002 ) argued that the appeal substitutes emotion for reason in debate . Ethicist Jack Marshall wrote in 2005 that the phrase 's popularity stems from its capacity to stunt rationality , particularly discourse on morals . " Think of the children " has been invoked by censorship proponents to shield children from perceived danger . Community , Space and Online Censorship ( 2009 ) noted that classifying children in an infantile manner , as innocents in need of protection , is a form of obsession over the concept of purity . A 2011 article in the Journal for Cultural Research observed that the phrase grew out of a moral panic .
It was an exhortation in the 1964 Disney film Mary Poppins , when the character of Mrs. Banks pleaded with her departing nanny not to quit and to " think of the children ! " The phrase was popularized as a satiric reference on the animated television program The Simpsons in 1996 , when character Helen Lovejoy pleaded " Won 't somebody please think of the children ! " during a contentious debate by citizens of the fictional town of Springfield .
In the 2012 Georgia State University Law Review , Charles J. Ten Brink called Lovejoy 's use of " Think of the children " a successful parody . The appeal 's subsequent use in society was often the subject of mockery . After its popularization on The Simpsons , the phrase has been called " Lovejoy 's Law " , the " Helen Lovejoy defence " , the " Helen Lovejoy Syndrome " , and " think @-@ of @-@ the @-@ children @-@ ism " .
= = Background = =
Sociologist Joel Best wrote in 1993 that during the late 19th century , adults developed an increased concern for the welfare of children . Best noted that societies experienced decreasing birth rates after industrialization , with parents focusing their attention on fewer children . According to him , at that time adults began to view childhood as a sacred period of development and children as invaluable , adorable , guiltless beings . During the 1970s and 1980s , Best wrote , adults saw children as potential victims and sought to eliminate perceived threats .
In the 1995 compilation Children and the Politics of Culture , anthropologist Vivienne Wee analyzed the perception of children by adults and how it supported the concept of children 's rights . Wee wrote that in this model ( which she called the European pattern ) , children were seen as defenseless , unadulterated , and in need of protection by authoritative adults . According to Wee , this European pattern led to the idea that children required the sanctuary of the United Nations Charter and the Convention on the Rights of the Child .
Wee wrote : " Alternatively , children 's vulnerability could be interpreted as purity and innocence , needing the protection of responsible adults . It is this second , protective mode of interpretation that underlies the very idea of children 's rights , needing the protection of a UN charter – hence the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child . " She observed that the view of youth as weak and innocent focused on what might occur if children 's rights were not shielded .
Wee argued that this behavior towards children was not entirely positive . According to her , this mindset may lead to hypocrisy by adults who assume that all their actions intend to protect children and creates the risk that adults may wield power " for the children 's own good " . Noting that adult authority may be masked as empathy , Wee concluded : " These alternative cultural interpretations of the vulnerability of children would thus generate their own respective political and psychological consequences . "
= = Child advocacy = =
" Think of the children " has been used in its literal sense to advocate for the rights of children . Early usage during the 20th century included writings in 1914 by the National Child Labor Committee criticizing child labor standards in the United States . U.S. President Bill Clinton used the phrase in a 1999 speech to the International Labour Organization , asking his audience to imagine a significant reduction in child labor : " Think of the children ... freed of the crushing burden of dangerous and demeaning work , given back those irreplaceable hours of childhood for learning and playing and living . "
The phrase 's literal use extends into the 21st century , with Sara Boyce of the Children 's Law Centre in Northern Ireland drawing on it to advocate for the legal rights of the region 's children . The 2008 book Child Labour in a Globalized World used the phrase to call attention to the role of debt bondage in child labor . Sara Dillon of Suffolk University Law School used the phrase " What about the children " in her 2009 book , International Children 's Rights , to focus on child @-@ labor program conditions . Benjamin Powell used the phrase differently in his book , Out of Poverty : Sweatshops in the Global Economy , writing that in the absence of child labor some youth faced starvation . In a 2010 book on human rights , Children 's Rights and Human Development , child psychiatrist Bruce D. Perry used the phrase " think of the children " to urge clinicians to incorporate a process sensitive to developmental stages when counseling youth .
= = Debate tactic = =
= = = Logical fallacy = = =
In their 2002 book , Art , Argument , and Advocacy : Mastering Parliamentary Debate , John Meany and Kate Shuster called the use of the phrase " Think of the children " in debate a type of logical fallacy and an appeal to emotion . According to the authors , a debater may use the phrase to emotionally sway members of the audience and avoid logical discussion . They provide an example : " I know this national missile defense plan has its detractors , but won 't someone please think of the children ? " Their assessment was echoed by Margie Borschke in an article for the journal Media International Australia incorporating Culture and Policy , with Borschke calling its use a rhetorical tactic .
Ethicist Jack Marshall described " Think of the children ! " as a tactic used in an attempt to end discussion by invoking an unanswerable argument . According to Marshall , the strategy succeeds in preventing rational debate . He called its use an unethical manner of obfuscating debate , misdirecting empathy towards an object which may not have been the focus of the original argument . Marshall wrote that although the phrase 's use may have a positive intention , it evokes irrationality when repeatedly used by both sides of a debate . He concluded that the phrase can transform the observance of regulations into an ethical quandary , cautioning society to avoid using " Think of the children ! " as a final argument .
In his 2015 syndicated article " Think Of The Children " , Michael Reagan criticized the phrase 's use by politicians . According to Reagan , politicians needed to stop using children as tools when arguing for favored governmental programs . He called the tactic an illogical argument , an act of desperation by those who felt they had a weaker case with reason @-@ based arguments . Noting that it has been used by Democrats and Republicans alike in the United States , Reagan called the tactic " obvious political BS " .
= = = Moral panic = = =
The Journal for Cultural Research published an article in 2010 by Debra Ferreday , which was republished in the 2011 book Hope and Feminist Theory . According to Ferreday , media use of " Won 't someone think of the children ! " had become common in a climate of moral panic . She suggested that the phrase was becoming so common that it could become another Godwin 's law .
In a 2011 article for the journal Post Script , Andrew Scahill wrote about the power of children in rhetoric to create an untenable stance for an opposing viewpoint . According to Scahill , an individual arguing " for the children " makes it extremely difficult for an opponent to hold a " not for the children " position . Cassandra Wilkinson discussed the impact of " think of the children " rhetoric in a 2011 article for IPA Review . Wilkinson cited research by No Fear : Growing Up in a Risk @-@ Averse Society author Tim Gill that hypersensitivity in defending children from potential harm has the adverse effect of contributing to the inability of youth to own their choices and react to dangerous situations . In the New Statesman , Laurie Penny characterized the tactic as a political belief system and called it " think @-@ of @-@ the @-@ children @-@ ism " .
Elizabeth Stoker Bruenig wrote in a 2014 article for First Things that moralizing with the phrase was commonly seen in discussions of sexuality , attributing this to society 's increasing perception of morality as a feminine domain . Bruenig also cited the labeling of NBC 's refusal to broadcast a movie trailer about abortion as " think @-@ of @-@ the @-@ children @-@ ism " .
= = = Censorship = = =
Scott Beattie wrote in his 2009 book , Community , Space and Online Censorship , that the question " Will no one think of the children ? " was often raised by individuals advocating censorship out of a concern that youth might view material deemed inappropriate . According to Beattie , youngsters were cast as potential casualties of online sexual predators to increase regulation of the Internet ; characterizing children as infantile evoked a concept of innocence which was a form of obsession over the concept of purity .
For Make magazine , Cory Doctorow wrote in a 2011 article that " Won 't someone think of the children ? ! " was used by irrational individuals to support arguments about the dangers to youth of the " Four Horsemen of the Infocalypse " : " pirates " , terrorists , organized crime , and child pornographers . According to Doctorow , the phrase was used to stifle discussion of underlying issues and halt rational analysis . He observed its frequent use when society was determining an appropriate approach to the legal aspects of computing .
In his 2013 book , Fervid Filmmaking , Mike Watt discussed the history of censorship relative to the United Kingdom 's Obscene Publications Act 1959 and noted that films banned during that period became known as " video nasties " . Watt called a current interpretation of such censorship the " Think of the Children " characterization . Brian M. Reed wrote in his book , Nobody 's Business ( also published that year ) , that the phrase was devoid of substance and could be replaced for comic effect with " How many kittens must die ? "
For Reason in 2015 , journalist Brendan O 'Neill wrote that Marjorie Heins ' Not in Front of the Children : Indecency , Censorship , and the Innocence of Youth cited the centuries @-@ long use by governments of the prevention of " harm to minors " as an excuse to increase censorship and control . According to O 'Neill , the use of " Won 't somebody please think of the children ? " in contemporary culture had greatly increased and was a means of exerting moral authority with emotional blackmail .
= = Popularization = =
= = = Film and television = = =
According to Kathryn Laity , early use of the phrase may have stemmed from its appearance in the 1964 Walt Disney Pictures film Mary Poppins . In an opening scene , the character of Mrs. Banks pleads with her nanny not to quit by begging her to " think of the children ! " . Laity wrote that the popular use of the phrase evokes strong feelings in those who object to a nanny state , pointing out the conflict in the United States between the country 's conservatism ( derived from the Puritans ) and its capitalist desire to use sex in advertising .
" Think of the children " was popularized largely by character Helen Lovejoy , wife of Reverend Lovejoy , on the television program The Simpsons . Lovejoy ( who first appeared in 1990 ) repeatedly exclaimed , " Think of the children ! " in several episodes of the series . She first used the phrase in the episode " Much Apu About Nothing " by David X. Cohen , which aired in 1996 . Lovejoy 's exhortation became increasingly overwrought with each subsequent use .
Simpsons writer Bill Oakley said in the 2005 DVD commentary on the episode that the motivation for the phrase on the show was to emphasize how " think of the children " was used in debate ; irrelevant , it sidetracked discussion from the original issues . Lovejoy used variations of the phrase , including " Oh , won 't somebody please think of the children " and " What about the children " , shrieking it most often when residents of the fictional town of Springfield debated a contentious problem or argued about politics and logic failed . Lovejoy 's comic use of the phrase on The Simpsons satirized its use in public discourse .
= = = Lovejoy 's Law = = =
After the popularization of the phrase on The Simpsons , its use in society was often ridiculed . In the Toronto Star , journalist Edward Keenan referred to it as " Lovejoy 's Law " . Keenan defined " Lovejoy 's Law " as a warning that the phrase is a probable diversion from a weak logical stance , writing that true empathy toward children involved rational argument rather than manipulation . In an article for Ireland 's Sunday Independent , Carol Hunt called the use of the phrase in political debate the " Helen Lovejoy defence " and wrote that it is also known as the " Helen Lovejoy syndrome " . According to Hunt , it is often invoked in reference to hypothetical children rather than real children affected by a problem .
In a Georgia State University Law Review article , Michigan State University College of Law professor Charles J. Ten Brink wrote that Helen Lovejoy 's signature phrase was an adept and effective parody . According to The Canberra Times , the phrase 's 2009 use to support Internet censorship by the Department of Communications of the government of Australia was evocative of Helen Lovejoy .
In his book , The Myth of Evil , Phillip A. Cole wrote that Helen Lovejoy 's plea assumed that children were pure , unadulterated potential casualties who required constant defense from danger . Cole contrasted this notion with character Bart Simpson , who prefers creating disorder to conformity and adherence to regulations . According to Cole , this exemplifies the dual perception of children by society : guileless potential prey and malevolent entities to be distrusted . Cole wrote that throughout history , the child has represented humanity 's savage past and its optimistic future . Jo Johnson contributed a chapter , " Won 't Somebody Think of the Children ? " , to the book Mediating Moms , in which she analyzed the phrase 's use in animated media ( including The Simpsons ) . According to Johnson , the phrase was a key example of popular cultural depictions of mothers as neurotic and filled with anxiety about moral values .
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= The Broken Ear =
The Broken Ear ( French : L 'Oreille cassée ) , also published as Tintin and the Broken Ear , is the sixth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . Commissioned by the conservative Belgian newspaper Le Vingtième Siècle for its children 's supplement Le Petit Vingtième , it was serialised weekly from December 1935 to February 1937 . The story tells of young Belgian reporter Tintin and his dog Snowy , who pursue the thieves of a South American fetish identifiable by its broken ear . In doing so , he ends up in the fictional nation of San Theodoros , where he becomes embroiled in a civil war and discovers the Arumbaya tribe deep in the forest .
The Broken Ear was a commercial success and was published in book form shortly after its conclusion . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with The Black Island , while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . In 1943 , The Broken Ear was coloured and reformatted for republication by Casterman . The Broken Ear introduces the recurring character General Alcazar , and was the first to include fictional countries . The story was adapted for both the 1956 Belvision animation , Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , and for the 1991 Ellipse / Nelvana animated series The Adventures of Tintin .
= = Synopsis = =
Tintin investigates when a fetish created by the Arumbaya tribe of South America is stolen from Brussels ' Museum of Ethnography , only to be returned the following day . Tintin realises that the replacement is a fake , and draws a connection to a local sculptor Jacob Balthazar , who has recently been murdered . Balthazar 's parrot — a witness to the murder — is obtained by two Hispanic men , Alonso Pérez and Ramón Bada , who try to kill Tintin when he begins to investigate their connection to the crime . From the parrot , Alonso and Ramón discover that Balthazar was murdered by Rodrigo Tortilla , and they follow him aboard a ship bound for South America . There , they murder Tortilla , but find that he did not have the original fetish . Tintin arranges their arrest when the ship docks at Los Dopicos , capital of San Theodoros .
In the city , Tintin is framed as a terrorist , arrested , and sentenced to death by firing squad ; but survives when a revolution topples the government , and the new leader , General Alcazar , appoints Tintin his aide @-@ de @-@ camp . Alonso and Ramón capture Tintin , and interrogate him in the hope of locating the missing fetish , but he escapes and apprehends them .
As aide @-@ de @-@ camp , Tintin opposes Alcazar 's decision to go to war with neighbouring Nuevo Rico over the oil @-@ rich Gran Chapo , and is framed as a traitor by the international oil and weapon companies . He escapes imprisonment with the aid of the mercenary Pablo ; and decides to enter the forest and find the Arumbayas , in the hope that they can explain to him why people wish to steal the fetish . From a British explorer , Ridgewell , living among the Arumbaya , Tintin learns that a diamond was stolen and hidden inside the statue .
Returning to Belgium , Tintin discovers that Balthazar 's brother has produced a range of replicas of the fetish , which he had discovered among his deceased brother 's belongings , and learns that the original has been purchased by a wealthy American , Mr. Goldbarr ; now aboard a ship to the United States . Catching up to the boat , Tintin finds that Alonso and Ramón are aboard , and they struggle for the possession of the fetish . It smashes on the deck , with the diamond falling into the sea . Tintin , Alonso and Ramón struggle , and fall overboard . Tintin is rescued , but Alonso and Ramón drown and are shown en route to Hell . Goldbarr gives Tintin the stolen fetish to return to the museum , where it is repaired and put back on display .
= = History = =
= = = Background and research = = =
Georges Remi — best known under the pen name Hergé — was employed as editor and illustrator of Le Petit Vingtième ( " The Little Twentieth " ) , a children 's supplement to Le Vingtième Siècle ( " The Twentieth Century " ) , a staunchly Roman Catholic , conservative Belgian newspaper based in Hergé 's native Brussels which was run by the Abbé Norbert Wallez . In 1929 , Hergé began The Adventures of Tintin comic strip for Le Petit Vingtième , revolving around the exploits of fictional Belgian reporter Tintin . Wallez ordered Hergé to set his first adventure in the Soviet Union as anti @-@ socialist propaganda for children ( Tintin in the Land of the Soviets ) , to set his second adventure in the Belgian Congo to encourage colonial sentiment ( Tintin in the Congo ) , and to set his third adventure in the United States to use the story as a denunciation of American capitalism ( Tintin in America ) . Wallez was subsequently removed from the paper 's editorship following a scandal , although Hergé was convinced to stay on the condition of a salary increase . In preparing The Broken Ear , Hergé developed the new habit of keeping plot notes and ideas in a notebook . He also began making cuttings of photographs and other images from magazines and newspapers , filing them away for future use ; he used them as a basis for many of the drawings in The Broken Ear .
Hergé used The Broken Ear to allude to real events that had recently taken place in South America . The fictional countries of San Theodoros and Nuevo Rico were based on the real countries Bolivia and Paraguay , while the Gran Chapo War depicted in the strip was an allusion to the Gran Chaco War ( 1932 – 35 ) that was waged between Bolivian and Paraguayan forces over lucrative oil fields in the Gran Chaco region . The name " Gran Chapo " was a pun on the French grand chapeau , meaning " big hat " , while the name Nuevo Rico was a pun on nouveau riche and the name of the Nuevo Rican capital city , Sanfación , was a pun on sans façon , meaning " without manners " . Hergé 's character Basil Bazarov , of the Vicking Arms Company Ltd ( Basil Mazaroff in the 1937 edition ) , was a thinly veiled allusion to the real @-@ life Greek weapons seller Basil Zaharoff of Vickers Armstrong , who profited from the conflict by supplying arms to both Paraguay and Bolivia . Hergé had learned about the conflict and the western corporations profiting from it through two issues of anti @-@ conformist Belgian magazine La Crapouillot ( The Mortar Shell ) , which covered news stories ignored by the mainstream media . It is also likely that he had read Richard Lewinsohn 's 1930 book Zaharoff , l 'Européen mystérieux ( Zaharoff , the Mysterious European ) , which had been referenced in La Crapouillot .
Hergé 's Arumbaya fetish was based on the design of a genuine Peruvian statue in Brussels ' Royal Museums of Art and History ; a pre @-@ Columbian Chimu statue , it was made of wood and dated to between 1200 and 1438 CE . Whereas Hergé had access to speakers of Mandarin when creating The Blue Lotus , he had no access to speakers of indigenous Amerindian languages , and as such , the Arumbaya language that he developed was entirely fictitious . He based its structure largely on the Brusselier dialect spoken in the Marolles area of Brussels , mixed with Spanish endings and constructions . In developing the Arumbaya 's rivals , the Bibaros , he was influenced by anthropological accounts of head shrinking among the Jibaros tribes ; when Leslie Lonsdale @-@ Cooper and Michael Turner translated the book into English , they renamed the Bibaros as the Rumbabas , a pun on the rum baba pudding . In crafting the story , Hergé was possibly influenced by The Maltese Falcon , as there are similarities in their plots .
= = = Original publication = = =
The Broken Ear was first serialised in Le Petit Vingtième from December 1935 under the title Tintin et Milou chez les Arumbayas ( Tintin and Snowy among the Arumbayas ) . From 7 February 1937 , the story was also serialised in the French Catholic newspaper , Cœurs Vaillants . In 1937 , it was collected in a single hardcover volume and published by Éditions Casterman under the title L 'Oreille cassée ( The Broken Ear ) . For this collected edition , one small change was made ; the minor character of Carajo was renamed Caraco , because the word carajo is Spanish slang for penis .
The Broken Ear introduced the character General Alcazar to the series , who went on to become a recurring character who appeared in three further Adventures . It was the first in the series to begin and end in Belgium , the first to deal with the hunt for a specific object , and the last in which Tintin is seen taking part in journalistic activity . It was also the first time that the Adventures featured Tintin 's flat at 26 Labrador Road , in which Chinese mementos from The Blue Lotus are visible . Influenced by the films of Alfred Hitchcock , Hergé inserted an illustration of himself into the second frame . He also made reference to contemporary news stories in the book , having a radio announcer discuss the ongoing Second Italo @-@ Ethiopian War at the start of the story ; this was removed in the colour edition . At the end of the story , Hergé killed off Ramón and Alonso and depicted them being dragged to Hell by devils ; the killing of the story 's antagonists was something not repeated in future stories . This upset the editors of Cœurs Vaillants , who asked Hergé to change the scene ; annoyed at their request , he later commented , " On the surface it cost me nothing , but that kind of addition was really difficult for me . " For their serialisation of the story , he replaced that particular frame with one in which Tintin vouchsafed the souls of Ramón and Alonso for God .
= = = Second version , 1943 = = =
In the 1940s and 1950s , when Hergé 's popularity had increased , he and his team at Studios Hergé redrew and coloured many of the original black @-@ and @-@ white Tintin adventures using the ligne claire ( " clear line " ) drawing style he had developed so that they visually fitted in with the new Tintin stories being created . The Broken Ear was the first of these early Adventures to undergo the reformatting and colouration , and this second edition was published as a 62 @-@ page volume by Casterman in 1943 . Unlike some of the earlier adventures , The Broken Ear was not redrawn , save for a few minor revisions . To reduce the length of the book , various sections were excised , including a dream sequence that appeared in the original . As the colouration process was new to the series , the use of colour in The Broken Ear is more basic than in later volumes ; as the book progresses , it is evident that Hergé lost interest and rushed the task , for instance , resorting to using block colour backgrounds without any detail .
= = = Later publications and legacy = = =
Casterman republished the original black @-@ and @-@ white version in 1979 in a French @-@ language collected volume with Cigars of the Pharaoh and The Blue Lotus , the second part of the Archives Hergé collection . In 1986 , Casterman published a facsimile version of the original .
Hergé returned to creating fictional nations as allusions to real countries in subsequent Adventures , such as Syldavia and Borduria ( based largely on Yugoslavia and Nazi Germany ) in King Ottokar 's Sceptre and Sondonesia ( based on Indonesia ) in Flight 714 to Sydney . He also re @-@ used other elements pioneered in The Broken Ear in his later Adventures : a parrot in The Castafiore Emerald , a ravine crash in The Calculus Affair , a fireball and vivid dream in The Seven Crystal Balls , and a firing squad in Tintin and the Picaros . Tintin returned to San Theodores in Tintin in the Picaros , in which the characters Pablo and Ridgewell also made a reappearance .
In 1979 , the Palace of Fine Arts in Brussels held an exhibition marking fifty years of The Adventures of Tintin . As part of this , they included artefacts that featured in the series , with the broken @-@ eared Peruvian statue that inspired Hergé 's Arumbaya fetish as the centre piece of the show ; however , they feared that it might be stolen , so a replica was exhibited rather than the genuine article . Imitating the events of The Broken Ear , a thief broke in and stole the statue . A letter was then sent to Le Soir in which an individual alleging to be the thief stated that the item would be returned if Hergé returned to the scene of the crime at a certain time with a copy of the book under his right arm . Hergé did so , but carried the book under his left arm ; the thief never appeared , and the replica fetish was never recovered .
= = Critical analysis = =
Jean @-@ Marc and Randy Lofficier described The Broken Ear as " a Blue Lotus @-@ lite " , noting that it shared many elements with the previous Adventure , although they also considered it to be " more reminiscent of the earlier , more caricatured books " like Tintin in the Congo and Tintin in America with the inclusion of comical natives and absurdist elements like " comical bombs " . They nevertheless thought that it exhibited a " marked improvement " in Hergé 's use of plotting , noting that the story was clearly structured , praising the " very effective , dramatic story , with plenty of twists " . Overall , they awarded The Broken Ear two stars out of five . Harry Thompson felt that The Broken Ear had a " slightly lacklustre quality " to it , and was " disappointing " due to the fact that the " various elements don 't gel well together . " He believed that the artistic quality and the use of research deteriorated as the Adventure progressed , although it had " the most complex plot yet , by a long way " . Philippe Goddin asserted that in the story , Tintin develops from a " classic reporter to an investigative journalist . "
Michael Farr described The Broken Ear as a " moral condemnation of capitalism , imperialism and war " , although felt that it was " not as perfectly constructed " as The Blue Lotus , being " less detailed and realistic " . He thought that the image in which Ramón and Alonso drown in the sea and are dragged to Hell by demons was " truly medieval " and represented the " most fanciful image " in the entire series . He also opined that Hergé 's depiction of South American military juntas was " full of humour " and that the detail was " generally very accurate " . Biographer Benoît Peeters thought that The Broken Ear was a return to " pure adventure " from the " quasi @-@ documentary realism " of The Blue Lotus , and that in this Adventure , politics remains " in the second line " , and that instead Hergé let " the narrative rip and succeeds marvellously . " Elsewhere , he praised the work as having a " formidable dynamism " and an " unequaled vitality " , containing a " revolution " in narrative structure . He thought that it served as a " perfect metaphor " for the theories of German philosopher Walter Benjamin published in The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction ( 1936 ) , which Hergé had not read . Literary critic Tom McCarthy thought that Balthazar was an example of the interesting minor characters that imbue the Adventures , commenting that his " down @-@ at @-@ heel garret speaks volumes of loneliness and semi @-@ realised artistry . " He also opined that the diamond within the fetish was the clitoris of the Arumbaya , describing it as " their pleasure , wrapped up in a fetish " . He also thought that there was a homosexual subtext between Ramón and Alonso , believing that the scene in which a bullet was fired into Ramón 's buttocks was symbolic of anal sex .
Writing in Libération , the philosopher Michel Serres opined that The Broken Ear was " a treatise on fetishism " . Literary critic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès of Stanford University believed that The Broken Ear established a " tintinian " anthropology that would remain throughout the rest of the series . As part of this , Apostolidès argued , Hergé distances himself from western values and looks at his own society as an outsider , accomplishing what Roger Caillois called " sociological revolution " . He felt that the comic was " more contrived " and " more superficial " than the previous Adventures , and that here Tintin loses his position as " the sole point of identification " for the reader , with the other characters becoming more identifiable . Opining that there was a constant theme of twos throughout the story ( i.e. the real and the fake fetish , Alonso and Ramón ) , he thought that the character of Ridgewell was " a kind of Tintin , grown old among the natives , solitary and ill humored " , noting that Ridgewell 's position among the Arumbayas was akin to Tintin 's position among the Ba Baorom in Congo . Apostolidès also argued that in the comic , Alcazar was a religious figure , who attained a " sacred " quality through the spilling of blood in his revolt against General Tapioca 's government . As part of this , he argued that the threats of assassination would make him a martyr , or a " holy king . "
= = Adaptations = =
The Broken Ear is one of The Adventures of Tintin that were adapted for the first series of the animated Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin by the Belgian studio Belvision in 1957 , directed by Ray Goossens and written by Michel Greg The Broken Ear was divided up into a six 5 @-@ minute black @-@ and @-@ white episodes that diverted from Hergé 's original plot in a variety of ways .
It was also adapted into a 1991 episode of The Adventures of Tintin television series by French studio Ellipse and Canadian animation company Nelvana . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , Thierry Wermuth voiced the character of Tintin .
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= Robert Schmertz ( artist ) =
Robert Watson " Bob " Schmertz ( March 4 , 1898 – June 7 , 1975 ) was a Pittsburgh @-@ based architect and folk musician whose music has been covered by Pete Seeger , Burl Ives , Tennessee Ernie Ford , Bill and Gloria Gaither , The Statler Brothers , The Cathedrals , Dailey & Vincent , the River City Brass Band , and Ernie Haase & Signature Sound . Born in Squirrel Hill , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , Schmertz attended the Carnegie Institute of Technology , where he wrote the Carnegie Tartans ' fight song , " Fight for the Glory of Carnegie , " and played the banjo in a jazz orchestra ; after he graduated with an architecture degree in 1921 , Schmertz designed buildings . He taught at Carnegie for more than thirty @-@ five years before his retirement .
As a folk musician , Schmertz released four albums , with his third , Sing Oh ! The City Oh ! : Songs of Early Pittsburgh , in commemoration of the 200th anniversary of Pittsburgh 's founding ; a reviewer for Keystone Folklore Quarterly called it " tuneful and well @-@ done in the folk tradition " . Before his death , Schmertz completed a book of his songs , but died before it published . Ten days after he suffered a stroke , Schmertz died on June 7 , 1975 .
= = Early life = =
Schmertz was born on March 4 , 1898 , in Squirrel Hill , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . After he completed studies at Peabody High School , where he met his future wife , Mildred , Schmertz attended the Carnegie Institute of Technology ( today , Carnegie Mellon University ) . In May 1917 Schmertz , dressed in " light flannel trousers , a girl 's middy blouse and a small white hat , " was arrested after he stood outside a theater and encouraged persons exiting the theater to join the navy as , according to Schmertz , a part of an initiation ritual to join a fraternity ; he was charged with mocking the uniform but a magistrate later dismissed the charge .
At Carnegie , Schmertz wrote the Carnegie Tartans ' fight song , " Fight for the Glory of Carnegie " , wrote college musicals , led a dance band , played the banjo in a jazz orchestra , and worked on the Carnegie yearbook staff . In 1921 , he graduated with a degree in architecture .
= = Architecture and professorship = =
As an architect , Schmertz designed the St. Michael 's of the Valley Church in Rector , Pennsylvania , and the renovation of the Unity Chapel in Latrobe , Pennsylvania . In 1930 , the Common Brick Manufacturers ' Association of America in Cleveland , Ohio , awarded Schmertz an honorable mention in a " houses already built " contest . Three years later , Schmertz served on a Pittsburgh @-@ based American Institute of Architects executive committee that sought to identify western Pennsylvanian buildings constructed before 1860 . Schmertz worked as a member of Fisher and Schmertz , and , later , headed the firm of Schmertz , Erwin and Associates . According to George Swetnam of The Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine , " many " of the buildings Schmertz designed were homes .
Schmertz taught design at the Carnegie Institute of Technology for more than thirty @-@ five years . At Carnegie , Schmertz worked on a team that designed a cyclotron for the university in Saxonburg , Pennsylvania . Schmertz retired from his professorship in 1965 ( named a professor emeritus ) , but was teaching at the university in 1973 .
= = Folk musician = =
In 1949 , Schmertz , who played the banjo in college , recorded an LP , Songs by Robert Schmertz , after his friends bought him studio time . Schmertz 's second studio album , Robert Schmertz Sings His Songs , was released in 1955 : from the album , Burl Ives covered " Angus McFergus McTavish Dundee " on the Captain Kangaroo show .
By 1958 , a writer for the Deadwood Pioneer @-@ Times in Deadwood , South Dakota , wrote that Schmertz was " rapidly gaining national prominence as an interpreter of American musical and lyrical idiom " after Schmertz wrote a song , " Swing Away , Pearly Gates , " for Edmund Karlsrud and the Concertmen , who performed it as a part of their 1957 – 1958 tour . In 1958 , composer Elie Seigmeister and lyricist Edward Mabley cited Schmertz 's " Monongahela Sal " and " Lock No . Ten " as inspiration for The Mermaid in Lock No. 7 , a musical " in the folk idiom , expanded by modern , sophisticated treatment " that debuted at the American Wind Symphony Orchestra .
Schmertz 's third album , Sing Oh ! the City Oh ! : Songs of Early Pittsburgh , released on Folkways Records in 1959 , featured folk songs , such as " Celeron " , named after Pierre Joseph Céloron de Blainville , and " The Battle of Bushy Run " , after the battle of the same name , in commemoration of the bicentennial of Pittsburgh 's founding . A reviewer for Keystone Folklore Quarterly described the album , to which two of his children , Gretchen Schmertz Jacob and John Schmertz , contributed , as " tuneful and well @-@ done in the folk tradition " . A reviewer for Billboard magazine called it a " fascinating package of songs " that " will appeal to folklorists , educational groups , and , of course , residents of Pittsburgh particularly " . Schmertz released his final album , Ladies Beware of an Architect : Songs for Architects and Their Girlfriends , in 1960 .
Schmertz 's music has been covered by Pete Seeger , who called Schmertz a " very good songwriter " , Burl Ives , Tennessee Ernie Ford , Bill and Gloria Gaither , The Statler Brothers , The Cathedrals , Dailey & Vincent , the River City Brass Band , and Ernie Haase & Signature Sound .
= = Later life = =
In 1970 , Schmertz retired from his position at Schmertz , Erwin and Associates . In 1973 , he resided in Ben Avon , Pennsylvania . With his wife , Mildred Floyd , an art teacher , Schmertz had four children : Gretchen Schmertz Jacob , John , Jack , and Mildred .
Before his death , Schmertz compiled a book on his songs , though he died before it published . Ten days prior to his death , Schmertz sustained a stroke , and , on June 7 , 1975 , died after a long illness .
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= International airport =
An international airport is an airport that offers customs and immigration facilities for passengers travelling between countries . International airports are typically larger than domestic airports and often feature longer runways and facilities to accommodate the heavier aircraft commonly used for international and intercontinental travel . International airports often also host domestic flights . Some , such as Frankfurt Airport in Germany are very large ; others such as Fa 'a'ā International Airport in Tahiti , are quite small .
Buildings , operations and management have become increasingly sophisticated since the mid 20th century , when international airports began to provide infrastructure for international civilian flights . Detailed technical standards have been developed to ensure safety and common coding systems implemented to provide global consistency . The physical structures that serve millions of individual passengers and flights are among the most complex and interconnected in the world . By the second decade of the 21st century , there were over 1 @,@ 200 international airports and almost two billion international passengers along with 50 million metric tonnes of cargo were passing through them annually .
= = History = =
In August 1919 , Hounslow Heath Aerodrome , in London , England was the first airport to operate scheduled international commercial services . It was closed and supplanted by Croydon Airport in March 1920 . In the United States , Bisbee @-@ Douglas International Airport in Arizona became the first international airport of the Americas in 1928 .
The precursors to international airports were airfields or aerodromes . In the early days of international flights , there was limited infrastructure , " although if engine problems arose there were plenty of places where aircraft could land " . Four @-@ engined land planes being unavailable for over @-@ water operations to international destinations , thus / therefore flying boats became part of the solution . At the far end of the longest international route ( which became the Kangaroo Route ) , on @-@ water landing areas were found in places such as Surabaya and in the open sea off Kupang . In Sydney , Rose Bay , New South Wales , was chosen as the airport landing area .
International airports sometimes serve military as well as commercial purposes and their viability is also affected by technological developments . Canton Island Airport , for example , in the Phoenix Islands ( Kiribati ) , after serving as a military airport during World War II , was used as a refuelling stop by commercial aircraft such as Qantas which stationed ground crew there in the late 1950s . The advent in the early 1960s of jet aircraft such as the Boeing 707 with the range to fly non @-@ stop between Australia or New Zealand and Hawaii , meant that a mid @-@ Pacific stop was no longer needed and the airport was closed to regular commercial use . Other international airports , such as Kai Tak Airport in Hong Kong , have been decommissioned and replaced when they reached capacity or technological advances rendered them inadequate .
= = Design and construction = =
The construction and operation of an international airport depends on a complicated set of decisions that are affected by technology , politics , economics and geography as well as both local and international law . Designing an airport even for domestic traffic or as " non @-@ hub " has , from the beginning , required extensive co @-@ ordination between users and interested parties – architects , engineers , managers and staff all need to be involved . Airports may also be regarded as emblematic of national pride and so the design may be architecturally ambitious . An example is the planned New Mexico City international airport , intended to replace an airport that has reached capacity .
Airports can be towered or non @-@ towered , depending on air traffic density and available funds . Because of high capacity and busy airspace , many international airports have air traffic control located on site .
Some international airports require construction of additional infrastructure outside of the airport , such as at the Hong Kong International Airport , which included the construction of a high @-@ speed railway and automobile expressway to connect the airport to the urban areas of Hong Kong . Construction of the expressway included the construction of two bridges ( the Tsing Ma suspension bridge and Kap Shui Mun cable bridge ) and the Ma Wan viaduct on Ma Wan island to connect the bridges . Each bridge carries rail and automobile traffic .
= = Operations and management = =
International airports have commercial relationships with and provide services to airlines and passengers from around the world . Many also serve as hubs , or places where non @-@ direct flights may land and passengers may switch planes , while others serve primarily direct point @-@ to @-@ point flights . This affects airport design factors , including the number and placement of terminals as well as the flow of passengers and baggage between different areas of the airport . An airport specializing in point @-@ to @-@ point transit can have international and domestic terminals , each in their separate building equipped with separate baggage handling facilities . In a hub airport , however , spaces and services are shared .
Airport management have to take into account a wide range of factors , among which are the performance of airlines , the technical requirements of aircraft , airport @-@ airline relationships , services for travelling customers , security and environmental impacts .
= = = Standards = = =
Technical standards for safety and operating procedures at international airports are set by international agreements . The International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) , formed in 1945 , is the association of the airline companies . The International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) is a body of the United Nations succeeding earlier international committees going back to 1903 . These two organizations served to create regulations over airports which the airports themselves had no authority to debate . This eventually sparked an entire subject of air travel politics . In January 1948 , 19 representatives from various US commercial airports met for the first time in New York City to seek resolution to common problems they each faced , which initiated the formation of the Airport Operators Council , which later became Airports Council International – North America ( ACI @-@ NA ) . This group included representatives from Baltimore , Boston , Chicago , Cleveland , Dallas , Denver , Detroit , Jacksonville , Kansas City , Los Angeles , Memphis , Miami , Minneapolis @-@ St. Paul , New York @-@ Newark , Philadelphia , Pittsburgh , St. Louis , San Francisco and Washington .
= = = Flight logistics = = =
International airports have extensive operations in managing flight logistics , such as air traffic control . The latter service is provided by ground @-@ based controllers who coordinate and direct aircraft on the ground and through controlled airspace . Air traffic control also provides advisory services to aircraft in non @-@ controlled airspace .
= = = Customs and immigration = = =
Airports with international flights have customs and immigration facilities , which allow right of entry . These change over time but are generally designated by law . However , as some countries have agreements that allow connecting flights without customs and immigrations , such facilities do not define an international airport .
= = = Security and safety = = =
The current trend of enhancing security at the cost of passenger and baggage handling efficiency at international airports is expected to continue in the future . This places financial burden on airports , risks the flow of servicing processes , and has implications for the privacy of passengers . International flights often require a higher level of physical security than do domestic airports , although in recent years , many countries have adopted the same level of security for both .
Most international airports feature a " sterile lounge " , an area after security checkpoints within which passengers are free to move without further security checks . This area can have services such as duty @-@ free shops that sell goods that have been selected and screened with safety in mind , so that purchasing and bringing them on board flights poses no security risks . In addition to employees , only processed passengers with a valid ticket are allowed inside the sterile lounge . Admittance into the sterile area is done in centralized security checkpoints in contrast to e.g. individual checkpoints at each gate . This allows for more efficient processing of passengers with fewer staff , as well as makes it possible to detect both delays and security threats well ahead of boarding .
To ensure the viability of airport operations , new and innovative security systems are being developed . For instance , the old security checkpoints can be replaced by a " total security area " encompassing an entire airport , coupled with automatic surveillance of passengers from the moment they enter the airport until they embark on a plane .
Passengers connecting to domestic flights from an international flight generally must take their checked luggage through customs and re @-@ check their luggage at the domestic airline counter , requiring extra time in the process . In some cases in Europe , luggage can be transferred to the final destination even if it is a domestic connection .
In some cases , travelers and the aircraft can clear customs and immigration at the departure airport . As one example of this , are airports in Canada with United States border preclearance facilities . This allows flights from those airports to fly into US airports that do not have customs and immigration facilities . Luggage from such flights can also be transferred to a final destination in the U.S. through the airport of entry .
A crucial safety aspect of international airports is medical facilities and practices . In particular , controlling transmissible disease , such as SARS , is deemed important at international airports . While these standards are regulated by ICAO Standards And Recommended Practices ( SARPs ) and WHO 's International Health Regulations ( IHR ) , local authorities have considerable say in how they are implemented .
= = = Transportation = = =
Among the most important airport services are further transportation connections , including rail networks , taxi and shuttle services at curbside pick @-@ up areas , and public buses . Large areas for automobile parking , often in co @-@ located multi @-@ storey car parks , are also typical to find at airports . Some airports provide shuttle services to parking garages for passengers and airport employees . Due to the very large scale of international airports , some have constructed shuttle services to transport passengers between terminals . Such systems operate for example , in Singapore Changi Airport and Zurich Airport .
At some U.S. international airports , such as O 'Hare International Airport in Chicago , some seating and waiting areas are located away from the terminal building , with passengers being shuttled to terminals . These areas may be referred to as ground transportation centers or intermodal centers . Amenities at ground transportation centers typically include restrooms and seating , and may also provide ticket counters , food and beverage sales and retail goods such as magazines . Some ground transportation centers have heating and air conditioning and covered boarding areas ( to protect passengers from the elements ) .
= = = Services and amenities = = =
Standard amenities include public restrooms , passenger waiting areas and retail stores for dining and shopping , including duty @-@ free shops . Dining establishments may be consolidated in food courts . Some international airports may offer retail sales of luxury goods at duty @-@ free stores , such as at Terminal 3 at Indira Gandhi International Airport in India . This terminal has been described as having become a significant retail destination in India . Wi @-@ Fi service and access , offices for bureau de change ( currency exchange ) and tourism advice are common , although the availability of service varies across airports . Some international airports provide secure areas for stranded passengers to rest and sleep . The more usual service is hotels that are available on the premises .
= = = = Customer satisfaction awards = = = =
The World Airport Awards are voted by consumers in an independent global customer satisfaction survey . Singapore Changi Airport has been the first @-@ place winner in 2006 , 2010 , 2013 and 2014 . Other winners include Incheon International Airport ( South Korea ) and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol ( The Netherlands ) .
= = Airport names = =
Toponymy is one of the most common sources for the naming of airports . A number of areas close to them have lent their names , including villages , estates , city districts , historical areas and regions , islands and even a waterfall . Cataratas del Iguazú International Airport and Foz do Iguaçu International Airport are named after the Iguazu Falls in Argentina . Domodedovo International Airport is named after the town of Domodedovo . Sometimes the toponym is combined with or renamed to incorporate another name from another source such as from one of the following :
Aviators , such as pilots ( civil and military ) and others who played a role in the development of aviation . Sydney Airport is also known as Kingsford Smith Airport , named after Charles Kingsford Smith ; and Comodoro Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport , in Chile , is named after Arturo Merino Benítez .
Cultural leaders ( poets , artists , writers , musicians ) such as Leonardo da Vinci – Fiumicino Airport , named after Leonardo da Vinci ; Liverpool John Lennon Airport , named after The Beatles member and Liverpool local John Lennon ; Tom Jobim Airport , at Rio de Janeiro named after the composer Antonio Carlos Jobim . Václav Havel Airport Prague , named after writer / philosopher / statesman Václav Havel . Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport and Warsaw Chopin Airport were both renamed after musicians , the former after Franz Liszt on the 200th anniversary of his birth and the latter after Frédéric Chopin .
Ethnic groups , such as Minangkabau International Airport in Padang , Indonesia , named after the local Minangkabau people .
Ideals in combination with toponyms , such as Newark Liberty International Airport .
Mythology and religion , such as heroes of epics and myths , church hierarchs and saints and similar names . Manas International Airport ( or Bishkek ) in Kyrgyzstan is named after Manas in the Kyrgyz national epic poem .
Politicians and statesmen , such as Heads of State , Members of parliament and leaders of political parties as well as high @-@ ranking military personnel . Examples include : Paris @-@ Charles de Gaulle Airport , named after Charles de Gaulle , John F. Kennedy International Airport ( in New York City ) , named after John F. Kennedy , the 35th President of the U.S. There are two international airports named after Simón Bolívar , one in Venezuela , and one in Colombia ; Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport , formerly known as Dum Dum Airport , is named after Subhas Chandra Bose and Québec City Jean Lesage International Airport , named after former premier Jean Lesage .
Public figures ( advocates , engineers , doctors , teachers , journalists or sportpeople ) , such as George Best Belfast City Airport , named after footballer George Best , who came from the city .
Royalty , such as King Fahd International Airport at Dammam , Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport at Mumbai , Tribhuvan International Airport at Kathmandu are all named after royalty .
Scientists such as Bologna Guglielmo Marconi Airport , named after Guglielmo Marconi .
A study concluded that an average of 44 percent of the world 's airports are named by toponyms . Thirty percent for politicians and only seven percent for aviators . Mythology and religion ( three percent ) , public figures ( two percent ) , people of science ( two percent ) and other ( one percent ) .
= = Notable airports = =
= = = By historical event = = =
1919 ( August ) Hounslow Heath Aerodrome begins operating scheduled international commercial services from England to France .
1933 Douglas International Airport in Arizona is honored by Eleanor Roosevelt as " the first international airport of the Americas " , having reached this capacity in 1928 .
= = = By passenger numbers = = =
As of 2012 , Hartsfield Jackson Atlanta International had the greatest number of travelers of all international airports with a total of 95 @,@ 462 @,@ 867 passengers , 13 @.@ 5 million more than the next busiest airport which was Beijing Capital International with 81 @,@ 929 @,@ 359 passengers . The following year , Hartsfield retained its place as the busiest airport but with only 94 @.@ 4 million passengers .
Los Angeles International Airport ( LAX ) is considered to have the greatest number of passengers who start or end their travel there as opposed to continuing on to a connecting flight . Overall , LAX is considered to be the 7th busiest airport in the world .
London Heathrow is the busiest airport in Europe , with 73 @,@ 405 @,@ 330 counted passengers in 2014 , almost 10 million more than the second busiest , Paris @-@ Charles de Gaulle Airport . It is also the second busiest in the world when measured by international passengers , beaten only by Dubai International Airport .
= = = Other = = =
Svalbard Airport in Svalbard , Norway is the northern @-@ most airport to which tourists can book tickets . It is primarily used for transporting miners to and from a cluster of islands with a heavy mining industry .
King Fahd International Airport , Dammam , Saudi Arabia is the largest airport in the world , encompassing over 300 square miles ( 780 km2 ) .
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= Gospel of the Ebionites =
The Gospel of the Ebionites is the conventional name given by scholars to an apocryphal gospel extant only as seven brief quotations in a heresiology known as the Panarion , by Epiphanius of Salamis ; he misidentified it as the " Hebrew " gospel , believing it to be a truncated and modified version of the Gospel of Matthew . The quotations were embedded in a polemic to point out inconsistencies in the beliefs and practices of a Jewish Christian sect known as the Ebionites relative to Nicene orthodoxy .
The surviving fragments derive from a gospel harmony of the Synoptic Gospels , composed in Greek with various expansions and abridgments reflecting the theology of the writer . Distinctive features include the absence of the virgin birth and of the genealogy of Jesus ; an Adoptionist Christology , in which Jesus is chosen to be God 's Son at the time of his Baptism ; the abolition of the Jewish sacrifices by Jesus ; and an advocacy of vegetarianism . It is believed to have been composed some time during the middle of the 2nd century in or around the region east of the Jordan River . Although the gospel was said to be used by " Ebionites " during the time of the early church , the identity of the group or groups that used it remains a matter of conjecture .
The Gospel of the Ebionites is one of several Jewish – Christian gospels , along with the Gospel of the Hebrews and the Gospel of the Nazarenes ; all survive only as fragments in quotations of the early Church Fathers . Due to their fragmentary state , the relationships , if any , between the Jewish – Christian gospels and a hypothetical original Hebrew Gospel are uncertain and have been a subject of intensive scholarly investigation . The Ebionite gospel has been recognized as distinct from the others , and it has been identified more closely with the lost Gospel of the Twelve . It shows no dependence on the Gospel of John and is similar in nature to the harmonized gospel sayings based on the Synoptic Gospels used by Justin Martyr , although a relationship between them , if any , is uncertain . There is a similarity between the gospel and a source document contained within the Clementine Recognitions ( 1 @.@ 27 – 71 ) , conventionally referred to by scholars as the Ascents of James , with respect to the command to abolish the Jewish sacrifices .
= = Background = =
Epiphanius is believed to have come into possession of a gospel that he attributed to the Ebionites when he was bishop of Salamis , Cyprus . He alone among the Church Fathers identifies Cyprus as one of the " roots " of the Ebionites . The gospel survives only in seven brief quotations by Epiphanius in Chapter 30 of his heresiology the Panarion , or " Medicine Chest " , ( c . 377 ) as a polemic against the Ebionites . His citations are often contradictory and thought to be based in part on his own conjecture . The various , sometimes conflicting , sources of information were combined to point out inconsistencies in Ebionite beliefs and practices relative to Nicene orthodoxy , possibly to serve , indirectly , as a polemic against the Arians of his time .
The term Gospel of the Ebionites is a modern convention ; no surviving document of the early church mentions a gospel by that name . Epiphanius identifies the gospel only as " in the Gospel used by them , called ' according to Matthew ' " and " they call it ' the Hebrew [ gospel ] ' " . As early as 1689 the French priest Richard Simon called the text " Gospel of the Ebionites " . The name is used by modern scholars as a convenient way to distinguish a gospel text that was probably used by the Ebionites from Epiphanius ' mistaken belief that it was a Hebrew version of the Gospel of Matthew . Its place of origin is uncertain ; one speculation is that it was composed in the region east of the Jordan where the Ebionites were said to have been present , according to the accounts of the Church Fathers . It is thought to have been composed during the middle of the 2nd century , since several other gospel harmonies are known to be from this period .
= = Composition = =
According to scholars Oskar Skarsaune and Glenn Alan Koch , Epiphanius incorporated excerpts from the gospel text at a late stage in the composition of Panarion 30 , primarily in chapters 13 and 14 As Epiphanius describes it , " The Gospel which is found among them ... is not complete , but falsified and distorted ... " ( 13 @.@ 1 – 2 ) . In particular , it lacked some or all of the first two chapters of Matthew , which contain the infancy narrative of the virgin birth of Jesus and the Davidic genealogy via Solomon , " They have removed the genealogies of Matthew ... " ( 14 @.@ 2 – 3 ) .
There is general agreement about the seven quotations by Epiphanius cited in the critical edition of " Jewish Christian gospels " by Philipp Vielhauer and Georg Strecker , translated by George Ogg , in Schneemelcher 's New Testament Apocrypha . The translations of Bernhard Pick ( 1908 ) , with the sequence of four fragments arranged in the order of Vielhauer & Strecker from the beginning of the gospel are as follows :
It came to pass in the days of Herod , King of Judaea under the high priest Caiaphas , that John came and baptized with the baptism of repentance in the river Jordan ; he is said to be from the tribe of Aaron and a son of Zacharias the priest and of Elizabeth and all went out to him . ( 13 @.@ 6 ) And it came to pass when John baptized , that the Pharisees came to him and were baptized , and all Jerusalem also . He had a garment of camels ' hair , and a leather girdle about his loins . And his meat was wild honey , which tasted like manna , formed like cakes of oil . ( 13 @.@ 4 ) The people having been baptized , Jesus came also , and was baptized by John . And as he came out of the water the heavens opened , and he saw the Holy Spirit descending under the form of a dove , and entering into him . And a voice was heard from heaven : ' Thou art my beloved Son , and in thee am I well pleased ' . And again : ' This day have I begotten thee ' . And suddenly shone a great light in that place . And John seeing him , said , ' Who art thou , Lord ' ? Then a voice was heard from heaven : ' This is my beloved Son , in whom I am well pleased ' . Thereat John fell at his feet and said : ' I pray thee , Lord , baptize me ' . But he would not , saying ' Suffer it , for so it behoveth that all should be accomplished ' . ( 13 @.@ 7 )
" There was a man named Jesus , and he was about thirty years old ; he has chosen us . And He came into Capernaum and entered into the house of Simon , surnamed Peter , and He opened His mouth and said , ' As I walked by the Sea of Tiberias , I chose John and James , the sons of Zebedee , and Simon and Andrew and Thaddaeus and Simon Zelotes , and Judas Iscariot ; thee also , Matthew , when thou wast sitting at the receipt of custom , did I call and thou didst follow me . According to my intention ye shall be twelve apostles for a testimony unto Israel ' . " ( 13.2b – 3 )
The three quotations by Epiphanius in Panarion 30 @.@ 13 @.@ 6 , 4 , and 7 , respectively , form the opening of the gospel narrative , including the mission of John the Baptist , his appearance and diet , and the baptism of Jesus by John . The beginning of the gospel ( 13 @.@ 6 ) has parallels to the Gospel of Luke but in abbreviated form . The text shows a familiarity with the infancy narrative of Luke 1 : 5 despite lacking a birth narrative of its own . Quoting from the text regarding the diet of John ( 13 @.@ 4 ) , Epiphanius complains that the Ebionites have falsified the text by substituting the word " cake " ( egkris ἐγκρίς ) for " locust " ( akris ἀκρίς , in Matthew 3 : 4 ) . The similarity of the wording in Greek has led scholars to conclude that Greek was the original language of composition . In the narrative of the baptism of Jesus by John ( 13 @.@ 7 ) , the voice of God speaks three times in close parallels to the Gospel of Mark 1 : 11 , Luke 3 : 23 ( Western text @-@ type ) , and Matthew 3 : 17 , respectively . The presence of multiple baptismal theophanies has led to a consensus among modern scholars that the text quoted by Epiphanius is a gospel harmony of the Synoptic Gospels . The appearance of a great light on the water may be an echo of St. Paul 's conversion or an additional harmonization of the Gospel of the Hebrews to this work .
Epiphanius begins his description of the gospel text ( 13.2b – 3 ) with a quotation which has the apostle Matthew narrating directly to the reader . Jesus recalls how the twelve apostles were chosen and addresses Matthew in the second person as " you also Matthew " . Although twelve apostles are mentioned , only eight are named . They are said to be chosen by Jesus , " for a testimony to Israel " . The phrase " who chose us " has been interpreted as evidence that the text may be the lost Gospel of the Twelve mentioned by Origen . However , the identification of the gospel text quoted by Epiphanius with this otherwise unknown gospel is disputed . The position of this quotation was tentatively assigned based on a parallel to the Synoptic Gospels .
The fifth and sixth quotations ( following Vielhauer & Strecker 's order ) are associated with a Christological controversy . The polemics of Epiphanius along with his quotations of the gospel text ( in italics ) are shown in parallel :
" Moreover they deny that he was a man , evidently on the ground of the word which the Savior spoke when it was reported to him : ' Behold , thy mother and thy brethren stand without ' , namely : ' Who is my mother and who are my brethren ' ? And he stretched forth his hand towards his disciples and said : ' These are my brethren and mother and sisters , which do the will of my Father ' . " ( 14 @.@ 5 )
" They say that he was not begotten of God the Father , but created as one of the archangels ... that he rules over the angels and all the creatures of the Almighty , and that he came and declared , as their Gospel , which is called according to the Hebrews , reports : ' I am come to abolish the sacrifices , if ye cease not from sacrificing , the wrath will not cease from you ' . " ( 16 @.@ 4 – 5 )
The fifth quotation ( 14 @.@ 5 ) appears to be a harmony of Matthew 12 : 47 – 48 and its Synoptic parallels . However , Jesus ' final proclamation shows a closer agreement to 2 Clement 9 : 11 than any of the Synoptics . The unity of this quotation with the gospel text in Chapter 13 has been questioned . The command to abolish the sacrifices in the sixth quotation ( 16 @.@ 5 ) is unparalleled in the Canonical Gospels , and it suggests a relationship to Matthew 5 : 17 ( " I did not come to abolish the Law " ) that is echoed in the Clementine literature .
Referring to a parallel passage in Luke 22 : 15 , Epiphanius complains that the Ebionites have again falsified the gospel text :
" They destroyed the true order and changed the passage ... they made the disciples say , ' Where wilt Thou that we prepare for Thee to eat the Passover ' ? To which He replied : ' I have no desire to eat the flesh of this Paschal Lamb with you ' . " ( 22 @.@ 4 )
thereby making Jesus declare that he would not eat meat during the Passover . The immediate context suggests the possible attribution of the quotation to a Clementine source ; however a linkage between the gospel fragments and the Clementine literature remains uncertain .
= = Christology = =
The baptismal scene of the gospel text ( 13 @.@ 7 ) is a harmony of the Synoptic Gospels , but one in which the Holy Spirit is said to descend to Jesus in the form of a dove and enter into him . This divine election at the time of his baptism is known as an Adoptionist Christology , and it is emphasized by the quotation of Psalm 2 : 7 , as found in the " Western text " of Luke 3 : 22 , " You are my son , this day I have begotten you . " The Spirit entering into Jesus and the great light on the water are thought to be based on the prophecies of Isaiah 61 : 1 and 9 : 1 , respectively . His Adoptionist son @-@ ship is characterized by the belief that Jesus was a mere man , who , by virtue of his perfect righteousness , was imbued with the divinity of the eternal Christ through his Baptism in order to carry out the prophetic task for which he had been chosen .
The absence of any reference to a Davidic son @-@ ship in the gospel text suggests that Jesus has been elected to be the end @-@ time prophet , the Chosen One , sent to abolish the Jewish sacrifices . The Prophet @-@ Christology of the gospel text quoted by Epiphanius is more at home with the Clementine literature than the Christology of the Ebionites known to Irenaeus . According to scholars Richard Bauckham and Petri Luomanen , Jesus is understood in this gospel as having come to abolish the sacrifices rather than substituting for them ; thus it is unlikely that it contained the same institution of the Eucharist as practiced by Nicene orthodox Christianity . However , scholars have yet to reach a consensus over the sacrificial significance of Jesus ' mission as depicted in the Ebionite gospel .
= = Vegetarianism = =
The change in wording of the gospel text from " locust " ( akris ) to " cake " ( egkris ) for John the Baptist 's diet ( 13 @.@ 4 ) has been interpreted as evidence of Jewish vegetarianism . However , the association of the diet of John the Baptist with vegetarianism has been questioned . Epiphanius gives no indication of concern for vegetarianism in this part of the Gospel text , and it may instead be an allusion to the manna in the wilderness of Exodus 16 : 31 and Numbers 11 : 8 , or , according to scholar Glenn Alan Koch , to 1 Kings 19 : 6 where Elijah eats cakes in oil .
Further evidence has been found in the quotation based on Luke 22 : 15 ( 22 @.@ 4 ) , where the saying has been modified by insertion of the word " flesh " to provide a rationale for vegetarianism . The immediate context of the quotation suggests that it may be closely related to a Clementine source , the Journeys of Peter . Reading from the same source , Epiphanius states that the Ebionites abstained from " meat with soul in it " ( 15 @.@ 3 ) , and he attributes this teaching to Ebionite interpolations " they corrupt the contents and leave a few genuine items " . Due to the close association of this saying with the Clementine literature of the 3rd and 4th century , the earlier practice of vegetarianism by the 2nd @-@ century Ebionites known to Irenaeus has been questioned . The strict vegetarianism of the Ebionites known to Epiphanius may have been a reaction to the cessation of Jewish sacrifices and a safeguard against the consumption of unclean meat in a pagan environment .
= = Relationship to other texts = =
Epiphanius incorrectly refers to the gospel in his possession as the Gospel of Matthew and the gospel " according to the Hebrews " , perhaps relying upon and conflating the writings of the earlier Church Fathers , Irenaeus and Eusebius , respectively . His 4th century colleague Jerome remarks that the Nazarenes and Ebionites both used the Gospel of the Hebrews , which was considered the original Matthew by many of them . Jerome 's report is consistent with the prior accounts of Irenaeus and Eusebius .
The relationship between the Gospel of the Ebionites , the Gospel of the Hebrews , and the Gospel of the Nazarenes remains unclear . All the Jewish – Christian gospels survive only as fragments in quotations , so it is difficult to tell if they are independent texts or variations of each other . Scholar Albertus Klijn established the modern consensus , concluding that the gospel harmony composed in Greek appears to be a distinctive text known only to Epiphanius . Scholar Marie @-@ Émile Boismard has claimed the Ebionite gospel is partly dependent upon a hypothetical Hebrew gospel as a source ; however this conjecture remains a minority view . Its putative relationship to the gospel text known to Origen as the Gospel of the Twelve remains a subject of scholarly debate .
The Ebionite gospel is one example of a type of gospel harmony that used the Gospel of Matthew as a base text but did not include the Gospel of John ; it is believed to pre @-@ date Tatian 's Diatessaron ( c . 170 ) which included all four canonical gospels . The gospel has a parallel to a quotation in a mid @-@ 2nd @-@ century homily known as 2 Clement , suggesting that both may be dependent on a harmonizing tradition from an earlier 2nd century source . The harmonized gospel sayings sources used by Justin Martyr to compose his First Apology and Dialogue with Trypho were similarly based on the Synoptic Gospels . According to scholar George Howard , harmonization was a widely used method of composition in the early Patristic period . Many of the heterodox variants found in the Gospel of the Ebionites may have been adopted from a larger pool of variants that were in circulation ; an example is the appearance of a great light that shone during Jesus ' Baptism which is also found in the Diatessaron .
The Recognitions of Clement contains a source document ( Rec . 1 @.@ 27 – 71 ) , conventionally referred to by scholars as the Ascents of James , which is believed to be of Jewish – Christian origin . The Ascents shares a similarity to the Gospel of the Ebionites with regard to the baptism of the Pharisees by John ( Pan . 30 @.@ 13 @.@ 4 ; Rec . 1 @.@ 54 @.@ 6 – 7 ) and the command to abolish the Jewish sacrifices , adding that a Christian water baptism is to be substituted for the remission of sins . Based on these similarities , scholars Richard Bauckham and F. Stanley Jones have postulated a direct dependence of the Ascents of James on the Gospel of the Ebionites .
= = Inferences about the Ebionites = =
The gospel Epiphanius attributed to the Ebionites is a valuable source of information that provides modern scholars with insights into the distinctive characteristics of a vanished branch of Jewish Christianity . However , scholars disagree on whether the information contained within the seven fragments preserved by Epiphanius accurately reflects the traditions of the second @-@ century Ebionite sect known to Irenaeus , or if their belief system changed , perhaps greatly , over a span of 200 years compared to this early group . The Ebionites known to Irenaeus ( first mentioned in Adversus Haereses 1 @.@ 26 @.@ 2 , written around 185 ) and other Church Fathers prior to Epiphanius were described as a Jewish sect that regarded Jesus as the Messiah but not as divine . They insisted on the necessity of following Jewish law and rites and they used only the Jewish – Christian gospel . The Ebionites rejected the epistles of Paul of Tarsus , whom they regarded as an apostate from the Law .
In Epiphanius ' polemic against the Ebionites found in Panarion 30 , a complex picture emerges of the beliefs and practices of the 4th century Ebionites that cannot easily be separated from his method of combining together disparate sources . While scholars such as Hans @-@ Joachim Schoeps literally interpreted Epiphanius ' account as describing a later syncretic development of Ebionism , more recent scholarship has found it difficult to reconcile his report with those of the earlier Church Fathers , leading to a conjecture by scholar Petri Luomanen that a second group of Hellenistic @-@ Samaritan Ebionites may also have been present . The rejection of the Jewish sacrifices and the implication of an end @-@ time prophet Christology due to the lack of a birth narrative lend support for the association of the Gospel of the Ebionites with a group or groups different from the Ebionites known to Irenaeus .
Scholarship in the area of Jewish Christian studies has tended to be based on artificial constructs similar to those developed by the early Christian heresiologists , with the underlying assumption that all of the beliefs and practices of these groups were based on theology . This has led to the perpetuation of ideological definitions that fail to take into account the pluriformity of these groups , reflecting differences in geography , time periods in history , and ethnicity . With respect to Epiphanius , and the Ebionites in particular , insufficient attention has been paid to the highly speculative nature of his theological constructs and his mixing together of disparate sources , including his use of a gospel harmony that may have had nothing to do with the Ebionite sect known to Irenaeus . In the end , he presents an enigmatic picture of the Ebionites and their place in early Christian history . These gospel fragments offer one of the few glimpses into their world .
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= Scouting =
Scouting or the Scout Movement is a movement that aims to support young people in their physical , mental and spiritual development , that they may play constructive roles in society , with a strong focus on the outdoors and survival skills . During the first half of the 20th century , the movement grew to encompass three major age groups for boys ( Cub Scout , Boy Scout , Rover Scout ) and , in 1910 , a new organization , Girl Guides , was created for girls ( Brownie Guide , Girl Guide and Girl Scout , Ranger Guide ) . It is one of several worldwide youth organizations .
In 1906 and 1907 Robert Baden @-@ Powell , a lieutenant general in the British Army , wrote a book for boys about reconnaissance and scouting . Baden @-@ Powell wrote Scouting for Boys ( London , 1908 ) , based on his earlier books about military scouting , with influence and support of Frederick Russell Burnham ( Chief of Scouts in British Africa ) , Ernest Thompson Seton of the Woodcraft Indians , William Alexander Smith of the Boys ' Brigade , and his publisher Pearson . In the summer of 1907 Baden @-@ Powell held a camp on Brownsea Island in England to test ideas for his book . This camp and the publication of Scouting for Boys are generally regarded as the start of the Scout movement .
The movement employs the Scout method , a programme of informal education with an emphasis on practical outdoor activities , including camping , woodcraft , aquatics , hiking , backpacking , and sports . Another widely recognized movement characteristic is the Scout uniform , by intent hiding all differences of social standing in a country and making for equality , with neckerchief and campaign hat or comparable headwear . Distinctive uniform insignia include the fleur @-@ de @-@ lis and the trefoil , as well as badges and other patches .
The two largest umbrella organizations are the World Organization of the Scout Movement ( WOSM ) , for boys @-@ only and co @-@ educational organizations , and the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts ( WAGGGS ) , primarily for girls @-@ only organizations but also accepting co @-@ educational organizations . The year 2007 marked the centenary of Scouting worldwide , and member organizations planned events to celebrate the occasion .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Scouting virtually started itself , but the trigger that set it going was the 1908 publication of Scouting for Boys written by Robert Baden @-@ Powell . At Charterhouse , one of England 's most famous public schools , Baden @-@ Powell had an interest in the outdoors . Later , as a military officer , Baden @-@ Powell was stationed in British India in the 1880s where he took an interest in military scouting and in 1884 he published Reconnaissance and Scouting .
In 1896 , Baden @-@ Powell was assigned to the Matabeleland region in Southern Rhodesia ( now Zimbabwe ) as Chief of Staff to Gen. Frederick Carrington during the Second Matabele War , and it was here ( in June , 1896 ) that he first met and began a lifelong friendship with Frederick Russell Burnham , the American @-@ born Chief of Scouts for the British Army in Africa . This was a formative experience for Baden @-@ Powell not only because he had the time of his life commanding reconnaissance missions into enemy territory , but because many of his later Boy Scout ideas took hold here . During their joint scouting patrols into the Matobo Hills , Burnham augmented Baden @-@ Powell 's woodcraft skills , inspiring him and sowing seeds for both the programme and for the code of honour later published in Scouting for Boys . Practised by frontiersmen of the American Old West and Indigenous peoples of the Americas , woodcraft was generally little known to the British Army but well @-@ known to the American scout Burnham . These skills eventually formed the basis of what is now called scoutcraft , the fundamentals of Scouting . Both men recognised that wars in Africa were changing markedly and the British Army needed to adapt ; so during their joint scouting missions , Baden @-@ Powell and Burnham discussed the concept of a broad training programme in woodcraft for young men , rich in exploration , tracking , fieldcraft , and self @-@ reliance . It was also during this time in the Matobo Hills that Baden @-@ Powell first started to wear his signature campaign hat like the one worn by Burnham , and it was here that Baden @-@ Powell acquired his Kudu horn , the Ndebele war instrument he later used every morning at Brownsea Island to wake the first Boy Scouts and to call them together in training courses .
Three years later , in South Africa during the Second Boer War , Baden @-@ Powell was besieged in the small town of Mafeking by a much larger Boer army ( the Siege of Mafeking ) . The Mafeking Cadet Corps was a group of youths that supported the troops by carrying messages , which freed the men for military duties and kept the boys occupied during the long siege . The Cadet Corps performed well , helping in the defense of the town ( 1899 – 1900 ) , and were one of the many factors that inspired Baden @-@ Powell to form the Scouting movement . Each member received a badge that illustrated a combined compass point and spearhead . The badge 's logo was similar to the fleur @-@ de @-@ lis shaped arrowhead that Scouting later adopted as its international symbol . The Siege of Mafeking was the first time since his own childhood that Baden @-@ Powell , a regular serving soldier , had come into the same orbit as " civilians " - women and children - and discovered for himself the usefulness of well @-@ trained boys .
In the United Kingdom , the public , through newspapers , followed Baden @-@ Powell 's struggle to hold Mafeking , and when the siege was broken , he had become a national hero . This rise to fame fuelled the sales of the small instruction book he had written in 1899 about military scouting and wilderness survival , Aids to Scouting , that owed much to what he had learned from discussions with Burnham .
On his return to England , Baden @-@ Powell noticed that boys showed considerable interest in Aids to Scouting , which was unexpectedly used by teachers and youth organizations as their first Scouting handbook . He was urged to rewrite this book for boys , especially during an inspection of the Boys ' Brigade , a large youth movement drilled with military precision . Baden @-@ Powell thought this would not be attractive and suggested that the Boys ' Brigade could grow much larger were Scouting to be used . He studied other schemes , parts of which he used for Scouting .
In July 1906 , Ernest Thompson Seton sent Baden @-@ Powell a copy of his 1902 book The Birchbark Roll of the Woodcraft Indians . Seton , a British @-@ born Canadian @-@ American living in the United States , met Baden @-@ Powell in October 1906 , and they shared ideas about youth training programs . In 1907 Baden @-@ Powell wrote a draft called Boy Patrols . In the same year , to test his ideas , he gathered 21 boys of mixed social backgrounds ( from boy 's schools in the London area and a section of boys from the Poole , Parkstone , Hamworthy , Bournemouth , and Winton Boys ' Brigade units ) and held a week @-@ long camp in August on Brownsea Island in Poole Harbour , Dorset , England . His organizational method , now known as the Patrol System and a key part of Scouting training , allowed the boys to organize themselves into small groups with an elected patrol leader .
In the autumn of 1907 , Baden @-@ Powell went on an extensive speaking tour arranged by his publisher , Arthur Pearson , to promote his forthcoming book , Scouting for Boys . He had not simply rewritten his Aids to Scouting ; he omitted the military aspects and transferred the techniques ( mainly survival ) to non @-@ military heroes : backwoodsmen , explorers ( and later on , sailors and airmen ) . He also added innovative educational principles ( the Scout method ) by which he extended the attractive game to a personal mental education .
At the beginning of 1908 , Baden @-@ Powell published Scouting for Boys in six fortnightly parts , setting out activities and programmes which existing youth organisations could use . The reaction was phenomenal , and quite unexpected . In a very short time , Scout Patrols were created up and down the country , all following the principles of Baden @-@ Powell 's book . In 1909 , the first Scout Rally was held at Crystal Palace in London , to which 11 @,@ 000 Scouts came - and some girls dressed as Scouts and calling themselves " Girl Scouts " . Baden @-@ Powell retired from the Army and , in 1910 , he formed The Boy Scouts Association and , later , The Girl Guides . By the time of The Boy Scouts Association 's first census in 1910 , it had over 100 @,@ 000 Scouts .
Scouting for Boys was published in England later in 1908 in book form . The book is now the fourth @-@ bestselling title of all time , and was the basis for the later American version of the Boy Scout Handbook .
At the time , Baden @-@ Powell intended that the scheme would be used by established organizations , in particular the Boys ' Brigade , from the founder William A. Smith . However , because of the popularity of his person and the adventurous outdoor games he wrote about , boys spontaneously formed Scout patrols and flooded Baden @-@ Powell with requests for assistance . He encouraged them , and the Scouting movement developed momentum . In 1910 Baden @-@ Powell formed The Boy Scouts Association in the United Kingdom . As the movement grew , Sea Scouts , Air Scouts , and other specialized units were added to the program .
= = = History = = =
The Boy Scout Movement swiftly established itself throughout the British Empire soon after the publication of Scouting for Boys . By 1908 , Scouting was established in Gibraltar , Malta . Canada , Australia , New Zealand and South Africa . In 1909 Chile was the first country outside the British dominions to have a Scouting organization recognized by Baden @-@ Powell . The first Scout rally , held in 1909 at The Crystal Palace in London , attracted 10 @,@ 000 boys and a number of girls . By 1910 , Argentina , Denmark , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , India , Malaya , Mexico , the Netherlands , Norway , Russia , Sweden , and the United States had Boy Scouts .
The program initially focused on boys aged 11 to 18 , but as the movement grew , the need became apparent for leader training and programs for younger boys , older boys , and girls . The first Cub Scout and Rover Scout programs were in place by the late 1910s . They operated independently until they obtained official recognition from their home country 's Scouting organization . In the United States , attempts at Cub programs began as early as 1911 , but official recognition was not obtained until 1930 .
Girls wanted to become part of the movement almost as soon as it began . Baden @-@ Powell and his sister Agnes Baden @-@ Powell introduced the Girl Guides in 1910 , a parallel movement for girls , sometimes named Girl Scouts . Agnes Baden @-@ Powell became the first president of the Girl Guides when it was formed in 1910 , at the request of the girls who attended the Crystal Palace Rally . In 1914 , she started Rosebuds — later renamed Brownies — for younger girls . She stepped down as president of the Girl Guides in 1920 in favor of Robert 's wife Olave Baden @-@ Powell , who was named Chief Guide ( for England ) in 1918 and World Chief Guide in 1930 . At that time , girls were expected to remain separate from boys because of societal standards , though co @-@ educational youth groups did exist . By the 1990s , two thirds of the Scout organizations belonging to WOSM had become co @-@ educational .
Baden @-@ Powell could not single @-@ handedly advise all groups who requested his assistance . Early Scoutmaster training camps were held in London and Yorkshire in 1910 and 1911 . Baden @-@ Powell wanted the training to be as practical as possible to encourage other adults to take leadership roles , so the Wood Badge course was developed to recognize adult leadership training . The development of the training was delayed by World War I , so the first Wood Badge course was not held until 1919 . Wood Badge is used by Boy Scout associations and combined Boy Scout and Girl Guide associations in many countries . Gilwell Park near London was purchased in 1919 on behalf of The Scout Association as an adult training site and Scouting campsite . Baden @-@ Powell wrote a book , Aids to Scoutmastership , to help Scouting Leaders , and wrote other handbooks for the use of the new Scouting sections , such as Cub Scouts and Girl Guides . One of these was Rovering to Success , written for Rover Scouts in 1922 . A wide range of leader training exists in 2007 , from basic to program @-@ specific , including the Wood Badge training .
= = = Influences = = =
Important elements of traditional Scouting have their origins in Baden @-@ Powell 's experiences in education and military training . He was a 50 @-@ year @-@ old retired army general when he founded Scouting , and his revolutionary ideas inspired thousands of young people , from all parts of society , to get involved in activities that most had never contemplated . Comparable organizations in the English @-@ speaking world are the Boys ' Brigade and the non @-@ militaristic Woodcraft Folk ; however , they never matched the development and growth of Scouting .
Aspects of Scouting practice have been criticized as too militaristic . Military @-@ style uniforms , badges of rank , flag ceremonies , and brass bands were commonly accepted in the early years because they were a part of normal society , but since then have diminished or been abandoned in both Scouting and society .
Local influences have also been a strong part of Scouting . By adopting and modifying local ideologies , Scouting has been able to find acceptance in a wide variety of cultures . In the United States , Scouting uses images drawn from the U.S. frontier experience . This includes not only its selection of animal badges for Cub Scouts , but the underlying assumption that American native peoples are more closely connected with nature and therefore have special wilderness survival skills which can be used as part of the training program . By contrast , British Scouting makes use of imagery drawn from the Indian subcontinent , because that region was a significant focus in the early years of Scouting . Baden @-@ Powell 's personal experiences in India led him to adopt Rudyard Kipling 's The Jungle Book as a major influence for the Cub Scouts ; for example , the name used for the Cub Scout leader , Akela ( whose name was also appropriated for the Webelos ) , is that of the leader of the wolf pack in the book .
The name " Scouting " seems to have been inspired by the important and romantic role played by military scouts performing reconnaissance in the wars of the time . In fact , Baden @-@ Powell wrote his original military training book , Aids To Scouting , because he saw the need for the improved training of British military @-@ enlisted scouts , particularly in initiative , self @-@ reliance , and observational skills . The book 's popularity with young boys surprised him . As he adapted the book as Scouting for Boys , it seems natural that the movement adopted the names Scouting and Boy Scouts .
" Duty to God " is a principle of Scouting , though it is applied differently in various countries . The Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) take a strong position , excluding atheists . The Scout Association in the United Kingdom permits variations to its Promise , in order to accommodate different religious obligations . While for example in the predominantly atheist Czech Republic the Scout oath doesn 't mention God altogether with the organization being strictly irreligious , in 2014 , United Kingdom Scouts were given the choice of being able to make a variation of the Promise that replaced " duty to God " with " uphold our Scout values " , Scouts Canada defines Duty to God broadly in terms of " adherence to spiritual principles " and leaves it to the individual member or leader whether they can follow a Scout Promise that includes Duty to God . Worldwide around one in three Scouts are Muslim .
= = Movement characteristics = =
Scouting is taught using the Scout method , which incorporates an informal educational system that emphasizes practical activities in the outdoors . Programs exist for Scouts ranging in age from 6 to 25 ( though age limits vary slightly by country ) , and program specifics target Scouts in a manner appropriate to their age .
= = = Scout method = = =
The Scout method is the principal method by which the Scouting organizations , boy and girl , operate their units . WOSM describes Scouting as " a voluntary nonpolitical educational movement for young people open to all without distinction of origin , race or creed , in accordance with the purpose , principles and method conceived by the Founder " . It is the goal of Scouting " to contribute to the development of young people in achieving their full physical , intellectual , social and spiritual potentials as individuals , as responsible citizens and as members of their local , national and international communities . "
The principles of Scouting describe a code of behavior for all members , and characterize the movement . The Scout method is a progressive system designed to achieve these goals , comprising seven elements : law and promise , learning by doing , team system , symbolic framework , personal progression , nature , and adult support . While community service is a major element of both the WOSM and WAGGGS programs , WAGGGS includes it as an extra element of the Scout method : service in the community .
The Scout Law and Promise embody the joint values of the Scouting movement worldwide , and bind all Scouting associations together . The emphasis on " learning by doing " provides experiences and hands @-@ on orientation as a practical method of learning and building self @-@ confidence . Small groups build unity , camaraderie , and a close @-@ knit fraternal atmosphere . These experiences , along with an emphasis on trustworthiness and personal honor , help to develop responsibility , character , self @-@ reliance , self @-@ confidence , reliability , and readiness ; which eventually lead to collaboration and leadership . A program with a variety of progressive and attractive activities expands a Scout 's horizon and bonds the Scout even more to the group . Activities and games provide an enjoyable way to develop skills such as dexterity . In an outdoor setting , they also provide contact with the natural environment .
Since the birth of Scouting , Scouts worldwide have taken a Scout Promise to live up to ideals of the movement , and subscribe to the Scout Law . The form of the promise and laws have varied slightly by country and over time , but must fulfil the requirements of the WOSM to qualify a National Scout Association for membership .
The Scout Motto , ' Be Prepared ' , has been used in various languages by millions of Scouts since 1907 . Less well @-@ known is the Scout Slogan , ' Do a good turn daily ' .
= = = Activities = = =
Common ways to implement the Scout method include having Scouts spending time together in small groups with shared experiences , rituals , and activities , and emphasizing good citizenship and decision @-@ making by young people in an age @-@ appropriate manner . Weekly meetings often take place in local centres known as Scout dens . Cultivating a love and appreciation of the outdoors and outdoor activities is a key element . Primary activities include camping , woodcraft , aquatics , hiking , backpacking , and sports .
Camping is most often arranged at the unit level , such as one Scout troop , but there are periodic camps ( known in the US as " camporees " ) and " jamborees " . Camps occur a few times a year and may involve several groups from a local area or region camping together for a weekend . The events usually have a theme , such as pioneering . World Scout Moots are gatherings , originally for Rover Scouts , but mainly focused on Scout Leaders . Jamborees are large national or international events held every four years , during which thousands of Scouts camp together for one or two weeks . Activities at these events will include games , Scoutcraft competitions , badge , pin or patch trading , aquatics , woodcarving , archery and activities related to the theme of the event .
In some countries a highlight of the year for Scouts is spending at least a week in the summer engaging in an outdoor activity . This can be a camping , hiking , sailing , or other trip with the unit , or a summer camp with broader participation ( at the council , state , or provincial level ) . Scouts attending a summer camp work on merit badges , advancement , and perfecting Scoutcraft skills . Summer camps can operate specialty programs for older Scouts , such as sailing , backpacking , canoeing and whitewater , caving , and fishing .
At an international level Scouting perceives one of its roles as the promotion of international harmony and peace . Various initiatives are in train towards achieving this aim including the development of activities that benefit the wider community , challenge prejudice and encourage tolerance of diversity . Such programs include co @-@ operation with non @-@ Scouting organisations including various NGOs , the United Nations and religious institutions as set out in The Marrakech Charter .
= = = Uniforms and distinctive insignia = = =
Individual national or other emblems may be found at the individual country 's Scouting article .
The Scout uniform is a widely recognized characteristic of Scouting . In the words of Baden @-@ Powell at the 1937 World Jamboree , it " hides all differences of social standing in a country and makes for equality ; but , more important still , it covers differences of country and race and creed , and makes all feel that they are members with one another of the one great brotherhood " . The original uniform , still widely recognized , consisted of a khaki button @-@ up shirt , shorts , and a broad @-@ brimmed campaign hat . Baden @-@ Powell also wore shorts , because he believed that being dressed like a Scout helped to reduce the age @-@ imposed distance between adult and youth . Uniform shirts are now frequently blue , orange , red or green and shorts are frequently replaced by long trousers all year or only under cold weather .
While designed for smartness and equality , the Scout uniform is also practical . Shirts traditionally have thick seams to make them ideal for use in makeshift stretchers — Scouts were trained to use them in this way with their staves , a traditional but deprecated item . The leather straps and toggles of the campaign hats or Leaders ' Wood Badges could be used as emergency tourniquets , or anywhere that string was needed in a hurry . Neckerchiefs were chosen as they could easily be used as a sling or triangular bandage by a Scout in need . Scouts were encouraged to use their garters for shock cord where necessary .
Distinctive insignia for all are Scout uniforms , recognized and worn the world over , include the Wood Badge and the World Membership Badge . Scouting has two internationally known symbols : the trefoil is used by members of the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts ( WAGGGS ) and the fleur @-@ de @-@ lis by member organizations of the WOSM and most other Scouting organizations .
The swastika was used as an early symbol by the Boy Scouts Association of the United Kingdom and others . Its earliest use in Scouting was on the Thanks Badge introduced in 1911 . Lord Baden @-@ Powell 's 1922 design for the Medal of Merit added a swastika to the Scout Arrowhead to symbolize good luck for the recipient . In 1934 , Scouters requested a change to the design because of the connection of the swastika with its more recent use by the German National Socialist Workers ( Nazi ) Party . A new Medal of Merit was issued by the Boy Scouts Association in 1935 .
= = Age groups and sections = =
Scouting and Guiding movements are generally divided into sections by age or school grade , allowing activities to be tailored to the maturity of the group 's members . These age divisions have varied over time as they adapt to the local culture and environment .
Scouting was originally developed for adolescents — youths between the ages of 11 and 17 . In most member organizations , this age group composes the Scout or Guide section . Programs were developed to meet the needs of young children ( generally ages 6 to 10 ) and young adults ( originally 18 and older , and later up to 25 ) . Scouts and Guides were later split into " junior " and " senior " sections in many member organizations , and some organizations dropped the young adults ' section . The exact age ranges for programs vary by country and association .
The national programs for younger children include Tiger Cubs , Cub Scouts , Brownies , Daisies , Rainbow Guides , Beaver Scouts , Joey Scouts , Keas , and Teddies . Programs for post @-@ adolescents and young adults include the Senior Section , Rover Scouts , Senior Scouts , Venture Scouts , Explorer Scouts , and the Scout Network . Many organizations also have a program for members with special needs . This is usually known as Extension Scouting , but sometimes has other names , such as Scoutlink . The Scout Method has been adapted to specific programs such as Air Scouts , Sea Scouts , Rider Guides and Scoutingbands .
In many countries , Scouting is organized into neighborhood Scout Groups , or Districts , which contain one or more sections . Under the umbrella of the Scout Group , sections are divided according to age , each having their own terminology and leadership structure .
= = Adults and leadership = =
Adults interested in Scouting or Guiding , including former Scouts and Guides , often join organizations such as the International Scout and Guide Fellowship . In the United States and the Philippines , university students might join the co @-@ ed service fraternity Alpha Phi Omega . In the United Kingdom , university students might join the Student Scout and Guide Organisation , and after graduation , the Scout and Guide Graduate Association .
Scout units are usually operated by adult volunteers , such as parents and carers , former Scouts , students , and community leaders , including teachers and religious leaders . Scout Leadership positions are often divided into ' uniform ' and ' lay ' positions . Uniformed leaders have received formal training , such as the Wood Badge , and have received a warrant for a rank within the organization . Lay members commonly hold part @-@ time roles such as meeting helpers , committee members and advisors , though there are a small number of full @-@ time lay professionals .
A unit has uniformed positions — such as the Scoutmaster and assistants — whose titles vary among countries . In some countries , units are supported by lay members , who range from acting as meeting helpers to being members of the unit 's committee . In some Scout associations , the committee members may also wear uniforms and be registered Scout leaders .
Above the unit are further uniformed positions , called Commissioners , at levels such as district , county , council or province , depending on the structure of the national organization . Commissioners work with lay teams and professionals . Training teams and related functions are often formed at these levels . In the UK and in other countries , the national Scout organization appoints the Chief Scout , the most senior uniformed member .
= = Around the world = =
Following its foundation in the United Kingdom , Scouting spread around the globe . The first association outside the British Empire was founded in Chile in May 21 , 1909 after a visit to Baden Powell . In most countries of the world , there is now at least one Scouting ( or Guiding ) organization . Each is independent , but international cooperation continues to be seen as part of the Scout Movement . In 1922 the WOSM started as the governing body on policy for the national Scouting organizations ( then male only ) . In addition to being the governing policy body , it organizes the World Scout Jamboree every four years .
In 1928 the WAGGGS started as the equivalent to WOSM for the then female @-@ only national Scouting / Guiding organizations . It is also responsible for its four international centres : Our Cabaña in Mexico , Our Chalet in Switzerland , Pax Lodge in the United Kingdom , and Sangam in India .
Today at the international level , the two largest umbrella organizations are :
World Organization of the Scout Movement ( WOSM ) , for boys @-@ only and co @-@ educational organizations .
World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts ( WAGGGS ) , primarily for girls @-@ only organizations but also accepting co @-@ educational organizations .
= = = Co @-@ educational = = =
There have been different approaches to co @-@ educational Scouting . Countries such as the United States have maintained separate Scouting organizations for boys and girls . In other countries , especially within Europe , Scouting and Guiding have merged , and there is a single organization for boys and girls , which is a member of both the WOSM and the WAGGGS . In others , such as Australia and the United Kingdom , the national Scout association has opted to admit both boys and girls , but is only a member of the WOSM , while the national Guide association has remained as a separate movement and member of the WAGGGS . In some countries like Greece , Slovenia and Spain there are separate associations of Scouts ( members of WOSM ) and guides ( members of WAGGGS ) , both admitting boys and girls .
The Scout Association in the United Kingdom has been co @-@ educational at all levels since 1991 , and this was optional for groups until the year 2000 when new sections were been required to accept girls . The Scout Association transitioned all Scout groups and sections across the UK to become co @-@ educational by January 2007 , the year of Scouting 's centenary . The traditional Baden @-@ Powell Scouts ' Association has been co @-@ educational since its formation in 1970 .
In the United States , the Cub Scout and Boy Scout programs of the BSA are for boys only ; however , for youths age 14 and older , Venturing is co @-@ educational . The Girl Scouts of the USA ( GSUSA ) is an independent organization for girls and young women only . Adult leadership positions in the BSA and GSUSA are open to both men and women .
In 2006 , of the 155 WOSM member National Scout Organizations ( representing 155 countries ) , 122 belonged only to WOSM , and 34 belonged to both WOSM and WAGGGS . Of the 122 which belonged only to WOSM , 95 were open to boys and girls in some or all program sections , and 20 were only for boys . All 34 that belonged to both WOSM and WAGGGS were open to boys and girls .
WAGGGS had 144 Member Organizations in 2007 and 110 of them belonged only to WAGGGS . Of these 110 , 17 were coeducational and 93 admitted only girls .
= = = Membership = = =
As of 2010 , there are over 32 million registered Scouts and as of 2006 10 million registered Guides around the world , from 216 countries and territories .
= = = Nonaligned and Scout @-@ like organizations = = =
Fifteen years passed between the first publication of Scouting for Boys and the creation of the current largest supranational Scout organization , WOSM , and millions of copies had been sold in dozens of languages . By that point , Scouting was the purview of the world 's youth , and several Scout associations had already formed in many countries .
Alternative groups have formed since the original formation of the Scouting " Boy Patrols " . They can be a result of groups or individuals who maintain that the WOSM and WAGGGS are currently more political and less youth @-@ based than envisioned by Lord Baden @-@ Powell . They believe that Scouting in general has moved away from its original intent because of political machinations that happen to longstanding organizations , and want to return to the earliest , simplest methods . Others do not want to follow all the original ideals of Scouting but still desire to participate in Scout @-@ like activities .
In 2008 , there were at least 539 independent Scouting organizations around the world , 367 of them were a member of either WAGGGS or WOSM . About half of the remaining 172 Scouting organizations are only local or national oriented . About 90 national or regional Scouting associations have created their own international Scouting organizations . Those are served by five international Scouting organizations :
Order of World Scouts – the first international Scouting organisation , founded in 1911 .
Union Internationale des Guides et Scouts d 'Europe , an independent faith @-@ based Scouting organization founded in 1956 .
Confédération Européenne de Scoutisme , established in 1978 .
World Federation of Independent Scouts , formed in Laubach , Germany , in 1996 .
World Organization of Independent Scouts , mostly South @-@ American , founded in 2010 .
Some Scout @-@ like organizations are also served by international organizations for example :
Pathfinders
Royal Rangers
= = Influence on society = =
After the inception of Scouting in the early 1900s , some nations ' programs have taken part in social movements such as the nationalist resistance movements in India . Although Scouting was introduced to Africa by British officials as a way to strengthen their rule , the values they based Scouting on helped to challenge the legitimacy of British imperialism . Likewise , African Scouts used the Scout Law 's principle that a Scout is a brother to all other Scouts to collectively claim full imperial citizenship .
= = Recent controversies = =
More recently , the Boy Scouts of America was the focus of criticism in the United States for not allowing the open participation of homosexuals until removing the prohibition in 2013 .
In the United Kingdom , The Scout Association had been criticised for its insistence on the use of a religious promise , leading to the introduction of an alternative in January 2014 for those not wanting to mention a god in their promise . This change making the organisation entirely non @-@ discriminatory on the grounds of race , gender , sexuality , and religion ( or lack thereof ) .
Authoritarian communist regimes like the Soviet Union in 1920 and fascist regimes like Nazi Germany in 1934 often either absorbed the Scout movement into government @-@ controlled organizations , or banned Scouting entirely .
= = In film and the arts = =
Scouting has been a facet of culture during most of the 20th century in many countries ; numerous films and artwork focus on the subject . Movie critic Roger Ebert mentioned the scene in which the young Boy Scout , Indiana Jones , discovers the Cross of Coronado in the movie Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade , as " when he discovers his life mission . "
The works of painters Ernest Stafford Carlos , Norman Rockwell , Pierre Joubert and Joseph Csatari and the 1966 film Follow Me , Boys ! are prime examples of this ethos . Scouting is often dealt with in a humorous manner , as in the 1989 film Troop Beverly Hills , the 2005 film Down and Derby , and the film Scout Camp . In 1980 , Scottish singer and songwriter Gerry Rafferty recorded I was a Boy Scout as part of his Snakes and Ladders album .
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= Navy SEALS ( video game ) =
Navy SEALS is a shoot ' em up platform video game developed and published by Ocean Software . It was first released in the United Kingdom for the Amstrad CPC , Amstrad GX4000 and Commodore 64 in 1990 . It was later re @-@ released in the rest of Europe for the ZX Spectrum , Atari ST and Amiga home computers in the following year . It was then ported to the Game Boy on 1 September 1991 in the United States . The game is based on the film of the same name and follows the protagonist , Lieutenant Dale Hawkins , progressing through five side @-@ scrolling levels .
The game was developed by Ocean Software , in which they were renowned for creating video games related to their respective films . Navy SEALS focuses on Hawkins recovering caches of Stinger missiles from Arab soldiers in the Middle East . The game received positive reviews upon release , with critics mainly praising the graphics , presentation and challenging gameplay . However , criticism was directed at the ZX Spectrum port , which received disapproval over its monochrome graphics .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is a side @-@ scrolling shoot ' em up and revolves around the protagonist , Lieutenant Dale Hawkins , recovering caches of hidden Stinger missiles from Arab terrorists in Oman . The game features a total of five levels with varying locations and begins with allocating five lives to the player . The main objective of the game is to locate and place time bombs on boxes containing Stinger missiles , in which the player is required to escape before the time runs out . The enemies featured in the game are Arab terrorists ; the player must neutralise them by shooting them with their selected weapon , which is a handgun by default . Other weapons available in the game include machine guns , rocket launchers , and a flamethrower , which are only accessible through finding hidden crates .
The second level of the game is in Beirut , and focuses on the player , along with a group of Navy Seals , rescuing hostages in a 3D presentation of the city . If the player is successful in rescuing the hostages and recovering all missiles , the remaining forces will rendezvous at a submarine . During the game , the player @-@ character may grapple onto ledges , climb ladders , crawl , and jump in any direction . The player can also push large crates in order to reach higher platforms . Combat is focused on shooting an enemy with a weapon on sight , however the player can crawl at any time in order to avoid the oncoming bullets of an enemy . The player is also able to neutralise enemies by dropping down onto them whilst dangling from a higher platform . In every level , the game sets a time limit when a bomb is placed on one of the crates containing Stinger missiles .
= = Background = =
Ocean Software was founded in Manchester by David Ward and Jon Woods in 1984 . The company were known for developing titles such as Platoon , Top Gun and Jurassic Park , which were usually based on their films of the same name . During the late 1980s and early 1990s , Ocean primarily focused on developing games related to best @-@ selling B @-@ movies or porting other commercially successful games to different platforms . In 1998 , the company was purchased by French holding company Infogrames and was later merged into Atari , in 2004 . In 2004 , both founders of Ocean Software received the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association Hall of Fame award , for their recognition in " transforming " the British video games industry into a multi @-@ national business . The music for Navy SEALS was composed by Matthew Cannon , an employee of Ocean Software .
= = Reception = =
The game received mostly positive reviews upon release . Richard Smith of Crash heralded the graphics for their detail , colour and smooth animation , summarising that it was a " landmark in every aspect " . Chris Jenkins of Sinclair User stated that the graphics and animation were " fabulous " , whilst focusing particular praise on the game 's background details . Jeff Matthews of Raze praised the graphics for both Amstrad GX4000 and Commodore 64 ports , heralding them as " nicely detailed " and " super @-@ smoothly animated " , respectively . Matt Bielby of Your Sinclair praised the presentation and gameplay , citing them both as " out of the ordinary " , whilst also praising the developer 's attention for detail . Steve Fielder of Commodore Format praised the game 's ability to fully utilise the colour palette of the Commodore 64 , in which Fielder praised the " smooth " side scrolling levels and " derfully " detailed backdrops .
Two reviewers of Mean Machines praised the sprites and background drops , calling both " cleverly animated " and " atmospheric " . However , the other reviewer criticised the game 's hard difficulty . Robert Swan of Computer and Video Games criticised the playability of the ZX Spectrum version , calling it " less playable " due to its presentation in monochrome and hard difficulty . Reviewing the GX4000 port , Swann praised the " colourful " graphics , but expressed scepticism over the difficulty . Fielder also praised the game 's soundtrack as " mystifying " .
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= Ernst Lindemann =
Otto Ernst Lindemann ( 28 March 1894 – 27 May 1941 ) was a German Kapitän zur See ( naval captain ) . He was the only commander of the battleship Bismarck during its eight months of service in World War II .
Lindemann joined the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) in 1913 , and after his basic military training , served on a number of warships during World War I as a wireless telegraphy officer . On board SMS Bayern , he participated in Operation Albion in 1917 . After World War I , he served in various staff and naval gunnery training positions . One year after the outbreak of World War II , he was appointed commander of the battleship Bismarck , at the time the largest warship in commission anywhere in the world and the pride of the Kriegsmarine ( Nazi Germany 's navy ) .
In May 1941 , Lindemann commanded Bismarck during Operation Rheinübung . Bismarck and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen formed a task force under the command of Admiral Günther Lütjens on board Bismarck . Orders were to break out of their base in German occupied Poland and attack British merchant shipping lanes in the Atlantic Ocean . The task force 's first major engagement was the Battle of the Denmark Strait which resulted in the sinking of HMS Hood . Less than a week later , on 27 May , Lindemann and most of his crew lost their lives during Bismarck 's last battle .
He was posthumously awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) , an honour that recognised extreme bravery on the battlefield or outstanding military leadership . The medal was presented to his widow , Hildegard , on 6 January 1942 .
= = Early life = =
Otto Ernst Lindemann was born on 28 March 1894 in Altenkirchen in the Westerwald , Rhine Province . He was the first of three children of Dr. jur . Georg Heinrich Ernst Lindemann and Maria Lindemann , née Lieber . Known as Ernst , Georg Lindemann was a probationary judge ( Gerichtsassessor ) and later president of the Prussian Central Land Credit Company , a Prussian credit bank .
Otto Ernst Lindemann was baptised into the Protestant Church on 26 April 1894 . The family moved to the Charlottenburg quarter of Berlin , where they lived at 6 Carmer Street , in 1895 . His younger brother — Kurt — was born in 1896 , followed by a second brother , Hans @-@ Wolfgang , in 1900 . The family relocated again in 1903 , this time to their own house in the Dahlem quarter of Berlin , near the Grunewald forest .
In 1910 , when Lindemann was 16 , his uncle Kapitän zur See Friedrich Tiesmeyer was in command of the light cruiser SMS Mainz ( October 1909 – January 1910 ) of the Imperial Navy , at that time holding the rank of Fregattenkapitän ( commander ) . At a family reunion in Hamelin , Lindemann talked with his uncle and heard of his seafaring adventures in the Far East . These conversations gave Lindemann the idea of a naval career .
Lindemann graduated from the Bismarck @-@ Gymnasium ( secondary school ) in Berlin @-@ Wilmersdorf with his Abitur ( diploma ) late in 1912 with an average @-@ to @-@ good overall rating . For the next six months , he attended the Royal Polytechnic Institution in Richmond , London .
= = Personal life = =
Ernst Lindemann met Charlotte Weil ( née Fritsche ; 1899 – 1979 ) , a Berlin singer , in the spring of 1920 . The couple married on 1 February 1921 , and they had a daughter , Helga Maria , born on 26 February 1924 . Lindemann 's job as a naval officer demanded that he be away from his family for long periods of time . This proved to be too demanding on the marriage , and they were divorced in 1932 . Lindemann was engaged again on 20 July 1933 to his youngest brother 's sister @-@ in @-@ law , Hildegard Burchard . Hildegard was 14 years younger than Lindemann . They married on 27 October 1934 in the St. Annen Church in Berlin – Dahlem . The ceremony was performed by Martin Niemöller , a founder of the Confessing Church , later imprisoned as an anti @-@ Nazi . They had a daughter , Heidi Maria , born on 6 July 1939 .
= = Naval career = =
= = = Imperial Navy = = =
On 26 March 1913 , Lindemann traveled with his parents to Flensburg for his medical examination at the Naval Academy at Mürwik . The strong financial background of his parents made him a suitable applicant for the Imperial Navy , as the costs associated with a naval education in 1909 were 800 – 1 @,@ 000 Marks per year for eight years . By comparison , a metal worker earned 1 @,@ 366 Marks annually and a teacher 3 @,@ 294 Marks . Only 5 percent of the German population at the time earned more than 3 @,@ 000 Marks annually . However , the doctor certified him as fit only for limited duties ( bedingt tauglich ) , as pneumonia in childhood had left him unfit for service in U @-@ boats . After a second examination , he was accepted on probation , and Lindemann became one of the 290 young men of " Crew 1913 " ( the incoming class of 1913 ) . He was officially enlisted in the Imperial Navy as a Seekadett ( midshipman ) on 1 April 1913 .
In early May 1913 , the cadets of Crew 1913 were sent to the training ships SMS Hansa , SMS Hertha , SMS Victoria Louise and SMS Vineta . Lindemann was assigned to Hertha with 71 of his comrades . At that time , Hertha was under the command of Captain Heinrich Rohardt , a friend of his uncle Friedrich . Arriving on board on 9 May , they were divided into watches consisting of roughly 18 men each . Hertha left Mürwik and stayed in Kiel until the end of the month . On 29 May 1913 , Hertha headed for Swinemünde , where she stayed until 15 June . The next stop , via Sassnitz and Visby , was Stockholm , Sweden , arriving on 24 June . The ship remained in Stockholm until 1 July , before leaving for Bergen in Norway . After a few days , the voyage continued to the Lönne Fjord . Here , Lindemann met his commander @-@ in @-@ chief — Kaiser Wilhelm II — for the first time . Hertha then returned to Germany , arriving in Wilhelmshaven on 8 August 1913 .
One week later , Hertha began a seven @-@ month training cruise ( 15 August 1913 – 12 March 1914 ) . The voyage took Lindemann to Dartmouth in England , Vilagarcía de Arousa in Spain , Faial Island in the Azores and as far as Halifax in Nova Scotia . The return trip then went via Vera Cruz in Mexico , Havana in Cuba , Port @-@ au @-@ Prince in Haiti , Kingston in Jamaica , Port of Spain in Trinidad and then to the Canary Islands , Madeira , and the Spanish mainland , arriving back in Germany in the middle of March 1914 , first in Brunsbüttel and two days later in Kiel . Lindemann was promoted to Fähnrich zur See ( Ensign ) on 3 April 1914 .
= = = World War I = = =
With the German declaration of war in August 1914 , all further training at the naval academy was terminated and the normal compulsory officer examination was skipped . The entire Crew 1913 was assigned to various units in the Imperial Navy . Lindemann was assigned to SMS Lothringen , a battleship which belonged to the 2nd Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet under the command of Vizeadmiral ( vice admiral ) Reinhard Scheer , taking on the position of 3rd wireless telegraphy officer . Lothringen was mostly tasked with patrolling the North Sea , sailing back and forth between Altenbruch ( now part of Cuxhaven ) and Brunsbüttel without engaging in combat . Lindemann left Lothringen on 1 June 1915 to attend the wireless telegraphy school at Mürwik . He successfully completed the course and returned from it in July 1915 . He then took over the position of 2nd wireless telegraphy officer and was promoted to Leutnant zur See ( Second Lieutenant ) on 18 September 1915 .
On 19 March 1916 , Lindemann was transferred to the newly commissioned battleship SMS Bayern ( under the command of Captain Max Hahn ) , with the same rank of 2nd wireless telegraphy officer . Bayern , with her eight 38 cm ( 15 in ) guns , was the most powerful ship of the fleet . Her crew had been largely assigned from Lothringen , which continued to serve as a training ship . Aboard Bayern , now under the command of Captain Rohardt , Lindemann participated in Operation Albion in September – October 1917 . Operation Albion 's objective was the invasion and occupation of the Estonian islands of Saaremaa ( Ösel ) , Hiiumaa ( Dagö ) and Muhu ( Moon ) , then part of the Russian Republic . At 05 : 07 on 12 October 1917 , Bayern struck a mine while moving into her bombardment position to secure the landing beaches at Pamerort . Seven sailors were killed . Despite mine damage , Bayern engaged the coast defense battery at Cape Toffri on the southern tip of Hiiumaa . Bayern was released from her duties at 14 : 00 that day . Preliminary repairs were made on 13 October in Tagga Bay before she returned to Kiel on 1 November 1917 .
After the armistice in 1918 , Bayern — together with the majority of the German High Seas Fleet — was interned at Scapa Flow , the home of the British Grand Fleet . Bayern arrived there on 23 November 1918 with a skeleton crew of only 175 men , including Lindemann , who was then ordered to return to Germany , arriving in Kiel on 12 January . On 21 June 1919 , Admiral Ludwig von Reuter ordered the interned fleet to be scuttled , and Bayern sank at 14 : 30 .
= = = Between the wars : Reichsmarine = = =
When Ernst Lindemann returned to Germany , it was uncertain whether he could remain on active military service . As a result of the Treaty of Versailles which was signed on 28 June 1919 , the former Imperial German Navy was downsized to 15 @,@ 000 men , including 1 @,@ 500 officers , while being renamed the Reichsmarine in the era of the Weimar Republic . As Lindemann had finished fifth in the Class of 1913 , he stood a good chance of being retained . He served temporarily in the Dahlem Protection Company a part of the Protection Regiment of Greater Berlin ( June – July 1919 ) , before he became adjutant to the newly created chief of the Naval Command Department ( 1 August 1919 – 30 September 1922 ) , at the time under the command of William Michaelis . The Naval Command Department was directly subordinated to the Admiralty Staff . At the same time , he held the position of adjutant in the Fleet Department . During this assignment Lindemann was promoted to Oberleutnant zur See ( Sub @-@ Lieutenant ) on 7 January 1920 .
Lindemann 's next assignment ( 1 October 1922 – 30 September 1924 ) was aboard the battleship Hannover , where he served as a watch and division officer . During this assignment , he attended an officers ' course at the ships ' gunnery school in Kiel between 5 February and 3 May 1924 . From here , Lindemann took command of the 1st Artillery Company of the 3rd Coastal Defense Department in Friedrichsort in Kiel from 1 October 1924 – 26 September 1926 . His commanding officer was Korvettenkapitän ( Lieutenant Commander ) Otto Schultze , a former World War I U @-@ boat commander and later Generaladmiral ( general admiral ) of the Kriegsmarine . In this position , Lindemann was promoted to Kapitänleutnant ( captain lieutenant ) on 1 January 1925 .
His next assignment ( 27 September 1926 – 6 September 1929 ) placed him on the Admiral 's staff at the Baltic Naval Station , first as a staff officer and then as assistant to the chief of the station , which at the time was under the command of Vice Admiral Erich Raeder . From here , he was transferred to the Elsass serving as the second gunnery officer and Fähnrichsoffizier ( officer in charge of cadets ) , responsible for the on @-@ board training of the officer cadets , from 7 September 1929 – 25 February 1930 . Holding the same rank and position , Lindemann then transferred to the Schleswig @-@ Holstein .
= = = Between the wars : Kriegsmarine = = =
On 30 January 1933 , the Nazi Party , under the leadership of Adolf Hitler , came to power in Germany , ushering in a period of naval rearmament . In 1935 , the Reichsmarine was renamed the Kriegsmarine . Between 22 September 1931 and 22 September 1934 , Lindemann was a senior lecturer at the Naval Gunnery School in Kiel . He was then posted to the Hessen under the command of Captain Hermann Boehm and served as first gunnery officer from 23 September 1933 to 8 April 1934 . Ernst Lindemann was promoted to Lieutenant Commander on 1 April 1932 . On 9 April 1934 , he was ordered to the Wilhelmshaven Shipyard ( 9 April – 11 November 1934 ) for training in ship construction and familiarisation with the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer , under the command of Captain Wilhelm Marschall .
On Admiral Scheer , he again served as first gunnery officer , and in this position he participated in the Spanish Civil War ( 24 July – 30 August 1936 ) . Admiral Scheer had to make ready for the mission on short notice ; the order came from Admiral Rolf Carls on 23 July 1936 at 13 : 45 . The normal 48 hours required to prepare the ship was reduced to 12 hours , demanding a lot of the crew and especially Lindemann . As the first gunnery officer , Lindemann was responsible for handling and storing all munitions . Admiral Scheer and the cruiser Deutschland left Germany on 24 July at 8 : 00 . Lindemann 's main responsibilities included commanding the German landing parties and acting as diplomatic aid and interpreter for Captain Marschall . These landing parties consisted of up to 350 men , which included 11 officers , 15 non @-@ commissioned officers and 266 sailors , or roughly one @-@ third of the crew . On the return voyage to Germany , Admiral Scheer stopped at Gibraltar on the morning of 25 August 1936 . Marschall , Lindemann and other officers met with the British Governor and Rear Admiral James Somerville . After Lindemann returned to Germany , he was promoted to commander on 1 October 1936 .
Between 1936 and 1938 , he was an adviser and later head of the ship construction department at the Naval High Command , and at the same time a consultant to and later chief of the Naval Training Department . On 1 April 1938 , he was promoted to the rank of Kapitän zur See ( captain at sea ) . On 30 September 1939 , one month after the outbreak of World War II , Lindemann succeeded Captain Heinrich Woldag as commander of the Naval Gunnery School in Wik in Kiel , after Woldag took command of the heavy cruiser Blücher . Under his command were three training departments , the gunnery training ship Bremse and Hektor , numerous gunnery training boats , gun carriers , auxiliary vessels , and occasionally Hitler 's state yacht , the aviso Grille .
= = = Commander of the battleship Bismarck = = =
Ernst Lindemann was frustrated by the fact that — as commander of the Naval Gunnery School — he would never come into direct contact with the enemy . When he received the news that he had been selected to be the first commander of the battleship Bismarck , he was honoured by the trust that had been bestowed on him but doubted that he would be able to get Bismarck ready for action before the war was over . His doubts suggest that he was confident the war would end in a favourable outcome for Germany by mid @-@ 1940 . Prior to commanding Bismarck , Lindemann had never held any shipboard command , a situation rare if not unique in the Kriegsmarine . Nevertheless , Lindemann had served exclusively on ships with a gun calibre of at least 28 cm ( 11 in ) , and he was Germany 's leading gunnery expert . In 1940 , he ranked second out of Crew 1913 and was considered an outstanding leader .
Lindemann arrived at the Blohm & Voss shipbuilding works in Hamburg at the beginning of August 1940 . Bismarck 's keel had been laid on 1 July 1936 and she was launched on 14 February 1939 . Burkard Freiherr von Müllenheim @-@ Rechberg joined Bismarck as fourth gunnery officer in June 1940 , and he would become the highest @-@ ranking officer to survive Bismarck 's last battle on 27 May 1941 . Much of what is currently known about Bismarck 's final days is attributed to his account as a witness . Lindemann made Von Müllenheim @-@ Rechberg his personnel adjutant and instructed him to refer to the ship as " he " rather than " she " ; Lindemann considered the ship too powerful to be referred to as a female . He commissioned the battleship on 24 August 1940 . He showed a great deal of attachment to the ship and was respected by his crew .
Bismarck left the Kiel Fjord on the morning of 28 September 1940 heading east . After an uneventful voyage through rough seas , Bismarck reached Gotenhafen ( now Gdynia ) the next day . Here Bismarck conducted a number of sea trials in the relative safety of the Bay of Danzig ( now Gdańsk Bay ) . By 30 November 1940 , Lindemann had set a number of tests for the crew , which they passed easily . During high speed trials , Bismarck reached a top speed of 30 @.@ 8 kn ( 57 @.@ 0 km / h ; 35 @.@ 4 mph ) , exceeding the design speed . However , one weakness quickly became apparent : without using the rudders but only the screws , Bismarck was almost impossible to steer .
In November 1940 , Von Müllenheim @-@ Rechberg was sent to the Naval Gunnery School at Wik to complete his heavy gun training courses , which ended his position as Lindemann 's personal adjutant . Lindemann 's new adjutant was the signals officer Second Lieutenant Wolfgang Reiner . Bismarck 's heavy guns were first test @-@ fired in the second half of November , and Bismarck was shown to be a very stable gun platform . After the 1940 Christmas celebration on board , Lindemann and the majority of the officers , non @-@ commissioned officers and sailors went on home leave . First gunnery officer Lieutenant Commander Adalbert Schneider relieved Lindemann as Bismarck 's commander during his absence . Lindemann spent his leave with his wife and daughter and returned on 1 January 1941 .
On 28 April 1941 , the ship and crew were ready , and stores were on board for a three @-@ month mission . Lindemann notified Naval High Command ( Oberkommando der Marine ) , Naval Groups North and West ( Marinegruppen Nord und West ) and Fleet Command that Bismarck was ready for action . The Chief of Fleet — Admiral Günther Lütjens — and his fleet staff held drills for the first time on board Bismarck on 13 May , testing the communication chain between Fleet Command and Bismarck 's officers .
Adolf Hitler — accompanied by Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm Keitel , his former naval adjutant Commander Karl @-@ Jesko von Puttkamer , and his Luftwaffe adjutant Oberst Nicolaus von Below , among others — visited Bismarck on 5 May 1941 . Missing was Grand Admiral Erich Raeder . Hitler was taken on a tour of the ship by Admiral Lütjens and inspected the various battle stations . Hitler and Lütjens also met in private and discussed the risks of a mission in the North Atlantic . After this meeting , Hitler and the officers of Bismarck had lunch in the officers ' mess , where Hitler spoke about America 's unwillingness to enter the war . Lindemann openly disagreed with Hitler , expressing his opinion that the possibility of the United States entering the war could not be ruled out .
= = = Operation Rheinübung = = =
The goal of Operation Rheinübung ( Rhine Exercise ) was for Bismarck and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen — under the command of Lindemann 's Crew 1913 classmate Captain Helmuth Brinkmann — to break into the Atlantic and attack Allied shipping . Grand Admiral Raeder 's orders to the task force commander — Admiral Günther Lütjens — were that " the objective of the Bismarck is not to defeat enemies of equal strength , but to tie them down in a delaying action , while preserving combat capacity as much as possible , so as to allow Prinz Eugen to get at the merchant ships in the convoy " and " The primary target in this operation is the enemy 's merchant shipping ; enemy warships will be engaged only when that objective makes it necessary and it can be done without excessive risk . "
At 02 : 00 on 19 May 1941 , Bismarck and Prinz Eugen left Gotenhafen and proceeded through the Baltic Sea and out toward the Atlantic . Unknown to Lütjens , the British had intercepted enough signals to infer that a German naval operation might occur in the area . The German task force was first encountered by the Swedish seaplane @-@ cruiser Gotland on 20 May heading north @-@ west past Gothenburg . The British Admiralty was informed through a Norwegian officer in Stockholm who had learned of the sighting from a Swedish military intelligence source . Alerted by this report , British Admiralty requested air reconnaissance of the Norwegian coast . A Spitfire reconnaissance aircraft found and photographed the German task force in the Grimstad fjord ( 60 ° 19 @.@ 49 ′ N 5 ° 14 @.@ 48 ′ E ) , near Bergen , at 13 : 15 on 21 May . On the evening of 23 May at 19 : 22 , the German force was detected by the heavy cruisers HMS Suffolk and Norfolk that had been patrolling the Denmark Strait in the expectation of a German breakout . The alarm was sounded and Lindemann announced at 20 : 30 over the intercom : " Feind in Sicht an Backbord , Schiff nimmt Gefecht auf " . ( Enemy sighted to port . Engage ! ) Bismarck fired five salvos without scoring a direct hit . The heavily outgunned British cruisers retired to a safe distance and shadowed the enemy until their own heavy units could draw closer . However , Bismarck 's forward radar had failed as a result of vibration from the heavy guns firing during this skirmish , and Lütjens was obliged to order Prinz Eugen to move ahead of Bismarck in order to provide the squadron with forward radar coverage .
At the Battle of the Denmark Strait on 24 May 1941 , HMS Hood was sunk , probably by Bismarck . The hydrophones on Prinz Eugen detected a foreign ship to port at 05 : 00 . The Germans sighted the smokestacks of two ships at 05 : 45 , which the first gunnery officer Lieutenant Commander Adalbert Schneider initially reported as two heavy cruisers . The first British salvo revealed them to be battleships , but not until the British task force turned to port was their precise identity revealed . The British ships started firing at the German task force at 05 : 53 . Vice @-@ Admiral Lancelot Holland planned on targeting Bismarck first , but due to the reversed German battle order , HMS Prince of Wales and Hood opened fire on the Prinz Eugen instead . The commander of the Prince of Wales — Captain John Leach — detected this error and ordered his guns swung around to fire on Bismarck . The German task force was still waiting for the order to commence firing , which Admiral Lütjens did not give immediately . Two minutes later , after multiple inquiries by Schneider , " Frage Feuererlaubnis " ? ( Permission to open fire ? ) , an impatient Lindemann responded : " Ich lasse mir doch nicht mein Schiff unter dem Arsch wegschießen . Feuererlaubnis ! " ( I 'm not letting my ship get shot out from under my arse . Open fire ! ) At 06 : 01 , the fifth salvo by Bismarck , fired at a range of about 180 hectometres ( 18 @,@ 000 m ; 20 @,@ 000 yd ) , was seen to hit Hood abreast her mainmast . It is likely that one 38 cm ( 15 in ) shell struck somewhere between Hood 's mainmast and ' X ' turret aft of the mast . A huge jet of flame burst out from Hood from the vicinity of the mainmast . This was followed by a devastating magazine explosion that destroyed the aft part of the ship . This explosion broke the back of Hood , and she sank in only three minutes , her nearly vertical bow last to descend into the water .
Following the explosion , Prince of Wales was targeted by both German ships and disengaged from combat after seven direct hits , four by Bismarck and three by Prinz Eugen , at about 06 : 09 . During this brief engagement , Prince of Wales had also hit Bismarck three times , first striking the commander 's boat and putting the seaplane catapult amidships out of action . The second shell passed right through the bow from one side to the other . The third struck the hull underwater and burst inside the ship , flooding a generator room and damaging the bulkhead of an adjoining boiler room , partially flooding it . The damage caused to Bismarck by these two shots allowed 2 @,@ 000 t ( 2 @,@ 200 short tons ) of water into the ship .
Lindemann and Lütjens at this point differed on how best to continue the mission . Lindemann , as commander of a battleship , was guided by the tactical situation , and wanted to hunt down the damaged Prince of Wales . ( The Germans did not at that time know the ship to be Prince of Wales , but knew that it was a King George V @-@ class battleship . ) Lütjens , apparently mindful of the fleet order to avoid unnecessary contact with similar enemy units , rejected this without discussion . Lindemann and Lütjens also differed on where to take the ship for repairs ; Lindemann advocated retracing their route through the Denmark Strait and returning to Bergen , Norway . Lütjens overruled him and ordered a course set for Saint @-@ Nazaire , France . In the afternoon , Admiral Lütjens ordered Prinz Eugen to break away from Bismarck and operate independently against the enemy 's merchant shipping . Prinz Eugen and Bismarck separated at 18 : 14 that evening . Prinz Eugen arrived safely at Brest , France on 1 June 1941 . No direct witnesses to this difference of opinion survived the sinking , but Matrosengefreiter ( Leading Seaman ) Heinz Staat , the helmsman on the bridge , remembered a telephone call between the First Watch Officer , Commander Hans Oels , and a fleet staff officer which suggested that Lindemann had been trying to persuade Lütjens to pursue the enemy . A messenger returning to his comrades below spoke of " dicke Luft " ( " thick air " or a " bad atmosphere " ) on the bridge .
Bismarck was sunk less than a week later , after a concentrated effort by Britain 's Royal Navy . At 23 : 30 ( local time 19 : 30 ) on 24 May an attack was made by a small group of nine Swordfish biplane torpedo bombers of 825 Naval Air Squadron under the command of Eugene Esmonde from the aircraft carrier HMS Victorious . One hit was scored , which killed Oberbootsmann Kurt Kirchberg , but caused only superficial damage to the Bismarck 's armoured belt . In mid @-@ morning at 10 : 30 on 26 May , a RAF Coastal Command Catalina reconnaissance aircraft from 209 Squadron RAF spotted Bismarck roughly 700 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ; 810 mi ) west of Saint @-@ Nazaire . The British battle group Force H , under the command of Admiral James Somerville , whose main units were the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal , the First World War era battlecruiser HMS Renown and the cruiser HMS Sheffield , was ordered to stop Bismarck . At 19 : 15 that evening , 15 Swordfish from Ark Royal launched an attack . The air raid alarm was sounded on Bismarck at 20 : 30 . Roughly 15 minutes into the attack Bismarck was possibly hit by one torpedo , and at around 21 : 00 another single torpedo jammed Bismarck 's rudder 12 ° to port . Damage @-@ control parties laboured to regain steering control and uncoupled and centred the starboard rudder , but failed to free the port rudder . With asymmetric power applied , speed reduced to 8 kn ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) , Bismarck was on a converging course with the Royal Navy units on the chase . The alarm sounded again at 23 : 00 when destroyers of the 4th Destroyer Flotilla under the command of Captain Philip Vian attacked Bismarck . Throughout the night Bismarck was targeted by incessant torpedo attacks by HMS Cossack , Sikh , Maori , Zulu , and ORP Piorun , denying Lindemann and the crew much @-@ needed rest .
Bismarck 's alarm sounded for the last time at 08 : 00 on the morning of 27 May 1941 . Norfolk sighted the Bismarck at 08 : 15 , and the battleship HMS Rodney opened fire on Bismarck at 08 : 48 . Bismarck returned fire at 08 : 49 . Further involved in the final battle were the battleship HMS King George V and the cruisers Norfolk and HMS Dorsetshire . Torpedo bombers did not participate in the final battle . Bismarck 's forward command position was hit at 08 : 53 , and both forward gun turrets were put out of action at 09 : 02 , killing Adalbert Schneider in the main gun director . The after command position was destroyed at 09 : 18 and turret Dora was disabled at 09 : 24 . Bismarck received further heavy hits at 09 : 40 , resulting in a fire amidships , and turret Caesar went out of action after a hit at 09 : 50 . All weapons fell silent at 10 : 00 . Short of fuel , Rodney and King George V had to disengage prior to Bismarck 's sinking . The Germans were preparing to scuttle Bismarck when three torpedoes fired by Dorsetshire hit the ship 's side armour . Bismarck sank at 10 : 36 at position 48 ° 10 ′ N 16 ° 12 ′ W , roughly 300 nmi ( 560 km ; 350 mi ) west of Ouessant ( Ushant ) . The cruiser Dorsetshire saved 85 men , and the British destroyer Maori saved 25 . A further five sailors were saved by German submarine U @-@ 74 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Eitel @-@ Friedrich Kentrat and the weather observation ship Sachsenwald . The Befehlshaber der U @-@ Boote ( U @-@ boats Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief ) Karl Dönitz had ordered U @-@ 556 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Herbert Wohlfarth to pick up Bismarck 's war diary . Out of torpedoes and low on fuel , Wohlfarth requested that the order be transferred to U @-@ 74 . U @-@ 74 failed to reach Bismarck on time and the war diary was never retrieved .
= = = Death = = =
Burkard von Müllenheim @-@ Rechberg saw Lindemann for the last time at around 08 : 00 on the command bridge just prior to the final battle . Von Müllenheim @-@ Rechberg described the normally intelligent , humorous and optimistic Lindemann now as pessimistic and withdrawn . Von Müllenheim @-@ Rechberg tried to talk to him and was ignored , and later wondered whether this was due to combat fatigue or whether the disagreements with Lütjens had worn him down .
Lindemann 's body was never recovered , and it is thought that he , Lütjens and other officers probably died when shells from the British warships hit Bismarck 's bridge at 09 : 02 . When Robert Ballard , the oceanographer responsible for finding RMS Titanic discovered the wreck of the Bismarck in 1989 , he found that most of the forward superstructure had been blasted away by shellfire and there were more than 50 shell holes around the area of the conning tower . This may support the theory .
Alternatively , Lindemann may have left his combat position when the ship 's controls were rendered inoperable , and prior to the lethal hit on the command position , in order to give the command to abandon the ship . The surviving Matrose Paul Hillen — who had managed to escape to the upper deck in the final phase of the battle , stated that he had seen a group of 20 – 30 people standing at the bow , among them a man with a white peaked cap . Normally on a German naval vessel at sea , a white cap is worn only by the commanding officer . In addition , the surviving Maschinengefreiter — Rudolf Römer , who at the time was already in the water — claimed that he had seen Lindemann standing on the bow , near Bismarck 's forward 38 cm turret , Anton . He was said to be with his combat messenger , a leading seaman , and apparently trying to persuade his messenger to save himself . In this account , his messenger took Lindemann 's hand and the two walked to the forward flagmast . As the ship turned over , the two stood briefly to attention , then Lindemann and his messenger saluted . As the ship rolled to port , the messenger fell into the water . Lindemann , continued his salute while clinging to the flagmast , going under with the ship .
On Wednesday , 28 May 1941 Ernst Lindemann was posthumously mentioned in the daily Wehrmachtbericht , an information bulletin issued by the headquarters of the Wehrmacht ( the unified armed forces of Germany ) . To be singled out individually in the Wehrmachtbericht was an honour and was entered in the Orders and Decorations ' section of one 's Service Record Book .
= = = Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross = = =
Lindemann 's comrades of Crew 1913 all contacted the young widow after his death . The former head of Crew 1913 , Captain Otto Klüber , contacted Mrs Lindemann in the fall of 1941 and offered her an honorary membership . Shortly after Christmas on 27 December 1941 , exactly seven months after the sinking of Bismarck and the death of its commander , Captain Ernst Lindemann received a posthumous Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross . He received this high award because the Oberkommando der Marine felt that his skilled leadership significantly contributed to the destruction of the British battlecruiser Hood and the damage inflicted on the British battleship Prince of Wales . Lindemann was the 94th recipient of the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross in the Kriegsmarine .
Lindemann 's first gunnery officer — Lieutenant Commander Adalbert Schneider — had been awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 27 May 1941 . Traditionally , the commanding officer would have received this award before any other crew member was so honoured . This exception had been criticized by various circles in the Wehrmacht . It is thought likely that Ernst Lindemann 's cousin , the former General der Kavallarie ( General of the Cavalry ) Georg Lindemann , intervened . Grand Admiral Erich Raeder , with whom Lindemann shared a 20 @-@ year comradeship dating to the early days of the Reichsmarine , presented the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross to Mrs Lindemann on Tuesday , 6 January 1942 , in Dahlem . Raeder went on to provide moral and emotional support to Lindemann 's mother and widow .
= = Awards and honours = =
Iron Cross ( 1914 )
2nd Class
1st Class ( 27 September 1919 )
Friedrich August Cross , 2nd class
Ottoman War Medal ( Turkish : Harp Madalyası ) , known as the " Gallipoli Star " or " Iron Crescent "
Honour Cross of the World War 1914 / 1918 ( 6 December 1934 )
Service Award ( Dienstauszeichnung ) 2nd to 4th Class ( 2 October 1936 )
Service Award ( Dienstauszeichnung ) 1st Class ( 16 March 1938 )
Spanish Naval Merit Cross ( Cruz del Mérito Naval ) 3rd Class ( 6 June 1939 )
Spanish Naval Merit Cross in White ( Cruz Naval con distintivo Blanco ) ( 21 August 1939 )
Spanish Naval Merit Cross in Gold ( Cruz Naval con distintivo Amarillo ) 3rd Class ( 21 August 1939 )
Swedish Royal Order of the Sword ( Kungliga Svärdsorden ) ( 11 January 1941 )
War Merit Cross , 2nd Class with Swords ( 20 January 1941 )
Clasp to the Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd and 1st Class ( May 1941 )
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 27 December 1941 ( posthumously ) as captain and commander of battleship Bismarck
Mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht on Wednesday , 28 May 1941
High Seas Fleet Badge ( posthumously 1 April 1942 )
= = = Wehrmachtbericht reference = = =
= = = Lindemann Battery = = =
To honour the late Captain Lindemann , the heavy naval battery at Sangatte , between Calais and Boulogne was christened " Batterie Lindemann " ( the Lindemann Battery ) on 19 September 1942 by the admiral in command of the Channel Coast Friedrich Frisius . The battery consisted of three heavy 40 @.@ 6 cm ( 16 in ) SK C / 34 guns housed in casemates , originally intended for the early H @-@ class battleships . Prior to this , the guns had been referred to as " Batterie Schleswig @-@ Holstein " or " Batterie Groß @-@ Deutschland " and were located in the Hel Peninsula , Poland . The battery was destroyed by Canadian forces on the evening of 26 September 1944 . Today the structure is partly covered by excavated material from the Channel Tunnel , and only the command bunker with a number of smaller strong points are still visible .
= = In popular culture = =
Austrian actor Carl Möhner played Captain Ernst Lindemann in the 1960 black @-@ and @-@ white British war film Sink the Bismarck ! The film was based on the novel The Last Nine Days of the Bismarck by C. S. Forester .
= = Translation notes = =
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= Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance =
Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance ( キングダム ハーツ 3D [ ドリーム ドロップ ディスタンス ] , Kingudamu Hātsu Surī Dī [ Dorīmu Doroppu Disutansu ] , stylized Kingdom Hearts 3D [ Dream Drop Distance ] ) is an action role @-@ playing game developed and published by Square Enix exclusively for the Nintendo 3DS , revealed at E3 2010 . The game is the seventh installment in the bestselling Kingdom Hearts series and was released in Japan on March 29 , 2012 . It was released outside Japan on July 20 , 2012 in Europe , July 26 , 2012 in Australia and July 31 , 2012 in North America .
Taking place after the events of Kingdom Hearts Re : coded , the game focuses on Sora and Riku 's Mark of Mastery exam in which they have to protect parallel worlds in preparation for the return of Master Xehanort . Besides controlling the two playable characters across a single scenario , the player is able to recruit creatures known as Dream Eaters that are able to assist in fights .
The Square Enix staff decided to develop Dream Drop Distance after being impressed by the quality of the Nintendo 3DS . Taking advantage of the console 's functions , they increased the action elements from the series based on the system previously seen in Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep . Additionally , both the gameplay and the plot are meant to give a glimpse about what the following title in the series , Kingdom Hearts III , will be like . The game has been well received in Japan and in the US , selling over 250 @,@ 000 and 180 @,@ 000 units on its debuts respectively .
= = Gameplay = =
The game , which largely follows the action RPG gameplay of previous games in the series , sees players alternate between the roles of Sora and Riku . Alternating between characters is done via the ' Drop ' system . During gameplay , a Drop Gauge gradually depletes over time , though it can be replenished with items . When the gauge completely empties , control will switch to the other character , though players may also opt to drop manually at any time . Drop Points , which are earned by defeating enemies and completing optional objectives , can be spent on bonuses that can be used until the next time the character drops , such as a slower Drop Gauge or increased attack or defense . The game reuses the Command Deck system from Birth by Sleep , in which players can customize a deck filled with various actions , spells , and items that can be quickly selected . There are also several new elements added to the gameplay . Flowmotion allows players to move quickly about by performing actions such as bouncing off walls , grinding on rails and spinning around poles . Reality Shift is a system the player can use on certain objects or weakened opponents involving a touch @-@ screen activated minigame unique to each world . These include dragging the screen to fling a target like a catapult , touching hidden words to take control of enemies , and playing a small rhythm @-@ based game to cause fireworks to appear .
One of the key elements of Dream Drop Distance is the inclusion of the Dream Eaters . Whilst they generally serve as the main enemies of the game , up to three good Dream Eaters , known as Spirits , can be recruited per character to assist them in battle . Spirits can be created by combining Dream Fragments together with an item or spell , either via experimenting with combinations or using recipes found throughout the game . Characters can also link with Spirits to perform unique attacks . Along the way , the player can care for these Spirits by petting them , feeding them items , or playing mini @-@ games with them , which can unlock new abilities for the Spirits .
The game takes place across multiple worlds based on Pinocchio , The Hunchback of Notre Dame , Tron : Legacy , Fantasia and The Three Musketeers , each having two different plots from the perspectives of Sora and Riku . These worlds need to be completed by both Sora and Riku in order to unlock new worlds and progress through the game . Upon visiting each world for the first time , each character must go through a Dive section , in which characters freefall down a tube and must clear a certain objective , such as obtaining a certain amount of points , defeating a certain amount of enemies in a time limit , or defeating a boss character . In this mode , Sora and Riku can attack opponents , slow down their descent , or dodge attacks . They can also pick up magic spells which give them a limited supply of magical attacks to use against enemies .
Outside of the main game , players can play an additional mode called Flick Rush , which can be played alone or with another player via wireless multiplayer . In this mode , players battle with a team of three Spirits and pit them against each other . Players fight against their opponent by flicking up cards from the touchscreen . Each card has a number value determining its attack strength , with multiple cards combining to increase the overall value . The player whose attack value is greater than their opponent 's gets to attack with their Spirit . A slowly replenishing meter determines how many cards the player can send out at a time , and each Spirit has a limited amount of cards that can be replenished by swapping them out with another Spirit . The first player to eliminate all of their opponent 's Spirits wins the game .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Dream Drop Distance features a total of seven playable worlds , most of them set in a " world submerged in sleep " , with all the Disney @-@ based worlds introduced being entirely new , ( with the exception of Riku 's version of Pinocchio 's world , a.k.a Monstro ) including : La Cité des Cloches from The Hunchback of Notre Dame ; The Grid from Tron : Legacy ; Prankster 's Paradise from Pinocchio ; Country of the Musketeers from Mickey , Donald , Goofy : The Three Musketeers ; and Symphony of Sorcery from Fantasia . The other two playable worlds are Traverse Town and The World That Never Was , while the worlds Twilight Town , Radiant Garden , Disney Castle , Mysterious Tower , Destiny Islands , and Castle Oblivion appear in cutscenes .
= = = Characters = = =
The game features Sora and Riku as the two main characters of the game , taking part in a test to improve their skills with their weapon , the Keyblade . The two are depicted during gameplay as their younger selves shown in the original game while also being given new clothes ; their older selves from Kingdom Hearts II also appear during cutscenes , and Sora in this incarnation is briefly playable during the end credits . A younger incarnation of Xehanort , first introduced as the optional " Mysterious Figure " boss from the North American and European releases of Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , returns and serves as the game 's primary antagonist together with his two revived alter @-@ egos , " Ansem " and Xemnas . Several former members of Xemnas ' Organization XIII , including Lea and some of Ansem the Wise 's apprentices , return after being restored to their human forms .
Like previous games , Dream Drop Distance features various Disney characters , including Mickey Mouse , who is seen in the game in three different incarnations — his original characterization in the Kingdom Hearts series as the king of Disney Castle ; a musketeer as featured in Mickey , Donald , Goofy : The Three Musketeers ; and the young apprentice of Yen Sid shown in Fantasia . Donald Duck and Goofy make similar appearances as well . Characters hailing from their respective worlds remain in their worlds and play a small role in the main story , while Maleficent and Pete reprise their roles as antagonists , and Yen Sid as a supporting character . Unlike the other major installments , which feature an extensive cast of Final Fantasy characters , only a single Moogle appears from the franchise . Dream Drop Distance features appearances of Neku Sakuraba , Joshua , Shiki , Beat and Rhyme from The World Ends with You , another game owned by Square Enix with characters designed by Tetsuya Nomura , marking the first time that non @-@ Disney , non @-@ Final Fantasy characters have appeared in the series .
The game introduces a new type of creature called Dream Eaters , which come in two varieties — " Nightmares " , which eat good dreams and create nightmares , and serve as enemies similar to the Heartless , Nobodies , and Unversed from previous games ; and " Spirits " , which eat nightmares and create good dreams , and also act as Sora and Riku 's party members .
= = = Story = = =
Anticipating Master Xehanort 's return following the defeat of his Heartless Ansem and Nobody Xemnas , Yen Sid puts Sora and Riku through a Mark of Mastery exam to deem them Keyblade Masters and counter Xehanort . For the exam , they are sent to worlds that were restored at the end of Kingdom Hearts , albeit in a " sleeping " state disconnecting them from other worlds . These worlds , La Cité des Cloches from The Hunchback of Notre Dame ; The Grid from Tron : Legacy ; Prankster 's Paradise from Pinocchio ; Country of the Musketeers from Mickey , Donald , Goofy : The Three Musketeers ; and Symphony of Sorcery from Fantasia , are inhabited by Dream Eaters , creatures born from darkness that seek out the Keyholes of Sleep found there . Sora and Riku 's task is to reawaken the sleeping worlds by unlocking the seven Keyholes of Sleep , and then return to the realm of light ; they are advised to create benevolent " Spirit " Dream Eaters to guide them and battle the malevolent " Nightmare " Dream Eaters .
Sora and Riku are separated at the start of the exam , and find themselves each in a separate version of the first sleeping world , Traverse Town , where they are able to influence one another 's journey , as evidenced by their interactions with Neku Sakuraba , Joshua , Shiki , Beat and Rhyme . Throughout the exam , Sora and Riku cross paths with a gray @-@ haired youth who is mysteriously accompanied by Xemnas and Ansem , respectively . The three issue warnings to Sora and Riku and play on their weaknesses , but the two ignore them and continue their test .
Upon completing the exam , Sora mysteriously arrives in the World That Never Was instead of the realm of light . Sora re @-@ encounters the youth , who is revealed to be a version of Xehanort from the past sent to gather different versions of himself throughout time to serve as vessels for fragments of Xehanort 's heart . Although Sora defeats Xemnas , his heart is swallowed by darkness and encased in Ventus ' armor . Elsewhere , Ansem reveals that Riku has been traveling through Sora 's dreams as a Dream Eater . Riku defeats Ansem and enters the Castle That Never Was , where he defeats the young Xehanort . Afterward , Master Xehanort appears alongside eleven other incarnations of himself in a new Organization XIII and attempts to turn Sora into his final vessel , intending to pit his thirteen " seekers of darkness " against seven " guardians of light " in order to recreate the χ @-@ blade . He is foiled by Lea , the revived human form of the original Organization member , Axel , as well as Mickey , Donald Duck and Goofy . Master Xehanort and his vessels return to their respective time periods , but assures that they will clash when the time comes .
Sora 's body is brought back to Yen Sid 's tower , where Riku enters Sora 's dreams and releases his heart from Ventus ' armor , which has been possessed by a Nightmare . Riku then arrives at a digital version of the Destiny Islands , where he meets a copy of Ansem the Wise . Ansem assures that Sora is now awake , and gives Riku his research data he had left in Sora 's heart to help Sora save those connected to his heart . Upon returning to the realm of light , Riku is declared a Keyblade Master by Yen Sid for braving the realm of sleep a second time to reawaken Sora . Lea then revealed that he 's now trained to be the Keyblade Wielder and suddenly wielded his own Keyblade , much to everyone 's surprise . Sora is undaunted by his failure , and returns to the sleeping worlds where he thanks his Spirit Dream Eater companions . Meanwhile , at Castle Oblivion , Ventus spreads a smile on his face in his comatose state , indicating Sora 's happiness .
In the game 's secret ending , Yen Sid and Mickey discuss Xehanort 's plan . Yen Sid reveals his intent to gather seven Keyblade wielders strong enough to combat the new Organization XIII in order to prevent Xehanort from using the Princesses of Heart to forge the χ @-@ blade . To this end , he has Riku bring Kairi to be trained as a Keyblade wielder .
= = Development = =
The game was created by the same development team that worked on Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , then part of Square Enix 's 1st Production Department . Since it contained members who worked for The World Ends with You , the group decided to use characters from said game in replacement of Final Fantasy characters . The decision to make a Kingdom Hearts game for the Nintendo 3DS was due to the positive impression the Square Enix staff had when viewing the console 's quality . The console inspired Nomura to make the Dive Mode function where the character moves to different worlds without the use of a vehicle , while the Flowmotion was thought prior to deciding which console use . The game 's title was used to reference its various themes , with " Dream " referencing the storyline , " Drop " for the gameplay style , and " Distance " referring to the main characters ' interaction , and , while unintentionally , the system 's autostereoscopic 3D effect . Although Tetsuya Nomura admitted the English used was not grammatically correct , the team still decided to use it based on the way it sounded . Development was notably shorter than the ones from previous Kingdom Hearts games . However , co @-@ director Tai Yasue emphasized how the finished product resembled Kingdom Hearts II and Birth by Sleep but improved .
The team wished for the game to have more action than the previous games . Nomura noted the similarities with Final Fantasy Versus XIII as a result of their similar styles . The new maneuvers employed in Dream Drop Distance are also meant to give a glimpse about how the next game in the series , Kingdom Hearts III , would look like . New worlds were included in the game as a result of multiple requests by fans . The switches between player characters Sora and Riku across the game are meant to contrast the style from Kingdom Hearts Birth By Sleep , which allowed the player to use three characters in their own campaigns , as well as explain the word " Distance " in the title because the two characters never interact across their stories . The Free Flow system was made using data from Birth by Sleep , which took nearly two weeks to obtain a form similar to the one from the game . The game originally intended to use returning Heartless and Nobodies as generic enemies . However , the setting gave the staff the idea of introducing new creatures , Dream Eaters , who would also join the player in fights . They were also inspired in part by Nintendogs + Cats — Nomura wished that his virtual dog could battle with other pets met through Streetpass and created the Dream Eaters based on this concept . They are used in the mini @-@ game Flick Rush which originally intended to allow players to use a picture . Nomura did not approve of this idea .
With Kingdom Hearts Re : coded , the staff revealed that Dream Drop Distance would revolve around Sora 's and Riku 's " Mark of Mastery " exam , but were worried about how to set it . The idea of Sora going through a dream was inspired by the subtitle of Kingdom Hearts : Birth by Sleep and served as a basis for the game . Sora and Riku were chosen as the playable characters in anticipation for the franchise 's ending of the " Xehanort arc " as well as to represent the theme of " the light and the dark sides of hearts " which the two characters represent . The former 's inclusion was also done due to the character 's popularity in Japan . Nomura has stated that the themes of the game are trust and friendship , and that like Birth by Sleep , the story is on par with that of a numbered title . As a result of the game 's plot , both Sora and Riku appear in their younger forms from the first Kingdom Hearts game . However , to avoid misconceptions that Dream Drop Distance was a remake of the original game , Nomura decided to change Sora 's and Riku 's outfits for most of the game . Despite using two protagonists , the game primarily focuses on Riku 's growth across the series . When starting production , the staff had decided to make the story as complex as possible , leading to the inclusion of several cutscenes which can be viewed by the player anytime they want . In order to make it more accessible , scenario writer Masaru Oka was in charge of the Chronicles feature , which explains events from previous games . The game 's story is also meant to connect directly with Kingdom Hearts III , although its original ending was not approved by the staff and was scrapped . Like previous titles , Dream Drop Distance has a secret ending that connects to Kingdom Hearts III although the staff found it unconventional in comparison to previous ones .
= = = Promotion and release = = =
The game was announced at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010 as " Kingdom Hearts 3D Demo " for the Nintendo 3DS . It was formally unveiled though at the Square Enix 1st Production Department Premier event at the Toho Cinemas in Tokyo , Japan on January 18 , 2011 with its first trailer along with its official name . During the game 's development , Nomura emphasized the mystery element of the story and confirmed that the theme of the game is trust . In July 2011 , a Famitsu article included an interview with Nomura in which he revealed that the game would have an unlockable secret movie . A playable demo released the same month also first featured the Dream Eaters as the player characters ' partners and the game 's generic enemy . A Dengeki issue featured another interview with Nomura , where he confirmed that he would be considering what he called an " HD Technical Test " in order to commemorate the series ' tenth anniversary and to entice new players to the series . This occurred on March 3 , 2012 in the form of a premiere event where footage from the game , including its full CGI introduction sequence , was showcased to celebrate the game 's release .
The game was first released in Japan on March 29 , 2012 , and in North American and Europe on July 31 , 2012 and July 20 , 2012 , respectively . In Australia , it was released on July 26 , 2012 . A limited edition titled " Mark of Mastery " was also released in North America featuring twelve art cards , AR cards able to unlock new Dream Eaters , and a protector case for the 3DS console . While this has been noted to be the shortest gaps between the Japanese and English releases in the Kingdom Hearts , the latter version does not include new features not seen in the former . However , the Mark of Mastery limited edition was made so that English gamers would be able to obtain bonus material that can only be obtained in Japan . The game is also included within the " Kingdom Hearts 10th Anniversary Box " package made in commemoration of the franchise 's 10th anniversary . The box also includes the Nintendo DS games Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days and Kingdom Hearts Re : coded . Unlike Kingdom Hearts , Kingdom Hearts II and Birth by Sleep , there will not be an updated version of the game according to Tetsuya Nomura .
A guidebook , Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance Ultimania ( キングダム ハーツ 3D [ ドリーム ドロップ ディスタンス ] アルティマニア ) , was published in Japan on May 1 , 2012 . Square Enix also published a light novel by Tomoko Kanemaki based on the game on June 28 , 2012 under the title of " Side Sora " . The second volume , titled " Side Riku " , was released in Japan on September 27 , 2012 .
A HD remaster of the game for PlayStation 4 was announced in September 2015 at Tokyo Game Show to be part of the upcoming compilation Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 8 Final Chapter Prologue and will be renamed in the compilation as Kingdom Hearts Dream Drop Distance HD .
= = = Music = = =
Unlike the previous games , the music for Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance was a collaboration by Yoko Shimomura , Takeharu Ishimoto , and Tsuyoshi Sekito , containing musical compositions from all three . Among the songs included are tracks from The World Ends with You , originally composed by Ishimoto , who remixed them for Dream Drop Distance . Orchestral arrangements were provided by Kaoru Wada . The Kingdom Hearts Dream Drop Distance Original Soundtrack was released in Japan on April 18 , 2012 .
= = Reception = =
The Tokyo Game Show featured a playable demo which earned the game top honors as " Best 3DS RPG " in RPG Land 's Tokyo Game Show Awards , following a hands @-@ on report that praised the boss fights . RPG Site also praised the game upon its first impression , calling the demo " refreshing " . Reception to the game 's released trailers , demos and general information was generally positive , and the game ranked among Famitsu 's 25 " most wanted " list in October 2011 . The Official Nintendo Magazine listed it eighth in their " Games of 2012 " feature . In an IGN poll , it ranked as the most expected Nintendo 3DS game for 2012 's summer . It also won the " Most Valuable Game Award " from the Nintendo Power magazine .
In its first review , Famitsu gave Dream Drop Distance a rating of 10 / 9 / 10 / 9 , or a total of 38 / 40 , in their March 22 , 2012 issue , which made Dream Drop Distance the second highest rated game in the series for them , after Kingdom Hearts II . The game debuted at the top of Media Create 's sales charts , selling 213 @,@ 579 copies during its first week . The release was also noted to have helped boost the sales of the Nintendo 3DS console . Although the amount of pre @-@ orders surpassed that of Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days for the Nintendo DS , the first week 's sales were lower . Nevertheless , Media Create noted that this was due to the comparison between the amount of units sold between the Nintendo DS and the Nintendo 3DS during the time the games were released , with the former having sold more copies than the latter . The game continued to appear in Media Create 's polls for the next several weeks , selling a total of 311 @,@ 688 units as of May 2012 . In North America , the game sold 200 @,@ 000 units during August 2012 , with 180 @,@ 000 regular editions and 20 @,@ 000 Mark of Mastery editions .
English publications have given Kingdom Hearts 3D moderately positive reviews , with lower scores than Japanese review outlets , generally praising the gameplay while criticizing the plot . It received an aggregated score of 78 @.@ 70 % on GameRankings and 75 / 100 on Metacritic . Game Informer writer Bryan Vore praised the new gameplay elements and , unlike other reviewers , how well the story handles the franchise 's plot , especially as it was set after that of Kingdom Hearts II , unlike many of the other newer titles in the series . Audrey Drake from IGN echoed similar comments about the gameplay , but felt that the story was sometimes not very interesting . Mark Walton from GameSpot praised the combat systems and environment design , though he wished that the game didn 't force the player through the levels linearly and dismissed the plot as " labyrinth @-@ like " with poor dialogue and confusing motivations . Bob Mackey of 1UP.com was harsher on the game than other reviewers ; while he too found the plot incomprehensible , he also felt that the numerous game mechanics combined together to form a confusing and frustrating system . The reviewer for GameTrailers had a different take , finding the combination of mechanics to form " the best battle system in the series to date " and was not a dismissive of the plot , though they did note that it required a lot of knowledge of previous games in the series to follow . Leah Jackson of G4 had one of the highest reviews for the game out of the major English review outlets ; though she had similar praises and criticisms as other reviewers , she felt that the gameplay and graphics more than made up for the sometimes confusing plot .
= = HD 2 @.@ 8 Final Chapter Prologue = =
In the credits of Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix , clips of Dream Drop Distance were shown as well as the inclusion of a secret ending related to the game , hinting at a possible additional collection . In September 2015 , Square Enix announced Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 8 Final Chapter Prologue . The collection features an HD remaster of Dream Drop Distance as well as Kingdom Hearts χ Back Cover , set to tell the tale of the Foretellers and revealing new parts of the series ' history in HD cinematics , and Kingdom Hearts 0 @.@ 2 : Birth by Sleep – A Fragmentary Passage , a new part of the story taking place after the events of the original Birth by Sleep , told from the perspective of Aqua . It will be released worldwide in December 2016 .
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= Frank Buckles =
Frank Woodruff Buckles ( born Wood Buckles , February 1 , 1901 – February 27 , 2011 ) was a United States Army soldier and the last surviving American veteran of World War I. He enlisted in the U.S. Army in 1917 at the age of 16 and served with a detachment from Fort Riley , driving ambulances and motorcycles near the front lines in Europe .
During World War II , he was captured by Japanese forces while working in the shipping business , and spent three years in the Philippines as a civilian prisoner . After the war , Buckles married in San Francisco and moved to Gap View Farm near Charles Town , West Virginia . A widower at age 98 , he worked on his farm until the age of 105 .
In his last years , he was Honorary Chairman of the World War I Memorial Foundation . As chairman , he advocated the establishment of a World War I memorial similar to other war memorials in Washington , D.C .. Toward this end , Buckles campaigned for the District of Columbia War Memorial to be renamed the National World War I Memorial . He testified before Congress in support of this cause , and met with President George W. Bush at the White House .
Buckles was awarded the World War I Victory Medal at the conclusion of that conflict , and the Army of Occupation of Germany Medal retroactively following the medal 's creation in 1941 , as well as the French Legion of Honor in 1999 . His funeral was on March 15 , 2011 , at Arlington National Cemetery , with President Barack Obama paying his respects prior to the ceremony with full military honors .
= = Early life and education = =
Buckles was born to James Clark Buckles , a farmer , and Theresa J. Buckles ( née Keown ) in Bethany , Missouri , on February 1 , 1901 . He had two older brothers , Ashman and Roy , and two older sisters , Grace and Gladys . Several family members lived long lives ; he remembered speaking with his grandmother who was born in 1817 , and his father lived to be 94 . His ancestry included soldiers of the Revolutionary and Civil Wars .
In 1903 , Frank — then known as Wood — and his brother Ashman contracted scarlet fever . Frank survived , but Ashman died from the disease at the age of four . Between 1911 and 1916 , Buckles attended school in Walker , Missouri . Later , he and his family moved to Oakwood , Oklahoma , where he continued his schooling and worked at a bank . He was an amateur wireless operator , and an avid reader of newspapers .
= = World War I and interwar years = =
Five months after the American entry into World War I , Buckles sought to enlist in the armed forces . He was turned down by the Marine Corps for being too small , and by the Navy , which claimed that he had flat feet . He fared better with the Army , which accepted that he was an adult even though he looked no older than his 16 years . A sergeant advised that a middle initial would be helpful , so he adopted his uncle 's name , " Frank Woodruff Buckles " . Another sergeant suggested that the quickest way to the front lines would be to seek a position driving ambulances .
Buckles enlisted on August 14 , 1917 , and went through basic training at Fort Riley in Kansas . Later that year , he embarked for Europe aboard the RMS Carpathia , which was being used as a troop ship . During the war , Buckles drove ambulances and motorcycles for the Army 's 1st Fort Riley Casual Detachment , first in England and then France . He later recalled his service as a doughboy :
" There was never a shortage of blown @-@ up bodies that needed to be rushed to the nearest medical care . The British and French troops were in bad shape – even guys about my age looked old and tired . After three years of living and dying inside a dirt trench , you know the Brits and French were happy to see us " doughboys . " Every last one of us Yanks believed we ’ d wrap this thing up in a month or two and head back home before harvest . In other words , we were the typical , cocky Americans no one wants around , until they need help winning a war . "
Buckles saw the war 's impact on malnourished children in France , and more than 80 years later he could remember helping to feed them . After the Armistice in 1918 , Buckles escorted prisoners of war back to Germany . One German prisoner gave him a belt buckle inscribed " Gott mit uns " ( English : God with us ) , which he kept for the rest of his life . Buckles was promoted to corporal on September 22 , 1919 . Following an honorable discharge in November 1919 , he returned to the United States aboard USS Pocahontas .
Early in the interwar period , he attended the dedication of the Liberty Memorial in Kansas City , Missouri , in honor of the Americans who died in World War I , and met General of the Armies John Pershing , who commanded the American Expeditionary Forces in Europe during the war . Buckles then attended business school in Oklahoma City , and found work at a shipping company in Toronto , Canada . From 1922 to 1923 , he served with the Seventh Regiment of the New York National Guard in New York City where he also worked in financial services .
Next came a career as chief purser on cargo and passenger ships travelling to South America , Europe , and Asia . In the 1930s , German and British passengers expressed fears about the Nazis , and military officers told him that Germany was equipping for war . Buckles witnessed antisemitism and its effects firsthand while ashore in Germany , and he warned acquaintances in Germany that their country would be brought down by Adolf Hitler , whom he encountered at a German hotel . Employed at sea during the Great Depression , he forwarded an $ 800 Army bonus to his father who was struggling as a farmer in the Oklahoma Dust Bowl ( Buckles provided these details many decades later ) .
= = During and after World War II = =
As of 1940 , Buckles had been employed by the White Star , American President , and W.R. Grace shipping companies , and in that year shipping business took him to Manila in the Philippines . After the outbreak of the Pacific War and the invasion of the Philippines , he reportedly remained in Manila to help resupply U.S. troops . He was captured in January 1942 by Japanese forces , and spent the next three years and two months as a civilian internee in the Santo Tomas and Los Baños prison camps .
As a prisoner , he battled starvation , receiving only a small meal of mush served in a tin cup — a utensil he kept for the rest of his life . With a weight below 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) , Buckles developed beriberi , and led fellow captives in calisthenics to counter the effects of imprisonment . Their captors showed little mercy , but Buckles was allowed to grow a small garden , which he often used to help feed children who were imprisoned there .
All of the captives were freed following a raid by Allied forces on February 23 , 1945 . Before the war he had become fluent in German , Spanish , Portuguese , and French , and by its end had learned some Japanese .
After World War II , Buckles moved to San Francisco , and married Audrey Mayo in 1946 . Eight years later , the couple bought the 330 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 3 km2 ) Gap View Farm in West Virginia where they raised cattle . Ancestors named Buckles had settled near Gap View Farm centuries earlier .
In 1955 , their only child , Susannah , was born . By then , the world traveller had settled down to a life of farm activities , social events , and serving as an officer ( eventually president ) of the county historical society . Audrey Buckles died in 1999 , and their daughter moved back to the farm to care for him .
= = Active centenarian = =
After the start of the 21st century , Buckles continued living near Charles Town , West Virginia , and was still driving a tractor on his farm at age 103 . He stated in an interview with The Washington Post on Veterans ' Day 2007 that he believed the United States should not go to war " unless it 's an emergency " . He has also stated that , " If your country needs you , you should be right there , that is the way I felt when I was young , and that 's the way I feel today . "
When asked the secret of long life , Buckles replied that being hopeful and not hurrying were key traits , adding : " When you start to die ... don 't " . In another interview , the centenarian talked about genetics , exercise , and a healthy diet , but put " the will to survive " above everything else .
Buckles joined actor Gary Sinise in 2007 to lead a Memorial Day parade , and that evening his life was featured on NBC Nightly News . With the death of 108 @-@ year @-@ old Harry Richard Landis in February 2008 , Buckles became the last surviving American veteran of World War I. The following month , he met with United States President George W. Bush at the White House . The same day , he attended the opening of a Pentagon exhibit featuring photos of nine centenarian World War I veterans , with Defense Secretary Robert Gates in attendance . That summer , he visited wounded soldiers at Walter Reed Army Medical Center .
Buckles was the Honorary Chairman of the World War I Memorial Foundation , which seeks refurbishment of the District of Columbia War Memorial and its establishment as the National World War I Memorial on the National Mall . He was named ABC 's World News Tonight 's " Person of the Week " on March 22 , 2009 , in recognition of his efforts to set up the memorial . Those efforts continued , as Buckles appeared before Congress on December 3 , 2009 , advocating on behalf of such legislation . He did so as the oldest person who ever testified before Congress . On Armistice Day ( i.e. Veterans Day ) of 2010 , he made a further appeal :
" We still do not have a national memorial in Washington , D.C. to honor the Americans who sacrificed with their lives during World War I. On this eve of Veterans Day , I call upon the American people and the world to help me in asking our elected officials to pass the law for a memorial to World War I in our nation 's capital . These are difficult times , and we are not asking for anything elaborate . What is fitting and right is a memorial that can take its place among those commemorating the other great conflicts of the past century . On this 92nd anniversary of the armistice , it is time to move forward with honor , gratitude , and resolve . "
Passage of the legislation remained in doubt , because opponents sought relocation of the proposed monument , or alternatively some benefit for the District of Columbia . As of July 2013 , U.S. Senator Pat Toomey was concerned that such a memorial would lead to the National Mall becoming " cluttered " .
A Freemason and longtime Shriner , Buckles was a member of the Osiris Shriners of Wheeling , West Virginia , and he became " the oldest Shriner in Shrinedom " . Other interests of his included genealogy ; he had been a member of the West Virginia Society of the Sons of the American Revolution since 1935 , and was active for many years in the Sons of Confederate Veterans . He was a Life Member of the National Rifle Association .
On February 1 , 2010 — Buckles ' 109th birthday — his official biographer , David DeJonge , announced a forthcoming documentary about him , entitled " Pershing 's Last Patriot " , described as a cumulative work of interviews and vignettes . DeJonge estimated a 2011 release for the documentary , and actor Richard Thomas is expected to narrate the film .
In late 2010 , Buckles was still giving media interviews and became a supercentenarian upon his 110th birthday , on February 1 , 2011 .
On February 27 , 2011 , Buckles died of natural causes at his home at the age of 110 years and 26 days . He was the second @-@ oldest living man in the United States at the time of his death ( Walter Breuning died 46 days later ) .
= = Commemoration and funeral = =
Buckles did not meet the criteria for burial at Arlington National Cemetery as he had never been in combat , but friends and family secured special permission from the federal government in 2008 . That was accomplished with the help of Ross Perot , who had met him at a history seminar in 2001 , and who intervened in 2008 with the White House regarding a final resting place .
Upon Buckles ' death on February 27 , 2011 , President Barack Obama ordered that the American flag be flown at half @-@ staff on all government buildings , including the White House and U.S. embassies , on the day in March when Buckles would be buried at Arlington . Leading up to the March 15 funeral , the governors of 16 states likewise called for lowering their states ' flags to half @-@ staff .
The United States Senate passed a resolution on March 3 , 2011 , honoring " the last veteran to represent the extraordinary legacy of the World War I veterans " . Concurrent resolutions were proposed in both the Senate and the House of Representatives for Buckles to lie in honor in the United States Capitol rotunda . However , that plan was blocked by Speaker of the House John Boehner and Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid . When asked for explanation , their spokesmen would not elaborate on reasons for the decision . Boehner and Reid instead advocated a ceremony in the Amphitheater of Arlington National Cemetery . Various people had supported a rotunda ceremony , including Buckles ' daughter , a great @-@ grandson of Sir Winston Churchill , and former Republican Party presidential nominee Bob Dole .
Faculty and students at Buckles ' high school in Missouri gathered to honor him on March 8 , 2011 . His home church in Charles Town held a memorial service , attended by the Episcopal bishop of West Virginia , members of Buckles ' family and others . On March 12 , 2011 , a ceremony was held at the Liberty Memorial in Kansas City , Missouri , to honor Buckles and the " passing of the Great War generation " . The keynote speaker was former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Richard Myers .
A ceremony at Arlington National Cemetery 's Memorial Amphitheater Chapel preceded the interment on March 15 . During the ceremony prior to burial , President Barack Obama and Vice President Joe Biden paid their respects and met with the family .
Buckles ' flag @-@ draped coffin was borne to the burial plot on a horse @-@ drawn caisson , and the folded flag was handed to his daughter by United States Army Vice Chief of Staff General Peter W. Chiarelli . Buckles was buried with full military honors in plot 34 , near General of the Armies John J. Pershing . Reporter Paul Duggan of The Washington Post summed up the occasion :
The hallowed ritual at grave No. 34 @-@ 581 was not a farewell to one man alone . A reverent crowd of the powerful and the ordinary — President Obama and Vice President Biden , laborers and store clerks , heads bowed — came to salute Buckles 's deceased generation , the vanished millions of soldiers and sailors he came to symbolize in the end .
In Martinsburg , West Virginia , on March 26 , 2011 , a candlelight vigil was held in memory of Buckles . Attendees made donations for a planned statue of him in Charles Town .
In addition to being the last U.S. veteran of World War I , Buckles was the oldest World War I veteran in the world at the time of his death , as well as the last field veteran of the war . Following his death and funeral , there were two surviving World War I veterans , Florence Green and Claude Choules , both of whom served in the British Armed Forces . Choules died on May 5 , 2011 ; Green died on February 4 , 2012 .
= = Honors and awards = =
For his service during World War I , Buckles received , from the United States government , the World War I Victory Medal and four Overseas Service Bars . He also qualified for the Army of Occupation of Germany Medal due to his postwar service in Europe during the year 1919 , and received that medal after it was created in 1941 . Buckles did not qualify for the Prisoner of War Medal , because he was a civilian at the time of his imprisonment by the Japanese .
As a resident of Jefferson County , West Virginia , he was involved for many years with the Jefferson County Historical Society ( including as President from 1960 to 1964 ) . In 1981 , the honor of Emeritus Officer was conferred upon him by that organization .
In 1999 , French president Jacques Chirac awarded him France 's Legion of Honour , for his service during World War I.
In 2007 , the United States Library of Congress included Buckles in its Veterans History Project ( VHP ) . Information about Buckles ' experiences in both world wars is available from the VHP , including a 148 @-@ minute video interview .
In 2008 , a section of West Virginia Route 9 , which passes by his Gap View Farm home , was named in his honor by West Virginia Governor Joe Manchin . The following month , Buckles received the Veterans of Foreign Wars ’ Gold Medal of Merit at the Liberty Memorial . Also in 2008 , he sat for a portrait to be displayed at the National World War I Museum . Buckles received the Scottish Rite of Freemasonry 's Knight Commander of the Court of Honour ( KCCH ) in September 2008 .
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= Brander – Spencer model =
The Brander – Spencer model is an economic model in international trade originally developed by James Brander and Barbara Spencer in the early 1980s . The model illustrates a situation where , under certain assumptions , a government can subsidize domestic firms to help them in their competition against foreign producers and in doing so enhances national welfare . This conclusion stands in contrast to results from most international trade models , in which government non @-@ interference is socially optimal .
The basic model is a variation on the Stackelberg – Cournot " leader and follower " duopoly game . Alternatively , the model can be portrayed in game theoretic terms as initially a game with multiple Nash equilibria , with government having the capability of affecting the payoffs to switch to a game with just one equilibrium . Although it is possible for the national government to increase a country 's welfare in the model through export subsidies , the policy is of beggar thy neighbor type . This also means that if all governments simultaneously attempt to follow the policy prescription of the model , all countries would wind up worse off .
The model was part of the " New Trade Theory " that was developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s , which incorporated then recent developments from literature on industrial organization into theories of international trade . In particular , like in many other New Trade Theory models , economies of scale ( in this case , in the form of fixed entry costs ) play an important role in the Brander – Spencer model .
= = Entry game version = =
A simplified version of the model was popularized by Paul Krugman in the 1990s in his book Peddling Prosperity . In this set up there are two firms , one foreign and one domestic which are considering entering a new export market in a third country ( or possibly the whole world ) . The demand in the export market is such that if only one firm enters , it will make a profit , but if they both enter each will make a loss , perhaps because of initial set up , infrastructure , product development , marketing or other fixed costs of entry . The matrix below presents a stylized example of the game that the two firms are engaged in .
The available choices of the domestic firms are given on the left , while those of the foreign firm are on top . The first number in each cell denotes the payoff to the domestic firm while the second number is the payoff to the foreign firm .
The game with no government subsidy to the domestic firm is shown in Figure 1 on the left . If both firms enter , they each suffer a loss of 10 million dollars and if they both stay out of the market neither firm makes a profit or a loss . If only one firm enters however , that firm will realize a profit of 50 million dollars while the other firm will make nothing . The two Nash equilibria of this game ( marked in purple ) are the situations in which only one firm enters – but which firm , domestic or foreign , is indeterminate . In such a situation if the foreign firm has a slight initial advantage over the domestic firm ( perhaps because it began product development earlier ) the domestic firm will stay out and the foreign firm will enter .
The game changes however if the government credibly promises to subsidize the domestic firm if it enters the market , as illustrated in Figure 2 . Suppose the government promises a subsidy of twenty million , regardless of whether the foreign firm also enters or not . In that case , if the foreign firm enters the domestic firm will lose ten million from entry costs but will be more than compensated by the government subsidy , ending up with a net payoff of ten million . If the foreign firm does not enter of course , it is still profitable for the domestic firm to enter . As a result , regardless of the action of the foreign firm , the domestic firm 's incentive is to enter the market . Anticipating this , the foreign firm will stay out of the market itself , since otherwise it would incur a loss .
From the point of view of the domestic country , the subsidy is welfare improving . The 20 million subsidy is a transfer from the government to the firm hence it has no effect on national welfare ( ignoring costs of taxation ; as long as these are not too large the basic insight of the model goes through ) . Additionally the domestic firm gains 50 million which would have otherwise gone to the foreign firm .
= = Stackelberg – Cournot version = =
The original Brander and Spencer paper presented the game in the framework of a Cournot competition model .
Letting x denote the output of the domestic firm and y denote the output of the foreign firm , the inverse demand function ( price as a function of total quantity ) is given by <formula> . Hence the profit function for the domestic firm is <formula> where <formula> is total revenue , <formula> is total cost of producing x units , and s is per unit subsidy provided by the government . The profit function for the foreign firm is similar except that it does not include a subsidy , <formula> .
Each firm chooses the quantity to supply in order to maximize profits , taking the other 's choice as given . The ( first order ) conditions for profit maximization are <formula> for the domestic firm and <formula> for the foreign firm , where subscripted variables denote partial derivatives . Solving these for y implicitly defines a best response function for each firm ; <formula> and <formula> . These are illustrated in the figure below , with the domestic firm 's output on the x axis and foreign firm 's output on the y axis .
With no government subsidy ( s = 0 ) the resulting equilibrium will be the standard Cournot outcome , as shown in the graph by the intersection of the best response functions . A subsidy however has the effect of shifting the domestic firm 's best response function to the right . Because its output is subsidized , the domestic firm increases production . This in turn means that the foreign firm 's best response is to cut output , although not proportionally ( hence , the market price falls ) . In the new equilibrium domestic firm produces more and foreign firm produces less .
In the model , domestic social welfare can be defined as the home firm 's profit net of the subsidy ( the model can be extended so that social welfare includes the firm 's monopoly profit as well as the wages paid to the firm 's workers ; the results are qualitatively the same ) . It can be shown that the profit function evaluated at equilibrium quantity levels is concave in s and eventually negatively sloped . As a result , there is an " optimal subsidy " which maximizes the domestic firm 's profits and hence domestic social welfare . As it turns out , if the government sets the subsidy exactly at the optimal level , the resulting equilibrium is the same as that of the " leader and follower " Stackelberg model . In that case one of the firms ( in this case the domestic firm ) has the ability to choose its output first . This creates the ability to credibly commit to a particular action , resulting in " first mover advantage " . In the Brender – Spencer model , the government 's subsidy creates this credible commitment even when the private firm does not have that ability .
= = Extensions = =
= = = Domestic consumption of export good = = =
In standard models of international trade a fall in the price of a country 's export good – a deterioration in its terms of trade – generally decreases the home country 's welfare . In the Brander – Spencer model however the opposite is true . This is because in this model the markets are not perfectly competitive and the revenue from the expanded quantity sold compensates the firm for the revenue lost from the lower export price . If the good produced by the firm is also consumed domestically however the result is a bit more complicated . In the case where the firm is able to separate the home and export market ( charge different prices in each with no possibility of third party arbitrage ) then the level of the optimal subsidies will depend on whether marginal costs of production are constant , increasing or decreasing . The optimal subsidy level is either the same , higher or lower , respectively , compared to the level with no domestic consumption . This underscores the need on the part of the government for very precise information on industry structure and firm 's cost functions .
In the more general case where the firm cannot price discriminate between domestic and foreign consumers the effects of a subsidy are less clear since both an expansion of exports and deterioration of terms of trade are present . However , Brender and Spencer show that starting out from the position of no subsidy , introducing a small subsidy can improve a country 's welfare .
= = = Extended government game = = =
The basic model can be extended to incorporate a supra @-@ game played by the governments of the respective countries . In this case , each government chooses the level of subsidy it will provide to its firm , taking the other government 's action as given , and anticipating the reaction of the firms ( in terms of quantity produced ) to the subsidy . Brander and Spencer show that in the resulting Nash equilibrium the governments choose a level of subsidy that is too high and hence they do not manage to maximize social welfare . In fact , if the good produced is not consumed domestically , then the optimal level of subsidy is negative – an export tax . This is because the total quantity produced in the Cournot and the Stackelberg equilibrium is higher than the profit maximizing collusive monopoly level of output . Since both the home and foreign firm are producing for a third market , an export tax could reduce the total quantity produced down to the monopoly level , thus increasing both firms ' profits . In that way the governments can effect a collusive outcome between their firms , at the expanse of the third country which imports the good .
= = Policy applications and applied work = =
= = = General difficulties = = =
As pointed out by Paul Krugman , the Brander – Spencer model , due to the sensitivity of the results to its assumptions , does not establish a generally applicable policy prescription in favor of government subsidies . Rather , it provides an example for when such intervention may be justifiable and points to some conditions which may favor it .
A general difficulty with the application of the model , like many game theoretic models , is that it does not easily lend itself to econometric testing and parameter estimation . As a result , the two avenues of empirical research that have been pursued in subsequent literature have been estimates of a " conjectural variation " parameter for particular industries , and calibration of the models using behavioral parameters from other studies . The former approach assumes that firms have a " conjecture " as to how the other firms will react to their own choice of output and base their decision on this belief . However , the approach is problematic , both from an analytical ( it is not internally consistent ) and an empirical point of view ( there 's no guarantee that the parameter , even if it makes conceptual sense , remains stable when a new policy – the government 's subsidy – is introduced ) . Calibrations of models of industry structure on the other hand have generally found that most industry are neither Cournot ( in which case the Brander – Spencer policy prescription would be an export subsidy ) nor Bertrand ( in which case the optimal policy is an export tax ) . As a result , it is hard to say in which industries exactly the Brander – Spencer policy prescription may apply .
= = = Agriculture = = =
Marie Thursby has used an extended version of the model to examine international trade in wheat , 60 % of which is produced by the United States and Canada . Thursby includes marketing boards , possibility of a monopsony , and a variety of government policies in the analysis . She finds that while there are significant economies of scale in the industry , the barriers to entry are not high and regardless of the extent of market power that US firms have in the industry , the optimal policy is actually an export tax , rather than a subsidy .
= = = Aircraft = = =
In his book which presented the model to the general public , Paul Krugman used the example of the aircraft industry , with the two players being Airbus and Boeing . In fact , Krugman and Baldwin examined the industry for wide bodied aircraft in the context of the model in a 1988 paper . The authors calibrate an extended version of the model in order to examine the effect of a subsidy to Airbus by European governments , and its presence in a market which can only support two firms at most , worldwide . They find that the subsidy had an unambiguously negative effect on welfare of the United States and a positive effect on rest of the world , which benefits from lower prices . The result for Europe hinges on price elasticity of demand ; for relatively inelastic demand the net effect of subsidy is positive with most of the benefits accruing to European consumers , but for elastic demand , social welfare in Europe goes down . Importantly , unlike in the baseline Brander and Spencer model , Krugman and Baldwin find that the changes to consumer surplus resulting from the subsidy and entry , dominate the effect of changes in firm profits in social welfare calculations .
Gernot Klepper , in an analysis similar to Krugman and Baldwin , has also used the Brander Spencer and other models to analyze the effects of entry into the transport aircraft industry . He included the effects of learning during the production process which depends on the scale of production . His calibrated model suggested that per unit production costs can fall by as much as 20 % if total production is doubled . In that case , the entry of another firm ( in this case , Airbus ) into the market would decrease per firm output and reduce the learning and scale effects . In his analysis , the entry of Airbus would cause an increase in consumer surplus , but this would be smaller than the resulting loss in producer surplus .
= = Criticism = =
In general , like with many of the New Trade Theory models , the results of the Brander Spencer model and the policy prescriptions it generates are very sensitive to the underlying assumptions on the nature of the industry in question , the information available to the national government , its ability to credibly commit to an action and the likely response of foreign governments . Some of these criticisms were already noted by Brander and Spencer in their paper , where they advised caution .
Further work on the model has shown that a slight difference in assumptions can produce completely different results . For example , Eaton and Grossmann showed that if the firms compete in prices rather in quantities ( Bertrand competition rather than Cournot ) then the optimal policy is an export tax rather a subsidy – a policy rarely used in practice , politically unpopular and contrary to protectionist sentiment which generally touted New Trade Theory models as an argument for their favored policies .
= = Influence = =
The 1985 paper " Export Subsidies and International Market Share Rivalry " , which presented the original version of the model , was the most cited paper in the Journal of International Economics since the inception of the journal in 1971 ( as of 2000 ) .
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= Connecticut Wing Civil Air Patrol =
The Connecticut Wing Civil Air Patrol is the highest echelon of the Civil Air Patrol in the state of Connecticut . Headquartered in Beers Hall at the Connecticut Valley Hospital campus in Middletown , Connecticut , the Connecticut Wing ( CTWG ) has 14 primary subordinate units located throughout the state to help it carry out its missions . The missions include providing aerospace education and training for all of its members , teaching leadership skills to Connecticut youth , and performing various domestic emergency services for the United States of America in a noncombatant capacity .
Members were notably instrumental in major events during the Wing 's 66 @-@ year history , carrying out operations in World War II , 9 / 11 , and the Hurricane Katrina disaster . The Wing has received numerous awards and recognitions , including unit citations from the Northeast Region Headquarters and National Headquarters , as well as government recognition by local , state and federal officials . Several individual members , including most cadet officers , are recognized by the Connecticut General Assembly upon receiving their promotions . Governor M. Jodi Rell declared December 1 , 2007 , Civil Air Patrol Day in the State of Connecticut , in recognition of the continuing efforts of the Wing and held as an anniversary to the Wing 's creation on December 1 , 1941 . The Wing currently has more than 700 members .
= = History = =
During World War II , Connecticut Wing was heavily involved in coastal patrol and anti @-@ submarine missions along its section of the Atlantic coast . For this , it received two air medals from the U.S. government . Connecticut Wing also flew recovery operations to rescue American pilots who had lost their aircraft domestically . One of the Sikorsky S @-@ 39 Flying Boats used for recovery operations is now on display at the New England Air Museumat Bradley International Airport in Windsor Locks , Connecticut .
Among the other missions that Connecticut Wing currently performs is the Long Island Sound Patrol ( LISP ) program . LISP flies patrol missions across Long Island Sound during the summer months in coordination with the United States Coast Guard to provide more immediate assistance to vessels in distress . The Wing was credited with numerous finds and saves in the year following its inception in summer 2007 , and plans are in effect to continue the program .
= = Current command structure = =
As of December 2011 , the wing commander of the CTWG is Col Ken Chapman . The interim vice commander position is held by Lt Col Darren Cioffi . The chief of staff is Lt Col Jim Ridley . The vice commander is responsible for coordinating the wing echelon with the subordinate units , specifically the squadrons . The vice commander is also an assistant of the wing commander , serving as the coordinator of various special projects . The chief of staff is responsible for the staff members located at wing headquarters , who are independent of the individual squadrons . Finally , the wing commander is responsible for connecting the two groups and ensuring that the chief of staff uses the wing staff members to benefit the squadrons who receive these benefits through the vice commander .
Most of the wing @-@ level staff positions fit into various departments led by directors . For example , Emergency Services Officer ( DOS ) and Ground Training Officer ( GO ) fit into the Operations Department , led by the Director of Operations ( DO ) . Other positions are not in departments , such as the Finance Officer ( FM ) and Safety Officer ( SE ) .
Wing staff members meet at the headquarters building , Beers Hall , on the Connecticut Valley Hospital campus in Middletown , Connecticut . They also attend monthly " staff call " meetings to improve internal communication .
= = Squadrons = =
All 12 of Connecticut 's squadrons report directly to either the Western Connecticut Group or the Eastern Connecticut Group . The Groups report to Wing Headquarters . There are also three non @-@ standard squadrons ( 000 , 001 , and 999 ) under Wing HQ , and there are liaisons with units in other branches of the armed forces , including the AFROTC at the University of Connecticut , which partners with Civil Air Patrol ( CAP ) .
= = Commanders = =
Col Peter Jensen began a history restoration project in 2007 in an effort to uncover as much about Connecticut Wing 's history as possible . Photographs were found of all of the previous Wing commanders , and were restored by Wing staff members . Notable commanders of the Connecticut Wing include Col Tier ( née Hopkins ) , who was the niece of Lady Astor and the Civil Air Patrol 's first female wing commander . Col Frost was slated to be the next Northeast Region commander after he relinquished command of the Wing , but he died before assuming command . Col Howard Palmer during his term as Wing commander established activities for the cadet membership , and the Col Howard E. Palmer Memorial Cadet Ball is conducted annually in his honor by the Connecticut Wing Cadet Advisory Council .
= = Icons and symbols = =
The most prominent icon representing the wing is the Connecticut Wing 's patch , with an ultramarine blue background and bearing the image of its mascot , Connie the Search and Rescue Dog . The wing patch was required to be worn on the left sleeve of the battle dress uniform until 2006 when National Headquarters made it optional . Each squadron also has a distinctive patch . A 2007 issue of the Civil Air Patrol Volunteer magazine featured an image of all of Connecticut Wing 's squadron patches surrounding the Wing patch . High @-@ resolution images of the patches are also being taken as part of the history project undertaken by Col Jensen .
Connecticut Wing is also symbolized by the name " Charter Oak " , which precedes all CTWG radio callsigns . Since Connecticut is in the Northeast region , it also uses callsigns that start with " CAP Stone " , the Northeast region prefix .
= = Cadet activities = =
The largest cadet activity held by the Wing is the annual Summer Encampment . The 2008 Encampment , which was held at the Norwich Academy in Vermont , is the first encampment not held in Niantic , Connecticut , for a decade , as reported in the CAP Encampment Reports . The Encampment is being held jointly with New Hampshire and Vermont Wings . There is also an Encampment , Non @-@ Commissioned Officer Academy , Leadership School and Honor Guard Academy , all of which are being held at Otis Air Force Base . The Connecticut Wing liaison for these multi @-@ Wing encampments is Lt Col Valleau .
Lt Col Valleau also runs the application process as per national regulations for the National Cadet Special Activities in the Civil Air Patrol .
Connecticut Wing was featured in the March 2007 edition of Civil Air Patrol Volunteer magazine for an event held at Hartford @-@ Brainard Airport in Hartford , Connecticut , in conjunction with the Connecticut State Police , which provided volunteers side @-@ by @-@ side training with search @-@ and @-@ rescue dogs . Connecticut Wing cadets are currently involved in a competition between squadrons in the field of model rocketry . The final competition is to be held in June 2008 in conjunction with CATO Rocketry Club , the local chapter of the National Association of Rocketry .
The Wing 's Cadet Advisory Council also hosts the annual Col Howard E Palmer Cadet Ball in recognition of the longest @-@ serving Wing commander . The event is held during the fall season each year and is intended as an informal social gathering to promote inter @-@ squadron cooperation . Nearly one half of the Wing 's cadets attended the 2007 Cadet Ball , with an estimated 139 in attendance .
Additionally , the Connecticut Wing holds an annual conference during October . This time is used to allow the Wing commander to address the entire Wing , for guest speakers to give keynote speeches , and for the annual awards to be presented to their recipients . Several competitions for the cadets occur at each conference , including a military drill and ceremonies competition and a public speaking competition . Col Mary Feik , after whom one of CAP 's cadet awards is named in honor of her work in women 's rights in aviation , was the keynote speaker at the 2007 conference . It is also common to have government representatives attend , including members of the state legislature .
= = Recognition and accomplishments = =
The CAP National History project and National Museum most recognize CTWG for their involvement in coastal patrol missions during World War II , shortly after the creation of CAP . Since CAP was created in a time of crisis , when Brigadier General Billy Mitchell was warning the country of impending attack and less than a week before the attack on Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , coastal patrol and submarine searching became the prime missions of CAP .
In the New England Air Museum , located at Bradley International Airport in Windsor Locks , Connecticut , a Sikorsky S @-@ 39 Flying Boat can be found that was used during World War II for rescuing pilots of subchasers that had gone down . A local artist painted an oil painting of the aircraft , now prominently displayed next to it in the exhibit . Photos of the exhibit , the unveiling ceremony , and the oil painting can be found at the Wing Headquarters building .
The first two Air Medals presented by the president of the United States to the Civil Air Patrol went to Hugh Sharp and Eddie Edwards , who conducted the rescue in the S @-@ 39 . This successful program , which spotted 173 German U @-@ Boats , dropped 57 depth charges , hit 10 of the U @-@ Boats , and sank two of them , was inevitably discontinued after the end of the second World War . Many of the planes used specifically for this program are now parts of exhibits , replaced by new aircraft that are more suited to teaching young students to fly and performing search and rescue , the current missions of the Civil Air Patrol . Currently , CTWG has two Cessna 172s , two Cessna 182s and one Cessna 182T with Garmin G1000 Glass cockpit . Connecticut Wing has the highest number of hours flown per aircraft of any state in the North East Region , and ranks high on a national scale .
The membership of the CTWG grew from 500 to 600 total active members during the 2007 fiscal year , making the largest percent increase of any wing in CAP for that year , as was announced at the April 2007 Wing Conference in Cromwell , Connecticut .
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= Wouldn 't Take Nothing for My Journey Now =
Wouldn 't Take Nothing for My Journey Now , published in 1993 , is African @-@ American writer and poet Maya Angelou 's first book of essays . It was published shortly after she recited her poem " On the Pulse of Morning " at President Bill Clinton 's 1993 inauguration . Journey consists of a series of short essays , often autobiographical , along with two poems , and has been called one of Angelou 's " wisdom books " . It is titled after a lyric in the song Keep Your Eyes on the Prize . At the time of its publication , Angelou was already well respected and popular as a writer and poet . Like her previous works , Journey received generally positive reviews .
= = Background = =
Wouldn 't Take Nothing for My Journey Now ( 1993 ) is Maya Angelou 's first book of essays , published shortly after she recited her poem " On the Pulse of Morning " at the inauguration of US President Bill Clinton , making her the first poet to make an inaugural recitation since Robert Frost at John F. Kennedy 's 1961 inauguration . Her recitation resulted in more recognition for her previous works and broadened her appeal " across racial , economic , and educational boundaries " . Journey is , together with the 1997 book Even the Stars Look Lonesome , one of the volumes that writer Hilton Als called Angelou 's " wisdom book , comprising " homilies strung together with autobiographical texts " .
Journey was published during the period between her fifth and sixth autobiographies , All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes ( 1986 ) and A Song Flung Up to Heaven ( 2002 ) . Angelou 's second book of essays , Even the Stars Look Lonesome , was published in 1997 . She had earlier published several volumes of poetry , including the Pulitzer Prize @-@ nominated Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie ( 1971 ) . Angelou 's first personal essays were published in Essence in late 1992 . The positive response from her readers and the encouragement of her friend Oprah Winfrey inspired her to write Journey . She later admitted that the public 's response was " puzzling " to her . She also stated that she attempted to be " accessible " to her readers in the book . Journey appeared on The New York Times bestseller list and had an initial printing of 300 @,@ 000 copies . The Los Angeles Times , in a report about the 1993 financial struggles of Angelou 's publisher , Random House , speculated that the success of Journey partly compensated for the publisher 's other losses .
By 1993 , when Journey was published , Angelou had become recognized and highly respected as a spokesperson for Blacks and women . She was , as scholar Joanne Braxton stated , " without a doubt ... America 's most visible black woman autobiographer " . She had also become , as reviewer Richard Long stated , " a major autobiographical voice of the time " . Angelou was one of the first African @-@ American female writers to publicly discuss her personal life , and one of the first to use herself as a central character in her books . Writer Julian Mayfield , who called her first autobiography I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings " a work of art that eludes description " , stated that Angelou 's series set a precedent not only for other Black women writers , but for the genre of autobiography as a whole .
= = Overview = =
Wouldn 't Take Nothing for My Journey Now consists of 24 " journalistic homilies " or " meditations " , many of which are autobiographical , that range in number from 63 to a few hundred words . Siona Carpenter of Religion News Service considered Journey as a part of the increase in popularity of motivational and inspirational books written by and for African Americans during the mid @-@ 1990s . The book 's topics include fashion , entertainment , sensuality and pregnancy , racism and death . Her character sketches are similar to the descriptions of people , including those of herself , that appear throughout her autobiographies . The book contains two poems , " Mrs. V.B. " about her mother Vivian Baxter , who was one of the first Black females to join the merchant marines , and an untitled poem about the similarities between all people , despite their racial and cultural differences . The book 's title , which Angelou called " a great song " , was taken from a gospel song first recorded by The Happy Goodman Family , which became their " signature song " , in the late 1950s :
= = Reviews = =
As with Angelou 's previous works , reviews of Wouldn 't Take Nothing for My Journey Now were generally positive . Mary Jane Lupton compared the essays in Journey to traditional Asian poetry and to the writings of Confucius . Many reviewers saw similarities between the essays in the book and Angelou 's autobiographical writing . Anne Patterson @-@ Rabon , who was emotionally impacted by Angelou 's essays , praised Angelou for her effective use of essays to tell her story and to illustrate her points . Lupton compared many of the events and character sketches in this book to descriptions in Angelou 's autobiographies . She compared two essays about Angelou 's grandmother to the descriptions in Angelou 's first autobiography I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , and the essay " Extending the Boundaries " to her quarrel with her husband 's mistress in The Heart of a Woman . Marigold A. Clark of the Bowling Green , Kentucky Daily News called Journey " an autobiography like none other " . She praised Angelou for using " her experiences as examples " .
Genevieve Stuttaford of Publishers Weekly called the essays in Journey " quietly inspirational pieces " . Anne Whitehouse of The New York Times wrote that the book would " appeal to readers in search of clear messages with easily digested meanings " . Patterson @-@ Rabon stated that the book " sings " like the song from which it got its title . Journey made an emotional impact on Clark , who stated : " The reader can almost hear her voice through the written words . " Paul D. Colford of the Los Angeles Times said that the essays in the book " pass as easily as an evening breeze " .
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= The Wolverine ( film ) =
The Wolverine is a 2013 superhero film featuring the Marvel Comics character Wolverine . The film , distributed by 20th Century Fox , is the sixth installment in the X @-@ Men film series . Hugh Jackman reprises his role from previous films as the title character , with James Mangold directing a screenplay written by Scott Frank and Mark Bomback , based on the 1982 limited series Wolverine by Chris Claremont and Frank Miller . In the film , which follows the events of X @-@ Men : The Last Stand , Logan travels to Japan , where he engages an old acquaintance in a struggle that has lasting consequences . Stripped of his healing factor , Wolverine must battle deadly samurai while struggling with guilt .
The film 's development began in 2009 after the release of X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine . Christopher McQuarrie was hired to write a screenplay for The Wolverine in August 2009 . In October 2010 , Darren Aronofsky was hired to direct the film . The project was delayed following Aronofsky 's departure and the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami in March 2011 . In June 2011 , Mangold was brought on board to replace Aronofsky . Bomback was then hired to rewrite the screenplay in September 2011 . The supporting characters were cast in July 2012 with principal photography beginning at the end of the month around New South Wales before moving to Tokyo in August 2012 and back to New South Wales in October 2012 . The film was converted to 3D in post @-@ production .
The Wolverine was released on July 24 , 2013 in various international markets ; and was released on July 25 , 2013 in Australia , and on July 26 , 2013 in the United States to generally positive reviews . The film earned US $ 414 @.@ 8 million worldwide , nearly 3 @.@ 5 times its production budget of $ 120 million and was the fifth highest @-@ grossing film in the series . The film was the first in the X @-@ Men film series not to feature the word " X @-@ Men " in the title .
= = Plot = =
In 1945 , Logan is held in a Japanese POW camp near Nagasaki . During the atomic bombing of Nagasaki , Logan rescues an officer named Ichirō Yashida and shields him from the blast .
In the present day , Logan lives as a hermit in Yukon , tormented by hallucinations of Jean Grey , whom he was forced to kill several years ago ( X @-@ Men : The Last Stand ) . He is located by Yukio , a mutant with the ability to foresee people 's deaths , on @-@ behalf of Yashida , now the CEO of a technology zaibatsu . Yashida , who is dying of cancer , wants Logan to accompany Yukio to Japan so that he may repay his life debt . In Tokyo , Logan meets Yashida 's son , Shingen , and granddaughter , Mariko . There , Yashida offers to transfer Logan 's healing abilities into his own body , thus saving Yashida 's life and alleviating Logan of his near @-@ immortality , which Logan views as a curse . Logan refuses and prepares to leave the following day . That night , Yashida 's physician Dr. Green ( also known as Viper ) introduces something into Logan 's body , but Logan dismisses it as a dream .
The next morning , Logan is informed that Yashida has died . At the funeral , Yakuza gangsters attempt to kidnap Mariko , but Logan and Mariko escape together into the urban sprawl of Tokyo . Logan is shot and his wounds do not heal as quickly as they should . After fighting off more Yakuza on a bullet train , Logan and Mariko hide in a local love hotel . Meanwhile , Yashida 's bodyguard Harada meets with Dr. Green who , after demonstrating her mutant powers on him , demands he find Logan and Mariko . Logan and Mariko travel to Yashida 's house in Nagasaki , and the two slowly fall in love . Meanwhile , Yukio has a vision of Logan dying , and goes to warn him . Before Yukio arrives , Mariko is captured by the Yakuza . After interrogating one of the kidnappers , Logan and Yukio confront Mariko 's fiancée , corrupt Minister of Justice Noburo Mori . Mori confesses that he conspired with Shingen to have Mariko killed because Yashida left control of the company to Mariko , and not Shingen .
Mariko is brought before Shingen at Yashida 's estate when ninjas led by Harada attack and whisk her away . Logan and Yukio arrive later and , using Yashida 's X @-@ ray machine , discover a robotic parasite attached to Logan 's heart , suppressing his healing ability . Logan cuts himself open and extracts the device . During the operation , Shingen attacks but Yukio holds Shingen off long enough for Logan to recover and kill Shingen . Logan follows Mariko 's trail to the village of Yashida 's birth , where he is captured by Harada 's ninjas . Logan is placed in a machine by Dr. Green , who reveals her plans to extract his healing factor and introduces him to the Silver Samurai , an electromechanical suit of Japanese armour with energized swords made of adamantium . Mariko escapes from Harada , who believes he is acting in Mariko 's interests , and manages to free Logan from the machine . Harada sees the error of his ways and is killed by the Silver Samurai while helping Logan escape .
Meanwhile , Yukio arrives and kills Dr. Green as Logan fights the Silver Samurai . The Silver Samurai severs Logan 's adamantium claws and begins to extract Logan 's healing abilities , revealing himself to be Yashida , who had faked his death . Yashida starts to regain his youth , but Mariko intervenes and stabs Yashida with Logan 's severed claws while Logan regenerates his bone claws and kills Yashida . Logan collapses and has one final hallucination of Jean , in which he decides to finally let go of her . Mariko becomes CEO of Yashida Industries and bids farewell to Logan as he prepares to leave Japan . Yukio vows to stay by Logan 's side as his bodyguard , and they depart to places unknown .
In a mid @-@ credits scene , Logan returns to the United States two years later and is approached at the airport by Erik Lehnsherr , who warns him of a grave new threat to the mutant race , and Charles Xavier , who Logan previously thought was dead .
= = Cast = =
Hugh Jackman as Logan / Wolverine : A mutant , whose prodigious healing abilities and adamantium infused skeleton combine to make him virtually immortal . Jackman also portrayed the character in the previous X @-@ Men films . In terms of his character Jackman views Wolverine as " the ultimate outsider " and that " the great battle , I always thought with Wolverine , is the battle within himself " . Regarding Logan 's struggle with extreme life longevity , Jackman said , " He realizes everyone he loves dies , and his whole life is full of pain . So it 's better that he just escapes . He can 't die really . He just wants to get away from everything . " Jackman stated that he ate six meals a day in preparation for the role . Jackman contacted Dwayne Johnson for some tips on bulking up for the film . Johnson suggested that for six months , he gain a pound a week , by eating 6 @,@ 000 calories a day which consisted of " an awful lot of chicken , steak and brown rice " .
Hiroyuki Sanada as Shingen Yashida : Yashida 's son as well as Mariko 's father and corporate rival , who is proficient in kendo .
Tao Okamoto as Mariko Yashida : Yashida 's granddaughter , whose life becomes threatened as a result of her grandfather 's will . About her character , Okamoto said that Mariko is no pushover and is proficient in karate and knife @-@ throwing .
Rila Fukushima as Yukio : A precognitive mutant and one of the deadliest assassins in Yashida ’ s clan . Fukushima said , " My character 's very physical . Yukio and Wolverine have a lot in common . She really takes care of him and he also cares about her . " Mangold described Yukio as a lethal fighter who is " both sexy and almost kind of sprung from the anime world . "
Famke Janssen as Jean Grey : A mutant and former member of the X @-@ Men , who Logan killed at the end of X @-@ Men : The Last Stand . Jackman said , " There ’ s no doubt that the most important relationship in his life is — we ’ ve seen through the movies — is his relationship with Jean Grey . Yes , we saw her die at the end of ‘ X @-@ Men : The Last Stand , ’ but in this movie , she has a presence , which I think is vital to the movie , particularly for him confronting the most difficult thing within himself . "
Will Yun Lee as Kenuichio Harada : A former lover of Mariko and head of the Black Ninja Clan , sworn to protect the Yashida family . Lee said that he underwent rigorous sword training for the film .
Svetlana Khodchenkova as Dr. Green / Viper : A mutant , who has an immunity to toxins . About her character , Khodchenkova said " Viper doesn 't really have many people that she cares about , most of them she just uses for her own purpose . " Mangold said , " as her name would imply , she 's kind of snakelike , " and that Viper views Logan " like a great hunter might view hunting a lion in his quarry . "
Haruhiko Yamanouchi as Yashida : Shingen 's father , Mariko 's grandfather and the head of Yashida Industries , a powerful technology zaibatsu . Ken Yamamura portrays young Yashida .
Brian Tee as Noburo Mori : A corrupt minister of justice , who is engaged to Mariko .
Additionally , Patrick Stewart and Ian McKellen reprise their roles as Charles Xavier / Professor X and Erik Lehnsherr / Magneto in cameo appearances during the mid @-@ credits scene .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In September 2007 , Gavin Hood , director of X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine , speculated that there would be a sequel , which would be set in Japan . During one of the post credits scenes Logan is seen drinking at a bar in Japan . Such a location was the subject of Chris Claremont and Frank Miller 's 1982 limited series on the character , which was not in the first film as Jackman felt " what we need to do is establish who [ Logan ] is and find out how he became Wolverine " . Jackman stated the Claremont @-@ Miller series is his favorite Wolverine story . Of the Japanese arc , Jackman also stated , " I won ’ t lie to you , I have been talking to writers ... I ’ m a big fan of the Japanese saga in the comic book . " Before X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine 's release , Lauren Shuler Donner approached Simon Beaufoy to write the script , but he did not feel confident enough to commit . By May 4 , 2009 , Jackman 's company Seed Productions was preparing several projects , including a sequel to X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine to be set in Japan , but neither Jackman nor Seed has a production credit on the completed 2013 sequel . On May 5 , 2009 , just days after the opening weekend of X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine , the sequel was officially confirmed .
Christopher McQuarrie , who went uncredited for his work on X @-@ Men , was hired to write the screenplay for the Wolverine sequel in August 2009 . According to Shuler @-@ Donner , the sequel would focus on the relationship between Wolverine and Mariko , the daughter of a Japanese crime lord , and what happens to him in Japan . Wolverine would have a different fighting style due to Mariko 's father having " this stick @-@ like weapon . There 'll be samurai , ninja , katana blades , different forms of martial arts - mano @-@ a @-@ mano , extreme fighting . " She continued : " We want to make it authentic so I think it 's very likely we 'll be shooting in Japan . I think it 's likely the characters will speak English rather than Japanese with subtitles . " In January 2010 , at the People 's Choice Awards , Jackman stated that the film would start shooting sometime in 2011 , and in March 2010 McQuarrie declared that the screenplay was finished for production to start in January the following year . Sources indicated Darren Aronofsky was in negotiations to direct the film after Bryan Singer turned down the offer .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
In October 2010 , Jackman confirmed that Aronofsky would direct the film . Jackman commented that with Aronofsky directing , Wolverine 2 will not be " usual " stating , " This is , hopefully for me , going to be out of the box . It 's going to be the best one , I hope ... Well , I would say that , but I really do feel that , and I feel this is going to be very different . This is Wolverine . This is not Popeye . He 's kind of dark ... But , you know , this is a change of pace . Chris McQuarrie , who wrote The Usual Suspects , has written the script , so that 'll give you a good clue . [ Aronofsky 's ] going to make it fantastic . There 's going to be some meat on the bones . There will be something to think about as you leave the theater , for sure " . The film was scheduled to begin principal photography in March 2011 in New York City before the production moves to Japan for the bulk of shooting .
While Jackman in 2008 characterized the film as " a sequel to Origins " , Aronofsky in November 2010 said the film , now titled The Wolverine , was a " one @-@ off " rather than a sequel . Also in November , Fox Filmed Entertainment sent out a press release stating that they have signed Aronofsky and his production company Protozoa Pictures to a new two @-@ year , overall deal . Under the deal , Protozoa would develop and produce films for both 20th Century Fox and Fox Searchlight Pictures . Aronofsky ’ s debut picture under the pact would have been The Wolverine .
In March 2011 , Aronofsky bowed out of directing the film , saying in a statement , " As I talked more about the film with my collaborators at Fox , it became clear that the production of The Wolverine would keep me out of the country for almost a year .... I was not comfortable being away from my family for that length of time . I am sad that I won 't be able to see the project through , as it is a terrific script and I was very much looking forward to working with my friend , Hugh Jackman , again " . Fox also decided to be " in no rush " to start the production due to the damage incurred in Japan by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . Despite this , Jackman said the project was moving ahead . " It 's too early to call on Japan , I 'm not sure where they 're at . So now we 're finding another director , but Fox is very anxious to make the movie and we 're moving ahead full steam to find another director " .
In May 2011 , Fox had a list of eight candidates to replace Aronofsky , including directors José Padilha , Doug Liman , Antoine Fuqua , Mark Romanek , Justin Lin , Gavin O 'Connor , James Mangold and Gary Shore . In June 2011 , Fox entered negotiations with Mangold and intended to start principal photography in fall 2011 . In July 2011 , Jackman said he planned to begin filming in October 2011 and that he would fight the Silver Samurai .
In August 2011 , The Vancouver Sun reported that filming would take place from November 11 , 2011 to March 1 , 2012 at the Canadian Motion Picture Park in Burnaby , British Columbia . Almost immediately , filming was postponed to spring 2012 so Jackman could work on Les Misérables . In September , Mark Bomback was hired to rewrite McQuarrie 's script . At one point , Bomback tried to work Rogue into the script , but he rejected it for being " goofy " and " problematic " . In February 2012 , a July 26 , 2013 , release date was set , and in April , filming was set to begin in August 2012 in Australia , which would serve as the primary location due to financial and tax incentives .
In July 2012 , actors Hiroyuki Sanada , Hal Yamanouchi , Tao Okamoto and Rila Fukushima had been cast as Shingen , Yashida , Mariko and Yukio , respectively . Additionally , Will Yun Lee was cast as Harada , and Brian Tee as Noburo Mori . By July 2012 , Deadline.com said Jessica Biel would play Viper . However , at the 2012 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , Biel said her role in the film was " not a done deal " , explaining , " People keep talking about this . I don 't know anything about it . It 's a little bit too soon for that kind of an announcement " . A few days later , negotiations between Biel and 20th Century Fox had broken down . Later in July , Fox had begun talks with Svetlana Khodchenkova to take over the role . Somewhat unusually for action movies , The Wolverine features four female lead roles and " passes the Bechdel Test early and often " , according to Vulture . Mangold noted that he wrote his heroines so that " they all have missions . They all have jobs to do other than be the object of affection " , intent of avoiding the " worn out " trope of the woman in jeopardy .
In August 2012 , Guillermo del Toro revealed he had been interested in directing the film , as the Japanese arc was his favorite Wolverine story . After meeting with Jim Gianopulos and Jackman , del Toro passed , deciding he did not wish to spend two to three years of his life working on the movie .
= = = Filming = = =
On a production budget of $ 120 million , principal photography began on July 30 , 2012 . Shuler Donner had to be absent through most of the production due to breast cancer , with her treatment ending just before post @-@ production begun . Some of the earliest scenes were shot at the Bonna Point Reserve in Kurnell , New South Wales , which doubled as a Japanese prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp . Filming there ended on August 2 , 2012 , with production scheduled to continue around Sydney followed by a few weeks in Japan before wrapping up in mid @-@ November . On August 3 , 2012 , production moved to Picton , which doubled as a town in Canada 's Yukon region .
On August 25 , 2012 , Mangold said that production moved to Tokyo and began shooting . On September 4 , 2012 , filming took place outside Fukuyama Station in Fukuyama , Hiroshima . Filming in Tomonoura , a port in the Ichichi ward of Fukuyama , concluded on September 11 , 2012 .
On October 8 , 2012 , production returned to Sydney with filming on Erskine Street near Cockle Bay . The following week , the film shot in Parramatta , which doubled as a Japanese city . Also in October , Mangold revealed that the film follows the events of X @-@ Men : The Last Stand , saying , " Where this film sits in the universe of the films is after them all . Jean Grey is gone , most of the X @-@ Men are disbanded or gone , so there ’ s a tremendous sense of isolation for [ Wolverine ] . " Mangold later stated that in the fight scenes , " there 's an urgency and a kind of intensity and hand to hand physicality that I hope is a little different than everything else out there . " On October 25 , 2012 production relocated to Sydney Olympic Park in western Sydney . The set was made into a Japanese village draped in snow with filming beginning on November 1 , 2012 . On November 10 , 2012 , filming took place on a back street in Surry Hills . The set , constructed on Brisbane St. , was transformed to look like a Japanese street with Japanese signage and vehicles scattered throughout . Principal photography concluded on November 21 , 2012 .
Reshoots took place in Montreal , including the credits scene where Magneto and Professor X warn Wolverine of a new threat . Said scene was contributed by Bryan Singer and Simon Kinberg , writers of X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past , as a way to " reintroduce Patrick Stewart into the universe " and set up their film . Mangold stated that while production of The Wolverine started before Days of Future Past and thus the film was mostly focused on being a self @-@ contained story , he was able to collaborate with Singer to " make things groove together " .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
In October 2012 , it was reported that The Wolverine would be converted to 3D , making it the first 3D release for one of 20th Century Fox 's Marvel films . Visual effects for the film were completed by Weta Digital , Rising Sun Pictures ( RSP ) , Iloura , and Shade VFX .
In order to recreate the atomic bombing of Nagasaki , RSP studied natural phenomena such as volcanoes , instead of relying on archived footage of atomic blasts , and recreated the effects digitally . They also replaced the Sydney cityscape on the horizon with views of Nagasaki . The walking bear featured in the Yukon scenes was created with computer graphics by Weta Digital , while Make @-@ Up Effects Group built a 12 foot tall animatronic bear , that was used for shots of the creature dying after it had been hit by poisoned arrows fired by hunters .
For a fight scene taking place on top of a speeding bullet train , the actors and stunt performers filmed on wires above a set piece surrounded by a greenscreen . The moving background , filmed on an elevated freeway in Tokyo , was added later . Weta Digital visual effects supervisor Martin Hill said the team adopted a " Google Street View method " , explaining " But instead of having a big panoramic cam on top of a van , we built a rig that had eight 45 degree angle Red Epic [ cameras ] that gave us massive resolution driving down all the massive lanes of the freeway . We let a bit of air out of the tires of the van and kept a constant 60 kilometers an hour . So if we shot at 48 fps we just needed to speed up the footage by 10 times to give us the 300 kilometers an hour required . "
The Silver Samurai , rendered by Weta Digital , was based on a model that had been 3D printed and chrome painted using electrolysis . Stunt performer Shane Rangi , wearing a motion capture suit , stood on stilts while filming as the Silver Samurai . Rangi 's performance was then used to animate the digital character . Hill said the main challenge was creating the Silver Samurai 's highly reflective surface , " He 's pretty much chrome . We were worried that he was going to look incredibly digital and that it was going to be very hard to make him look solid and real and not just like a mirrored surface . "
The original assembly cut of the film ran around two hours and 35 minutes . The mid @-@ credit scene was written by Simon Kinberg and shot by the X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past crew , though Mangold directed the scene .
= = Music = =
In September 2012 , Marco Beltrami , who previously scored James Mangold 's film 3 : 10 to Yuma ( 2007 ) , announced that he had signed on to score The Wolverine . Following Mangold 's noir and Spaghetti Western inspirations for the film , Beltrami explained , " I think I do every movie as a western whether it is or not , so there ’ s definitely some of the spaghetti western influence on my music throughout the score , and I guess throughout a lot of my work . I wouldn ’ t say there was a particular movie that influenced me more than something else . There was nothing that I was trying to mimic or anything . " On associating sounds with the film 's primary location , Beltrami said , " I think the last thing that Jim [ Mangold ] and I wanted to do was Japanese music associated with Japanese places . There 's a reference ; I do use Japanese instruments , [ but ] not really in a traditional way . " The score was performed by an 85 @-@ piece ensemble of the Hollywood Studio Symphony at the Newman Scoring Stage at 20th Century Fox .
Track listing
All music composed by Marco Beltrami .
iTunes bonus track
= = Release = =
The Wolverine was released in 2D and 3D theaters on July 24 , 2013 , in various international markets , on July 25 , 2013 in Australia , and on July 26 , 2013 in the United States . The film was titled Wolverine : Immortal in Brazil and Spanish @-@ language markets . The film premiered in Japan on September 13 , 2013 under the title Wolverine : Samurai ( ウルヴァリン : SAMURAI , Uruvarin Samurai ) .
= = = Marketing = = =
On October 29 , 2012 , director James Mangold and actor Jackman hosted a live chat from the set of the film . The chat took place on the official website and the official YouTube account of the film .
The first American trailer and international trailer of The Wolverine were released on March 27 , 2013 . Empire Magazine said " This is all very encouraging stuff from director James Mangold , a man who 's obviously not afraid of tweaking the original source material to serve his own ends . " The trailer was later attached to G.I. Joe : Retaliation . The second American trailer was then released on April 18 , 2013 and was screened at CinemaCon in Las Vegas , Nevada .
The third American trailer was released on May 21 , 2013 and then on June 13 , 2013 , the second international trailer was released .
On July 20 , 2013 , 20th Century Fox presented The Wolverine along with Dawn of the Planet of the Apes and X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past to the 2013 San Diego Comic @-@ Con with Jackman and Mangold in attendance to present new footage of the film .
20th Century Fox partnered with automotive company Audi to promote the film with their sports car Audi R8 and their motorcycle Ducati . Other partners included sugar @-@ free chewing gum brand 5 and casual dining restaurant company Red Robin .
= = = Home media = = =
The Wolverine was released on DVD , Blu @-@ ray , and Blu @-@ ray 3D on December 3 , 2013 . The Blu @-@ ray set features an exclusive unrated extended cut of the film referred to as the " Unleashed Extended Edition " . This version of the film was screened for the first time at 20th Century Fox Studios on November 19 , 2013 . It contains 12 extra minutes , primarily including an extended battle with Harada 's ninjas during the start of the film 's third act as well as additional footage during moments of character interaction . The BBFC gives its running time as 132m 22s , only six minutes longer .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Along with the improvements in critical reception , The Wolverine outgrossed Origins in total box office , though earned less domestically . The film closed in US theaters on December 5 , 2013 , grossing $ 132 @,@ 556 @,@ 852 in North America ( as opposed to $ 179 @,@ 883 @,@ 157 for the earlier film ) and $ 282 @,@ 271 @,@ 394 in other territories ( as opposed to the earlier film 's $ 193 @,@ 179 @,@ 707 ) , for a worldwide total of $ 414 @,@ 828 @,@ 246 . The film earned $ 139 @.@ 6 million on its worldwide opening weekend . When compared to the rest of the X @-@ Men film franchise , The Wolverine has garnered somewhat mixed results in terms of box office success . While its domestic gross is greater than the production budget , it is still lower than the other five films of the franchise , with its domestic box office total being roughly $ 45 @.@ 1 million less than the franchise 's average . However , its overseas total currently exceeds the franchise 's average by roughly $ 75 @.@ 7 million and is significantly more than any of the other X @-@ Men films . With a worldwide total of roughly $ 414 @.@ 8 million , The Wolverine was at that time the third highest grossing film .
= = = = North America = = = =
In North America , the film opened at the top of the box office on its opening day , with $ 20 @.@ 7 million , with $ 4 million coming from Thursday late night showings . It held onto to the number one spot through its first weekend , with $ 53 @,@ 113 @,@ 752 , which is the lowest opening of the series .
= = = = Other territories = = = =
The film topped the box office on its opening weekend with $ 86 @.@ 5 million from 100 countries . The film achieved the highest opening of the franchise , passing X @-@ Men : The Last Stand 's $ 76 @.@ 2 million opening .
= = = Critical response = = =
The Wolverine received generally positive reviews among critics . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 70 % approval rating with an average rating of 6 @.@ 3 / 10 based on 232 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " Although its final act succumbs to the usual cartoonish antics , The Wolverine is one superhero movie that manages to stay true to the comics while keeping casual viewers entertained . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 60 out of 100 , out of 43 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " . CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade cinemagoers gave for the film was an " A- " .
Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave it a grade of " B + " , praising Jackman 's performance as " strong , solid entertainment " and " a serious , sometimes dark and deliberately paced story . " Christy Lemire , writing for the website of Roger Ebert , said that the film " features some breathtakingly suspenseful action sequences , exquisite production and costume design and colorful characters , some of whom register more powerfully than others . " Variety film critic Peter Debruge called the film " an entertaining and surprisingly existential digression from his usual X @-@ Men exploits . Though Wolvie comes across a bit world @-@ weary and battle @-@ worn by now , Jackman is in top form , taking the opportunity to test the character ’ s physical and emotional extremes . Fans might ’ ve preferred bigger action or more effects , but Mangold does them one better , recovering the soul of a character whose near @-@ immortality made him tiresome . " James Buchanan of TV Guide.com gave it 3 out of 4 stars , calling it " A rare comic @-@ to @-@ film adaptation that doesn 't sacrifice substance for the sake of thrilling action . " Scott Collura of IGN praised the film giving it an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 and stated , " The Wolverine is a stand alone adventure for the classic character that reminds us that there 's more to this genre than universe @-@ building and crossovers . ... [ The ] story paints a deep and compelling portrait of Logan , a haunted character that Jackman still finds new ways to play all these years later . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone felt that despite the film 's final act " sink [ ing ] into CGI shit " , Jackman 's performance " still has the juice " and Mangold 's directing " shows style and snap . "
Conversely , Henry Barnes of The Guardian derided the film , giving it 2 out of 5 stars and stating , " Hugh Jackman 's sixth time out in the claws and hair combo is looking increasingly wearied , as the backstory gets more complicated and the action gets duller and flatter . " Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News offered a similar view , saying " Hugh Jackman has the role of the mutant superhero down pat , but the rest of the film is the same old slice and dice . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Sequel = =
By October 2013 , 20th Century Fox had begun negotiations with both Jackman and Mangold to return for a third solo Wolverine film . Mangold was scheduled to write the treatment , with Lauren Shuler Donner returning to produce . On March 20 , 2014 , Fox announced that the sequel would be released March 3 , 2017 . David James Kelly was hired to write the script , and Jackman was set to reprise his role as Wolverine . By the following month , screenwriter Michael Green was attached to the film . Mangold tweeted that filming would start in early 2016 . Patrick Stewart said in August 2015 that he will reprise his role as Charles Xavier . Liev Schreiber , who portrayed Sabertooth in X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine said in February 2016 that he was in talks to reprise his role in the sequel . By April 2016 , Boyd Holbrook had been cast as head of security for a global enterprise set against Wolverine , and Richard E. Grant as a " mad scientist type " . Simon Kinberg that month said the film will be set in the future . Toward the end of the month , Stephen Merchant was cast in an unspecified role . In May 2016 , Eriq La Salle and Elise Neal were cast in unspecified roles . In May , Kinberg said filming had started and that he planned it to be an R @-@ rated movie .
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= The Great Lover ( novel ) =
The Great Lover is a 2009 biographical novel by Jill Dawson . The novel follows the fictional Nell Golightly as she encounters the eccentric poet Rupert Brooke in Grantchester , Cambridgeshire . Set from 1909 until 1914 , in the novel Dawson examines Brooke 's relationship with Nell , and his growth as a poet and individual . The novel is based on the biography of Brooke during that period , incorporating opinions , ideas , and excerpts from Brooke 's letters and other primary sources documenting his life .
Much of the novel emphasises Brooke 's sexuality and his understanding of love . Additionally , the novel contrasts the various elements of English upper- and lower @-@ class life during the Edwardian period . Other notable elements of the novel include the vivid descriptions of the life in Grantchester and the borrowing of themes from Brooke 's poetry such as beekeeping .
Generally , reviews of the novel are positive , noting the complexity of the characterisation of both main characters and the ease which the novel communicates Brooke 's life . Additionally , the novel was also featured in the 2009 Richard & Judy Summer Reads and The Daily Telegraph 's " Novels of the Year " for 2009 .
= = Background = =
Rupert Brooke had a successful tenure as a student at Cambridge as a member of various prominent societies , including the Fabian Society and the Marlowe Dramatic Society . When he graduated in 1909 , he moved to Grantchester where he studied Jacobean drama . He eventually received a fellowship at King 's College , and upon his father 's death became a schoolmaster . But during this period following 1909 , his personal life was very chaotic due to sexual confusion and several unsuccessful relationships with both men and women . To escape the chaos of his personal life , he toured the United States , Canada and the South Seas during 1913 . Upon his return a year later , Brooke still had difficulty with relationships , however the outbreak of World War I prevented any from coming to fruition . When the War started , Brooke got a commission in the Royal Navy and wrote several of his most famous poems , a series of war sonnets . Brooke died in 1915 , however , his poems were lauded by the British public , most notably Winston Churchill , and brought him to posthumous fame .
= = Development = =
Dawson did biographical research in order to develop the novel . Though she is interested in writing biography , she finds that novels are an easier genre to express her understanding of the historical individual . When writing her historical novels Dawson does not embark on a thorough bout of research beforehand , instead she researches as she writes . While researching the novel , Dawson read nine biographies of Brooke , finding different elements of his life in each one , and felt that she had an additional understanding of Brooke which need to be expressed . Dawson includes an extensive bibliography in the back of the novel showing where passages and ideas in the novel are from . She said that she included the bibliography in order to show readers where she found " [ her ] Rupert , a figure of [ her ] imagination " . Dawson spent so much time researching and thinking about Brooke , her husband once asked her " when is this obsession going to end ? "
Dawson 's initial inspiration came from a visit to The Orchard , an inn in Grantchestershire , Cambridgeshire , where she encountered a photograph of maids who had been there while Brooke was in residence there from 1909 – 1914 . The Orchard became the primary setting of The Great Lover and the maids inspired the creation of the character Nell Golightly . Dawson choose to write about Brooke because she was intrigued by his personality and why women kept falling in love with him . To explore Brooke 's personality , she asked herself the question " What if Rupert Brooke put a note under one of these floorboards — a note , in a way , just for me ? " She also was particularly interested in capturing the essence of Grantchester , the primary setting for the novel .
Many elements of the novel are inspired by the works and writings of Brooke . The first and most obvious example of this is the title of the novel which is inspired by the poem of the same name . The text of the poem is included at the end of the novel . Dawson chose to include the poem at the end of the book so that the reader is forced to decide if Brooke was actually a great lover , wishing the reader to be uninfluenced by the poem while she is reading the novel . Nell 's interest and ability with bee keeping are also a theme borrowed from Brooke 's poem " The Old Vicarage , Grantchester " .
= = Plot = =
Note on names : Throughout the novel Rupert Brooke is referred to as Brooke and Nell Golightly is referred to as Nell . That convention is maintained here .
The prelude of the novel begins with a 1982 letter from the elderly daughter of Rupert Brooke by a Tahitian women to Nell Golightly , asking Nell to help the daughter better understand her father . Nell responds , including a narrative of the time spent by Brooke at The Orchard in Grantchester from 1909 until his retreat in Tahiti in 1914 , which becomes the rest of the novel .
Nell 's story alternates between the perspectives of Nell Golightly , a seventeen @-@ year @-@ old girl , and the poet Rupert Brooke . The novel begins as Nell 's father dies while tending to the family 's bee hives . Because she is the oldest child and her mother is long dead , Nell Golightly decides finds a job as a maid at The Orchard , a boarding house and tea room outside of Cambridge which caters to the students at the University there . There she , along with several other young women , serves guests and cleans the facilities . She also helps a local beekeeper tend his hives .
Soon after Nell begins working at The Orchard , Rupert Brooke becomes a resident . As he enjoys his summer working on papers for Cambridge societies and composing his poetry , Brooke leads a social life flirting with various women and enjoying the company of artists and other students . Brooke soon lusts for Nell , and his increased interest in her leads to unconventional encounters . They develop a friendship in which both Nell and Brooke hold secret admiration and love for the other , but are unable to express it because of social conventions . Brooke also desires to lose his virginity because he feels that being a virgin is disgraceful . Because he cannot convince Nell or any of several other women to succumb to his wooing , he loses it in a homosexual encounter with a boyhood friend , Denham Russell @-@ Smith .
After the encounter , Brooke returns home to comfort his mother at his father 's death bed . After his father 's death , though Brooke desires to return to the Orchard , Brooke is forced to stay at the school where his father worked as headmaster , retaining the post until the end of the school year . After a brief period , Brooke returns to The Orchard . Meanwhile , Nell 's sister Betty becomes a maid at The Orchard and another of Nell 's sisters has a still birth . Brooke continues to become closer to Nell , and they covertly go swimming together in Byron 's pond , a local swimming hole named after the poet Lord Byron . Afterwards , Brooke departs on a tour advocating for workers ' rights , which does not go very well . At the end of the tour , Brooke proposes to Noel Oliver , one of the wealthy girls whom Brooke had been courting during his stay at The Orchard . Upon his return to Grantchester , Brooke also finds himself expelled from The Orchard because of his wanton social life . Brooke then moves next door to another boarding house , the Old Vicarage .
Brooke does not marry Noel , but rather spends a brief period in Munich where he tries to become intimate with a Belgian girl in order to lose his heterosexual virginity . This relationship also fails , and he returns to England confused about his sexuality . He and Nell continue to remain close until he goes on a vacation with his friends , where he again proposes to another of his friends . Brooke is refused resulting in a psychological breakdown and an extended absence from Grantchester while he is treated by a London doctor . After a few more months , Brooke returns to the Old Vicarage briefly before departing on a trip to Tahiti via Canada and the United States . The night before he leaves , Nell realises that she still loves Brooke and goes to Brooke 's bed the night before he leaves .
While in Tahiti , Brooke suffers an injury to one of his feet , and is nursed by the beautiful Taatama , a local woman . Then Brook and Taatama romance each other , eventually having sex and impregnating Taatama . After several months of exploring the island , Brooke decides to return home . Before his departure Brooke leave writes Nell a letter which contains a black pearl . Nell , now married to a local carter , receives the pearl and letter soon after she gives birth to a child by Brooke .
= = Characters = =
The novel focuses mostly on the real Rupert Brooke and the fictional Nell Golightly , although other characters , fictional and real people from Brooke 's own life such as Virginia Woolf ( then Virginia Stephen ) , are presented . Brooke 's and Nell 's individual character development and their relationship maintains the focus of the novel .
At the inception of the novel in 1909 , Brooke is 22 years old . Throughout the novel , Brooke 's character goes through an intensive development of maturity as a poet and individual . At first , Brooke is both an individual obsessed with his virginity and extremely narcissistic in his poetry and the relationship with Nell and the loss of virginity act as catalysts for this change within Brooke . Additionally , Brooke is a very attractive man and this trait brings him to the centre of attention of the other individuals in the book . One reviewer noted that Brooke was depicted as so attractive that it seems that Dawson has " rather fallen for her subject " . However , despite his beauty and charm , the internal conflict in Brooke can be hard to sympathise with , Vanessa Curtis calling him " difficult for the reader to like " because he is " fey , brash , insecure and fickle " .
Nell on the other hand is a smart and responsible girl , age seventeen at the beginning of the novel . She too goes through character development . Initially , as one reviewer put it , Nell is filled with a " maelstorm of angst " as she tries to figure out her relationship with Brooke and both " shocked and intrigued " by Brooke 's eccentric behaviour . Though she expresses herself as in the control of most situations , in fact she is not , especially when Brooke is involved . One reviewer noted that Nell 's voice in the novel is not altogether convincing , saying " the levels of diction and spelling here seem rather high to be coming up from the kitchen " . The centrality of Nell in the novel was inspired by a postcard that Dawson bought which showed the maids from The Orchard during Brooke 's stay . Though inspired by real individuals , Nell 's character primarily draws inspiration from many individuals in Dawson 's own life . The name Nell Golightly is a mix of two names : Izzie Golightly , a close friend of Dawson 's mother , and Nelly Boxall , Virginia Woolf 's servant .
= = Style = =
Dawson includes excerpts and quotes from Brooke 's letters within her fictional passages , integrating both elements to create a complete narrative . In fact many of the comments made by Nell observing Brooke are actually comments made by his contemporaries . This style of integrating fact and fiction is similar to Dawson 's previous novel Fred and Eddie . The integration of these facts is nearly seamless . However , in interpreting Edwardian language , Dawson misuses the term " pump ship " according to Frances Spalding in The Independent . Critic Simon Akam noted that sometimes the recreation of Brooke 's language affects Nell 's language , making her comments more poetic then her usual dialect .
Critic Lorna Bradbury noted how many of the scenes are " wonderful " , each evoking further understanding of Brooke as a character . Joanna Briscoe also noted that the novel had a wonderful " sense of time and place " because it treats many elements unique to the period in the Britain very well , including Fabianism and class politics . The Great Lover also maintains a very vivid imagery and sensory elements related to The Orchard ; as Vanessa Curtis of The Scotsman says , " the fragrance of honey , apples and flowers suffuse the novel " .
= = Themes = =
Sexuality is one of the primary themes of the novel . Letters by Brooke recently rediscovered by historians expressed much conflict within himself about his own sexuality . This same sexual conflict becomes a major element of Dawson 's novel . Nell is consistently shocked by Brooke 's sexual desires and encounters throughout the novel , while at the same time Brooke is confused by his lustful desires for Nell and his desire to court sexually constrained upper @-@ class women . Brooke has other causes of internal conflict . In his search for the right person to lose his virginity to , he has a homosexual encounter almost out of desperation . The continual conflict between a desire to be loved , and the inability to find a lover is ironic when compared to the title of the novel and poem which inspired the novel : Brooke is clearly not a " great lover " .
Brooke 's character is strongly driven by his desire to break from conventions . Brooke 's unconventional actions are common throughout the novel , the most prominent being nude bathing and odd remarks and humour . These actions create an externally carefree individual that is in strong contrast to the down @-@ to @-@ earth Nell .
Social disconnect between the Edwardian upper and lower classes is also a prominent element of The Great Lover . Nell 's character gives an opportunity to explore how the class structure and employment for young women of the lower classes consumed their time . Brooke also commits himself to unsuccessfully campaigning against the " Poor Law " . Despite the treatment of class difference , Dawson does not use diction and thoughts which are convincingly lower @-@ class in many of her lower @-@ class characters , such as Nell , instead giving them more refined dialects .
= = Criticism = =
Reviews of The Great Lover were generally positive , many of them noting the ability of Dawson to evoke the personality of Brooke and produce an accurate sense of his contemporaries and contemporary society .
Lorna Bradbury of The Daily Telegraph called the novel " a psychologically convincing picture of a man who , even in his many flirtatious moments , is teetering on the edge , and a brilliant account of the poet ’ s nervous breakdown . " Similarly , Joanna Briscoe of The Guardian said , " by the final quarter , Dawson knows what she is doing with a tricky subject , and the novel comes into its own with explosive force . It is a daring experiment , and one whose mood , setting and eccentricities linger in the mind . " Helen Dunmore of The Times called the narrative of the novel " strong , satisfying and memorable " . The Daily Mail called the novel " an exceptional book even from the prize @-@ winning Dawson ; clever , moving , sexy and with a mesmerising feel for that magical , optimistic , but doomed time just before the Great War . " Vanessa Curtis of The Scotsman admired the novel for its much more satisfying portrayal of Brooke than his biographies and called it " a seductive book , evocative and well paced , the tale split between Brooke and Nell , the two narrative voices strong , distinctive and consistent . " Alice Ryan called the novel " a gripping and beautifully written book which deals not only with the history of Brooke and his alleged love child , but also with the wider history of the Fens , its places , people and traditions " . The Oxford Times critic Phillipa Logan too gave praise to the novel , saying that Dawson " exploits [ the ] ambiguities [ in Brooke 's life ] to the full , creating a compelling , thoroughly plausible narrative that explores Brooke ’ s time as a student in Cambridge . " Simon Akam of The New Statesman liked the novel , noting that " in her novel Dawson has [ ... ] pulled off the risky gamble of reimagining history . " The New Zealand Listener said , " The Great Lover is proof that its author is one of the finest practitioners of the literary historical novel and that this is her best novel yet . "
Thomas Mallon of The Washington Post , unlike other reviewers , gave a much more lukewarm assessment of the novel . He wrote , " The Great Lover is conscientious and good @-@ hearted , but for all its class @-@ crossing improbability , still rather timid . " For Mallon , the novel does not treat Brooke during his most interesting part of his life : during the first World War , when he becomes a public figure .
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= 1880 Democratic National Convention =
The 1880 Democratic National Convention was held June 22 to 24 , 1880 , at the Music Hall in Cincinnati , Ohio , and nominated Winfield S. Hancock of Pennsylvania for President and William H. English of Indiana for Vice President in the United States presidential election of 1880 .
Six men were officially candidates for nomination at the convention , and several more also received votes . Of these , the two leading candidates were Hancock and Thomas F. Bayard of Delaware . Not officially a candidate , but wielding a heavy influence over the convention , was the Democratic nominee from 1876 , Samuel J. Tilden of New York . Many Democrats believed Tilden to have been unjustly deprived of the presidency in 1876 and hoped to rally around him in the 1880 campaign . Tilden , however , was ambiguous about his willingness to participate in another campaign , leading some delegates to defect to other candidates , while others stayed loyal to their old standard @-@ bearer .
As the convention opened , some delegates favored Bayard , a conservative Senator , and some others supported Hancock , a career soldier and Civil War hero . Still others flocked to men they saw as surrogates for Tilden , including Henry B. Payne of Ohio , an attorney and former representative , and Samuel J. Randall of Pennsylvania , the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives . The first round of balloting was inconclusive . Before the second round , Tilden 's withdrawal from the campaign became known for certain and delegates flocked to Hancock , who was nominated . English , a conservative politician from a swing state , was nominated for Vice President . Hancock and English were narrowly defeated in the race against Republicans James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur that autumn .
= = Issues and candidates = =
In 1876 , Republican Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio defeated Democrat Samuel J. Tilden of New York in the most hotly contested election to that time in the nation 's history . The results initially indicated a Democratic victory , but the electoral votes of several states were ardently disputed until mere days before the new president was to be inaugurated . Members of both parties in Congress agreed to convene a bi @-@ partisan Electoral Commission , which ultimately decided the race for Hayes . Most Democrats believed Tilden had been robbed of the presidency , and he became the leading candidate for nomination in 1880 . In the meantime , issues of tariff reform and the gold standard divided the country and the major parties .
The monetary issue played a large role in selecting the nominees in 1880 , but had little effect on the general election campaign . The debate concerned the basis for the United States dollar 's value . Nothing but gold and silver coin had ever been legal tender in the United States until the Civil War , when the mounting costs of the war forced Congress to issue " greenbacks " ( dollar bills backed by government bonds ) . They paid for the war , but resulted in the most severe inflation since the American Revolution . After the war , bondholders and other creditors ( especially in the North ) wanted to return to a gold standard . At the same time , debtors ( often in the South and West ) benefited by the way inflation reduced their debts , and workers and some businessmen liked the way inflation made for easy credit . The issue cut across parties , producing dissension among Republicans and Democrats alike and spawning a third party , the Greenback Party , in 1876 , when both major parties nominated hard money men . Monetary debate intensified as Congress effectively demonetized silver in 1873 and began redeeming greenbacks in gold by 1879 , while limiting their circulation . By the 1880 convention , the nation 's money was backed by gold alone , but the issue was far from settled .
Debate over tariffs would come to play a much larger role in the campaign . During the Civil War , Congress raised protective tariffs to new heights . This was done partly to pay for the war , but partly because high tariffs were popular in the North . A high tariff meant that foreign goods were more expensive , which made it easier for American businesses to sell goods domestically . Republicans supported high tariffs as a way to protect American jobs and increase prosperity . Democrats , generally , saw them as making goods unnecessarily expensive and adding to the growing federal revenues when , with the end of the Civil War , that much revenue was no longer needed . Many Northern Democrats supported high tariffs , however , for the same economic reasons that their Republican neighbors did , so while Democratic platforms called for a tariff " for revenue only , " their speakers avoided the question as much as possible .
= = = Tilden = = =
Samuel Jones Tilden began his political career in the " Barnburner , " or Free Soil , faction of the New York Democratic Party . He was a successful lawyer and had accumulated a considerable fortune . A disciple of former president Martin Van Buren , Tilden was first elected to the New York State Assembly in 1846 . Tilden defected with Van Buren to the 1848 Free Soil Party convention before returning to the Democratic party after the election . Unlike many free @-@ soil Democrats , Tilden stayed with his party in the 1850s instead of transferring his allegiance to the newly formed Republican party . When the Civil War began , he remained loyal to the Union and considered himself a War Democrat . In 1866 , he became chairman of the New York State Democratic party , a post he held for eight years . Tilden initially cooperated with Tammany Hall , the New York City political machine of William " Boss " Tweed , but the two men soon became enemies . In the early 1870s , as reports of Tammany 's corruption spread , Tilden took up the cause of reform . He formed a rival faction that captured control of the party and led the effort to uncover proof of Tammany 's corruption and remove its men from office . Tweed was soon indicted and convicted ; Tammany was weakened and reformed , but not vanquished .
The triumph over Tammany paved the way for Tilden 's election to a two @-@ year term as governor in 1874 . As a popular , reformist governor of a large swing state , Tilden was a natural candidate for the presidency in 1876 , when one of the main issues was the corruption of the administration of President Ulysses S. Grant . He was nominated on the second ballot , and campaigned on a platform of reform and sound money ( i.e. the gold standard ) . His opponent was Governor Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio , likewise noted for his honesty and hard @-@ money views . After the closely contested election , with the question still unresolved , Congress and President Grant agreed to submit the dispute to a bipartisan Electoral Commission , which would determine the fate of the disputed electoral votes . Tilden opposed the idea , but many Democrats supported it as the only way to avoid a second Civil War . The commission voted 8 – 7 to award Hayes the disputed votes . Congressional Democrats acquiesced in Hayes 's election , but at a price : the new Republican president withdrew federal troops from Southern capitals after his inauguration . Tilden was defeated — robbed , in his opinion and that of his supporters .
Tilden spent the next four years as the presumptive Democratic candidate in 1880 . In 1879 , he declined to run for another term as governor and focused instead on building support for the 1880 presidential nomination . He considered many of his former friends ( including Senator Thomas F. Bayard of Delaware ) enemies now for their support of the Electoral Commission , and sought to keep the " fraud of ' 76 " in the spotlight and burnish his own future candidacy by having his congressional allies investigate the events of the post @-@ election maneuvering . For ten months beginning in May 1878 , the Potter Committee , chaired by Democratic Congressman Clarkson Nott Potter of New York , investigated allegations of fraud and corruption in the states which had contested electoral votes in 1876 . Rather than produce conclusive evidence of Republican malfeasance , as Tilden 's supporters hoped , the committee exonerated Tilden of wrongdoing , but uncovered conflicting evidence that showed state election officials of both parties in an unfavorable light . This , and Tilden 's declining health , made many Democrats question his candidacy . Even so , Tilden 's presumed ability to carry New York , combined with his political organization and personal fortune , made him a serious contender .
The first of these qualifications was shattered with the Republican victory in the New York gubernatorial election in 1879 . In that election , a revitalized Tammany split from the regular Democratic party in a patronage dispute with Tilden 's faction ( now known as the " Irving Hall Democrats " ) . Tammany ran its new leader , " Honest " John Kelly , as an independent candidate for governor , allowing the Republicans to carry the state with a plurality of the vote . Tilden began to waver , issuing ambiguous statements about whether he would run again . Rumors circulated wildly in the months before the convention , with no definitive word from Tilden . As the New York delegation left for the national convention in Cincinnati , Tilden gave a secret letter to one of his chief supporters , Daniel Manning , suggesting that his health might force him to decline the nomination . The letter was vague and inconclusive , but it finally convinced the delegation to consider Tilden 's candidacy to be at an end , and to seek a new standard @-@ bearer .
= = = Bayard = = =
One beneficiary of Tilden 's departure from the scene was Senator Thomas F. Bayard of Delaware . Bayard was the scion of an old political family in Delaware and had represented his state in the United States Senate since 1869 . As one of a relative handful of conservative Democrats in the Senate at the time , Bayard began his career opposing vigorously , if ineffectively , the Republican majority 's plans for the Reconstruction of the Southern states after the Civil War . Like Tilden , Bayard supported the gold standard and had a reputation for honesty . At the 1876 convention , Bayard had placed a distant fifth in the balloting , but supported Tilden 's cause in the general election , speaking on his behalf around the country . The political friendship between the two quickly soured in the election 's aftermath as Bayard supported the Electoral Commission and Tilden opposed it . Bayard believed the commission was the only alternative to civil war , and served as one of the Democratic members ; Tilden took this as a personal betrayal .
In the four years that followed , Bayard sought to build support for another run at the nomination . He and Tilden competed for support among Eastern conservatives because of their support for the gold standard . The gold standard was less popular in the South , but there Bayard stacked his years @-@ long advocacy in the Senate for pro @-@ Southern conservative policies against Tilden 's political machine and wealth in the contest for Southern delegates . A blow to Bayard 's cause came in February 1880 when the New York Sun , a newspaper friendly to Tilden , published a transcript of a speech Bayard made in Dover , Delaware in 1861 . As the states of the Deep South were seceding from the Union , a young Bayard had proclaimed " with this secession , or revolution , or rebellion , or by whatever name it may be called , the State of Delaware has naught to do " , and urged that the South be permitted to withdraw from the Union in peace . To many in the South , this confirmed their view of Bayard as their champion , but paradoxically it weakened Bayard 's support with other Southerners , who feared that a former Peace Democrat would never be acceptable to Northerners . At the same time , Bayard 's uncompromising stance on the money question pushed some Democrats to support Major General Winfield Scott Hancock , who had not been identified with either extreme in the gold – silver debate and had a military record that appealed to Northerners . As the convention opened , Bayard was still among the leading candidates , but was far from certain of victory .
= = = Hancock = = =
Winfield Scott Hancock represented an unusual confluence in the post @-@ war nation : a man who believed in the Democratic Party 's principles of states ' rights and limited government , but whose anti @-@ secessionist sentiment was unimpeachable . A native of Pennsylvania , Hancock graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1844 and began a forty @-@ year career as a soldier . He served with distinction in the Mexican – American War and in the antebellum peacetime army . At the outbreak of the Civil War , Hancock remained loyal to the Union . He was promoted to brevet brigadier general in 1861 and placed in command of a brigade in the Army of the Potomac . In the Peninsula Campaign of 1862 , he led a critical counterattack and earned the nickname " Hancock the Superb " from his commander , Major General George B. McClellan . At Antietam , he led a division in the Union victory and was promoted to major general . Hancock 's shining moment came at the Battle of Gettysburg when he organized the scattered troops , rallied defenses , and was wounded on the third day as his troops turned back Pickett 's Charge .
Since 1864 , when he received a single unsolicited vote at the Democratic National Convention , Hancock had been a perennial candidate . As military governor of Louisiana and Texas in 1867 , Hancock had won the respect of the white conservative population by issuing his General Order Number 40 , in which he stated that if the residents of the district conducted themselves peacefully and the civilian officials performed their duties , then " the military power should cease to lead , and the civil administration resume its natural and rightful dominion . " He had a larger following at the 1868 convention , finishing as high as second place in some rounds of balloting . In 1876 , Hancock again drew a considerable following , but never finished higher than third place at that year 's convention . In 1880 , another Hancock boom began , this time centered mostly in the South . In March of that year , the New Orleans Picayune ran an editorial that called for the general 's nomination , partly for who he was — a war hero with conservative political principles — and partly for who he was not — a known partisan of either side of the monetary or tariff debates . As Tilden and Bayard rose and fell in the estimation of Democratic voters , Hancock 's bid for nomination gathered steam . Some were unsure whether , after eight years of Grant , himself a former general , the party would be wise to give the nomination to another " man on horseback " , but Hancock remained among the leading contenders as the convention began that June .
= = = Other contenders = = =
Several other candidates arrived in Cincinnati with delegates pledged to them . Former Representative Henry B. Payne , an Ohio millionaire , had gathered a number of former Tilden supporters to his cause . Payne was a corporate lawyer and hard money advocate , but also a relative unknown outside Ohio . In April 1880 , the New York Star published a tale that Tilden had bowed out of the race and instructed the Irving Hall faction to back Payne for the presidency . Tilden never confirmed the rumor , but after his letter of June 1880 to the New York delegation , many of his supporters did consider Payne among their likely choices . Payne , like Bayard , had served on the Electoral Commission of 1876 , but had nevertheless maintained Tilden 's friendship . He maintained his loyalty to Tilden until the convention , when his withdrawal was certain . Payne was hindered by a fellow Ohioan , Senator Allen G. Thurman , who controlled their home state 's delegation . Thurman looked like a natural successor to Tilden , as a popular conservative from a swing state with a background as an attorney , but he , like Bayard , had earned Tilden 's enmity by serving on the Electoral Commission . Thurman was also less wedded to the gold standard than some Northeastern delegates would tolerate .
Another would @-@ be heir to Tilden was Samuel J. Randall , since 1863 a congressman from Philadelphia . Like Tilden , Randall was conservative on the money question but , unusually for a Democrat , he supported high tariffs to protect American industry . He also advocated legislation to reduce the power of monopolies . Tilden had supported Randall in his quest to become Speaker of the House , and Randall returned the favor by remaining a loyal Tilden man up to the convention . He now hoped for the support of the former Tilden adherents in his quest for the presidency . Former Governor Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana , Tilden 's 1876 running mate , also sought a claim on the previous nominee 's support . He came from a crucial swing state that the Democrats had narrowly carried in 1876 and had some support in the Midwestern states . His popularity with delegates from the Northeast was impaired by his views on the currency question ; he sided with those who wanted looser money .
Two candidates stood with rather less support . William Ralls Morrison of Illinois had served in Congress since 1873 and was best known for advocating tariff reductions despite hailing from a protectionist district . He commanded little support outside his home state , and was seen as only a favorite son . Justice Stephen Johnson Field of the United States Supreme Court was better known , but still an unlikely victor . The only candidate from the Far West , Field was respected as a scholar of the law , but had greatly diminished his chances with his home state of California by striking down anti @-@ Chinese legislation in that state in 1879 . Even so , some observers , including Edwards Pierrepont , considered Field a likely choice for the nomination .
= = Convention = =
= = = Preliminaries = = =
The delegates assembled on June 22 , 1880 at Cincinnati 's Music Hall . The venue was a large , red brick building in the High Victorian Gothic style , which had opened in 1878 . Intended , as the name suggests , for musical performances , the hall also functioned as Cincinnati 's convention center until a separate building was constructed in 1967 . William Henry Barnum of Connecticut , the chairman of the Democratic National Committee , called the convention to order at 12 : 38 p.m. After an opening prayer , George Hoadly , a Tilden associate and future governor of Ohio , was elected temporary chairman . Hoadly addressed the crowd , then adjourned the convention until 10 : 00 a.m. the next day , so that the Committee on Credentials could consider certain disputes among the delegates .
At the start of the second day , June 23 , the Committee on Permanent Organization announced the roster of officers , including the permanent president , John W. Stevenson of Kentucky . Before the delegates could formally elect Stevenson , they heard the report on the Committee on Credentials . Two rival factions of Massachusetts Democrats had agreed to compromise , both being admitted as a united delegation . A similar dispute in New York was not resolved so easily : Tammany Hall and Tilden 's Irving Hall had sent rival delegations as well , and neither was willing to compromise . The Committee had voted to consider the Irving Hall Democrats to have been regularly elected ; Tammany was consequently excluded . Debate followed , in which some delegates urged compromise , with the idea that a united delegation would help unite the party in New York in the coming general election . The argument was unpersuasive , as the delegates endorsed the Committee 's decision by a vote of 457 to 205 ½ ; Tammany was banished . Stevenson was then installed as permanent chairman and , as the Committee on Resolutions had not finished writing the platform , the delegates moved on to nominations .
= = = Nominations = = =
The clerk called the roll of states alphabetically . The first delegation to nominate a candidate was California . John Edgar McElrath , an Oakland attorney , rose to nominate Justice Stephen J. Field . Extolling Field 's virtues and learning , McElrath promised that , if nominated , " he will sweep California like the winds that blow through her Golden Gate . " George Gray , Delaware 's Attorney General and a future United States Senator , next nominated Thomas F. Bayard . Gray , in a speech that evinced his admiration for the Senator , said of Bayard :
Thomas Francis Bayard is a statesman who will need no introduction to the American people . His name and record are known wherever our flag floats , aye , wherever the English tongue is spoken . ... With his sympathies as broad as this great continent , a private character as spotless as the snow from heaven , a judgment as clear as the sunlight , an intellect as keen and bright as a flashing sabre , honest in thought and deed , the people all know him by heart .
Illinois was the next state to offer a name , as former Representative Samuel S. Marshall rose to submit that of his erstwhile colleague , William R. Morrison . Marshall immediately antagonized the South by comparing Morrison to Abraham Lincoln , and proclaimed that Morrison 's belief in tariff reduction would be a " tower of strength " in the election .
Next , Senator Daniel W. Voorhees of Indiana spoke on behalf of Thomas A. Hendricks , praising Hendricks as a candidate of national unity : " [ T ] o the South , who has been more faithful ? To the North , who has been truer ? To the East , who has been better , wiser , more conservative and more faithful ? And to the West I need not appeal , for he is our own son . " The next few states made no nominations . When the roll reached New York , there were cries from the crowd for Tilden , and some confusion when that state 's delegation made no nomination .
The next nomination came from Ohio , as John McSweeney made the case for Senator Allen G. Thurman . " Great in genius , correct in judgment , " as McSweeney described him in a lengthy speech , Thurman was " of unrivaled eloquence in defense of the right , with a spotless name , he stands forth as a born leader of the people . " Next came the Pennsylvania delegation , from which Daniel Dougherty rose . Dougherty , a Philadelphia lawyer , gave a short and effective speech in favor of Winfield Scott Hancock .
I present ... one who , on the field of battle , was styled " the Superb , " ... Whose nomination will thrill the land from end to end and crush the last embers of sectional strife , and be hailed as the dawning of the longed @-@ for day of perpetual brotherhood . ... With him as our chieftain , the bloody banner of the Republicans will fall from their palsied grasp . We can appeal to the supreme tribunal of the American people against the corruptions of the republican party and its untold violations of constitutional liberty .
As Dougherty finished his speech , delegates and spectators shouted loudly for Hancock . After five minutes , the cheers subsided . Senator Wade Hampton III of South Carolina , a former Confederate general , next spoke to praise Hancock , saying " we of the South would feel safe in his hands " , but said that Bayard was ultimately his choice " because we believe he is the strongest man " . Richard B. Hubbard , a former governor of Texas and Confederate soldier , spoke in favor Hancock as his state seconded the Pennsylvanian 's nomination . Hubbard praised Hancock 's conduct as military governor of Texas and Louisiana , saying , " in our hour of sorrow , when he held his power at the hands of the great dominant Republican party ... there stood a man with the constitution before him , reading it as the fathers read it ; that the war having ended we resumed the habiliments that as a right belong to us , not as a conquered province , but as a free people . " The last few states were called and the nominations ended . After a motion to adjourn failed , the delegates proceeded directly to the balloting .
= = = Balloting = = =
The clerk called the roll of the states again , and a band played " Yankee Doodle " and " Dixie " as the ballots were tallied . The results showed that the delegates had scattered their ballots to a variety of candidates , with no one close to the 492 necessary to nominate ( at that time , Democratic conventions required a two @-@ thirds majority for nomination ) . There was a clear delineation , however , as Hancock and Bayard , with 171 and 158 ½ respectively , were far ahead of the pack . The next closest , Payne , had less than half of Hancock 's number , with 81 . After one minor shift of ½ ballot , the totals were announced to the delegates . They voted to adjourn for the day , clearing the way for the off @-@ site negotiations that would influence the next day 's ballot .
The delegates assembled the next day , June 24 , to resume the balloting . Before that could begin , Rufus Wheeler Peckham of the New York delegation produced Tilden 's letter and read it to the crowd . The first mention of Tilden 's name provoked excitement , but the meaning of the message soon quieted the crowd . Peckham announced that , with Tilden 's withdrawal , New York now supported Samuel J. Randall . Moving then to the second ballot , more than one hundred delegates followed Peckham 's lead in voting for Randall , boosting his total to 128 ½ , just above Bayard 's 112 . But the shift to Hancock had been greater . Before the totals were announced to the crowd , Hancock had gathered 320 delegates to him ; as soon as the voting stopped , however , Wisconsin and New Jersey changed all of their votes to Hancock . Pennsylvania added those of their votes that were not already for Hancock . Then Smith M. Weed of New York , a Tilden confidante , announced that his state , too , would shift all of its 70 votes to Hancock . After that , according to the party records , " every delegate was on his feet and the roar of ten thousand voices completely drowned the full military band in the gallery . "
Nearly all of the remaining states now stampeded for Hancock . When the second vote was finally tallied , Hancock had 705 . Only Indiana refrained completely from joining in , casting its 30 votes for Hendricks ; two Bayard voters from Maryland and one Tilden man from Iowa were the remaining hold @-@ outs . After the second round was tallied , the nomination was made unanimous . Several delegates then spoke to praise Hancock and promise that he would triumph in the coming election . Even Tammany 's John Kelly was permitted to speak . Kelly pledged his faction 's loyalty to the party , saying , " Let us unite as a band of brothers and look upon each other kindly and favorably . "
* The candidate was not formally nominated .
= = = Platform and vice @-@ presidential nominee = = =
Turning to other matters , the delegates listened as Susan B. Anthony addressed them with a plea for women 's suffrage . The delegates took no action , and moved on to the platform , which Henry Watterson of Kentucky read aloud . The spirit of unanimity continued as the delegates approved it without dissent . The platform was , in the words of historian Herbert J. Clancy , " deliberately vague and general " on some points , designed to appeal to the largest number possible . In it , they pledged to work for " constitutional doctrines and traditions , " to oppose centralization , to favor " honest money consisting of gold and silver " , a " tariff for revenue only " , and to put an end to Chinese immigration . Most of this was uncontroversial , but the " tariff for revenue only " would become a major point of debate in the coming campaign .
Finally , the delegates turned to the vice presidency . Edmund Pettus , representing Alabama , moved the nomination of William Hayden English , a banker and former representative from Indiana . English , a member of the Indiana delegation , was fairly unknown to most delegates . He had been a Bayard enthusiast and was known as a successful businessman and hard money supporter ; more crucially , he hailed from an important swing state . While Hendricks was a better @-@ known representative of Indiana , Easterners in the party preferred English , who they saw as sounder on the money question . Several states seconded the nomination . John P. Irish of Iowa nominated former governor Richard M. Bishop of Ohio but , after all the other states expressed support for English , the Ohio delegation requested that Bishop 's name be withdrawn and English 's nomination made unanimous ; the motion carried .
= = Aftermath = =
Keeping with the custom at the time , Hancock did not campaign personally , but stayed at his post at Fort Columbus on Governors Island , in New York Harbor and met with visitors there ( as General Grant had in 1868 , Hancock remained on active duty throughout the campaign ) . Both parties ' campaigns began with a focus on the candidates rather than the issues . Democratic newspapers attacked the Republican nominee , James A. Garfield of Ohio , over rumors of corruption and self @-@ dealing in the Crédit Mobilier affair , among others . Republicans characterized Hancock as uninformed on the issues , and some of his former comrades @-@ in @-@ arms gave critical speeches regarding his character . Democrats never made clear what about their victory would improve the nation ; Hancock biographer David M. Jordan later characterized their message as simply " our man is better than your man " .
Both parties knew that , with the end of Reconstruction and the disenfranchisement of black Southerners , the South would be solid for Hancock , netting 137 electoral votes of the 185 needed for victory . To this , the Democrats needed only add a few of the closely balanced Northern states ; New York ( 35 electoral votes ) and Indiana ( 15 ) were two of their main targets , but New Jersey and the Midwestern states were also battlegrounds . Early in the campaign , Republicans used their standard tactic of " waving the bloody shirt " , that is , reminding Northern voters that the Democratic Party was responsible for secession and four years of civil war , and that if they held power they would reverse the gains of that war , dishonor Union veterans , and pay Confederate veterans pensions out of the federal treasury . With fifteen years having passed since the end of the war , and Union generals at the head of both tickets , the bloody shirt was of less effect than it had been in the past .
By October , Republicans shifted to a new issue : the tariff . Seizing on the Democratic platform 's call for a " tariff for revenue only " , Republicans told Northern workers that a Hancock presidency would weaken the tariff protection that kept them in good jobs . Hancock made the situation worse when , attempting to strike a moderate stance , he said " the tariff question is a local question " . The answer seemed only to reinforce the Republicans ' characterization of him as ignorant of the issues . In the end , fewer than two thousand votes separated the two candidates , but in the Electoral College , Garfield had an easy victory over Hancock , 214 to 155 .
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= Variegated fairywren =
The variegated fairywren ( Malurus lamberti ) is a fairywren that lives in diverse habitats across most of Australia . Four subspecies are recognised . In a species that exhibits sexual dimorphism , the brightly coloured breeding male has chestnut shoulders and azure crown and ear coverts , while non @-@ breeding males , females and juveniles have predominantly grey @-@ brown plumage , although females of the subspecies rogersi and dulcis ( previously termed lavender @-@ flanked fairywren ) have mainly blue @-@ grey plumage .
Like other fairywrens , the variegated fairywren is a cooperative breeding species , with small groups of birds maintaining and defending small territories year @-@ round . Groups consist of a socially monogamous pair with several helper birds who assist in raising the young . Male wrens pluck yellow petals and display them to females as part of a courtship display . These birds are primarily insectivorous and forage and live in the shelter of scrubby vegetation across 90 % of continental Australia , which is a wider range than that of any other fairywren .
= = Taxonomy = =
The variegated fairywren was officially described by Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield in 1827 , and was at first considered a colour variant of the superb fairywren . The scientific name commemorates the British collector Aylmer Bourke Lambert . It is one of 12 species of the genus Malurus , commonly known as fairywrens , found in Australia and lowland New Guinea . Within the genus it belongs to a group of four very similar species known collectively as the chestnut @-@ shouldered fairywrens . The other three species are localised residents in restricted regions of Australia : the lovely fairywren ( M. amabilis ) of Cape York , the red @-@ winged fairywren ( M. elegans ) of the southwest corner of Western Australia , and the blue @-@ breasted fairywren ( M. pulcherrimus ) of southern Western Australia and the Eyre Peninsula . A 2011 analysis by Amy Driskell and colleagues of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA found that the lovely fairywren was nested within the variegated fairywren complex , and was the sister taxon of the purple @-@ backed subspecies assimilis .
Like other fairywrens , the variegated fairywren is unrelated to the true wrens . Initially fairywrens were thought to be a member of the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae or warbler family Sylviidae , before being placed in the newly recognised Maluridae in 1975 . More recently , DNA analysis has shown the family to be related to Meliphagidae ( honeyeaters ) and the Pardalotidae in a large superfamily Meliphagoidea .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Four subspecies are recognised ; there are zones with intermediate forms between the ranges of each subspecies , contrasting with the well @-@ defined borders between M. lamberti and the other chestnut @-@ shouldered wrens . However , molecular analysis may shed more light on relationships and the current taxonomic treatment may change . The purple @-@ backed- and lavender @-@ flanked fairywrens were considered distinct species in the past .
M. l. lamberti is the nominate subspecies from coastal eastern Australia and the original form described by Vigors and Horsfield in 1827 . Unlike other subspecies , the head of a male in breeding plumage is a more uniform blue , with the crown azure and ear coverts lighter . It also has a blue rather than purple back .
M. l. assimilis , commonly known as purple @-@ backed fairywren , occurs across central Australia , from Queensland and western New South Wales to coastal Western Australia . It was initially described in 1901 by Australian ornithologist Alfred John North and called the purple @-@ backed superb warbler . Breeding males of this and the other two northern subspecies differ from subspecies lamberti in having a darker violet blue crown and a purple back . Females are identical , however . There is a broad area where intermediate forms between this and subspecies lamberti live that is bordered by Goondiwindi , Wide Bay , Rockhampton and Emerald in southern Queensland .
M. l. dulcis , commonly known as lavender @-@ flanked fairywren , is found in Arnhem Land . It was described in 1908 by amateur ornithologist Gregory Mathews , though this and subspecies rogersi were long considered forms of the lovely fairywren ( M. amabilis ) until integrades were noted over a wide area of northern Australia with subspecies assimilis . Like subspecies rogersi , females are predominantly blue @-@ grey rather than grey @-@ brown and have white lores and eye rings rather than the rufous coloration of the other subspecies .
M. l. rogersi occurs in the Kimberleys and was originally named by Mathews in 1912 . It was also known as the lavender @-@ flanked fairywren and considered as the same taxon . Though the males are similar to the widely occurring inland subspecies assimilis , the females are predominantly blue @-@ grey rather than grey @-@ brown . A broad hybrid zone with females of both subspecies has been recorded from northeastern Western Australia and the northwestern Northern Territory .
= = = Evolutionary history = = =
In his 1982 monograph , ornithologist Richard Schodde proposed a northern origin for the chestnut @-@ shouldered fairywren group due to the variety of forms in north and their absence in the southeast of the continent . Ancestral birds spread south and colonised the southwest during a warm wetter period around 2 million years ago at the end of the Pliocene or beginning of the Pleistocene . Subsequent cooler and drier conditions resulted in loss of habitat and fragmentation of populations . Southwestern birds gave rise to what is now the red @-@ winged fairywren , while those in the northwest of the continent became the variegated fairywren and yet another isolated in the northeast became the lovely fairywren . Further warmer , humid conditions again allowed birds to spread southwards , this group occupying central southern Australia east to the Eyre Peninsula became the blue @-@ breasted fairywren . Cooler climate after this resulted in this being isolated as well and evolving into a separate species . Finally , after the end of the last glacial period 12 @,@ 000 – 13 @,@ 000 years ago , the northern variegated forms have again spread southwards , resulting in the purple @-@ backed subspecies assimilis . This has resulted in the variegated fairywren 's range to overlap with all three other species . Schodde also proposed that the blue @-@ grey coloured females of the lavender @-@ flanked subspecies were ancestral , while the browner coloration of females of southern forms was an adaptation to dry climates . Further molecular studies may result in this hypothesis being modified .
= = Description = =
The variegated fairywren is 14 – 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 – 6 in ) long and weighs 6 – 11 g ( 0 @.@ 21 – 0 @.@ 39 oz ) . Like other fairywrens , it is notable for its marked sexual dimorphism , males adopting a highly visible breeding plumage of brilliant iridescent blue and chestnut contrasting with black and grey @-@ brown . The brightly coloured crown and ear tufts are prominently featured in breeding displays . The male in breeding plumage has striking bright blue ear coverts , with the crown often slightly darker , a black throat and nape , a royal blue upper back , chestnut shoulders and a bluish @-@ grey tail . The wings are grey @-@ brown and the belly creamy white . Non @-@ breeding males , females and juveniles are predominantly grey @-@ brown in colour ; all males have a black bill and lores ( eye @-@ ring and bare skin between eyes and bill ) , while females have a red @-@ brown bill and bright rufous lores . Immature males will develop black bills by six months of age and moult into breeding plumage the first breeding season after hatching , though this may be incomplete with residual brownish plumage and may take another year or two to perfect . Both sexes moult in autumn after breeding , with males assuming an eclipse non @-@ breeding plumage . They will moult again into nuptial plumage in winter or spring . The blue coloured plumage , particularly the ear @-@ coverts , of the breeding males is highly iridescent due to the flattened and twisted surface of the barbules . The blue plumage also reflects ultraviolet light strongly , and so may be even more prominent to other fairywrens , whose colour vision extends into that part of the spectrum .
Vocal communication among variegated fairywrens is used primarily for communication between birds in a social group and for advertising and defending a territory . The basic song type is a high @-@ pitched reel of a large number of short elements ( 10 – 20 per second ) ; this lasts 1 – 4 seconds . The reel of the variegated fairywren is the softest of all malurids . Birds maintain contact with each other by tsst or seeee calls , while a short , sharp tsit serves as an alarm call .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Distributed over 90 % of the Australian continent , the variegated fairywren is found in scrubland with plenty of vegetation providing dense cover . It prefers rocky outcrops and patches of Acacia , Eremophila or lignum ( Muehlenbeckia florulenta ) in inland and northern Australia . They have been reported to shelter in mammal burrows to avoid extreme heat . In urban situations such as suburban Sydney , these wrens have been said prefer areas with more cover than the related superb fairywren , though a 2007 survey in Sydney 's northern suburbs has proposed that variegated fairywrens may prefer areas of higher plant diversity rather than denser cover as such . Forestry plantations of pine ( Pinus spp . ) and eucalypts are generally unsuitable as they lack undergrowth .
= = Behaviour = =
Like all fairywrens , the variegated fairywren is an active and restless feeder , particularly on open ground near shelter , but also through the lower foliage . Movement is a series of jaunty hops and bounces , its balance assisted by a relatively large tail , which is usually held upright , and rarely still . The short , rounded wings provide good initial lift and are useful for short flights , though not for extended jaunts . During spring and summer , birds are active in bursts through the day and accompany their foraging with song . Insects are numerous and easy to catch , which allows the birds to rest between forays . The group often shelters and rests together during the heat of the day . Food is harder to find during winter and they are required to spend the day foraging continuously .
Like other fairywrens , male variegated fairywrens have been observed carrying brightly coloured petals to display to females as part of a courtship ritual . In this species , the petals that have been recorded have been yellow . Petals are displayed and presented to a female in the male fairywren 's own or another territory .
The variegated fairywren is a cooperative breeding species , with pairs or small groups of birds maintaining and defending small territories year @-@ round . Though less studied than the superb- and splendid fairywrens , it is presumably socially monogamous and sexually promiscuous , with each partner mating with other individuals . Females and males feed young equally , while helper birds assist in defending the territory and feeding and rearing the young . Birds in a group roost side @-@ by @-@ side in dense cover as well as engage in mutual preening . Occasionally larger groups of around 10 birds have been recorded , though it is unclear whether this was incidental or a defined flock .
Major nest predators include Australian magpies ( Gymnorhina tibicen ) , butcherbirds ( Cracticus spp . ) , laughing kookaburra ( Dacelo novaeguineae ) , currawongs ( Strepera spp . ) , crows and ravens ( Corvus spp . ) , and shrike @-@ thrushes ( Colluricincla spp . ) , as well as introduced mammals such as the red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) , feral cats and black rat ( Rattus rattus ) . The variegated fairywren readily adopts a ' rodent @-@ run ' display to distract predators from nests with young birds . The head , neck and tail are lowered , the wings are held out and the feathers are fluffed as the bird runs rapidly and voices a continuous alarm call .
= = = Diet = = =
The variegated fairywren consumes a wide range of small creatures , mostly insects , including ants , grasshoppers , bugs , flies , weevils and various larvae . Unlike the more ground @-@ foraging superb fairywrens , they mostly forage deep inside shrubby vegetation , which is less than 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) above the ground .
= = = Breeding = = =
Breeding occurs from spring through to late summer ; the nest is generally situated in thick vegetation and less than 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) above the ground . It is a round or domed structure made of loosely woven grasses and spider webs , with an entrance in one side . Two or more broods may be laid in an extended breeding season . A clutch consists of three or four matte white eggs with reddish @-@ brown splotches and spots , measuring 12 mm × 16 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in × 0 @.@ 63 in ) . The female incubates the eggs for 14 to 16 days , after which newly hatched nestlings are fed and their fecal sacs removed by all group members for 10 – 12 days , by which time they are fledged . Parents and helper birds will feed them for around one month . Young birds often remain in the family group as helpers for a year or more before moving to another group , though some move on and breed in the first year . Variegated fairywrens commonly play host to the brood parasite Horsfield 's bronze cuckoo ( Chrysococcyx basalis ) and , less commonly , the brush cuckoo ( Cacomantis variolosus ) and fan @-@ tailed cuckoo ( C. flabelliformis ) .
= = Cultural depictions = =
The variegated fairywren appeared on a 45c postage stamp in the Australia Post Nature of Australia – Desert issue released in June 2002 .
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= Scott Feldman =
Scott Wynne Feldman ( born February 7 , 1983 ) is an American professional baseball starting pitcher for the Houston Astros of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) .
After going 25 – 2 in his first two years of college baseball , he was drafted in the 30th round by the Texas Rangers in 2003 . Feldman had Tommy John surgery later that year . He followed it up with a minor league career in which he had a 2 @.@ 70 ERA , and held batters to only 6 @.@ 6 hits per 9 innings , pitching almost exclusively in relief .
After pitching out of the bullpen while bouncing back and forth between Texas and its Triple @-@ A affiliate in 2005 – 07 , Feldman converted to a starter in 2008 . He established himself in 2009 with a breakout season for the Rangers . He was 17 – 8 , tied for 4th in the American League in wins , and tied the major league record with 12 victories on the road .
= = Early life = =
The 6 @-@ foot @-@ 5 @-@ inch ( 196 cm ) Feldman was big from an early age . " His second @-@ grade teacher made a comment to my wife that it was like ' Alice in Wonderland , ' because Scott was always too big for his seat " , his father recalls .
As for Feldman 's road to the major leagues , " The dream started off like any other kid " , Feldman said . " You ’ d think about it as you were watching games in front of the TV , and you ’ d think about it playing in the neighborhood park with your friends . You always hope , but you just don ’ t know if it 's ever going to happen . "
His father , Marshall , an FBI agent who grew up in a Pennsylvania coal mining town and played college baseball at Duquesne , coached Feldman in youth baseball in Northern California . He worked at Mollie Stones in Burlingame as a courtesy clerk . His store manager Mark Lucchesi taught him how to throw a change up .
He went to Lincoln Elementary , Burlingame Intermediate School and later , Feldman attended Burlingame High School in Burlingame , California , where he pitched a no @-@ hitter . Feldman led the Peninsula Athletic League in batting average in his junior year . He was overweight in high school ; at one point he was up to 265 pounds ( 120 kg ) .
= = College = =
Feldman lost 40 pounds ( 18 kg ) before the start of his freshman year at the College of San Mateo , and walked on to the team . In two seasons , he went 25 – 2 , with a 1 @.@ 30 ERA and a strikeout @-@ to @-@ walk ratio of 8 @-@ to @-@ 1 . " When Feldman pitched " , said Bulldogs coach Doug Williams , " the game was 95 % over . " He earned Coast Conference Pitcher of the Year honors both as a freshman in 2002 and as a sophomore in 2003 , and was also an All @-@ American both years . " He has a gift " , Williams said .
Picked in the 41st round ( the 1,241st pick overall ) of the 2002 Major League Baseball Draft by the Houston Astros , he did not sign . He was then drafted again , in the 30th round ( 886th overall ) of the 2003 Draft by the Texas Rangers , 13 rounds behind future teammate Ian Kinsler , and this time he signed with the Rangers after they offered him a lucrative contract .
= = Minor leagues = =
Feldman underwent reconstructive elbow surgery for a torn ulnar collateral ligament in October 2003 . In his four appearances in 2004 for the Arizona League Rangers in the Arizona League , he pitched seven scoreless innings . He began the 2005 season with the Single @-@ A Bakersfield Blaze , but after nine scoreless innings in relief was quickly promoted to the Double @-@ A Frisco RoughRiders .
On July 28 , 2005 , Feldman and two teammates threw a perfect game against the Corpus Christi Hooks . It was the first combined nine @-@ inning perfect game in Texas League history , and the third overall . Feldman was tasked with getting the last three outs , and with two outs in the ninth he let the count get to 3 – 1 . " I was just telling myself , ' Don 't walk him , ' " Feldman said . " Once it got to 3 – 1 , I threw it right down the middle . If they got a hit , they got a hit . But they 're not going to break up a perfect game on a walk . " The batter grounded out . On July 31 , the three pitchers shared the Texas League Pitcher of the Week Award .
With the RoughRiders , he held opposing batters to a .202 batting average in 46 relief appearances , led the team with 14 saves ( which tied for fifth @-@ most in the league ) , and had a 2 @.@ 36 ERA . For the 2005 season , between the two teams he had a 2 @.@ 06 ERA and 17 saves in 52 appearances , all in relief . Baseball America tabbed him as having the best control of all minor league pitchers in the Rangers ' organization .
Prior to the 2006 season , MLB.com beat reporter T. R. Sullivan opined that Feldman was the Rangers ' top minor league relief prospect . In 2006 , in 23 relief appearances for the Rangers ' Triple @-@ A affiliate , the Oklahoma RedHawks , he had a 1 @.@ 98 ERA , and in 2007 in 21 relief appearances for the team he had a 4 @.@ 50 ERA . Later in 2007 , he pitched in the Arizona Fall League , to work on a new three @-@ quarters delivery .
In 2008 , as the Rangers decided to convert Feldman to a starter , he started and won a game for Frisco , taking a perfect game into the fifth and a no @-@ hitter into the seventh ( " For my first start , it was a lot of fun " , Feldman said ) . He also started and won the two games that he pitched for Oklahoma .
Overall , through 2008 Feldman had a minor league career ERA of 2 @.@ 70 in 153 @.@ 1 innings in 105 games ( all but six as a reliever ) , and gave up on average only 6 @.@ 6 hits per every 9 innings .
= = Major leagues = =
= = = Texas Rangers ( 2005 – 12 ) = = =
= = = = 2005 : Breaking in = = = =
Feldman was a late @-@ season call @-@ up in 2005 . " The night before , I didn ’ t sleep a minute . I didn ’ t know what to expect , but when I walked in [ the locker room ] , I saw a lot of the guys I had seen on TV all these years , and was like , ' Holy cow , I ’ m in the big leagues ' " , he remembers .
He made his major league debut against the Chicago White Sox on August 31 , 2005 . In eight relief appearances with the Rangers , he compiled a record of 0 – 1 , with an ERA of 0 @.@ 91 in 9 @.@ 1 innings of work .
= = = = 2006 : Brawl = = = =
Towards the end of the spring training in 2006 , Feldman was feeling confident that he was going to make the parent club 's 25 @-@ man roster . A week before Opening Day he was called into Manager Buck Showalter 's office . But instead of telling Feldman he had made the team , for the first 10 minutes Showalter and the team 's pitching coach Mark Connor spoke on and on about how Feldman had had a solid spring training — but needed to work on some things . Feldman couldn 't believe it but eventually thought , " Holy smoke , I ’ m going down [ to the minors ] . " Suddenly , unable to continue the prank any longer , Showalter burst out laughing : " Pack your bags , rookie , you ’ re coming with us ! "
During the regular season , Feldman bounced back and forth between the Rangers and Oklahoma .
The national spotlight shone briefly on Feldman on August 16 , 2006 , when he sparked a violent bench @-@ clearing brawl in the ninth inning of a game between the Rangers and the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim . Tensions between the two division rivals were already high after two Ranger starting pitchers — Adam Eaton and Vicente Padilla — had been ejected in previous games that month for throwing at Angel hitters , along with Texas manager Buck Showalter . Before Feldman took the mound in relief , on a night with a game @-@ time temperature of 101 degrees , two Angel pitchers ( Kevin Gregg and Brendan Donnelly ) had already been thrown out of the game for hitting Ranger batters , and Angel manager Mike Scioscia and acting manager / bench coach Ron Roenicke had been ejected as well .
Feldman hit Angel second baseman Adam Kennedy in the buttocks with a fastball with two outs and the Rangers up 9 – 3 . Kennedy charged the mound as the 6 ' 5 " Feldman stood atop it and threw down his glove . When Kennedy reached him , triggering a fight between Feldman and the light @-@ hitting 6 ' 1 " Kennedy , Feldman punched him in the armpit . An announcer describing the fight said , " [ Feldman ] even punches like he throws — sidearm and underhand . " " I didn 't charge him " , Feldman said in his defense . " I couldn 't just stand there . " Feldman was suspended for six games . As to others ' reactions , Feldman said : " Everybody is telling me to take boxing lessons . "
In 36 relief appearances in 2006 , he had an ERA of 3 @.@ 92 . In games that were late and close , Feldman held the sixteen batters he faced hitless .
= = = = 2007 : First win = = = =
Feldman was in the Rangers ' 2007 spring training camp , and won the final spot in the Texas bullpen . He picked up his first Major League victory on April 11 in his 47th big @-@ league appearance . " I 'll always remember it , no doubt about it " , Feldman said .
He was sent down , however , on May 1 . That began a trend , as he was called up and send down five more times during the season .
He made some changes in his delivery in September . Instead of throwing sidearm , he raised his arm angle and threw from a three @-@ quarters delivery , which pitching coach Mark Connor observed gave him more sink on his fastball and downward movement on his breaking ball . " This has a chance to be pretty good " , Connor said . " He was busting his fastball 94 – 95 , the ball was sinking , and his four @-@ seamer was cutting . "
He was 1 – 2 for the season , with a 5 @.@ 77 ERA in 29 games . He held the first batter he faced in each game to a .160 batting average , and his " ground ball : fly ball ratio " of 1 @.@ 39 was the highest on the team .
= = = = 2008 : Conversion to starter = = = =
In spring training in 2008 , Feldman changed his release point , and used the three @-@ quarter delivery that he had begun to use late in 2007 . Manager Ron Washington noted : " It makes his ball heavier , and his movement a little more pronounced . "
In late March , he was one of three pitchers vying for one long relief spot on the team , though the Rangers also began experimenting with converting him to be a starter . General Manager Jon Daniels observed : " Toward the end of spring training something clicked with his new [ three @-@ quarter ] arm slot . " On March 22 , despite Feldman 's success with his new , higher arm angle , the Rangers optioned him to Oklahoma , where he was a starter . In April he bounced back and forth between Texas and Frisco .
In his first Major League start , on April 13 , he allowed three runs in six innings and did not receive a decision . " Feldman was outstanding " , manager Washington said . " He hung in there and battled . " Feldman recorded his first major league hit on June 13 against Óliver Pérez of the New York Mets .
On August 13 , against the Boston Red Sox , he allowed 10 runs in the first inning ( a team record ) . This was the first time a major league pitcher gave up at least 12 runs without taking a loss since Gene Packard of the St. Louis Cardinals did it on August 3 , 1918 ) .
T. R. Sullivan of MLB.com wrote towards the end of the season : " He 's going to win the bronze medal for innings pitched on the Rangers this season . ... He has exceeded all expectations , and his lack of history as a starter makes it difficult to figure where this great experiment is headed . " General Manager Daniels noted : " Feldman has really saved our pen this year , and he wasn 't a guy we were counting on in the beginning of the season . " The Rangers wanted to limit his use towards the end of the seaton , but had to keep him in the rotation because of injuries to the other pitchers .
For the season , he was 6 – 8 in 25 starts and three relief appearances , over 151 @.@ 1 innings — just two innings fewer than he had pitched in his entire minor league career . He also led the Rangers ' pitching staff in quality starts ( 13 ) , quality start percentage ( 52 % ) , strikes looking ( 29 % ) , " grounded into double plays " ( 24 ) , and " grounded into double play rate " ( 21 % ) . His 13 unearned runs tied for the third @-@ highest total in the AL .
During the off @-@ season , club president Nolan Ryan emphasized conditioning for the Rangers pitchers . Feldman and nine other of the team 's top young pitchers were brought to Arlington in November for a week @-@ long conditioning camp . " It 's different " , Feldman said . " In the past , it was a little more of ' this is what you need to do , now go out and do it . ' Most guys would do it , but this is their way of overseeing it and making sure everybody is ready . "
= = = = 2009 : Breakout season = = = =
The Rangers decided that Feldman would begin 2009 as a middle reliever , and Kris Benson would be a starter . " Feldman makes us a better team in the bullpen " , explained Washington . " He goes down there with better stuff than he had before . " Feldman was disappointed at the change .
Within a month Benson was injured , however , and Feldman took his place in the rotation on April 25 . " I 'm excited " , said Feldman . " I love starting . " At the suggestion of pitching coach Mike Maddux , he changed his windup to a full windmill . He remained in the rotation thereafter . In early May , Washington noted : " He has real life on his fastball , his slider is harder than it has been , his breaking ball is much crisper , and he 's getting a good feel for his changeup . He 's got four pitches he can throw over the plate . "
Feldman began the 2009 season 5 – 0 . He sported better mechanics and a different repertoire ( a new and improved cut fastball ) , threw 1 – 2 mph harder , and kept the ball down — forcing more ground balls . " Scott Feldman has been great since we put him in the starting rotation " , said Manager Washington . " He always does what you need him to do , keep you in the ballgame . "
At the All Star break , despite not having moved into the starting rotation until nearly a month into the season , Feldman was 8 – 2 , led the AL in won @-@ lost percentage ( .800 ) , and was 9th in hits per nine innings ( 7 @.@ 75 ) and walks + hits per inning pitched ( 1 @.@ 18 ) . " He 's going to get better " , said Nolan Ryan on July 20 , noting Feldman 's youth and his recent change in pitching style .
On July 25 , Feldman outpitched Kansas City All @-@ Star and AL ERA leader Zack Greinke with eight innings of four @-@ hit , shutout ball , leading the Rangers to a 2 – 0 victory . " Feldman matched the best pitcher in baseball " , Washington said . " I ’ m so happy for him . Two pitchers went at it pretty good , and our 's won the battle . " The eight innings were Feldman 's major @-@ league high , as he mixed in a changeup , curveball , and slider with his fastball .
As of the end of July , opposing batters were hitting .228 against Feldman ( and only .217 in his starts ) , the fourth @-@ lowest batting average in the league . In his starts through the end of July he had a 3 @.@ 04 ERA , and 12 of his 17 starts were quality starts .
After he beat the Mariners on short ( three days ' ) rest at the beginning of August for the team lead in wins , Seattle manager Don Wakamatsu said : " I thought Feldman was awfully tough . I have seen this kid , and he gets better every year . I think you have to tip your hat . "
As of mid @-@ August , Feldman 's cut fastball was the most effective in the major leagues . And it was the third @-@ most @-@ effective pitch overall , behind only Tim Lincecum 's change @-@ up and Clayton Kershaw 's fastball . While in 2008 he used his cutter 13 @.@ 4 % of the time , in 2009 he was throwing it 30 @.@ 4 % of the time . The only starting pitchers who were throwing cutters more often were Brian Bannister , Doug Davis , and Halladay .
The press began to take notice . On August 14 Matthew Berry of ESPN noted that : " since April 25 , when Scott Feldman ... rejoined the Rangers ' rotation , only Justin Verlander has more wins than Feldman 's 12 . " And two days later , Phil Rogers wrote for The Chicago Tribune : " Scott Feldman is creeping into consideration for the bottom of Cy Young ballots . "
On August 23 , Feldman threw seven scoreless innings while allowing only four hits in a win over the Tampa Bay Rays . It was his 13th win of the season ( tied for third in the AL ) and put his season record at 13 – 4 . It was Feldman 's ninth road win of the season ( bringing him to 9 – 1 on the road ) , tying him with Sabathia for best in the AL . The win put the Rangers two games ahead of the Rays in the AL wild card standings , and one game behind the Red Sox . His career @-@ high 11 strikeouts were the most by a Ranger since Matt Perisho struck out 12 in 1999 ( see video of parts of Feldman 's 11 strikeouts ) . Commenting on Feldman 's last strikeout , Carlos Peña said : " I was on second base , and I saw a pitch that he made to B. J. [ Upton ] , and I was like , ' Wow . ' I thought to myself , ' That 's unhittable right there . ' " Rays manager Joe Maddon called Feldman 's performance " the best @-@ pitched game against us all year " , in spite of Mark Buehrle 's perfect game against them earlier in the season .
On August 29 , he again held the opposition scoreless , this time the Twins for 5 @.@ 2 innings in a 3 – 0 victory . " His ball was definitely moving all over the place , with a great breaking ball " , Twins manager Ron Gardenhire said . " He throws a nasty cutter , and the ball sinks . He was tough on us . " It was good for his 14th win of the season ( tied for second in the AL behind Sabathia ) , raising his record to 14 – 4 . His cutter was more dominant than any other thrown over a single season since Baseball Info Solutions first began collecting cutter data in 2004 .
On September 4 , he extended his scoreless streak to 18 @.@ 1 innings before giving up a run to the Baltimore Orioles in the sixth inning at Camden Yards ; that was the only run he gave up over 6 @.@ 2 innings in a 5 – 1 win , to bring his record to 15 – 4 . It was also his 11th road victory ( matching the club record held by Rick Helling ( 1998 ) and Padilla ( 2008 ) ) , and he matched the club record set by Bobby Witt ( 1990 ) with his 7th consecutive road win of the season . Evan Grant , writing for D Magazine , asked rhetorically : " At some point , RHP Scott Feldman is going to have to enter the Cy Young Award conversation , isn 't he ? "
On September 9 , Feldman threw seven innings of shutout ball against the Cleveland Indians , leading Texas to a 10 – 0 win . He struck out five , while giving up five singles , raising his record to 16 – 4 , and tying Sabathia and Verlander for the AL lead in victories . He became the first Rangers pitcher to win 16 games since Kevin Millwood in 2006 . It was his seventh win in a row , eighth straight road victory ( a new Texas record ) , and 12th road win overall in 2009 ( another new club record , and tops in the AL ) . " I 'm not doing anything different on the road than I am at home " , said Feldman , who had allowed only one run in the last 26 @.@ 1 innings . " The preparation is the same . I think it 's a pretty humbling game , so you can 't get too high or too low . " He became the first Rangers right @-@ hander to allow just one run over four consecutive starts . Outfielder Marlon Byrd said : " When you have your ace on the mound , you expect to win . You get a couple of runs early , and you feel you have a ' W ' in hand . He has been unbelievable this year when he steps on the mound . ... He just keeps getting better . "
The Boston Herald reported : " Scott Feldman started the season in the bullpen . He 'll end it as a Cy Young Award candidate . " Phil Rogers of the Chicago Tribune referred to him as " an under @-@ the @-@ radar Cy Young candidate . " And Jennifer Floyd Engel of The Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram wrote : " Is there a more likable " stud player " on any of the locals than Scott Feldman ? Dude is amazing , wins freakishly a lot on the road , is Boy Scout @-@ ishly dependable , has been an ace on what is really a pretty good staff , and is humble as hell . He 's certainly deserving to be in Cy Young conversations . " Manny Navarro of The Miami Herald also referred to him as a Cy Young Award candidate .
Through September 10 , he was leading the AL in won @-@ lost percentage ( .800 ) , tied with Sabathia and Verlander for the league lead in wins ( 16 ) , had the 3rd @-@ lowest " slugging percentage against " ( .359 ; behind Félix Hernández and Greinke ) , was tied for 4th in double plays induced ( 20 ) , and had the 7th @-@ lowest " OPS @-@ against " ( .670 ) . Feldman was holding lefties to a .220 batting average , and as a starter he had kept batters to the 2nd @-@ lowest batting @-@ average @-@ against on balls that they had put in play ( .261 ) among AL starters ( behind only Washburn ) , had the 4th @-@ best ERA in the league ( 3 @.@ 10 ; behind Greinke , Hernández , and Halladay ) , was tied for the 4th @-@ lowest batting @-@ average @-@ against ( .236 ) , had stranded the 5th @-@ highest percentage of runners ( 78 @.@ 3 % ) , and had the 5th @-@ highest ground ball / fly ball ratio ( 1 @.@ 48 ) . He had the most effective cutter of all major league starters , and had thrown it 33 % of the time ( behind only Brian Bannister ( 52 % ) and Halladay ( 42 % ) among AL starters ) . Feldman had also pitched at least five innings in all but one of his 26 starts in 2009 . As of mid @-@ September , Feldman 's cutter was still the third @-@ most @-@ effective pitch in the major leagues , behind only Tim Lincecum 's changeup and Randy Wolf 's fastball .
For the season , Feldman was 17 – 8 with a 4 @.@ 08 ERA in 34 games , 31 of them starts . Despite not having become a starter until the end of April , he tied for 4th in the American League in wins , and only four pitchers in the majors had more victories . His club @-@ record 12 victories on the road tied the major league record . Feldman became the third player in Rangers history to win at least 17 games in 31 starts or fewer , joining Kenny Rogers ( 17 wins in 31 starts in 1995 ) and Ferguson Jenkins ( 18 wins in 30 starts in 1978 ) .
He was named the Texas Rangers ' Pitcher of the Year for 2009 by the Dallas @-@ Fort Worth Chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America .
= = = = 2010 ; Opening Day starter = = = =
The Rangers and Feldman agreed to a $ 2 @,@ 425 @,@ 000 one @-@ year contract in January 2010 , thereby avoiding arbitration .
On March 27 , manager Ron Washington announced that Feldman would be the opening day starter for the Rangers . On April 2 , the Rangers signed Feldman to a two @-@ year , $ 11 @.@ 5 million extension through the 2012 season , with a $ 9 @.@ 25 million option for 2013 .
Feldman was 7 – 11 for the season , as he started 22 games and pitched seven games out of the bullpen .
= = = = 2011 ; Injuries , and scoreless postseason = = = =
Feldman , had microfracture surgery performed on his right knee during the off @-@ season . To rehab , he made two appearances for the Double @-@ A Frisco Roughriders and eight appearances for the Triple @-@ A Round Rock Express . On July 8 , he was transferred from the 15 @-@ day disabled list to the 60 @-@ day disabled list . He was outrighted to the minors on July 13 . However , on July 14 , after he cleared waivers , Feldman rejected the assignment giving the Rangers the option of activating him from the disabled list or releasing him . They opted to activate him off the disabled list , which re @-@ added him to the 40 @-@ man roster .
In 2011 , Feldman was 2 – 1 with a 3 @.@ 94 ERA for Texas in 11 games , two of which were starts . In 32 innings he gave up 25 hits , while walking 10 and striking out 22 . He limited left @-@ handed hitters to a .155 batting average .
Brought in during the first game of the playoffs against the Tampa Bay Rays , he pitched three scoreless innings , allowing two hits while striking out four . In Game 2 of the ALCS he pitched 4 1 / 3 scoreless innings in relief , allowing the Detroit Tigers only one hit and no walks . He became the third pitcher in 20 years to throw at least four scoreless innings of relief in a postseason game . He pitched another scoreless inning in Game 4 , and through the first two rounds of the postseason his playoff record was 8 @.@ 2 innings pitched with nine strikeouts , three hits , and no walks .
In the first game of the World Series , he pitched another 1 @.@ 2 innings of scoreless baseball to extend his postseason record to 10 @.@ 1 scoreless innings pitched . Only eight relief pitchers had pitched more scoreless innings in a postseason , with Goose Gossage holding the record ( 14 @.@ 1 in 1981 ) . His postseason record in 2011 was 10 @.@ 1 innings pitched with 10 strikeouts , 4 hits , and 0 walks .
= = = = 2012 = = = =
In 2012 , Feldman was 6 – 11 , with a 5 @.@ 09 ERA in 123 @.@ 2 innings . He had a 96 / 32 K / BB ratio . He walked one @-@ or @-@ fewer batters in 10 @-@ straight starts ; the only Ranger with a longer single @-@ season streak was Ferguson Jenkins with 12 @-@ straight starts in 1974 .
He became a free agent on October 30 , 2012 , when the Rangers declined his $ 9 @.@ 25 million 2013 option .
= = = Chicago Cubs ( 2013 ) = = =
On November 27 , 2012 , Feldman signed a one @-@ year deal with the Chicago Cubs worth $ 6 million with a possible $ 1 million in additional incentives . General Manager Jed Hoyer indicated that the team planned to use him as a starter . On May 24 , 2013 , Feldman hit his first career home run off of Cincinnati Reds pitcher Bronson Arroyo .
= = = Baltimore Orioles ( 2013 ) = = =
On July 2 , 2013 , Feldman and Steve Clevenger were traded to the Baltimore Orioles for pitchers Jake Arrieta and Pedro Strop . There , Feldman reunited with his first big league manager , Buck Showalter . His first start was on July 3 , 2013 , against the Chicago White Sox , a game the Orioles won 4 – 2 although Feldman did not get the decision . Feldman had his best start as an Oriole August 18 , and was borderline dominant the entire outing . Through his first six innings , Feldman had allowed just two hits , while not allowing a single run to score . The Orioles took the victory 7 – 2 against the Rockies . He improved upon that outing by tossing the first complete game shutout of his career on September 6 , holding the White Sox to 5 hits .
He finished the season with a combined 12 – 12 win @-@ loss record and 3 @.@ 86 ERA in 30 starts that included one shutout . He allowed only a .234 opponent 's batting average , tied for 10th @-@ best in the Major Leagues among righty pitchers , and a .207 average with two outs . After falling behind batters 2 – 0 , he held them to a .131 average , the lowest in the Major Leagues .
= = = Houston Astros ( 2014 – present ) = = =
Feldman signed a three @-@ year contract worth $ 30 million with the Houston Astros after the 2013 season .
He was the Astros ' opening day starter , and beat the New York Yankees by blanking them into the seventh inning . On August 30 , 2014 , Feldman threw a 3 @-@ hit shutout against the Texas Rangers , giving up just 1 walk while striking 5 . Astros went on to win 2 – 0 , winning the Silver Boot for the club for the first time since 2006 .
For the season , he was 8 – 12 with a 3 @.@ 74 ERA ( the lowest over a full season in his career ) , in 29 starts ( tied for the club lead ) . He was tied for sixth in the AL in complete games ( 2 ) . He threw the highest percentage of curveballs among all Major League pitchers ( 28 @.@ 9 % ) , ahead of Sonny Gray . At 6 – 7 , Feldman is the third @-@ tallest pitcher in Astros history behind Randy Johnson ( 6 – 10 ) and J. R. Richard ( 6 – 8 ) . He received the Astros 2014 Darryl Kile Good Guy Award , voted by the Houston Chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America .
= = Pitching = =
Feldman is a three @-@ quarters pitcher with a sinker , a low @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 90s fastball , a hard dropping slider , a curve , a changeup , and a 90 @-@ mph cut fastball .
He changed the angle of his arm from sidearm to three @-@ quarters in September 2007 . In August 2009 a scout described him has having three " above @-@ average pitches " , and a " filthy " cutter .
= = Personal life = =
Feldman is Jewish , as is his father , and the family belonged to Peninsula Temple Sholom in Burlingame for a period of time .
As of March 2007 , Feldman was one of 13 Jewish baseball players in the major leagues , along with teammate Ian Kinsler . He was featured in the edition of Jewish Major Leaguers Baseball Cards , licensed by Major League Baseball , commemorating the Jewish major leaguers from 1871 through 2008 . He joined , among others , Kinsler , Brad Ausmus , Kevin Youkilis , Ryan Braun , Gabe Kapler , Jason Marquis , John Grabow , Craig Breslow , Scott Schoeneweis and Jason Hirsh . In 2009 , Feldman was named the Jewish Major Leaguers Pitcher of the Year , in a year in which he had more wins than any other Jewish pitcher since Steve Stone in 1980 . Through 2014 , he was eighth of all Jewish major leaguers in career strikeouts , behind Barney Pelty , and tied for eighth in career wins , with Barry Latman .
Feldman , in 2007 , was one of 32 players born in Hawaii to have made it to the majors . In 2014 , he and Jerome Williams joined Brian Fisher ( 1990 ) and Sid Fernandez ( 1997 ) as the only Hawaiian @-@ born players to ever pitch for the Astros .
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= All Star Pro @-@ Wrestling =
All Star Pro @-@ Wrestling ( オールスター ・ プロレスリング ) is a Japan @-@ exclusive professional wrestling video game developed and published by Square on June 8 , 2000 for the PlayStation 2 . It was the first wrestling game published on this platform .
All Star Pro @-@ Wrestling was released in a period in which Square sought to diversify its catalog by producing various non @-@ role @-@ playing games for the PlayStation 2 . The game was notable for its control relying exclusively on the DualShock 2 's analog sticks , although a second mode using the normal buttons was also available .
While the quality of the game 's graphics was lauded and sales were good during its month of release , the control was received negatively by critics , who felt it was awkward and unintuitive . Nevertheless , the game spawned two sequels , released in 2001 and 2003 .
= = Gameplay = =
All Star Pro @-@ Wrestling is based on Japanese wrestling rather than American . The game can be played in several modes selected in the " Match Make " menu ; these include exhibition matches , championships , tournaments , or leagues separated by weight . Depending on the mode chosen , different wrestling rings can be chosen to battle , as well as the referee and the time limit . 26 real @-@ life wrestlers are initially available , notably Jushin Thunder Liger , The Great Muta , Don Frye , Koji Kanemoto , Antonio Inoki , and Masahiro Chono .
Each battle begins with the wrestlers ' entrance sequence . Two types of controls can be chosen to fight . The default one uses the DualShock 2 's analog sticks exclusively ; the left one being pressed for movements and the right one for attacks . Pins are executed by tilting both sticks up ; and pressing both sticks grabs the opponent , who can then be attacked or thrown depending on the way the right stick is tilted . The second type of controls , called " Type B " , is closer to other fighting games and assigns pinning to the triangle button , grabbing to the square button , and punches and moves to the cross button . With Type B , the power of each move is determined by the level of pressure applied on the buttons . In both modes , the precise techniques available depend on the position and distance of the opponent , as well as a personal " tension meter " which builds up during battle . At any time , the D @-@ pad can be used to change the angle of the camera .
Wrestlers return to full health after each match , and the game keeps track of the time of victories and records with the PlayStation 2 internal clock . A memory card can be used to save progress , battle snapshots , and match videos ; the latter of which can either be ten @-@ second long instant replays or up to three entire " Best Bout " matches . Hidden features include collectible autograph pictures of the defeated wrestlers ; and a few unlockable characters , among whom are two female models in bikinis .
= = Development = =
All Star Pro @-@ Wrestling was announced in January 1999 as part of Square 's desire to expand into more diverse game genres on the PlayStation 2 than their usual role @-@ playing games . While DreamFactory developed most of Square 's previous fighting games ( namely Tobal No. 1 , Tobal 2 , and Ehrgeiz ) , Square decided to develop a wrestling game internally as Dream Factory was already working on The Bouncer , another Square title . The game was produced by Yusuke Hirata of Parasite Eve 2 fame , head of Square 's Osaka @-@ based fifth production team . The score , which was never released in album form , consists mostly of rock music and was composed by Tsuyoshi Sekito , Kenichiro Fukui , and Kumi Tanioka .
Square 's aim with the title was to create some of the most realistic wrestlers seen in video games , with accurate details such as a faithful replication of body @-@ muscle physics and facial expressions . Screenshots of the game were shown during the Square Millennium Event in Japan in 2000 ; and a battle was played in demonstration by Yusuke Hirata and a young Japanese idol later in the same year at the Tokyo Game Show .
= = Reception = =
All Star Pro @-@ Wrestling topped the Japanese sale charts in its week of release with 107 @,@ 331 copies sold , and continued to top the charts for the rest of the month of June . It was the 63rd best @-@ selling video game of 2000 in Japan , with 185 @,@ 616 copies . The game scored 31 out of 40 in the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu , with the four reviewers highly praising the graphics but feeling that the controls , while not bad , could have been better implemented .
The American gaming website GameSpot rated the game 4 out of 10 , and criticized the battle system more severely along with IGN , which stated that the default analog controls are " mind @-@ boggling " ; with pins being very difficult to execute whereas some other maneuvers can be chained with single button presses . The second type of controls was judged easier to play with by IGN , although one reviewer felt that it wears out the thumb quickly . On the contrary , GameSpot felt that the second type is even more difficult to use than the default one . The amount of moves available has been described as low even compared to lackluster titles such as WWF Attitude . Regarding the game 's fluidity , GameSpot and one IGN critic compared it to the speed of an " underwater soccer match " , with smooth moves coexisting with simple , three @-@ second long movements . The second IGN critic noted that the game is more of a wrestling simulation than an arcade title focused on entertainment .
Still , both GameSpot and IGN lauded the realism of the wrestlers ' appearances , their faithfulness to those of their real @-@ life counterparts , and the efficient use of the PlayStation 2 Emotion Engine . The spectacular ring entrance scenes and the amount of blood visible during battles was also appreciated . One IGN critic noted that the referee is always present on @-@ screen , unlike many other wrestling games . However , the other one stated that the outdoor arenas " look like they were ripped out of a [ Sega ] Saturn game " . He also criticized the presence of only two facial expressions for each wrestler ; and both IGN reviewers criticized the inconsistent collision detection and the lack of diversity in the crowd , who sometimes " look like they were made out of Legos " . GameSpot added that the walking looks particularly unrealistic , in contrast with the other animations .
While both IGN reviewers noted the sparcity of the audio commentary and crowd shouting , one critic felt the sound was adequate albeit less impressive than the graphics . GameSpot called the sound decent and well executed . Finally , the omission of features such as weapons and modes such as " create @-@ a @-@ wrestler " , steel cage match , battle royal , and multiplayer tag team , was felt as a very noticeable weak point compared to American wrestling games present on the market .
= = Sequels = =
A sequel titled All Star Pro @-@ Wrestling II was released on November 22 , 2001 for the PlayStation 2 . It addressed the controls issue by replacing it with a new , more standard battle system , and included wrestlers from three real @-@ life Japanese wrestling federations : New Japan Pro Wrestling , Pro Wrestling Noah , and Pro Wrestling Zero @-@ One . The game also scored 31 out of 40 in Famitsu . A third installment , All Star Pro @-@ Wrestling III was released by Square Enix on August 7 , 2003 for the same platform . It included a create @-@ a @-@ wrestler feature .
Both sequels added multiplayer tag team and battle royal modes , playable using a multitap with up to 5 players at a time ( 4 wrestlers and the referee ) . Tsuyoshi Sekito returned to score the two soundtracks . The All Star Pro @-@ Wrestling II Original Soundtrack was published by DigiCube on January 23 , 2002 , while the third game 's soundtrack was not published in album form .
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= Cyclone Nancy =
Cyclone Nancy ( RSMC Nadi designation : 09F , JTWC designation : 18P ) was the second in a series of four severe tropical cyclones to impact the Cook Islands during February 2005 . Forming out of an area of low pressure on February 10 , Nancy quickly organized into a small , but intense , cyclone . By February 14 , the storm explosively intensified into a Category 4 severe tropical cyclone with winds peaking at 175 km / h ( 110 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 935 hPa ( mbar ) . Over the following day , increasing wind shear rapidly weakened the cyclone and by February 17 , it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone shortly before being absorbed by Cyclone Olaf .
Already impacted by Cyclone Meena in early February , the Cook Islands sustained significant damage from Cyclone Nancy . Several homes were damaged and destroyed throughout the islands . Downed trees and power lines blocked roads and cut power and minor flooding was reported along coastal areas . Following the impact of the storm , the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Nancy in May 2006 and replaced it with the name Nat .
= = Meteorological history = =
Cyclone Nancy originated out of a broad area of low pressure within a monsoonal trough northeast of Samoa on February 10 . Initially , the system was nearly stationary within an area of weak steering currents , low wind shear and high sea surface temperatures , exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . On February 11 , a trough briefly increased shear over the system and its nearby twin , the precursor to Cyclone Olaf . By 0600 UTC on February 12 , the system 's outflow improved and a small area of deep convection , known as the central dense overcast , developed over the center of circulation . Later that day , the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre ( RSMC ) in Nadi , Fiji upgraded the system to a Category 1 cyclone and gave it the name Nancy while it was located about 485 km ( 300 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Pago Pago , American Samoa . By this time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) had also begun issuing advisories on the storm , designating it as Tropical Cyclone 18P .
The storm had undertaken a slow northeast motion early on February 13 before turning southeast in response to a mid @-@ level ridge located northeast of the cyclone . Convective banding features developed close to the center of circulation as the storm began to undergo explosive intensification . Around 1200 UTC , the storm attained Severe Tropical Cyclone status as winds reached 120 km / h ( 75 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) and a small , irregularly shaped , eye began to develop . The JTWC , however , assessed Nancy to have been substantially weaker until 0000 UTC on February 14 , at which time they reported a 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) increase in winds , attaining minimal Category 3 status on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale .
By 1200 UTC on February 14 , Nancy attained its peak intensity with winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) and a barometric pressure of 935 hPa ( mbar ) . Shortly after , the JTWC assessed Nancy to have peaked with winds of 230 km / h ( 145 mph 1 @-@ minute winds ) . Increasing forward motion to the southeast and increasing wind shear caused Nancy to weaken . Early on February 15 , the storm passed directly over Manuae . Continued weakening took place as a trough approached from the southwest . By February 16 , Nancy weakened below hurricane intensity and turned to the southwest as it began to undergo a Fujiwhara interaction with Cyclone Olaf to the north .
Strong shear associated with the outflow of Cyclone Olaf caused all convection associated with Nancy to be displaced to the southwest on February 16 . Early on February 17 , Nancy transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as it entered the area of responsibility of the Tropical cyclone warning centre ( TCWC ) in Wellington , New Zealand . Shortly after , the low was absorbed into the larger circulation of Olaf . However , TCWC Wellington continued to monitor Nancy as a separate system until 1200 UTC on February 18 .
= = = Differences among warning centers = = =
The Regional Specialized Meteorological Center in Nadi , Fiji uses 10 @-@ minute sustained winds for its tropical cyclone tracking information , while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center uses 1 @-@ minute sustained winds . The conversion factor between the two is 1 @.@ 14 . RSMC Nadi 's peak intensity for Nancy was 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained , or 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) 1 @-@ minute sustained . The JTWC 's peak intensity for Nancy was 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) 1 @-@ minute sustained , or 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained .
= = Preparations = =
Upon being named Nancy on February 13 , a gale warning was put in place for American Samoa . Later that day , four additional countries were placed under watches and warnings . A gale watch was declared for Samoa and strong wind warnings were raised in Tuvalu , Tokelau and the Cook Islands . On February 14 , a tropical cyclone alert was declared for the southern Cook Islands . Additionally , Niue was placed under a strong wind warning . Later that day , Wallis and Futuna were placed under a strong wind warning . On February 15 , a hurricane warning was issued for the southern Cook Islands as Nancy tracked through the archipelago .
Already impacted by Cyclone Meena just a week prior , residents in the Cook Islands heeded warnings and evacuated to emergency shelters . Coastal areas where seawalls had been damaged or destroyed by Meena were of particular interest to warning centers and urged all people in the vicinity of them to evacuate to a nearby shelter . On Aitutake , all preparations were completed by February 15 . Tourists were relocated from hotels to one of six shelters set up throughout the island . An estimated 100 people reportedly evacuated to shelters out of the 2 @,@ 000 that live on the island . Radio broadcasts urging people to move to shelters were broadcast all day and the local cyclone center had all staff on standby . Eight shelters were opened on Rarotonga by this time . All residents were evacuated from low @-@ lying areas as large swells were anticipated to inundate those areas . Schools throughout the Cook Islands were closed prior to the cyclone and would remain closed for several more days . Many of the south Pacific islands were in a " critically dangerous situation " due to the quick succession of cyclones .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Cyclone Nancy caused substantial damage throughout the Cook Islands . On Atiu , all communication to the island was cut as power lines were downed throughout the island . Winds on the island gusted up to 241 km / h ( 150 mph ) . Four homes were destroyed on the island and at least 80 trees were downed , blocking all roads . Several homes had their roofs blown off , coconut trees were downed , road were covered in debris and heavy rains fell throughout all the islands . Numerous trees were downed across Manuae and Mauke by the storm 's high winds . Four homes were destroyed on Mauke . Three homes were destroyed on Mitiaro and trees blocked all roads on the island .
On Rarotonga , several bridges were damaged by high waves produced by the cyclone . Schools , churches , and restaurants were damaged by wind gusts up to 150 km / h ( 93 mph ) throughout the island . Fifteen temporarily shelters constructed after Cyclone Meena were also destroyed . Damages caused by the storm to the Avana Marina Condominiums forced the owners to close them until mid @-@ April to allow for reconstruction and renovation . The highest winds were recorded in the southern portions of the island chain , with a wind gust of 259 km / h ( 161 mph ) being recorded on Mangaia . Up to 100 % of the seasonal crop harvest was lost due to Cyclone Nancy .
In the wake of all four cyclones , the Cook Islands requested international assistance . Funding to repair damages from the storms reached $ 7 @.@ 87 million . The Red Cross provided relief items , such as blankets and lanterns worth $ 35 @,@ 200 ; the Pacific Forum provided food , fuel , and logistical support worth $ 32 @,@ 000 ; the Government of China donated $ 19 @,@ 200 in post @-@ disaster funds ; $ 32 @,@ 000 in funding was provided by the United Nations Development Programme ; contributions from the Australian Agency for International Development and the New Zealand Agency for International Development amounted to $ 862 @,@ 570 , consisting of fuel , shelter , relief items , and disaster funds ; the Government of Australia provided $ 128 @,@ 000 wort of fuel and equipment ; lastly , the Government of France deployed military teams with recovery supplies and tents . The European Union also supplied £ 200 @,@ 000 ( $ 280 @,@ 000 ) in relief funds .
Since Nancy caused substantial damage throughout the Cook Islands , the name was retired from " Naming List A " for the South Pacific basin and was replaced with Nat . The three other cyclones that impacted the region , Meena , Olaf and Percy , were also retired and replaced by Mal , Olof and Pita respectively .
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= Italian battleship Roma ( 1940 ) =
Roma , named after two previous ships and the city of Rome , was the fourth Vittorio Veneto @-@ class battleship of Italy 's Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) . The construction of both Roma and her sister ship Impero was planned due to rising tensions around the world and the navy 's fear that two Vittorio Venetos and the older pre @-@ First World War battleships were not enough to counter the British and French Mediterranean Fleets . As Roma was laid down almost four years after the first two ships of the class , some small improvements were made to the design , including additional freeboard added to the bow .
Roma was commissioned into the Regia Marina on 14 June 1942 , but a severe fuel shortage in Italy at that time prevented her from being deployed ; instead , along with her sister ships Vittorio Veneto and Littorio , she was used to bolster the anti @-@ aircraft defenses of various Italian cities . In this role , she was severely damaged twice in June 1943 from bomber raids on La Spezia . After repairs in Genoa through all of July and part of August , Roma was deployed as the flagship of Admiral Carlo Bergamini in a large battle group that eventually comprised the three Vittorio Venetos , eight cruisers and eight destroyers . Their stated intent was attacking the Allied ships approaching Salerno to invade Italy ( Operation " Avalanche " ) but , in reality , the Italian fleet was sailing to Malta to surrender following Italy 's 8 September 1943 armistice with the Allies .
While the force was in the Strait of Bonifacio , Dornier Do 217s of the German Luftwaffe 's specialist wing KG 100 — armed with Fritz X radio @-@ controlled bombs — sighted the force . The first attack failed , but the second dealt Italia ( ex @-@ Littorio ) and Roma much damage . The hit on Roma caused water to flood two boiler rooms and the after engine room , leaving the ship to limp along with two propellers , reduced power , and arc @-@ induced fires in the stern of the ship . Shortly thereafter , another bomb slammed into the ship which detonated within the forward engine room , causing catastrophic flooding and the explosion of the # 2 main turret 's magazines , throwing the turret itself into the sea . Sinking by the bow and listing to starboard , Roma capsized and broke in two , carrying 1 @,@ 253 or 1 @,@ 393 men — including Bergamini — down with her .
= = Background = =
For additional information , see Littorio @-@ class battleship
The Italian leader Benito Mussolini did not authorize any large naval rearmament until 1933 . Once he did , two old battleships of the Conte di Cavour class were sent to be modernized in the same year , and Vittorio Veneto and Littorio were laid down in 1934 . In May 1935 , the Italian Naval Ministry began preparing for a five @-@ year naval building program that would include four battleships , three aircraft carriers , four cruisers , fifty @-@ four submarines , and forty smaller ships . In December 1935 , Admiral Domenico Cavagnari proposed to Mussolini that , among other things , two more battleships of the Littorio class be built to attempt to counter a possible Franco @-@ British alliance — if the two countries combined forces , they would easily outnumber the Italian fleet . Mussolini postponed his decision , but later authorized planning for the two ships in January 1937 . In December , they were approved and money was appropriated for them ; they were named Roma and Impero ( " Empire " ) .
Laid down nearly four years after Vittorio Veneto and Littorio , Roma was able to incorporate a few design improvements . Her bow was noticeably redesigned to give Roma additional freeboard ; partway into construction , it was modified on the basis of experience with Vittorio Veneto so that it had had a finer end at the waterline . She was also equipped with thirty @-@ two rather than twenty @-@ four 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) / 65 caliber Breda guns .
= = Description = =
Roma was 240 @.@ 68 meters ( 789 @.@ 6 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 32 @.@ 82 m ( 107 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 6 m ( 31 ft ) . She was designed with a standard displacement of 40 @,@ 992 long tons ( 41 @,@ 650 t ) , a violation of the 35 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) restriction of the Washington Naval Treaty ; at full combat loading , she displaced 45 @,@ 485 long tons ( 46 @,@ 215 t ) . The ship was powered by four Belluzo geared steam turbines rated at 128 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 95 @,@ 000 kW ) . Steam was provided by eight oil @-@ fired Yarrow boilers . The engines provided a top speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) and a range of 3 @,@ 920 mi ( 6 @,@ 310 km ; 3 @,@ 410 nmi ) at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . Roma had a crew of 1 @,@ 830 to 1 @,@ 950 if she had been completed .
Roma 's main armament consisted of nine 381 @-@ millimeter ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) 50 @-@ caliber Model 1934 guns in three triple turrets ; two turrets were placed forward in a superfiring arrangement and the third was located aft . Her secondary anti @-@ surface armament consisted of twelve 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) / 55 Model 1934 / 35 guns in four triple turrets amidships . These were supplemented by four 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / 40 Model 1891 / 92 guns in single mounts ; these guns were old weapons and were primarily intended to fire star shells . Roma was equipped with an anti @-@ aircraft battery that comprised twelve 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) / 50 Model 1938 guns in single mounts , twenty 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) / 54 guns in eight twin and four single mounts , and sixteen 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) / 65 guns in eight twin mounts .
The ship was protected by a main armored belt that was 280 mm ( 11 in ) with a second layer of steel that was 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The main deck was 162 mm ( 6 @.@ 4 in ) thick in the central area of the ship and reduced to 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) in less critical areas . The main battery turrets were 350 mm ( 14 in ) thick and the lower turret structure was housed in barbettes that were also 350 mm thick . The secondary turrets had 280 mm thick faces and the conning tower had 260 mm ( 10 in ) thick sides . Roma was fitted with a catapult on her stern and equipped with three IMAM Ro.43 reconnaissance float planes or Reggiane Re.2000 fighters .
= = Service history = =
Roma 's keel was laid by the Italian shipbuilder Cantieri Riuniti dell 'Adriatico on 18 September 1938 and she was launched on 9 June 1940 . After just over two years of fitting @-@ out , the new battleship was commissioned into the Regia Marina on 14 June 1942 . She arrived in the major naval base of Taranto on 21 August of the same year and was assigned to the Ninth Naval Division . Although Roma took part in training exercises and was moved to various bases including Taranto , Naples and La Spezia , in the next year , she did not go on any combat missions as the Italian Navy was desperately short of fuel . In fact , by the end of 1942 , the only combat @-@ ready battleships in the navy were the three Vittorio Venetos because the fuel shortage had caused the four modernized battleships to be removed from service . When combined with a lack of capable vessels to escort the capital ships , the combat potential of the Italian Navy was virtually non @-@ existent .
Roma and her two sisters were moved from Taranto to Naples on 12 November in response to the Allied invasion of North Africa ; while en route , the three battleships were attacked by the British submarine HMS Umbra , though no hits were made . On 4 December , the United States launched a major air raid on Naples in an attempt to destroy the Italian fleet ; one cruiser was destroyed and two others were damaged in the attack , as were four destroyers . Two days later , Roma was transferred with Vittorio Veneto and Littorio to La Spezia , where she became the flagship of the Regia Marina . They remained here through the first half of 1943 without going on any operations .
During this time , La Spezia was attacked many times by Allied bomber groups . Attacks on 14 and 19 April 1943 did not hit Roma , but an American raid on 5 June severely damaged both Vittorio Veneto and Roma . B @-@ 17 aircraft carrying 908 kg ( 2 @,@ 002 lb ) armor @-@ piercing bombs damaged the stationary battleships with two bombs each . Roma suffered from two near hits on either side of her bow . The starboard @-@ side bomb hit the ship but passed through the side of the hull before exploding . The ship began taking on water through leaks from frames 221 to 226 — an area covering about 32 square feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m2 ) — and through flooding from the bow to frame 212 . The second bomb missed but exploded in the water near the hull . Leaks were discovered over a 30 sq ft ( 2 @.@ 8 m2 ) area ranging from frames 198 and 207 . Approximately 2 @,@ 350 long tons ( 2 @,@ 630 short tons ; 2 @,@ 390 t ) of water entered the ship .
Roma was damaged again by two bombs in another raid on 23 – 24 June . One hit the ship aft and to starboard of the rear main battery turret and obliterated several staterooms , which were promptly flooded from broken piping . The second landed atop the rear turret itself , but little damage was suffered due to the heavy armor in that location . This attack did not seriously damage Roma or cause any flooding , but she nevertheless sailed to Genoa for repairs . Roma reached the city on 1 July and returned to La Spezia on 13 August once repairs were complete .
= = = Loss = = =
Along with many of the principal units of the Italian fleet — including Vittorio Veneto and Italia ( the ex @-@ Littorio ) — the cruisers Eugenio di Savoia , Raimondo Montecuccoli , and Emanuele Filiberto Duca d 'Aosta , and eight destroyers — Roma sailed from La Spezia with Adone Del Cima as captain and also as the flagship of Admiral Carlo Bergamini on 9 September 1943 , a day after the proclamation of the 1943 Italian armistice . Joined by three additional cruisers from Genoa , Duca degli Abruzzi , Giuseppe Garibaldi , and Attilio Regolo , the fleet first sailed towards Salerno in a deliberate diversion to convince the Germans that they were going to attack the Allied ships sailing to invade Italy as part of Operation " Avalanche " . However , the Italian fleet was actually intending to break course and steam towards the British island of Malta to surrender . When Germany learned of the defection , the Luftwaffe sent Dornier Do 217s armed with Fritz X radio @-@ controlled bombs to attack the ships . These aircraft caught up with the force when it was in the Strait of Bonifacio .
The Do 217s trailed the fleet for some time , but the Italian fleet did not open fire upon sighting them ; they were trailing the fleet at such a distance that it was impossible to identify them as Allied or Axis , and Bergamini believed that they were the air cover promised to them by the Allies . However , an attack upon Italia and Roma at 1537 spurred the fleet into action , as the anti @-@ aircraft batteries onboard opened fire and all ships began evasive maneuvers . About fifteen minutes after this , Italia was hit on the starboard side underneath her fore main turrets , while Roma was hit on the same side somewhere between frames 100 and 108 . This bomb passed through the ship and exploded beneath the ships ' keel , damaging the hull girder and allowing water to flood the after engine room and two boiler rooms . The flooding caused the inboard propellers to stop for want of power and started a large amount of arcing , which itself caused many electrical fires in the aft half of the ship .
Losing power and speed , Roma began to fall out of the battle group . Around 16 : 02 , another Fritz X slammed into the starboard side of Roma 's deck , between frames 123 and 136 . It most likely detonated in the forward engine room , sparking flames , and causing heavy flooding in the magazines of main battery turret number two and the fore port side secondary battery turret , and putting even more pressure upon the previously stressed hull girder . Seconds after the initial blast , the number two 15 in turret was blown over the side by a massive explosion , this time from the detonation of that turret 's magazines .
This caused additional catastrophic flooding in the bow , and the battleship began to go down by the bow while listing more and more to starboard . The ship quickly capsized and broke in two . According to the official inquest conducted after the sinking , the ship had a crew of 1 @,@ 849 when she sailed ; 596 survived with 1 @,@ 253 men going down with Roma . According to naval historian Francesco Mattesini , who cites the research of Pier Paolo Bergamini , the son of Admiral Bergamini , around two hundred men from Bergamini 's staff were aboard Roma , and were mistakenly not included in the official inquiry . These men increased the total number aboard to 2 @,@ 021 and the total fatalities to 1 @,@ 393 . In her 15 @-@ month service life , Roma made 20 sorties , mostly in transfers between bases ( none were to go into combat ) , covering 2 @,@ 492 mi ( 4 @,@ 010 km ) and using 3 @,@ 320 tonnes ( 3 @,@ 270 long tons ; 3 @,@ 660 short tons ) of fuel oil in 133 hours of sailing .
= = Wreck discovery = =
The sunken vessel was found in June 2012 by the underwater robot ' Pluto Palla ' , designed by Italian engineer Guido Gay . It was discovered about 30 km ( 19 mi ) off the northern coast of Sardinia at a depth of around 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) . On 10 September 2012 a memorial ceremony was held on an Italian frigate over the spot where Roma went down . Giampaolo Di Paola , himself a former naval officer and at the time defence minister , at the ceremony described the dead sailors as " unwitting heroes who found their place in history because they carried out their duty right until the end " .
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= New York State Route 41 =
New York State Route 41 ( NY 41 ) is a north – south state highway in Central New York in the United States . The southern terminus of the route is at an interchange with NY 17 in the town of Sanford . Its northern terminus is at an intersection with U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) in the village of Skaneateles . The route is almost 100 miles ( 161 km ) long and passes through Broome , Chenango , Cortland , and Onondaga counties . NY 41 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , replacing New York State Route 70 from Homer to Skaneateles . The route initially extended as far north as Jordan ; however , NY 41 was cut back to its current northern terminus c . 1933 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Sanford to Greene = = =
NY 41 begins at NY 17 exit 82 in McClure , a hamlet within the town of Sanford . The route heads north , following Oquaga and Cornell Creeks through a series of valleys in the rural eastern portion of Broome County . It intersects only minor highways of local importance before crossing into Chenango County . Now in the town of Afton , NY 41 passes under Interstate 88 ( I @-@ 88 ) just south of an intersection with County Route 26 ( CR 26 ) . The highway turns northeast , paralleling I @-@ 88 into the village of Afton .
In Afton village , NY 41 connects to I @-@ 88 by way of an eastward extension of Maple Avenue . NY 41 turns northwest at this junction , following Maple Avenue across the Susquehanna River and into the center of the village . Here , NY 41 briefly overlaps with NY 7 before exiting the village and heading northwestward through two more river valleys to the town of Coventry , where it meets NY 206 in the hamlet of Coventryville .
The two routes converge here and head west to the hamlet of Coventry , where they intersect the northern end of NY 235 . NY 41 and NY 206 continue on , following Wheeler Brook westward into the town of Greene and the village of Greene located within . In the eastern portion of the village , the highway intersects CR 32 , which joins the two state highways for two blocks before splitting off to the south at a junction on the eastern bank of the Chenango River . NY 41 and NY 206 continue west across the river into the village center , where the two routes meet NY 12 . Here , NY 41 leaves NY 206 and follows NY 12 northward through the western portion of the village . The concurrency lasts for just 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) before NY 41 splits from NY 12 and exits Greene village .
= = = Greene to Cortland = = =
The route continues north through the towns of Greene and Smithville to the hamlet of Smithville Flats , where it meets the western terminus of NY 220 . NY 41 heads northwest from this junction , passing by Long Pond and Cincinnatus Lake before crossing into Cortland County and the town of Willet . In the hamlet of the same name , NY 41 intersects NY 26 . It joins NY 41 here , and the two routes proceed northwest from the hamlet and across the Otselic River to a junction with the east end of NY 221 . Past this point , NY 26 and NY 41 head due north along the river 's west bank into the town of Cincinnatus .
The overlap comes to an end near the hamlet of Gee Brook , where NY 41 splits from NY 26 and veers northwestward into a rural valley surrounding a small stream that gives the hamlet of Gee Brook its name . NY 41 crosses through the northeastern corner of the town of Freetown and the southern portion of the town of Solon on its way to the town of Cortlandville , where it intersects I @-@ 81 and US 11 west of the village of McGraw . US 11 and NY 41 come together here and parallel I @-@ 81 westward toward the city of Cortland . Just east of the city line , I @-@ 81 veers north to avoid downtown Cortland while US 11 and NY 41 continue west across the Tioughnioga River and into the city .
US 11 and NY 41 follow Port Watson Street into downtown Cortland , where they meet NY 13 at Church Street . All three routes turn north here , following Church Street for three blocks to Groton Avenue . Here , NY 13 turns east to follow Groton Avenue ( which becomes Clinton Road ) out of the city while US 11 and NY 41 turns west onto Groton , joining NY 222 , which begins at the junction of Groton Avenue and Church Street . Here , maintenance of the route shifts from the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) to the city of Cortland . The overlap between NY 41 and NY 222 ends two blocks later when US 11 and NY 41 turn north onto Main Street . The two routes remain on Main Street up to Homer Avenue , at which point the two routes veer onto Homer Avenue and follow it out of the city , at which point maintenance of NY 41 becomes the responsibility of NYSDOT once more .
= = = Cortland to Skaneateles = = =
Now in the adjacent village of Homer , US 11 and NY 41 meet I @-@ 81 once more by way of a lengthy exit ramp internally designated as NY 930Q by NYSDOT . The two routes continue on into the village center , where they meet the southern terminus of NY 90 . The overlap between US 11 and NY 41 ends three blocks later when NY 41 leaves US 11 and follows Clinton Street to the northwest . NY 41 intersects with NY 281 before leaving Homer village .
Just over 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) northwest of the Homer village limits in the town of Homer , NY 41 intersects with NY 41A , its only suffixed route . While NY 41A heads off to the west , NY 41 heads north through the town of Scott and into the Onondaga County town of Spafford , where it becomes East Lake Road and begins to parallel Skaneateles Lake . NY 41 heads northwest through Spafford , running atop a long , narrow hill bounded by Skaneateles Lake to the west and Otisco Lake to the east . At Borodino , a hamlet in northern Spafford , NY 41 meets the southern terminus of NY 174 . North of Borodino , NY 41 follows a more lakeside routing through the towns of Spafford and Skaneateles to the village of Skaneateles , where NY 41 ends at a junction with US 20 .
= = History = =
From the mid @-@ 1920s to 1930 , the road connecting the village of Skaneateles to the village of Homer via the east side of Skaneateles Lake was designated as NY 70 , a numbered state highway 26 miles ( 42 km ) long . Further south , the road leading southeast from the city of Cortland , through Greene at the Chenango River , to Afton at the Susquehanna River ( a distance of 54 miles or 87 kilometres ) was an unnumbered road . In the 1930 state highway renumbering , the entire length of old NY 70 was incorporated into the newly established NY 41 . This new route was , at the time , designated from McClure ( beginning at an intersection with NY 17 ) through Afton and Greene to Cortland , where it met US 11 . NY 41 overlapped US 11 through Cortland to Homer , from where NY 41 used old NY 70 to reach US 20 in Skaneateles . The new Route 41 continued further north to the village of Jordan ( at NY 31 ) . The portion of the Skaneateles – Jordan highway between Elbridge and Jordan was previously known as NY 31A prior to 1930 . When initially created in 1930 , NY 41 was 112 miles ( 180 km ) long . A pair of state routes in the vicinity of Jordan were renumbered as spur routes of NY 31 c . 1933 . One of these was the portion of NY 41 north of Elbridge , which became NY 31C . NY 41 was truncated on its northern end to Skaneateles as part of the change . The south end of NY 41 was shifted slightly with the opening of the Quickway c . 1960 .
= = NY 41A = =
NY 41A ( 25 @.@ 49 miles or 41 @.@ 02 kilometres ) is a western alternate route of NY 41 which runs from Homer to Skaneateles along the west shore of Skaneateles Lake . It was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Hurricane Debby ( 1982 ) =
Hurricane Debby was the strongest tropical cyclone of the 1982 Atlantic hurricane season , with winds peaking at 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) . The fourth named storm , second hurricane , and the only major hurricane on the season , Debby developed near the north coast of Hispaniola from a westward moving tropical wave on September 13 . Forming as a tropical depression , it headed northwestward , and eventually strengthened into Tropical Storm Debby the following day . Thereafter , Debby rapidly intensified into a hurricane early on September 15 . The hurricane then curved northeastward and grazed Bermuda as a Category 2 hurricane on September 16 . It continued to strengthen , and by September 18 , Debby briefly peaked as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale , with winds at 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 950 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 05 inHg ) .
After reaching peak intensity , Debby slowly weakened , and was between Category 2 and 1 when it passed south of Newfoundland early on September 19 . Thereafter , the storm accelerated and was moving at roughly 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) towards the east . Debby was rapidly approaching the British Isles on September 20 , shortly before it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . Overall , impact was minor in the Lesser Antilles , with only light to moderate rainfall in Dominican Republic , Puerto Rico , and the United States Virgin Islands . On Bermuda , high winds caused some power outages and knocked over trees , though damage on the island was minimal . In addition , Debby dropped rainfall and produced moderately strong winds on Newfoundland .
= = Meteorological history = =
A weather system moved off the coast of Africa on September 3 . The disturbance was small and became unidentifiable within 24 hours of formation . Satellite imagery indicated that the disturbance may have acquired a circulation on September 7 , but the circulation was gone by the next day . The remaining tropical wave moved into the Lesser Antilles on September 11 and a reconnaissance aircraft was deployed . The aircraft found circulation ; however , by the next day , only a strong wave was detected . Atmospheric conditions became more favorable for development , yielding lower wind shear near Hispaniola for several days . The system moved into this area as the latest Reconnaissance aircraft was deployed , declaring it a tropical depression on September 13 near the Dominican Republic .
The next Reconnaissance aircraft that investigated the system discovered a minimal pressure of 1005 mbar ( 28 @.@ 67 inHg ) and winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) in the depression 's center , prompting an upgrade to Tropical Storm Debby on the morning of September 14 . Uncertainty arose as to whether Debby would interact with an approaching trough or enter the influence of a ridge over the southeastern United States . The storm was later picked up by the trough , moving away from land and moved to the north . Debby strengthened further , becoming a minimal hurricane late on September 14 . The hurricane deepened further , reaching maximum winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) , a Category 2 storm . Debby approached Bermuda in this time , and on September 16 , Debby passed 80 miles ( 130 km ) west of the island and continued north .
Debby began to slow down to 5 mph ( 10 km / h ) early on September 17 as another trough in the westerlies arrived and the system entered it . As the hurricane entered the trough , its forward speed picked up from 5 mph ( 10 km / h ) to 30 mph ( 50 km / h ) . During this time , Debby reached Category 4 strength , reaching a peak intensity of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a minimal pressure of 950 mbar ( 28 @.@ 05 inHg ) . Early on September 19 , Debby passed just south of Cape Race , Newfoundland and started accelerating to the east at 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) on the following day . Debby remained a tropical cyclone while crossing the North Atlantic Ocean and weakened to a tropical storm at 0600 UTC September 20 . Debby was rapidly approaching the British Isles on September 20 shortly before it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone .
The remains of Debby maintained plenty of intensity over northern Europe , and on September 21 it struck northern parts of Finland ( where it was named storm Mauri ) as one of the most powerful windstorms in the country 's recorded history . Winds over 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) felled millions of cubic miles of forest , and a storm surge severely damaged the cities of Kemi and Tornio , claiming two lives .
Starting in the 1982 season ( with Debby ) , the Hurricane Hunter Aircraft ( also known as P @-@ 3s ) began running a new mission for NOAA 's Hurricane Research Division . The mission was to drop dropwindsondes that deployed very @-@ low Omega frequency signals . These signals were to estimate the sonde 's motion compared to the aircraft in certain areas in a storm .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Rainfalls from Debby in Puerto Rico ranged between 3 inches ( 76 mm ) around the northern end of the island to 10 inches ( 250 mm ) in the southern ridge of the island . Rains on the island peaked at 12 @.@ 86 inches ( 326 mm ) in Penuelas . The U.S. Virgin Islands reported rain of about 3 inches ( 76 mm ) , while about 5 inches ( 130 mm ) of precipitation fell in Dominican Republic . The United States Navy removed its 700 personnel on Bermuda 's Air Force Base , placing them in a gymnasium nearby . Thousands of tourists took last @-@ minute flights out of Bermuda on September 16 as Debby drew near . Some of the airlines had pulled back the number of flights going in and out of the island . Eastern Airlines dropped from five flights to two , with them going to only New York City , Newark , New Jersey and Boston , Massachusetts .
The storm had sustained winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) winds , and forecasters were predicting that the hurricane 's eye would be over the island the next day . Airlines canceled flights , buildings boarded up , and cruise liners were hurried out of their harbors in the time before Debby arrived . Rescue teams evacuated workers from Mobil oil rigs in Debby 's path as it neared . Bermuda experienced heavy gusts of wind , which caused minor damage with no injuries or fatalities . Power outages were reported on the island , though electricity was quickly restored . Numerous trees were knocked down on the island due to high winds . As the storm was approaching Canada , some oil rigs offshore of Newfoundland were evacuated and a science expedition off Grand Banks was discontinued . Onshore , Debby produced light rainfall in the southeastern portions of Newfoundland , with precipitation peaking at approximately 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 89 mm ) . In addition , a few areas experienced tropical storm forces winds , though damage was minimal .
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= Australian contribution to the Battle of Normandy =
The Australian contribution to the Battle of Normandy involved more than 3 @,@ 000 military personnel serving under British command . The majority of these personnel were members of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , though smaller numbers of Australians serving with the Royal Navy and British Army also participated in the fighting prior to and after the Allied landings on 6 June 1944 . While all the RAAF units based in the United Kingdom ( UK ) took part in the battle , Australians made up only a small portion of the Allied force .
The Australians who supported the D @-@ Day invasion included between 2 @,@ 000 and 2 @,@ 500 RAAF airmen in Australian squadrons and British Royal Air Force units , and approximately 500 members of the Royal Australian Navy serving on Royal Navy vessels , as well as a small number of Australian Army officers and merchant seamen . The army personnel and thousands of Australian airmen also took part in the subsequent Battle of Normandy between June and August 1944 , and an RAAF fighter squadron operated from airfields in Normandy . Throughout the campaign , Australian airmen provided direct support to the Allied ground forces by attacking German military units and their supply lines , as well as forming part of the force that defended the beachhead from air attack and manning transport aircraft . Australians also indirectly supported the campaign by attacking German submarines and ships that threatened the invasion force . The 13 Australian Army officers who took part in the campaign filled a variety of roles in British units in order to gain experience that they could take back to Australia .
Australian personnel also took part in the invasion of Southern France in August 1944 , and RAAF airmen continued to operate against German forces until the end of the war in May 1945 . However , the relatively low casualties suffered by the Allied air forces during the fighting in Normandy and subsequent campaigns resulted in an over @-@ supply of trained Australian aircrew in the UK , hundreds of whom were never assigned to a combat role . Australia 's contribution to the fighting in Normandy is commemorated in memorials and cemeteries in London and Normandy .
= = Background = =
In 1944 Australia 's war effort was focused on the Pacific War , and most elements of the country 's military were in Australia and the islands to its north . Nevertheless , substantial numbers of RAAF personnel , most of whom had been trained through the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) , were stationed in the United Kingdom ( UK ) and took part in operations against Germany . The Australian Government had very little influence over where Australian graduates of EATS were posted , and many were assigned directly to British units . As of 6 June 1944 , 1 @,@ 816 Australian airmen ( including 584 pilots ) were posted to RAF squadrons . Many of the thousands of Australian ground crew in the UK at this time were also serving with RAF units . In addition , ten RAAF flying squadrons were stationed in the UK . These included one regular RAAF unit , No. 10 Squadron , and nine temporary Article XV squadrons , which had been formed under the agreement that underpinned EATS . While the Article XV squadrons were nominally Australian , most included a substantial proportion of personnel from Britain and other Commonwealth countries ; as of 1 June 1944 they were manned by 796 Australian aircrew and 572 airmen from other countries . Owing to an over @-@ supply of aircrew trained through the Empire Air Training Scheme , there were also hundreds of RAAF airmen in the UK who were assigned to personnel depots while they waited to be posted to a combat unit ; prior to the invasion these unattached airmen were considered an asset by the Allied air forces as they could rapidly replace casualties .
The Australian air units were under the command of the RAF , which had 306 squadrons located in the UK at the time of the landings in Normandy . Two RAAF squadrons were assigned to the Second Tactical Air Force ( 2TAF ) , which was to provide direct support to the Allied armies during the campaign ; No. 453 Squadron operated Spitfire fighters as part of No. 125 Wing and No. 464 Squadron flew Mosquito light bombers as part of No. 140 Wing . Four Australian heavy bomber squadrons formed part of RAF Bomber Command ; No. 460 , No. 463 and No. 467 Squadrons were equipped with Lancasters and No. 466 Squadron flew Halifaxes . No. 456 Squadron , which was a specialist night fighter unit equipped with Mosquitos , formed part of Air Defence of Great Britain and was assigned to protect the invasion force . Three other RAAF squadrons in the UK would also support operations in Normandy as part of Coastal Command ; No. 10 and No. 461 Squadrons were equipped with Sunderland flying boats and flew patrols of the waters around the UK and France , while No. 455 Squadron operated against German surface shipping using Beaufighter strike aircraft .
In addition to the RAAF airmen operating as part of the RAF in the UK , hundreds of Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) personnel were serving with the Royal Navy ( RN ) at the time of the Battle of Normandy . No Australian warships took part in the operation , however . Most of the Australian officers serving with the RN were members of the Royal Australian Naval Volunteer Reserve ( RANVR ) . Four RAN sub @-@ lieutenants who had been sent to the UK to undergo training were also assigned to RN landing craft units to help address a shortage of officers capable of coordinating operations by these vessels .
Thirteen Australian Army officers were attached to the British Army units that fought in Normandy . These officers had been posted to the UK to gain experience in planning and conducting large @-@ scale amphibious operations , which would improve the army 's procedures ahead of Australian landings in the Pacific . A single officer represented each of the Army 's corps , and the personnel sent to the UK included some of the most talented and experienced members of the service .
= = Pre @-@ invasion preparations = =
Few Australians were involved in planning the invasion . Some of those who had planning responsibilities included Lieutenant Colonel Ronald McNicoll , who served on the Operations Staff of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force ; Air Commodore Frank Bladin , Senior Air Staff Officer for No. 38 Group RAF ; Lieutenant Commander Victor Smith , Flag Officer for British Assault Area 's air planning officer ; and Major Douglas Vincent , a signals officer attached to the headquarters of the British XXX Corps . Australian @-@ born Air Commodore Edgar McCloughry , who had served with the RAF since 1919 , headed the Allied Expeditionary Air Force Bombing Committee , which prepared air plans for the invasion .
During April and May the Allied air forces struck at German airfields as well as aircraft factories and repair facilities in France . No. 463 and No. 467 Squadrons participated in raids on airfields and factories near Toulouse on the nights of 5 / 6 April and 1 / 2 May , and bombed an airfield near Lanvéoc on the night of 8 / 9 May . The first of these raids involved 148 aircraft and was led by No. 467 Squadron 's commanding officer , Wing Commander John Balmer . 2TAF also conducted 12 raids on German airfields during this period , of which eight involved individual Australians posted to RAF light bomber squadrons . Australians serving in the fighter squadrons of No. 10 Group RAF also occasionally took part in " ranger " operations over northern France in search of German aircraft . In addition , the 31 Australian pilots posted to RAF photo reconnaissance units frequently conducted sorties to monitor German dispositions along the coast of the English Channel .
The Allies also conducted a major air offensive against the French railway network and bridges over the river Seine from April to June . Bomber Command made 53 raids against these targets , of which 25 involved the four Australian heavy bomber squadrons . A total of 17 Australian bombers were lost during these operations , including six that German fighters shot down during an attack on the marshalling yards at Lille on the night of 10 / 11 May . In addition , Australians took part in 29 of the 46 raids conducted by 2TAF 's light bombers against French railway infrastructure . Australian fighter pilots , including all of No. 453 Squadron on occasion , escorted some of these raids and conducted ground attack sorties targeting railway rolling stock . 2TAF 's fighter @-@ bombers also attacked bridges over the river Seine from April as part of an effort to seal off the Normandy region , and Australian pilots posted to British squadrons were involved in a small number of these operations . No. 453 Squadron attacked bridges and viaducts near Normandy on 27 April and 2 May .
Australians participated in attacks on German defences in France in the weeks before D @-@ Day . No. 453 Squadron made four raids on radar stations in late May and early June , and RAAF pilots serving with British fighter and fighter @-@ bomber squadrons took part in other such attacks . The four Australian heavy bomber squadrons contributed aircraft to raids on radar stations and communications facilities in the week before the landing . These units also struck German coastal batteries along the channel coast on nine occasions between 8 and 29 May ; Australians serving with British light bomber units took part in a further 14 raids on German batteries . The RAAF heavy bomber squadrons and Australians in RAF light and heavy bomber units also participated in raids against German Army camps in France and Belgium during May . The Australian squadrons suffered heavy losses in several of these attacks , including seven aircraft lost during a raid on the 21st Panzer Division 's facilities at Mailly @-@ le @-@ Camp on the night of 3 / 4 May . In addition to these attacks on German positions , Bomber Command struck the seven largest German munitions factories and ammunition dumps in France during late April and early May ; the four Australian squadrons participated in five of these operations , and no Australian aircraft were lost .
Leading up to the invasion , the RAF intensified its operations against German submarines and ships operating near France . Coastal Command aircraft destroyed six submarines within eleven days during May ; Australian aircrew contributed to three of these sinkings . Bomber Command also expanded its program of laying naval mines from April , and No. 460 Squadron as well as Australians posted to RAF light and heavy bomber units took part in several minelaying operations in the Baltic Sea and Heligoland Bight . Coastal Command 's anti @-@ shipping force , which included the RAAF 's No. 455 Squadron , mainly undertook training exercises from April , but occasionally attacked German convoys in the English Channel .
Australian airmen were also involved in protecting southern England from German air attack in the lead @-@ up to the invasion . From late April to early June No. 456 Squadron was part of a force that defended port cities in southern England from a series of air raids . The Australian squadron accounted for eight of the 22 bombers shot down by Air Defence of Great Britain night fighters during this period . No. 464 Squadron also conducted " intruder " raids that tried to destroy German bombers as they returned to their bases in France . During this period , No. 453 Squadron and 36 Australians posted to eight RAF units took part in defensive patrols which sought to prevent German reconnaissance aircraft flying over southern England during daylight hours , but no German aircraft attempted this .
In addition to the air campaign , a small number of Australians took part in special operations ahead of the invasion . In January 1944 , RANVR officer Lieutenant Ken Hudspeth , who commanded the midget submarine HMS X20 , transported a party of specialist personnel to inspect and collect soil samples from French beaches being considered for the invasion . This operation was successful , and earned Hudspeth his second Distinguished Service Cross ( DSC ) . Nancy Wake , an Australian serving with the British Special Operations Executive , was parachuted into France in April 1944 and subsequently helped to organise the French Resistance in the Auvergne region .
= = Australians at D @-@ Day = =
On the night of 5 / 6 June Bomber Command conducted precision attacks on ten German coastal artillery batteries near the beaches where Allied troops were to land . Each battery was targeted by approximately 100 heavy bombers , and all four Australian heavy bomber squadrons took part in the operation . No. 460 Squadron dispatched 26 aircraft , which were evenly split between attacking the batteries at Fontenay @-@ Crisbecq and St Martin de Varreville . No. 466 Squadron provided 13 aircraft to the raid on batteries at Merville @-@ Franceville Maisy , 14 aircraft from No. 463 Squadron struck Pointe du Hoe and No. 467 Squadron dispatched 14 against batteries at Ouistreham . The RAAF squadrons did not suffer any losses . Many Australian aircrew posted to British units also participated in this attack , and 14 @.@ 8 percent of the 1 @,@ 136 Bomber Command aircraft despatched were either part of RAAF squadrons or were flown by Australians .
Australians posted to RAF units also landed paratroopers in Normandy and took part in diversionary operations . On the night of 5 / 6 June several Australian airmen served in heavy bombers that dropped " window " chaff in patterns that , on German radar , simulated the appearance of convoys headed for the Pas de Calais region of France . Other Australians served in aircraft that dropped dummy paratroopers and jammed German radar . One Australian pilot posted to No. 139 Squadron RAF took part in " intruder " bombing raids against targets in western Germany and the Low Countries that sought to divert German aircraft away from Normandy . Australian aircrew also served aboard the transport aircraft of No. 38 Group RAF and No. 46 Group RAF , which flew the British 6th Airborne Division from the UK to Normandy on the night of 5 / 6 June . About 14 percent of the transport aircraft in No. 38 Group were piloted by Australians , though the proportion of Australians in No. 46 Group was much lower . There were no completely Australian aircrews in either group .
Australian aircrew supported the fighting on 6 June . No. 453 Squadron was one of 36 Allied squadrons that provided low @-@ altitude air defence for the invasion fleet and landing force . Many of the squadron 's pilots flew several sorties during the day , though they did not encounter any German aircraft . No. 456 Squadron also formed part of the force that provided air defence for the invasion area at night . In addition , about 200 Australian pilots were spread across the dozens of RAF fighter and fighter @-@ bomber units that supported the landings . A small number of Australian aircrew also served in RAF reconnaissance units and 2TAF 's light bomber squadrons , which also saw combat over France on D @-@ Day . The three Australian squadrons assigned to Coastal Command flew only a small number of sorties on 6 June as few German submarines or E @-@ boats put to sea .
About 500 RAN personnel served on board RN ships involved in the operation . While most formed part of the crew of RN warships , several Australian officers led flotillas of landing craft and others commanded individual craft . For instance , Sub @-@ Lieutenant Dean Murray commanded a force of six RN Landing Craft Assault that landed soldiers of the British 3rd Infantry Division at Sword Beach . Hudspeth also took X20 across the channel to mark the edge of Juno Beach during the landings there ; he received his third DSC for completing this mission . Some of the warships with Australian crew members that supported the landings were HMS Ajax ( which had three RANVR officers on board ) , Ashanti , Enterprise , Eskimo , Glasgow , Mackay and Scylla . Australian members of the Merchant Navy also participated in the D @-@ Day landings , though the number of sailors involved is not known .
Few of the Australian Army officers attached to British units landed on D @-@ Day . Major Jo Gullett , who was the second in command of an infantry company in the 7th Battalion , Green Howards , came ashore on Gold Beach as part of the invasion force . In his memoirs , Gullett described the landing as " easily the most impressive occasion of my life " . He subsequently led a company of the Royal Scots until he was wounded by German machine gun fire on 17 July . Most of the other Australian officers served in staff positions ; for instance Lieutenant Colonel Bill Robertson was the chief of staff of the 51st ( Highland ) Infantry Division when that unit arrived in Normandy and was later posted to the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division where he served in the same role . Vincent came ashore on 7 June and served with XXX Corps , 7th Armoured and 43rd ( Wessex ) Infantry Divisions during the campaign .
Due to the lack of a nominal roll or other records listing the Australians who took part in the D @-@ Day landings , it is not possible to determine the exact number involved . However , it has been estimated that about 3 @,@ 000 Australian military personnel and merchant seamen participated in the operation . The total number of Australians killed on 6 June was 14 , of whom 12 were RAAF airmen and two were members of the RAN .
= = Subsequent fighting = =
The fighting in Normandy continued until August 1944 , when the Allies broke out of the region and rapidly advanced to the German border . This campaign dominated the activities of eight of the ten Australian squadrons in the UK , as well as most of the airmen posted to RAF units . During July and August the RAAF units operated at or near their highest level of activity in the war to that point , but morale remained high as the airmen perceived that the contribution of air power to the campaign would be decisive . Large numbers of Australian airmen who were undergoing training or awaiting a posting on D @-@ Day were assigned to combat units during the fighting to replace casualties of the Normandy campaign .
In addition to the military personnel involved in the fighting , several Australian war correspondents reported on the Battle of Normandy . Chester Wilmot landed with the 6th Airborne Division on D @-@ Day , and his coverage of the fighting for the BBC soon made him one of the best @-@ known Allied war correspondents . Other Australian journalists in Normandy included John Hetherington , Geoff Hutton and Ronald Monson .
= = = June = = =
Australian airmen were involved in Allied efforts to delay German reinforcements from reaching Normandy throughout June . On the night of 6 / 7 June , 20 Mosquitos from No. 464 Squadron were dispatched to attack German road convoys and trains in northern France . The four Australian heavy bomber squadrons also participated in raids on French towns on this night . While No. 463 , No. 466 and No. 467 Squadrons mainly targeted railway facilities , No. 460 Squadron formed part of an attack on Vire , which sought to destroy the town to prevent the Germans from using the roads through it . Following these initial raids , Bomber Command continued to target railway infrastructure in France in an attempt to disrupt the movement of German reinforcements to Normandy . The command operated intensively during the week after the invasion , and some Australian aircrew flew raids on consecutive nights during this period . Overall , Bomber Command made 16 raids against railway facilities in France between 13 and 30 June , of which six included at least one of the RAAF squadrons . The RAAF heavy bomber squadrons and Australians in RAF units also took part in several attacks on German supply dumps and airfields during this period . Bomber Command made fewer raids on these targets than had been planned prior to the invasion , however , as its units were frequently assigned to strike facilities associated with the V @-@ 1 flying bombs the Germans were launching against the UK . No. 464 Squadron also operated against German vehicles travelling at night and bombed railway yards , and flew 75 sorties between the nights of 7 / 8 and 12 / 13 June . Overall , the squadron conducted attacks on 19 nights during June , during which five of its aircraft were destroyed . The Australians in 2TAF 's other light and medium bomber units also attacked the German lines of communication in France and occasionally provided direct support for the Allied ground forces throughout this period .
During June , Australians also contributed to the defence of the Allied beachhead against German air and naval attacks . No. 453 Squadron and the RAAF fighter pilots in RAF units continued to fly patrols over the beachhead in the week after D @-@ Day , but only rarely encountered German aircraft . From 11 June the Australian squadron 's aircraft frequently operated from airfields built at Normandy , and on the 25th of the month it and the other units of No. 125 Wing moved from the UK to Advanced Landing Ground B11 within the beachhead near Longues @-@ sur @-@ Mer . By late June , No. 453 Squadron and the other RAF Spitfire units were regularly attacking German positions in Normandy as well as providing air defence for the Allied forces in the area ; during the month the squadron flew more than 700 sorties . A small number of Australians posted to RAF squadrons equipped with Hawker Typhoon fighter @-@ bombers also attacked German vehicles and positions in direct support of the Allied ground troops throughout the month . No. 456 Squadron , which was one of four night fighter squadrons assigned to protect the beachhead , frequently met German aircraft and shot down twelve of them in the week after the landing . Australian fighter ace Flight Lieutenant Nicky Barr , who had escaped from German custody in Italy during 1943 , also briefly served in an air support control unit in Normandy . Barr landed at Omaha Beach on 9 June , but returned to the UK three days later as his commanding officer believed that German forces would execute Barr if they recaptured him .
German submarines and surface warships sortied to attack the Allied invasion fleet , and the Australian members of Coastal Command participated in attacks on these vessels . The two RAAF flying boat squadrons operated intensively throughout June , but did not sink any German ships or submarines . The aircrew of two of the British B @-@ 24 Liberators that sank German submarines during this period included Australian personnel , however , and Australians were on board several of the other RAF aircraft flying anti @-@ submarine and anti @-@ shipping patrols . In addition , No. 455 Squadron took part in several attacks on E @-@ boats operating near Normandy as well as German shipping travelling through the English Channel . No. 460 Squadron and Australians in other Bomber Command units also participated in raids on E @-@ Boat bases at Le Havre and Boulogne on the nights of 14 / 15 June and 15 / 16 June respectively .
= = = July and August = = =
By July the Allied armies were having difficulty advancing against the German forces in Normandy . In an attempt to create a breakthrough , the Allied air commanders decided to use heavy bombers to attack German positions . The first of these attacks was made on 7 July by 467 Bomber Command aircraft and targeted German forces near Caen , as well as the city itself . The Australian contribution to this raid included 20 Lancasters from No. 460 Squadron and 14 Halifaxes from No. 466 Squadron as well as aircrew in RAF units . One of No. 460 Squadron 's aircraft made a crash landing within the Allied beachhead after being damaged by German anti @-@ aircraft guns , but its crew survived and were evacuated to the UK . While the attack devastated Caen , the ground troops were only able to capture the northern half of the city when they advanced on 8 July . All four Australian heavy bomber squadrons participated in a series of attacks on German positions on 18 July as part of Operation Goodwood , but this offensive also failed to result in a breakthrough . On 30 July , No. 463 , No. 466 and No. 467 Squadrons contributed aircraft to another major bombardment of German positions near Caumont ahead of Operation Bluecoat ; 693 heavy bombers took part in this attack , of which 39 were from the Australian squadrons , but many did not drop their bombs as cloud obscured the aiming markers in the target area . All four Australian heavy bomber squadrons participated in the next major attack , which took place on the night of 7 / 8 August to support Operation Totalize , but cloud and smoke again prevented many of the bombers from attacking the target area . The four squadrons also attacked German Army positions on 14 August in support of Operation Tractable ; visibility was clear over most of the target area , and the raids were considered successful . By this time the Allied armies had successfully broken out of Normandy , and no further heavy bomber attacks were required .
Australians also continued to be involved in Allied air attacks aimed at disrupting movement of German troops and supplies to Normandy during July and August . As well as supporting the ground forces in Normandy and continuing to bomb V @-@ 1 flying bomb launch facilities in northern France , Bomber Command attacked railway facilities in France during July and August , and at least one of the Australian heavy bomber squadrons participated in 15 of the 25 raids conducted against these targets . No. 464 Squadron also flew more than 350 sorties during July and 400 in August against transport infrastructure in France and convoys of German vehicles . These operations , which were generally conducted at night , cost the unit three aircraft . The only interruption to No. 464 Squadron 's attacks on transportation came on the night of 14 / 15 July , when four aircraft piloted by highly experienced airmen conducted a successful precision strike on the Gestapo barracks at Bonneuil @-@ Matours . Australian aircrew assigned to other 2TAF medium bomber and fighter @-@ bomber units also participated in attacks on bridges and railways throughout July .
No. 453 Squadron operated from Normandy during July and August , and mainly patrolled behind the German front line in search of motor transport to attack . It occasionally encountered German aircraft during this period and shot down several Me 109 and Fw 190 fighters . The squadron flew 727 sorties during July , but lost several of its Spitfires to German anti @-@ aircraft guns . No. 453 Squadron continued to operate against German transport during August , and moved to an airfield near Lingèvres on the 13th of the month . This airfield was attacked by a German aircraft the next day , resulting in the death of one Australian pilot and another three wounded . The squadron experienced considerable success during the Allied break @-@ out , and claimed to have destroyed a large number of German vehicles during August . Overall , No. 453 Squadron flew more than 1 @,@ 300 combat sorties during July and August . While No. 456 Squadron 's night fighters conducted patrols over Normandy in early July and shot down four German bombers on the 5th of the month , the unit — in common with almost all the Mosquito @-@ equipped night fighter squadrons stationed in the UK — was tasked with intercepting V @-@ 1 flying bombs from 6 July onwards .
The Australian flying boat squadrons assigned to Coastal Command also continued to support the invasion during July and August . On 8 July a No. 10 Squadron Sunderland sank the German submarine U @-@ 243 130 miles ( 210 km ) south @-@ west of Brest . Overall , No. 10 Squadron flew 56 patrols during July and No. 461 Squadron conducted 67 , most of which were made at night . One of No. 461 Squadron 's Sunderlands damaged the submarine U @-@ 385 150 miles ( 240 km ) south of Brest on 10 August , and it was sunk the next day by HMS Starling . On 13 August another No. 461 Squadron Sunderland attacked and sank U @-@ 270 . No. 10 Squadron flew almost as many patrols throughout August as it had during July , but did not encounter any submarines . No. 455 Squadron took part in attacks on German shipping travelling off the Netherlands and in the North Sea during July and August , but these operations were not directly related to supporting the invasion .
= = Aftermath = =
RAAF personnel also participated in the Allied invasion of southern France ( Operation Dragoon ) during August 1944 . No. 458 Squadron , which was equipped with Wellington bombers , flew anti @-@ submarine patrols and attacked targets in northern Italy and southern France ahead of the landings , which took place on the 15th of the month . The squadron continued these duties until the end of August . The Spitfire @-@ equipped No. 451 Squadron escorted Allied invasion convoys on 14 August and patrolled over the Allied beachhead as troops came ashore the next day . From 25 August the squadron was based at an airfield near Cuers in France and provided air defence for the region until October . Few German aircraft were encountered throughout this period , however .
The low casualties the Commonwealth air forces incurred during the Battle of Normandy led to an over @-@ supply of trained aircrew . While the number of pilots and other airmen undergoing training through the EATS had begun to be reduced in early 1944 , by 30 June there were thousands of qualified airmen — including 3 @,@ 000 Australians — in the UK waiting for posts in operational units . This number greatly exceeded the requirements of the Allied air forces . Accordingly , the flow of airmen from EATS training facilities in Canada to the UK was greatly cut back , and Australia ceased sending airmen overseas for training under the scheme in August . While 1 @,@ 245 Australian airmen arrived in the UK during the last six months of 1944 ( a reduction from the 5 @,@ 181 who had arrived in the first six months of the year ) , only those who were qualified as air gunners were typically ever assigned to combat units . It was not possible to find flying positions for most of the remaining unattached airmen who arrived after June 1944 , and some were posted back to Australia ; the remainder spent the rest of the war in training courses and various non @-@ flying roles .
Australian military personnel in Europe remained in action until the end of the war . At the time of the German surrender in May 1945 , there were 15 @,@ 500 members of the RAAF in the UK and western Europe , of whom 12 @,@ 300 were qualified aircrew . Most members of the small party of Australian Army officers who had been posted to the UK ahead of D @-@ Day also remained in Europe until the end of the war .
= = Commemoration = =
Overall , 1 @,@ 177 Australian military personnel were killed in western Europe and Britain during the lead @-@ up to the invasion of France and the subsequent Normandy Campaign . These losses were higher than those suffered by Australian forces in the Pacific during this period . A total of 44 Australians are buried in Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries in the Normandy region . These include men killed in the region prior to the invasion and those who died during the fighting in 1944 . Of the Australian graves , 17 are located at the Bayeux War Cemetery , six at Saint @-@ Désir de Lisieux , five at Banneville @-@ la @-@ Campagne , four at the Bretteville @-@ sur @-@ Laize Canadian War Cemetery , three at both Douvres la Délivrande and Hermanville @-@ sur @-@ Mer , two in Ranville and one each at Ryes @-@ Nazenville , Saint @-@ Manvieu @-@ Norrey , Bolbec and Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles . The Bayeux Memorial , which lists the names of Commonwealth personnel killed in Normandy with no known grave , does not include any Australians . The most recent burial of an Australian serviceman in Normandy took place in April 2011 when No. 453 Squadron pilot Flight Lieutenant Henry Lacy Smith was interred at Ranville War Cemetery . Smith drowned when his Spitfire crash @-@ landed in the River Orne on 11 June 1944 , but his body was not recovered until November 2010 .
Australia 's involvement in the Battle of Normandy has also been commemorated through memorials and official state visits . Many of the RAAF squadrons that fought in the campaign were awarded battle honours after the war in recognition of their contribution . " Normandy " is also one of the 47 battle sites recorded on the Australian War Memorial , London , which was dedicated in 2003 . In 2004 , Australian Prime Minister John Howard attended the ceremonies in France that marked the 60th anniversary of the Normandy invasion . The French Government also awarded the Legion of Honour to ten of the surviving Australian veterans of the landings to commemorate this anniversary . In 2014 , Prime Minister Tony Abbott and a party of seven Australian veterans of the campaign attended ceremonies held to commemorate the 70th anniversary of D @-@ Day . When the Mémorial de Caen opened in 1988 , the flagpoles outside the museum commemorating the countries that participated in the battle did not include an Australian flag . Former No. 453 Squadron fighter pilot Colin Leith campaigned to have an Australian flag added , and this was achieved on 1 May 1998 . Despite these commemorations , there is only limited awareness among modern Australians of their country 's role in the fighting in Normandy , and the campaigns fought in the Pacific have a much more prominent place in the public memory of World War II .
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= Buncefield fire =
The Buncefield fire was a major conflagration caused by a series of explosions on 11 December 2005 at the Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal , an oil storage facility located near the M1 motorway by Hemel Hempstead in Hertfordshire , England . The terminal was the fifth largest oil @-@ products storage depot in the United Kingdom , with a capacity of about 60 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 gallons of fuel . The terminal is owned by TOTAL UK Limited ( 60 % ) and Texaco ( 40 % ) .
The first and largest explosion occurred at 06 : 01 UTC near tank 912 , which led to further explosions which eventually overwhelmed 20 large storage tanks . The emergency services announced a major emergency at 06 : 08 and a fire fighting effort began . The cause of the explosion seems to have been a fuel @-@ air explosion of unusually high strength . Latest evidence suggests this may have been caused by hedgerows of deciduous trees accelerating the flame front to such a degree its pressure wave caused remaining air fuel to detonate . The British Geological Survey monitored the event , which measured 2 @.@ 4 on the Richter scale . News reports described the incident as the biggest of its kind in peacetime Europe and certainly the biggest such explosion in the United Kingdom since the 1974 Flixborough disaster . The flames had been extinguished by the afternoon of 13 December 2005 . However , one storage tank re @-@ ignited that evening , which the fire @-@ fighters left to burn rather than attempting to extinguish it again .
The Health Protection Agency and the Major Incident Investigation Board provided advice to prevent incidents such as these in the future . The primary need is for safety measures to be in place to prevent fuel escaping the tanks in which it is stored . Added safety measures are needed for when fuel does escape , mainly to prevent it forming a flammable vapour and stop pollutants from poisoning the environment .
= = Incident = =
= = = Explosion and fire = = =
The first and largest explosion occurred at 06 : 01 UTC on Sunday , 11 December 2005 near container 912 . Further explosions followed which eventually overwhelmed 20 large storage tanks . From all accounts , it seems to have been an unconfined vapour cloud explosion of unusually high strength — also known as a fuel @-@ air explosion . Because of an inversion layer , the explosions were heard up to 125 miles ( 200 km ) away ; there were reports that they were audible in Belgium , France , and the Netherlands .
The British Geological Survey monitored the event , which measured 2 @.@ 4 on the Richter scale . It was reported that people were woken in south London , and as far west as Wokingham ( about 28 miles ( 45 km ) ) , where in its southern suburb , Finchampstead , numerous people felt the shockwave after the initial explosion . Subsequent explosions occurred at 06 : 27 and 06 : 28 .
Witnesses many miles from the terminal observed flames hundreds of feet high ; the smoke cloud was visible from space , and from as far north as Lincolnshire ( about 70 miles ( 110 km ) ) away . Damage from the blasts included broken windows at various buildings including the Holy Trinity church and Leverstock Green School , blown @-@ in or warped front doors , and an entire wall being removed from a warehouse more than half a mile ( 800 m ) from the site . Buildings in neighbouring St Albans also suffered ; Townsend School had serious blast damage , and a window was blown out of St Albans Abbey ( about 5 miles ( 8 km ) ) .
Several nearby office blocks were hit so badly that almost every window , front and back , was blown in as the explosion ripped through them . During the working day , these offices would have been full of people , and many deaths may have resulted . Reports also indicated that cars in nearby streets caught fire . The roof of at least one house was blown off . Buildings in the vicinity were evacuated by police , not only because of the smoke and possibility of more explosions , but because of the danger of structural damage making the buildings unstable .
There were 43 reported injuries ; two people were deemed to be seriously injured enough to be kept in hospital , one in Watford General Hospital , with breathing difficulties , and another in Hemel Hempstead Hospital , although they were not in a life @-@ threatening condition . Some early media reports spoke of eight fatalities , but these may have been persons missing . All members of staff from the terminal were accounted for .
Hertfordshire police & fire services and the member of parliament for the area , Mike Penning , said that there were seven fuel tanks on the site which , as of 14 : 00 on 12 December , had not been affected . These tanks were at risk of exploding if the fire were to spread .
= = = Tackling the blaze = = =
The emergency services announced a major emergency at 06 : 08 and a huge fire fighting effort began . At peak times this effort consisted of 25 fire engines , 20 support vehicles and 180 fire fighters . Around 150 firefighters were called immediately to the incident , and began tackling the blaze at 08 : 20 on the morning of 12 December , putting in containment measures before applying a large quantity of foam . The incident occurred close to junction 8 of the M1 motorway , which led to its closure and the setting up of a public exclusion area . It was estimated that this incident would be the largest " single @-@ seat " fire in the world ever to be fought by a fire brigade , and foam supplies from sites all over the UK were drawn upon .
Plans had been in place to start using foam at midnight on 11 December , but were delayed by last @-@ minute concerns over possible pollution of local rivers and underlying water sources . Six high volume pumps were used to extract 25 @,@ 000 litres ( 5 @,@ 499 imp gal ) of water per minute — 417 litres ( 92 imp gal ) per second — from a reservoir 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 km ) from the fire , with six more high volume pumps deployed at various locations to serve as boosters . Thirty @-@ two thousand litres ( 7 @,@ 039 imp gal ) of fire fighting foam per minute were directed against the fire for just over four hours , after which the pumping rate was reduced . Half of the 20 individual fires were reported extinguished by midday .
By 16 : 30 on Monday 12 December , it was reported that a further two tank fires had been extinguished , but that one of the tanks extinguished earlier had ruptured and re @-@ ignited , and was now threatening to cause the explosion of an adjacent tank . This led to the M1 motorway being closed again ; the public exclusion area was widened , and firefighters were temporarily withdrawn until the risk posed by the threatened tank could be assessed .
Firefighting operations were resumed at about 20 : 00 , and it was anticipated that all fires could be extinguished during the night . Further damage occurred to one of the storage tanks in the early hours of Tuesday morning , causing firefighters to be withdrawn once again , but operations resumed at 08 : 30 . By midday on 13 December , all but three fires had been extinguished , although the largest tank was still burning . Bronze command — operations on the ground — was visited by the Bishop of St Albans , the local vicar , and the industrial chaplain supporting the fire crews , to see how they were coping .
Firefighters were confident that the remaining fires could be extinguished during the day — Tuesday 13 December . The smoke plume had been considerably reduced and was more grey , indicating the amount of vapourised water now combining with the smoke . It was reported at 16 : 45 that all tank fires had been extinguished , although some smaller fires persisted . 75 % of firefighters for Hertfordshire were involved in fighting the fire , supported by 16 other brigades . The entire gold command operation , involving many agencies as well as all the emergency services , was run from Hertfordshire Constabulary 's headquarters in Welwyn Garden City , some distance from the fire .
A further fire broke out during the early morning of 14 December . Firefighters were of the view that extinguishing it would leave the risk of petroleum vapour re @-@ igniting or exploding , so it would be better to allow the fire , which was well contained , to burn itself out . Hertfordshire Fire Service 's deputy chief Mark Yates stated that escaping petroleum vapour was the most likely cause of the original explosion and fire .
= = = Smoke cloud = = =
The black smoke cloud , which was visible from satellite photographs , drifted at a high altitude , around 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) , towards Reading and Swindon , and could be seen across much of South East England .
The small particles in the smoke contained hydrocarbons , which can be an irritant but have a low toxicity and were not expected to cause any long @-@ term harm . The Met Office issued warnings that the smoke in the atmosphere could come down in rainfall during the night of 11 December .
The fire resulted in 244 people requiring medical aid — mainly on the first day of the fire . From those 117 had symptoms attributable to the incident , of whom 38 were members of the public . The majority of those visiting hospitals were from the rescue services and attended for precautionary check ups . Most of them had no symptoms , except for 63 emergency workers who suffered respiratory complaints , of which half were sore throats .
For the first two days of the fire , the high thermal energy made the plume highly buoyant ; this , together with settled weather conditions , allowed the plume to rise to a great height with little cross @-@ mixing . When the fire was reduced in intensity it was reported to be possible that the plume would be less buoyant and that ground @-@ level smoke concentrations could then rise significantly . By 12 December , it was reported that the smoke cloud had reached northern France ; it was expected to arrive in northern Spain by the weekend .
To investigate the smoke cloud the Facility for Airborne Atmospheric Measurements , a research aircraft operated jointly by NERC and the Met Office , made two flights on 12 and 13 December . In the first flight the edge of the plume was followed along the south coast of England . Carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides and ozone concentrations were found to be low with soot particles being the major component in the cloud . The second flight went into the centre of the plume to obtain data to help forecasting and emergency teams .
= = Reactions and response = =
= = = Evacuations and closures = = =
Hundreds of homes in the Hemel Hempstead area were evacuated , and about 2 @,@ 000 people had to find alternative accommodation ; emergency services asked residents of the smoke @-@ affected areas to close their windows and doors and to stay inside .
Hertfordshire Constabulary advised people who had houses with smashed windows to seek refuge with friends or family nearby if possible . Some people whose homes were damaged by the blast were placed in hotels , while others stayed in a nearby shopping centre . Total , the operator of the Buncefield depot , set up a helpline for people whose properties had been damaged by the explosion , and called in local authorities and the Salvation Army to provide accommodation or other help .
Concerns for public safety resulted in about 227 schools , libraries , and other public buildings across Hertfordshire and Buckinghamshire closing on 12 and 13 December . Police and local authorities advised residents to consult the Hertfordshire Direct website for up @-@ to @-@ date information .
Seventy @-@ eight schools in Luton borough were closed on 13 December , along with a limited number of schools in Bedfordshire , on the advice of Hertfordshire 's Health Protection Agency that all schools within a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) radius of the incident site should be closed because of concerns surrounding the effect of the smoke plume on children 's health . Schools reopened as normal on 14 December .
= = = Transport disruption = = =
The incident occurred close to junction 8 of the M1 motorway . The motorway was shut between junctions 12 and 6a — about 18 miles ( 29 km ) — shortly after the incident . Other roads in the vicinity , including the short M10 motorway ( now part of the A414 road ) , were also closed .
Some local petrol stations reported long queues as people started panic buying . A spokesman for the Department of Trade and Industry gave assurances that no petrol shortage was likely to result from the incident .
The oil terminal supplied 30 % of Heathrow Airport 's fuel , and because of the fire , the airport had to start rationing fuel . Some long @-@ haul flights to Australia , the Far East , and South Africa had to make an intermediate stop at Stansted Airport or other European airports to refuel , while short @-@ haul operators were asked to fuel their aircraft for the round trip before flying to Heathrow . Some aircraft were only allowed 40 % of the fuel they would normally take on board . Fuel shortages continued for months after the explosion .
= = = Business disruption = = =
In the Maylands industrial area the worst affected buildings were the Northgate Information Solutions headquarters and the Fujifilm building . These buildings were so badly damaged they were rendered completely unusable . Demolition of the Fujifilm building began soon afterwards , and by June 2006 it had been completely removed from the site . Although the Northgate and Fujifilm buildings were closest to the blast , the surrounding Catherine House ( to the north ) , Keystone Distribution building ( to the west ) , 3Com Corporation and RO buildings ( to the south ) , were also extensively damaged . In all , six buildings were designated for demolition and 30 more required major repairs before they could be reoccupied .
As a result of the destruction of the equipment in the Northgate building several websites hosted there were inaccessible — including that of the Labour Party . Addenbrooke 's Hospital in Cambridge was also affected ; its IT system dealing with admissions and discharges had to be replaced for several days by a manual system .
A number of companies were affected by inability to reach their premises even where the premises themselves were largely unaffected by the blast . Criticism was expressed by local citizens and the local MP that originally the depot had been constructed away from other buildings , but that developmental pressures had led to both houses and commercial premises being built near the depot .
= = = Groundwater pollution = = =
In May 2006 Three Valleys Water announced that it had detected the persistent , bioaccumulative , and toxic fluorosurfactant perfluorooctane sulfonate ( PFOS ) — which is used in fire fighting foam — in a ground water bore hole close to the Buncefield site . It stated that no water from this well entered the public water supply and that a nearby well and pumping station had been closed since the fire as a precaution . The chemical is a known health risk and the UK government had been about to ban its use .
However just before the announcement , the Drinking Water Inspectorate announced that it was increasing the safe level of the chemical in drinking water . Hemel Hempstead MP , Mike Penning accused the government of changing the rules to suit the situation in which PFOS levels in drinking water in the area may rise in the future . Most of the fuel burned out — rather than spilling into the soil , so the impact on surrounding land and the water table was limited .
= = Inquiry = =
A government inquiry held jointly by the Health and Safety Executive ( HSE ) and the Environment Agency was started , but calls for a full public inquiry were declined . The Board included Lord Newton of Braintree ; Prof Dougal Drysdale , an authority on fire safety ; and Dr Peter Baxter , a medical expert . Environment Agency and HSE staff were also on the board . Its aim was to identify the immediate causes of the explosion , rather than consider who was to blame for any deficiencies , so as not to prejudice further legal proceedings .
An initial progress report by the Major Incident Investigation Board on 21 February 2006 did not go into the causes of the explosion , but summed up the event and the immediate reaction from the emergency services . A second progress report , published on 11 April 2006 , looked at the environmental impact .
A further announcement was made on 9 May 2006 about the sequence of events which caused the explosion . Starting at 19 : 00 on the evening of 10 December 2005 , Tank 912 , towards the north west of the main depot , was filled with unleaded petrol — from the Coryton Refinery located in Essex , England . At midnight the terminal closed , and a check was made of the contents of tanks , which found everything normal . Normally the gauges monitor the level of the fuel in the tank as it fills from the particular pipeline . From about 03 : 00 the level gauge for Tank 912 began to indicate an unchanging level reading , despite it being filled at 550 cubic metres ( 19 @,@ 423 cu ft ) per hour .
Calculations show that the tank would have begun to overflow at about 05 : 20 . There is evidence suggesting that a high @-@ level switch , which should have detected that the tank was full and shut off the supply , failed to operate . The switch failure should have triggered an alarm , but it too appears to have failed . Forty @-@ one minutes later , an estimated 300 tonnes of petrol would have spilled down the side of the tank through the roof vents onto the ground inside a bund wall — a semi @-@ enclosed compound surrounding several tanks .
An overflow such as this results in the rapid formation of a rich fuel and air vapour . CCTV footage showed such a vapour flowing out the bund wall from around 05 : 38 . By 05 : 50 the vapour started flowing off the site , near the junction of Cherry Tree and Buncefield Lane . Around 05 : 50 the rate at which fuel was being pumped into the tank increased dramatically . Initially the fuel was pumped in at 550 cubic metres ( 19 @,@ 423 cu ft ) per hour , but it increased to about 890 cubic metres ( 31 @,@ 430 cu ft ) per hour . By 06 : 01 , when the first explosion occurred , the cloud which was initially about 1 metre ( 3 ft ) deep , thickened to 2 metres ( 7 ft ) and had spread beyond the boundaries of the site .
The extent of the damage meant it was not possible to determine the exact source of ignition , but possibilities include an emergency generator and the depot 's fire pump system . The investigators did not believe that it was caused either by the driver of a fuel tanker , as had been speculated , or by anyone using a mobile phone . It was felt unlikely that the explosion had a widespread effect on air quality at ground level .
= = Legal action = =
= = = Civil liability = = =
A total of 2 @,@ 700 claims were filed by residents , businesses and insurers . A group of 146 claimants were hoping to bring a class action against Hertfordshire Oil Storage Ltd . On 17 March 2006 a High Court official , Senior Master Turner , adjourned a hearing on whether to permit the class action until October 2006 . Claimants including insurance companies , small businesses and about 280 families whose properties were damaged or destroyed were claiming up to £ 1 billion in damages .
Several court cases resulted from the explosion , although the main trial to determine who was liable for the damage commenced at the High Court in October 2008 . An example of loss is Cheetah Couriers — which suffered a 20 % drop in turnover because of the explosions , resulting in losses of around £ 300 @,@ 000 to £ 400 @,@ 000 . The company was located in offices on an industrial estate 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 312 ft ) from the depot .
An initial trial concluded on 23 May 2008 when Mr Justice David Steel issued a summary judgment after hearing that both Total and Hertfordshire Oil Storage Ltd ( HOSL ) had agreed that negligence was the cause . In the main trial , Total UK claimed that the duty supervisor at the time was responsible for the explosion , but refused to admit either civil or criminal liability for the incident . Total UK argued that it should not be liable for damages because it could not reasonably have foreseen that it would cause the destruction it did . On 20 March 2009 the High Court found Total liable for the blast , saying that it was satisfied that Total had control of tank filling operations at the Buncefield depot . The judgement left the company facing damage claims of around £ 700 million .
Total appealed the judgement , but the appeal was dismissed in a hearing on 4 March 2010 .
= = = Criminal liability = = =
The site is covered by the COMAH regulations . The Control of Major Accidents and Hazards Regulations are jointly enforced by the " competent authority " which is formed of the Environment Agency and the Health and Safety Executive . They carried out an investigation during and following the fire .
In April 2010 the five companies accused of causing the explosion faced a criminal prosecution brought by the Health and Safety Executive and the Environment Agency . Two defendants , Total UK and British Pipeline Agency Limited , had already pleaded guilty to offences under the Health and Safety at Work Act . The remaining three , Hertfordshire Oil Storage Ltd , TAV Engineering Ltd , and Motherwell Control Systems were found guilty in June 2010 . TAV Engineering Ltd and Motherwell Control Systems were found guilty of failing to protect their employees . Hertfordshire Oil Storage Ltd was found guilty of failing to prevent major accidents and limit their effects and then pleaded guilty to causing pollution to enter controlled waters underlying the vicinity around the site , contrary to the Water Resources Act .
Sentencing took place in July 2010 . Total UK was fined £ 3.6m , plus £ 2.6m in costs . Hertfordshire Oil Storage Limited was fined £ 1.45m and £ 1m in costs . The British Pipeline Agency was fined £ 300 @,@ 000 plus £ 480 @,@ 000 costs . Motherwell Control Systems and TAV Engineering were fined £ 1 @,@ 000 each . Local MP Mike Penning called the modest fines " insulting " .
= = The terminal = =
The Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal ( HOSL – Hertfordshire Oil Storage Ltd ) , generally known as the Buncefield complex , was the fifth largest oil @-@ products storage depot in the UK , with a capacity of about 60 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 270 ML ) of fuel , although it was not always full . This was about 8 % of UK oil storage capacity .
The HOSL is a major hub on the UK 's oil pipeline network ( UKOP ) with pipelines to Humberside and Stanlow Refinery and is an important fuel source to the British aviation industry , providing aircraft fuel for local airports including London Gatwick , London Heathrow and Luton airports . About half of the complex is dedicated to the storage of aviation fuel . The remainder of the complex stores oil , kerosene , petrol and diesel fuel for petrol stations across much of the South @-@ East of England . The terminal is owned by TOTAL UK Limited ( 60 % ) and Texaco 40 % .
The seat of the fire , and the worst damaged section , was " HOSL West " , used by Total and Texaco to store a variety of fuels , and the neighbouring British Pipeline Agency area .
= = Causes = =
The final report of the Major Incident Investigation Board ( MIIB ) was written in 2008 and released in February 2011 . The investigation found that Tank 912 at the Buncefield oil storage depot was being filled with petrol . The tank had a level gauge that employees used to monitor the level manually , and an independent high @-@ level switch which would shut off inflow if the level got above a certain setpoint . On Tank 912 , the manual gauge was stuck and the independent shut @-@ off switch was inoperative , meaning that the tank was being " filled blind " with petrol ( i.e. , being filled without a clear indication of the level ) . Eventually Tank 912 filled up completely , the petrol overflowed through vents at the top , and formed a vapour cloud near ground level , which ignited and exploded . The fires from the explosion then lasted for five days .
The investigation found that the level gauge had stuck at random times after a tank service in August 2005 , but it did not concern maintenance contractors or site management . The independent shut @-@ off switch was not fitted with a critical padlock to allow its check lever to work . Secondary containment ( meant to trap the petrol in a retaining wall around the tank ) failed and allowed petrol to flow out . Tertiary containment ( drains and catchment areas to prevent release of spilled chemicals to the environment ) also failed , and fuel and firefighting foam entered groundwater supplies . The investigation found secondary and tertiary containment to be inadequately designed and poorly maintained .
Wider management failings were found by the investigation to have contributed to the explosion : management safety checks at the site were found to be deficient and not properly followed . Site staff did not have control over the flow rates and timing of two of the three inlet sources , meaning that they did not have enough information to properly manage the storage of incoming fuel . Further , overall throughput had increased , reducing wait times further and shifting the emphasis to process operations instead of process safety .
= = Aftermath = =
Soon after the incident the Health Protection Agency was stripped of its remit to provide air quality data and it was passed on to the Environment Agency which forms part of the Major Accident Investigation Board .
= = = Remembrance = = =
An anniversary service was held in Holy Trinity Church Leverstock Green on Sunday , 10 December 2006 , at which the Bishop of St Albans spoke , calling again for a full public inquiry , for assurances that the local hospital would maintain its accident and emergency department , and for the community to continue to build on good relationships formed because of the blast .
= = = Reconstruction = = =
To rebuild the damaged parts of the site , the relevant approval from Dacorum Borough Council would be needed . The BP section of the site is a good way from the explosion and survived with very little damage , but it was inoperative as of 2009 . BP is exploring plans for the future use of this part of the site , and has indicated a number of priorities , including the reopening of the fuel pipelines to Heathrow . It is considering using its section to store aviation fuel and as a distribution centre for motor fuel , but at a much @-@ reduced level . In late 2009 , Total UK submitted plans for the reconstruction of the oil depot .
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= Either / Or =
Either / Or ( Danish : Enten – Eller ) is the first published work of the Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard . Appearing in two volumes in 1843 under the pseudonymous authorship of Victor Eremita ( Latin for " victorious hermit " ) it outlines a theory of human development in which consciousness progresses from an essentially hedonistic , aesthetic mode to one characterized by ethical imperatives arising from the maturing of human conscience .
Either / Or portrays two life views , one consciously hedonistic , the other based on ethical duty and responsibility . Each life view is written and represented by a fictional pseudonymous author , with the prose of the work reflecting and depending on the life view being discussed . For example , the aesthetic life view is written in short essay form , with poetic imagery and allusions , discussing aesthetic topics such as music , seduction , drama , and beauty . The ethical life view is written as two long letters , with a more argumentative and restrained prose , discussing moral responsibility , critical reflection , and marriage . The views of the book are not neatly summarized , but are expressed as lived experiences embodied by the pseudonymous authors . The book 's central concern is the primal question asked by Aristotle , " How should we live ? " His book was certainly informed by Epictetus ; " Consider first , man , what the matter is , and what your own nature is able to bear . If you would be a wrestler , consider your shoulders , your back , your thighs ; for different persons are made for different things . Do you think that you can act as you do and be a philosopher , that you can eat , drink , be angry , be discontented , as you are now ? You must watch , you must labor , you must get the better of certain appetites , must quit your acquaintances , be despised by your servant , be laughed at by those you meet ; come off worse than others in everything — in offices , in honors , before tribunals . When you have fully considered all these things , approach , if you please — that is , if , by parting with them , you have a mind to purchase serenity , freedom , and tranquillity . If not , do not come hither ; do not , like children , be now a philosopher , then a publican , then an orator , and then one of Caesar ’ s officers . These things are not consistent . You must be one man , either good or bad . You must cultivate either your own reason or else externals ; apply yourself either to things within or without you — that is , be either a philosopher or one of the mob . " His motto comes from Plutarch , " The deceived is wiser than one not deceived . ”
The aesthetic is the personal , subjective realm of existence , where an individual lives and extracts pleasure from life only for his or her own sake . In this realm , one has the possibility of the highest as well as the lowest . The ethical , on the other hand , is the civic realm of existence , where one 's value and identity are judged and at times superseded by the objective world . In simple terms , one can choose either to remain oblivious to all that goes on in the world , or to become involved . More specifically , the ethic realm starts with a conscious effort to choose one 's life , with a choice to choose . Either way , however , an individual can go too far in these realms and lose sight of his or her true self . Only faith can rescue the individual from these two opposing realms . Either / Or concludes with a brief sermon hinting at the nature of the religious sphere of existence , which Kierkegaard spent most of his publishing career expounding upon . Ultimately , Kierkegaard 's challenge is for the reader to " discover a second face hidden behind the one you see " in him / herself first , and then in others . Johann Goethe said the same .
The Middle Ages are altogether impregnated with the idea of representation , partly conscious , partly unconscious ; the total is represented by the single individual , yet in such a way that it is only a single aspect which is determined as totality , and which now appears in a single individual , who is because of this , both more and less than an individual . By the side of this individual there stands another individual , who , likewise , totally represents another aspect of life ’ s content , such as the knight and the scholastic , the ecclesiastic and the layman . Either / Or Part I p . 86 @-@ 87 Swenson
Goethe 's poem
Life I never can divide , ... Inner and outer together you see . ... Whole to all I must abide , ... Otherwise I cannot be . ... Always I have only writ ... What I feel and mean to say . ... Thus , my friends , although I split , ... Yet remain I one alway .
= = Historical context = =
After writing and defending his dissertation On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates ( 1841 ) , Kierkegaard left Copenhagen in October 1841 to spend the winter in Berlin . The main purpose of this visit was to attend the lectures by the German philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling , who was an eminent figure at the time . The lectures turned out to be a disappointment for many in Schelling 's audience , including Mikhail Bakunin and Friedrich Engels , and Kierkegaard described it as " unbearable nonsense " . During his stay , Kierkegaard worked on the manuscript for Either / Or , took daily lessons to perfect his German and attended operas and plays , particularly by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe . He returned to Copenhagen in March 1842 with a draft of the manuscript , which was completed near the end of 1842 and published in February 1843 .
According to a journal entry from 1846 , Either / Or " was written lock , stock , and barrel in eleven months " , although a page from the " Diapsalmata " section in the ' A ' volume was written before that time .
The title Either / Or is an affirmation of Aristotelian logic , particularly as modified by Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Immanuel Kant . Is the question , " Who am I ? " a scientific question or one for the single individual to answer for him or her self ?
Fichte wrote in The Science of Knowledge “ The question has been asked , What was I before I became self @-@ conscious ? The answer is , I was not at all , for I was not I. The Ego is only in so far as it is conscious of itself . … . The proposition not A is not A will doubtless be recognized by every one as certain , and it is scarcely to be expected that any one will ask for its proof . If , however , such a proof were possible , it must in our system be deduced from the proposition A = A. But such a proof is impossible . ”
Law of identity ( A = A ; a thing is identical to itself )
Law of excluded middle ( either A or not @-@ A ; a thing is either something or not that thing , no third option )
Law of noncontradiction . ( not both A and not @-@ A ; a thing cannot be both true and not true in the same instant )
In Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 's work , The Science of Logic ( 1812 ) , Hegel had criticized Aristotle 's laws of classical logic for being static , rather than dynamic and becoming , and had replaced it with his own dialectical logic . Hegel formulated addendums for Aristotle 's laws :
Law of identity is inaccurate because a thing is always more than itself
Law of excluded middle is inaccurate because a thing can be both itself and many others
Law of non @-@ contradiction is inaccurate because everything in existence is both itself and not itself
Kierkegaard spoke of Hegel 's Logic metaphorically in 1844 :
Thus when an author entitles the last section of the Logic “ Actuality , ” he thereby gains the advantage of making it appear that in logic the highest has already been achieved , or if one prefers , the lowest . In the meantime , the loss is obvious , for neither logic nor actuality is served by placing actuality in the Logic . Actuality is not served thereby , for contingency , which is an essential part of the actual , cannot be admitted within the realm of logic . ... If anyone would take the trouble to collect and put together all the strange pixies and goblins who like busy clerks bring about movement in Hegelian logic a later age would perhaps be surprised to see that what are regarded as discarded witticisms once played an important role in logic , not as incidental explanations and ingenious remarks but as masters of movement , which made Hegel ’ s logic something of a miracle and gave logical thought feet to move on , without anyone ’ s being able to observe them . Concept of Anxiety , Søren Kierkegaard , Nichol translation , p . 9 @-@ 10 , note 12
Kierkegaard argues that Hegel 's philosophy dehumanized life by denying personal freedom and choice through the neutralization of the ' either / or ' . The dialectic structure of becoming renders existence far too easy , in Hegel 's theory , because conflicts are eventually mediated and disappear automatically through a natural process that requires no individual choice other than a submission to the will of the Idea or Geist . Kierkegaard saw this as a denial of true selfhood and instead advocated the importance of personal responsibility and choice @-@ making .
= = Structure = =
The book is the first of Kierkegaard 's works written pseudonymously , a practice he employed during the first half of his career . In this case , four pseudonyms are used :
" Victor Eremita " - the fictional compiler and editor of the texts , which he claims to have found in an antique escritoire .
" A " - the moniker given to the fictional author of the first text ( " Either " ) by Victor Eremita , whose real name he claims not to have known .
" Judge Vilhelm " - the fictional author of the second text ( " Or " ) .
" Johannes " - the fictional author of a section of ' Either ' titled " The Diary of a Seducer " and Cordelia his lover .
I have half a mind to write a counter @-@ piece to “ The Seducer ’ s Diary . ” It would be a feminine figure : “ The Courtesan ’ s Diary . ” It would be worth the trouble to depict such a character . Journals and Papers of Kierkegaard , 4A 128
Kierkegaard published the second edition of Either / Or on May 14 , 1849 , the very same day he published The Lily of the Field and the Bird of the Air . Three devotional Discourses . He published three books on the same day October 16 , 1843 .
= = Either = =
The first volume , the " Either " , describes the " aesthetic " phase of existence . It contains a collection of papers , found by ' Victor Eremita ' and written by ' A ' , the " aesthete . "
The aesthete , according to Kierkegaard 's model , will eventually find himself in " despair " , a psychological state ( explored further in Kierkegaard 's The Concept of Anxiety and The Sickness Unto Death ) that results from a recognition of the limits of the aesthetic approach to life . Kierkegaard 's " despair " is a somewhat analogous precursor of existential angst . The natural reaction is to make an eventual " leap " to the second phase , the " ethical , " which is characterized as a phase in which rational choice and commitment replace the capricious and inconsistent longings of the aesthetic mode . Ultimately , for Kierkegaard , the aesthetic and the ethical are both superseded by a final phase which he terms the " religious " mode . This is introduced later in Fear and Trembling .
= = = Diapsalmata = = =
The first section of Either is a collection of many tangential aphorisms , epigrams , anecdotes and musings on the aesthetic mode of life . The word ' diapsalmata ' is related to ' psalms ' , and means " refrains " . It contains some of Kierkegaard 's most famous and poetic lines , such as " What is a poet ? " , " Freedom of Speech " vs. " Freedom of Thought " , the " Unmovable chess piece " , the tragic clown , and the laughter of the gods .
If one were to read these as written they would show a constant movement from the outer poetic experience to the inner experience of humor . The movement from the outer to the inner is a theme in Kierkegaard 's works .
= = = The Immediate Stages of the Erotic , or Musical Erotic = = =
An essay discussing the idea that music expresses the spirit of sensuality . ' A ' evaluates Mozart 's The Marriage of Figaro , The Magic Flute and Don Giovanni , as well as Goethe 's Faust . ' A ' has taken upon himself the task of proving , through the works of Mozart , that " music is a higher , or more spiritual art , than language " . During this process he develops the three stages of the musical @-@ erotic .
Here he makes the distinction between a seducer like Don Juan , who falls under aesthetic categories , and Faust , who falls under ethical categories . " The musical Don Juan enjoys the satisfaction of desire ; the reflective Don Juan enjoys the deception , enjoys the cunning . " Don Juan is split between the esthetic and the ethical . He 's lost in the multiplicity of the " 1 @,@ 003 women he has to seduce " . Faust seduces just one woman . Kierkegaard is writing deep theology here . He 's asking if God seduces 1 @,@ 003 people at one time or if he seduces one single individual at a time in order to make a believer . He also wrote about seducers in this way :
Achim v. Arnim tells somewhere of a seducer of a very different style , a seducer who falls under ethical categories . About him he uses an expression which in truth , boldness , and conciseness is almost equal to Mozart ’ s stroke of the bow . He says he could so talk with a woman that , if the devil caught him , he could wheedle himself out of it if he had a chance to talk with the devil ’ s grandmother . This is the real seducer ; the aesthetic interest here is also different , namely : how , the method . There is evidently something very profound here , which has perhaps escaped the attention of most people , in that Faust , who reproduces Don Juan , seduces only one girl , while Don Juan seduced hundreds ; but this one girl is also , in an intensive sense , seduced and crushed quite differently from all those Don Juan has deceived , simply because Faust , as reproduction , falls under the category of the intellectual . The power of such a seducer is speech , i.e. , the lie .
A few days ago I heard one soldier talking to another about a third who had betrayed a girl ; he did not give a long @-@ winded description , and yet his expression was very pithy : “ He gets away with things like that by lies and things like that . ” Such a seducer is of quite a different sort from Don Juan , is essentially different from him , as one can see from the fact that he and his activities are extremely unmusical , and from the aesthetic standpoint come within the category of the interesting . The object of his desire is accordingly , when one rightly considers him aesthetically , something more than the mere sensuous . But what is this force , then by which Don Juan seduces ? It is desire , the energy of sensuous desire . He desires in every woman , the whole of womanhood , and therein lies the sensuously idealizing power with which he at once embellishes and overcomes his prey . The reaction beautifies and develops the one desired , who flushes in enhanced beauty by its reflection . As the enthusiast ’ s fire with seductive splendor illumines even those who stand in a casual relation to him , so Don Juan transfigures in a far deeper sense every girl , since his relation to her is an essential one . Therefore all finite differences fade away before him in comparison with the main thing : being a woman . He rejuvenates the older woman into the beautiful middle age of womanhood ; he matures the child almost instantly ; everything which is woman is his prey ( pur che` porti la gonella , voi sapete quel che` fa ) .
Either / Or Part 1 , Søren Kierkegaard , 1843 , Swenson , 1970 [ 1944 ] , p . 98 @-@ 99
Kierkegaard believed the spiritual element was missing in Don Juan 's and in Faust 's view of life . He wrote the following in 1845 .
Assume that a woman as beautiful as the concubine of a god and as clever as the Queen of Sheba were willing to squander the summa summarum [ sum of sums ] of her hidden and manifest charms on my unworthy cleverness ; assume that on the same evening one of my peers invited me to drink wine with him and clink glasses and smoke tobacco in student fashion and enjoy the old classics together @-@ I would not ponder very long . What prudery , they shout . Prudery ? I do not think that it is so . In my opinion , all this beauty and cleverness , together with love and the eternal , have infinite worth , but without that a relation between man and woman , which nevertheless essentially wants to express this , is not worth a pipe of tobacco . In my opinion , when falling in love is separated from this @-@ please note , the eternal from falling in love @-@ one can properly speak only of what is left over , which would be the same as talking like a midwife , who does not beat about the bush , or like a dead and departed one who , “ seared to spirit , ” does not feel stimulus . It is comic that the action in the vaudeville revolves around four marks and eight shillings , and it is the same here also . When falling in love @-@ that is , the eternal in falling in love @-@ is absent , then the erotic , despite all possible cleverness , revolves around what becomes nauseating because spirit qua spirit wants to have an ambiguous involvement with it . It is comic that a mentally disordered man picks up any piece of granite and carries it around because he thinks it is money , and in the same way it is comic that Don Juan has 1 @,@ 003 mistresses , for the number simply indicates that they have no value . Therefore , one should stay within one ’ s means in the use of the word “ love . ” When there is need , one should not shy away from using descriptive terms that both the Bible and Holberg use , but neither should one be so superclever that one believes that cleverness is the constituting factor , for it constitutes anything but an erotic relationship . Søren Kierkegaard , Stages on Life 's Way , Hong , p . 292 @-@ 293
= = = Essays read before the Symparanekromenoi = = =
The next three sections are essay lectures from ' A ' to the ' Symparanekromenoi ' , a club or fellowship of the dead who practice the art of writing posthumous papers .
The first essay , which discusses ancient and modern tragedy , is called the " Ancient Tragical Motif as Reflected in the Modern " . Once again he is writing about the inner and the outer aspects of tragedy . Can remorse be shown on a stage ? What about sorrow and pain ? Which is easier to portray ? He also discusses guilt , sin , fear , compassion , and responsibility in what can be considered a foreshadowing of Fear and Trembling and Repetition . He then writes a modern interpretation of Antigone which leads into The Concept of Anxiety .
Draw nearer to me , dear brothers of Symparanekromenoi ; close around me as I send my tragic heroine out into the world , as I give the daughter of sorrow a dowry of pain as a wedding gift . She is my creation , but still her outline is so vague , her form so nebulous , that each one of you is free to imagine her as you will , and each one of you can love her in your own way . She is my creation , her thoughts are my thoughts , and yet it is as if I had rested with her in a night of love , as if she had entrusted me with her deep secret , breathed it and her soul out in my embrace , and as if in the same moment she changed before me , vanished , so that her actuality could only be traced in the mood that remained , instead of the converse being true , that my mood brought her forth to a greater and greater actuality . I placed the words in her mouth , and yet it is as if I abused her confidence ; to me , it is as if she stood reproachfully behind me , and yet it is the other way around , in her mystery she becomes ever more and more visible . She is my possession , my lawful possession , and yet sometimes it is as if I had slyly insinuated myself into her confidence , as if I must constantly look behind me to find her , and yet , on the contrary , she lies constantly before me , she constantly comes into existence only as I bring her forth . She is called Antigone . This name I retain from the ancient tragedy , which for the most part I will follow , although , from another point of view , everything will be modern . Either / Or Part I , Swenson , p . 151
That which in the Greek sense affords the tragic interest is that Oedipus ’ sorrowful destiny re @-@ echoes in the brother ’ s unhappy death , in the sister ’ s collision with a simple human prohibition ; it is , so to say , the after effects , the tragic destiny of Oedipus , ramifying in every branch of his family . This is the totality which makes the sorrow of the spectator so infinitely deep . It is not an individual who goes down , it is a small world , it is the objective sorrow , which , released , now advances in its own terrible consistency , like a force of nature , and Antigone ’ s unhappy fate , an echo of her fathers , is an intensified sorrow . When , therefore , Antigone in defiance of the king ’ s prohibition resolves to bury her brother , we do not see in this so much a free action on her part as a fateful necessity , which visits the sins of the fathers upon the children . There is indeed enough freedom of action in this to make us love Antigone for her sisterly affection , but in the necessity of fate there is also , as it were , a higher refrain which envelops not only the life of Oedipus but also his entire family . Either / Or Part I , Swenson , p . 154
Kierkegaard may have been responding to what Hegel wrote about " divine commands and the State and country and community and Freedom and Reason " .
Subjective volition Passion is that which sets men in activity , that which effects " practical " realization . The Idea is the inner spring of action ; the State is the actually existing , realized moral life . For it is the Unity of the universal , essential Will , with that of the individual ; and this is “ Morality . " The Individual living in this unity has a moral " life ; possesses a value that consists in this substantiality alone . Sophocles in his Antigone , says , " The divine commands are not of yesterday , nor of to @-@ day ; no , they have an infinite existence , and no one could say whence they came . " The laws of morality are not accidental , but are the essentially Rational . It is the very object of the State that what is essential in the practical activity of men , and in their dispositions , should be duly recognized ; that it should have a manifest existence , and maintain its position . It is the absolute interest of Reason that this moral Whole should exist ; and herein lies the justification and merit of heroes who have founded states , however rude these may have been . In the history of the World , only those peoples can come under our notice which form a state . For it must be understood that this latter is the realization of Freedom , i.e. of the absolute final aim , and that it exists for its own sake . It must further be understood that all the worth which the human being possesses all spiritual reality , he possesses only through the State . For his spiritual reality consists in this , that his own essence Reason is objectively present to him , that it possesses objective immediate existence for him . Thus only is he fully conscious ; thus only is he a partaker of morality of a just and moral social and political life . For Truth is the Unity of the universal and subjective Will ; and the Universal is to be found in the State , in its laws , its universal and rational arrangements . The State is the Divine Idea as it exists on Earth . We have in it , therefore , the object of History in a more definite shape than before ; that in which Freedom obtains objectivity , and lives in the enjoyment of this objectivity . For Law is the objectivity of Spirit ; volition in its true form . Only that will which obeys law , is free ; for it obeys itself ; it is independent and so free . When the State or our country constitutes a community of existence ; when the subjective will of man submits to laws , the contradiction between Liberty and Necessity vanishes . The Rational has necessary existence , as being the reality and substance of things , and we are free in recognizing it as law , and following it as the substance of our own being . The objective and the subjective will are then reconciled , and present one identical homogeneous whole .
Lectures on the History of History Vol 1 p . 40 @-@ 41 John Sibree translation ( 1857 ) , 1914
The second essay , called " Shadowgraphs : A Psychological Pastime " , discusses modern heroines , including Mozart 's Elvira and Goethe 's Gretchen ( Margaret ) . He studies how desire can come to grief in the single individual . He asks if love can be deceived .
It is this reflective grief which I now propose to bring before you and , as far as possible , render visible by means of some pictures . I call these sketches Shadowgraphs , partly by the designation to remind you at once that they derive from the darker side of life , partly because like other shadowgraphs they are not directly visible . When I take a shadowgraph in my hand , it makes no impression upon me , and gives me no clear conception of it . Only when I hold it up opposite the wall , and now look not directly at it , but at that which appears on the wall , am I able to see it . So also with the picture which I wish to show here , an inward picture which does not become perceptible until I see it through the external . This external is perhaps quite unobtrusive but not until I look through it , do I discover that inner picture which I desire to show you , an inner picture too delicately drawn to be outwardly visible , woven as it is of the tenderest moods of the soul . If I look at a sheet of paper , there may seem to be nothing remarkable about it , but when I hold it up to the light and look through it , then I discover the delicate inner inscriptions , too ethereal , as it were , to be perceived directly . Turn your attention then , dear Symparanekromenoi , to this inner picture ; do not allow yourselves to be distracted by the external appearance , or rather , do not yourselves summon the external before you , for it shall be my task constantly to draw it aside , in order to afford you a better view of the inner picture . Either / Or Part I , Swenson , p . 171
Historically he 's asking if one person can bring the inner life of a historical figure into view . Psychologically he 's asking if psychologists can really give an accurate picture of the inner world . Religiously he 's asking if one person can accurately perceive the inner world of the spirituality of another person . He conducts several thought experiments to see if he can do it .
The third essay , called " The Unhappiest One " , discusses the hypothetical question : " who deserves the distinction of being unhappier than everyone else ? " Kierkegaard has progressed from a search for the highest to the search for the lowest . Now he wants to find the unhappy person by looking once again to the past . Is it Niobe , or Job , or the father of the prodigal son , or is it Periander , Abraham , or Christ ? This is , of course , about the new science of anthropology , which digs up everyone and tells the world if the people were happy or sad .
= = = The First Love = = =
In this volume Kierkegaard examines the concept of ' First Love ' as a pinnacle for the aestheticist , using his idiosyncratic concepts of ' closedness ' ( indesluttethed in Danish ) and the ' demonic ' ( demoniske ) with reference to Eugène Scribe . Scribe wanted to create a template for all playwrights to follow . He insisted that people go to plays to escape from reality and not for instruction . Kierkegaard is against any template in the field of literature or of Christianity . He was against systematizing anything in literature because the system brings the artist to a stop and he or she just settles down in the system .
He wrote about the muse as the occasion for inspiration . How much of the calling of the muse depends on the muse , how much on the single individual , and how much on will or volition ? Can we ever know how inspiration happens ? Later in Concluding Unscientific Postscript he wrote ; " inspiration is indeed an object of faith , is qualitatively dialectical , not attainable by means of quantification . "
George Brandes described this systematizing tenancy in his book Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature Vol 1 1906 English translation :
Schlegel 's own masterly translations of many of Shakespeare 's and some of Calderon 's plays show what progress has been made in the comprehension of foreign poetry since Schiller , in his translation of Macbeth , cut up the play to suit the classical fancies of the day , and in so doing cut away all its boldness and realism . The defect , which is the defect of the whole school ( and in Denmark does not pass away with the school , but is to be observed in the following period too ) , lies in the conception of poetry , which , marked by German one @-@ sidedness , is so sweepingly transcendental that it quite shuts out the historical interpretation . One model , unquestioned , absolute , follows the other . The French had found their models in the Greeks and Aristotle ; now it is , say , Shakespeare who is alone absolutely worthy of imitation in poetry , Mozart ( as Kierkegaard maintains in Enten @-@ Eller ) who is the perfect model in music . The sober , trustworthy , historical view of the matter , which recognises no perfect models , is entirely disregarded . The great work is the model for a whole new style , is in itself a code of laws . To our Heiberg , for instance , St. Hansaften @-@ Spil is " the perfect realisation of the drama proper in lyrical form . " Instead of studying poetry in connection with history , with the whole of life , men evolve systems in which schools of poetry and poetic works grow out of each other like branches on a tree . They believe , for instance , that English tragedy is descended in a direct line from Greek tragedy , not perceiving that the tragedy of one nation is not the offspring of that of other nations , but the production of the environment , the civilisation , the intellectual life in the midst of which it comes into being .
Kierkegaard has been writing against reading about love instead of discovering love . Scribe 's play is 16 pages long and Kierkegaard writes a 50 @-@ page review of the book . He wrote against the practice of reading reviews instead of the actual books themselves .
In his review he goes to the play himself and sees his lover at a play called First Love ; for him this is a sign , like a four leaf clover , that she must be the one . But confusion sets in for the poor girl because of mistaken identity . She is unable to make up her mind about love and says , " The first love is the true love , and one loves only once . " But Kierkegaard says this is sophistry " because the category first , is at the same time a qualitative and a numerical category . " Her first impression of love , when she was eight , has become decisive for her whole life . Now she can love only to a certain degree because she 's comparing each new experience with the past experience . Kierkegaard discussed this again in 1845 .
take a little pity on me . I myself feel what a sorry figure I cut these days when even the girls die as passionately of love as Falstaff passionately falls in the battle with Percy @-@ and then rise up again , vigorous and nubile enough to drink to a fresh love . Bravo ! And by this kind of talk , or rather , by a life that justifies talking this way , I would think @-@ provided that one person can benefit another at all @-@ I would think that I have benefited my esteemed contemporaries more than by writing a paragraph in the system . What it depends on is the positing of life ’ s pathological elements absolutely , clearly , legibly , and powerfully , so that life does not come to be like the system , a secondhand store where there is a little of everything , so that one does everything to a certain degree , so that one does not tell a lie but is ashamed of oneself , does not tell a lie and then , erotically speaking , romantically dies of love and is a hero , but does not stop at that or just lie there but gets up again and goes further and become a hero of novels of everyday life , and goes further yet and becomes frivolous , witty , a hero in Scribe . Imagine eternity in a confusion like that ; imagine a man like that on Judgment Day ; imagine hearing the voice of God , “ Have you believed ? " Imagine hearing the answer , “ Faith is the immediate ; one should not stop with the immediate as they did in the Middle Ages , but since Hegel one goes further ; nevertheless one admits that it is the immediate and that the immediate exists but anticipates a new treatise . ” Søren Kierkegaard , Stages on Life 's Way , 1845 , Hong , p . 291 @-@ 292
= = = Crop Rotation : An Attempt at a Theory of Social Prudence = = =
To Kierkegaard 's aesthete , boredom is the root of all evil , and so one must go to the ends of the Earth to avoid it . In this section , ' A ' explains that , just as a farmer rotates the crops to keep the soil fertile , so must a man forever change himself in order to remain interesting . ' A ' speaks out against anything that may prevent this rotation and lock one into boredom , including friends , family , and most importantly for the second half of the book , marriage .
= = = Diary of a Seducer = = =
Written by ' Johannes the Seducer ' , this volume illustrates how the aesthete holds the " interesting " as his highest value and how , to satisfy his voyeuristic reflections , he manipulates his situation from the boring to the interesting . He will use irony , artifice , caprice , imagination and arbitrariness to engineer poetically satisfying possibilities ; he is not so much interested in the act of seduction as in willfully creating its interesting possibility .
The Seducer is very reminiscent of Goethe 's Faust Part 1 , Scene VII ( A Street ) . Faust says to Mephistopheles , " Listen , you must get that girl for me ! " Mephistopheles says she 's an " innocent " girl , but Faust says she 's " older than 14 " . Mephistopheles says he 's " speaking like some Don Juan " . Faust then calls the devil a Master Moraliser .
But Goethe was probably responding to Christopher Marlowe 's The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus ( 1616 ) who has the characters German Valdes , Cornelius , Faustus , Mephistopheles , Lucifer , the good and evil angels , and a host of other devils . Faustus asks Mephistopheles to answer some questions . He asks how " many heavens and spheres there are " . Mephistopheles says there are nine . Faustus asks " Who made the world ? " Mephistopheles refuses to answer .
Goethe and Marlowe have devils and angels as third person or persons between him and his love , but Kierkegaard has a different third person involved in the discussions between Johannes the Seducer and Cordelia . He has this strange power called chance . The Seducer knows the value of chance and wants to use chance to be " a possibility which seems an impossibility . " He says ,
Accursed Chance ! Never have I cursed you because you have appeared ; I curse you because you do not appear at all . Or is this perhaps a new invention of yours , unfathomable being , barren mother of all , sole remnant of the past , when necessity gave birth to freedom , when freedom was again lured back into its mother ’ s womb ? Accursed Chance ! You , my only confident , the only being whom I consider worthy of being my ally and my enemy , always the same by forever being different , always incomprehensible , always a riddle ! You whom I love with all my soul , in whose image I mold myself , why do you not show yourself ?
I do not beg you , I do not humbly entreat you to show yourself in this manner or that ; such worship would be idolatry , not acceptable unto you . I challenge you to battle , why do you not appear ? Or has the pendulum of the world system stopped , is your riddle solved , so that you too have hurled yourself into the sea of eternity ? Terrible thought , for thus the world comes to a standstill from boredom ! Accursed Chance ! I await you . I shall not overcome you with principles not with what foolish people call character ; no , I will still be your poet ! I will not be a poet for others ; show yourself ! I will be your poet . I consume my own verse , and that will sustain me . Or do you think I am not worthy ? Like a Bayadere dancing to the honor of her gods , so have I devoted myself to your service . Nimble , thinly clad , agile , unarmed , I renounce everything for you . I own nothing . I desire to own nothing , I love nothing , I have nothing to lose , but I am not therefore more worthy of you , you who long ago must have wearied of tearing human beings away from what they love , tired of their cowardly signs and cowardly petitions .
Take me by surprise , I am ready . No stakes , let us fight for honor . Show her to me , show me a possibility which seems an impossibility ; show her to me among the shades of the underworld , I shall fetch her up ; let her hate me , despise me , be indifferent to me , love another , I am not afraid ; only let the waters be troubled , the silence be broken . To starve me in this way is paltry of you , you who imagine that you are stronger than I am . Either / Or Vol I Diary of the Seducer 5th day p . 322 @-@ 323 , Swenson translation
Kierkegaard has this seducer speak again in Stages on Life 's Way where he explores some of the possibilities and then once more where he tries to explain that misunderstanding can be the root of the unity of the tragic and the comic . " Anyone who , when he is twenty years old , does not understand that there is a categorical imperative — Enjoy — is a fool , and anyone who does not start doing it is a Christiansfelder . .... Our young friend will always remain on the outside . Victor is a fanatic ; Constantin has paid too much for his intellect ; the Fashion Designer is a madman . All four of you after the same girl will turn out to be a fizzle ! Have enough fanaticism to idealize , enough appetite to join in the jolly conviviality of desire , enough understanding to break off in exactly the same way death breaks off , enough rage to want to enjoy it all over again — then one is the favorite of the gods and of the girls . "
Kierkegaard has the category of choice and the esthetic as well as the ethical . Both can choose to love each other but the " how " of love is what Kierkegaard is getting at .
The tragic is that the two lovers don 't understand each other ; the comic is that two who do not understand each other love each other . That such a thing can happen is not inconceivable , for erotic love itself has its dialectic , and even if it were unprecedented , the construction , of course , has the absolute power to construct imaginatively . When the heterogeneous is sustained the way I have sustained it , then both parties are right in saying that they love . Love itself has an ethical and an esthetic element . She declares that she loves and has the esthetic element and understands it esthetically ; he says that he loves and understands it ethically . Hence they both love and love each other , but nevertheless it is a misunderstanding . Stages on Life 's Way , Hong ( Letter to the Reader ) p . 421
= = Or = =
The second volume represents the ethical stage . Victor Eremita found a group of letters from a retired Judge Vilhelm or William , another pseudonymous author , to ' A ' , trying to convince ' A ' of the value of the ethical stage of life by arguing that the ethical person can still enjoy aesthetic values . The difference is that the pursuit of pleasure is tempered with ethical values and responsibilities .
" The Aesthetic Validity of Marriage " : The first letter is about the aesthetic value of marriage and defends marriage as a way of life .
" Equilibrium between the Aesthetic and the Ethical in the Development of Personality " : The second letter concerns the more explicit ethical subject of choosing the good , or one 's self , and of the value of making binding life @-@ choices .
" Ultimatium " : The volume ends in a discourse on the Upbuilding in the Thought that : against God we are always in the wrong . His spiritual advice for " A " and " B " is that they make peace with each other . Here Kierkegaard quotes from the Gospel of Luke Chapter 19 verses 42 to the end for this discourse .
And when he drew near and saw the city , he wept over it , saying : Would that even today you knew the things that make for peace ! But now they are hid from your eyes . For the days shall come upon you when your enemies will cast up a bank about you and surround you and hem you in on every side , and then will dash you to the ground and your children within you will not leave one stone upon another in you , because you did not know the time of your visitation . And he entered the temple and began to drive out those who sold , saying not them : It is written , “ My house is a house of prayer , ” but you have made it a den of robbers . And he taught daily in the temple . But the chief priests and the scribes and the principal men of the people sought to destroy him , but they did not find what they should do , for all the people clung to him and listened to him . Either / Or Part 2 , Hong , p . 341 ( Luke 19 : 41 @-@ 48 )
It 's human nature to look to external forces when faced with our own inadequacies but the ethicist is against this . Comparison is an esthetic exercise and has nothing to do with ethics and religion . He says , " Let each one learn what he can ; both of us can learn that a person ’ s unhappiness never lies in his lack of control over external conditions , since this would only make him completely unhappy . " He also asks if a person " absolutely in love can know if he is more or less in love than others . " He completes this thought later in his Concluding Unscientific Postscript and expands on looking inward in Practice in Christianity .
The ethical and the ethical @-@ religious have nothing to do with the comparative . … All comparison delays , and that is why mediocrity likes it so much and , if possible , traps everyone in it by its despicable friendship among mediocrities . A person who blames others , that they have corrupted him , is talking nonsense and only informs against himself . Concluding Unscientific Postscript p . 549 @-@ 550
Comparison is the most disastrous association that love can enter into ; comparison is the most dangerous acquaintance love can make ; comparison is the worst of all seductions . Søren Kierkegaard , Works of Love ( 1847 ) , Hong , p . 186
Lord Jesus Christ , our foolish minds are weak ; they are more than willing to be drawn @-@ and there is so much that wants to draw us to itself . There is pleasure with its seductive power , the multiplicity with its bewildering distractions , the moment with its infatuating importance and the conceited laboriousness of busyness and the careless time @-@ wasting of light @-@ mindedness and the gloomy brooding of heavy @-@ mindedness @-@ all this will draw us away from ourselves to itself in order to deceive us . But you , who are the truth , only you , Savior and Redeemer , can truly draw a person to yourself , which you have promised to do @-@ that you will draw all to yourself . Then may God grant that by repenting we may come to ourselves , so that you , according to your Word , can draw us to yourself @-@ from on high , but through lowliness and abasement . Søren Kierkegaard , Practice in Christianity , 1850 p.157 Hong
Introducing the ethical stage it is moreover unclear if Kierkegaard acknowledges an ethical stage without religion . Freedom seems to denote freedom to choose the will to do the right and to denounce the wrong in a secular , almost Kantian style . However , remorse ( angeren ) seems to be a religious category specifically related to the Christian concept of deliverance . Moreover , Kierkegaard is constant in his point of view that each single individual can become conscious of a higher self than the externally visible human self and embrace the spiritual self in " an eternal understanding " .
In a spiritual sense that by which a person gives birth is the formative striving of the will and that is within a person ’ s own power . What are you afraid of then ? After all , you are not supposed to give birth to another human being ; you are supposed to give birth only to yourself . And yet I am fully aware that there is an earnestness about this that shakes the entire soul ; to become conscious in one ’ s eternal validity is a moment that is more significant than everything else in the world . It is as if you were captivated and entangled and could never escape either in time or in eternity ; it is as if you lost yourself , as if you ceased to be ; it is as if you would repent of it the next moment and yet it cannot be undone . It is an earnest and significant moment when a person links himself to an eternal power for an eternity , when he accepts himself as the one whose remembrance time will never erase , when in an eternal and unerring sense he becomes conscious of himself as the person he is . Judge Vilhelm , Either / Or II p . 206 Hong 1987
The self that is the objective is not only a personal self but a social , a civic self . He then possesses himself as a task in an activity whereby he engages in the affairs of life as this specific personality . Here his task is not to form himself but to act , and yet he forms himself at the same time , because , as I noted above , the ethical individual lives in such a way that he is continually transferring himself from one stage to another . Søren Kierkegaard , Either / Or II p . 262 @-@ 263
A Providence watches over each man ’ s wandering through life . It provides him with two guides . The one calls him forward . The other calls him back . They are , however , not in opposition to each other , these two guides , nor do they leave the wanderer standing there in doubt , confused by the double call . Rather the two are in eternal understanding with each other . For the one beckons forward to the Good , the other calls man back from evil . … . The two guides call out to a man early and late , and when he listens to their call , then he finds his way , then he can know where he is , on the way . Because these two calls designate the place and show the way . Of these two , the call of remorse is perhaps the best . For the eager traveler who travels lightly along the way does not , in this fashion , learn to know it as well as a wayfarer with a heavy burden . The one who merely strives to get on does not learn to know the way as well as the remorseful man . The eager traveler hurries forward to the new , to the novel , and , indeed , away from experience . But the remorseful one , who comes behind , laboriously gathers up experience . Søren Kierkegaard , Purity of Heart is to Will One Thing , from Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits ( 1846 ) , Steere translation 1938 p . 39 @-@ 40
= = Discourses and sequel = =
Along with this work , Kierkegaard published , under his own name , Two Upbuilding Discourses on May 16 , 1843 intended to complement Either / Or , " The Expectancy of Faith " and " Every Good and Every Perfect Gift is from Above " . Kierkegaard also published another discourse during the printing of the second edition of Either / Or in 1849 .
Kierkegaard ’ s discourse has to do with the difference between wishing and willing in the development of a particular expectancy . " As thought becomes more absorbed in the future , it loses its way in its restless attempt to force or entice an explanation from the riddle . " Expectancy always looks to the future and can hope , but regret , which is what Goethe did in his book The Sorrows of Young Werther , closes the door of hope and love becomes unhappy . Kierkegaard points to “ faith as the highest ” expectancy because faith is something that everyone has , or can have . He says : " The person who wishes it for another person wishes it for himself ; the person who wishes it for himself wishes it for every other human being , because that by which another person has faith is not that by which he is different from him but is that by which he is like him ; that by which he possesses it is not that by which he is different from others but that by which he is altogether like all . "
The characters in Either / Or believe everyone is alike in that everyone has talent or everyone has the conditions that would allow them to live an ethical life . Goethe wanted to love and complained that he couldn ’ t be loved , but everyone else could be loved . But he wished , he didn ’ t have an expectancy to work his will to love . Kierkegaard responds to him in this way :
You know that you must not wish @-@ and thereupon he went further . When his soul became anxious , he called to it and said : When you are anxious , it is because you are wishing ; anxiety is a form of wishing , and you know that you must not wish @-@ then he went further . When he was close to despair , when he said : I cannot ; everyone else can @-@ only I cannot not . Oh , that I had never heard those words , that with my grief I had been allowed to go my way undisturbed @-@ and with my wish . Then he called to his soul and said : Now you are being crafty , for you say that you are wishing and pretend that it is a question of something external that one can wish , whereas you know that it is something internal that one can only will ; you are deluding yourself , for you say : Everyone else can @-@ only I cannot . And yet you know that that by which others are able is that by which they are altogether like you @-@ so if it really were true that you cannot , then neither could the others . So you betray not only your own cause but , insofar as it lies with you , the cause of all people ; and in your humbly shutting yourself out from their number , you are slyly destroying their power . Then he went further . After he had been slowly and for a long time brought up under the disciplinarian in this way , he perhaps would have arrived at faith . Søren Kierkegaard , Two Upbuilding Discourses , 1843 p . 9 @-@ 12
The " Ultimatium " at the end of the second volume of Either / Or hinted at a future discussion of the religious stage in The Two Upbuilding Discourses , " Ask yourself and keep on asking until you find the answer , for one may have known something many times , acknowledged it ; one may have willed something many times , attempted it @-@ and yet , only the deep inner motion , only the heart ’ s indescribable emotion , only that will convince you that what you have acknowledged belongs to you , that no power can take it from you @-@ for only the truth that builds up is truth for you . " This discussion is included in Stages on Life 's Way ( 1845 ) . The first two sections revisit and refine the aesthetic and ethical stages elucidated in Either / Or , while the third section , Guilty / Not Guilty is about the religious stage and refers specifically to Goethe 's other book , The Autobiography of Goethe : Truth and Poetry , from My Own Life vol 1 , 2
In addition to the discourses , one week after Either / Or was published , Kierkegaard published a newspaper article in Fædrelandet , titled " Who Is the Author Of Either / Or ? " , attempting to create authorial distance from the work , emphasizing the content of the work and the embodiment of a particular way of life in each of the pseudonyms . Kierkegaard , using the pseudonym ' A.F. ' , writes , " most people , including the author of this article , think it is not worth the trouble to be concerned about who the author is . They are happy not to know his identity , for then they have only the book to deal with , without being bothered or distracted by his personality . "
= = Themes = =
The various essays in Either / Or help elucidate the various forms of aestheticism and ethical existence . Both A and Judge Vilhelm attempt to focus primarily upon the best that their mode of existence has to offer .
A fundamental characteristic of the aesthete is immediacy . In Either / Or , there are several levels of immediacy explored , ranging from unrefined to refined . Unrefined immediacy is characterized by immediate cravings for desire and satisfaction through enjoyments that do not require effort or personal cultivation ( e.g. alcohol , drugs , casual sex , sloth , etc . ) Refined immediacy is characterized by planning how best to enjoy life aesthetically . The " theory " of social prudence given in Crop Rotation is an example of refined immediacy . Instead of mindless hedonistic tendencies , enjoyments are contemplated and " cultivated " for maximum pleasure . However , both the refined and unrefined aesthetes still accept the fundamental given conditions of their life , and do not accept the responsibility to change it . If things go wrong , the aesthete simply blames existence , rather than one 's self , assuming some unavoidable tragic consequence of human existence and thus claims life is meaningless . Kierkegaard spoke of immediacy this way in his sequel to Either / Or , Stages on Life 's Way ,
" The esthetic sphere is the sphere of immediacy , the ethical the sphere of requirement ( and this requirement is so infinite that the individual always goes bankrupt ) , the religious the sphere of fulfillment , but , please note , not a fulfillment such as when one fills an alms box or a sack with gold , for repentance has specifically created a boundless space , and as a consequence the religious contradiction : simultaneously to be out on 70 @,@ 000 fathoms of water and yet be joyful . Just as the ethical sphere is a passageway @-@ which one nevertheless does not pass through once and for all @-@ just as repentance is its expression , so repentance is the most dialectical . No wonder , then , that one fears it , for if one gives it a finger it takes the whole hand . Just as Jehovah in the Old Testament visits the iniquities of the fathers upon the children unto the latest generations , so repentance goes backward , continually presupposing the object of its investigation . In repentance there is the impulse of the motion , and therefore everything is reversed . This impulse signifies precisely the difference between the esthetic and the religious as the difference between the external and the internal . " Søren Kierkegaard , Stages on Life 's Way , Hong translation , p . 476 @-@ 477
Commitment is an important characteristic of the ethicist . Commitments are made by being an active participant in society , rather than a detached observer or outsider . The ethicist has a strong sense of responsibility , duty , honor and respect for his friendships , family , and career . Judge Vilhelm uses the example of marriage as an example of an ethical institution requiring strong commitment and responsibility . Whereas the aesthete would be bored by the repetitive nature of marriage ( e.g. married to one person only ) , the ethicist believes in the necessity of self @-@ denial ( e.g. self @-@ denying unmitigated pleasure ) in order to uphold one 's obligations . Kierkegaard had Judge William speak again in his 1845 book Stages on Life 's Way . Here he described the enemies the single individual faces when trying to make a commitment , probability and the outcome .
There is a phantom that frequently prowls around when the making of a resolution is at stake @-@ it is probability @-@ a spineless fellow , as dabbler , a Jewish peddler , with whom no freeborn soul becomes involved , a good @-@ for @-@ nothing fellow who ought to be jailed instead of quacks , male and female , since he tricks people out of what is more valuable than money . Anyone who with regard to resolution comes no further , never comes any further than to decide on the basis of probability , is lost for ideality , whatever he may become . If a person does not encounter God in the resolution , if he has never made a resolution in which he had a transaction with God , he might just as well have never lived . But God always does business wholesale , and probability is a security that is not registered in heaven . Thus it is so very important that there be an element in the resolution that impresses officious probability and renders it speechless . There is a phantasm that the person making a resolution chases after the way a dog chases its shadow in the water ; it is the outcome , a symbol of finiteness , a mirage of perdition @-@ woe to the person who looks to it , he is lost . Just as the person who , if bitten by serpents , looked at the cross in the desert and became healthy , so the person who fastens his gaze on the outcome is bitten by a serpent , wounded by the secular mentality , lost both for time and for eternity . Søren Kierkegaard , Stages on Life 's Way , Hong , p . 110
Kierkegaard stresses the " eternal " nature of marriage and says " something new comes into existence " through the wedding ceremony . The aesthete doesn 't see it that way . The aesthete makes a " half hour ’ s resolution | resolution " but the ethical person , and especially the religious person , makes the " good resolution " . Someone devoted to pleasure finds it impossible to make this kind of resolution . The ethical and " Christian religious " person make the resolution because they have the will to have a true conception of life and of oneself . " A resolution involves change but for the single individual this involves only change in oneself . It never means changing the whole world or even changing the other person .
= = Interpretation = =
The extremely nested pseudonymity of this work adds a problem of interpretation . A and B are the authors of the work , Eremita is the editor . Kierkegaard 's role in all this appears to be that he deliberately sought to disconnect himself from the points of view expressed in his works , although the absurdity of his pseudonyms ' bizarre Latin names proves that he did not hope to thoroughly conceal his identity from the reader . Kierkegaard 's Papers first edition VIII ( 2 ) , B 81 - 89 explain this method in writing . On interpretation there is also much to be found in The Point of View of My Work as an Author .
Furthermore , Kierkegaard was a close reader of the aesthetic works of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and the ethical works of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel . Each presented a way of living one 's life in a different manner . Kierkegaard 's writings in this book are close to what Goethe wrote in his Autobiography .
It was not long before I formed a connection with Lavater . Passages of my Letter of a Pastor to his Colleagues ' had greatly struck him , for much of it agreed perfectly with his own views . With his never @-@ tiring activity our correspondence soon became lively . At the time it commenced he was making preparations for his larger work on Physiognomy , — the introduction to which had already been laid before the public . He called on all the world to send him drawings and outlines , and especially representations of Christ ; and , although I could do as good as nothing in this way , he nevertheless insisted on my sending him a sketch of the Saviour such as I imagined him to look .
Such demands for the impossible gave occasion for jests of many kinds , for I had no other way of defending myself against his peculiarities but by bringing forward my own . The number of those who had no faith in Physiognomy , or , at least , regarded it as uncertain and deceitful , was very great ; and several who had a liking for Lavater felt a desire to try him , and , if possible , to play him a trick . He had ordered of a painter in Frankfort , who was not without talent , the profiles of several well known persons . Lavater 's agent ventured upon the jest of sending Bahrdt 's portrait as mine , which soon brought back a merry but thundering epistle , full of all kinds of expletives and asseverations that this was not my picture , - — together with everything that on such an occasion Lavater would naturally have to say in confirmation of the doctrine of Physiognomy . My true likeness , which was sent afterwards , he allowed to pass more readily , but even here the opposition into which he fell both with painters and with individuals showed itself at once . The former could never work for him faithfully and sufficiently ; the latter , whatever excellences they might have , came always too far short of the idea which he entertained of humanity and of men to prevent his being somewhat repelled by the special characteristics which constitute the personality of the individual .
The conception of Humanity which had been formed in himself and in his own humanity , was so completely akin to the living image of Christ which he cherished within him , that it was impossible for him to understand how a man could live and breathe without at the same time being a Christian . My own relation to the Christian religion lay merely in my sense and feeling , and I had not the slightest notion of that physical affinity to which Lavater inclined . I was , therefore , vexed by the importunity , with which a man so full of mind and heart , attacked me , as well as Mendelssohn and others , with him , a Christian of his sort , or else that one must bring him over to one ’ s own way of thinking , and convince him of precisely that in which one had found peace . This demand , so directly opposed to that liberal spirit of the world , to which I was more and more tending , did not have the best effect upon me . All unsuccessful attempts at conversion leave him who has been selected for a proselyte stubborn and obdurate , and this was especially the case with me when Lavater at last came out with the hard dilemma- Either Christian or Atheist ! Upon this I declared that if he would not leave me my own Christianity as I had hitherto cherished it , I could readily decide for Atheism , particularly as I saw that nobody knew precisely what either meant .
The Autobiography of Johann Goethe Concluding books ( Fourteen and Fifteen ) 1849 , published 1811 @-@ 1833 , p . 8 @-@ 9
= = = Existential interpretation = = =
A common interpretation of Either / Or presents the reader with a choice between two approaches to life . There are no standards or guidelines which indicate how to choose . The reasons for choosing an ethical way of life over the aesthetic only make sense if one is already committed to an ethical way of life . Suggesting the aesthetic approach as evil implies one has already accepted the idea that there is a good / evil distinction to be made . Likewise , choosing an aesthetic way of life only appeals to the aesthete , ruling Judge Vilhelm 's ethics as inconsequential and preferring the pleasures of seduction . Thus , existentialists see Victor Eremita as presenting a radical choice in which no pre @-@ ordained value can be discerned . One must choose , and through one 's choices , one creates what one is .
Jean Jacques Rousseau had published a book in 1762 in which he discussed giving daughters the right to choose her own husband . This is a quote from the fifth book of Emile , The Creed of the Savoyard Priest about choice . Both German and Danish citizens were reading this book . This choosing for oneself verses having an authority choose for one is a difficult leap for some to make .
Scarcely had she resumed her home duties when they perceived that her temper had changed though her conduct was unaltered , she was forgetful , impatient , sad , and dreamy ; she wept in secret . At first they thought she was in love and was ashamed to own it ; they spoke to her , but she repudiated the idea . She protested she had seen no one who could touch her heart , and Sophy always spoke the truth . ....
Far from hiding her griefs from her mother , the young girl asked nothing better than to have her as friend and comforter ; but she could not speak for shame , her modesty could find no words to describe a condition so unworthy of her , as the emotion which disturbed her senses in spite of all her efforts . At length her very shame gave her mother a clue to her difficulty , and she drew from her the humiliating confession . Far from distressing her with reproaches or unjust blame , she consoled her , pitied her , wept over her ; she was too wise to make a crime of an evil which virtue alone made so cruel . But why put up with such an evil when there was no necessity to do so , when the remedy was so easy and so legitimate ? Why did she not use the freedom they had granted her ? Why did she not take a husband ? Why did she not make her choice ? Did she not know that she was perfectly independent in this matter , that whatever her choice , it would be approved , for it was sure to be good ? They had sent her to town , but she would not stay ; many suitors had offered themselves , but she would have none of them . What did she expect ? What did she want ? What an inexplicable contradiction ?
The reply was simple . If it were only a question of the partner of her youth , her choice would soon be made ; but a master for life is not so easily chosen ; and since the two cannot be separated , people must often wait and sacrifice their youth before they find the man with whom they could spend their life .
Amazed at these strange ideas , her mother found them so peculiar that she could not fail to suspect some mystery . Sophy was neither affected nor absurd . How could such exaggerated delicacy exist in one who had been so carefully taught from her childhood to adapt herself to those with whom she must live , and to make a virtue of necessity ? This ideal of the delightful man with which she was so enchanted , who appeared so often in her conversation , made her mother suspect that there was some foundation for her caprices which was still unknown to her , and that Sophy had not told her all . The unhappy girl , overwhelmed with her secret grief , was only too eager to confide it to another . Her mother urged her to speak ; she hesitated , she yielded , and leaving the room without a word , she presently returned with a book in her hand . " Have pity on your unhappy daughter , there is no remedy for her grief , her tears cannot be dried . You would know the cause : well , here it is , " said she , flinging the book on the table . Her mother took the book and opened it ; it was The Adventures of Telemachus . At first she could make nothing of this riddle ; by dint of questions and vague replies , she discovered to her great surprise that her daughter was the rival of Eucharis .
Sophy was in love with Telemachus , and loved him with a passion which nothing could cure . ....
" Is it my fault if I love what has no existence ? I am no visionary ; I desire no prince , I seek no Telemachus , I know he is only an imaginary person ; I seek some one like him . And why should there be no such person , since there is such a person as I , I who feel that my heart is like his ? No , let us not wrong humanity so greatly , let us not think that an amiable and virtuous man is a figment of the imagination . He exists , he lives , perhaps he is seeking me ; he is seeking a soul which is capable of love for him . But who is he , where is he ? I know not ; he is not among those I have seen ; and no doubt I shall never see him . Oh ! mother , why did you make virtue too attractive ? If I can love nothing less , you are more to blame than I. "
Emile , by Jean Jacques Rousseau 1762 Foxley translation .
However , the aesthetic and the ethical ways of life are not the only ways of living . Kierkegaard continues to flesh out other stages in further works , and the Stages on Life 's Way is considered a direct sequel to Either / Or . It is not the same as Either / Or as he points out in Concluding Postscript in 1846 .
In connection with Tivoli entertainments and literary New Year ’ s presents it hold trues for the catch @-@ penny artists and those who are caught by them , that variety is the highest law of life . But in connection with the truth as inwardness in existence , in connection with a more incorruptible joy of life , which has nothing in common with the craving of the life @-@ weary for diversion , the opposite holds true ; the law is : , the same and yet changed , and still the same . That is why lovers of Tivoli are so little interested in eternity , for it is the nature of eternity always to be the same , and the sobriety of the spirit is recognizable in the knowledge that a change in externalities is mere diversion , while change in the same is inwardness . But so curious , by and large , is the reading public , that an author who desires to get rid of it has merely to give a little hint , just a name , and it will say : it is the same . For otherwise the differences between the Stages and Either / Or are obvious enough . Not to speak of the fact that two @-@ thirds of it is about as different as is categorically possible . The first two @-@ thirds of the book , Victor Eremita , who was before simply an editor , is now transformed into an existing individual ; Constantine and Johannes the Seducer have received a more profound characterization ; the Judge is occupied with marriage from quite a different point of view than in Either / Or ; while scarcely the most attentive reader will find a single expression , a single turn of thought or phrase , precisely as it was in Either / Or . Soren Kierkegaard , Concluding Unscientific Postscript , p . 254 @-@ 255 translation by David F. Swenson and Walter Lowrie 1941 , Princeton University Press
= = = Christian interpretation = = =
The whole book can be viewed as the struggle individuals go through as they attempt to find meaning in their lives . Victor Eremita bought a secretary ( desk ) , which was something external , and said , " a new period of your life must begin with the acquisition of the secretary " . " A " desires the absolute highest . He can find no meaning in his life until he begins to study . He writes letters for the dead like the historians do . He 's trying to find God by studying the past as Hegel did . Don Juan seduces him away from God and Faust robs him of his innocent faith through the power of language . For him , tautology is the highest realm of thought . He 's someone who is in complete " conflict with his environment " because he is relating himself to externals .
" B " argues with " A " . He says ethics are the highest . " A " wants to remain a mystery to himself but " B " says it 's the meaning of life to become open to yourself . It 's more important to know yourself than historical persons . The more you know about yourself the more you can find your eternal validity . God will bless the most ethical person . Each one knows what 's best for the other but neither knows what 's best for himself .
Kierkegaard , speaking in the voice of the upbuilding discourse at the end , says they are both wrong . They 're both trying to find God in a childish way . Whatever they relate to in an external way will never make them happy or give them meaning . Art , science , dogma and ethics constantly change . We all want to be in the right and never in the wrong . Once we find what we desire we find that it wasn 't what we imagined it to be . So Kierkegaard says to leave it all to God .
How true human nature is to itself . With what native genius does not a little child often show us a living image of the greater relation . Today I really enjoyed watching little Louis . He sat in his little chair ; he looked about him with apparent pleasure . The nurse Mary went through the room . “ Mary , ” he cried . “ Yes , little Louis , ” she answered with her usual friendliness , and came to him . He tipped his head a little to one side , fastened his immense eyes upon her with a certain gleam of mischief in them , and thereupon said quite phlegmatically , “ Not this Mary , another Mary . ” What about us older folk ? We cry out to the whole world , and when it comes smiling to meet us , then we say : “ This is not the Mary . ” Either / Or I , Swenson , p . 34 @-@ 35
Father in heaven ! Teach us to pray rightly so that our hearts may open up to you in prayer and supplication and hide no furtive desire that we know is not acceptable to you , nor any secret fear that you will deny us anything that will truly be for our good , so that the labouring thoughts , the restless mind , the fearful heart may find rest in and through that alone in which and through which it can be found @-@ by always joyfully thanking you as we gladly confess that in relation to you we are always in the wrong . Amen . Either / Or Part II , p . 341
The three spheres of existence were neatly summed up in his Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments .
There are three existence spheres : the esthetic , the ethical , the religious . To these there is receptively corresponding border territory : irony is the border territory between the esthetic and the ethical ; humor is the confinium ( border territory ) between the ethical and the religious . Irony emerges by continually joining the particulars of the finite with the ethical infinite requirement and allowing the contradiction to come into existence . … Irony is the unity of ethical passion , which in inwardness infinitely accentuates one ’ s own I in relation to the ethical requirement @-@ and culture , which in externality infinitely abstracts from the personal I as a finitude included among all other finitudes and particulars . An effect of this abstraction is that no one notices the first , and this is precisely the art , and through it the true infinitizing of the first is conditioned . ( The desperate attempt of the miscarried Hegelian ethics to make the state into the court of last resort of ethics is a highly unethical attempt to finitize individuals , an unethical flight from the category of individuality to the category of the race . The ethicist in Either / Or has already protested against this directly and indirectly , indirectly at the end of the essay on the balance between the esthetic and the ethical in the personality where he himself must make a concession with regard to the religious , and again at the end of the article on Marriage ( in Stages ) , where , even on the basis of the ethics he champions , which is diametrically opposite to Hegelian ethics , he certainly jacks up the price of the religious as high as possible but still makes room for it . Note p . 503 ) Most people live in the opposite way . They are busy with being something when someone is watching them . If possible , they are something in their own eyes as soon as others are watching them , but inwardly , where the absolute requirement is watching them , they have no taste for accentuating the personal I. Irony is the cultivation of the spirit and therefore follows next after immediacy ; then comes the ethicist , then the humorist , then the religious person. p.501 @-@ 504
= = = Kantian interpretation = = =
A recent way to interpret Either / Or is to read it as an applied Kantian text . Scholars for this interpretation include Alasdair MacIntyre and Ronald M. Green . In After Virtue , MacIntyre claims Kierkegaard is continuing the Enlightenment project set forward by Hume and Kant . Green notes several points of contact with Kant in Either / Or :
However , other scholars think Kierkegaard adopts Kantian themes in order to criticize them , while yet others think that although Kierkegaard adopts some Kantian themes , their final ethical positions are substantially different . George Stack argues for this latter interpretation , writing , " Despite the occasional echoes of Kantian sentiments in Kierkegaard 's writings ( especially in Either / Or ) , the bifurcation between his ethics of self @-@ becoming and Kant 's formalistic , meta @-@ empirical ethics is , mutatis mutandis , complete ... Since radical individuation , specificity , inwardness , and the development of subjectivity are central to Kierkegaard 's existential ethics , it is clear , essentially , that the spirit and intention of his practical ethics is divorced from the formalism of Kant . "
= = = Biographical interpretation = = =
From a purely literary and historical point of view , Either / Or can be seen as a thinly veiled autobiography of the events between Kierkegaard and his ex @-@ fianceé Regine Olsen . Johannes the Seducer in The Diary of a Seducer treats the object of his affection , Cordelia , much as Kierkegaard treats Regine : befriending her family , asking her to marry him , and breaking off the engagement . Either / Or , then , could be the poetic and literary expression of Kierkegaard 's decision between a life of sensual pleasure , as he had experienced in his youth , or a possibility of marriage and what social responsibilities marriage might or ought to entail . Ultimately however , Either / Or stands philosophically independent of its relation to Kierkegaard 's life .
Yet , Kierkegaard was concerned about Regine because she tended to assume the life @-@ view of characters she saw in the plays of Shakespeare at the theater . One day she would be " Beatrice in Much Ado about Nothing " and another Juliet . He thought this to be a difficulty she needed to surpass and diagnosed both her and himself like this in Stages on Life 's Way ( 1845 ) .
No , what she will be healed by is a life @-@ wisdom permeated with a certain religiousness , a not exactly unbeautiful compound of something of the esthetic , of the religious , and of a life @-@ philosophy . My view of life is a different one , and I force myself to the best of my ability to hold my life to the category and hold it firmly . This is what I will ; this is what I ask of anyone I am to admire , of anyone I am really to approve @-@ that during the day he think only of the category of his life and dream about it at night . I judge no one ; anyone busily engaged in judging others in concreto rarely remains true to the category . It is the same as with the person who seeks in someone else ’ s testimony a proof that he is earnest ; he is eo ipso not in earnest , for earnestness is first and foremost positive confidence , in oneself . But every existence that wills something thereby indirectly judges , and the person who wills the category indirectly judges him who does not will . I also know that even if a person has only one step left to take he may stumble and relinquish his category ; but I do not believe that I would therefore escape from it and be rescued by nonsense ; I believe that it would hold on to me and judge me , and in this judgment there would in turn be the category . Søren Kierkegaard , Stages on Life 's Way , Hong , p . 304 @-@ 305
= = Reception = =
= = = Early reception = = =
Either / Or established Kierkegaard 's reputation as a respected author . Henriette Wulff , in a letter to Hans Christian Andersen , wrote , " Recently a book was published here with the title Either / Or ! It is supposed to be quite strange , the first part full of Don Juanism , skepticism , et cetera , and the second part toned down and conciliating , ending with a sermon that is said to be quite excellent . The whole book attracted much attention . It has not yet been discussed publicly by anyone , but it surely will be . It is actually supposed to be by a Kierkegaard who has adopted a pseudonym .... "
Johan Ludvig Heiberg , a prominent Hegelian , at first criticized the aesthetic section , Either ( Part I ) , then he had much better things to say about Or , Part II . Julie Watkin said " Kierkegaard replied to Heiberg in The Fatherland as Victor Eremita , blaming Heiberg for not reading the preface to Either / Or which would have given him the key to the work . " Kierkegaard later used his book Prefaces to publicly respond to Heiberg and Hegelianism . Kierkegaard and William Godwin were very similar in their criticism of critics . He also published a short article , Who is the Author of Either / Or ? , a week after the publication of Either / Or itself .
In 1886 Georg Brandes compared Either / Or with Frederik Paludan @-@ Müller 's Kalanus in Eminent Authors of the Nineteenth Century , which was translated into English at that time . Later , in 1906 , he compared Kierkegaard 's Diary of the Seducer with Rousseau 's Julie , or the New Heloise and with Goethe 's Sorrows of Young Werther . He also compared Either / Or to Henrik Ibsen 's Brand but Edmund Gosse disagreed with him .
Next to Adam Homo , the most interesting work of Paludan @-@ Muller is Kalanus . It is the positive expression of his ideal , as Adam Homo is the negative . Nowhere is his intellectual tendency more akin to the negative bent of his great contemporary Kierkegaard than in this work . The problem which Kalanus endeavors to solve is precisely the same as the one whose solution Kierkegaard attacked in his Either @-@ Or ( Enten @-@ Eller ) , namely , that of contrasting two personalities , one of whom is the direct representative of innate genius , of the pleasure @-@ loving , extremely energetic view of life ; and the other the incarnation of ethical profundity and moral grandeur , allowing them to struggle and contend , and convincing the reader of the decisive defeat of the purely natural views of life . With Kierkegaard the two opposing modes of contemplation of life are represented by a follower of aesthetics , and a judge of the supreme court , with Paludan @-@ Muller by celebrated names in history ; no less a man than the conqueror of the world , Alexander the Great , represents in Kalanus the aesthetic view of life , and the opponent allotted to him is the philosopher Kalanus . The ideal situation in the presentation of the intellectual wrestling @-@ match of this sort would be that the author should succeed in equipping the contending parties with an equal degree of excellency . The actual situation , in this case , is that with Kierkegaard the representative of aesthetics is lavishly endowed with intellectual gifts , while the endowments of the representative of ethics , on the other hand , appear somewhat wooden and weak ; and that with Paluden @-@ Muller , on the contrary , the representative of ethics is no less intellectual than inspired , a man of the purest spiritual beauty , while the great Alexander is not placed upon the pinnacle of his historic fame .
A third significant feature in [ Rousseau ’ s ] La Nouvelle Heloise is that , just as we have passion in place of gallantry and inequality of station in place of similarity of rank , we have also the moral conviction of the sanctity of marriage in place of that honour grounded on aristocratic pride and self @-@ respect , which stood for virtue in fashionable literature . This word , Virtue , little in vogue until now , became with Rousseau and his school a watchword which was in perfect harmony with their other watchword , Nature ; for to Rousseau virtue was a natural condition . Following the example of society , French literature had been making merry at the expense of marriage ; Rousseau , therefore , defied the spirit of the times by writing a book in its honour . His heroine returns the passion of her lover , but marries another , to whom she remains faithful . Here , as in Werther the lover proper loses the maiden , who is wedded to a Monsieur Wolmar ( the Albert of Werther and the Edward of Kierkegaard 's Diary of a Seducer ) , a man as irreproachable as he is uninteresting . The moral conviction which is vindicated and glorified in Rousseau as Virtue , is the same as that which in Chateaubriand , under the influence of the religious reaction , takes the form of a binding religious vow . Georg Morris Cohen Brandes , Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature Vol . 1 ( 1906 ) , p . 16 @-@ 17
In Kierkegaard ’ s “ Either @-@ Or ” is found the sentence , “ The are poets , who , through their poetic creations , have found themselves . ” This remark can well be applied to Paludan @-@ Muller . For what else has a poet done who has traversed the path from coquetry to simplicity , from the intellectual to the true , from the sportive and brilliant to the transparently clear , and from the pleasing to the great ? Georg Brandes , Creative Spirits in the Nineteenth Century , 1923 p . 277
Kierkegaard later referred to his concept of choosing yourself as the single individual in The Concept of Anxiety , June 17 , 1844 , and then in his Four Upbuilding Discourses , August 31 , 1844 , and once again in Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits , 1847 . William James echoed Kierkegaard in his lecture on The Sick Soul where he wrote , " the man must die to an unreal life before he can be born into the real life . "
You are outside yourself and therefore cannot do without the other as opposition ; you believe that only a restless spirit is alive , and all who are experienced believe that only a quiet spirit is truly alive . For you a turbulent sea is a symbol of life ; for me it is the quiet , deep water . Either / Or Part II p . 144 , Hong
Anxiety is a qualification of dreaming spirit , and as such it has its place in psychology . Awake , the difference between myself and my other is posited ; sleeping , it is suspended ; dreaming , it is an intimated nothing . The actuality of the spirit constantly shows itself as a form that tempts its possibility but disappears as soon as it seeks to grasp for it , and it is a nothing that can only bring anxiety . More it cannot do as long as it merely shows itself . The concept of anxiety is almost never treated in psychology . Therefore , I must point out that it is altogether different from fear and similar concepts that refer to something definite , whereas anxiety is freedom ’ s actuality as the possibility of possibility . For this reason , anxiety is not found in the beast , precisely because by nature the beast is not qualified as spirit . The Concept of Anxiety , Nichol p . 42
Now he discovers that the self he chooses has a boundless multiplicity within itself inasmuch as it has a history , a history in which he acknowledges identity with himself . This history is of a different kind , for in this history he stands in relation to other individuals in the race , and to the whole race , and this history contains painful things , and yet he is the person he is only through this history . That is why it takes courage to choose oneself , for at the same time as he seems to be isolating himself most radically he is most radically sinking himself into the root by which he is bound up with the whole . This makes him uneasy , and yet it must be so , for when the passion of freedom is aroused in him @-@ and it is aroused in the choice just as it presupposes itself in the choice @-@ he chooses himself and struggles for this possession as for his salvation , and it is his salvation . Either / Or Part II , Hong , p . 216
When a person turns and faces himself in order to understand himself , he steps , as it were , in the way of that first self , halts that which was turned outward in hankering for and seeking after the surrounding world that is its object , and summons it back from the external . In order to prompt the first self to this withdrawal , the deeper self lets the surrounding world remain what it is @-@ remain dubious . This is indeed the way it is ; the world around us is inconstant and can be changed into the opposite at any moment , and there is not one person who can force this change by his own might or by the conjuration of his wish . The deeper self now shapes the deceitful flexibility of the surrounding world in such a way that it is no longer attractive to the first self . Then the first self either must proceed to kill the deeper self , to render it forgotten , whereby the whole matter is given up ; or it must admit that the deeper self is right , because to want to predicate constancy of something that continually changes is indeed a contradiction , and as soon as one confesses that it changes , it can of course , change in that same moment . However much that first self shrinks from this , there is no wordsmith so ingenious or no thought @-@ twister so wily that he can invalidate the deeper self ’ s eternal claim . There is only one way out , and that is to silence the deeper self by letting the roar of inconstancy drown it out . Eighteen Upbuilding Discourses , 1845 , Hong translation , p . 314
Just as a man changes his clothes for celebration , so a person preparing for the holy act of confession is inwardly changed . It is indeed like changing one ’ s clothes to divest oneself of multiplicity in order to make up one ’ s mind about one thing , to interrupt the pace of busy activity in order to put on the repose of contemplation in unity with oneself . And this unity with oneself is the celebration ’ s simple festive dress that is the condition of admittance . Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits , Søren Kierkegaard , 1847 , Hong , p . 19
If a person whose life has been tried in some crucial difficulty has a friend and sometime later he is unable to retain the past clearly , if anxiety creates confusion , and if accusing thoughts assail him with all their might as he works his way back , then he may go to his friend and say , “ My soul is sick so that nothing will become clear to me , but I confided everything to you ; you remember it , so please explain the past to me again . ” But if a person has no friend , he presumably goes to God if under other circumstances he has confided something to him , if in the hour of decision he called God as witness when no one understood him . And the one who went to his friend perhaps was not understood at times , perhaps was filled with self @-@ loathing , which is even more oppressive , upon discovering that the one to whom he had confided his troubles had not understood him at all , even though he had listened , had not sensed what was making him anxious , but had only an inquisitive interest in his unusual encounter with life . But this would never happen with God ; who would dare to venture to think this of God , even if he is cowardly enough to prefer to forget God @-@ until he stands face @-@ to @-@ face with the judge , who passes judgment on him but not on the one who truly has God as a witness , because where God is the judge , there is indeed no judge if God is the witness . It by no means follows that a person ’ s life becomes easy because he learns to know God in this way . On the contrary , it can become very hard ; it may become more difficult than the contemptible easiness of sensate human life , but in this difficulty life also acquires ever deeper and deeper meaning . Søren Kierkegaard , Four Upbuilding Discourses August 31 , 1844 ( Eighteen Upbuilding Discourses p . 324 )
August Strindberg was familiar with Either / Or and this book made him “ forever a champion of the ethical as juxtaposed to the aesthetic life conception and he always remained faithful to the idea that art and knowledge must be subservient to life , and that life itself must be lived as we know best , chiefly because we are part of it and cannot escape from its promptings . ” Strindberg was obviously attracted to Either / Or Part II where Kierkegaard developed his categorical imperative . He wrote the following in Growth of a Soul published posthumously in 1913 about Kierkegaard ’ s Either — Or : " it was valid only for the priests who called themselves Christians and the seducer and Don Juan were the author himself , who satisfied his desires in imagination " . Part II was his " Discourse on Life as a Duty , and when he reached the end of the work he found the moral philosopher in despair , and that all this teaching about duty had only produced a Philistine . " He then states that Kierkegaard 's discourses might have led him closer to Christianity but he didn 't know if he could come back to something " which had been torn out , and joyfully thrown into the fire " . However , after reading the book he " felt sinful " . Then another writer began to influence his life . This is how he described Either / Or :
But another element now entered into his life , and had a decided influence both on his views of things and his work . This was his acquaintance with two men , — an author and a remarkable personality . Unfortunately they were both abnormal and therefore had only a disturbing effect upon his development . The author was Kierkegaard , whose book , Either — Or , John had borrowed from a member of the Song Club , and read with fear and trembling . His friends had also read it as a work of genius , had admired the style , but not been specialty influenced by it , — a proof that books have little effect , when they do not find readers in sympathy with the author . But upon John the book made the impression intended by the author . He read the first part containing " The Confessions of an Esthete . " He felt sometimes carried away by it , but always had an uncomfortable feeling as though present at a sick @-@ bed . The perusal of the first part left a feeling of emptiness and despair behind it . The book agitated him . " The Diary of a Seducer " he regarded as the fancies of an unclean imagination . Things were not like that in real life . Moreover John was no sybarite , but on the contrary inclined to asceticism and self @-@ torment . Such egotistic sensuality as that of the hero of Kierkegaard 's work was absurd because the suffering he caused by the satisfaction of his desires necessarily involved him in suffering and , therefore , defeated his object .
The second part of the work containing the philosopher 's " Discourse on Life as a Duty , " made a deeper impression on John . It showed him that he himself was an " esthete " who had conceived of authorship as a form of enjoyment . Kierkegaard said that it should be regarded as a calling . Why ? The proof was wanting , and John , who did not know that Kierkegaard was a Christian , but thought the contrary , not having seen his Edifying Discourses , imbibed unaware the Christian system of ethics with its doctrine of self @-@ sacrifice and duty . Along with these the idea of sin returned . Enjoyment was a sin , and one had to do one 's duty . Why ? Was it for the sake of society to which one was under obligations ? No ! merely because it was duty . That was simply Kant 's categorical imperative . When he reached the end of the work Either — Or and found the moral philosopher also in despair , and that all this teaching about duty had only produced a Philistine , he felt broken in two . " Then , " he thought , " better be an esthete . " But one cannot be an esthete if one has been a Christian for five @-@ sixths of one 's life , and one cannot be moral without Christ . Thus he was tossed to and fro like a ball between the two , and ended in sheer despair . August Strindberg , Growth of a Soul , 165 @-@ 166
Kierkegaard put an end to his own double @-@ mindedness about devoting himself completely to aesthetics or developing a balance between the aesthetic and the ethical and going on to an ethical / Christian religious existence in the first part of his authorship ( 1843 @-@ 1846 ) and then described what he had learned about himself and about being a Christian beginning with Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits ( 1847 ) . He learned to choose his own Either / Or .
each man who is mindful of himself knows what no science knows , since he knows who he himself is . Søren Kierkegaard , The Concept of Anxiety 1844 , Nichol p . 78 @-@ 79
David F. Swenson , University of Minneapolis , Saint Paul , lectured on Kierkegaard 's three modes of life in 1918 : First , the Life of Enjoyment – Folly and Cleverness in the Pursuit of Pleasure ; second , the Life of Duty – Realizing the Self through Victorious Accomplishments ; third , the Life of Faith – The Religious Transformation of the Self through Suffering .
even the lowliest individual has a double existence . He , too has a history , and this is not simply a product of his own free acts . The interior deed , on the other hand , belongs to him and will belong to him forever ; history or world history cannot take it from him ; it follows him , either to his joy or to his despair . In this world there rules an absolute Either / Or . But philosophy has nothing to do with this world . Judge Vilhelm , Either / Or II p . 174 @-@ 175 Hong 1987
= = = Later reception = = =
Although Either / Or was Kierkegaard 's first major book , it was one of his last books to be translated into English , as late as 1944 . Frederick DeW . Bolman , Jr. insisted that reviewers consider the book in this way : " In general , we have a right to discover , if we can , the meaning of a work as comprehensive as Either / Or , considering it upon its own merits and not reducing the meaning so as to fit into the author 's later perspective . It occurred to me that this was a service to understanding Kierkegaard , whose esthetic and ethical insights have been much slighted by those enamored of his religion of renunciation and transcendence . ... Kierkegaard 's brilliance seems to me to be showing that while goodness , truth , and beauty can not speculatively be derived one from another , yet these three are integrally related in the dynamics of a healthy character structure " .
David F. Swenson , University of Minneapolis , Saint Paul , professor introduced three lectures about Kierkegaard in 1918 in which he " presented Soren Kierkegaard ’ s delineation of three fundamental modes of life : First , the Life of Enjoyment – Folly and Cleverness in the Pursuit of Pleasure ; second , the Life of Duty – Realizing the Self through Victorious Accomplishments ; third , the Life of Faith – The Religious Transformation of the Self through Suffering .
Thomas Henry Croxall was impressed by ' As thoughts on music in the essay , " The Immediate Stages of the Erotic , or Musical Erotic " . Croxall argues that " the essay should be taken seriously by a musician , because it makes one think , and think hard enough to straighten many of one 's ideas ; ideas , I mean , not only on art , but on life " and goes on to discuss the psychological , existential , and musical value of the work .
Johannes Edouard Hohlenberg wrote a biography about Søren Kierkegaard in 1954 and in that book he speculated that the Diary of the Seducer was meant to depict the life of P.L. Moller who later ( 1845 ) wrote the articles in The Corsair detrimental to the character of Kierkegaard . The Diary of a Seducer by itself , is a provocative novella , and has been reproduced separately from Either / Or several times . John Updike said of the Diary , " In the vast literature of love , The Seducer 's Diary is an intricate curiosity – a feverishly intellectual attempt to reconstruct an erotic failure as a pedagogic success , a wound masked as a boast " .
Many authors were interested in separating the esthetic , the ethical and the religious but it may have been , as far as Kierkegaard was concerned , of more importance for the single individual to have a way to decide when one was becoming dominant over the other two . Henrik Stangerup , ( 1937 @-@ 1998 ) a Danish writer , wrote three books as a way to illustrate Kierkegaard 's three stages of existence , 1981 , The Road to Lagoa Santa , which was about Kierkegaard 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Peter Wilhelm Lund ( the ethicist ) , 1985 The Seducer : It Is Hard to Die in Dieppe , Peder Ludvig Moller was the esthetic in that novel , and in 1991 Brother Jacob which describes Søren Kierkegaard as a Franciscan monk .
In contemporary times , Either / Or received new life as a grand philosophical work with the publication of Alasdair MacIntyre 's After Virtue ( 1981 ) , where MacIntyre situates Either / Or as an attempt to capture the Enlightenment spirit set forth by David Hume and Immanuel Kant . After Virtue renewed Either / Or as an important ethical text in the Kantian vein , as mentioned previously . Although MacIntyre accuses Victor Eremita of failing to provide a criterion for one to adopt an ethical way of life , many scholars have since replied to MacIntyre 's accusation in Kierkegaard After MacIntyre .
= = = Primary references = = =
= = = Secondary references and notes = = =
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= Chalcogen =
The chalcogens ( / ˈkælkədʒᵻnz / ) are the chemical elements in group 16 of the periodic table . This group is also known as the oxygen family . It consists of the elements oxygen ( O ) , sulfur ( S ) , selenium ( Se ) , tellurium ( Te ) , and the radioactive element polonium ( Po ) . The chemically uncharacterized synthetic element livermorium ( Lv ) is predicted to be a chalcogen as well . Often , oxygen is treated separately from the other chalcogens , sometimes even excluded from the scope of the term " chalcogen " altogether , due to its very different chemical behavior from sulfur , selenium , tellurium , and polonium . The word " chalcogen " is derived from a combination of the Greek word khalkόs ( χαλκός ) principally meaning copper ( the term was also used for bronze / brass , any metal in the poetic sense , ore or coin ) , and the Latinised Greek word genēs , meaning born or produced .
Sulfur has been known since antiquity , and oxygen was recognized as an element in the 18th century . Selenium , tellurium and polonium were discovered in the 19th century , and livermorium in 2000 . All of the chalcogens have six valence electrons , leaving them two electrons short of a full outer shell . Their most common oxidation states are − 2 , + 2 , + 4 , and + 6 . They have relatively low atomic radii , especially the lighter ones .
Lighter chalcogens are typically nontoxic in their elemental form , and are often critical to life , while the heavier chalcogens are typically toxic . All of the chalcogens have some role in biological functions , either as a nutrient or a toxin . The lighter chalcogens , such as oxygen and sulfur , are rarely toxic and usually helpful in their pure form . Selenium is an important nutrient but is also commonly toxic . Tellurium often has unpleasant effects ( although some organisms can use it ) , and polonium is always extremely harmful , both in its chemical toxicity and its radioactivity .
Sulfur has more than 20 allotropes , oxygen has nine , selenium has at least five , polonium has two , and only one crystal structure of tellurium has so far been discovered . There are numerous organic chalcogen compounds . Not counting oxygen , organic sulfur compounds are generally the most common , followed by organic selenium compounds and organic tellurium compounds . This trend also occurs with chalcogen pnictides and compounds containing chalcogens and carbon group elements .
Oxygen is generally extracted from air and sulfur is extracted from oil and natural gas . Selenium and tellurium are produced as byproducts of copper refining . Polonium and livermorium are most available in particle accelerators . The primary use of elemental oxygen is in steelmaking . Sulfur is mostly converted into sulfuric acid , which is heavily used in the chemical industry . Selenium 's most common application is glassmaking . Tellurium compounds are mostly used in optical disks , electronic devices , and solar cells . Some of polonium 's applications are due to its radioactivity .
= = Properties = =
= = = Atomic and physical = = =
Chalcogens show similar patterns in electron configuration , especially in the outermost shells , where they all have the same number of valence electrons , resulting in similar trends in chemical behavior :
All chalcogens have six valence electrons . All of the solid , stable chalcogens are soft and do not conduct heat well . Electronegativity decreases towards the chalcogens with higher atomic numbers . Density , melting and boiling points , and atomic and ionic radii tend to increase towards the chalcogens with higher atomic numbers .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Out of the six known chalcogens , one ( oxygen ) has an atomic number equal to a nuclear magic number , which means that their atomic nuclei tend to have increased stability towards radioactive decay . Oxygen has three stable isotopes , and 14 unstable ones . Sulfur has four stable isotopes , 20 radioactive ones , and one isomer . Selenium has six observationally stable or nearly stable isotopes , 26 radioactive isotopes , and 9 isomers . Tellurium has eight stable or nearly stable isotopes , 31 unstable ones , and 17 isomers . Polonium has 42 isotopes , none of which are stable . It has an additional 28 isomers . In addition to the stable isotopes , some radioactive chalcogen isotopes occur in nature , either because they are decay products , such as 210Po , because they are primordial , such as 82Se , because of cosmic ray spallation , or via nuclear fission of uranium . Livermorium isotopes 290 through 293 have been discovered . The most stable livermorium isotope is 293Lv , which has a half @-@ life of 0 @.@ 061 seconds .
Among the lighter chalcogens ( oxygen and sulfur ) , the most neutron @-@ poor isotopes undergo proton emission , the moderately neutron @-@ poor isotopes undergo electron capture or β + decay , the moderately neutron @-@ rich isotopes undergo β − decay , and the most neutron rich isotopes undergo neutron emission . The middle chalcogens ( selenium and tellurium ) have similar decay tendencies as the lighter chalcogens , but their isotopes do not undergo proton emission and some of the most neutron @-@ starved isotopes of tellurium undergo alpha decay . Polonium 's isotopes tend to decay with alpha or beta decay . Isotopes with nuclear spins are more common among the chalcogens selenium and tellurium than they are with sulfur .
= = = Allotropes = = =
Oxygen 's most common allotrope is diatomic oxygen , or O2 , a reactive paramagnetic molecule that is ubiquitous to aerobic organisms and has a blue color in its liquid state . Another allotrope is O3 , or ozone , which is three oxygen atoms bonded together in a bent formation . There is also an allotrope called tetraoxygen , or O4 , and six allotropes of solid oxygen including " red oxygen " , which has the formula O8 .
Sulfur has over 20 known allotropes , which is more than any other element except carbon . The most common allotropes are in the form of eight @-@ atom rings , but other molecular allotropes that contain as few as two atoms or as many as 20 are known . Other notable sulfur allotropes include rhombic sulfur and monoclinic sulfur . Rhombic sulfur is the more stable of the two allotropes . Monoclinic sulfur takes the form of long needles and is formed when liquid sulfur is cooled to slightly below its melting point . The atoms in liquid sulfur are generally in the form of long chains , but above 190 ° Celsius , the chains begin to break down . If liquid sulfur above 190 ° Celsius is frozen very rapidly , the resulting sulfur is amorphous or " plastic " sulfur . Gaseous sulfur is a mixture of diatomic sulfur ( S2 ) and 8 @-@ atom rings .
Selenium has at least five known allotropes.The gray allotrope , commonly referred to as the " metallic " allotrope , despite not being a metal , is stable and has a hexagonal crystal structure . The gray allotrope of selenium is soft , with a Mohs hardness of 2 , and brittle . The four other allotropes of selenium are metastable . These include two monoclinic red allotropes and two amorphous allotropes , one of which is red and one of which is black . The red allotrope converts to the red allotrope in the presence of heat . The gray allotrope of selenium is made from spirals on selenium atoms , while one of the red allotropes is made of stacks of selenium rings ( Se8 ) .
Tellurium is not known to have any allotropes , although its typical form is hexagonal . Polonium has two allotropes , which are known as α @-@ polonium and β @-@ polonium. α @-@ polonium has a cubic crystal structure and converts the rhombohedral β @-@ polonium at 36 ° C.
The chalcogens have varying crystal structures . Oxygen 's crystal structure is monoclinic , sulfur 's is orthorhombic , selenium and tellurium have the hexagonal crystal structure , while polonium has a cubic crystal structure .
= = = Chemical = = =
Oxygen , sulfur , and selenium are nonmetals , and tellurium is a metalloid , meaning that its chemical properties are between those of a metal and those of a nonmetal . It is not certain whether polonium is a metal or a metalloid . Some sources refer to polonium as a metalloid , although it has some metallic properties . Also , some allotropes of selenium display characteristics of a metalloid , even though selenium is usually considered a nonmetal . Even though oxygen is a chalcogen , its chemical properties are different from those of other chalcogens . One reason for this is that the heavier chalcogens have vacant d @-@ orbitals . Oxygen 's electronegativity is also much higher than those of the other chalcogens . This makes oxygen 's electric polarizability several times lower than those of the other chalcogens .
The oxidation number of the most common chalcogen compounds with positive metals is − 2 . However the tendency for chalcogens to form compounds in the − 2 state decreases towards the heavier chalcogens . Other oxidation numbers , such as − 1 in pyrite and peroxide , do occur . The highest formal oxidation number is + 6 . This oxidation number is found in sulfates , selenates , tellurates , polonates , and their corresponding acids , such as sulfuric acid .
Oxygen is the most electronegative element except for fluorine , and forms compounds with almost all of the chemical elements , including some of the noble gases . It commonly bonds with many metals and metalloids to form oxides , including iron oxide , titanium oxide , and silicon oxide . Oxygen 's most common oxidation state is − 2 , and the oxidation state − 1 is also relatively common . With hydrogen it forms water and hydrogen peroxide . Organic oxygen compounds are ubiquitous in organic chemistry .
Sulfur 's oxidation states are − 2 , + 2 , + 4 , and + 6 . Sulfur @-@ containing analogs of oxygen compounds often have the prefix thio- . Sulfur 's chemistry is similar to oxygen 's , in many ways . One difference is that sulfur @-@ sulfur double bonds are far weaker than oxygen @-@ oxygen double bonds , but sulfur @-@ sulfur single bonds are stronger than oxygen @-@ oxygen single bonds . Organic sulfur compounds such as thiols have a strong specific smell , and a few are utilized by some organisms .
Selenium 's oxidation states are − 2 , + 4 , and + 6 . Selenium , like most chalcogens , bonds with oxygen . There are some organic selenium compounds , such as selenoproteins . Tellurium 's oxidation states are − 2 , + 2 , + 4 , and + 6 . Tellurium forms the oxides tellurium monoxide , tellurium dioxide , and tellurium trioxide . Polonium 's oxidation states are + 2 and + 4 .
There are many acids containing chalcogens , including sulfuric acid , sulfurous acid , selenic acid , and telluric acid . All hydrogen chalcogenides are toxic except for water . Oxygen ions often come in the forms of oxide ions ( O2 − ) , peroxide ions ( O2 −
2 ) , and hydroxide ions ( OH − ) . Sulfur ions generally come in the form of sulfides ( S2 − ) , sulfites ( SO2 −
3 ) , sulfates ( SO2 −
4 ) , and thiosulfates ( S
2O2 −
3 ) . Selenium ions usually come in the form of selenides ( Se2 − ) and selenates ( SeO2 −
4 ) . Tellurium ions often come in the form of tellurates ( TeO2 −
4 ) . Molecules containing metal bonded to chalcogens are common as minerals . For example , pyrite ( FeS2 ) is an iron ore , and the rare mineral calaverite is the ditelluride ( Au , Ag ) Te2 .
Although all group 16 elements of the periodic table , including oxygen , can be defined as chalcogens , oxygen and oxides are usually distinguished from chalcogens and chalcogenides . The term chalcogenide is more commonly reserved for sulfides , selenides , and tellurides , rather than for oxides .
Except for polonium , the chalcogens are all fairly similar to each other chemically . They all form X2 − ions when reacting with electropositive metals .
Sulfide minerals and analogous compounds produce gases upon reaction with oxygen .
= = Compounds = =
= = = With halogens = = =
Chalcogens also form compounds with halogens known as chalcohalides . Such compounds are known as chalcogen halides . The majority of simple chalcogen halides are well @-@ known and widely used as chemical reagents . However , more complicated chalcogen halides , such as sulfenyl , sulfonyl , and sulfuryl halides , are less well @-@ known to science . Out of the compounds consisting purely of chalcogens and halogens , there are a total of 13 chalcogen fluorides , nine chalcogen chlorides , eight chalcogen bromides , and six chalcogen iodides that are known . The heavier chalcogen halides often have significant molecular interactions . Sulfur fluorides with low valences are fairly unstable and little is known about their properties . However , sulfur fluorides with high valences , such as sulfur hexafluoride , are stable and well @-@ known . Sulfur tetrafluoride is also a well @-@ known sulfur fluoride . Certain selenium fluorides , such as selenium difluoride , have been produced in small amounts . The crystal structures of both selenium tetrafluoride and tellurium tetrafluoride are known . Chalcogen chlorides and bromides have also been explored . In particular , selenium dichloride and sulfur dichloride can react to form organic selenium compounds . Dichalcogen dihalides , such as Se2Cl2 also are known to exist . There are also mixed chalcogen @-@ halogen compounds . These include SeSX , with X being chlorine or bromine . Such compounds can form in mixtures of sulfur dichloride and selenium halides . These compounds have been fairly recently structurally characterized , as of 2008 . In general , diselenium and disulfur chlorides and bromides are useful chemical reagents . Chalcogen halides with attached metal atoms are soluble in organic solutions . One example of such a compound is MoS2Cl3 . Unlike selenium chlorides and bromides , selenium iodides have not been isolated , as of 2008 , although it is likely that they occur in solution . Diselenium diiodide , however , does occur in equilibrium with selenium atoms and iodine molecules . Some tellurium halides with low valences , such as Te2Cl2 and Te2Br2 , form polymers when in the solid state . These tellurium halides can be synthesized by the reduction of pure tellurium with superhydride and reacting the resulting product with tellurium tetrahalides . Ditellurium dihalides tend to get less stable as the halides become lower in atomic number and atomic mass . Tellurium also forms iodides with even fewer iodine atoms than diiodies . These include TeI and Te2I . These compounds have extended structures in the solid state . Halogens and chalcogens can also form halochalcogenate anions .
= = = Organic = = =
Alcohols , phenols and other similar compounds contain oxygen . However , in thiols , selenols and tellurols ; sulfur , selenium , and tellurium replace oxygen . Thiols are better known than selenols or tellurols . Thiols are the most stable chalcogenols and tellurols are the least stable , being unstable in heat or light . Other organic chalcogen compounds include thioethers , selenoethers and telluroethers . Some of these , such as dimethyl sulfide , diethyl sulfide , and dipropyl sulfide are commercially available . Selenoethers are in the form of R2Se or RSeR . Telluroethers such as dimethyl telluride are typically prepared in the same way as thioethers and selenoethers . Organic chalcogen compounds , especially organic sulfur compounds , have the tendency to smell unpleasant . Dimethyl telluride also smells unpleasant , and selenophenol is renowned for its " metaphysical stench " . There are also thioketones , selenoketones , and telluroketones . Out of these , thioketones are the most well @-@ studied with 80 % of chalcogenoketones papers being about them . Selenoketones make up 16 % of such papers and telluroketones make up 4 % of them . Thioketones have well @-@ studied non @-@ linear electric and photophysic properties . Selenoketones are less stable than thioketones and telluroketones are less stable than selenoketones . Telluroketones have the highest level of polarity of chalcogenoketones .
= = = With metals = = =
Elemental chalcogens react with certain lanthanide compounds to form lanthanide clusters rich in chalcogens . Uranium ( IV ) chalcogenol compounds also exist . There are also transition metal chalcogenols which have potential to serve as catalysts and stabilize nanoparticles .
There is a very large number of metal chalcogenides . One of the more recent discoveries in this group of compounds is Rb2Te . There are also compounds in which alkali metals and transition metals such as the fourth period transition metals except for copper and zinc . In highly metal @-@ rich metal chalcogenides , such as Lu7Te and Lu8Te have domains of the metal 's crystal lattice containing chalcogen atoms . While these compounds do exist , analogous chemicals that contain lanthanum , praseodymium , gadolinium , holmium , terbium , or ytterbium have not been discovered , as of 2008 . The boron group metals aluminum , gallium , and indium also form bonds to chalcogens . The Ti3 + ion forms chalcogenide dimers such as TiTl5Se8 . Metal chalcogenide dimers also occur as lower tellurides , such as Zr5Te6 .
= = = With pnictogens = = =
Compounds with chalcogen @-@ phosphorus bonds have been explored for more than 200 years . These compounds include unsophisticated phosphorus chalcogenides as well as large molecules with biological roles and phosphorus @-@ chalcogen compounds with metal clusters . These compounds have numerous applications , including strike @-@ anywhere matches and quantum dots . A total of 130 @,@ 000 compounds with at least one phosphorus @-@ sulfur bond , 6000 compounds with at least one phosphorus @-@ selenium bond , and 350 compounds with at least one phosphorus @-@ tellurium bond have been discovered . The decrease in the number of chalcogen @-@ phosphorus compounds further down the periodic table is due to diminishing bond strength . Such compounds tend at least one phosphorus atom in the center , surrounded by four chalcogens and side chains . However , some phosphorus @-@ chalcogen compounds also contain hydrogen ( such as secondary phosphine chalcogenides ) or nitrogen ( such as dichalcogenoimidodiphosphates ) . Phosphorus selenides are typically harder to handle that phosphorus sulfides , and compounds in the from PxTey have not been discovered . Chalcogens also bond with other pnictogens , such as arsenic , antimony , and bismuth . Heavier chalcogen pnictides tend to form ribbon @-@ like polymers instead of individual molecules . Chemical formulas of these compounds include Bi2S3 and Sb2Se3 . Ternary chalcogen pnictides are also known . Examples of these include P4O6Se and P3SbS3. salts containing chalcogens and pnictogens also exist . Almost all chalcogen pnictide salts are typically in the form of [ PnxE4x ] 3 − , where Pn is a pnictogen and E is a chalcogen . Tertiary phosphines can react with chalcogens to form compounds in the form of R3PE , where E is a chalcogen . When E is sulfur , these compounds are relatively stable , but they are less so when E is selenium or tellurium . Similarly , secondary phosphines can react with chalcogens to form secondary phosphine chalcogenides . However , these compounds are in a state of equilibrium with chalcogenophosphinous acid . Secondary phosphine chalcogenides are weak acids . Binary compounds consisting of antimony or arsenic and a chalcogen . These compounds tend to be colorful and can be created by a reaction of the constituent elements at temperatures of 500 to 900 ° C ( 932 to 1 @,@ 652 ° F ) .
= = = Other = = =
Chalcogens form single bonds and double bonds with other carbon group elements than carbon , such as silicon , germanium , and tin . Such compounds typically form from a reaction of carbon group halides and chalcogenol salts or chalcogenol bases . Cyclic compounds with chalcogens , carbon group elements , and boron atoms exist , and occur from the reaction of boron dichalcogenates and carbon group metal halides . Compounds in the form of M @-@ E , where M is silicon , germanium , or tin , and E is sulfur , selenium or tellurium have been discovered . These form when carbon group hydrides react or when heavier versions of carbenes react . Sulfur and tellurium can bond with organic compounds containing both silicon and phosphorus .
All of the chalcogens form hydrides . In some cases this occurs with chalcogens bonding with two hydrogen atoms . However tellurium hydride and polonium hydride are both volatile and highly labile . Also , oxygen can bond to hydrogen in a 1 : 1 ratio as in hydrogen peroxide , but this compound is unstable .
Chalcogen compounds form a number of interchalcogens . For instance , sulfur forms the toxic sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide . Tellurium also forms oxides . There are some chalcogen sulfides as well . These include selenium sulfide , an ingredient in some shampoos .
Since 1990 , a number of borides with chalcogens bonded to them have been detected . The chalcogens in these compounds are mostly sulfur , although some do contain selenium instead . One such chalcogen boride consists of two molecules of dimethyl sulfide attached to a boron @-@ hydrogen molecule . Other important boron @-@ chalcogen compounds include macropolyhedral systems . Such compounds tend to feature sulfur as the chalcogen . There are also chalcogen borides with two , three , or four chalcogens . Many of these contain sulfur but some , such as Na2B2Se7 contain selenium instead .
= = History = =
= = = Early discoveries = = =
Sulfur has been known since ancient times and is mentioned in the Bible fifteen times . It was known to the ancient Greeks and commonly mined by the ancient Romans . It was also historically used as a component of Greek fire . In the Middle Ages , it was a key part of alchemical experiments . In the 1700s and 1800s , scientists Joseph Louis Gay @-@ Lussac and Louis @-@ Jacques Thénard proved sulfur to be a chemical element .
Early attempts to separate oxygen from air were hampered by the fact that air was thought of as a single element up to the 17th and 18th centuries . Robert Hooke , Mikhail Lomonosov , Ole Borch , and Pierre Bayden all successfully created oxygen , but did not realize it at the time . Oxygen was discovered by Joseph Priestley in 1774 when he focused sunlight on a sample of mercuric oxide and collected the resulting gas . Carl Wilhelm Scheele had also created oxygen in 1771 by the same method , but Scheele did not publish his results until 1777 .
Tellurium was first discovered in 1783 by Franz Joseph Müller von Reichenstein . He discovered tellurium in a sample of what is now known as calaverite . Müller assumed at first that the sample was pure antimony , but tests he ran on the sample did not agree with this . Muller then guessed that the sample was bismuth sulfide , but tests confirmed that the sample was not that . For some years , Muller pondered the problem . Eventually he realized that the sample was gold bonded with an unknown element . In 1796 , Müller sent part of the sample to the German chemist Martin Klaproth , who purified the undiscovered element . Klaproth decided to call the element tellurium after the Latin word for earth .
Selenium was discovered in 1817 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius . Berzelius noticed a reddish @-@ brown sediment at a sulfuric acid manufacturing plant . The sample was thought to contain arsenic . Berzelius initially thought that the sediment contained tellurium , but came to realize that it also contained a new element , which he named selenium after the Greek moon goddess Selene .
= = = Periodic table placing = = =
Three of the chalcogens ( sulfur , selenium , and tellurium ) were part of the discovery of periodicity , as they are among a series of triads of elements in the same group that were noted by Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner as having similar properties . Around 1865 John Newlands produced a series of papers where he listed the elements in order of increasing atomic weight and similar physical and chemical properties that recurred at intervals of eight ; he likened such periodicity to the octaves of music . His version included a " group b " consisting of oxygen , sulfur , selenium , tellurium , and osmium .
After 1869 , Dmitri Mendeleev proposed his periodic table placing oxygen at the top of " group VI " above sulfur , selenium , and tellurium . Chromium , molybdenum , tungsten , and uranium were sometimes included in this group , but they would be later rearranged as part of group VIB ; uranium would later be moved to the actinide series . Oxygen , along with sulfur , selenium , tellurium , and later polonium would be grouped in group VIA , until the group 's name was changed to group 16 in 1988 .
= = = Modern discoveries = = =
In the late 19th century , Marie Curie and Pierre Curie discovered that a sample of pitchblende was emitting four times as much radioactivity as could be explained by the presence of uranium alone . The Curies gathered several tons of pitchblende and refined it for several months until they had a pure sample of polonium . The discovery officially took place in 1898 . Prior to the invention of particle accelerators , the only way to create polonium was to extract it over several months from uranium ore .
The first attempt at creating livermorium was from 1976 to 1977 at the LBNL , who bombarded curium @-@ 248 with calcium @-@ 48 , but were not successful . After several failed attempts in 1977 , 1998 , and 1999 by research groups in Russia , Germany , and the USA , livermorium was created successfully in 2000 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research by bombarding curium @-@ 248 atoms with calcium @-@ 48 atoms . The element was known as ununhexium until it was officially named livermorium in 2012 .
= = = Etymology = = =
In the 19th century , Jons Jacob Berzelius suggested calling the elements in group 16 " amphigens " , as the elements in the group formed amphid salts ( salts of oxyacids ) The term received some use in the early 1800s but is now obsolete . The name chalcogen comes from the Greek words χαλκος ( chalkos , literally " copper " ) , and γενές ( genes , born , gender , kindle ) . It was first used in 1932 by Wilhelm Biltz 's group at the University of Hanover , where it was proposed by Werner Fischer . The word " chalcogen " gained popularity in Germany during the 1930s because the term was analogous to " halogen " . Although the literal meanings of the Greek words imply that chalcogen means " copper @-@ former " , this is misleading because the chalcogens have nothing to do with copper in particular . " Ore @-@ former " has been suggested as a better translation , as the vast majority of metal ores are chalcogenides and the word χαλκος in ancient Greek was associated with metals and metal @-@ bearing rock in general ; copper , and its alloy bronze , was one of the first metals to be used by humans .
Oxygen 's name comes from the Greek words oxy genes , meaning " acid @-@ forming " . Sulfur 's name comes from either the Latin word sulfurium or the Sanskrit word sulvere ; both of those terms are ancient words for sulfur . Selenium is named after the Greek goddess of the moon , Selene , to match the previously @-@ discovered element tellurium , whose name comes from the Latin word telus , meaning earth . Polonium is named after Marie Curie 's country of birth , Poland . Livermorium is named for the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory .
= = Occurrence = =
The four lightest chalcogens ( oxygen , sulfur , selenium , and tellurium ) are all primordial elements on Earth . Sulfur and oxygen occur as constituent copper ores and selenium and tellurium occur in small traces in such ores . Polonium forms naturally after the decay of other elements , even though it is not primordial . Livermorium does not occur naturally at all .
Oxygen makes up 21 % of the atmosphere by weight , 89 % of water by weight , 46 % of the earth 's crust by weight , and 65 % of the human body . Oxygen also occurs in many minerals , being found in all oxide minerals and hydroxide minerals , and in numerous other mineral groups . Stars of at least eight times the mass of the sun also produce oxygen in their cores via nuclear fusion . Oxygen is the third @-@ most abundant element in the universe , making up 1 % of the universe by weight .
Sulfur makes up 0 @.@ 035 % of the earth 's crust by weight , making it the 17th most abundant element there and makes up 0 @.@ 25 % of the human body . It is a major component of soil . Sulfur makes up 870 parts per million of seawater and about 1 part per billion of the atmosphere . Sulfur can be found in elemental form or in the form of sulfide minerals , sulfate minerals , or sulfosalt minerals . Stars of at least 12 times the mass of the sun produce sulfur in their cores via nuclear fusion . Sulfur is the tenth most abundant element in the universe , making up 500 parts per million of the universe by weight .
Selenium makes up 0 @.@ 05 parts per million of the earth 's crust by weight . This makes it the 67th most abundant element in the earth 's crust . Selenium makes up on average 5 parts per million of the soils . Seawater contains around 200 parts per trillion of selenium . The atmosphere contains 1 nanogram of selenium per cubic meter . There are mineral groups known as selenates and selenites , but there are not many of minerals in these groups . Selenium is not produced directly by nuclear fusion . Selenium makes up 30 parts per billion of the universe by weight .
There are only 5 parts per billion of tellurium in the earth 's crust and 15 parts per billion of tellurium in seawater . Tellurium is one of the eight or nine least abundant elements in the earth 's crust . There are a few dozen tellurate minerals and telluride minerals , and tellurium occurs in some minerals with gold , such as sylvanite and calaverite . Tellurium makes up 9 parts per billion of the universe by weight .
Polonium only occurs in trace amounts on earth , via radioactive decay of uranium and thorium . It is present in uranium ores in concentrations of 100 micrograms per metric ton . Very minute amounts of polonium exist in the soil and thus in most food , and thus in the human body . The earth 's crust contains less than 1 part per billion of polonium , making it one of the ten rarest metals on earth .
Livermorium is always produced artificially in particle accelerators . Even when it is produced , only a small number of atoms at a time are synthesized .
= = = Chalcophile elements = = =
Chalcophile elements are those that remain on or close to the surface because they combine readily with chalcogens other than oxygen , forming compounds which do not sink into the core . Chalcophile ( " chalcogen @-@ loving " ) elements in this context are those metals and heavier nonmetals that have a low affinity for oxygen and prefer to bond with the heavier chalcogen sulfur as sulfides . Because sulfide minerals are much denser than the silicate minerals formed by lithophile elements , chalcophile elements separated below the lithophiles at the time of the first crystallisation of the Earth 's crust . This has led to their depletion in the Earth 's crust relative to their solar abundances , though this depletion has not reached the levels found with siderophile elements .
= = Production = =
Approximately 100 million metric tons of oxygen are produced yearly . Oxygen is most commonly produced by fractional distillation , in which air is cooled to a liquid , then warmed , allowing all the components of air except for oxygen to turn to gases and escape . Fractionally distilling air several times can produce 99 @.@ 5 % pure oxygen . Another method with which oxygen is produced is to send a stream of dry , clean air through a bed of molecular sieves made of zeolite , which absorbs the nitrogen in the air , leaving 90 to 93 % pure oxygen .
Sulfur can be mined in its elemental form , although this method is no longer as popular as it used to be . In 1865 a large deposit of elemental sulfur was discovered in the U.S. states of Louisiana and Texas , but it was difficult to extract at the time . In the 1890s , Herman Frasch came up with the solution of liquefying the sulfur with superheated steam and pumping the sulfur up to the surface . These days sulfur is instead more often extracted from oil , natural gas , and tar .
The world production of selenium is around 1500 metric tons per year , out of which roughly 10 % is recycled . Japan is the largest producer , producing 800 metric tons of selenium per year . Other large producers include Belgium ( 300 metric tons per year ) , the United States ( over 200 metric tons per year ) , Sweden ( 130 metric tons per year ) , and Russia ( 100 metric tons per year ) . Selenium can be extracted from the waste from the process of electrolytically refining copper . Another method of producing selenium is to farm selenium @-@ gathering plants such as milk vetch . This method could produce three kilograms of selenium per acre , but is not commonly practiced .
Tellurium is mostly produced as a by @-@ product of the processing of copper . Tellurium can also be refined by electrolytic reduction of sodium telluride . The world production of tellurium is between 150 and 200 metric tons per year . The United States is one of the largest producers of tellurium , producing around 50 metric tons per year . Peru , Japan , and Canada are also large producers of tellurium .
Until the creation of nuclear reactors , all polonium had to be extracted from uranium ore . In modern times , most isotopes of polonium are produced by bombarding bismuth with neutrons . Polonium can also be produced by high neutron fluxes in nuclear reactors . Approximately 100 grams of polonium are produced yearly . All the polonium produced for commercial purposes is made in the Ozersk nuclear reactor in Russia . From there , it is taken to Samara , Russia for purification , and from there to St. Petersburg for distribution . The United States is the largest consumer of polonium .
All livermorium is produced artificially in particle accelerators . The first successful production of livermorium was achieved by bombarding curium @-@ 248 atoms with calcium @-@ 48 atoms . As of 2011 , roughly 25 atoms of livermorium had been synthesized .
= = Applications = =
Steelmaking is the most important use of oxygen ; 55 % of all oxygen produced goes to this application . The chemical industry also uses large amounts of oxygen ; 25 % of all oxygen produced goes to this application . The remaining 20 % of oxygen produced is mostly split between medical use , water treatment ( as oxygen kills some types of bacteria ) , rocket fuel ( in liquid form ) , and metal cutting .
Most sulfur produced is transformed into sulfur dioxide , which is further transformed into sulfuric acid , a very common industrial chemical . Other common uses include being a key ingredient of gunpowder and Greek fire , and being used to change soil pH . Sulfur is also mixed into rubber to vulcanize it . Sulfur is used in some types of concrete and fireworks . 60 % of all sulfuric acid produced is used to generate phosphoric acid .
Around 40 % of all selenium produced goes to glassmaking . 30 % of all selenium produced goes to metallurgy , including manganese production . 15 % of all selenium produced goes to agriculture . Electronics such as photovoltaic materials claim 10 % of all selenium produced . Pigments account for 5 % of all selenium produced . Historically , machines such as photocopiers and light meters used one @-@ third of all selenium produced , but this application is in steady decline .
Tellurium suboxide , a mixture of tellurium and tellurium dioxide , is used in the rewritable data layer of some CD @-@ RW disks and DVD @-@ RW disks . Bismuth telluride is also used in many microelectronic devices , such as photoreceptors . Tellurium is sometimes used as an alternative to sulfur in vulcanized rubber . Cadmium telluride is used as a high @-@ efficiency material in solar panels .
Some of polonium 's applications relate to the element 's radioactivity . For instance , polonium is used as an alpha @-@ particle generator for research . Polonium alloyed with beryllium provides an efficient neutron source . Polonium is also used in nuclear batteries . Most polonium is used in antistatic devices . Livermorium does not have any uses whatsoever due to its extreme rarity and short half @-@ life .
Organochalcogen compounds are involved in the semiconductor process . These compounds also feature into ligand chemistry and biochemistry . One application of chalcogens themselves is to manipulate redox couples in supramolar chemistry ( chemistry involving non @-@ covalent bond interactions ) . This application leads on to such applications as crystal packing , assembly of large molecules , and biological recognition of patterns . The secondary bonding interactions of the larger chalcogens , selenium and tellurium , can create organic solvent @-@ holding acetylene nanotubes . Chalcogen interactions are useful for conformational analysis and stereoelectronic effects , among other things . Chalcogenides with through bonds also have applications . For instance , divalent sulfur can stabilize carbanions , cationic centers , and radical . Chalcogens can confer upon ligands ( such as DCTO ) properties such as being able to transform Cu ( II ) to Cu ( I ) . Studying chalcogen interactions gives access to radical cations , which are used in mainstream synthetic chemistry . Metallic redox centers of biological importance are tunable by interactions of ligands containing chalcogens , such as methionine and selenocysteine . Also , chalcogen through @-@ bonds can provide insight about the process of electron transfer .
= = Biological role = =
Oxygen is needed by almost all organisms for the purpose of generating ATP . It is also a key component of most other biological compounds , such as water , amino acids and DNA . Human blood contains a large amount of oxygen . Human bones contain 28 % oxygen . Human tissue contains 16 % oxygen . A typical 70 @-@ kilogram human contais 43 kilograms of oxygen , mostly in the form of water .
All animals need significant amounts of sulfur . Some amino acids , such as cysteine and methionine contain sulfur . Plant roots take up sulfate ions from the soil and reduce it to sulfide ions . Metalloproteins also use sulfur to attach to useful metal atoms in the body and sulfur similarly attaches itself to poisonous metal atoms like cadmium to haul them to the safety of the liver . On average , humans consume 900 milligrams of sulfur each day . Sulfur compounds , such as those found in skunk spray often have strong odors .
All animals and some plants need trace amounts of selenium , but only for some specialized enzymes . Humans consume on average between 6 and 200 micrograms of selenium per day . Mushrooms and brazil nuts are especially noted for their high selenium content . Selenium in foods is most commonly found in the form of amino acids such as selenocysteine and selenomethionine . Selenium can protect against heavy metal poisoning .
Tellurium is not known to be needed for animal life , although a few fungi can incorporate it in compounds in place of selenium . Microorganisms also absorb tellurium and emit dimethyl telluride . Most tellurium in the blood stream is excreted slowly in urine , but some is converted to dimethyl telluride and released through the lungs . On average , humans ingest about 600 micrograms of tellurium daily . Plants can take up some tellurium from the soil . Onions and garlic have been found to contain as much as 300 parts per million of tellurium in dry weight .
Polonium has no biological role , and is highly toxic on account of being radioactive .
= = Toxicity = =
Oxygen is generally nontoxic , but oxygen toxicity has been reported when it is used in high concentrations . In both elemental gaseous form and as a component of water , it is vital to almost all life on earth . Despite this , liquid oxygen is highly dangerous . Even gaseous oxygen is dangerous in excess . For instance , sports divers have occasionally drowned from convulsions caused by breathing pure oxygen at a depth of more than 10 meters ( 33 feet ) underwater . Oxygen is also toxic to some bacteria . Ozone , an allotrope of oxygen , is toxic to most life . It can cause lesions in the respiratory tract .
Sulfur is generally nontoxic and is even a vital nutrient for humans . However , in its elemental form it can cause redness in the eyes and skin , a burning sensation and a cough if inhaled , a burning sensation and diarrhea if ingested , and can irritate the mucous membranes . An excess of sulfur can be toxic for cows because microbes in the rumens of cows produce toxic hydrogen sulfide upon reaction with sulfur . Many sulfur compounds , such as hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) and sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) are highly toxic .
Selenium is a trace nutrient required by humans on the order of tens or hundreds of micrograms per day . A dose of over 450 micrograms can be toxic , resulting in bad breath and body odor . Extended , low @-@ level exposure , which can occur at some industries , results in weight loss , anemia , and dermatitis . In many cases of selenium poisoning , selenous acid is formed in the body . Hydrogen selenide ( H2Se ) is highly toxic .
Exposure to tellurium can produce unpleasant side effects . As little as 10 micrograms of tellurium per cubic meter of air can cause notoriously unpleasant breath , described as smelling like rotten garlic . Acute tellurium poisoning can cause vomiting , gut inflammation , internal bleeding , and respiratory failure . Extended , low @-@ level exposure to tellurium causes tiredness and indigestion . Sodium tellurite ( Na2TeO3 ) is lethal in amounts of around 2 grams .
Polonium is dangerous both as an alpha particle emitter and because it is chemically toxic . If ingested , polonium @-@ 210 is a billion times as toxic as hydrogen cyanide by weight ; it has been used as a murder weapon in the past , most famously to kill Alexander Litvinenko . Polonium poisoning can cause nausea , vomiting , anorexia , and lymphopenia . It can also damage hair follicles and white blood cells . Polonium @-@ 210 is only dangerous if ingested or inhaled because its alpha particle emissions cannot penetrate human skin . Polonium @-@ 209 is also toxic , and can cause leukemia .
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= Monroe Doctrine Centennial half dollar =
The Monroe Doctrine Centennial half dollar was a fifty @-@ cent piece struck by the United States Bureau of the Mint . Bearing portraits of former presidents James Monroe and John Quincy Adams , the coin was issued in commemoration of the centennial of the Monroe Doctrine and was produced at the San Francisco Mint in 1923 . Sculptor Chester Beach is credited with the design , although the reverse closely resembles an earlier work by Raphael Beck .
In 1922 , the motion picture industry was faced with a number of scandals , including manslaughter charges against star Roscoe " Fatty " Arbuckle . Although Arbuckle was eventually acquitted , motion picture executives sought ways of getting good publicity for Hollywood . One means was an exposition , to be held in Los Angeles in mid @-@ 1923 . To induce Congress to issue a commemorative coin as a fundraiser for the fair , organizers associated the exposition with the 100th anniversary of the Monroe Doctrine , and legislation for a commemorative half dollar for the centennial was passed .
The exposition was a financial failure . The coins did not sell well , and the bulk of the mintage of over 270 @,@ 000 was released into circulation . Beach faced accusations of plagiarism because of the similarity of the reverse design to a work by Beck , though he and fellow sculptor James Earle Fraser denied any impropriety . Many of the pieces that had been sold at a premium and saved were spent during the Depression ; most surviving coins show evidence of wear .
= = Background = =
In the early 1820s , the United States deemed two matters untoward interference by European powers in its zone of influence . The first was the Russian Ukase of 1821 , asserting exclusive territorial and trading rights along much of what is today Canada 's Pacific coast . The United States considered this area to be part of the Oregon Country and hoped to eventually gain control of it . The second was possible European threats against the Latin American nations , newly independent from Spain . United States officials feared that a Quadruple Alliance of Prussia , Austria , Russia , and France would restore Spain to power in the Americas .
British foreign minister George Canning was concerned that in the event of a Spanish restoration in Latin America , his nation would lose the trade which it had gained there since the Spanish had been ousted . In 1823 , he proposed to the American minister to Great Britain , Richard Rush , that their two nations issue a joint statement against the retaking of the former Spanish colonies by force . Rush asked for instructions from President James Monroe . The President consulted with his predecessors , Thomas Jefferson and James Madison , who favored the joint statement , as an alliance with Britain would protect the United States . Nevertheless , Monroe 's Secretary of State , future president John Quincy Adams , felt that if the United States was going to set forth its principles , it should speak for itself and not seem to be following the lead of powerful Britain . Accordingly , Rush was instructed to decline the opportunity to enter into a joint statement , although he was to inform the British that the two nations agreed on most issues .
The policy which would , some 30 years later , come to be called the " Monroe Doctrine " was contained in the President 's annual message to Congress on December 2 , 1823 . It warned European nations against new colonial ventures in the Americas , and against interference with Western Hemisphere governments . The doctrine had little practical effect at the time , as the United States lacked the ability to enforce it militarily and most European powers ignored it , considering it beneath their dignity even to respond . When Britain and other powers seized additional land in the Guianas in the 1830s , the United States did not issue a formal protest . The Mexican – American War of 1846 – 1848 increased Latin American suspicions over the doctrine , as many south of the border felt that the American purpose in warning European powers to keep out was to reserve the land for itself . Nevertheless , the Monroe Doctrine became an important part of United States foreign policy in the second half of the 19th and into the 20th century .
= = Inception = =
By 1922 , the Hollywood film industry was in serious trouble . Established in the Los Angeles area during the 1910s after moving from such eastern venues as Fort Lee , New Jersey , the industry had been rocked by a number of scandals . These included the mysterious shooting death of film director William Desmond Taylor , and the subsequent evasive testimony concerning it by actress Mabel Normand , which helped destroy her career . Another notorious scandal of the early 1920s was the death of actress Virginia Rappe following an orgy at a San Francisco hotel . Actor Roscoe " Fatty " Arbuckle was , after three trials , acquitted of manslaughter , but the negative publicity ended his career as well . These scandals , together with the death of romantic lead Wallace Reid from a drug overdose and a number of instances of onscreen sexual explicitness , led to nationwide calls for a boycott of Hollywood films .
Film moguls sought means of damage control . They hired former Postmaster General Will H. Hays as censor to the industry ; the Hays Code would govern how explicit a motion picture could be for decades to come . Another idea was an exposition and film festival to give good publicity to the industry , with the profits to be used for the making of educational films . Planning for this fair , to be held in Los Angeles in mid @-@ 1923 , began in 1922 . As other fairs , such as the World 's Columbian Exposition and the Panama – Pacific Exposition , had procured the issuance of commemorative coins as a fundraiser , organizers sought a piece for the film fair . The city of Los Angeles was wanted to use the fair to show it had come of age , as had Chicago for the Columbian Exposition and San Francisco with the Panama @-@ Pacific event .
Realizing that Congress might not pass legislation for a coin to commemorate a film industry celebration , the organizers sought a historical event with a major anniversary to occur in 1923 , which could be honored both at the fair and on the coin . The obvious candidate was the Boston Tea Party of 1773 , but according to numismatists Anthony Swiatek and Walter Breen in their volume on U.S. commemorative coins , that episode " could not be tortured into even the vaguest relevance to California , let alone to Los Angeles " . On December 18 , 1922 , California Congressman Walter Franklin Lineberger introduced a bill to strike a half dollar in commemoration of the centennial of the Monroe Doctrine , with the Los Angeles Clearing House ( an association of banks ) given the exclusive right to purchase the pieces from the government at face value . Lineberger claimed that Monroe 's declaration had kept California , then owned by Mexico , out of the hands of European powers . The bill was questioned in the House of Representatives by Michigan Congressman Louis Cramton , and in the Senate by Vermont 's Frank Greene , who stated , " it seems to me that the question is not one of selling a coin at a particular value or a particular place . The question is whether the United States government is going to go on from year to year submitting its coinage to this — well — harlotry . " Despite these objections , the bill was enacted on January 24 , 1923 ; a mintage of 300 @,@ 000 pieces was authorized .
= = Preparation = =
The fair organizers did not await congressional approval to begin planning the coin . According to Swiatek and Breen , the fair 's director general Frank B. Davison came up with the concept for the designs . On December 7 , 1922 , Commission of Fine Arts chairman Charles Moore wrote to Buffalo nickel designer and sculptor member of the commission James Earle Fraser , " The Los Angeles people are planning to celebrate the Monroe Doctrine Centennial . They are going to have a 50 @-@ cent piece and have decided that on the obverse shall be the heads of President Monroe and John Quincy Adams ... On the reverse will be the western continents from Hudson Bay to Cape Horn with some dots for the West Indies and some indication of the Panama Canal ... It strikes me that the designs having been settled upon , the [ plaster ] models could be worked out quite readily and that a pretty swell thing could be made . "
Fraser contacted fellow New York sculptor Chester Beach , who agreed to do the work . On December 27 , Moore wrote to Davison , informing him of Beach 's hiring , and that Fraser and Beach had decided to change the reverse . Moore quoted Beach 's description of the revised design :
Map of North and South America . North America is in the form of a draped figure , with the laurel of Peace [ an olive branch ] , reaching to South America , also a draped figure carrying a Horn of Plenty . Their hands to touch at the Panama Canal . The West Indies are indicated . The current of the oceans are lightly shown . Between the dates 1823 – 1923 are a scroll and a quill pen , symbolizing the " Treaty " .
Moore informed Davison that the commission had concurred with the revision , and that Beach had been instructed to complete work as quickly as possible so as to have the coins available at an early date . On February 24 , 1923 , commission secretary Hans Caemmerer showed the completed models to Assistant Director of the Mint Mary Margaret O 'Reilly , who was pleased with them . O 'Reilly suggested that if Beach was certain there would be no further changes , that he send photographs of the models to the commission 's offices , to be forwarded with its endorsement to the Bureau of the Mint in Washington . This was done , and the designs were approved by both Mint Director Frank Edgar Scobey and Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon on March 8 . Moore was enthusiastic about the designs , writing to Davison on March 21 that " I feel great exultation over the way the model ... has turned out ... I do not know of a memorial [ commemorative ] coin which for sheer beauty equals this ... "
= = Design = =
William E. Pike , in his 2003 article in The Numismatist about the coin , deems the design " uninspired " and complains that the low relief of the coin leaves it without sufficient detail . Coin dealer and numismatic historian Q. David Bowers states that because of the shallow relief , " newly minted coins had an insipid appearance . Few if any observers called them attractive . " Art historian Cornelius Vermeule also complained about the relief , stating that it made the allegorical figures on the reverse " seem like mounted cut @-@ outs ... the way the females are contoured to achieve their appearance of continents is a clever tour de force of calligraphic relief but an aesthetic monstrosity , a bad pun in art . " He had no more praise for the obverse , " Adams , with his staring eye , is scarcely a portrait , and Monroe would not be recognized even by an expert . "
The faint lines in the field around the continents represent various ocean currents , with the Gulf Stream to the upper right of the reverse . Swiatek and Breen speculate that the reason ocean currents were shown was to symbolize the trade routes between the continents . They also consider the design to have an Art Deco look , though noting that the lettering has more of an older , Art Nouveau appearance . Beach 's monogram , CB made into a circle , is found at lower right of the reverse .
On July 23 , 1923 , Raphael Beck , who had designed the seal for the 1901 Pan @-@ American Exposition , wrote to Mint Director Scobey to complain that the reverse design resembled his seal , which he had copyrighted in 1899 , and that Beach should be given no further credit for it . The letter was forwarded to the Commission of Fine Arts for comment . In October , Fraser wrote to Beck , stating that he had suggested to Beach that he use figures to represent the continents instead of maps , and that he had never seen the Pan @-@ American seal until Scobey forwarded the letter . According to Bowers , " A comparison of the 1901 and 1923 designs , however , shows that this was highly unlikely . "
= = Distribution and collecting = =
In May and June 1923 , 274 @,@ 077 of the new half dollars were struck at the San Francisco Mint . Most of these were sent to the Los Angeles Clearing House , though 77 pieces were set aside for transmission to Philadelphia and examination by the 1924 United States Assay Commission .
The American Historical Revue and Motion Picture Industry Exposition was open from July 2 to August 4 , 1923 . The fair was located off of Figueroa Street in Exposition Park , just to the east of the brand @-@ new Los Angeles Coliseum , where every evening a complimentary show for exposition visitors , " Montezuma and the Fall of the Aztecs " , was given . Admission to the fair was fifty cents , though fairgoers could purchase a coin for a dollar at the box office and enter without further charge . After the first week , organizers realized the public was not interested in the historical theme , but was there to see favorite movie stars . Exhibitors accordingly greatly expanded the space devoted to movie attractions , but the exposition was a financial failure . Those in charge of the fair had hoped to attract a million visitors ; the actual attendance was about 300 @,@ 000 , many of whom were teenagers given complimentary admission in the final two weeks of the fair . With the fair flirting with insolvency throughout its run , officials hoped the planned visit of President Warren Harding on August 6 would increase gate receipts , but Harding fell ill in San Francisco and died on August 2 . According to Pike in his article , " its effect on the industry [ was ] hard to measure . However , if Hollywood owes its current status in any way to the event , then it was quite a success indeed . "
Approximately 27 @,@ 000 half dollars were sold at the price of $ 1 , by mail , at banks , and at the fair . Sales continued after it closed , but by October 1923 , they had dropped off to almost nothing , and the banks holding them released the remaining nine @-@ tenths of the mintage into circulation , which accounts for the wear on most surviving specimens . Of those set aside , thousands more were spent during the Depression . The 2015 edition of A Guide Book of United States Coins lists it at $ 75 in uncirculated MS @-@ 60 . Swiatek , in his 2012 volume on commemoratives , notes that many specimens have been treated to make them appear brighter or less worn ; these , like other circulated pieces , are worth less . An exceptional specimen , certified in MS @-@ 67 condition , sold at auction for $ 29 @,@ 900 in 2009 .
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= Drive ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Drive " is the second episode of the sixth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on November 15 , 1998 . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Drive " earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 0 , being watched by 18 @.@ 5 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received largely positive reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In the episode , Mulder is trapped in a car by a seemingly deranged man , and Scully races to determine if the man is suffering from a deadly illness — and if Mulder is in danger of becoming the next victim of some sort of government conspiracy .
The episode was written by Vince Gilligan , directed by Rob Bowman , and featured a guest appearance by Bryan Cranston . Gilligan cast Cranston to play the antagonist because he felt he could successfully humanize the role . Cranston 's success in " Drive " later led to his casting as Walter White in Gilligan 's AMC series Breaking Bad .
= = Plot = =
Via a live news report , a high @-@ speed car chase comes to an end in the Nevada desert . Assuming it to be a kidnapping , the female passenger is pulled from the vehicle and placed into the protective custody of a police vehicle . The driver , Patrick Crump ( Bryan Cranston ) , is pushed to the asphalt and handcuffed . The woman in the police car begins violently banging her head against the car window . As the news chopper catches all of this on film , the woman 's head explodes , sending a spray of blood across the window .
Mulder and Scully get wind of this bizarre car chase as they 're doing work in Buhl , Idaho investigating possible domestic terrorism . Mulder coerces Scully into taking a detour to Elko , Nevada on a hunch that this may be an X @-@ File . Crump , who has started to develop symptoms of a sickness , is put in an ambulance . Mulder , wishing to speak to Crump , follows the ambulance , and ends up being kidnapped by Crump , who has escaped from the police .
Mulder realizes that Crump is in a considerable amount of pain and that the only way to ease the pain is to drive west . At first , Scully believes that Crump is suffering from some sort of biological contagion , but after investigating the Crumps ' home , she discovers a U.S. Navy antenna array emitting ELF waves stretches beneath their property . Scully deduces that an abnormal surge in these waves somehow caused a rising pressure in the inner ear of the nearby inhabitants . Westward motion and an increase in speed seems to be the only thing to help ease the pain of the increasing pressure .
Initially , Crump , thinking that Mulder is in on some sort of government conspiracy , forces Mulder to drive by brandishing a gun . He further infuriates Mulder by calling him antisemitic slurs . Eventually , Mulder and Crump make amends and attempt to work out a solution before it is too late . Mulder explains to Crump that Scully will meet them at the Pacific Coast , the end of the highway . There she will insert a needle into Crump 's inner ear , hopefully relieving the pressure . Unfortunately , when Scully arrives , it is too late and the pressure in Crump 's ear has already exploded , killing him .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception , writing , and filming = = =
The idea for the episode can be traced back to an early idea Vince Gilligan , the writer of the episode , had . His original idea featured a man holding an individual hostage on a Tilt @-@ A @-@ Whirl . Gilligan pitched this idea at several meetings and it soon became a recurring joke . Most of the comments Gilligan received noted that his premise lacked an explicit mystery to investigate and so Gilligan decided that after the ride was shut off , the man 's head would explode . Researching various government experiments , Gilligan discovered the controversial use of low @-@ frequency waves . The secret military experiment featured in this episode is based on two real @-@ life military experiments , Project HAARP and Project ELF . The former is a U.S. Army experiment dealing with electromagnetic radiation in the Earth 's ionosphere , and the second is a U.S. Navy experiment dealing with long wavelengths . Thus , a script was crafted that featured an individual that , due to a secret experiment , could not slow down for fear of rupturing his head .
Gilligan admitted that the episode was partially an homage to the 1994 film Speed , and the episode even features an explicit reference to the film : when Crump and Mulder discover that speed is the key to success , Mulder mentions that he thinks he " saw this movie . " The opening teaser footage is done in the style of a news report , a stylistic direction that IGN suggested was intended to echo the O.J. Simpson incident of just a few years earlier .
= = = Casting = = =
Vince Gilligan , the writer of the episode , wanted Bryan Cranston to play the antagonist because he felt he would humanize the role . “ We needed a guy who could be scary and kind of loathsome but at the same time had a deep , resounding humanity , " he later said . In an interview with The New York Times , Gilligan stated , " We had this villain , and we needed the audience to feel bad for him when he died . Bryan alone was the only actor who could do that , who could pull off that trick . And it is a trick . I have no idea how he does it . ” Rick Millikan , the casting director for The X @-@ Files noted that Cranston was nearly not chosen for this episode . Initially , the part of Crump had been assigned to a different actor , but Cranston came prepared to audition for the part . Although the character had already been cast , Millikan allowed him to audition and was very pleased with his performance and chose him for the part instead .
Cranston 's work on this episode later impacted his career ; Gilligan cast him in the series Breaking Bad , but AMC executives were initially unsure of this decision as they were familiar only with Cranston 's work on the sitcom Malcolm in the Middle . They were convinced after viewing his performance in " Drive " . Gilligan , a fan of country musician Junior Brown , cast Brown as Virgil Nokes , the farmer who Mulder and Scully investigate at the beginning of the episode . Brown was flown in at the request and personal expense of Gilligan , and would later perform a song on the trailer for the Breaking Bad spin @-@ off Better Call Saul .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Drive " first aired in the United States on November 15 , 1998 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 0 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 0 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 18 @.@ 50 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on March 14 , 1999 and was watched by 0 @.@ 70 million viewers , making it the sixth most viewed episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " He 'll stop at nothing . "
= = = Reviews = = =
" Drive " received largely positive reviews from critics . Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club wrote positively of the episode , awarding it an A , and writing that the entry was " a great example of the engine that keeps great television moving . " Handlen noted that the climax of the episode was " as moving as it is suspenseful " and drew parallels between Bryan Cranston 's portrayal of Mr. Crump and his eventual portrayal of Walter White from Breaking Bad , noting that both illustrate the idea that " you have to keep moving . If you stop , you die . " Review website IGN named it the ninth best standalone X @-@ Files episode of the entire series and complimented the interaction between Crump and Mulder , writing " it 's the interplay between Mulder and Crump that makes this episode a standout . [ ... ] Crump here is an antagonistic yet heartbreaking character , and as he and Mulder become unlikely allies in their ' drive , ' ' Drive ' in turn becomes a memorably scary X @-@ Files episode [ ... ] because of the perhaps most frightening element of the show 's world ever : mankind itself , and the governments that supposedly protect us . "
Colin Ellis from The Dashing Fellows called " Drive , " " arguably one of the best episodes post @-@ Fight the Future of [ The X @-@ Files ] . " Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files wrote positively of the episode , saying " [ T ] hank God for ' Drive ' , which taps into the idea of Speed , the hit movie starring [ Keanu ] Reeves , but pushes it in an excitingly different direction . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it three stars out of four . Although she slightly criticized the case being investigated as " pure hokum " , Vitaris praised Mulder and Scully 's teamwork , and their ability to work together despite being separated .
= = = Awards = = =
" Drive " earned an ASC Award by the American Society of Cinematographers for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography – Regular Series .
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