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3210247	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakbe	Nakbe	Nakbe is one of the largest early Maya archaeological sites. Nakbe is located in the Mirador Basin, in the Petén region of Guatemala, approximately 13 kilometers south of the largest Maya city of El Mirador. Excavations at Nakbe suggest that habitation began at the site during the Early Formative period (c. 1400 BC) and continued to be a large site until its collapse during the Terminal Formative period (100–200 CE). The fall of Nakbe and El Mirador took place at roughly the same time. Discovery and excavation The site was first discovered in 1930 by aerial photos taken of the region, but excavations of the site did not take place until 1962. Archaeologist Ian Graham was the first person to start excavations, but it wasn’t until the 1980s and 1990s that real excavation began by UCLA's Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Sciences, and the Institute of Anthropology and History of Guatemala. The combined efforts of these two groups resulted in the RAINPEG Project, which was headed by Dr. Richard D. Hansen. One of the main focuses of the RAINPEG Project was to investigate the limestone quarries in the area of Nakbé. Nakbe was a key site to the Maya because of its extensive quarry system of limestone, a key element to the building of the many large temples. The RAINPEC Project spent much of its energy excavating and studying the tools that were used in limestone excavation and preparation. They had unearthed 23 tools including bifacial axes, picks, and hammer stones, all of which were made of chert. The researches then replicated these tools to see what the methods of mining and shaping the limestone were. Not only did they come to realize that chert was an excellent tool for precision cutting of limestone, but these experiments shed light on how the Maya not only harvested the limestone, but how they shaped it to use for their elaborate complex architectural building. Artifacts found at the site The site center has yielded large quantities of middle Preclassic ceramics. Pottery found at the site includes red-on-cream items, multi-colored bowls, incised bowls, narrow-necked jars with coarsely painted bands, and a wide variety of monochrome vessels that are red, cream, or black. Many tecomates (jars with narrow openings but without necks) were found. Also found were numerous fragments of figurines depicting a wide variety of human and animal forms. Shells through which holes were ground were a common find at the site. Many were Strombus shells, a type of artifact unique to the first part of the middle Preclassic at Nakbe, Uaxactun, Tikal, and other sites where similarly dated deposits are located. The shells reflect one of the earliest major imports into the interior of northern Guatemala, and Richard Hansen believes they and similar exotic imports, such as jade and obsidian (a volcanic glass from which sharp tools could be fashioned), played an important role in the formation of an increasingly complex society. The demand for these materials, mainly from Kaminaljuyú, in the Central Highlands of Guatemala, whether for ideological or economic reasons, and the mechanisms of procurement, transportation, and distribution that met that demand, may have required the development of administrative and governmental organizations at an earlier stage in this region than in areas where those commodities were more readily available. Fairly direct evidence of developing differences in social and economic status includes human incisors with inlaid disks of jadelike stone, found in deposits dating to about 2,800 years ago. Such dental decorations are known to have been associated with elite status in later Maya periods. Archaeologists also found a middle Preclassic ceramic shard with a portion of an incised profile that displays the sloping forehead characteristic of later Maya elite society. This was a frontal cranial deformation that resulted from binding the head in infancy. Architecture Nakbe had established monumental architecture as early as the 8th century BC, with some platforms 18 m (59 ft) high. Around 1200 BC, modest villages were leveled and filled to serve as platform foundations for large new buildings, indicating that the platform construction and erection of monumental architecture were planned, simultaneous events. There are many buildings at Nakbe and they are divided into three groups. Two of these groups, called East and West, were constructed during the formative periods and the third group, called Codex, was constructed during the reoccupation of the site in the late classic period. The most impressive and largest of the buildings at Nakbe is a pyramid called Structure 1. Flanked by two large stucco masks and topped with three triadic style roofed structures, Structure 1 is both grand and beautiful. Causeways were also built to connect all these buildings. Maya causeways were paved with crushed white stone, which inspired their Mayan name, sacbe (“white way”) The Kan Causeway at Nakbe was 4 m (13 ft) above adjacent ground level in some places. One causeway was also built that connected Nakbe with El Mirador. Causeways A causeway system linked important features of the city to one another and later linked Nakbé with other sites. These causeways were often created above the ground level; the Kan Causeway was 4 meters (13 ft) above the ground level in some areas. These causeways were paved with crushed white stone, which created the naming of these causeways from the Maya name sacbe ("white way"). Nakbe was connected to El Mirador by one causeway and later in the Late Classic Maya period Nakbe was connected to the Maya center of Calakmul. Other sites besides Nakbé and El Mirador were connected through this system of sacbeob, which extended for dozens of kilometers. Research on quarries at Nakbe The limestone quarries of Nakbe were a significant facet of the research done by The RAINPEG group. Research of the quarries is of considerable importance because understanding of Mayan quarries, a prevalent aspect of the Mayan culture, is lacking. Excavations recovered 23 stone tools that were used to cut the limestone blocks. These tools consisted of bifacial picks and axes, hammerstones, and flake cores that were made of chert. Archaeologists made replicas of these tools to use in experimenting with the cutting and shaping of limestone blocks. By studying the evidence of wear and polish of the tools along with the cut marks on quarry walls, researchers were able to determine how these tools were used and what kind of handles were attached. They made longhandled picks which they used to cut the limestone from the bedrock. Then they used the stone axes to cut and form the block the way they wanted. The results of these experiments have showed that chert was a very effective and durable stone to use for the cutting of limestone and other materials. Excavations and research at Nakbe gives us a better understanding of the techniques that the Maya used to construct some of the most extraordinary structures of ancient times and the complications they had to endure along the way. Religion and iconography at Nakbe Nakbe Stela 1 consists of forty-five fragments of a once . tall monument that had been smashed in antiquity. After pieced together, the stela depicts a scene with two individuals standing face to face and dressed in costumes of a very early Mayan style. One figure is pointing upwards with an index finger to a disembodied head. The scene has been interpreted as a representation from the Popol Vuh. The two figures appear to portray the supernatural twins Hun-Apu and Ixbalanque, with Ixbalanque pointing towards his father’s severed head indicating his connection to a royal lineage. The famous Princeton Vase, illegally excavated, and often interpreted in terms of the Popol Vuh, probably also stems from the Nakbe region. Decline of the site While at least some remains have been found from nearly every period of Maya society at Nakbe, the site was never a major center after the beginning of the late Preclassic period. The last construction phases of the largest pyramids at Nakbe date to the beginning of this period. Late Preclassic artifacts have proved sparse throughout the site of Nakbe, perhaps because the settlement was rapidly eclipsed by the rise of El Mirador. Nakbe remained virtually abandoned for a thousand years, until some late Classic Maya reoccupied the site. These people established small communities in and around the ruins and left some fine examples of Classic ceramics, including the Princeton Vase, but they built no monuments of their own. References Evans, Susan Toby. "Ancient Mexico & Central America." Thames and Hudson, London. 2004. http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/legacy/mayan_lost_tribes/nakbe/nakbe.html https://web.archive.org/web/20051214003321/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/sites/meso_america/nakbe.html http://www.mayainfo.org/trips/trip5/nakbe.asp External links Nakbé Description and Photo Gallery https://web.archive.org/web/20070208132748/http://www.csi.edu/herrett/staff/jcw/stone_tool_studies.html Maya sites in Petén Department Maya Preclassic Period Former populated places in Guatemala 15th-century BC establishments 15th-century BC establishments in the Maya civilization 3rd-century BC disestablishments in the Maya civilization Populated places established in the 2nd millennium BC
56565	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circadian%20rhythm	Circadian rhythm	Circadian rhythm A circadian rhythm, or circadian cycle, is a natural oscillation that repeats roughly every 24 hours. Circadian rhythms can refer to any process that originates within an organism (i.e., endogenous) and responds to the environment (is entrained by the environment). Circadian rhythms are regulated by a circadian clock whose primary function is to rhythmically co-ordinate biological processes so they occur at the correct time to maximise the fitness of an individual. Circadian rhythms have been widely observed in animals, plants, fungi and cyanobacteria and there is evidence that they evolved independently in each of these kingdoms of life. The term circadian comes from the Latin , meaning "around", and , meaning "day". Processes with 24-hour cycles are more generally called diurnal rhythms; diurnal rhythms should not be called circadian rhythms unless they can be confirmed as endogenous, and not environmental. Although circadian rhythms are endogenous, they are adjusted to the local environment by external cues called zeitgebers (from German ), which include light, temperature and redox cycles. In clinical settings, an abnormal circadian rhythm in humans is known as a circadian rhythm sleep disorder. History The earliest recorded account of a circadian process is credited to Theophrastus, dating from the 4th century BC, probably provided to him by report of Androsthenes, a ship's captain serving under Alexander the Great. In his book, 'Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία', or 'Enquiry into plants', Theophrastus describes a "tree with many leaves like the rose, and that this closes at night, but opens at sunrise, and by noon is completely unfolded; and at evening again it closes by degrees and remains shut at night, and the natives say that it goes to sleep." The tree mentioned by him was much later identified as the tamarind tree by the botanist, H Bretzl, in his book on the botanical findings of the Alexandrian campaigns. The observation of a circadian or diurnal process in humans is mentioned in Chinese medical texts dated to around the 13th century, including the Noon and Midnight Manual and the Mnemonic Rhyme to Aid in the Selection of Acu-points According to the Diurnal Cycle, the Day of the Month and the Season of the Year. In 1729, French scientist Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan conducted the first experiment designed to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant Mimosa pudica persisted, even when the plants were kept in constant darkness. In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours. In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature. In the early 20th century, circadian rhythms were noticed in the rhythmic feeding times of bees. Auguste Forel, Ingeborg Beling, and Oskar Wahl conducted numerous experiments to determine whether this rhythm was attributable to an endogenous clock. The existence of circadian rhythm was independently discovered in fruit flies in 1935 by two German zoologists, Hans Kalmus and Erwin Bünning. In 1954, an important experiment reported by Colin Pittendrigh demonstrated that eclosion (the process of pupa turning into adult) in Drosophila pseudoobscura was a circadian behaviour. He demonstrated that while temperature played a vital role in eclosion rhythm, the period of eclosion was delayed but not stopped when temperature was decreased. The term circadian was coined by Franz Halberg in 1959. According to Halberg's original definition: In 1977, the International Committee on Nomenclature of the International Society for Chronobiology formally adopted the definition: Ron Konopka and Seymour Benzer identified the first clock mutation in Drosophila in 1971, naming the gene "period" (per) gene, the first discovered genetic determinant of behavioral rhythmicity. The per gene was isolated in 1984 by two teams of researchers. Konopka, Jeffrey Hall, Michael Roshbash and their team showed that per locus is the centre of the circadian rhythm, and that loss of per stops circadian activity. At the same time, Michael W. Young's team reported similar effects of per, and that the gene covers 7.1-kilobase (kb) interval on the X chromosome and encodes a 4.5-kb poly(A)+ RNA. They went on to discover the key genes and neurones in Drosophila circadian system, for which Hall, Rosbash and Young received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2017. Joseph Takahashi discovered the first mammalian circadian clock mutation (clockΔ19) using mice in 1994. However, recent studies show that deletion of clock does not lead to a behavioral phenotype (the animals still have normal circadian rhythms), which questions its importance in rhythm generation. The first human clock mutation was identified in an extended Utah family by Chris Jones, and genetically characterized by Ying-Hui Fu and Louis Ptacek. Affected individuals are extreme 'morning larks' with 4-hour advanced sleep and other rhythms. This form of familial advanced sleep phase syndrome is caused by a single amino acid change, S662➔G, in the human PER2 protein. Criteria To be called circadian, a biological rhythm must meet these three general criteria: The rhythm has an endogenous free-running period that lasts approximately 24 hours. The rhythm persists in constant conditions, i.e. constant darkness, with a period of about 24 hours. The period of the rhythm in constant conditions is called the free-running period and is denoted by the Greek letter τ (tau). The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from simple responses to daily external cues. A rhythm cannot be said to be endogenous unless it has been tested and persists in conditions without external periodic input. In diurnal animals (active during daylight hours), in general τ is slightly greater than 24 hours, whereas, in nocturnal animals (active at night), in general τ is shorter than 24 hours. The rhythms are entrainable. The rhythm can be reset by exposure to external stimuli (such as light and heat), a process called entrainment. The external stimulus used to entrain a rhythm is called the zeitgeber, or "time giver". Travel across time zones illustrates the ability of the human biological clock to adjust to the local time; a person will usually experience jet lag before entrainment of their circadian clock has brought it into sync with local time. The rhythms exhibit temperature compensation. In other words, they maintain circadian periodicity over a range of physiological temperatures. Many organisms live at a broad range of temperatures, and differences in thermal energy will affect the kinetics of all molecular processes in their . In order to keep track of time, the organism's circadian clock must maintain roughly a 24-hour periodicity despite the changing kinetics, a property known as temperature compensation. The Q10 temperature coefficient is a measure of this compensating effect. If the Q10 coefficient remains approximately 1 as temperature increases, the rhythm is considered to be temperature-compensated. Origin Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes. They thus enable organisms to make better use of environmental resources (e.g. light and food) compared to those that cannot predict such availability. It has therefore been suggested that circadian rhythms put organisms at a selective advantage in evolutionary terms. However, rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment. This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions, as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioral—but not physiological—circadian rhythms in quail. What drove circadian rhythms to evolve has been an enigmatic question. Previous hypotheses emphasized that photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms may have originated together in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting replicating DNA from high levels of damaging ultraviolet radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. However, evidence for this is lacking: in fact the simplest organisms with a circadian rhythm, the cyanobacteria, do the opposite of this: they divide more in the daytime. Recent studies instead highlight the importance of co-evolution of redox proteins with circadian oscillators in all three domains of life following the Great Oxidation Event approximately 2.3 billion years ago. The current view is that circadian changes in environmental oxygen levels and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the presence of daylight are likely to have driven a need to evolve circadian rhythms to preempt, and therefore counteract, damaging redox reactions on a daily basis. The simplest known circadian clocks are bacterial circadian rhythms, exemplified by the prokaryote cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with just the three proteins (KaiA, KaiB, KaiC) of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of ATP. Previous explanations of the prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism. A defect in the human homologue of the Drosophila "period" gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS (Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell. That is, it is cell-autonomous. This was shown by Gene Block in isolated mollusk basal retinal neurons (BRNs). At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock. Importance in animals Circadian rhythmicity is present in the sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, brain wave activity, hormone production, cell regeneration, and other biological activities. In addition, photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length. Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability, or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod (day length) is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation, and reproduction. Effect of circadian disruption Mutations or deletions of clock genes in mice have demonstrated the importance of body clocks to ensure the proper timing of cellular/metabolic events; clock-mutant mice are hyperphagic and obese, and have altered glucose metabolism. In mice, deletion of the Rev-ErbA alpha clock gene can result in diet-induced obesity and changes the balance between glucose and lipid utilization, predisposing to diabetes. However, it is not clear whether there is a strong association between clock gene polymorphisms in humans and the susceptibility to develop the metabolic syndrome. Effect of light–dark cycle The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a free-running rhythm. Their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward each "day", depending on whether their "day", their endogenous period, is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that reset the rhythms each day are called zeitgebers. Totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (which detect light) are still functional; they do surface periodically as well. Free-running organisms that normally have one or two consolidated sleep episodes will still have them when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not entrained to the 24-hour light–dark cycle in nature. The sleep–wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or ultradian rhythms such as metabolic, hormonal, CNS electrical, or neurotransmitter rhythms. Recent research has influenced the design of spacecraft environments, as systems that mimic the light–dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts. Light therapy has been trialed as a treatment for sleep disorders. Arctic animals Norwegian researchers at the University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals (e.g., ptarmigan, reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at 70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer on Svalbard at 78 degrees North showed such rhythms only in autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter. A 2006 study in northern Alaska found that day-living ground squirrels and nocturnal porcupines strictly maintain their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers speculate that these two rodents notice that the apparent distance between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and thus have a sufficient signal to entrain (adjust) by. Butterflies and moths The navigation of the fall migration of the Eastern North American monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock in their antennae. Circadian rhythm is also known to control mating behaviour in certain moth species such as Spodoptera littoralis, where females produce specific pheromone that attracts and resets the male circadian rhythm to induce mating at night. In plants Plant circadian rhythms tell the plant what season it is and when to flower for the best chance of attracting pollinators. Behaviors showing rhythms include leaf movement (Nyctinasty), growth, germination, stomatal/gas exchange, enzyme activity, photosynthetic activity, and fragrance emission, among others. Circadian rhythms occur as a plant entrains to synchronize with the light cycle of its surrounding environment. These rhythms are endogenously generated, self-sustaining and are relatively constant over a range of ambient temperatures. Important features include two interacting transcription-translation feedback loops: proteins containing PAS domains, which facilitate protein-protein interactions; and several photoreceptors that fine-tune the clock to different light conditions. Anticipation of changes in the environment allows appropriate changes in a plant's physiological state, conferring an adaptive advantage. A better understanding of plant circadian rhythms has applications in agriculture, such as helping farmers stagger crop harvests to extend crop availability and securing against massive losses due to weather. Light is the signal by which plants synchronize their internal clocks to their environment and is sensed by a wide variety of photoreceptors. Red and blue light are absorbed through several phytochromes and cryptochromes. Phytochrome A, phyA, is light labile and allows germination and de-etiolation when light is scarce. Phytochromes B–E are more stable with , the main phytochrome in seedlings grown in the light. The cryptochrome (cry) gene is also a light-sensitive component of the circadian clock and is thought to be involved both as a photoreceptor and as part of the clock's endogenous pacemaker mechanism. Cryptochromes 1–2 (involved in blue–UVA) help to maintain the period length in the clock through a whole range of light conditions. The central oscillator generates a self-sustaining rhythm and is driven by two interacting feedback loops that are active at different times of day. The morning loop consists of CCA1 (Circadian and Clock-Associated 1) and LHY (Late Elongated Hypocotyl), which encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in Arabidopsis, as well as PRR 7 and 9 (Pseudo-Response Regulators.) The evening loop consists of GI (Gigantea) and ELF4, both involved in regulation of flowering time genes. When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions), plants become arrhythmic, and mRNA signals reduce, contributing to a negative feedback loop. Gene expression of CCA1 and LHY oscillates and peaks in the early morning, whereas TOC1 gene expression oscillates and peaks in the early evening. While it was previously hypothesised that these three genes model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator of CCA1 and LHY, it was shown in 2012 by Andrew Millar and others that TOC1, in fact, serves as a repressor not only of CCA1, LHY, and PRR7 and 9 in the morning loop but also of GI and ELF4 in the evening loop. This finding and further computational modeling of TOC1 gene functions and interactions suggest a reframing of the plant circadian clock as a triple negative-component repressilator model rather than the positive/negative-element feedback loop characterizing the clock in mammals. In 2018, researchers found that the expression of PRR5 and TOC1 hnRNA nascent transcripts follows the same oscillatory pattern as processed mRNA transcripts rhythmically in A. thaliana. LNKs binds to the 5'region of PRR5 and TOC1 and interacts with RNAP II and other transcription factors. Moreover, RVE8-LNKs interaction enables a permissive histone-methylation pattern (H3K4me3) to be modified and the histone-modification itself parallels the oscillation of clock gene expression. It has previously been found that matching a plant's circadian rhythm to its external environment's light and dark cycles has the potential to positively affect the plant. Researchers came to this conclusion by performing experiments on three different varieties of Arabidopsis thaliana. One of these varieties had a normal 24-hour circadian cycle. The other two varieties were mutated, one to have a circadian cycle of more than 27 hours, and one to have a shorter than normal circadian cycle of 20 hours. The Arabidopsis with the 24-hour circadian cycle was grown in three different environments. One of these environments had a 20-hour light and dark cycle (10 hours of light and 10 hours of dark), the other had a 24-hour light and dark cycle (12 hours of light and 12 hours of dark),and the final environment had a 28-hour light and dark cycle (14 hours of light and 14 hours of dark). The two mutated plants were grown in both an environment that had a 20-hour light and dark cycle and in an environment that had a 28-hour light and dark cycle. It was found that the variety of Arabidopsis with a 24-hour circadian rhythm cycle grew best in an environment that also had a 24-hour light and dark cycle. Overall, it was found that all the varieties of Arabidopsis thaliana had greater levels of chlorophyll and increased growth in environments whose light and dark cycles matched their circadian rhythm. Researchers suggested that a reason for this could be that matching an Arabidopsis circadian rhythm to its environment could allow the plant to be better prepared for dawn and dusk, and thus be able to better synchronize its processes. In this study, it was also found that the genes that help to control chlorophyll peaked a few hours after dawn. This appears to be consistent with the proposed phenomenon known as metabolic dawn. According to the metabolic dawn hypothesis, sugars produced by photosynthesis have potential to help regulate the circadian rhythm and certain photosynthetic and metabolic pathways. As the sun rises, more light becomes available, which normally allows more photosynthesis to occur. The sugars produced by photosynthesis repress PRR7. This repression of PRR7 then leads to the increased expression of CCA1. On the other hand, decreased photosynthetic sugar levels increase PRR7 expression and decrease CCA1 expression. This feedback loop between CCA1 and PRR7 is what is proposed to cause metabolic dawn. In Drosophila The molecular mechanism of circadian rhythm and light perception are best understood in Drosophila. Clock genes are discovered from Drosophila, and they act together with the clock neurones. There are two unique rhythms, one during the process of hatching (called eclosion) from the pupa, and the other during mating. The clock neurones are located in distinct clusters in the central brain. The best-understood clock neurones are the large and small lateral ventral neurons (l-LNvs and s-LNvs) of the optic lobe. These neurones produce pigment dispersing factor (PDF), a neuropeptide that acts as a circadian neuromodulator between different clock neurones. Drosophila circadian rhythm is through a transcription-translation feedback loop. The core clock mechanism consists of two interdependent feedback loops, namely the PER/TIM loop and the CLK/CYC loop. The CLK/CYC loop occurs during the day and initiates the transcription of the per and tim genes. But their proteins levels remain low until dusk, because during daylight also activates the doubletime (dbt) gene. DBT protein causes phosphorylation and turnover of monomeric PER proteins. TIM is also phosphorylated by shaggy until sunset. After sunset, DBT disappears, so that PER molecules stably bind to TIM. PER/TIM dimer enters the nucleus several at night, and binds to CLK/CYC dimers. Bound PER completely stops the transcriptional activity of CLK and CYC. In the early morning, light activates the cry gene and its protein CRY causes the breakdown of TIM. Thus PER/TIM dimer dissociates, and the unbound PER becomes unstable. PER undergoes progressive phosphorylation and ultimately degradation. Absence of PER and TIM allows activation of clk and cyc genes. Thus, the clock is reset to start the next circadian cycle. PER-TIM model This protein model was developed based on the oscillations of the PER and TIM proteins in the Drosophila. It is based on its predecessor, the PER model where it was explained how the PER gene and its protein influence the biological clock. The model includes the formation of a nuclear PER-TIM complex which influences the transcription of the PER and the TIM genes (by providing negative feedback) and the multiple phosphorylation of these two proteins. The circadian oscillations of these two proteins seem to synchronise with the light-dark cycle even if they are not necessarily dependent on it. Both PER and TIM proteins are phosphorylated and after they form the PER-TIM nuclear complex they return inside the nucleus to stop the expression of the PER and TIM mRNA. This inhibition lasts as long as the protein, or the mRNA is not degraded. When this happens, the complex releases the inhibition. Here can also be mentioned that the degradation of the TIM protein is sped up by light. In mammals The primary circadian clock in mammals is located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) (SCN), a pair of distinct groups of cells located in the hypothalamus. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep–wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The retina of the eye contains "classical" photoreceptors ("rods" and "cones"), which are used for conventional vision. But the retina also contains specialized ganglion cells that are directly photosensitive, and project directly to the SCN, where they help in the entrainment (synchronization) of this master circadian clock. The proteins involved in the SCN clock are homologous to those found in the fruit fly. These cells contain the photopigment melanopsin and their signals follow a pathway called the retinohypothalamic tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues. The SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a pine cone and located on the epithalamus. In response, the pineal secretes the hormone melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day and its presence provides information about night-length. Several studies have indicated that pineal melatonin feeds back on SCN rhythmicity to modulate circadian patterns of activity and other processes. However, the nature and system-level significance of this feedback are unknown. The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle. Humans Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. However, this research was faulty because it failed to shield the participants from artificial light. Although subjects were shielded from time cues (like clocks) and daylight, the researchers were not aware of the phase-delaying effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. A more stringent study conducted in 1999 by Harvard University estimated the natural human rhythm to be closer to 24 hours and 11 minutes: much closer to the solar day. Consistent with this research was a more recent study from 2010, which also identified sex differences, with the circadian period for women being slightly shorter (24.09 hours) than for men (24.19 hours). In this study, women tended to wake up earlier than men and exhibit a greater preference for morning activities than men, although the underlying biological mechanisms for these differences are unknown. Biological markers and effects The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are: melatonin secretion by the pineal gland, core body temperature minimum, and plasma level of cortisol. For temperature studies, subjects must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. Though variation is great among normal chronotypes, the average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 5:00 a.m., about two hours before habitual wake time. Baehr et al. found that, in young adults, the daily body temperature minimum occurred at about 04:00 (4 a.m.) for morning types, but at about 06:00 (6 a.m.) for evening types. This minimum occurred at approximately the middle of the eight-hour sleep period for morning types, but closer to waking in evening types. Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at roughly 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the more reliable marker. Benloucif et al. found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset are more strongly correlated with phase markers than the onset of sleep. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels is more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis. Other physiological changes that occur according to a circadian rhythm include heart rate and many cellular processes "including oxidative stress, cell metabolism, immune and inflammatory responses, epigenetic modification, hypoxia/hyperoxia response pathways, endoplasmic reticular stress, autophagy, and regulation of the stem cell environment." In a study of young men, it was found that the heart rate reaches its lowest average rate during sleep, and its highest average rate shortly after waking. In contradiction to previous studies, it has been found that there is no effect of body temperature on performance on psychological tests. This is likely due to evolutionary pressures for higher cognitive function compared to the other areas of function examined in previous studies. Outside the "master clock" More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master clock". Indeed, neuroscientist Joseph Takahashi and colleagues stated in a 2013 article that "almost every cell in the body contains a circadian clock". For example, these clocks, called peripheral oscillators, have been found in the adrenal gland, oesophagus, lungs, liver, pancreas, spleen, thymus, and skin. There is also some evidence that the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations, at least when cultured. Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven. In addition, many oscillators, such as liver cells, for example, have been shown to respond to inputs other than light, such as feeding. Light and the biological clock Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the phase response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required illuminance vary from species to species, and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans. Enforced longer or shorter cycles Various studies on humans have made use of enforced sleep/wake cycles strongly different from 24 hours, such as those conducted by Nathaniel Kleitman in 1938 (28 hours) and Derk-Jan Dijk and Charles Czeisler in the 1990s (20 hours). Because people with a normal (typical) circadian clock cannot entrain to such abnormal day/night rhythms, this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Under such a protocol, sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the body's endogenous circadian period, which allows researchers to assess the effects of circadian phase (i.e., the relative timing of the circadian cycle) on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including sleep latency and other functions - both physiological, behavioral, and cognitive. Studies also show that Cyclosa turbinata is unique in that its locomotor and web-building activity cause it to have an exceptionally short-period circadian clock, about 19 hours. When C. turbinata spiders are placed into chambers with periods of 19, 24, or 29 hours of evenly split light and dark, none of the spiders exhibited decreased longevity in their own circadian clock. These findings suggest that C. turbinata do not have the same costs of extreme desynchronization as do other species of animals. Human health Foundation of circadian medicine The leading edge of circadian biology research is translation of basic body clock mechanisms into clinical tools, and this is especially relevant to the treatment of cardiovascular disease. Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock, chronotherapeutics, may also benefit patients with hypertension (high blood pressure) by significantly increasing efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. 3) "Circadian Pharmacology" or drugs targeting the circadian clock mechanism have been shown experimentally in rodent models to significantly reduce the damage due to heart attacks and prevent heart failure. Importantly, for rational translation of the most promising Circadian Medicine therapies to clinical practice, it is imperative that we understand how it helps treats disease in both biological sexes. Causes of disruption to circadian rhythms Indoor lighting Lighting requirements for circadian regulation are not simply the same as those for vision; planning of indoor lighting in offices and institutions is beginning to take this into account. Animal studies on the effects of light in laboratory conditions have until recently considered light intensity (irradiance) but not color, which can be shown to "act as an essential regulator of biological timing in more natural settings". Blue LED lighting suppresses melatonin production five times more than the orange-yellow high-pressure sodium (HPS) light; a metal halide lamp, which is white light, suppresses melatonin at a rate more than three times greater than HPS. Depression symptoms from long term nighttime light exposure can be undone by returning to a normal cycle. Airline pilots and cabin crew Due to the work nature of airline pilots, who often cross several time zones and regions of sunlight and darkness in one day, and spend many hours awake both day and night, they are often unable to maintain sleep patterns that correspond to the natural human circadian rhythm; this situation can easily lead to fatigue. The NTSB cites this as contributing to many accidents, and has conducted several research studies in order to find methods of combating fatigue in pilots. Effect of drugs Studies conducted on both animals and humans show major bidirectional relationships between the circadian system and abusive drugs. It is indicated that these abusive drugs affect the central circadian pacemaker. Individuals with substance use disorder display disrupted rhythms. These disrupted rhythms can increase the risk for substance abuse and relapse. It is possible that genetic and/or environmental disturbances to the normal sleep and wake cycle can increase the susceptibility to addiction. It is difficult to determine if a disturbance in the circadian rhythm is at fault for an increase in prevalence for substance abuse—or if other environmental factors such as stress are to blame. Changes to the circadian rhythm and sleep occur once an individual begins abusing drugs and alcohol. Once an individual chooses to stop using drugs and alcohol, the circadian rhythm continues to be disrupted. The stabilization of sleep and the circadian rhythm might possibly help to reduce the vulnerability to addiction and reduce the chances of relapse. Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the suprachiasmatic nucleus may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as cocaine. Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions. Consequences of disruption to circadian rhythms Disruption Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travelers have experienced the condition known as jet lag, with its associated symptoms of fatigue, disorientation and insomnia. A number of other disorders, such as bipolar disorder and some sleep disorders such as delayed sleep phase disorder (DSPD), are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences for peripheral organs outside the brain, in particular in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease. Studies have shown that maintaining normal sleep and circadian rhythms is important for many aspects of brain and health. A number of studies have also indicated that a power-nap, a short period of sleep during the day, can reduce stress and may improve productivity without any measurable effect on normal circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythms also play a part in the reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. A reversal in the sleep–wake cycle may be a sign or complication of uremia, azotemia or acute kidney injury. Studies have also helped elucidate how light has a direct effect on human health through its influence on the circadian biology. Relationship with cardiovascular disease One of the first studies to determine how disruption of circadian rhythms causes cardiovascular disease was performed in the Tau hamsters, which have a genetic defect in their circadian clock mechanism. When maintained in a 24-hour light-dark cycle that was "out of sync" with their normal 22 circadian mechanism they developed profound cardiovascular and renal disease; however, when the Tau animals were raised for their entire lifespan on a 22-hour daily light-dark cycle they had a healthy cardiovascular system. The adverse effects of circadian misalignment on human physiology has been studied in the laboratory using a misalignment protocol, and by studying shift workers. Circadian misalignment is associated with many risk factors of cardiovascular disease. High levels of the atherosclerosis biomarker, resistin, have been reported in shift workers indicating the link between circadian misalignment and plaque build up in arteries. Additionally, elevated triacylglyceride levels (molecules used to store excess fatty acids) were observed and contribute to the hardening of arteries, which is associated with cardiovascular diseases including heart attack, stroke and heart disease. Shift work and the resulting circadian misalignment is also associated with hypertension. Obesity and diabetes Obesity and diabetes are associated with lifestyle and genetic factors. Among those factors, disruption of the circadian clockwork and/or misalignment of the circadian timing system with the external environment (e.g., light–dark cycle) can play a role in the development of metabolic disorders. Shift work or chronic jet lag have profound consequences for circadian and metabolic events in the body. Animals that are forced to eat during their resting period show increased body mass and altered expression of clock and metabolic genes. In humans, shift work that favours irregular eating times is associated with altered insulin sensitivity, diabetes and higher body mass. Cancer Circadian misalignment has also been associated with increased risk of cancer. In mice, the disruption to the essential clock genes, Period genes (Per2, Per1) caused by circadian misalignment was found to accelerate the growth of cancer cells in mice. However, the link between these genes and cancer is dependent on type pathways and genes involved. Significant evidence exists that correlates shift work and therefore circadian misalignment with breast and prostate cancer in humans. Cognitive effects Reduced cognitive function has been associated with circadian misalignment. Chronic shift workers display increased rates of operational error, impaired visual-motor performance and processing efficacy which can lead to both a reduction in performance and potential safety issues. Increased risk of dementia is associated with chronic night shift workers compared to day shift workers, particularly for individuals over 50 years old. Society and Culture In 2017, Jeffrey C. Hall, Michael W. Young, and Michael Rosbash were awarded Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm". Circadian rhythms was taken as an example of scientific knowledge being transferred into the public sphere. See also Actigraphy (also known as actimetry) ARNTL ARNTL2 Bacterial circadian rhythms Circadian rhythm sleep disorders, such as Advanced sleep phase disorder Delayed sleep phase disorder Non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder Chronobiology Chronodisruption CLOCK Circasemidian rhythm Circaseptan, 7-day biological cycle Cryptochrome CRY1 and CRY2: the cryptochrome family genes Diurnal cycle Light effects on circadian rhythm Light in school buildings PER1, PER2, and PER3: the period family genes Photosensitive ganglion cell: part of the eye which is involved in regulating circadian rhythm. Polyphasic sleep Rev-ErbA alpha Segmented sleep Sleep architecture (sleep in humans) Sleep in non-human animals Stefania Follini Ultradian rhythm References Further reading External links Sleep Biology of bipolar disorder Plant cognition
1558948	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novosibirsk%20State%20University	Novosibirsk State University	Novosibirsk State University is a public research university located in Novosibirsk, Russia. The university was founded in 1958, on the principles of integration of education and science, early involvement of students with research activities and the engagement of leading scientists in its teaching programmes. As of 2022, Novosibirsk State University had 246th place in the rating of the QS World University Rankings, and in 2023 was ranked #579 in the world by U.S. News & World Report, and #801 in the world by World University Rankings by Times Higher Education. History From the perspective of natural resources, Siberia has always been, and remains, the essential region for all of Russia. In the late 1950s, Siberia provided the country with 75% of its coal and possessed 80% of the nation's hydroelectric resources. Siberia became industrialized, but science then was largely of the applied variety and did not satisfy its needs. The USSR Academy of Sciences came to understand that there was a need to develop fundamental science. In 1958, this concept was implemented with the establishment of the Siberian Branch of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union at Akademgorodok, near the industrial city of Novosibirsk. From the beginning, the founders of the Siberian Branch of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union were concerned about providing the future scientific center with highly-trained personnel. In order to create a consistent source of personnel replenishment for Siberian scientific institutions, it was necessary to provide advanced training on the spot, thus the idea was born to establish a university in Novosibirsk. On 9 January 1958, the Novosibirsk State University was officially founded by the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union decree. First entry examinations were conducted in August 1959. Classes began on 28 September 1959. Following its establishment in 1958, Novosibirsk State University quickly grew. During the first nine years 1966 professionals were trained within its walls. It consisted of six faculties, was staffed with 270 teachers, and conducted research in 46 sections. Novosibirsk State University was from its inception existing in close collaborative association with Siberian Branch of the Academy of Sciences research and development institutions of which there are several dozen within an area of 1.5 square km. The project of an "akademgorodok," an academic town with a University as its core, was exhibited at the 1967 World Expo in Montreal, after which Novosibirsk's Akademgorodok became model for other academic towns throughout the Soviet Union. Political positions; invasion of Ukraine On 17 April 2022, members of the community of Novosibirsk State University issued a joint statement strongly condemning the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, calling on the Russian state to immediately withdraw the Russian troops from Ukraine, and bring to justice those responsible for the war crimes during the invasion, and saying “There are no reasonable grounds for this war, thousands of Ukrainian and Russian military and civilians of Ukraine have already died in it, and every day of hostilities brings more and more victims.” Structure Novosibirsk State University has the following educational divisions: Institute for the Humanities Vladimir Zelman Institute for Medicine and Psychology Institute for the Philosophy and Law Faculty of Mathematics and Mechanics Faculty of Physics Faculty of Geology and Geophysics Faculty of Natural Sciences Faculty of Information Technologies Faculty of Economics Institute for Retraining and Advanced Training Centre of additional education The structure of the University also includes 3 dissertation councils of the Highest Attestation Commission within Ministry of Science and Higher Education and 6 own dissertation councils. Educational programmes As of 2020, Novosibirsk State University conducted training on 43 four-year bachelor's programmes, 7 five-year specialist's programmes, 1 six-year specialist's programmes, 93 two-year master's programmes, 9 two-year residency's programmes, 25 three-year graduate school programmes, 32 four-year graduate school programmes taught in Russian, and 5 two-year master's programmes, 1 two-year residency's programme taught in English. Additional military education As of 2022, Novosibirsk State University doesn't have a military training center. Earlier, the University had military department which conducted the training reserve commissioned officers from among students of the University, but this department was disbanded in 2008. Language centres The University has language centres which offer courses in English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Japanese, Chinese as a second language. Education for foreign students Grants and scholarships Every year, international students have an opportunity to apply for the Russian Government Scholarship which covers full tuition and provides a monthly living allowance. Travel costs, living expenses and a health insurance policy are not included. These Scholarships are granted on a competitive basis; the selection criteria and procedures as well as the number of scholarships available depend on the home country of applicant. Additionally, students from NSU's partner universities have the opportunity to apply to such programs as Erasmus+, DAAD, and the Fulbright Program. Distributed education In September 2015, NSU announced its first courses delivered on the Coursera platform. Since January 2016, 12 courses have been offered on Coursera, and on the Russian distributed learning platform, Lectorium. Research internships The main feature such research internships are their interdisciplinary approach. Specialists in biology, physics, mathematics, geology, archaeology, and chemistry work with one another in the 35 research institutes of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Siberian Summer School Beginning in 2017, the Siberian Summer School held at NSU each July includes courses on the Chemistry of Future Materials, Big Data Analytics and the philosophical and historical aspects of East-West relationships. All Summer School courses are taught in English. Russian Language Courses Novosibirsk State University offers courses for students matriculating with various levels of Russian language competence. Education for disabled persons Novosibirsk State University is one of Russian universities which has established an educational programmes for disabled students. Research Novosibirsk State University is a scientific and educational centre. Situated in the research center of Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk State University's principal areas of teaching and research include elementary particle physics, photonics and quantum optics, Arctic research, biomedicine and cancer therapy, chemical engineering, low-dimensional hybrid materials, omic technologies, mathematics, archaeology and ethnography, and linguistics among other disciplines. Interdisciplinary Centre for Elementary Particle Physics and Astrophysics The Novosibirsk State University Interdisciplinary Centre for Elementary Particle Physics and Astrophysics (ICEPPA) links 13 laboratories working in the fields of elementary particle physics and astrophysics. The Interdisciplinary Centre’s Laboratories participate in large international collaborative scientific projects including experiments in the fields of high energy physics, astrophysics and cosmic ray physics. The Centre is engaged in the following research projects: Astrophysics Cosmology and Cosmic Rays Experiments on electron-positron colliders Experiments on hadron colliders Search for new physical phenomena in experiments with intense muon beams. The Laboratory for Exploration for Interactions Outside the Standard Model Framework participates in the preparation of two experiments at Fermilab (USA). One experiment, Mu2e, is the search for the conversion of a muon into an electron when interacting with nuclei, while the other experiment, g-2, is devoted to a precise measurement of the magnetic moment of the muon. Development of new detectors and colliders. The Aston-Novosibirsk State University International Centre for Photonics The main objective of the Centre is to develop a physical platform aimed at the application of advanced knowledge in laser technologies, in long-distance communication and in medical sensing devices technologies. The Centre's principal areas of research include: advanced concepts and fundamental new theories in nonlinear photonic devices and systems new technologies for optical communications, lasers, safe data transmission and medicine practical applications of developed technologies in high-speed coherent optical communications, in advanced laser systems for scientific, industrial and medical applications, and in innovative systems for safe data transmission. The Center for Photonics was created in partnership with Aston University (UK) and offers NSU students access to world-class laboratories in the field of high-speed optical communications, fiber-optic and, femtosecond laser technologies. International collaborations Research groups are involved in 38 international collaborations; Novosibirsk State University has six international collaborations in the field of physics, elementary particles and astrophysics and 12 ongoing collaborations with the Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Novosibirsk State University has partnership agreements with 141 universities representing 27 countries. University journals Novosibirsk State University publishes the following journals: Vestnik NSU. Series: information technologies in education (ISSN 1818-7900) Vestnik NSU. Series: biology, clinical medicine (ISSN 1818-7943) Vestnik NSU. Series: mathematics, mechanics, computer science (ISSN 1818-7897) Vestnik NSU. Series: history, philology (ISSN 1818-7919) Vestnik NSU. Series: pedagogy (ISSN 1818-7889) Vestnik NSU. Series: law (ISSN 1818-7986) Vestnik NSU. Series: physics (ISSN 1818-7994) Vestnik NSU. Series: philosophy (ISSN 1818-796X) Vestnik NSU. Series: psychology (ISSN 1995-865X) Vestnik NSU. Series: information technologies (online) (ISSN 2410-0420) Subordinate educational institutions Specialized Educational Scientific Centre The Specialized Educational Scientific Center (also known as Physics and Mathematics School) is a special secondary school, founded in 1963. It focuses on two fields, including mathematics & physics and chemistry & biology. An education system resembles the college education, with separate general lectures and small-group seminars. As of 2023, according to the RAEX Rating Agency's (non-credit rating agency, affiliated with the credit rating agency Expert RA) rating, the Specialized Educational Scientific Centre is in the Top-5 best Russian secondary schools by the absolute number of graduates enrolled best Russian universities and in the Top-8 best Russian secondaru schools by the competitiveness of graduates. Higher College of Computer Science The Higher College of Computer Science is a vocational school focused on the training of programmers, which was integrated into the structure of the University in 1991. Chinese-Russian Institute The Chinese-Russian Institute conducts educational bachelor's, master's, graduate school programmes in collaboration with Heilongjiang University. Notable alumni Sergey Alekseenko (born 1950) - Russian/Soviet applied physicist, director of Kutateladze Institute of Thermophysics Raissa Berg - geneticist and evolutionary biologist Andrey Bocharov (born 1960) - actor and screenwriter Konstantin Bryliakov (born 1977) - chemist Nikolay Dikansky (born 1941) - physicist Viktor Fadin (born 1942) - theoretical physicist Alexey Fridman (1940–2010) - astrophysicist Nikolay Goncharov (born 1984) - scientist, specialised in plants' genetics Sergey Goncharov (born 1951) - mathematician Victor Ivrii (born 1949) - Russian-Canadian mathematician, specializes in microlocal analysis, spectral theory and partial differential equations Victor Kharitonin (born 1972) - billionaire, co-founder of Pharmstandard Bakhadyr Khoussainov (born 1961) - mathematician, Humboldt Prize winner Igor Kim (born 1966) - businessman Mikhail Kokorich (born 1976) - co-founder of Dauria Aerospace Ilya Kuprov (born 1981) - British physicist Larisa Maksimova (born 1943) - Soviet/Russian mathematician Aleksandr Pushnoy (born 1975) - actor, songwriter and TV host Renad Sagdeev (born 1941) - chemist Vladimir Shiltsev (born 1965) - Russian-American accelerator physicist Mark Stockman (born Mark Ilyich Shtokman) - Soviet-born American physicist Arkady Vainshtein (born 1942) - Russian-American physicist, winner of 2016 Dirac Medal Valentin Vlasov (1946–2020) - diplomat and politician Ershov Yury (born 1940) - mathematician Vladimir E. Zakharov (born 1939) - Russian-American physicist, winner of 2003 Dirac Medal Efim Zelmanov (born 1955) - Russian-American mathematician, winner of 1994 Fields Medal References External links Novosibirsk State University Homepage Novosibirsk State University Homepage Novosibirsk State University Homepage Universities and institutes established in the Soviet Union Universities and colleges established in 1959 Sovetsky District, Novosibirsk 1959 establishments in the Soviet Union National research universities in Russia Universities in Novosibirsk Oblast Education in Novosibirsk Buildings and structures in Novosibirsk
1446397	https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%90%D0%9C%D0%86	НАМІ	НАМІ Державний науковий центр Російської Федерації Федеральне державне унітарне підприємство «Центральний науково-дослідний автомобільний і автомобільний інститут „НАМІ“» (ДНЦ РФ ФГУП «НАМІ») — провідна наукова організація Російської Федерації в галузі розвитку автомобільної промисловості. Інститут нагороджений орденом Трудового Червоного Прапора. Історія Науковий автомоторний інститут був утворений 14 березня 1920 ріка на базі Наукової автомобільної лабораторії (НАЛ) при науково-технічному відділі ВСНХ, яка була створена 16 жовтня 1918 рік а. З 1924а інститут санкціонував закупівлі імпортної автомобільної техніки. До 1927 ріку був розроблений перший самостійний автомобіль НАМІ-1 (перший легковий автомобіль у СРСР). У 1930-х роках інститут став провідним конструкторським підрозділом радянської автомобільної промисловості. У цей час були розроблені і запущені у виробництво перші радянські тролейбуси, створені кілька моделей тракторів і вантажівок вантажних автомобілів. Для потреб РККА активно розроблялися напівгусеничні моделі, бронеавтомобілі. З 1931 по 1946 рік називався Науковий автотракторний інститут (НАТІ). На початку 1946 ріка у зв'язку з передачею тракторної промисловості у відання Міністерства сільськогосподарського машинобудування НАТІ був поділений на дві частини. Автомобільна частина залишилася у віданні Мінавтопрому і була перетворена на Науково-дослідний автомобільний та автомоторний інститут (НАМІ). Тракторна частина передана Мінсільгоспмашу та на її базі організований союзний Науково-дослідний тракторний інститут НАТІ (НАТІ). В інституті було сконструйовано кілька двигунів, які стали основою для серійних моделей. Однак багато перспективних конструкторських рішень не могли бути швидко освоєні радянською промисловістю. Наприклад, розробки переднього приводу в НАМІ почалися в 1966-1967 роках, а перший передньопривідний автомобіль масово почав випускатися в СРСР тільки в 1980-і роки. У той же період почалися розробки автоматичної коробки передач для легкових автомобілів. Вчені та конструктори інституту брали активну участь у створенні, випробуваннях та запуску у виробництво практично всіх радянських автомобілів, ряду двигунів і тракторів. 1994 року інститут НАМІ отримав статус Державного наукового центру Російської Федерації. У 2003 році Федеральне агентство з технічного регулювання та метрології Росії акредитувало НАМИ як Випробувальний центр продукції автомобілебудування (ІЦАІ), який став технічною службою з правом проведення випробувань з Правил ЄЕК ООН. У 2014 році НАМІ придбав за 1 євро у групи ОНЕКСІМ технології, конструкторську документацію та виняткові права на ноу-хау з розробки кузова та шасі гібридного автомобіля «Ё-мобіль». НАМІ є представником Російської Федерації у Технічному комітеті 22 «Дорожній транспорт» Міжнародної організації зі стандартизації. Полігон У 1964 році при інституті був організований випробувальний полігон (Науковий випробувальний центр автомобільної та мотоциклетної техніки, НІЦІАМТ), розташований недалеко від Дмитрова. Наразі цей підрозділ носить назву Науково-дослідний центр з випробувань та доведення автомототехніки ФГУП «НАМІ» (НІЦІАМТ ФГУП «НАМІ»). Видання З 1923 інститут почав випускати «Бюлетень Науково-автомоторного інституту». В даний час збірка «Праці НАМІ» включена до переліку видань, рекомендованих Вищою атестаційною комісією (ВАК), для публікацій матеріалів дисертацій. Проекти 1920-х — 1930-х років НАМІ-1 НАМІ-2 НАМІ-3 ГАЗ-ВМ (НАМІ-ВМ) Проекти 1940-х років - н. в Крім 1920—1930-х років, НАМІ виробляла лише розробку концепт-карів: 1944 — НАМІ-253 «УльЗІС» 1948 — ГАЗ-НАМІ «Перемога» 1948 - 1951 - Намі-ЛАЗ-750/751 1949 — НАМІ-012/018 1949—1953 — НАМІ-013 1955—1956 — ІМЗ-НАМВ-050 «Білка» 1957 — НАМІ-031 1958 — НАМІ-049 «Вогник» 1958 — НАМІ-055 1959 — Турбо-НАМІ-053 1960 — НАМІ-С-3/С-3М 1961 — НАМИ-032С 1961 — НАМИ-032М 1962 — СМЗ-НАМІ-086 «Супутник» 1963 — НАМІ-076 «Єрмак» 1964—1966 — НАМІ-0107 1965 — НАМІ-0106 1965 — НАМИ-049А «Целіна» 1967 — НАМІ-0107Б 1968 — НАМІ-0132 1968 — ЛАЗ-360 (передньопривідний) 1968 — НАМІ-0127 1968 — НАМІ-0137 1970 — НАМІ-0145 1971 — НАМІ-0173 1973—1984 — НАМІ-0157 1978—1993 — КрАЗ-250 1979—1993 — КрАЗ-260 1979—1982 — НАМІ-0219 1979—1982 — НАМІ-0231 1979—1982 — НАМІ-0266 1979—1984 — НАМІ-РАФ 1985 — НАМІ-3305 1987 — НАМІ-0284 «Дебют» 1987 — НАМІ «Охта» 1987 — НАМІ-0286 «Тайфун» 1987 — НАМІ-0287 1988 — НАМВ «Дебют-II» 1988 — НАМІ-0342 «Кузя» 1988 - ГАЗ-3102 «Волга» (варіант модернізації) 1988—1990 — НАМІ-0288 «Компакт» 1988 - НАМІ-ЛуАЗ «Прото» 1988 - НАМІ-0290 «Апельсин» 1991 — НАМІ-0295 «Русь» 1992 — НАМІ-АР7.2 1992 — НАМІ-1819 «Умка» 1993 — НАМІ-0325 «Компакт-II» 1994 — НАМІ-Ода 1995 — ГАЗ-НАМІ 3102 «Волга-Престиж» 1997 — НАМІ «Гренадер» 2006 — НАМІ-2339 2006 — НАМІ-1337 2006 — НАМІ-1338 2006 — НАМІ-2338 2016 — KAMAZ-1221 «ШАТЛ» Підприємство брало участь у створенні нового російського сімейства автомобілів представницького класу «Aurus» для перших осіб держави. Відомі співробітники інституту Брилінг Микола Романович Долматовський Юрій Аронович Кобилінський Валентин Сергійович Ліпгарт Андрій Олександрович Можаров Петро Володимирович Орлін Андрій Сергійович Пельцер Олександр Іванович Хлєбніков Олександр Михайлович Чудаков Євген Олексійович Шарапов Костянтин Андрійович Парфенов Дмитро Вікторович Хаїнов Геннадій Євгенович Амбросенков Олексій Прокопович Див також Кортеж (проект) Примітки Посилання Офіційний сайт НАМИ Офіційний youtube-канал НАМИ Центр Технологій НАМІ (колишнього Швидкого Прототипування) Лабораторія мікроклімату НАМИ Експертиза НАМИ Автополігон НАМИ Проект Апельсин, НАМІ Наукові інститути Росії Наукові інститути СРСР Автомобілі Колишні тракторобудівні підприємства Організації, до яких застосовано санкції через російсько-українську війну
5345688	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray-tailed%20vole	Gray-tailed vole	Gray-tailed vole The gray-tailed vole (Microtus canicaudus) also known as the gray-tailed meadow vole or gray-tailed meadow mouse, is a rodent in the genus Microtus (small-eared "meadow voles") of the family Cricetidae. Voles are small mammals, and this species lies roughly in the middle of their size range. First collected in 1895, it is endemic to the Willamette Valley, Oregon, and Clark County, Washington, in the Pacific Northwest region of North America. Historically, they were found in the prairie areas of the Valley and, though many of these areas have been converted for agricultural purposes, these animals remain common. For reasons that remain unclear, vole population densities in any area may fluctuate widely from season to season and year to year. They are preyed upon by owls, hawks, and carnivorous mammals, and their parasites include fleas and ticks. These voles build burrows and complex tunnel networks, which they sometimes share with other burrowing animals. Relatively little is known about their behavior in the wild, because they are elusive and unlikely to enter traps. Taxonomy The scientific name of the gray-tailed vole is Microtus canicaudus. The generic name Microtus derives from the Ancient Greek words (small) and (ear). The species name canicaudus derives from the Latin (gray) and (tail). The gray-tailed vole was first described in 1897 by Gerrit S. Miller in the Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington. The type specimen was collected in McCoy, Oregon, on December 1, 1895, by B.J. Bretherton. Miller's initial examination included the type specimen and eleven others. Two from his collection had been obtained in Beaverton. The remaining specimens, collected in McCoy, were part of the US National Museum Biological Survey under C. Hart Merriam. The gray-tailed vole is monotypic, but there are some differences between specimens obtained on either side of the Columbia River. It appears to be a sibling species of the montane vole (Microtus montanus) or of Townsend's vole (M. townsendii). It was classified as a geographic race or subspecies of the montane vole by Hall and Kelson in 1951, but laboratory analyses, including electrophoresis and karyotype evaluations, subsequently confirmed that they are two separate species. The karyotypes of the montane vole and the gray-tailed vole are dissimilar in terms of homology in 6 of 22 autosomal arms. The quantity and distribution of heterochromatin among both X chromosomes and autosomes is different as well. The two species are allopatric, but not contiguously so. Description The gray-tailed vole is a small mammal in the middle of the size range for voles in general. The fur on the back is yellowish-brown or yellowish-gray. They have a short tail, black or brown above and grayish below. The young have gray fur on the underside and a darker, "sooty" gray on the back. The feet of the young are dusky, and they have a gray tail with a black stripe. They are similar in size and overall appearance to the montane vole, but with a more yellowish fur and a grayer tail. The type specimen measured in total length. The tail vertebrae measured and the hind foot measured . Typical adults average in total length, with a tail. The feet measure and the ears . On each side they have an upper and lower incisor and three upper and lower molars, for a total of 16 teeth. Gray-tailed voles are sympatric with Townsend's vole (M. townsendii), with which they share many similarities. They can be distinguished by appearance, because Townsend's vole has darker colorings, a longer tail, and differences in the structure of the hard palate. Gray-tailed and montane voles also differ in some aspects of hard palate structure, especially the incisive foramina. The gray-tailed vole shares its geographic range with the creeping vole (Microtus oregoni) as well. The gray-tailed vole has a sturdier build, larger eyes, and some differences in the upper molars. Distribution and habitat The gray-tailed vole is endemic to the Willamette Valley, Oregon, and to Clark County, Washington. Its range in Oregon extends from Scappoose and Gresham in the north, through the Willamette Valley to around Eugene. Reports of the species east of the Cascades have been called into question. Gray-tailed voles are prevalent in agricultural areas: they are found in and around pastures, hayfields, grain fields, and disturbed habitats. They once inhabited grassy prairies of the valley. These prairies were burned annually by Native Americans, with uncertain effects on vole populations. Vernon Orlando Bailey describes the Willamette Valley as part of the humid division of the Transition Zone. Annual precipitation there is , falling mostly in the winter. The valley is warmer and drier than the surrounding hills, less heavily forested, and better suited to agricultural use. In 1901, zoologist Edmund Heller visited McCoy, where the type specimen of the gray-tailed vole had been collected. The account of his journey is relayed by Daniel Giraud Elliot, referring specifically to the terrain inhabited by the gray-tailed vole. Heller described the area around McCoy as "much the same kind of country as Beaverton, but more level and forested. The coast range is about fifteen miles distant. In some places, forests of Douglas fir occur, but the land is chiefly open and grassy. White oaks and a few yellow pine occur also, and the region I should judge was more Transition than that at Beaverton." He described Beaverton as: "low and rolling, but hills are entirely lacking in the immediate vicinity of the town. The timbered land is covered with forests of yellow pine (Pinus jeffreyi), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), white oak (Quercus zarryana), etc. The soil is chiefly black adobe except on the higher parts, where it is largely clay. The region evidently is Transition in character of its vegetation as shown by the presence of the yellow pine and white oak." Mammals sharing the Transition Zone with the gray-tailed vole include: Roosevelt elk, Columbian black-tailed deer, Columbian white-tailed deer, Washington rabbit, brush rabbit, silver gray squirrel, Douglas's squirrel, Townsend's chipmunk, Douglas's ground squirrel, Oregon flying squirrel, dusky wood rat, ruddy deer mouse, California red-backed mouse, red tree vole, white-footed phenacomys, Townsend's vole, Oregon creeping mouse, mountain beaver (Aplodontia rufa), jumping mice including Zapus princeps and Zapus trinotatus, Camas pocket gopher, Mazama pocket gopher, and northwest coast bobcat (Lynx rufus fasciatus). Birds in the range include: sooty grouse, Oregon ruffed grouse, band-tailed pigeon, California pygmy owl, Harris's woodpecker, northern pileated woodpecker, Lewis's woodpecker, Vaux's swift, Steller's jay, Townsend's warbler, western winter wren, California creeper, Oregon chickadee, chestnut-backed chickadee, wrentit, western golden-crowned kinglet, and black-headed grosbeak. Behavior Gray-tailed voles are burrowing rodents that construct complex networks of tunnels and burrows. They may also nest above ground, sheltered under wood, abandoned equipment, or other agricultural debris. They are known to use the tunnel networks of the Camas pocket gopher. The tunnels are built to provide shelter during wet periods, which are frequent throughout their range. When the tunnels flood, the voles swim to dry areas or chambers in which air has been trapped. If the networks flood completely, they will head for higher ground. As many as 20–30 voles have been seen gathered on dry fence posts in flooded areas. When approached, they swam to safer ground nearby. Where tunnels intersect, they sometimes establish middens long by wide by deep. Gray-tailed voles are difficult to capture live in the wild, as they are unlikely to enter enclosure type traps. The most effective traps are laid inconspicuously along commonly used runways, so that the voles run directly into them. Much of what is known about the voles has been obtained from observing them in captivity. Ecology Information about the reproductive habits of gray-tailed voles is based on studies of captive animals. In captivity, female voles as young as 18 days, weighing only are capable of reproducing. Litters produced by these younger females result in larger litters, newborns of smaller mass, and lower rates of newborn survival. The gestation period is 21–23 days. The newborns weigh around . The average litter size is around 4.5. It is uncertain how frequently gray-tailed voles breed. Breeding likely occurs year-round. Gray-tailed voles recognize relatives based on familiarity. Under laboratory conditions, gray-tailed voles familiar with one another produced fewer litters than unfamiliar ones. Pairings of related voles resulted in lower pup survival than did pairings of unrelated individuals. Common foods of the gray-tailed vole in the wild are thought to be grasses, clover, wild onion, and false dandelion. Published claims that the voles are omnivorous lack references or evidence. Although gray-tailed voles are now described as common, Bailey reported them to be so scarce that few specimens were available. He also claimed that they were present east of the Cascades, but subsequent authorities have refuted this. Their population density fluctuates widely during the year. There is not much data available to calculate population density in the field, but studies in more controlled settings yield estimates of around 600 animals per . Human interactions Gray-tailed voles have been used in laboratory research projects. They have been used to study the effects of mineral deficiencies, such as selenium, which is lacking in Willamette Valley soils. They have also been used in studies on livestock feed modifications, including pretreatment of feeds by fermentation, sprouting the grains in the feeds, and clearance of radioactive isotopes from contaminated food. Gray-tailed voles can become so abundant within their range that humans may take measures to control populations. Trapping them is challenging. Conservation status The gray-tailed vole is listed as "least concern" by the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). No major threats to this common species are recognized. While its range is limited (less than 20,000 km2), it thrives in agricultural environments, so land conversion for such purposes is not problematic. This species is listed as secure by NatureServe. References Footnotes: Sources: Further reading External links Gray-tailed vole Endemic rodents of the United States Endemic fauna of Oregon Mammals described in 1897 Least concern biota of the United States Taxa named by Gerrit Smith Miller Jr.
1436317	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA%20construct	DNA construct	DNA construct A DNA construct is an artificially-designed segment of DNA borne on a vector that can be used to incorporate genetic material into a target tissue or cell. A DNA construct contains a DNA insert, called a transgene, delivered via a transformation vector which allows the insert sequence to be replicated and/or expressed in the target cell. This gene can be cloned from a naturally occurring gene, or synthetically constructed. The vector can be delivered using physical, chemical or viral methods. Typically, the vectors used in DNA constructs contain an origin of replication, a multiple cloning site, and a selectable marker. Certain vectors can carry additional regulatory elements based on the expression system involved. DNA constructs can be as small as a few thousand base pairs (kbp) of DNA carrying a single gene, using vectors such as plasmids or bacteriophages, or as large as hundreds of kbp for large-scale genomic studies using an artificial chromosome. A DNA construct may express wildtype protein, prevent the expression of certain genes by expressing competitors or inhibitors, or express mutant proteins, such as deletion mutations or missense mutations. DNA constructs are widely adapted in molecular biology research for techniques such as DNA sequencing, protein expression, and RNA studies. History The first standardized vector, pBR220, was designed in 1977 by researchers in Herbert Boyer’s lab. The plasmid contains various restriction enzyme sites and a stable antibiotic-resistance gene free from transposon activities. In 1982, Jeffrey Vieira and Joachim Messing described the development of M13mp7-derived pUC vectors that consist of a multiple cloning site and allow for more efficient sequencing and cloning using a set of universal M13 primers. Three years later, the currently popular pUC19 plasmid was engineered by the same scientists. Construction The gene on a DNA sequence of interest can either be cloned from an existing sequence or developed synthetically. To clone a naturally occurring sequence in an organism, the organism's DNA is first cut with restriction enzymes, which recognize DNA sequences and cut them, around the target gene. The gene can then be amplified using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Typically, this process includes using short sequences known as primers to initially hybridize to the target sequence; in addition, point mutations can be introduced in the primer sequences and then copied in each cycle in order to modify the target sequence. It is also possible to synthesize a target DNA strand for a DNA construct. Short strands of DNA known as oligonucleotides can be developed using column-based synthesis, in which bases are added one at a time to a strand of DNA attached to a solid phase. Each base has a protecting group to prevent linkage that is not removed until the next base is ready to be added, ensuring that they are linked in the correct sequence. Oligonucleotides can also be synthesized on a microarray, which allows for tens of thousands of sequences to be synthesized at once, in order to reduce cost. To synthesize a larger gene, oligonucleotides are developed with overlapping sequences on the ends and then joined together. The most common method is called polymerase cycling assembly (PCA): fragments hybridize at the overlapping regions and are extended, and larger fragments are created in each cycle. Once a sequence has been isolated, it must be inserted into a vector. The easiest way to do this is to cut the vector DNA using restriction enzymes; if the same enzymes were used to isolate the target sequence, then the same "overhang" sequences will be created on each end allowing for hybridization. Once the target gene has hybridized to the vector DNA, they can be joined using a DNA ligase. An alternative strategy uses recombination between homologous sites on the target gene and the vector sequence, eliminating the need for restriction enzymes. Modes of delivery There are three general categories of DNA construct delivery: physical, chemical, and viral. Physical methods, which deliver the DNA by physically penetrating the cell, include microinjection, electroporation, and biolistics. Chemical methods rely on chemical reactions to deliver the DNA and include transformation with cells made competent using calcium phosphate as well as delivery via lipid nanoparticles. Viral methods use a variety of viral vectors to deliver the DNA, including adenovirus, lentivirus, and herpes simplex virus Vector structure In addition to the target gene, there are three important elements in a vector: an origin of replication, a selectable marker, and a multiple cloning site. An origin of replication is a DNA sequence that starts the process of DNA replication, allowing the vector to clone itself. A multiple cloning site contains binding sites for several restriction enzymes, making it easier to insert different DNA sequences into the vector. A selectable marker confers some trait that can be easily selected for in a host cell, so that it can be determined whether transformation was successful. The most common selectable markers are genes for antibiotic resistance, so that host cells without the construct will die off when exposed to the antibody and only host cells with the construct will remain. Types of DNA constructs Bacterial plasmids are circular sections of DNA that naturally replicate in bacteria. Plasmids are capable of holding inserts up to approximately 20 kbp in length. These types of constructs typically contain a gene offering antibiotic-resistance, an origin of replication, regulatory elements such as Lac inhibitors, a polylinker, and a protein tag which facilitates protein purification. Bacteriophage Vectors are viruses that can infect bacteria and replicate their own DNA. Artificial chromosomes are commonly used in genome project studies due to their ability to hold inserts up to 350 kbp. These vectors are derived from the F plasmid, taking advantage of the high stability and conjugational ability introduced by the F factor. Fosmids are a hybrid between bacterial F plasmids and λ phage cloning techniques. Inserts are pre-packaged into phage particles, then inserted into the host cell with the ability to hold ~45 kbp. They are typically used to generate a DNA library due to their increased stability. Applications DNA constructs can be used to produce proteins, including both naturally occurring proteins and engineered mutant proteins. These proteins can be used to make therapeutic products, such as pharmaceuticals and antibodies. DNA constructs can also change the expression levels of other genes by expressing regulatory sequences such as promoters and inhibitors. Additionally, DNA constructs can be used for research such as creating genomic libraries, sequencing cloned DNA, and studying RNA and protein expression. See also Vector (molecular biology) References DNA Genome editing
1492734	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rothenburg%20ob%20der%20Tauber	Rothenburg ob der Tauber	Rothenburg ob der Tauber is a town in the district of Ansbach of Mittelfranken (Middle Franconia), the Franconia region of Bavaria, Germany. It is well known for its well-preserved medieval old town, a destination for tourists from around the world. It is part of the popular Romantic Road through southern Germany. Today it is one of only three towns in Germany that still have completely intact city walls, the other two being Nördlingen and Dinkelsbühl, both also in Bavaria. Rothenburg was a free imperial city from the late Middle Ages to 1803. In 1884 Johann Friedrich (von) Hessing (1838–1918) built Wildbad Rothenburg o.d.T. 1884–1903. Name The name "Rothenburg ob der Tauber" is German for "Red castle above the Tauber", describing the town's location on a plateau overlooking the Tauber River. Rothenburg Castle, in close vicinity to the village and also called Alte Burg (old castle), gave the city its name. History Middle Ages The location was most likely inhabited by Celts before the first century CE. In 950, the weir system in today's castle garden was constructed by the Count of Comburg-Rothenburg. In 1070, the counts of Comburg-Rothenburg, who also owned the village of Gebsattel, built Rothenburg castle on the mountain top high above the River Tauber. The counts of the Comburg-Rothenburg dynasty died out in 1116 with the death of the last count, Count Heinrich. Emperor Heinrich V instead appointed his nephew Konrad von Hohenstaufen as the successor to the Comburg-Rothenburg properties. In 1142, Konrad von Hohenstaufen, who became King Konrad III (1138–52) traded a part of the monastery of Neumünster in Würzburg above the village Detwang and built the Stauffer-Castle Rothenburg on this cheaper land. He held court there and appointed officials to act as caretakers. In 1170, the city of Rothenburg was founded at the time of the building of Staufer Castle. The center was the marketplace and St. James' Church (in German: the St. Jakob). The development of the oldest fortification can be seen, the old cellar/old moat and the milk market. Walls and towers were built in the 13th century. Preserved are the “White Tower” and the Markus Tower with the Röder Arch. From 1194 to 1254, the representatives of the Staufer dynasty governed the area around Rothenburg. Around this time, the Order of St. John and other orders were founded near St. James' Church and a Dominican nunnery (1258). From 1241 to 1242, the Staufer Imperial tax statistics recorded the names of the Jews in Rothenburg. Rabbi Meir Ben Baruch of Rothenburg (died 1293, buried 1307 in Worms) had a great reputation as a jurist in Europe. In 1274, Rothenburg was accorded privileges by King Rudolf of Habsburg as a free imperial city. Three famous fairs were established in the city and in the following centuries, the city expanded. The citizens of the city and the Knights of the Hinterland build the Franziskaner (Franciscan) Monastery and the Holy Ghost Hospital (1376/78 incorporated into the city walls). The German Order began the building of St. James' Church, which the citizens have used since 1336. The Heilig Blut (Holy Blood) pilgrimage attracted many pilgrims to Rothenburg, at the time one of the 20 largest cities of the Holy Roman Empire. The population was around 5,500 people within the city walls and another 14,000 in the of the surrounding territory. The Staufer Castle was destroyed by an earthquake in 1356; the St. Blaise chapel is the last remnant today. The Thirty Years' War In October 1631, during the Thirty Years' War, the Catholic Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly, wanted to quarter his 40,000 troops in Protestant Lutheran Rothenburg. Rather than allow entrance, the town defended itself and intended to withstand a siege. However, Tilly's troops quickly defeated Rothenburg, losing only 300 soldiers. A popular legend called the Meistertrunk states that when General Tilly condemned the councilmen to death and was set to burn the city down, the councilmen tried to sway him with a large drink of 3 1/4 liters wine. Tilly proclaimed that if anyone could drink it all in one drink, he would spare the city. The mayor at the time, Georg Nusch, succeeded, and General Tilly kept his word. However, the story is almost certainly apocryphal. It does not appear in the chronicle of Sebastian Dehner, written about fifteen years after the facts, the earliest account. The Meistertrunk appears for the first time in the chronicle of Georg Heinrich Schaffert, more than a century later. After the winter, they left the town poor and nearly empty, and in 1634 a bubonic plague outbreak killed many more townsfolk. Without any money or power, Rothenburg stopped growing, thus preserving its 17th-century state. 19th century Since 1803, the town has been a part of Bavaria. The famous German landscape painter Eugen Bracht visited Rothenburg in 1877; although he stayed only two days, he was clearly impressed. Some years later, especially artists of Romanticism, such as Hans Thoma and Carl Spitzweg, visited Rothenburg, too, followed by the first tourists. Laws were created to prevent major changes to the town. In 1884 Friedrich Hessing built up till 1903 the "Hessingsche Wildbad". Nazi Germany & World War II Rothenburg held a special significance for Nazi ideologists. For them, it was the epitome of the German 'Home Town', representing all that was quintessentially German. Throughout the 1930s, the Nazi organization KDF (Kraft durch Freude) "Strength through Joy" organized regular day trips to Rothenburg from all across the Reich. This initiative was staunchly supported by Rothenburg's citizenry – many of whom were sympathetic to National Socialism – both for its perceived economic benefits and because Rothenburg was hailed as "the most German of German towns". In October 1938, Rothenburg expelled its Jewish citizens, much to the approval of Nazis and their supporters across Germany. In March 1945, during World War II, German soldiers were stationed in Rothenburg to defend it. On March 31, bombs were dropped over Rothenburg by 16 planes, killing 37 people and destroying around 275 houses (around 32% of all houses), six public buildings and damaging nine watchtowers and over of the wall. Because incendiary bombs were used most outer walls still stood after the attack and were used to rebuild the newer eastern part of the old town. Around 265 houses were rebuilt. The U.S. Assistant Secretary of War, John J. McCloy, knew about the historic importance and beauty of Rothenburg, so he ordered U.S. Army General Jacob L. Devers not to use artillery in taking Rothenburg. Battalion commander Frank Burke, a future Medal of Honor recipient, ordered six soldiers of the 12th Infantry Regiment, 4th Division to march into Rothenburg on a three-hour mission and negotiate the surrender of the town. First Lieutenant Noble V. Borders of Louisville, Kentucky, First Lieutenant Edmund H. Austgen of Hammond, Indiana, Private William M. Dwyer of Trenton, New Jersey, Private Herman Lichey of Glendale, California, Private Robert S. Grimm of Tower City, Pennsylvania, and Private Peter Kick of Lansing, Illinois were sent on the mission. When stopped by a German soldier, Private Lichey, who spoke fluent German and served as the group's translator, held up a white flag and explained, “We are representatives of our division commander. We bring you his offer to spare the city of Rothenburg from shelling and bombing if you agree not to defend it. We have been given three hours to get this message to you. If we haven’t returned to our lines by 1800 hours, the town will be bombed and shelled to the ground.” The local military commander Major Thömmes gave up the town, ignoring the order of Hitler for all towns to fight to the end and thereby saving it from total destruction by artillery. American troops of the 12th Infantry Regiment, 4th Division occupied the town on April 17, 1945, and in November 1948, McCloy was named an honorary citizen of Rothenburg. Post-war reconstruction Around 32% of Rothenburg ob der Tauber, mainly in the eastern half of the town, had to be repaired or rebuilt after being bombed in World War II (with most outer walls still standing and used for the rebuild houses). Many of the rebuilt facades can now be distinguished from the surviving medieval structures as being plainer, reconstruction aiming not to replicate exactly what stood before, only to rebuild in the same style as the surviving buildings so that the new buildings would still fit into the overall aesthetic of the town. Any surviving walls of bombed-out buildings were kept in their reconstructed facades as much as possible. In the case of more significant or iconic structures, such as the town hall, whose roof was destroyed, and parts of the town wall, restoration to their original state was done as accurately as possible, and they now appear exactly as they did before the war. Donations for the rebuilding works in Rothenburg were received from all over the world, and rebuilt parts of the walls feature commemorative bricks with donor names. The older western section from which the medieval town originated and contains most of the town's historic monuments, did not suffer from the bombing. Thus, most of the buildings in the west and the south of Rothenburg still exist today in their original medieval or prewar state. It is also noteworthy that while the eastern walls and towers received bomb damage, they, unlike the houses in that part of town, remained relatively intact; many parts even survived completely because of their sturdy stone construction. In most cases, only the wooden upper portions or roofs of the eastern towers and walls needed to be rebuilt, and most of their stone structure had been preserved. Lord Mayors 1945–1952: Friedrich Hörner, SPD 1952–1964: Dr. Erich Lauterbach (1879–1966), independent 1964–1976: Alfred Ledertheil, SPD 1976–1988: Oskar Schubert 1988–2006: Herbert Hachtel (born 1941), SPD 2006–2020: Walter Hartl (born 1956), independent since 2020: Markus Naser (born 1981), independent Town The Rathaus (town hall) is a notable renaissance building. The rear Gothic part of the building dates from 1250, and the attached front Renaissance building was started in 1572. This building served as the seat of government for the city-state during the medieval ages and for the city of Rothenburg since the formation of the federalist government. The town hall tower of Rothenburg ob der Tauber is one of the only accessible towers in the town of Rothenburg. The other is the Roedertor tower at the east end of the city and is open daily for visitors to climb. It is almost tall. At the top of the tower, an admission fee of 2 euros is charged to enter the room with a scenic view of almost the entire town. The room also contains manuscripts providing the visitor with historical information about the construction and relevant history of the city wall. While buildings within the walled city reflect the city's medieval history, this part of the city is in many ways a normal, modern German town with some concession to the tourist trade. Many stores and hotels catering to tourists are clustered around the Town Hall Square and along several major streets (such as Herrngasse, Schmiedgasse). Also in the town is a Criminal Museum, containing various punishment and torture devices used during the Middle Ages. A staple pastry of Rothenburg ob der Tauber is the Schneeball, deep-fried dough shaped like a snowball and covered in either confectioner's sugar or chocolate. From 1988 until March 2006, Herbert Hachtel (SPD) was the mayor of Rothenburg. He was succeeded by Walter Hartl. Main sights Museums The Criminal Museum (Kriminalmuseum) gives an insight into judicial punishment over the last 1,000 years. Exhibits include instruments of torture, shrew's fiddles, scold's bridles, medieval legal texts, and guidance on witch trials. Imperial City Museum (Reichsstadtmuseum) with the municipal collections and a weapon collection Doll and Toy Museum (Puppen- und Spielzeugmuseum) Shepherds' Dance Museum (Schäfertanz Museum) Christmas Museum (Weihnachtsmuseum "Käthe Wohlfahrt") Craft House (Handwerkerhaus) 11 rooms showing the everyday life of craftsmen's families in Rothenburg Historical vaulting and state dungeon Buildings St. James' Church with its Holy Blood reredos by Tilman Riemenschneider, another Riemenschneider altar (Altar of the Holy Cross) is in the Detwang church. Town wall Plönlein Spital bastion (Spitalbastei), a barbican with an abwurfdach built by Rothenburg architect and stonemason, Leonhard Weidmann St. Wolfgang's Church by the Klingentor gate (fortified church) Great hall of the castle (St. Blasius' Chapel) Toppler Castle in the Tauber valley Double bridge over the Tauber The was built between 1898 and 1903 by Friedrich Hessing as a spa hotel. Since 1982 it has been used as an Evangelical conference centre. Historic town hall with clock tower and Meistertrunk clock Altes Brauhaus Rödertor St. Peter and St. Paul's Church, Detwang Old Smithy Old Town Hall Monastery Franciscan church Cultural references Rothenburg has appeared in several films, notably fantasies. It was the location for the Vulgarian village scenes in the 1968 family movie, Chitty Chitty Bang Bang. It is sometimes mistaken as the town at the end of Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory (1971); that town was Nördlingen. The town served as a loose basis for the fictional town of Lebensbaum ("life tree") in the video game Shadow of Memories (Shadow of Destiny in the American market). Shots of the town are shown in some parts of The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm and the trailer for the film. The camera flies over the town from the direction of the valley towards the Town Hall. A plaque exists on the rebuilt town wall to commemorate this. Filming was done in Rothenburg for Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 (2010) and Part 2 (2011), but didn't make it into the final version of the movies. Robert Shackleton's Unvisited Places of Old Europe contains a chapter, "The Old Red City of Rothenburg", about the city and its history. Rothenburg is the primary location for Elizabeth Peters's mystery novel, Borrower of the Night (1973) about the search for a missing Tilman Riemenschneider sculpture. The town featured as the location in the Belgian comic book, The Adventures of Yoko Tsuno in the episode of La Frontière de la vie (On the Edge of Life, 1977) and it inspired the look of the town in the Japanese manga and anime series A Little Snow Fairy Sugar (2001). Rothenburg's famous street Kobolzeller Steige and Spitalgasse is depicted on the cover of two Blackmore's Night albums, 1999's Under a Violet Moon and their 2006 album Winter Carols. It is often thought to have inspired the town center of Mêlée Island in the 1990 point-and-click graphic adventure game The Secret of Monkey Island, but creator Ron Gilbert has claimed the resemblance is a coincidence. The video game Team Fortress 2 features a map titled "Rottenburg", a play on the original's namesake along with visually similar architecture. The southern part of the marketplace is prominently featured in the video game Gabriel Knight 2 depicting the fictional town of Rittersberg. The WWII-era first-person shooter Medal of Honor: Allied Assault, from the Medal of Honor video game series, features a level in which the player must fight their way through a snowy town near the Siegfried Line in Germany that is strikingly similar to Rothenburg, buildings with similar architecture can be seen throughout the town, as well as similar-looking streets, as the player makes their way through. Twin towns Athis-Mons, France Suzdal, Russia Telč, Czech Republic Montagnana, Italy Uchiko, Japan Notable people Georg Falck (1630–1689), organist at the St. James' Church, composer and music theorist Franz Leydig (1821–1908), German zoologist and comparative anatomist Johann Friedrich (von) Hessing (1838–1918), constructor of "Hessingsches Wildbad" Franz Boll (1867–1924), science historian and librarian Wilhelm Borkholder (1886–1945), jurist and Lord Mayor of Ansbach Friedrich Uebelhoer (1893–1945), politician (NSDAP) Wilhelm Heer (1894–1961), politician (NSDAP), Member of Reichstag Christof Stählin (1942–2015), author Otto A. Böhmer (born 1949), author Christian Mittermeier (born 1965), cook See also Romantic Road References External links Rothenburg o.d.T. Tourist Office website Rothenburg travel guide Criminalistics museum Images of Rothenburg ob der Tauber Doll and Toy Museum (Puppen- und Spielzeugmuseum) Landmarks in Germany Franconian Circle Free imperial cities Fortified settlements Holocaust locations in Germany
36971117	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperloop	Hyperloop	Hyperloop is a proposed high-speed transportation system for both passengers and freight. The concept was documented by Elon Musk in a 2013 white paper, where the hyperloop was described as a transportation system using capsules supported by an air-bearing surface within a low-pressure tube. Hyperloop systems have three essential elements: tubes, pods, and terminals. The tube is a large, sealed low-pressure system (typically a long tunnel). The pod is a coach at atmospheric pressure that experiences low air resistance or friction inside the tube using magnetic propulsion (in the initial design, augmented by a ducted fan). The terminal handles pod arrivals and departures. The hyperloop, in the form proposed by Musk, differs from tradititional vactrains by relying on residual air pressure inside the tube to provide lift from aerofoils and propulsion by fans; however, many subsequent variants using the name "hyperloop" have remained relatively close to the core principles of vactrains. Hyperloop was teased by Elon Musk at a 2012 speaking event, and described as a "fifth mode of transport". Musk released details of an alpha-version in a white paper in August 2013, in which the hyperloop design incorporated reduced-pressure tubes with pressurized capsules riding on air bearings driven by linear induction motors and axial compressors. The white paper showed an example hyperloop route running from the Los Angeles region to the San Francisco Bay Area, roughly following the Interstate 5 corridor. Some transportation analysts challenged the cost estimates in the white paper, with some predicting that a hyperloop would run several billion dollars higher. The hyperloop concept has been promoted by Musk and SpaceX, and other companies or organizations were encouraged to collaborate in developing the technology. A Technical University of Munich hyperloop set a speed record of in July 2019 at the pod design competition hosted by SpaceX in Hawthorne, California. Virgin Hyperloop conducted the first human trial in November 2020 at its test site in Las Vegas, reaching a top speed of . Swisspod Technologies unveiled a 1:12 scale testing facility in a circular shape to simulate an "infinite" hyperloop trajectory in July 2021 on the EPFL campus at Lausanne, Switzerland. In 2023, a new European effort to standardize "hyperloop systems" released a draft standard. Hyperloop One, one of the best well-known and well-funded players in the hyperloop space, declared bankruptcy and ceased operations in 2023. Other companies continue to pursue hyperloop technology development. History Musk first mentioned that he was thinking about a concept for a "fifth mode of transport", calling it the Hyperloop, in July 2012 at a Pando Daily event in Santa Monica, California. This hypothetical high-speed mode of transportation would have the following characteristics: immunity to weather, collision free, twice the speed of a plane, low power consumption, and energy storage for 24-hour operations. The name Hyperloop was chosen because it would go in a loop. In May 2013, Musk likened Hyperloop to a "cross between a Concorde and a railgun and an air hockey table". By 2016, Musk envisioned that more advanced versions could potentially be able to go at hypersonic speed. From late 2012 until August 2013, a group of engineers from both Tesla and SpaceX worked on the modeling of Musk's Hyperloop concept. An early system conceptual model was published on both the Tesla and SpaceX websites which describes one potential design, function, pathway, and cost of a hyperloop system. In the alpha design, pods were envisioned to accelerate to cruising speeds gradually using linear electric motors and glide above their track on air bearings through tubes above ground on columns or below ground in tunnels to avoid the challenges of grade crossings. An ideal hyperloop system was estimated to be more energy-efficient, quiet, and autonomous than existing modes of mass transit in the 2010s. The Hyperloop Alpha was released as an open source design. Musk invited feedback to "see if the people can find ways to improve it". The trademark "HYPERLOOP", applicable to "high-speed transportation of goods in tubes" was issued to SpaceX on 4 April 2017. In June 2015, SpaceX announced that it would build a Hyperloop test track located next to SpaceX's Hawthorne facility. The track was completed and used to test pod designs supplied by third parties in the competition. By November 2015, with several commercial companies and dozens of student teams pursuing the development of Hyperloop technologies, the Wall Street Journal asserted that "'The Hyperloop Movement', as some of its unaffiliated members refer to themselves, is officially bigger than the man who started it." The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) hyperloop team developed an early hyperloop pod prototype, which they unveiled at the MIT Museum on 13 May 2016. Their design used electrodynamic suspension for levitating and eddy current braking. An early passenger test of low-speed hyperloop technology was conducted by Virgin Hyperloop by two employees of the company in November 2020, where the unit reached a maximum speed of . In January 2023, the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization released the first technical standard for hyperloop systems. Hardt Hyperloop demonstrated a Hyperloop lane switch without moving components in the infrastructure in June 2019 at its test site in Delft, The Netherlands. As of 21 December 2023, Hyperloop One, a company that had been working to commercialize Hyperloop, has terminated operations. Theory and operation The much-older vactrain concept resembles a high-speed rail system without substantial air resistance by employing magnetically levitating trains in evacuated (airless) or partly evacuated tubes. However, the difficulty of maintaining a vacuum over large distances has prevented this type of system from ever being built. By contrast, the Hyperloop alpha concept was to operate at approximately of pressure and requires the air for levitation. Initial design concept The hyperloop alpha concept envisioned operation by sending specially designed "capsules" or "pods" through a steel tube maintained at a partial vacuum. In Musk's original concept, each capsule would float on a layer of air provided under pressure to air-caster "skis", similar to how pucks are levitated above an air hockey table, while still allowing higher speeds than wheels can sustain. With rolling resistance eliminated and air resistance greatly reduced, the capsules can glide for the bulk of the journey. In the alpha design concept, an electrically driven inlet fan and axial compressor would be placed at the nose of the capsule to "actively transfer high-pressure air from the front to the rear of the vessel", resolving the problem of air pressure building in front of the vehicle, slowing it down. A fraction of the air was to be shunted to the skis for additional pressure, augmenting that gain passively from lift due to their shape. In the alpha-level concept, passenger-only pods were to be in diameter and were projected to reach a top speed of to maintain aerodynamic efficiency. (Section 4.4) The design proposed passengers experience a maximum inertial acceleration of 0.5 g, about 2 or 3 times that of a commercial airliner on takeoff and landing. Proposed routes Several routes have been proposed that meet the distance conditions for which a hyperloop is hypothesized to provide improved transport times: under approximately . Route proposals range from speculation described in company releases, to business cases, to signed agreements. United States The route suggested in the 2013 alpha-level design document was from the Greater Los Angeles Area to the San Francisco Bay Area. That conceptual system would begin around Sylmar, just south of the Tejon Pass, follow Interstate 5 to the north, and arrive near Hayward on the east side of San Francisco Bay. Proposed branches were shown in the design document, including Sacramento, Anaheim, San Diego, and Las Vegas. No work has been done on the route proposed in Musk's design; one cited reason is that it would terminate on the fringes of two major metropolitan areas, Los Angeles and San Francisco. This would result in significant cost savings in construction, but require passengers traveling to and from Downtown Los Angeles and San Francisco, and any other community beyond Sylmar and Hayward, to transfer to another transportation mode to reach their destination. This would significantly lengthen the total travel time to those destinations. A similar problem already affects present-day air travel, where on short routes (like LAX–SFO) the flight time is only a rather small part of door-to-door travel time. Critics have argued that this would significantly reduce the proposed cost and/or time savings of hyperloop as compared to the proposed California High-Speed Rail project that will serve downtown stations in both San Francisco and Los Angeles. Passengers traveling from financial center to financial center are estimated to save about two hours by taking the Hyperloop instead of driving the whole distance. Others questioned the cost projections for the suggested California route. Some transportation engineers argued in 2013 that they found the alpha-level design cost estimates unrealistically low given the scale of construction and reliance on unproven technology. The technological and economic feasibility of the idea is unproven and a subject of significant debate. In November 2017, Arrivo announced a concept for a maglev automobile transport system from Aurora, Colorado to Denver International Airport, the first leg of a system from downtown Denver. Its contract described potential completion of a first leg in 2021. In February 2018, Hyperloop Transportation Technologies announced a similar plan for a loop connecting Chicago and Cleveland and a loop connecting Washington and New York City. In 2018 the Missouri Hyperloop Coalition was formed between Virgin Hyperloop One, the University of Missouri, and engineering firm Black & Veatch to study a proposed route connecting St. Louis, Columbia, and Kansas City. On 19 December 2018, Elon Musk unveiled a tunnel below Los Angeles. In the presentation, a Tesla Model X drove in a tunnel on the predefined track (rather than in a low-pressure tube). According to Musk, the costs for the system are . Musk said: "The Loop is a stepping stone toward hyperloop. The Loop is for transport within a city. Hyperloop is for transport between cities, and that would go much faster than 150 mph." The Northeast Ohio Areawide Coordinating Agency, or NOACA, partnered with Hyperloop Transportation Technologies to conduct a $1.3 million feasibility study for developing a hyperloop corridor route from Chicago to Cleveland and Pittsburgh for America's first multistate hyperloop system in the Great Lakes Megaregion. Hundreds of thousands of dollars have already been committed to the project. NOACA's Board of Directors has awarded a $550,029 contract to Transportation Economics & Management Systems, Inc. (TEMS) for the Great Lakes Hyperloop Feasibility Study to evaluate the feasibility of an ultra-high speed hyperloop passenger and freight transport system initially linking Cleveland and Chicago. India Hyperloop Transportation Technologies were considering in 2016 with the Indian Government for a proposed route between Chennai and Bengaluru, with a conceptual travel time of in 30 minutes. HTT also signed an agreement in 2018 with Andhra Pradesh government to build India's first hyperloop project connecting Amaravathi to Vijayawada in a 6-minute ride. On 22 February 2018, Hyperloop One entered into a memorandum of understanding with the Government of Maharashtra to build a hyperloop transportation system between Mumbai and Pune that would cut the travel time from the current 180 minutes to 20 minutes. In 2016, Indore-based Dinclix GroundWorks' DGWHyperloop advocates a hyperloop corridor between Mumbai and Delhi, via Indore, Kota, and Jaipur. Saudi Arabia On 6 February 2020, the Ministry of Transport in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia announced a contract agreement with Virgin Hyperloop One (VHO) to conduct a ground-breaking pre-feasibility study on the use of hyperloop technology for the transport of passengers and cargo. The study will serve as a blueprint for future hyperloop projects and build on the developers long-standing relationship with the kingdom, which has peaked when Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman viewed VHO's passenger pod during a visit to the United States. Italy In December 2021, the Veneto Regional Council approved a memorandum of understanding with MIMS and CAV for the testing of hyper transfer technology. Canada In 2016, Canadian hyperloop firm TransPod explored the possibility of hyperloop routes which would connect Toronto and Montreal, Toronto to Windsor, and Calgary to Edmonton. Toronto and Montreal, the largest cities in Canada, are connected by Ontario Highway 401, the busiest highway in North America. In March 2019, Transport Canada commissioned a study of hyperloops, so it could be "better informed on the technical, operational, economic, safety, and regulatory aspects of the hyperloop and understand its construction requirements and commercial feasibility." The province of Alberta signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) to support TransPod for its Calgary to Edmonton hyperloop project. TransPod plans to move forward and has secured in private capital funding for the first phase, which will create an airport link for Edmonton. However, the company will first need to build and test prototypes on test tracks before the project can begin. Elsewhere in the world In 2016, Hyperloop One published the world's first detailed business case for a route between Helsinki and Stockholm, which would tunnel under the Baltic Sea to connect the two capitals in under 30 minutes. Hyperloop One undertook yet another feasibility study in 2016, this time with DP World to move containers from its Port of Jebel Ali in Dubai. In late 2016, Hyperloop One announced a feasibility study with Dubai's Roads and Transport Authority for passenger and freight routes connecting Dubai with the greater United Arab Emirates. Hyperloop One was also considering passenger routes in Moscow during 2016, and a cargo hyperloop to connect Hunchun in north-eastern China to the Port of Zarubino, near Vladivostok and the North Korean border on Russia's Far East. In May 2016, Hyperloop One kicked off their Global Challenge with a call for comprehensive proposals of hyperloop networks around the world. In September 2017, Hyperloop One selected 10 routes from 35 of the strongest proposals: Toronto–Montreal, Cheyenne–Denver–Pueblo, Miami–Orlando, Dallas–Laredo–Houston, Chicago–Columbus–Pittsburgh, Mexico City–Guadalajara, Edinburgh–London, Glasgow–Liverpool, Bengaluru–Chennai, and Mumbai–Chennai. Others put forward European routes, including in 2019 a conceptual route beginning at Amsterdam or Schiphol airport to Frankfurt. In 2016, a Warsaw University of Technology team began evaluating potential routes from Kraków to Gdańsk across Poland proposed by Hyper Poland. Hyperloop Transportation Technologies (HTT) signed an agreement with the government of Slovakia in March 2016 to perform impact studies, with potential links between Bratislava, Vienna, and Budapest, but there have been no further developments. In January 2017, HTT signed an agreement to explore the route Bratislava—Brno—Prague in Central Europe. In 2017, SINTEF, the largest independent research organization in Scandinavia, indicated they were considering building a test lab for hyperloop in Norway. An agreement was signed in June 2017 to co-develop a hyperloop line between Seoul and Busan, South Korea. Mars According to Musk, hyperloop would be useful on Mars as no tubes would be needed because Mars' atmosphere is about 1% the density of the Earth's at sea level. For the hyperloop concept to work on Earth, low-pressure tubes are required to reduce air resistance. However, if they were to be built on Mars, the lower air resistance would allow a hyperloop to be created with no tube, only a track, and so would be just a magnetically levitating train. Open-source design evolution In September 2013, Ansys Corporation ran computational fluid dynamics simulations to model the aerodynamics of the alpha concept capsule and shear stress forces to which the capsule would be subjected. The simulation showed that the capsule design would need to be significantly reshaped to avoid creating supersonic airflow, and that the gap between the tube wall and capsule would need to be larger. Ansys employee Sandeep Sovani said the simulation showed that hyperloop has challenges but that he is convinced it is feasible. In October 2013, the development team of the OpenMDAO software framework released an unfinished, conceptual open-source model of parts of the hyperloop's propulsion system. The team asserted that the model demonstrated the concept's feasibility, although the tube would need to be in diameter, significantly larger than originally projected. However, the team's model is not a true working model of the propulsion system, as it did not account for a wide range of technical factors required to physically construct a hyperloop based on Musk's concept, and in particular had no significant estimations of component weight. In November 2013, MathWorks analyzed the alpha proposal's suggested route and concluded that the route was mainly feasible. The analysis focused on the acceleration experienced by passengers and the necessary deviations from public roads in order to keep the accelerations reasonable; it did highlight that maintaining a trajectory along I-580 east of San Francisco at the planned speeds was not possible without significant deviation into heavily populated areas. In January 2015, a paper based on the NASA OpenMDAO open-source model reiterated the need for a larger diameter tube and a reduced cruise speed closer to Mach 0.85. It recommended removing on-board heat exchangers based on thermal models of the interactions between the compressor cycle, tube, and ambient environment. The compression cycle would only contribute 5% of the heat added to the tube, with 95% of the heat attributed to radiation and convection into the tube. The weight and volume penalty of on-board heat exchangers would not be worth the minor benefit, and regardless the steady-state temperature in the tube would only reach above ambient temperature. According to Musk, various aspects of the hyperloop have technology applications to other Musk interests, including surface transportation on Mars and electric jet propulsion. Researchers associated with MIT's department of Aeronautics and Astronautics published research in June 2017 that verified the challenge of aerodynamic design near the Kantrowitz limit that had been theorized in the original SpaceX Alpha-design concept released in 2013. In 2017, Dr. Richard Geddes and others formed the Hyperloop Advanced Research Partnership to act as a clearinghouse of Hyperloop public domain reports and data. In February 2020, Hardt Hyperloop, Nevomo (formerly Hyper Poland), TransPod and Zeleros formed a consortium to drive standardization efforts, as part of a joint technical committee (JTC20) set up by European standards bodies CEN and CENELEC to develop common standards aimed at ensuring the safety and interoperability of infrastructure, rolling stock, signaling and other systems. Hyperloop Association In December 2022 Hyperloop companies Hardt, Hyperloop One, Hyperloop Transport Technologies, Nevomo, Swisspod Technologies, TransPod, and Zeleros formed the Hyperloop Association. The Association's stated aims are to stimulate the development and growth of this emerging new transport market, participate and support institutes in collaborating with government and regulatory agencies on transportation policymaking. The Hyperloop Association is represented by Ben Paczek, CEO and co-founder of Nevomo. Hyperloop research programs Eurotube EuroTube is a non-profit research organization for the development of vacuum transport technology. EuroTube is currently developing a test tube in Collombey-Muraz, Switzerland. The organization was founded in 2017 at ETH Zurich as a Swiss association and became a Swiss foundation in 2019. The test tube is planned on a 2:1 scale with a diameter of 2.2 m and designed for Hyperloop Development Program (HDP) The Hyperloop Development Program is a public-private partnership of public sector partners, industry parties, and research institutions dedicated to prove the feasibility of hyperloop, test and demonstrate in the European Hyperloop Center Groningen, and identify the future prospects and opportunities for industry and stakeholders. The European Hyperloop Center is under constructions and will have a 420-meter test facility including a lane switch and is planned to commence testing in 2024. The total program size is €30 million and it is co-funded with €4.5 million by the Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management and Ministry of Economic Affairs and Climate Policy, and €3 million by the Dutch Province of Groningen. Partners in the program include AndAnotherday, ADSE, Royal BAM Group, Berenschot, Busch, Delft Hyperloop, Denys, Dutch Boosting Group, EuroTube, Hardt Hyperloop, the Institute of Hyperloop Technology, Royal IHC, INTIS, Mercon, Nevomo, Nederlandse Spoorwegen, POSCO International, Schiphol Group, Schweizer Design Consulting, Tata Steel, TÜV Rheinland, UNStudio, Vattenfall. TUM Hyperloop (previously WARR Hyperloop) TUM Hyperloop is a research program that emerged in 2019 from the team of hyperloop pod competition from the Technical University of Munich. The TUM Hyperloop team had won the latest three competitions in a row, achieving the world record of , which is still valid today. The research program has the goals to investigate the technical feasibility by means of a demonstrator, as well as by simulating the economic and technical feasibility of the hyperloop system. The planned 24 meter demonstrator will consist of a tube and the full-size pod. The next steps after completion of the first project phase are the extension to 400 meters to investigate higher speeds. This is planned in the Munich area, in Taufkirchen, Ottobrunn or at the Oberpfaffenhofen airfield. Certification for operation started in Ottobrun in July 2023. Hyperloop pod competition A number of student and non-student teams were participating in a hyperloop pod competition in 2015–16, and at least 22 of them built hardware to compete on a sponsored hyperloop test track in mid-2016. In June 2015, SpaceX announced that they would sponsor a hyperloop pod design competition and would build a subscale test track near SpaceX's headquarters in Hawthorne, California, for the competitive event in 2016. SpaceX stated in their announcement, "Neither SpaceX nor Elon Musk is affiliated with any Hyperloop companies. While we are not developing a commercial Hyperloop ourselves, we are interested in helping to accelerate development of a functional Hyperloop prototype." More than 700 teams had submitted preliminary applications by July. A preliminary design briefing was held in November 2015, where more than 120 student engineering teams were selected to submit Final Design Packages due by 13 January 2016. A Design Weekend was held at Texas A&M University 29–30 January 2016, for all invited entrants. Engineers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology were named the winners of the competition. While the University of Washington team won the Safety Subsystem Award, Delft University won the Pod Innovation Award as well as the second place, followed by the University of Wisconsin–Madison, Virginia Tech, and the University of California, Irvine. In the Design Category, the winning team was Hyperloop UPV from Universitat Politecnica de Valencia, Spain. On 29 January 2017, Delft Hyperloop (Delft University of Technology) won the prize for the "best overall design" at the final stage of the SpaceX hyperloop competition, while WARR Hyperloop of the Technical University of Munich won the prize for "fastest pod". The Massachusetts Institute of Technology placed third. The second hyperloop pod competition took place from 25 to 27 August 2017. The only judging criteria being top speed provided it is followed by successful deceleration. WARR Hyperloop from the Technical University of Munich won the competition by reaching a top speed of . A third hyperloop pod competition took place in July 2018. The defending champions, the WARR Hyperloop team from the Technical University of Munich, beat their own record with a top speed of during their run. The Delft Hyperloop team representing Delft University of Technology landed in second place, while the EPFLoop team from École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) earned the third-place finish. The fourth competition in August 2019 saw the team from the Technical University of Munich, now known as TUM Hyperloop (by NEXT Prototypes e.V.), again winning the competition and beating their own record with a top speed of . Criticism and human factor considerations YouTube creator Adam Kovacs has described Hyperloop as a kind of gadgetbahn because it would be an expensive, unproven system that is no better than existing technology like traditional high-speed rail. Some critics of Hyperloop focus on the experience—possibly unpleasant and frightening—of riding in a narrow, sealed, windowless capsule inside a sealed steel tunnel, that is subjected to significant acceleration forces; high noise levels due to air being compressed and ducted around the capsule at near-sonic speeds; and the vibration and jostling. Even if the tube is initially smooth, ground may shift with seismic activity. At high speeds, even minor deviations from a straight path may add considerable buffeting. This is in addition to practical and logistical questions regarding how to best deal with safety issues such as equipment malfunction, accidents, and emergency evacuations. There is also the criticism of design technicalities in the tube system. John Hansman, professor of aeronautics and astronautics at MIT, has pointed out problems, such as how a slight misalignment in the tube would be compensated for, and the potential interplay between the air cushion and the low-pressure air. He has also questioned what would happen if the power were to go out when the pod was miles away from a city. UC Berkeley physics professor Richard Muller has also expressed concern regarding "[the Hyperloop's] novelty and the vulnerability of its tubes, [which] would be a tempting target for terrorists", and that the system could be disrupted by everyday dirt and grime. Political and economic considerations The alpha proposal projected that cost savings compared with conventional rail would come from a combination of several factors. The small profile and elevated nature of the alpha route would enable Hyperloop to be constructed primarily in the median of Interstate 5. However, whether this would be truly feasible is a matter of debate. The low profile would reduce tunnel boring requirements and the light weight of the capsules is projected to reduce construction costs over conventional passenger rail. It was asserted that there would be less right-of-way opposition and environmental impact as well due to its small, sealed, elevated profile versus that of a rail easement; however, other commentators contend that a smaller footprint does not guarantee less opposition. In criticizing this assumption, mass transportation writer Alon Levy said, "In reality, an all-elevated system (which is what Musk proposes with the Hyperloop) is a bug rather than a feature. Central Valley land is cheap; pylons are expensive, as can be readily seen by the costs of elevated highways and trains all over the world". Michael Anderson, a professor of agricultural and resource economics at UC Berkeley, predicted that costs would amount to around . Projected low ticket prices by Hyperloop developers have been questioned by Dan Sperling, director of the Institute of Transportation Studies at University of California Davis, who stated that "there's no way the economics on that would ever work out." Some critics have argued that, since Hyperloop is designed to carry fewer passengers than typical public train systems, it could make it difficult to price tickets to cover the costs of construction and running. In a study done by the TU Delft researchers claim that the fares would have to be higher than €0.30 per passenger kilometer, compared to €0.174/p-km for high speed rail and €0.183/p-km for air travel. The early cost estimates of the hyperloop are a subject of debate. A number of economists and transportation experts have expressed the belief that the price tag dramatically understates the cost of designing, developing, constructing, and testing an all-new form of transportation. The Economist magazine said that the estimates are unlikely to "be immune to the hypertrophication of cost that every other grand infrastructure project seems doomed to suffer." Hyperloop One estimated that for a loop around the Bay Area the costs were in a range on $9 billion to $13 billion in total, or from $84 million to $121 million per mile. For another project in the United Arab Emirates the company estimated $52 million per mile and for a Stockholm-Helsinki route the company reported a cost of $64 million per mile. Political impediments to the construction of such a project in California may be large due to the "political and reputation capital" invested in the existing mega-project of California High-Speed Rail. Because replacing that with a different design would not be straightforward given California's political economy, Texas has been suggested as an alternate for its more amenable political and economic environment. Building a successful hyperloop sub-scale demonstration project could reduce the political impediments and improve cost estimates. In 2013, Musk suggested that he might become personally involved in building a demonstration prototype of the hyperloop concept, including funding the development effort. The solar panels Musk plans to install along the length of the hyperloop system have been criticized by engineering professor Roger Goodall of Loughborough University, as not being feasible enough to return enough energy to power the hyperloop system, arguing that the air pumps and propulsion would require much more power than the solar panels could generate. According to The New York Times, "The central impediment" to the Hyperloop is that it "would require creating an entire infrastructure. That means constructing miles-long systems of tubes and stations, acquiring rights of way, adhering to government regulations and standards, and avoiding changes to the ecology along its routes." Hyperloop companies Related concepts Historical related concepts The pneumatic tube, using high pressures behind a capsule to move it forward, was suggested in 1799 by the British mechanical engineer and inventor George Medhurst. In 1812, Medhurst wrote a book detailing his idea of transporting passengers and goods through airtight tubes using air propulsion. Beach Pneumatic Transit was operated from 1870 to 1873 as a one-block-long prototype of an underground tube transport public transit system in New York City, following a concept by Alfred Ely Beach. The system worked at near-atmospheric pressure, with the passenger car moved by means of higher pressure air applied to the back of the car while comparatively lower pressure air was maintained in front of the car. Vactrains were explored in the 1910s, as described by American rocket pioneer Robert Goddard and others. Unlike pneumatic tubes, these do not use pressure for propulsion, but instead utilize a hard vacuum to eliminate drag ahead of the vehicle. The vehicle is both suspended and propelled by magnetic levitation. Swissmetro was a proposal to run a maglev train in a low-pressure environment. Concessions were granted to Swissmetro in the early 2000s to connect the Swiss cities of St. Gallen, Zurich, Basel, and Geneva. Studies of commercial feasibility reached differing conclusions and the vactrain was never built. ET3 Global Alliance (ET3) was founded by Daryl Oster in 1997 with the goal of establishing a global transportation system using passenger capsules in frictionless maglev full-vacuum tubes. Oster received interest from Elon Musk potentially investing in a prototype of ET3's proposed design. In 2003 Franco Cotana led the development of Pipenet, with a -long diameter prototype system constructed in Italy in 2005, with a vision to use an evacuated tube for moving freight at up to using linear synchronous motors and magnetic levitation. However development stopped after funding ceased. In August 2010, a vacuum-based maglev train able to move at was proposed for China, projected to cost (at the August 2010 exchange rate) more per kilometer than regular high-speed rail. In 2018 a short loop test track was completed to test some parts of the technology. Vactrains using the moniker 'Hyperloop' In 2018, a concept for creating and using intermodal Hyperloop capsules was presented in an academic journal. After detaching the drive elements, capsules could potentially be used in a way similar to traditional containers for fast transport of goods or individuals. It was further proposed that specialized airplanes, dedicated high-speed trains, road tractors or watercraft could perform "last mile" transport for solving the problem of fast transportation to centers where hyperloop terminals are locally unavailable or infeasible to be constructed. In May 2021, it was reported that a low-vacuum sealed tube test system capable of reaching speeds around had begun construction in Datong, Shanxi Province. An initial section was completed in 2022 and the full test line is planned to be completed within two years. The line is being constructed by the North University of China and the Third Research Institute of China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation. In July 2021, an experimental European operational Hyperloop testing facility concept was begun. The test tube was made of an aluminum alloy, with a loop diameter of and long, built by the Swiss-American startup Swisspod Technologies and the Distributed Electrical Systems Laboratory (DESL) of École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne. In September 2021, Swisspod Technologies and MxV Rail (formerly TTCI), a subsidiary of the Association of American Railroads (AAR), began collaboration to potentially build a full-scale testing facility for Hyperloop technology on the Pueblo Plex campus in Pueblo, Colorado, US. The primary purpose of this facility would be to conduct research and development activities on Swisspod's proprietary Hyperloop propulsion system. See also Gravity train Gravity-vacuum transit Ground effect train High-speed rail Kantrowitz limit Maglev Pneumatic tube Swissmetro Transatlantic tunnel Vactrain References External links Video of First Successful Test Ride—Wired via YouTube Eurotube.org Elon Musk Experimental vehicles High-speed rail Linear induction motors Open hardware vehicles Transport systems Vacuum systems
2339774	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unguja%20South%20Region	Unguja South Region	Unguja South Region, Zanzibar South Region or South Zanzibar Region (Mkoa wa Unguja Kusini in Swahili) is one of the 31 regions of Tanzania. The region covers an area of . The region is comparable in size to the combined land area of the nation state of Kiribati. and the administrative region is located entirely on the island of Zanzibar. Unguja South Region is bordered on three sides to the south by Indian Ocean, northeast by Unguja North Region and northwest by Mjini Magharibi Region. The regional capital is the town of Koani. Besides being known for its Spinner dolphin populations, the region is also home to the oldest mosque in East Africa, the Kizimkazi Mosque and also historic Makunduchi town. The region has the fourth highest HDI in the country, making one of the most developed regions in the country. According to the 2022 census, the region has a total population of 195,873. Geography Geology The geological area of Unguja Island that is on its southern and eastern sides shares a border with Unguja North Region to the north, and Unguja Urban West Region to the west. There aren't many rivers, but three major freshwater creeks that feed Chwaka Bay are surrounded by mangrove forests and expand into huge stretches of seagrass and calcareous Halimeda beds.4,934 acres of Unguja Island is covered with mangroves, the majority of which is in the South Unguja Region, particularly the Uzi Island complex in the south and the Chwaka Bay forest in the northeast. For many marine life forms, especially fish and crustaceans, the Chwaka Bay is crucial as spawning grounds and feeding grounds. There are a few clay-bound sands and gravels near to river-dominated areas, although biogenic and recent limestone origins are generally the dominant sediment types. Coral reefs The region is distinguished by a significant length of bordering reef that stretches from the region's northernmost point, where it borders with Unguja North, southward to the island's southwest, where it borders with West Region. These reefs are rather small in size and mostly comprise a reef flat and a reef slope. There are a few weak and small patch reefs in the lagoon on the landward of this bordering reef. The Menai Bay in the western part of the region is an exception, since it contains a number of small islands and sand banks with several patch reefs on the sheltered side and diverse formations of bordering reefs around the islands, particularly on the sides that are exposed to high seas.Pungume, Mianembe, Komunda, and Miwi Islets are some of Unguja South Region's reefs. Temperature and percipitation In the coastal plains, the climate is hot and muggy, whereas in the highlands, it is temperate. The highest monthly means are between 31.6 °C and 33 °C during the hot season from December to March, when the temperatures only drop to 23.5 °C to 24.1 °C. The data on average monthly temperatures from Zanzibar weather station (Zanzibar Airport) between 1986 and 2012 show ranges from a low of around 20.5 °C during the coolest months of August and September, when maximum temperatures are 29.1 °C and 30.3 °C for those months. The minimum relative humidity during the dry season (July to September) is 60%. Relative humidity ranges from 87% in April to 76% in November. Over the period of 1987 to 2012, the nearest weather station at Zanzibar Airport recorded an average annual rainfall of 1,583 mm (ranging from 704 mm to 2,459 mm), with monthly rainfall peaks in April and May (the main wet season), when 641 mm of rain fell during those two months, and November to December (the short rains), when over 375 mm of rain fell. This rainfall pattern is clearly predominantly bi-modal. Economy The people of the Unguja South Region participate in a variety of economic activities, with farming, fishing, tourism, seaweed farming, retail trade, and employment in the government among the major ones. The region's two main industries, farming and fishing, employ roughly 26% and 23% of the labor force, respectively. Tourism employs 14.5%, seaweed farming employs 24.5%, and all other activities combined employ 10.3%. Infrastructure The Region is connected to adjacent areas and to the entire Unguja Island by a decent network of tarmac roads. A number of feeder roads exist. Almost every village has a road that leads to it, with varying degrees of accessibility throughout the year. There aren't many feeder roads that are challenging to maneuver when it rains. Since there are numerous phone towers in this area and all major mobile phone operators have networks there, the coverage is adequate. Agriculture On the entire Unguja Island (or roughly 34% of the entire island), there are 528 km2 of agricultural land. Coconut, cloves, maize (678 ha), paddy (1813 ha), sorghum (228 ha), seaweed (142 ha), sweet potatoes (1955 ha), yams (789 ha), cocoyam (358 ha), and cassava (4,248 ha) are the main crops grown in the Unguja South region, according to the 2007/8 agricultural census. Other crops grown include okra, cabbage, bitter aubergine, radish, cowpeas, green peas, and many kinds of vegetables. 4,488 people work as seaweed farmers in the Unguja South region, largely in coastal communities on the district's eastern beaches, primarily in the communities near Chwaka Bay and as far south as Paje and Jambiani. The Unguja South region has roughly 33,003 cattle, 20,915 goats, 155,063 chickens, 3,900 ducks, and minor numbers of other species of livestock, making livestock rearing another significant agricultural activity. In the South Unguja Region, fishing is the third-largest industry after agriculture and tourism, employing 3,360 fishermen in addition to 1,681 foot fishers. In 2009, the South region's annual capture of fishery products was 3,331 tons, of which 1,535 tons were collected in the Kati District and 1,796 tons in the Kusini District. There are 1,386 different types of fishing boats total, including dinghy, dugout canoe, outrigger canoe, boats, and dhow. Tourism Beaches and hotels of all classes and standards may be found in South Unguja Region, which is very well known for them. In the South Unguja Region, 13.3% of families work directly in the tourism industry, which includes jobs in direct sales, product sales, dolphin tourism (at Kizimkazi), handcraft production and sales, and tour guiding. Although handcrafting and some hotel jobs, particularly housekeeping, are predominately held by women, the business is largely controlled by men. Between June and November, humpback whale sightings in the Zanzibar Channel are frequently reported to be only a few miles offshore. Bottlenose and humpback dolphin sightings are also frequent near the Zanzibar Channel reefs. The almost 250 bottlenose dolphins that live off Kizimkazi contribute to the area's main tourist draw. The Jozani Forest Nature Reserve, which has been expanded to include Chwaka Bay, is home to the Red Colubus Monkey, Zanzibar Duiker, and maybe Zanzibar Leopard as well. On the entire Unguja Island, there are 756 km2 of woodland (representing about 49% of the island) and 42 km2 of natural forest (representing about 3%). Unguja's protected woods and woodlands are primarily found in the South, in Jozani-Chwaka Bay. Population The first people in what is now Unguja South Region are the Hadimu, whom trace their ancestry to Pwani Region. Followed by the Swahili, Shirazi, Omani and Indian communities over the centuries. There are 115,588 people total in Unguja South Region, 57,708 females and 57,880 males. The region's population increased by more than 26% throughout the ten-year period, with an average annual growth rate of 2.33% between 2002 and 2012. From 104 people per square kilometer in 2002, the population density in the area increased to 131 people per square kilometer in 2012. 53.8% of people live in poverty in Unguja South, compared to a 49% total poverty incidence in Zanzibar (Zanzibar HBS, 2004/05). According to figures from 2006, 94.7% of males and 90.3% of women over the age of 15 were literate, while the under-five mortality rate in Unguja South was 114 (per 1,000 live births). Administrative divisions Districts Unguja South Region is divided into two districts, each administered by a council: Constituencies For parliamentary elections, Tanzania is divided into constituencies. As of the 2010 elections Zanzibar Central/South Region had five constituencies: Kati District Chwaka Constituency Koani Constituency Uzini Constituency Kusini District Makunduchi Constituency Muyuni Constituency Notable people from Unguja Kusini Region Samia Suluhu Hassan, 6th president of Tanzania Idris Abdul Wakil, 4th president of Zanzibar Mohamed Gharib Bilal, politician Muhammed Said Abdulla, novelist Bi Kidude, musician References External links Regions of Tanzania Geography of Zanzibar
191745	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Adverts	The Adverts	The Adverts were an English punk rock band formed in 1976 that existed until late 1979. They were one of the first punk bands to achieve mainstream success in the UK; their 1977 single "Gary Gilmore's Eyes" reached No. 18 on the UK Singles Chart. The Virgin Encyclopedia of 70s Music described bassist and founding member Gaye Advert as the "first female punk star". History The band was formed in 1976 by T. V. Smith (Tim Smith) and Gaye Advert (Gaye Black). Smith was from the town of Okehampton in mid-Devon, and Advert was from Bideford, a small coastal town in North Devon. After relocating to London, the two young punks recruited guitarist Howard Pickup (Boak) and drummer Laurie Driver (Muscat), and the Adverts were born. The Roxy, London's first live punk venue, played a crucial role in the Adverts’ early career. They were one of the pioneering bands who played at the club during its first 100 days. The Adverts played at the club no less than nine times between January and April 1977. In January 1977, after their first gig supporting Generation X, the band impressed Michael Dempsey so much that he became their manager. Their second gig supporting Slaughter & the Dogs was recorded, and their anthem "Bored Teenagers" was included on the 1977 UK Top 30 album The Roxy London WC2. In February, shortly after the band's third gig supporting the Damned, they signed a recording contract with Stiff Records. In March, the band supported the Jam at the Roxy. In April, the Adverts recorded the first of four sessions for John Peel at BBC Radio 1. Days later, on 29 April 1977, their debut single "One Chord Wonders" was released by Stiff. The single, "a headlong rush of energy", was recommended by both Melody Maker and Sounds. Understanding the band's limitations, the song's lyrics, composed by TV Smith, were likeably self-deprecating: I wonder what we’ll play for you tonight Something heavy or something light Something to set your soul alight I wonder how we’ll answer when you say ‘We don’t like you – go away Come back when you’ve learnt to play The Adverts were a prolific live act. Their first nationwide tour was with Stiff labelmates the Damned. The tour poster read: "The Damned can now play three chords, The Adverts can play one. Hear all four of them at..." Later they would support Iggy Pop on tour, as well as conducting their own headlining tours in Britain, Ireland and continental Europe. On 19 August 1977, the band released the first of their two UK Top 40 hit singles on Anchor Records. Lyrically, "Gary Gilmore's Eyes" was a controversial song based on the wishes of Gary Gilmore, an American murderer, that his eyes be donated to medical science after his execution. Sounds described it as "the sickest and cleverest record to come out of the new wave". It was later included in Mojo magazine's list of the best punk rock singles of all time. After the tabloid-fueled controversy surrounding the single, and an appearance on Top of the Pops, the Adverts became big news. Observers focused on frontman Smith and bassist Gaye Advert. Reviewers noted Smith's songwriting ability. He was said to have "captured the spirit of the times few contemporaries could match". Another reviewer described Smith as the band's "raging heart, spitting out the failsafe succession of songs which still delineate punk’s hopes, aspirations and, ultimately, regrets". In contrast, Gaye Advert's reputation was more fleeting. She was "one of punk’s first female icons". Her "photogenic" looks, "panda-eye make-up and omnipresent leather jacket defined the face of female punkdom until well into the next decade". The band's follow-up single, "Safety in Numbers", was released on 28 October but did not chart. A fourth single, "No Time to Be 21", issued on CBS subsidiary Bright Records on 20 January 1978, scraped into the UK Top 40. The band's debut album, Crossing the Red Sea was released by Bright on 17 February 1978. It has since become one of the most highly regarded albums of the punk era, with Dave Thompson calling it "a devastating debut, one of the finest albums not only of the punk era, but of the 1970s as a whole", Trouser Press calling it "the equal of the first Sex Pistols or Clash LP, a hasty statement that captures an exciting time", and several other writers including it in lists of all-time greatest albums. Switching to RCA Records, the Adverts released three additional well-regarded singles, "Television's Over" on 10 November 1978, "My Place" on 1 June 1979 and "Cast of Thousands" on 19 October 1979, but were unable to maintain their momentum. Their career stalled after the release of their second album Cast of Thousands, issued by RCA on 12 October 1979. For that album, the lineup was augmented by drummer Rod Latter (replacing Driver) and keyboardist Tim Cross. Pickup and Latter were then replaced by Paul Martinez (guitar) and Rick Martinez (drums). Shortly after the album's release, the band were threatened with lawsuits by former members Pickup and Latter, who objected to the band continuing to use the Adverts name without them. They split up shortly after the accidental death by electrocution of manager Dempsey. Their last gig was at Slough College on 27 October 1979. After the band ended, T.V. Smith continued with Cross as T.V. Smith's Explorers, then Cheap, and finally as a solo artist from the 1990s onward. In regards to their legacy, critic and author Dave Thompson argued that "nobody would make music like the Adverts and nobody ever has. In terms of lyric, delivery, commitment and courage, they were, and they remain, the finest British group of the late 1970s". Former members who have died include Cross (died 9 July 2012) and Pickup (died 11 July 1997). Discography Studio albums Crossing the Red Sea with the Adverts (1978, Bright Records) UK No. 38 Cast of Thousands (1979, RCA Records) Singles "One Chord Wonders" / "Quickstep" (1977, Stiff Records) "Gary Gilmore's Eyes" / "Bored Teenagers" (1977, Anchor Records) UK No. 18 "Safety in Numbers" / "We Who Wait" (1977, Anchor Records) UK No. 52 "No Time to Be 21" / "New Day Dawning" (1978, Bright Records) UK No. 34 "Television's Over" / "Back from the Dead" (1978, RCA Records) "My Place" / "New Church" (1979, RCA Records) "Cast of Thousands" / "I Will Walk You Home" (1979, RCA Records) EPs The Peel Sessions (1987, Strange Fruit Records) Live albums Live at the Roxy Club (1990, Receiver Records) Live and Loud !! (1992, Link Records) Compilation albums The Wonders Don’t Care: The Complete Radio Recordings (1997, Burning Airlines) The Punk Singles Collection (1997, Anagram Records) The Best of The Adverts (1998, Anagram Records) Anthology (2003, The Devils Own Jukebox) Selected compilation appearances "Gary Gilmore's Eyes" on 20 of Another Kind (1979, Polydor Records) UK No. 45 Burning Ambitions: A History of Punk (1984, Cherry Red Records) Indestructible the Indomitable Face of New Wave (1987, Receiver Records) The Best of 20 of Another Kind (1989, Castle Music) DIY: Punk, Power Pop, and New Wave 1976-1983 (1992, Rhino Records) Lipstick Traces (1993, Rough Trade Records) No Thanks! The '70s Punk Rebellion box set (2003, Rhino Records) New Wave Heroes (2006, Sony BMG Music Entertainment) 1977 - The Spirit of Punk (2007, Virgin Records) The Edge of the Seventies (2008, Sony BMG Music Entertainment) "One Chord Wonders" on Indestructible the Indomitable Face of New Wave (1987, Receiver Records) Lipstick Traces (1993, Rough Trade Records) No Thanks! The '70s Punk Rebellion box set (2003, Rhino Records) The Stiff Records Box Set box set (1992, Demon Records) 1-2-3-4 Punk & New Wave 1976-1979 box set (1999, Universal Records) Cash from Chaos box set (2001, EMI Records) The Great British Punk Rock Explosion (1991, Link Records) "Bored Teenagers" on The Roxy London WC2 (1977, Harvest Records) UK No. 24 The Roxy London WC2 - A Live Punk Box Set box set (2005, Castle Music) If the Kids Are United: The Punk Box Set box set (2008, Castle Music) "No Time to be 21" on The Great British Punk Rock Explosion (1991, Link Records) See also List of British punk bands List of musicians in the first wave of punk music List of Peel sessions Music of the United Kingdom (1970s) List of performers on Top of the Pops References Sources Further reading The Life & Times of T.V. Smith by Dave Thompson (1988, Private) External links The Adverts on www.punk77.co.uk The Adverts on Punkmodpop Interview with The Adverts on Trilogy Rock (Spain) Crossing the Punk with TV Smith Interview on Lafuriaumana.it English punk rock groups Musical groups from London Musical groups established in 1976 Musical groups disestablished in 1979 English musical quartets 1976 establishments in England 1979 disestablishments in England
74542048	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20birds%20of%20the%20British%20Indian%20Ocean%20Territory	List of birds of the British Indian Ocean Territory	List of birds of the British Indian Ocean Territory This is a list of the bird species recorded in the British Indian Ocean Territory. The avifauna of the British Indian Ocean Territory include a total of 136 species, of which 6 have been introduced by humans. This list's taxonomic treatment (designation and sequence of orders, families and species) and nomenclature (common and scientific names) follow the conventions of The Clements Checklist of the Birds of the World, 2022 edition. The family accounts at the beginning of each heading reflect this taxonomy, as do the species counts found in each family account. Introduced and accidental species are included in the total counts for the British Indian Ocean Territory. The British Indian Ocean Territory consists of islands of the Chagos Archipelago, the largest of which is Diego Garcia which has a military base on it. The public is not allowed on any of the islands. The following tags have been used to highlight several categories, but not all species fall into one of these categories. Those that do not are commonly occurring native species. (A) Accidental - a species that rarely or accidentally occurs in British Indian Ocean Territory (I) Introduced - a species introduced to British Indian Ocean Territory as a consequence, direct or indirect, of human actions Ducks, geese, and waterfowl Order: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These birds are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, flattened bills, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to an oily coating. Australian shelduck, Tadorna tadornoides Cotton pygmy-goose, Nettapus coromandelianus (A) Garganey, Spatula querquedula Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos Northern pintail, Anas acuta Guineafowl Order: GalliformesFamily: Numididae Guineafowl are a group of African, seed-eating, ground-nesting birds that resemble partridges, but with featherless heads and spangled grey plumage. Helmeted guineafowl, Numida meleagris (I) Pheasants, grouse, and allies Order: GalliformesFamily: Phasianidae The Phasianidae are a family of terrestrial birds which consists of quails, partridges, snowcocks, francolins, spurfowls, tragopans, monals, pheasants, peafowls and jungle fowls. In general, they are plump (although they vary in size) and have broad, relatively short wings. Red junglefowl, Gallus gallus (I) Flamingos Order: PhoenicopteriformesFamily: Phoenicopteridae Flamingos are gregarious wading birds, usually tall, found in both the Western and Eastern Hemispheres. Flamingos filter-feed on shellfish and algae. Their oddly shaped beaks are specially adapted to separate mud and silt from the food they consume and, uniquely, are used upside-down. Greater flamingo, Phoenicopterus roseus Pigeons and doves Order: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere. Rock pigeon, Columba livia Malagasy turtle-dove, 'Nesoenas picturatus Zebra dove, Geopelia striata (I) Swifts Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Apodidae Swifts are small birds which spend the majority of their lives flying. These birds have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces. Many swifts have long swept-back wings which resemble a crescent or boomerang. White-throated needletail, Hirundapus caudacutus Common swift, Apus apus Pacific swift, Apus pacificus (A) Rails, gallinules and coots Order: GruiformesFamily: Rallidae Rallidae is a large family of small to medium-sized birds which includes the rails, crakes, coots and gallinules. Typically they inhabit dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps or rivers. In general they are shy and secretive birds, making them difficult to observe. Most species have strong legs and long toes which are well adapted to soft uneven surfaces. They tend to have short, rounded wings and to be weak fliers. Eurasian moorhen, Gallinula chloropus (A) Watercock, Gallicrex cinerea White-breasted waterhen, Amaurornis phoenicurus Stilts and avocets Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Recurvirostridae Recurvirostridae is a family of large wading birds, which includes the avocets and stilts. The avocets have long legs and long up-curved bills. The stilts have extremely long legs and long, thin, straight bills. Black-winged stilt, Himantopus himantopus (A) Plovers and lapwings Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae The family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels and lapwings. They are small to medium-sized birds with compact bodies, short, thick necks and long, usually pointed, wings. They are found in open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water. Black-bellied plover, Pluvialis squatarola Pacific golden-plover, Pluvialis fulva Lesser sand-plover, Charadrius mongolus Greater sand-plover, Charadrius leschenaultii Kentish plover, Charadrius alexandrinus Common ringed plover, Charadrius hiaticula Little ringed plover, Charadrius dubius Oriental plover, Charadrius veredus Sandpipers and allies Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Scolopacidae Scolopacidae is a large diverse family of small to medium-sized shorebirds including the sandpipers, curlews, godwits, shanks, tattlers, woodcocks, snipes, dowitchers and phalaropes. The majority of these species eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or soil. Variation in length of legs and bills enables multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food. Whimbrel, Numenius phaeopus Far Eastern curlew, Numenius madagascariensis Eurasian curlew, Numenius arquata Bar-tailed godwit, Limosa lapponica Black-tailed godwit, Limosa limosa Ruddy turnstone, Arenaria interpres Ruff, Calidris pugnax Sharp-tailed sandpiper, Calidris acuminata Curlew sandpiper, Calidris ferruginea Temminck's stint, Calidris temminckii Long-toed stint, Calidris subminuta Red-necked stint, Calidris ruficollis Sanderling, Calidris alba Dunlin, Calidris alpina Little stint, Calidris minuta Pectoral sandpiper, Calidris melanotos Common snipe, Gallinago gallinago Pin-tailed snipe, Gallinago stenura Terek sandpiper, Xenus cinereus Red-necked phalarope, Phalaropus lobatus Common sandpiper, Actitis hypoleucos Green sandpiper, Tringa ochropus Gray-tailed tattler, Tringa brevipes Spotted redshank, Tringa erythropus Common greenshank, Tringa nebularia Marsh sandpiper, Tringa stagnatilis Wood sandpiper, Tringa glareola Common redshank, Tringa totanus Crab plover Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Dromadidae The crab plover is related to the waders. It resembles a plover but with very long grey legs and a strong heavy black bill similar to a tern. It has black-and-white plumage, a long neck, partially webbed feet and a bill designed for eating crabs. Crab-plover, Dromas ardeola Pratincoles and coursers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Glareolidae Glareolidae is a family of wading birds comprising the pratincoles, which have short legs, long pointed wings and long forked tails, and the coursers, which have long legs, short wings and long, pointed bills which curve downwards. Collared pratincole, Glareola pratincola Oriental pratincole, Glareola maldivarum Skuas and jaegers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Stercorariidae The family Stercorariidae are, in general, medium to large birds, typically with grey or brown plumage, often with white markings on the wings. They nest on the ground in temperate and arctic regions and are long-distance migrants. South Polar skua, Stercorarius maccormicki (A) Pomarine jaeger, Stercorarius pomarinus Parasitic jaeger, Stercorarius parasiticus Gulls, terns, and skimmers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Laridae Laridae is a family of medium to large seabirds, the gulls, terns and skimmers. Gulls are typically gray or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They have stout, longish bills and webbed feet. Terns are a group of generally medium to large seabirds typically with gray or white plumage, often with black markings on the head. Most terns hunt fish by diving but some pick insects off the surface of fresh water. Terns are generally long-lived birds, with several species known to live in excess of 30 years. Skimmers are a small family of tropical tern-like birds. They have an elongated lower mandible which they use to feed by flying low over the water surface and skimming the water for small fish. Lesser black-backed gull, Larus fuscus (A) Kelp gull, Larus dominicanus Brown noddy, Anous stolidus Lesser noddy, Anous tenuirostris White tern, Gygis alba Sooty tern, Onychoprion fuscatus Bridled tern, Onychoprion anaethetus Little tern, Sternula albifrons Saunders's tern Sternula saundersi Gull-billed tern Gelochelidon nilotica Black tern, Chlidonias niger White-winged tern, Chlidonias leucopterus Whiskered tern, Chlidonias hybrida (A) Roseate tern, Sterna dougallii Black-naped tern, Sterna sumatrana Common tern, Sterna hirundo Arctic tern, Sterna paradisaea White-cheeked tern, Sterna repressa Great crested tern, Thalasseus bengalensis Lesser crested tern, Thalasseus bergii Tropicbirds Order: PhaethontiformesFamily: Phaethontidae Tropicbirds are slender white birds of tropical oceans, with exceptionally long central tail feathers. Their heads and long wings have black markings. White-tailed tropicbird, Phaethon lepturus Red-billed tropicbird, Phaethon aethereus Red-tailed tropicbird, Phaethon rubricauda Southern storm-petrels Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Oceanitidae The southern storm-petrels are the smallest seabirds, relatives of the petrels, feeding on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. Their flight is fluttering and sometimes bat-like. Wilson's storm-petrel, Oceanites oceanicus White-faced storm-petrel, Pelagodroma marina Black-bellied storm-petrel, Fregetta tropica Northern storm-petrels Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Hydrobatidae Though the members of this family are similar in many respects to the southern storm-petrels, including their general appearance and habits, there are enough genetic differences to warrant their placement in a separate family. Swinhoe's storm-petrel, Hydrobates monorhis Matsudaira's storm-petrel, Hydrobates matsudairae Shearwaters and petrels Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Procellariidae The procellariids are the main group of medium-sized "true petrels", characterised by united nostrils with medium nasal septum, and a long outer functional primary flight feather. Southern giant-petrel, Macronectes giganteus (A) Bulwer's petrel, Bulweria bulwerii Jouanin's petrel, Bulweria fallax Tahiti petrel, Pseudobulweria rostrata Flesh-footed shearwater, Ardenna carneipes Wedge-tailed shearwater, Ardenna pacificus Tropical shearwater, Puffinus bailloni Persian shearwater, Puffinus persicus (A) Frigatebirds Order: SuliformesFamily: Fregatidae Frigatebirds are large seabirds usually found over tropical oceans. They are large, black, or black-and-white, with long wings and deeply forked tails. The males have coloured inflatable throat pouches. They do not swim or walk and cannot take off from a flat surface. Having the largest wingspan-to-body-weight ratio of any bird, they are essentially aerial, able to stay aloft for more than a week. Lesser frigatebird, Fregata ariel Great frigatebird, Fregata minor Boobies and gannets Order: SuliformesFamily: Sulidae The sulids comprise the gannets and boobies. Both groups are medium-large coastal seabirds that plunge-dive for fish. Masked booby, Sula dactylatra Brown booby, Sula leucogaster Red-footed booby, Sula sula Abbott's booby, Papasula abbotti (A) Herons, egrets, and bitterns Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Ardeidae The family Ardeidae contains the bitterns, herons, and egrets. Herons and egrets are medium to large wading birds with long necks and legs. Bitterns tend to be shorter necked and more wary. Members of Ardeidae fly with their necks retracted, unlike other long-necked birds such as storks, ibises, and spoonbills. Yellow bittern, Ixobrychus sinensis Cinnamon bittern, Ixobrychus cinnamomeus Grey heron, Ardea cinerea Purple heron, Ardea purpurea Great egret, Ardea alba Intermediate egret, Ardea intermedia Little egret, Egretta garzetta Cattle egret, Bubulcus ibis (A) Indian pond-heron, Ardeola grayii Striated heron, Butorides striatus Black-crowned night-heron, Nycticorax nycticorax Ibises and spoonbills Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Threskiornithidae Threskiornithidae is a family of large terrestrial and wading birds which includes the ibises and spoonbills. They have long, broad wings with 11 primary and about 20 secondary feathers. They are strong fliers and despite their size and weight, very capable soarers. Glossy ibis, Plegadis falcinellus Osprey Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Pandionidae The family Pandionidae contains only one species, the osprey. The osprey is a medium-large raptor which is a specialist fish-eater with a worldwide distribution. Osprey, Pandion haliaetus Hawks, eagles, and kites Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Accipitridae Accipitridae is a family of birds of prey, which includes hawks, eagles, kites, harriers and Old World vultures. These birds have powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons and keen eyesight. European honey-buzzard, Pernis apivorus Pied harrier, Circus melanoleucos White-bellied sea-eagle, Haliaeetus leucogaster Hoopoes Order: BucerotiformesFamily: Upupidae Hoopoes have black, white and orangey-pink colouring with a large erectile crest on their head. Eurasian hoopoe, Upupa epops Bee-eaters Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Meropidae The bee-eaters are a group of near passerine birds in the family Meropidae. Most species are found in Africa but others occur in southern Europe, Madagascar, Australia, and New Guinea. They are characterised by richly coloured plumage, slender bodies, and usually elongated central tail feathers. All are colourful and have long downturned bills and pointed wings, which give them a swallow-like appearance when seen from afar. Blue-cheeked bee-eater, Merops persicus Rollers Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Coraciidae Rollers resemble crows in size and build, but are more closely related to the kingfishers and bee-eaters. They share the colourful appearance of those groups with blues and browns predominating. The two inner front toes are connected, but the outer toe is not. European roller, Coracias garrulus Falcons and caracaras Order: FalconiformesFamily: Falconidae Falconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey. They differ from hawks, eagles, and kites in that they kill with their beaks instead of their talons. Lesser kestrel, Falco naumanni Amur falcon, Falco amurensis Lanner falcon, Falco biarmicus (A) Peregrine falcon, Falco peregrinus Crows, jays, and magpies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Corvidae The family Corvidae includes crows, ravens, jays, choughs, magpies, treepies, nutcrackers and ground jays. Corvids are above average in size among the Passeriformes, and some of the larger species show high levels of intelligence. House crow, Corvus splendens Swallows Order: PasseriformesFamily: Hirundinidae The family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings, and a short bill with a wide gape. The feet are adapted to perching rather than walking, and the front toes are partially joined at the base. Bank swallow, Riparia riparia Barn swallow, Hirundo rustica Common house-martin, Delichon urbicum Bulbuls Order: PasseriformesFamily: Pycnonotidae Bulbuls are medium-sized songbirds. Some are colourful with yellow, red or orange vents, cheeks, throats or supercilia, but most are drab, with uniform olive-brown to black plumage. Some species have distinct crests. Mauritius bulbul, Hypsipetes olivaceus (A) Starlings Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sturnidae Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds. Their flight is strong and direct and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country. They eat insects and fruit. Plumage is typically dark with a metallic sheen. Rosy starling, Pastor roseus Common myna, Acridotheres tristis (I) Weavers and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Ploceidae The weavers are small passerine birds related to the finches. They are seed-eating birds with rounded conical bills. The males of many species are brightly colored, usually in red or yellow and black, though some species show variation in color only in the breeding season. Red fody, Foudia madagascariensis (I) Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passeridae Sparrows are small passerine birds. In general, sparrows tend to be small, plump, brown or gray birds with short tails and short powerful beaks. Sparrows are seed eaters, but they also consume small insects. House sparrow, Passer domesticus (I) Wagtails and pipits Order: PasseriformesFamily: Motacillidae Motacillidae is a family of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They include the wagtails, longclaws and pipits. They are slender, ground feeding insectivores of open country. Grey wagtail, Motacilla cinerea Western yellow wagtail, Motacilla flava See also List of birds Lists of birds by region References British Indian Ocean Territory British Indian Ocean Territory
1655673	https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brights%20%28%D1%80%D1%83%D1%85%29	Brights (рух)	Brights (рух) Brights — суспільний рух прихильників натуралістичного світогляду, вільного від надприродних, паранормальних і містичних елементів. Заснований у 2003 році Полом Гейсертом і Мінгоєм Фатрелом. Цілі Рух прагне створити інтернет-співтовариство для досягнення наступних цілей: Сприяти розумінню і адекватному справедливому сприйняттю громадськістю «натуралістичного світогляду», вільного від містицизму і елементів надприродного. Отримати суспільне визнання того, що особи з таким світоглядом можуть вести принципову діяльність, роблячи значний вклад суспільно-політичні сфери життя. Навчити суспільства приймати осіб із таким світоглядом як рівноправних громадян. Виникнення руху обумовлено тим, що згідно з соціологічними дослідженнями в США прихильники атеїстичних поглядів сприймаються упереджено, стереотипно і користуються недостатньою довірою : У ході опитування громадської думки, проведеного в 1999 році групою Gallup, американцям задавали питання, чи проголосують вони за цілком гідного кандидата, якщо цей кандидат — жінка (ствердно відповіли 95%), католик (94%), єврей (92%), чорношкірий (92%), мормон (79%), гомосексуал (79%) або атеїст (49%). Історія Пол Гейсерт був вчителем біології в Чикаго в 1960-х, професором в 1970-х, підприємцем і письменником у 1980-х і співрозробником навчальних матеріалів та вебсайту для занять із релігії в державних школах в 1990-х. Під час прийняття рішення про участь у «Марші безбожних Американців на Вашингтон» у 2002 році, Полу не сподобалося визначення «безбожний». Він вирішив позбавити атеїзм від негативних асоціацій «безбожництва» і придумати іншу, більш позитивну назва для «спільноти здорового глузду». За аналогією зі словом «гей» (веселий, безтурботний), яке стало синонімом слова «гомосексуал», прибравши з нього негативну конотацію. Так з'явилася на світ назву «брайт» (англ. bright — яскравий; розумний, кмітливий). Працюючи з Мінгою Фатреллом, засновники руху Brights хотіли підключити і активізувати якомога більше не релігійних людей, що не беруть участь у вже наявних філософських організаціях. Для досягнення цієї мети вони створили не тільки визначення «Bright», але й ідею громадянського виборчого округу, який існував і функціонував би через Інтернет. Випробувавши цю ідею в перші місяці 2003 року, 4 червня 2003 вони запустили сайт Brights' Net (Мережа Brights). Первинну увагу руху забезпечили статті в Гардіан, Вайред і Нью-Йорк Таймс. Через рік число зареєстрованих членів Brights перевищувало десять тисяч у 85 країнах. Рух продовжував рости і прискорено набирати нових членів, у тому числі й завдяки дискусіям навколо «нового атеїзму» в засобах масової інформації, викликаним серією книг, що вийшла в кінці 2006 року: «Бог як ілюзія», «Порушення заклинань: релігія як природне явище», «Бог не любов», «Кінець віри» і «Лист до християнської нації». До січня 2010 року зареєстровано більше 50 000 членів Brights із 186 країн. Мережа Сайт «Мережа Brights» є комунікаційним і координаційним центром руху Brights. Сайт рекомендує пріоритетні проекти і сприяє формуванню місцевих груп, відомих як Brights' Local Constituencies (BLCs). Такі групи є в Лондоні, Парижі, декількох містах Сполучених Штатів та Канади, а також інших місцях по всьому світу. Тим не менше, всі члени Brights сприяють руху автономно. Жодна фізична або юридична особа, в тому числі директора «Мережі Brights» не можуть говорити за всіх Brights. Учасники Незважаючи на визначення себе як Brights, багато учасники руху також визначають свої погляди як атеїстичні, гуманістичні, світські гуманістичні, свободомислені, об'єктивістські, раціоналістичні, натуралістичні, матеріалістичні, агностичні, скептичні, апатеїстичні, або навіть натуралістичні пантеїстичні і т. ін. У кожному разі, "рух не пов'язаний із яким-небудь певним переконанням". Одна з цілей Мережі Brights — включити в лексику термін, що узагальнює все наявне "співтовариство розуму". Таким чином, особи, які можуть заявити про свій натуралістичний світогляд, використовуючи термін Brights, можуть виходити за межі знайомої світської категорії доти, доки вони не мають теїстичних світоглядів . Серед зареєстрованих учасників значаться і деякі представники духовенства, такі як міністри пресвітеріанської церкви і професор церкви Історії, висвячений у сан священика. Відомі прихильники Деніел Деннет Річард Докінз Стівен Пінкер Джеймс Ренді Шелдон лі Глешоу Массімо Пільюччі Критика Рух піддається критиці з боку деяких (як релігійних, так і не релігійних) організацій, які заперечують проти прийняття титулу "bright" (яскравий), оскільки вважають, що він дозволяє припустити, що люди з натуралістичним світоглядом розумніші ("яскравіші"), ніж не-натуралісти, такі, як філософські скептики або ідеалісти, які вірять у паранормальні явища, філософи теїзму або релігії. Наприклад, Комітет скептицизму опублікував статтю Кріса Муні під назвою "Не надто "яскраві"", в якій він заявив, що, хоча він згоден із рухом, Річард Докінз і Деніел Деннет у "кампанії з перейменування не-вірян в "яскравих" варто було би подумати двічі", через можливість невірного тлумачення терміна. Журналіст і відомий атеїст Крістофер Гітченс також знайшов його"марнославним". Див. також Атеїзм Гуманізм Науковий скептицизм Нетеїзм Секуляризм Примітки Посилання Офіційний сайт Brights Суспільні рухи Активізм Гуманізм Атеїзм Агностицизм Науковий скептицизм Критика релігії
26257152	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steady-state%20model	Steady-state model	Steady-state model In cosmology, the steady-state model or steady state theory is an alternative to the Big Bang theory. In the steady-state model, the density of matter in the expanding universe remains unchanged due to a continuous creation of matter, thus adhering to the perfect cosmological principle, a principle that says that the observable universe is always the same at any time and any place. From the 1940s to the 1960s, the astrophysical community was divided between supporters of the Big Bang theory and supporters of the steady-state theory. The steady-state model is now rejected by most cosmologists, astrophysicists, and astronomers. The observational evidence points to a hot Big Bang cosmology with a finite age of the universe, which the steady-state model does not predict. History The ancient Vedas state that the universe has no beginning or end but the things within go through recycling. The Vedic cause-effect theory states that the effect is caused in a different form. In the 13th century, Siger of Brabant authored the thesis The Eternity of the World, which argued that there was no first man, and no first specimen of any particular: the physical universe is thus without any first beginning, and therefore eternal. Siger's views were condemned by the pope in 1277. Cosmological expansion was originally seen through observations by Edwin Hubble. Theoretical calculations also showed that the static universe, as modeled by Albert Einstein (1917), was unstable. The modern Big Bang theory, first advanced by Father Georges Lemaître, is one in which the universe has a finite age and has evolved over time through cooling, expansion, and the formation of structures through gravitational collapse. On the other hand, the steady-state model says while the universe is expanding, it nevertheless does not change its appearance over time (the perfect cosmological principle). E.g., the universe has no beginning and no end. This required that matter be continually created in order to keep the universe's density from decreasing. Influential papers on the topic of a steady-state cosmology were published by Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle in 1948. Similar models had been proposed earlier by William Duncan MacMillan, among others. It is now known that Albert Einstein considered a steady-state model of the expanding universe, as indicated in a 1931 manuscript, many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold. However, Einstein abandoned the idea. Observational tests Counts of radio sources Problems with the steady-state model began to emerge in the 1950s and 60s – observations supported the idea that the universe was in fact changing. Bright radio sources (quasars and radio galaxies) were found only at large distances (therefore could have existed only in the distant past due to the effects of the speed of light on astronomy), not in closer galaxies. Whereas the Big Bang theory predicted as much, the steady-state model predicted that such objects would be found throughout the universe, including close to our own galaxy. By 1961, statistical tests based on radio-source surveys had ruled out the steady-state model in the minds of most cosmologists, although some proponents of the astronomers like Halton Arp insist that the radio data were suspect. X-ray background Gold and Hoyle (1959) considered that matter that is newly created exists in a region that is denser than the average density of the universe. This matter then may radiate and cool faster than the surrounding regions, resulting in a pressure gradient. This gradient would push matter into an over-dense region and result in a thermal instability and emit a large amount of plasma. However, Gould and Burbidge (1963) realized that the thermal bremsstrahlung radiation emitted by such a plasma would exceed the amount of observed X-rays. Therefore, in the steady-state cosmological model, thermal instability does not appear to be important in the formation of galaxy-sized masses. Cosmic microwave background For most cosmologists, the refutation of the steady-state model came with the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964, which was predicted by the Big Bang theory. The steady-state model explained microwave background radiation as the result of light from ancient stars that has been scattered by galactic dust. However, the cosmic microwave background level is very even in all directions, making it difficult to explain how it could be generated by numerous point sources, and the microwave background radiation shows no evidence of characteristics such as polarization that are normally associated with scattering. Furthermore, its spectrum is so close to that of an ideal black body that it could hardly be formed by the superposition of contributions from a multitude of dust clumps at different temperatures as well as at different redshifts. Steven Weinberg wrote in 1972: "The steady state model does not appear to agree with the observed dL versus z relation or with source counts ... In a sense, this disagreement is a credit to the model; alone among all cosmologies, the steady state model makes such definite predictions that it can be disproved even with the limited observational evidence at our disposal. The steady state model is so attractive that many of its adherents still retain hope that the evidence against it will eventually disappear as observations improve. However, if the cosmic microwave radiation ... is really black-body radiation, it will be difficult to doubt that the universe has evolved from a hotter denser early stage." Since this discovery, the Big Bang theory has been considered to provide the best explanation of the origin of the universe. In most astrophysical publications, the Big Bang is implicitly accepted and is used as the basis of more complete theories. Violations of the cosmological principle One of the fundamental assumptions of the steady-state model is the cosmological principle, which follows from the perfect cosmological principle and which states that our observational location in the universe is not unusual or special; on a large-enough scale, the universe looks the same in all directions (isotropy) and from every location (homogeneity). However, recent findings suggest that violations of the cosmological principle, especially of isotropy, exist, with some authors suggesting that the cosmological principle is now obsolete. Violations of isotropy Evidence from galaxy clusters, quasars, and type Ia supernovae suggest that isotropy is violated on large scales. Data from the Planck Mission shows hemispheric bias in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) in two respects: one with respect to average temperature (i.e. temperature fluctuations), the second with respect to larger variations in the degree of perturbations (i.e. densities). The European Space Agency (the governing body of the Planck Mission) has concluded that these anisotropies in the CMB are, in fact, statistically significant and can no longer be ignored. Already in 1967, Dennis Sciama predicted that the CMB has a significant dipole anisotropy. In recent years the CMB dipole has been tested and current results suggest our motion with respect to distant radio galaxies and quasars differs from our motion with respect to the CMB. The same conclusion has been reached in recent studies of the Hubble diagram of Type Ia supernovae and quasars. This contradicts the cosmological principle. The CMB dipole is hinted at through a number of other observations. First, even within the CMB, there are curious directional alignments and an anomalous parity asymmetry that may have an origin in the CMB dipole. Separately, the CMB dipole direction has emerged as a preferred direction in studies of alignments in quasar polarizations, scaling relations in galaxy clusters, strong lensing time delay, Type Ia supernovae, and quasars & gamma-ray bursts as standard candles. The fact that all these independent observables, based on different physics, are tracking the CMB dipole direction suggests that the Universe is anisotropic in the direction of the CMB dipole. Nevertheless, some authors have stated that the universe around Earth is isotropic at high significance by studies of the cosmic microwave background temperature maps. Violations of homogeneity Many large-scale structures have been discovered, and some authors have reported some of the structures to be in conflict with the homogeneity condition required for the cosmological principle, including The Clowes–Campusano LQG, discovered in 1991, which has a length of 580 Mpc The Sloan Great Wall, discovered in 2003, which has a length of 423 Mpc, U1.11, a large quasar group discovered in 2011, which has a length of 780 Mpc The Huge-LQG, discovered in 2012, which is three times longer than and twice as wide as is predicted possible according to ΛCDM The Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, discovered in November 2013, which has a length of 2000–3000 Mpc (more than seven times that of the SGW) The Giant Arc, discovered in June 2021, which has a length of 1000 Mpc Other authors claim that the existence of large-scale structures does not necessarily violate the cosmological principle. Quasi-steady state Quasi-steady-state cosmology (QSS) was proposed in 1993 by Fred Hoyle, Geoffrey Burbidge, and Jayant V. Narlikar as a new incarnation of the steady-state ideas meant to explain additional features unaccounted for in the initial proposal. The model suggests pockets of creation occurring over time within the universe, sometimes referred to as minibangs, mini-creation events, or little bangs. After the observation of an accelerating universe, further modifications of the model were made. The Planck particle is a hypothetical black hole whose Schwarzschild radius is approximately the same as its Compton wavelength; the evaporation of such a particle has been evoked as the source of light elements in an expanding steady-state universe. Astrophysicist and cosmologist Ned Wright has pointed out flaws in the model. These first comments were soon rebutted by the proponents. Wright and other mainstream cosmologists reviewing QSS have pointed out new flaws and discrepancies with observations left unexplained by proponents. See also Non-standard cosmology Copernican principle Large-scale structure of the cosmos Expansion of the universe References Further reading Burbidge, G., Hoyle, F., "The Origin of Helium and the Other Light Elements", The Astrophysical Journal, 509: L1–L3, 10 December 1998 Physical cosmology Obsolete theories in physics Cosmogony 1948 in science
3260436	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labetalol	Labetalol	Labetalol is a medication used to treat high blood pressure and in long term management of angina. This includes essential hypertension, hypertensive emergencies, and hypertension of pregnancy. In essential hypertension it is generally less preferred than a number of other blood pressure medications. It can be given by mouth or by injection into a vein. Common side effects include low blood pressure with standing, dizziness, feeling tired, and nausea. Serious side effects may include low blood pressure, liver problems, heart failure, and bronchospasm. Use appears safe in the latter part of pregnancy and it is not expected to cause problems during breastfeeding. It works by blocking the activation of β- and α-adrenergic receptors. Labetalol was patented in 1966 and came into medical use in 1977. It is available as a generic medication. In 2021, it was the 213th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 2million prescriptions. Medical uses Labetalol is effective in the management of hypertensive emergencies, postoperative hypertension, pheochromocytoma-associated hypertension, and rebound hypertension from beta blocker withdrawal. It has a particular indication in the treatment of pregnancy-induced hypertension which is commonly associated with pre-eclampsia. It is also used as an alternative in the treatment of severe hypertension. Special populations Pregnancy: studies in lab animals showed no harm to the baby. However, a comparable well-controlled study has not been performed in pregnant women. Nursing: breast milk has been shown to contain small amounts of labetalol (0.004% original dose). Prescribers should be cautious in the use of labetalol for nursing mothers. Pediatric: no studies have established safety or usefulness in this population. Geriatric: the elderly are more likely to experience dizziness when taking labetalol. Labetalol should be dosed with caution in the elderly and counseled on this side effect. Side effects Common Neurologic: headache (2%), dizziness (11%) Gastrointestinal: nausea (6%), dyspepsia (3%) Cholinergic: nasal congestion (3%), ejaculation failure (2%) Respiratory: dyspnea (2%) Other: fatigue (5%), vertigo (2%), orthostatic hypotension Low blood pressure with standing is more severe and more common with IV formulation (58% vs 1%) and is often the reason larger doses of the oral formulation cannot be used. Rare Fever Muscle cramps Dry eyes Heart block Hyperkalemia Hepatotoxicity Drug eruption similar to lichen planus Hypersensitivity – which may result in a lethal respiratory distress Contraindications Labetalol is contraindicated in people with overt cardiac failure, greater-than-first-degree heart block, severe bradycardia, cardiogenic shock, severe hypotension, anyone with a history of obstructive airway disease including asthma, and those with hypersensitivity to the drug. Pharmacology Mechanism of action Labetalol is a beta blocker, or an antagonist of the β-adrenergic receptors. It is specifically a non-selective antagonist of the β1- and β2-adrenergic receptors. Labetalol has intrinsic sympathomimetic activity. It is also an antagonist of the α1-adrenergic receptor, and hence is additionally an alpha blocker. The antagonism of the adrenergic receptors by labetalol is competitive against other catecholamines and its actions on the receptors are potent and reversible. Labetalol is about equipotent in blocking β1- and β2-adrenergic receptors. The amount of α to β blockade depends on whether labetalol is administered orally or intravenously (IV). Orally, the ratio of α to β blockade is 1:3. Intravenously, α to β blockade ratio is 1:7. Thus, the labetalol can be thought to be a beta blocker with some α-blocking effects. By comparison, labetalol is a weaker β-adrenergic receptor blocker than propranolol, and has a weaker affinity for α-adrenergic receptors compared to phentolamine. Labetalol's dual α- and β-adrenergic antagonism has different physiological effects in short- and long-term situations. In short-term, acute situations, labetalol decreases blood pressure by decreasing systemic vascular resistance with little effect on stroke volume, heart rate and cardiac output. During long-term use, labetalol can reduce heart rate during exercise while maintaining cardiac output by an increase in stroke volume. Labetalol possesses significant intrinsic sympathomimetic activity. In particular, it is a partial agonist at β2-adrenergic receptors located in the vascular smooth muscle. Labetalol relaxes vascular smooth muscle by a combination of this partial β2-adrenergic receptor agonism and through α1-adrenergic receptor blockade. Overall, this vasodilatory effect can decrease blood pressure. Similar to local anesthetics and sodium channel blocking antiarrhythmics, labetalol also has membrane stabilizing activity. By decreasing sodium entry, labetalol decreases action potential firing and thus has local anesthetic activity. Physiological action The physiological effects of labetalol when administered acutely (intravenously) are not predictable solely by their receptor blocking effect, i.e. blocking β1-adrenergic receptors should decrease heart rate, but labetalol does not. When labetalol is given in acute situations, it decreases the peripheral vascular resistance and systemic blood pressure while having little effect on the heart rate, cardiac output and stroke volume, despite its α1-, β1- and β2-adrenergic receptor blocking mechanism. These effects are mainly seen when the person is in the upright position. Long term labetalol use also has different effects from other beta blockers. Other beta blockers, such as propranolol, persistently reduce cardiac output during exercise. The peripheral vascular resistance decreases when labetalol is first administered. Continuous labetalol use further decreases peripheral vascular resistance. However, during exercise, cardiac output remains the same due to a compensatory mechanism that increases stroke volume. Thus, labetalol is able to reduce heart rate during exercise while maintaining cardiac output by the increase in stroke volume. Pharmacokinetics Labetalol is classified as a beta blocker with low lipophilicity and hence lower potential for crossing the blood–brain barrier. This in turn may result in fewer effects in the central nervous system as well as a lower risk of neuropsychiatric side effects. In accordance, labetalol, in animal models, was found to cross the blood–brain-barrier in only negligible amounts. Chemistry The minimum requirement for adrenergic agents is a primary or secondary amine separated from a substituted benzene ring by one or two carbons. This configuration results in strong agonist activity. As the size of the substituent attached to the amine becomes greater, particularly with respect to a t-butyl group, then the molecule typically is found to have receptor affinity without intrinsic activity, and is, therefore, an antagonist. Labetalol, with its 1-methyl-3-phenylpropyl substituted amine, is greater in size relative to a t-butyl group and therefore acts predominantly as an antagonist. The overall structure of labetalol is very polar. This was created by substituting the isopropyl group in the standard beta blocker structure with an aralkyl group, including a carboxamide group on the meta position, and by adding a hydroxyl group on the para position. Labetalol has two chiral carbons and consequently exists as four stereoisomers. Two of these isomers, the (S,S)- and (R,S)- forms are inactive. The third, the (S,R)-isomer, is a powerful α1-adrenergic receptor blocker. The fourth isomer, the (R,R)-isomer which is also known as dilevalol, is a mixed non-selective β-adrenergic receptor blocker and selective α1 blocker. Labetalol is typically given as a racemic mixture to achieve both α- and β-adrenergic receptor blocking activity. Labetalol acts by blocking α- and β-adrenergic receptors, resulting in decreased peripheral vascular resistance without significant alteration of heart rate or cardiac output. The β:α antagonism of labetalol is approximately 3:1. It is chemically designated in International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) nomenclature as 2-hydroxy-5-[1-hydroxy-2-[(1-methyl-3-phenylpropyl)amino]ethyl]benzamide monohydrochloride. History Labetalol was the first drug created that combined both α- and β-adrenergic receptor blocking properties. It was created to potentially fix the compensatory reflex issue that occurred when blocking a single receptor subtype, i.e. vasoconstriction after blocking β-adrenergic receptors or tachycardia after blocking α-adrenergic receptors. Because the reflex from blocking the single receptor subtypes acted to prevent the lowering of blood pressure, it was postulated that weak blocking of both α- and β-adrenergic receptors could work together to decrease blood pressure. References Alpha-1 blockers Beta blockers CYP2D6 inhibitors Hepatotoxins Peripherally selective drugs Phenylethanolamines Salicylamides Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
507152	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Wilkins	Charles Wilkins	Charles Wilkins Sir Charles Wilkins (1749 – 13 May 1836) was an English typographer and Orientalist, and founding member of The Asiatic Society. He is notable as the first translator of Bhagavad Gita into English. He is also the first person to introduce the term Hinduism which would refer to all the different mythologies and cultures of which were existing in India as one. He supervised Panchanan Karmakar to create one of the first Bengali typefaces. In 1788, Wilkins was elected a member of the Royal Society. Birth and childhood He was born at Frome in Somerset in 1749. He trained as a printer. In 1770, he went to India as a printer and writer in the East India Company's service. His facility with language allowed him to quickly learn Persian and Bengali. He created with his own hands the first type for printing Bengali. He published the first typeset book in the language, earning himself the name "the Caxton of India". He also designed type for publications of books in Persian. In 1781, he was appointed as translator of Persian and Bengali to the Commissioner of Revenue and as superintendent of the company's press. He successfully translated a Royal inscription in Kutila characters, which were thitherto indecipherable. In 1784, Wilkins helped William Jones establish the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Work Wilkins moved to Varanasi, where he studied Sanskrit under Kalinatha, a Brahmin pandit. At this period he began work on his translation of the Mahabharata, securing strong support for his activities from the governor of British India, Warren Hastings. Though he never completed the translation, portions were later published. The most important was his version of the Gita, published in 1785 as 'Bhagvat-geeta', or Dialogues of Krishna and Arjun (London: Nourse, 1785). In his preface Wilkins argued that the Gita was written to encourage a form of monotheist "unitarianism" and to draw Hinduism away from the polytheism he ascribed to the Vedas. He had a hobby to learn about other religions. He was also a scholar of Islam. He stayed in India for 16 years (1770–1786). He also made visits to holy shrines of other religions to learn about their customs. During a visit to Varanasi, he made a stop at Patna, and visited Patna Sahib Gurudwara, the birthplace of Guru Gobind Singh Ji. He wrote his account of this visit titled as 'Sikhs and their College at Patna'. He writes about Dasam Granth there and notes in this article. Meanwhile, inscriptions of the 6th century CE in late Brahmi script were deciphered in 1785 by Charles Wilkins, who published an essentially correct translation of the Gopika Cave Inscription written by the Maukhari king Anantavarman. Wilkins seems to have relied essentially on the similarities with later Brahmic scripts, such as the script of the Pala period and early forms of Devanagari. Translation to other languages His translation of the Gita was itself soon translated into French (1787) and German (1802). It proved to be a major influence on Romantic literature and on European perception of Hindu philosophy. William Blake later celebrated the publication in his picture The Bramins, exhibited in 1809, which depicted Wilkins and Brahmin scholars working on the translation. With Hastings' departure from India, Wilkins lost his main patron. He returned to England in 1786, where he married Elizabeth Keeble. In 1787 Wilkins followed the Gita with his translation of The Heetopades of Veeshnoo-Sarma, in a Series of Connected Fables, Interspersed with Moral, Prudential and Political Maxims (Bath: 1787). He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1788. In 1800, he was invited to take up the post of the first director of the India House Library, which became over time the world-famous 'India Office Library' (now British Library – Oriental Collections). In 1801 he became librarian to the East India Company, He was named examiner at Haileybury when a college was established there in 1805. During these years he devoted himself to the creation of a font for Devanagari, the "divine script". In 1808 he published his Grammar of the Sanskrita Language. King George IV gave him the badge of the Royal Guelphic Order and he was knighted in recognition of his services to Oriental scholarship in 1833. He died in London at the age of 86. In addition to his own translations and type designs, Wilkins published a new edition of John Richardson's Persian and Arabic dictionary – A Vocabulary Persian, Arabic, and English; Abridged from the Quarto Edition of Richardson's Dictionary as Edited by Charles Wilkins, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S. – By David Hopkins, Esq., Assistant Surgeon on the Bengal Establishment in 1810. He also published a catalogue of the manuscripts collected by Sir William Jones, who acknowledged his indebtedness to Wilkins. Publications See also Royal Society—Wilkins was elected to membership in the Society in 1788. Those signing that nomination letter were: James Rennell, William Marsden, Charles Blagden, Alexander Dalrymple, Samuel Harper, George Staunton, Thomas Astle. Notes References . (1837). The Annual biography and obituary for the year 1817–1837. London: Longmans. Rost, Reinhold. (1865). Works by the late Horace Hayman Wilson. London: Trubner. External links Charles Wilkins at Banglapedia 1749 births 1836 deaths English Indologists English orientalists English typographers and type designers Fellows of the Royal Society People from Frome Sanskrit–English translators Translators of the Bhagavad Gita
646067	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submandibular%20gland	Submandibular gland	Submandibular gland The paired submandibular glands (historically known as submaxillary glands) are major salivary glands located beneath the floor of the mouth. In adult humans, they each weigh about 15 grams and contribute some 60–67% of unstimulated saliva secretion; on stimulation their contribution decreases in proportion as parotid gland secretion rises to 50%. The average length of the normal adult human submandibular salivary gland is approximately 27 mm, while the average width is approximately 14.3 mm. Structure Each submandibular gland is divided into a superficial lobe and a deep lobe, the two being separated by the mylohyoid muscle: The superficial lobe comprises most of the gland, with the mylohyoid muscle runs under it The deep lobe is the smaller part Submandibular duct Secretions are delivered into the submandibular duct on the deep portion after which they hook around the posterior edge of the mylohyoid muscle and proceed on the superior surface laterally. The excretory ducts are then crossed by the lingual nerve, and ultimately drain into the sublingual caruncles – small prominences on either side of the lingual frenulum along with the major sublingual duct. The gland can be bilaterally palpated (felt) inferior and posterior to the body of the mandible, moving inward from the inferior border of the mandible near its angle with the head tilted forwards. Submandibular gland papilla The terminal part of the submandibular (Wharton's) duct is located in the mouth floor and opens as an orifice of the submandibular duct papilla. The position of the duct and its 0.5–1.5 mm wide ostium is invariably symmetric, but quite unpredictable; consequently, submandibular duct papillae can occasionally be challenging to recognize. Based on the macroscopic appearance of the papillae and a sialoendoscopic approach, Anicin et al. described four different types of submandibular gland papillae: types A, B, C, and D. Microanatomy Lobes contain smaller lobules, which contain adenomeres, the secretory units of the gland. Each adenomere contains one or more acini, or alveoli, which are small clusters of cells that secrete their products into a duct. The acini of each adenomere are composed of either serous or mucous cells, with serous adenomeres predominating. Some mucous adenomeres may also be capped with a serous demilune, a layer of lysozyme-secreting serous cells resembling a half moon. Like other exocrine glands, the submandibular gland can be classified by the microscopic anatomy of its secretory cells and how they are arranged. Because the glands are branched, and because the tubules forming the branches contain secretory cells, submandibular glands are classified as branched tubuloacinar glands. Further, because the secretory cells are of both serous and mucous types, the submandibular gland is a mixed gland, and though most of the cells are serous, the exudate is chiefly mucous. It has long striated ducts and short intercalated ducts. The secretory acinar cells of the submandibular gland have distinct functions. The mucous cells are the most active and therefore the major product of the submandibular glands is saliva which is mucoid in nature. Mucous cells secrete mucin which aids in the lubrication of the food bolus as it travels through the esophagus. In addition, the serous cells produce salivary amylase, which aids in the breakdown of starches in the mouth. The submandibular gland's highly active acini account for most of the salivary volume. The parotid and sublingual glands account for the remaining. Blood supply The gland receives its blood supply from the facial and lingual arteries. The gland is supplied by sublingual and submental arteries and drained by common facial and lingual veins. Lymphatic drainage The lymphatics from submandibular gland first drain into submandibular lymph nodes and subsequently into jugulo - digastric lymph nodes. Nerve supply Their secretions, like the secretions of other salivary glands, are regulated directly by the parasympathetic nervous system and indirectly by the sympathetic nervous system. Parasympathetic innervation to the submandibular glands is provided by the superior salivatory nucleus via the chorda tympani, a branch of the facial nerve, that becomes part of the trigeminal nerve's lingual nerve prior to synapsing on the submandibular ganglion. Increased parasympathetic activity promotes the secretion of saliva. The sympathetic nervous system regulates submandibular secretions through vasoconstriction of the arteries that supply it. Increased sympathetic activity reduces glandular bloodflow, thereby decreasing the volume of fluid in salivary secretions, producing an enzyme rich mucous saliva. Nevertheless, direct stimulation of sympathetic nerves will cause an increase in salivary enzymatic secretions. In sum, the volume decreases, but the secretions are increased by parasympathetic and sympathetic innervation. Relations The submandibular gland occurs within the submandibular triangle. It is situated posteroinferior to the ramus of mandible, and between the two bellies of the digastric muscle. Development The submandibular salivary glands develop later than the parotid glands and appear late in the sixth week of prenatal development. They develop bilaterally from epithelial buds in the sulcus surrounding the sublingual folds on the floor of the primitive mouth. Solid cords branch from the buds and grow posteriorly, lateral to the developing tongue. The cords of the submandibular gland later branch further and then become canalized to form the ductal part. The submandibular gland acini develop from the cords’ rounded terminal ends at 12 weeks, and secretory activity via the submandibular duct begins at 16 weeks. Growth of the submandibular gland continues after birth with the formation of more acini. Lateral to both sides of the tongue, a linear groove develops and closes over to form the submandibular duct. Function The submandibular gland is one of the major three glands that provide the mouth with saliva. The two other types of salivary glands are parotid and sublingual glands. The submandibular gland releases a host of factors which regulate systemic inflammatory responses and modulate systemic immune and inflammatory reactions. Early work in identifying factors that played a role in the cervical sympathetic trunk-submandibular gland (CST-SMG) axis lead to the discovery of a seven amino acid peptide, called the submandibular gland peptide-T. SGP-T was demonstrated to have biological activity and thermoregulatory properties related to endotoxin exposure. SGP-T, an isolate of the submandibular gland, demonstrated its immunoregulatory properties and potential role in modulating the CST-SMG axis, and subsequently was shown to play an important role in the control of inflammation. Clinical significance The submandibular gland accounts for 80% of all salivary duct calculi (salivary stones or sialolith), possibly due to the different nature of the saliva that it produces and the tortuous travel of the submandibular duct to its ductal opening for a considerable upward distance. Benign and malignant tumors can also develop in the submandibular gland (see pie chart). Additional images Dissection images See also Submandibular duct Immune-selective anti-inflammatory derivative (ImSAID) References External links Histology at usc.edu - "Anterior Triangle of the Neck: Nerves and Vessels of the Carotid Triangle" - "Oral Cavity: The Submandibular Gland and Duct" Salivary gland cancer from American Cancer Society at http://www.cancer.org/cancer/salivaryglandcancer/detailedguide/salivary-gland-cancer-what-is-salivary-gland-cancer Glands of mouth Otorhinolaryngology
349303	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi%20Arabia	Saudi Arabia	Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in West Asia and the Middle East. It covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about , making it the fifth-largest country in Asia and the largest in the Middle East. It is bordered by the Red Sea to the west; Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait to the north; the Persian Gulf, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates to the east; Oman to the southeast; and Yemen to the south. Bahrain is an island country off its east coast. The Gulf of Aqaba in the northwest separates Saudi Arabia from Egypt and Israel. Saudi Arabia is the only country with a coastline along both the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, and most of its terrain consists of arid desert, lowland, steppe, and mountains. The capital and largest city is Riyadh; the kingdom also hosts Islam's two holiest cities of Mecca and Medina. Pre-Islamic Arabia, the territory that constitutes modern-day Saudi Arabia, was the site of several ancient cultures and civilizations; the prehistory of Saudi Arabia shows some of the earliest traces of human activity outside Africa. The world's second-largest religion, Islam, emerged in what is now Saudi Arabia. In the early 7th century, the Islamic prophet Muhammad united the population of the Arabian Peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering territories in North Africa, Central, South Asia and Iberia in a matter of decades. Arab dynasties originating from modern-day Saudi Arabia founded the Rashidun (632–661), Umayyad (661–750), Abbasid (750–1517), and Fatimid (909–1171) caliphates, as well as numerous other dynasties in Asia, Africa, and Europe. The area of modern-day Saudi Arabia formerly consisted of mainly four distinct historical regions: Hejaz, Najd, and parts of Eastern Arabia (Al-Ahsa) and South Arabia ('Asir). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by King Abdulaziz (known as Ibn Saud in the West). He united the four regions into a single state through a series of conquests beginning in 1902 with the capture of Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud. Saudi Arabia has since been an absolute monarchy, where political decisions are made on the basis of consultation among the King, the Council of Ministers, and the country's traditional elites that oversee a highly authoritarian regime. The ultraconservative Wahhabi religious movement within Sunni Islam was described as a "predominant feature of Saudi culture" until the 2000s. In 2016, the Saudi Arabian government curtailed the influence of the Wahhabi religious establishment and restricted the activities of the morality police and launched various Westernization policies such as the economic programme of Saudi Vision 2030. In its Basic Law, Saudi Arabia defines itself as a sovereign Arab Islamic state with Islam as its official religion and Arabic as its official language. Petroleum was discovered in 1938 and followed up by several other finds in the Eastern Province. Saudi Arabia has since become the world's third-largest oil producer and largest oil exporter, controlling the world's second-largest oil reserves and the sixth-largest gas reserves. The kingdom is categorized as a World Bank high-income economy and is the only Arab country to be part of the G20 major economies. The Saudi government has attracted criticism for various policies such as its intervention in the Yemeni Civil War, alleged sponsorship of terrorism as well as for its use of executions. Saudi Arabia is considered both a regional and middle power. The Saudi economy is the largest in the Middle East; the world's nineteenth-largest economy by nominal GDP and the seventeenth largest by PPP. As a country with a very high Human Development Index, it offers a tuition-free university education, no personal income tax, and a free universal health care system. With its dependency on foreign labour, Saudi Arabia is home to the world's third-largest immigrant population. It also has one of the world's youngest populations, with approximately 50% of its population of 32.2 million being under 25 years old. In addition to being a member of the Gulf Cooperation Council, Saudi Arabia is an active and founding member of the United Nations, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Arab League, Arab Air Carriers' Organization and OPEC. Saudi Arabia is a dialogue partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. Etymology Following the amalgamation of the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd, the new state was named al-Mamlaka al-ʿArabiyya as-Suʿūdiyya (a transliteration of in Arabic) by royal decree on 23 September 1932 by its founder, Abdulaziz bin Saud. Although this is normally translated as "the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" in English, it literally means "the Saudi Arab Kingdom", or "the Arab Saudi Kingdom". The word "Saudi" is derived from the element as-Suʿūdīyya in the Arabic name of the country, which is a type of adjective known as a nisba, formed from the dynastic name of the Saudi royal family, the Al Saud. Its inclusion expresses the view that the country is the personal possession of the royal family. Al Saud is an Arabic name formed by adding the word Al, meaning "family of" or "House of", to the personal name of an ancestor. In the case of Al Saud, this is Saud ibn Muhammad ibn Muqrin, the father of the dynasty's 18th-century founder, Muhammad bin Saud. History Prehistory There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about years ago. A 2011 study found that the first modern humans to spread east across Asia left Africa about years ago across the Bab-el-Mandeb connecting the Horn of Africa and Arabia. The Arabian Peninsula is regarded as central to the understanding of evolution and dispersals of Man. Arabia underwent an extreme environmental fluctuation in the Quaternary that led to profound evolutionary and demographic changes. Arabia has a rich Lower Paleolithic record, and the quantity of Oldowan-like sites in the region indicate a significant role that Arabia had played in the early hominin colonization of Eurasia. In the Neolithic period, prominent cultures such as Al-Magar, whose centre lay in modern-day southwestern Najd, flourished. Al-Magar could be considered a "Neolithic Revolution" in human knowledge and handicraft skills. The culture is characterized as being one of the world's first to involve the widespread domestication of animals, particularly the horse, during the Neolithic period. Al-Magar statues were made from local stone, and it seems that the statues were fixed in a central building that might have had a significant role in the social and religious life of the inhabitants. In November 2017, hunting scenes showing images of most likely domesticated dogs (resembling the Canaan Dog) and wearing leashes were discovered in Shuwaymis, a hilly region of northwestern Saudi Arabia. These rock engravings date back more than years, making them the earliest depictions of dogs in the world. At the end of the 4th millennium BC, Arabia entered the Bronze Age; metals were widely used, and the period was characterized by its 2 m high burials which were simultaneously followed by the existence of numerous temples that included many free-standing sculptures originally painted with red colours. In May 2021, archaeologists announced that a -year-old Acheulean site named An Nasim in the Hail region could be the oldest human habitation site in northern Saudi Arabia. 354 artefacts, including hand axes and stone tools, provided information about tool-making traditions of the earliest living man inhabited south-west Asia. Paleolithic artefacts are similar to material remains uncovered at the Acheulean sites in the Nefud Desert. Pre-Islamic The earliest sedentary culture in Saudi Arabia dates back to the Ubaid period at Dosariyah. Climatic change and the onset of aridity may have brought about the end of this phase of settlement, as little archaeological evidence exists from the succeeding millennium. The settlement of the region picks up again in the period of Dilmun in the early 3rd millennium. Known records from Uruk refer to a place called Dilmun, associated on several occasions with copper, and in later periods it was a source of imported woods in southern Mesopotamia. Scholars have suggested that Dilmun originally designated the eastern province of Saudi Arabia, notably linked with the major Dilmunite settlements of Umm an-Nussi and Umm ar-Ramadh in the interior and Tarout on the coast. It is likely that Tarout Island was the main port and the capital of Dilmun. Mesopotamian inscribed clay tablets suggests that, in the early period of Dilmun, a form of hierarchical organized political structure existed. In 1966, an earthwork in Tarout exposed an ancient burial field that yielded a large statue dating to the Dilmunite period (mid 3rd millennium BC). The statue was locally made under the strong Mesopotamian influence on the artistic principle of Dilmun. By 2200 BC, the centre of Dilmun shifted for unknown reasons from Tarout and the Saudi Arabian mainland to the island of Bahrain, and a highly developed settlement emerged there, where a laborious temple complex and thousands of burial mounds dating to this period were discovered. By the late Bronze Age, a historically recorded people and land (Midian and the Midianites) in the north-western portion of Saudi Arabia are well-documented in the Bible. Centred in Tabouk, it stretched from Wadi Arabah in the north to the area of al-Wejh in the south. The capital of Midian was Qurayyah, it consists of a large, fortified citadel encompassing 35 hectares and below it lies a walled settlement of 15 hectares. The city hosted as many as 12,000 inhabitants. The Bible recounts Israel's two wars with Midian, somewhere in the early 11th century BC. Politically, the Midianites were described as having a decentralized structure headed by five kings (Evi, Rekem, Tsur, Hur, and Reba); the names appears to be toponyms of important Midianite settlements. It is common to view that Midian designated a confederation of tribes, the sedentary element settled in the Hijaz while its nomadic affiliates pastured and sometimes pillaged as far away as Palestine. The nomadic Midianites were one of the earliest exploiters of the domestication of camels that enabled them to navigate through the harsh terrains of the region. At the end of the 7th century BC, an emerging kingdom appeared in north-western Arabia. It started as a sheikdom of Dedan, which developed into the kingdom of Lihyan. During this period, Dedan transformed into a kingdom that encompassed a much wider domain. In the early 3rd century BC, with bustling economic activity between the south and north, Lihyan acquired large influence suitable to its strategic position on the caravan road. The Lihyanites ruled over a large domain from Yathrib in the south and parts of the Levant in the north. In antiquity, Gulf of Aqaba used to be called Gulf of Lihyan, a testimony to the extensive influence that Lihyan acquired. The Lihyanites fell into the hands of the Nabataeans around 65 BC upon their seizure of Hegra then marching to Tayma, and to their capital Dedan in 9 BC. The Nabataeans ruled large portions of north Arabia until their domain was annexed by the Roman Empire, which renamed it Arabia Petraea, and remained under the rule of the Romans until 630. Middle Ages and rise of Islam Shortly before the advent of Islam, apart from urban trading settlements (such as Mecca and Medina), much of what was to become Saudi Arabia was populated by nomadic pastoral tribal societies. The Islamic prophet Muhammad was born in Mecca in about 570 CE. In the early 7th century, Muhammad united the various tribes of the peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering territory in the Iberian Peninsula in the west to parts of Central and South Asia in the east in a matter of decades. Arabia became a more politically peripheral region of the Muslim world as the focus shifted to the newly conquered lands. Arabs originating from modern-day Saudi Arabia, the Hejaz in particular, founded the Rashidun (632–661), Umayyad (661–750), Abbasid (750–1517), and the Fatimid (909–1171) caliphates. From the 10th century to the early 20th century, Mecca and Medina were under the control of a local Arab ruler known as the Sharif of Mecca, but at most times the sharif owed allegiance to the ruler of one of the major Islamic empires based in Baghdad, Cairo or Istanbul. Most of the remainder of what became Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule. For much of the 10th century, the Isma'ili-Shi'ite Qarmatians were the most powerful force in the Persian Gulf. In 930, the Qarmatians pillaged Mecca, outraging the Muslim world, particularly with their theft of the Black Stone. In 1077–1078, an Arab sheikh named Abdullah bin Ali Al Uyuni defeated the Qarmatians in Bahrain and al-Hasa with the help of the Seljuq Empire and founded the Uyunid dynasty. The Uyunid Emirate later underwent expansion with its territory stretching from Najd to the Syrian Desert. They were overthrown by the Usfurids in 1253. Usfurid rule was weakened after Persian rulers of Hormuz captured Bahrain and Qatif in 1320. The vassals of Ormuz, the Shia Jarwanid dynasty came to rule eastern Arabia in the 14th century. The Jabrids took control of the region after overthrowing the Jarwanids in the 15th century and clashed with Hormuz for more than two decades over the region for its economic revenues, until finally agreeing to pay tribute in 1507. Al-Muntafiq tribe later took over the region and came under Ottoman suzerainty. The Bani Khalid tribe later revolted against them in the 17th century and took control. Their rule extended from Iraq to Oman at its height, and they too came under Ottoman suzerainty. Ottoman Hejaz In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz, Asir and Al-Ahsa) to the empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. One reason was to thwart Portuguese attempts to attack the Red Sea (hence the Hejaz) and the Indian Ocean. The Ottoman degree of control over these lands varied over the next four centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the empire's central authority. These changes contributed to later uncertainties, such as the dispute with Transjordan over the inclusion of the sanjak of Ma'an, including the cities of Ma'an and Aqaba. Saud dynasty and unification The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began at the town of Diriyah in Nejd in central Arabia with the accession as emir of Muhammad bin Saud on 22 February 1727. In 1744 he joined forces with the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam. This alliance provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today. The Emirate of Diriyah established in the area around Riyadh rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia, sacking Karbala in 1802, and capturing Mecca in 1803. In 1818, it was destroyed by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, Mohammed Ali Pasha. The much smaller Emirate of Nejd was established in 1824. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the Al Rashid, who ruled the Emirate of Jabal Shammar. By 1891, the Al Rashid were victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile in Kuwait. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have a suzerainty over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers, with the Sharif of Mecca having pre-eminence and ruling the Hejaz. In 1902, Abdul Rahman's son, Abdul Aziz—later known as Ibn Saud—recaptured control of Riyadh bringing the Al Saud back to Nejd, creating the third "Saudi state". Ibn Saud gained the support of the Ikhwan, a tribal army inspired by Wahhabism and led by Faisal Al-Dawish, and which had grown quickly after its foundation in 1912. With the aid of the Ikhwan, Ibn Saud captured Al-Ahsa from the Ottomans in 1913. In 1916, with the encouragement and support of Britain (which was fighting the Ottomans in World War I), the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali, led a pan-Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state. Although the revolt failed in its objective, the Allied victory in World War I resulted in the end of Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia, and Hussein bin Ali became King of Hejaz. Ibn Saud avoided involvement in the Arab Revolt and instead continued his struggle with the Al Rashid. Following the latter's final defeat, he took the title Sultan of Nejd in 1921. With the help of the Ikhwan, the Kingdom of Hejaz was conquered in 1924–25, and on 10 January 1926, Ibn Saud declared himself king of Hejaz. For the next five years, he administered the two parts of his dual kingdom as separate units. After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leadership's objective switched to expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, and began raiding those territories. This met with Ibn Saud's opposition, as he recognized the danger of a direct conflict with the British. At the same time, the Ikhwan became disenchanted with Ibn Saud's domestic policies which appeared to favour modernization and the increase in the number of non-Muslim foreigners in the country. As a result, they turned against Ibn Saud and, after a two-year struggle, were defeated in 1929 at the Battle of Sabilla, where their leaders were massacred. On Ibn Saud's behalf, Prince Faisal declared the unification on 23 September 1932, and the two kingdoms of Hejaz and Nejd were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. That date is now a national holiday called Saudi National Day. 20th century The new kingdom was reliant on limited agriculture and pilgrimage revenues. In 1938, vast reserves of oil were discovered in the Al-Ahsa region along the coast of the Persian Gulf, and full-scale development of the oil fields began in 1941 under the US-controlled Aramco (Arabian American Oil Company). Oil provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and substantial political leverage internationally. Cultural life rapidly developed, primarily in the Hejaz, which was the centre for newspapers and radio. However, the large influx of foreign workers in Saudi Arabia in the oil industry increased the pre-existing propensity for xenophobia. At the same time, the government became increasingly wasteful and extravagant. By the 1950s this had led to large governmental deficits and excessive foreign borrowing. In 1953, Saud of Saudi Arabia succeeded as the king of Saudi Arabia. In 1964 he was deposed in favour of his half brother Faisal of Saudi Arabia, after an intense rivalry, fuelled by doubts in the royal family over Saud's competence. In 1972, Saudi Arabia gained a 20% control in Aramco, thereby decreasing US control over Saudi oil. In 1973, Saudi Arabia led an oil boycott against the Western countries that supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War against Egypt and Syria, leading to the quadrupling of oil prices. In 1975, Faisal was assassinated by his nephew, Prince Faisal bin Musaid and was succeeded by his half-brother King Khalid. By 1976, Saudi Arabia had become the largest oil producer in the world. Khalid's reign saw economic and social development progress at an extremely rapid rate, transforming the infrastructure and educational system of the country; in foreign policy, close ties with the US were developed. In 1979, two events occurred which greatly concerned the government and had a long-term influence on Saudi foreign and domestic policy. The first was the Iranian Islamic Revolution. It was feared that the country's Shi'ite minority in the Eastern Province (which is also the location of the oil fields) might rebel under the influence of their Iranian co-religionists. There were several anti-government uprisings in the region such as the 1979 Qatif Uprising. The second event was the Grand Mosque Seizure in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The militants involved were in part angered by what they considered to be the corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi government. The government regained control of the mosque after 10 days, and those captured were executed. Part of the response of the royal family was to enforce the much stricter observance of traditional religious and social norms in the country (for example, the closure of cinemas) and to give the ulema a greater role in government. Neither entirely succeeded as Islamism continued to grow in strength. In 1980, Saudi Arabia bought out the American interests in Aramco. King Khalid died of a heart attack in June 1982. He was succeeded by his brother, King Fahd, who added the title "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques" to his name in 1986 in response to considerable fundamentalist pressure to avoid the use of "majesty" in association with anything except God. Fahd continued to develop close relations with the United States and increased the purchase of American and British military equipment. The vast wealth generated by oil revenues was beginning to have an even greater impact on Saudi society. It led to rapid technological (but not cultural) modernization, urbanization, mass public education, and the creation of new media. This and the presence of increasingly large numbers of foreign workers greatly affected traditional Saudi norms and values. Although there was a dramatic change in the social and economic life of the country, political power continued to be monopolized by the royal family leading to discontent among many Saudis who began to look for wider participation in government. In the 1980s, Saudi Arabia spent $25 billion in support of Saddam Hussein in the Iran–Iraq War; however, Saudi Arabia condemned the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and asked the US to intervene. King Fahd allowed American and coalition troops to be stationed in Saudi Arabia. He invited the Kuwaiti government and many of its citizens to stay in Saudi Arabia, but expelled citizens of Yemen and Jordan because of their governments' support of Iraq. In 1991, Saudi Arabian forces were involved both in bombing raids on Iraq and in the land invasion that helped to liberate Kuwait. Saudi Arabia's relations with the West was one of the issues that led to an increase in Islamist terrorism in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamist terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi nationals. Osama bin Laden was a Saudi citizen (until stripped of his citizenship in 1994) and was responsible for the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings in East Africa and the 2000 USS Cole bombing near the port of Aden, Yemen. 15 of the hijackers involved in the September 11 attacks were Saudi nationals. Many Saudis who did not support the Islamist terrorists were nevertheless deeply unhappy with the government's policies. Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the government. Although extremely wealthy by the 21st century, Saudi Arabia's economy was near stagnant. High taxes and a growth in unemployment have contributed to discontent and have been reflected in a rise in civil unrest, and discontent with the royal family. In response, a number of limited reforms were initiated by King Fahd. In March 1992, he introduced the "Basic Law", which emphasized the duties and responsibilities of a ruler. In December 1993, the Consultative Council was inaugurated. It is composed of a chairman and 60 members—all chosen by the King. Fahd made it clear that he did not have democracy in mind, saying: "A system based on elections is not consistent with our Islamic creed, which [approves of] government by consultation [shūrā]." In 1995, Fahd suffered a debilitating stroke, and the Crown Prince, Abdullah, assumed the role of de facto regent; however, his authority was hindered by conflict with Fahd's full brothers (known, with Fahd, as the "Sudairi Seven"). 21st century Signs of discontent included, in 2003 and 2004, a series of bombings and armed violence in Riyadh, Jeddah, Yanbu and Khobar. In February–April 2005, the first-ever nationwide municipal elections were held in Saudi Arabia. Women were not allowed to take part. In 2005, King Fahd died and was succeeded by Abdullah, who continued the policy of minimum reform and clamping down on protests. The king introduced economic reforms aimed at reducing the country's reliance on oil revenue: limited deregulation, encouragement of foreign investment, and privatization. In February 2009, Abdullah announced a series of governmental changes to the judiciary, armed forces, and various ministries to modernize these institutions including the replacement of senior appointees in the judiciary and the Mutaween (religious police) with more moderate individuals and the appointment of the country's first female deputy minister. On 29 January 2011, hundreds of protesters gathered in Jeddah in a rare display of criticism against the city's poor infrastructure after flooding killed 11 people. Police stopped the demonstration after about 15 minutes and arrested 30 to 50 people. Since 2011, Saudi Arabia has been affected by its own Arab Spring protests. In response, King Abdullah announced on 22 February 2011 a series of benefits for citizens amounting to $36 billion, of which $10.7 billion was earmarked for housing. No political reforms were included, though some prisoners indicted for financial crimes were pardoned. Abdullah also announced a package of $93 billion, which included new homes to a cost of $67 billion, in addition to creating new security jobs. Although male-only municipal elections were held on 29 September 2011, Abdullah allowed women to vote and be elected in the 2015 municipal elections, and also to be nominated to the Shura Council. Geography Saudi Arabia occupies about 80% of the Arabian Peninsula (the world's largest peninsula), lying between latitudes 16° and 33° N, and longitudes 34° and 56° E. Because the country's southeastern and southern borders with the United Arab Emirates and Oman are not precisely marked, the exact size of the country is undefined. The United Nations Statistics Division estimates and lists Saudi Arabia as the world's 12th largest state. It is geographically the largest country in the Middle East and on the Arabian Plate. Saudi Arabia's geography is dominated by the Arabian Desert, associated semi-desert, shrubland, steppes, several mountain ranges, volcanic lava fields and highlands. The Rub' al Khali ("Empty Quarter") in the southeastern part of the country is the world's largest contiguous sand desert. Though there are lakes in the country, Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the world by area with no permanent rivers. Wadis, non-permanent rivers, however, are very numerous throughout the kingdom. The fertile areas are to be found in the alluvial deposits in wadis, basins, and oases. There are approximately 1,300 islands in the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf. The main topographical feature is the central plateau which rises abruptly from the Red Sea and gradually descends into the Nejd and toward the Arabian Gulf. On the Red Sea coast, there is a narrow coastal plain, known as the Tihamah parallel to which runs along an imposing escarpment. The southwest province of Asir is mountainous and contains the Jabal Ferwa, which is the highest point in the country. Saudi Arabia is home to more than 2,000 dormant volcanoes. Lava fields in Hejaz, known locally by their Arabic name of harrat (the singular is harrah), form one of Earth's largest alkali basalt regions, covering some . Except for the southwestern regions such as Asir, Saudi Arabia has a desert climate with very high day-time temperatures during the summer and a sharp temperature drop at night. Average summer temperatures are around but can be as high as . In the winter the temperature rarely drops below with the exception of mostly the northern regions of the country where annual snowfall, in particular in the mountainous regions of Tabuk Province, is not uncommon. The lowest recorded temperature, −12.0 °C (10.4 °F), was measured in Turaif. In the spring and autumn the heat is temperate, temperatures average around . Annual rainfall is very low. The southern regions differ in that they are influenced by the Indian Ocean monsoons, usually occurring between October and March. An average of of rainfall occurs during this period, which is about 60% of the annual precipitation. Biodiversity Saudi Arabia is home to five terrestrial ecoregions: Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert, Southwestern Arabian foothills savanna, Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands, Arabian Desert, and Red Sea Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert. Wildlife includes the Arabian leopard, Arabian wolf, striped hyena, mongoose, baboon, Cape hare, sand cat, and jerboa. Animals such as gazelles, oryx, leopards and cheetahs were relatively numerous until the 19th century, when extensive hunting reduced these animals almost to extinction. The culturally important Asiatic lion occurred in Saudi Arabia until the late 19th century before it was hunted to extinction in the wild. Birds include falcons (which are caught and trained for hunting), eagles, hawks, vultures, sandgrouse, and bulbuls. There are several species of snakes, many of which are venomous. Domesticated animals include the legendary Arabian horse, Arabian camel, sheep, goats, cows, donkeys, chickens, etc. The Red Sea is a rich and diverse ecosystem with more than 1,200 species of fish around 10% of which are endemic. This also includes 42 species of deep water fish. The rich diversity is partly owed to the of coral reef extending along the coastline; these fringing reefs are largely formed of stony acropora and porites corals. The reefs form platforms and sometimes lagoons along the coast and occasional other features such as cylinders (such as the Blue Hole at Dahab). These coastal reefs are also visited by pelagic species, including some of the 44 species of shark. There are many offshore reefs including several atolls. Many of the unusual offshore reef formations defy classic (i.e., Darwinian) coral reef classification schemes and are generally attributed to the high levels of tectonic activity that characterize the area. Reflecting the country's dominant desert conditions, plant life mostly consists of herbs, plants, and shrubs that require little water. The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is widespread. Government and politics Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy; however, according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by royal decree in 1992, the king must comply with Sharia (Islamic law) and the Quran, while the Quran and the Sunnah (the traditions of Muhammad) are declared to be the country's constitution. No political parties or national elections are permitted. While some critics consider it to be a totalitarian state, others regard it as lacking aspects of totalitarianism but nevertheless classify it as an authoritarian regime. The Economist ranked the Saudi government 150th out of 167 in its 2022 Democracy Index, and Freedom House gave it its lowest "Not Free" rating, giving it a score of 8 out of 100 for 2023. According to the 2023 V-Dem Democracy Indices, Saudi Arabia is the least democratic country in the Middle East. In the absence of national elections and political parties, politics in Saudi Arabia takes place in two distinct arenas: within the royal family, the Al Saud, and between the royal family and the rest of Saudi society. Outside of the Al Saud, participation in the political process is limited to a relatively small segment of the population and takes the form of the royal family consulting with the ulema, tribal sheikhs, and members of important commercial families on major decisions. This process is not reported by the Saudi media. By custom, all males of full age have a right to petition the king directly through the traditional tribal meeting known as the majlis. In many ways the approach to government differs little from the traditional system of tribal rule. Tribal identity remains strong, and outside of the royal family, political influence is frequently determined by tribal affiliation, with tribal sheikhs maintaining a considerable degree of influence over local and national events. In recent years there have been limited steps to widen political participation such as the establishment of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s and the National Dialogue Forum in 2003. In 2005, the first municipal elections were held. In 2007, the Allegiance Council was created to regulate the succession. In 2009, the king made significant personnel changes to the government by appointing reformers to key positions and the first woman to a ministerial post; however, these changes have been criticized as being too slow or merely cosmetic. The rule of the Al Saud faces political opposition from four sources: Sunni Islamist activism; liberal critics; the Shi'ite minority—particularly in the Eastern Province; and long-standing tribal and regionalist particularistic opponents (for example in the Hejaz). Of these, the minority activists have been the most prominent threat to the government and have in recent years been involved in violent incidents in the country. However, open protest against the government, even if peaceful, is not tolerated. Monarchy and royal family The king combines legislative, executive, and judicial functions and royal decrees form the basis of the country's legislation. Until 2022, the king was also the prime minister, and presided over the Council of Ministers of Saudi Arabia and Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia. The royal family dominates the political system. The family's vast numbers allows it to control most of the kingdom's important posts and to have an involvement and presence at all levels of government. The number of princes is estimated to be at least , with most power and influence being wielded by the 200 or so male descendants of Ibn Saud. The key ministries are generally reserved for the royal family, as are the 13 regional governorships. The Saudi government and the royal family have often been accused of corruption over many years, and this continues into the 21st century. In a country that is said to "belong" to the royal family and is named for them, the lines between state assets and the personal wealth of senior princes are blurred. The extent of corruption has been described as systemic and endemic, and its existence was acknowledged and defended by Prince Bandar bin Sultan (a senior member of the royal family) in an interview in 2001. In its Corruption Perceptions Index for 2010, Transparency International gave Saudi Arabia a score of 4.7 (on a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 is "highly corrupt" and 10 is "highly clean"). Saudi Arabia has undergone a process of political and social reform, such as to increase public transparency and good governance, but nepotism and patronage are widespread when doing business in the country; the enforcement of the anti-corruption laws is selective and public officials engage in corruption with impunity. As many as 500 people, including prominent Saudi Arabian princes, government ministers, and businesspeople, were arrested in an anti-corruption campaign in November 2017. Al ash-Sheikh and role of the ulema Saudi Arabia is unique in giving the ulema (the body of Islamic religious leaders and jurists) a direct role in government. The preferred ulema are of the Salafi movement. The ulema have been a key influence in major government decisions, for example the imposition of the oil embargo in 1973 and the invitation to foreign troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990. In addition, they have had a major role in the judicial and education systems and a monopoly of authority in religious and social morals. By the 1970s, as a result of oil wealth and the modernization initiated by King Faisal, important changes to Saudi society were underway, and the power of the ulema was in decline. However, this changed following the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979 by Islamist radicals. The government's response to the crisis included strengthening the ulema's powers and increasing their financial support: in particular, they were given greater control over the education system and allowed to enforce the stricter observance of Wahhabi rules of moral and social behaviour. After his accession to the throne in 2005, King Abdullah took steps to reduce the powers of the ulema, for instance transferring control over girls' education to the Ministry of Education. The ulema have historically been led by the Al ash-Sheikh, the country's leading religious family. The Al ash-Sheikh are the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the 18th-century founder of the Wahhabi form of Sunni Islam which is today dominant in Saudi Arabia. The family is second in prestige only to the Al Saud (the royal family) with whom they formed a "mutual support pact" and power-sharing arrangement nearly 300 years ago. The pact, which persists to this day, is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating Wahhabi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule. Although the Al ash-Sheikh's domination of the ulema has diminished in recent decades, they still hold the most important religious posts and are closely linked to the Al Saud by a high degree of intermarriage. Legal system The primary source of law is the Islamic Sharia derived from the teachings of the Qur'an and the Sunnah (the traditions of the Prophet). Saudi Arabia is unique among modern Muslim states in that Sharia is not codified and there is no system of judicial precedent, allowing judges to use independent legal reasoning to make a decision. Thus, divergent judgments arise even in apparently identical cases, making predictability of legal interpretation difficult. Saudi judges tend to follow the principles of the Hanbali school of jurisprudence (fiqh) found in pre-modern texts and noted for its literalist interpretation of the Qur'an and hadith. However, in 2021, Saudi Arabia announced judicial reforms which will lead to an entirely codified law that eliminates discrepancies. Royal decrees are the other main source of law but are referred to as regulations rather than laws because they are subordinate to the Sharia. Royal decrees supplement Sharia in areas such as labour, commercial and corporate law. Additionally, traditional tribal law and custom remain significant. Extra-Sharia government tribunals usually handle disputes relating to specific royal decrees. Final appeal from both Sharia courts and government tribunals is to the king, and all courts and tribunals follow Sharia rules of evidence and procedure. Retaliatory punishments, or Qisas, are practised: for instance, an eye can be surgically removed at the insistence of a victim who lost his own eye. Families of someone unlawfully killed can choose between demanding the death penalty or granting clemency in return for a payment of diyya (blood money), by the perpetrator. Administrative divisions Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 regions (manatiq idāriyya, sing. منطقة إدارية; mintaqah idariyya). The regions are further divided into 118 governorates (muhafazat, sing. محافظة; muhafazah). This number includes the 13 regional capitals, which have a different status as municipalities (amanah) headed by mayors (amin). The governorates are further subdivided into sub-governorates (marakiz, sing. مركز; markaz). Foreign relations Saudi Arabia joined the UN in 1945 and is a founding member of the Arab League, Gulf Cooperation Council, Muslim World League, and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation). It plays a prominent role in the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and in 2005 joined the World Trade Organization. Since 1960, as a founding member of OPEC, its oil pricing policy has been generally to stabilize the world oil market and try to moderate sharp price movements so as not to jeopardize the Western economies. In 1973, Saudi Arabia and other Arab nations imposed an oil embargo against the United States, United Kingdom, Japan and other Western nations which supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War of October 1973. The embargo caused an oil crisis with many short- and long-term effects on global politics and the global economy. Saudi Arabia and the United States are strategic allies, and Saudi Arabia is considered to be pro-Western. On 20 May 2017, President Donald Trump and King Salman signed a series of letters of intent for Saudi Arabia to purchase arms from the United States totaling $350 billion over 10 years. Saudi Arabia's role in the 1991 Gulf War, particularly the stationing of US troops on Saudi soil from 1991, prompted the development of a hostile Islamist response internally. As a result, Saudi Arabia has, to some extent, distanced itself from the US and, for example, refused to support or to participate in the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003. China and Saudi Arabia are major allies, with the relationship between the two countries growing significantly in recent decades. A significant number of Saudi Arabians have also expressed a positive view of China. In February 2019, Crown Prince Mohammad defended China's Xinjiang re-education camps for Uyghur Muslims. According to The Diplomat, Saudi Arabia's human rights record has "come under frequent attack abroad and so defending China becomes a roundabout way of defending themselves." The consequences of the 2003 invasion and the Arab Spring led to increasing alarm within the Saudi monarchy over the rise of Iran's influence in the region. These fears were reflected in comments of King Abdullah, who privately urged the United States to attack Iran and "cut off the head of the snake". Saudi Arabia has been seen as a moderating influence in the Arab–Israeli conflict, periodically putting forward a peace plan between Israel and the Palestinians and condemning Hezbollah. Saudi Arabia halted new trade and investment dealings with Canada and suspended diplomatic ties in a dramatic escalation of a dispute over the kingdom's arrest of women's rights activist Samar Badawi on 6 August 2018. In 2017, as part of its nuclear power programme, Saudi Arabia planned to extract uranium domestically, taking a step towards self-sufficiency in producing nuclear fuel. Allegations of sponsoring global terrorism Saudi Arabia has been accused of sponsoring Islamic terrorism. According to Iraq Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki in March 2014, Saudi Arabia along with Qatar provided political, financial, and media support to terrorists against the Iraqi government. Similarly, President of Syria Bashar al-Assad noted that the sources of the extreme ideology of the terrorist organization ISIS and other such salafist extremist groups are the Wahabbism that has been supported by the royal family of Saudi Arabia. Relations with the U.S. became strained following 9/11 terror attacks. American politicians and media accused the Saudi government of supporting terrorism and tolerating a jihadist culture. Indeed, Osama bin Laden and 15 out of the 19 9/11 hijackers were from Saudi Arabia; in ISIL-occupied Raqqa, in mid-2014, all 12 judges were Saudi. The leaked 2014 U.S. Department of State memo says that "governments of Qatar and Saudi Arabia...are providing clandestine financial and logistic support to ISIS and other radical groups in the region." According to former U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, "Saudi Arabia remains a critical financial support base for al-Qaida, the Taliban, LeT and other terrorist groups... Donors in Saudi Arabia constitute the most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide." Former CIA director James Woolsey described it as "the soil in which Al-Qaeda and its sister terrorist organizations are flourishing." The Saudi government denies these claims or that it exports religious or cultural extremism. In September 2016, the U.S. Congress passed the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act that would allow relatives of victims of the 11 September attacks to sue Saudi Arabia for its government's alleged role in the attacks. According to Sir William Patey, former British ambassador to Saudi Arabia, the kingdom funds mosques throughout Europe that have become hotbeds of extremism. "They are not funding terrorism. They are funding something else, which may down the road lead to individuals being radicalized and becoming fodder for terrorism," Patey said. He said that Saudi has been funding an ideology that leads to extremism and the leaders of the kingdom are not aware of the consequences. However, since 2016 the kingdom began backing away from Islamist ideologies. Several reforms took place including curbing the powers of religious police, restricting the volume of loudspeakers in mosques, reducing the number of hours spent on Islamic education in schools, stopping funding mosques in foreign countries, and allowing the first mixed-gender concert performed by women. In 2017, Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman declared a return to "moderate Islam". Military Saudi Arabia's military forces include the Armed Forces of Saudi Arabia under the Ministry of Defence, which consist of the Royal Saudi Land Forces (which include the Royal Guard), the Air Force, the Navy, the Air Defence, and the Strategic Missile Force; the Saudi Arabian National Guard under the Ministry of National Guard; paramilitary forces under the Minister of Interior, including the Saudi Arabian Border Guard and the Facilities Security Force; and the Presidency of State Security, including the Special Security Force and the Emergency Force. As of 2023 there are 127,000 active personnel in the Armed Forces, 130,000 in the National Guard, and 24,500 in the paramilitary security forces. The National Guard is made up of tribal forces that are loyal to the Saudi royal family and have a role in both domestic security and foreign defence. Saudi Arabia has security relationships with the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, which provide it with training and weapons. Saudi Arabia has one of the highest percentages of military expenditure in the world, spending around 8% of its GDP in its military, according to the 2020 Stockholm International Peace Research Institute estimate, which places it as the world's third largest military spender behind the United States and China, and the world's largest arms importer from 2015 to 2019, receiving half of all the U.S. arms exports to the Middle East. Spending on defence and security has increased significantly since the mid-1990s and was about US$78.4 billion as of 2019. According to the BICC, Saudi Arabia is the 28th most militarized country in the world and possesses the second-best military equipment qualitatively in the region, after Israel. Its modern high-technology arsenal makes Saudi Arabia among the world's most densely armed nations. The kingdom has a long-standing military relationship with Pakistan; it has long been speculated that Saudi Arabia secretly funded Pakistan's atomic bomb programme and seeks to purchase atomic weapons from Pakistan in the near future. In March 2015, Saudi Arabia mobilized 150,000 troops and 100 fighter jets to support its intervention in the civil war in neighbouring Yemen. By early 2016, Saudi ground forces and their coalition allies captured Aden and parts of southwest Yemen, though the Houthis continued to control northern Yemen and the capital city Sanaa. From there the Houthis launched successful attacks across the border into Saudi Arabia. The Saudi military has also carried out an aerial bombing campaign and a naval blockade aimed at stopping weapons shipments to the Houthis. Human rights The Saudi government, which mandates Muslim and non-Muslim observance of Sharia law under the absolute rule of the House of Saud, has been denounced by various international organizations and governments for violating human rights within the country. The authoritarian regime is consistently ranked among the "worst of the worst" in Freedom House's annual survey of political and civil rights. According to Amnesty International, security forces continue to torture and ill-treat detainees to extract confessions to be used as evidence against them at trial. Saudi Arabia abstained from the United Nations vote adopting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, saying it contradicted Sharia. Mass executions, such as those carried out in 2016, in 2019, and in 2022, have been condemned by international rights groups. Since 2001, Saudi Arabia has engaged in widespread internet censorship. Most online censorship generally falls into two categories: one based on censoring "immoral" (mostly pornographic and LGBT-supportive websites along with websites promoting any religious ideology other than Sunni Islam) and one based on a blacklist run by Saudi Arabia's Ministry of Media, which primarily censors websites critical of the Saudi regime or associated with parties that are opposed to or opposed by Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabian law does not recognize sexual orientations or religious freedom, and the public practice of non-Muslim religions is actively prohibited. The justice system regularly engages in capital punishment, which has included public executions by beheading. In line with Sharia in the Saudi justice system, the death penalty can theoretically be imposed for a wide range of offenses, including murder, rape, armed robbery, repeated drug use, apostasy, adultery, witchcraft and sorcery, and can be carried out by beheading with a sword, stoning or firing squad, followed by crucifixion (exposure of the body after execution). In 2022, the Saudi Crown Prince stated that capital punishments will be removed "except for one category mentioned in the Quran", namely homicide, under which certain conditions must be applied. In April 2020, Saudi Supreme Court issued a directive to eliminate the punishment of flogging from the Saudi court system, replaced by imprisonment or fines. Historically, Saudi women faced discrimination in many aspects of their lives and under the male guardianship system were effectively treated as legal minors. The treatment of women had been referred to as "sex segregation" and "gender apartheid". As of June 2023, the kingdom has reportedly reversed its ban on women "becoming lawyers, engineers, or geologists" and established "aggressive affirmative action programs", doubling the female labour force participation rate. It has added "its first female newspaper editors, diplomats, TV anchors and public prosecutors", with a female head of the Saudi stock exchange and member on the board of Saudi Aramco. Saudi Arabia is a notable destination country for men and women trafficked for the purposes of slave labour and commercial sexual exploitation. Migrants from Asia, Africa, and the Middle East are employed in the country's construction, hospitality, and domestic work sectors under the kafala system which human rights groups say is linked to abuses including modern slavery. Economy , Saudi Arabia is the largest economy in the Middle East and the 18th largest in the world. It has the world's second-largest proven petroleum reserves and is the largest exporter of petroleum. The country has the world's second-largest oil reserves and the sixth-largest proven natural gas reserves. Saudi Arabia is considered an "energy superpower," having the second highest total estimated value of natural resources, valued at US$34.4 trillion in 2016. The command economy is petroleum-based; roughly 63% of budget revenues and 67% of export earnings come from the oil industry. The oil industry constitutes about 45% of Saudi Arabia's nominal gross domestic product, compared with 40% from the private sector. It is strongly dependent on foreign workers with about 80% of those employed in the private sector being non-Saudi. Challenges to the economy include halting or reversing the decline in per-capita income, improving education to prepare youth for the workforce and providing them with employment, diversifying the economy, stimulating the private sector and housing construction, and diminishing corruption and inequality. OPEC (the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) limits its members' oil production based on their "proven reserves." Saudi Arabia's published reserves have shown little change since 1980, with the main exception being an increase of about between 1987 and 1988. Matthew Simmons has suggested that Saudi Arabia is greatly exaggerating its reserves and may soon show production declines (see peak oil). From 2003 to 2013, "several key services" were privatized—municipal water supply, electricity, telecommunications—and parts of education and health care, traffic control and car accident reporting were also privatized. According to Arab News columnist Abdel Aziz Aluwaisheg, "in almost every one of these areas, consumers have raised serious concerns about the performance of these privatized entities." In November 2005, Saudi Arabia was approved as a member of the World Trade Organization. Negotiations to join had focused on the degree to which Saudi Arabia is willing to increase market access to foreign goods and in 2000, the government established the Saudi Arabian General Investment Authority to encourage foreign direct investment in the kingdom. Saudi Arabia maintains a list of sectors in which foreign investment is prohibited, but the government plans to open some closed sectors such as telecommunications, insurance, and power transmission/distribution over time. The government has also made an attempt at "Saudizing" the economy, replacing foreign workers with Saudi nationals with limited success. In addition to petroleum and gas, Saudi has a significant gold mining sector in the Mahd adh Dhahab region and significant other mineral industries, an agricultural sector (especially in the southwest) based on vegetables, fruits, dates etc. and livestock, and large number of temporary jobs created by the roughly two million annual hajj pilgrims. Saudi Arabia has had five-year "Development Plans" since 1970. Among its plans were to launch "economic cities" (e.g. King Abdullah Economic City) in an effort to diversify the economy and provide jobs. The cities will be spread around Saudi Arabia to promote diversification for each region and their economy, and the cities are projected to contribute $150 billion to the GDP. Saudi Arabia is increasingly activating its ports in order to participate in trade between Europe and China in addition to oil transport. To this end, ports such as Jeddah Islamic Port or King Abdullah Economic City are being rapidly expanded, and investments are being made in logistics. The country is historically and currently part of the Maritime Silk Road. Statistics on poverty in the kingdom are not available through the UN resources because the Saudi government does not issue any. The Saudi state discourages calling attention to or complaining about poverty. In December 2011, the Saudi interior ministry arrested three reporters and held them for almost two weeks for questioning after they uploaded a video on the topic to YouTube. Authors of the video claim that 22% of Saudis may be considered poor. Observers researching the issue prefer to stay anonymous because of the risk of being arrested. The unexpected impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the economy, along with Saudi Arabia's poor human rights records, laid unforeseen challenges before the development plans of the kingdom, where some of the programmes under 'Vision 2030' were also expected to be affected. On 2 May, the Finance Minister of Saudi Arabia admitted that the country's economy was facing a severe economical crisis for the first time in decades, because of the pandemic as well as declining global oil markets. Mohammed Al-Jadaan said that the country will take "painful" measures and keep all options open to deal with the impact. Agriculture Initial attempts to develop dairy farming on a commercial scale occurred in the Al Kharj District (just south of Riyadh) during the 1950s. Serious large-scale agricultural development began in the 1970s, particularly with wheat. The government launched an extensive programme to promote modern farming technology; to establish rural roads, irrigation networks and storage and export facilities; and to encourage agricultural research and training institutions. As a result, there has been a phenomenal growth in the production of all basic foods. Saudi Arabia is self-sufficient in numerous foodstuffs, including meat, milk, and eggs. The country exports dates, dairy products, eggs, fish, poultry, fruits, vegetables, and flowers. Dates, once a staple of the Saudi diet, are now mainly grown for global humanitarian aid. In addition, Saudi farmers grow substantial amounts of other grains such as barley, sorghum, and millet. As of 2016, in the interest of preserving precious water resources, domestic production of wheat, which it used to export, ended. Consuming non-renewable groundwater resulted in the loss of an estimated four-fifths of the total groundwater reserves by 2012. The kingdom has some of the most modern and largest dairy farms in the Middle East. Milk production boasts a remarkably productive annual rate of per cow, one of the highest in the world. The local dairy manufacturing company Almarai is the largest vertically integrated dairy company in the Middle East. The olive tree is indigenous to Saudi Arabia. The Al Jouf region has millions of olive trees, and the number is expected to increase to 20 million trees. Water supply and sanitation One of the main challenges for Saudi Arabia is water scarcity. Substantial investments have been undertaken in seawater desalination, water distribution, sewerage and wastewater treatment. Today about 50% of drinking water comes from desalination, 40% from the mining of non-renewable groundwater, and 10% from surface water in the mountainous southwest of the country. Saudi Arabia is suffering from a major depletion of the water in its underground aquifers and a resultant break down and disintegration of its agriculture as a consequence. As a result of the catastrophe, Saudi Arabia has bought agricultural land in the United States, Argentina, and Africa. Saudi Arabia ranked as a major buyer of agricultural land in foreign countries. According to the Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation of the WHO and UNICEF, the latest reliable source on access to water and sanitation in Saudi Arabia is the 2004 census. It indicates that 97% of the population had access to an improved source of drinking water and 99% had access to improved sanitation. For 2015, the JMP estimates that access to sanitation increased to 100%. Sanitation was primarily through on-site solutions, and about 40% of the population was connected to sewers. In 2015, 886,000 people lacked access to "improved" water. Tourism In 2019, Saudi Arabia adopted a general tourism travel visa to allow non-Muslims to visit. Although most tourism largely involves religious pilgrimages, there is growth in the leisure tourism sector. According to the World Bank, approximately 14.3 million people visited Saudi Arabia in 2012, making it the world's 19th-most-visited country. Tourism is an important component of the Saudi Vision 2030, and according to a report conducted by BMI Research in 2018 both religious and non-religious tourism have significant potential for expansion. The kingdom offers an electronic visa for foreign visitors to attend sports events and concerts. In 2019, the kingdom announced its plans to open visa applications for visitors, where people from about 50 countries would be able to get tourist visas to Saudi. In 2020 it was announced that holders of a US, UK or Schengen visa are eligible for a Saudi electronic visa upon arrival. Demographics Saudi Arabia's reported population is 32,175,224 as of 2022, making it the fourth most populous country in the Arab world. Close to 42% of its inhabitants are immigrants, mostly from the Middle East, Asia, and Africa. The Saudi population has grown rapidly since 1950, when it was estimated at 3 million. For much of the 20th century, the country had one of the highest population growth rates in the world, at around 3% annually; it continues to grow at a rate of 1.62% per year, slightly higher than the rest of the Middle East and North Africa. Consequently, the Saudi people are quite young by global standards, with over half the population under 25 years old, The ethnic composition of Saudi citizens is 90% Arab and 10% Afro-Arab. Most Saudis are concentrated in the southwest; Hejaz, which is the most populated region, is home to one-third of the population, followed by neighbouring Najd (28%) and the Eastern Province (15%). As late as 1970, most Saudis lived a subsistence life in the rural provinces, but in the last half of the 20th century, the kingdom has urbanized rapidly: as of 2023, about 85% of Saudis live in urban metropolitan areas—specifically Riyadh, Jeddah, and Dammam.As recently as the early 1960s, Saudi Arabia's slave population was estimated at . Slavery was officially abolished in 1962. Language The official language is Arabic. There are four main regional dialect groups spoken by Saudis: Najdi (about 14.6 million speakers), Hejazi (about 10.3 million speakers), Gulf (about 0.96 million speakers) including Baharna dialects, and Southern Hejaz and Tihama dialects. Faifi is spoken by about . The Mehri language is also spoken by around Mehri citizens. Saudi Sign Language is the principal language of the deaf community, amounting to around speakers. The large expatriate communities also speak their own languages, the most numerous of which, according to 2018 data, are Bengali (~1), Tagalog (~), Punjabi (~), Urdu (~), Egyptian Arabic (~), Rohingya, North Levantine Arabic (both ~) and Malayalam. Religion Virtually all Saudi citizens and residents are Muslim; by law, all citizens of the country are Muslim. Estimates of the Sunni population range between 85% and 90%, with the remaining 10 to 15% being Shia Muslim, practicing either Twelver Shi'ism or Sulaymani Ismailism. The official and dominant form of Sunni Islam is Salafism, commonly known as Wahhabism, which was founded in the Arabian Peninsula by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in the 18th century. Other denominations, such as the minority Shia Islam, are systematically suppressed. There are an estimated 1.5 million Christians in Saudi Arabia, almost all foreign workers. Saudi Arabia allows Christians to enter the country as temporary foreign workers but does not allow them to practice their faith openly. There are officially no Saudi citizens who are Christians, as Saudi Arabia forbids religious conversion from Islam (apostasy) and punishes it by death. According to Pew Research Center, there are Hindus in Saudi Arabia, almost all foreign workers. There may be a significant fraction of atheists and agnostics, although they are officially called "terrorists". In its 2017 religious freedom report, the U.S. State Department named Saudi Arabia a Country of Particular Concern, denoting systematic, ongoing, and egregious violations of religious freedom. Education Education is free at all levels, although higher education is restricted to citizens only. The school system is composed of elementary, intermediate, and secondary schools. Classes are segregated by sex. At the secondary level, students are able to choose from three types of schools: general education, vocational and technical, or religious. The rate of literacy is 99% among males and 96% among females in 2020. Youth literacy rose to approximately 99.5% for both sexes. Higher education has expanded rapidly, with large numbers of universities and colleges being founded particularly since 2000. Institutions of higher education include King Saud University, the Islamic University at Medina, and the King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah. Princess Norah University is the largest women's university in the world. King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, known as KAUST, is the first mixed-gender university campus in Saudi Arabia and was founded in 2009. Other colleges and universities emphasize curricula in sciences and technology, military studies, religion, and medicine. Institutes devoted to Islamic studies, in particular, abound. Women typically receive college instruction in segregated institutions. The Academic Ranking of World Universities, known as Shanghai Ranking, ranked five Saudi institutions among its 2022 list of the 500 top universities in the world. The QS World University Rankings lists 14 Saudi universities among the 2022 world's top universities and 23 universities among the top 100 in the Arab world. The 2022 list of U.S. News & World Report Best Global University Ranking ranked King Abdulaziz University among the top 50 universities in the world and King Abdullah University of Science and Technology among the top 100 universities in the world. In 2018, Saudi Arabia ranked 28th worldwide in terms of high-quality research output according to the scientific journal Nature. This makes Saudi Arabia the best performing Middle Eastern, Arab, and Muslim country. Saudi Arabia spends 8.8% of its gross domestic product on education, compared with the global average of 4.6%. Saudi Arabia was ranked 48th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, up from 68th in 2019. The Saudi education system has been accused of encouraging Islamic terrorism, leading to reform efforts. Following the 9/11 attacks, the government aimed to tackle the twin problems of encouraging extremism and the inadequacy of the country's university education for a modern economy, by slowly modernizing the education system through the "Tatweer" reform programme. The Tatweer programme is reported to have a budget of approximately US$2 billion and focuses on moving teaching away from the traditional Saudi methods of memorization and rote learning towards encouraging students to analyse and problem-solve. It also aims to create an education system which will provide a more secular and vocationally based training. In 2021, the Washington Post reported on the measures taken by Saudi Arabia to clean textbooks from paragraphs considered antisemitic and sexist. The paragraphs dealing with the punishment of homosexuality or same-sex relations have been deleted, and expressions of admiration for the extremist martyrdom. Antisemitic expressions and calls to fight the Jews became fewer. David Weinberg, director of international affairs for the Anti-Defamation League, said that references to demonizing Jews, Christians, and Shiites have been removed from some places or have toned down. The U.S. State Department expressed in an email that it welcomed the changes. The Saudi Ministry of Foreign Affairs supports a training programme for Saudi teachers. Health care Saudi Arabia has a national health care system in which the government provides free health care services through government agencies. Saudi Arabia has been ranked among the 26 best countries in providing high quality healthcare. The Ministry of Health is the major government agency entrusted with the provision of preventive, curative, and rehabilitative health care. The ministry's origins can be traced to 1925, when several regional health departments were established, with the first in Makkah. The various healthcare institutions were merged to become a ministerial body in 1950. The Health Ministry created a friendly competition between each of the districts and between different medical services and hospitals. This idea resulted in the creation of the "Ada'a" project launched in 2016. The new system is a nationwide performance indicator, for services and hospitals. Waiting times and other major measurements improved dramatically across the kingdom. A new strategy has been developed by the ministry, known as Diet and Physical Activity Strategy or DPAS for short, to address bad lifestyle choices. The ministry advised that there should be a tax increase on unhealthy food, drink and cigarettes. This additional tax could be used to improve healthcare offerings. The tax was implemented in 2017. As part of the same strategy, calorie labels were added in 2019 to some food and drink products. Ingredients were also listed as an aim to reduce obesity and inform citizens with health issues, to manage their diet. As part of the ongoing focus on tackling obesity, women-only gyms were allowed to open in 2017. Sports offered in each of these gyms include bodybuilding, running and swimming to maintain higher standards of health. Smoking in all age groups is widespread. In 2009 the lowest median percentage of smokers was university students (~13.5%) while the highest was elderly people (~25%). The study also found the median percentage of male smokers to be much higher than that of females (~26.5% for males, ~9% for females). Before 2010, Saudi Arabia had no policies banning or restricting smoking. The MOH has been awarded "Healthy City" certificates by the World Health Organization (WHO) for the cities of Unayzah and Riyadh Al Khabra as 4th and 5th Healthy Cities in Saudi Arabia. The WHO had earlier classified three Saudi Arabian cities, Ad Diriyah, Jalajil, and Al-Jamoom as "Healthy city", as part of the WHO Healthy Cities Programme. Recently Al-Baha has also been classified as a healthy city to join the list of global healthy cities approved by the World Health Organization. In May 2019, the then Saudi Minister of Health Tawfiq bin Fawzan AlRabiah received a global award on behalf of the Kingdom for combatting smoking through social awareness, treatment, and application of regulations. The award was presented as part of the 72nd session of the World Health Assembly, held in Geneva in May 2019. After becoming one of the first nations to ratify the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in 2005, it plans to reduce tobacco use from 12.7% in 2017, to 5% in 2030. Saudi Arabia has a life expectancy of 74.99 years (73.79 for males and 76.61 for females) according to the latest data for the year 2018 from the World Bank. Infant mortality in 2019 was 5.7 per . In 2016, 69.7% of the adult population was overweight and 35.5% was obese. Foreigners The Central Department of Statistics & Information estimated the foreign population at the end of 2014 at 33% (10.1 million). The CIA Factbook estimated that foreign nationals living in Saudi Arabia made up about 21% of the population. Other sources report differing estimates. Indian: 1.5 million, Pakistani: 1.3 million, Egyptian: , Yemeni: , Bangladeshi: , Filipino: , Jordanian/Palestinian: , Indonesian: , Sri Lankan: , Sudanese: , Syrian: and Turkish: . According to The Guardian, there were more than half a million foreign-born domestic workers. Most have backgrounds in poverty and come from Africa, the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. To go to work in Saudi Arabia, they must often pay large sums to recruitment agencies in their home countries. The agencies then handle the necessary legal paperwork. As the Saudi population grows and oil export revenues stagnate, pressure for "Saudization" (the replacement of foreign workers with Saudis) has grown, and the Saudi government hopes to decrease the number of foreign nationals in the country. Saudi Arabia expelled Yemenis in 1990 and 1991 and has built a Saudi–Yemen barrier against an influx of illegal immigrants and against the smuggling of drugs and weapons. In November 2013, Saudi Arabia expelled thousands of illegal Ethiopian residents from the kingdom. Various Human Rights entities have criticized Saudi Arabia's handling of the issue. Over undocumented migrant workers—mostly from Somalia, Ethiopia, and Yemen—have been detained and deported since 2013. An investigation led by The Sunday Telegraph, exposed the condition of African migrants who were detained in Saudi Arabia allegedly for containing COVID-19 in the kingdom. They were beaten, tortured, and electrocuted. Many of the migrants died due to heatstroke or by attempting suicide, after being severely beaten and tortured. The migrants lack proper living conditions, provision of food and water. Foreigners cannot apply for permanent residency, though a specialized Premium Residency visa became available in 2019. Only Muslims can become Saudi citizens. Foreigners who have resided in the kingdom and hold degrees in various scientific fields may apply for Saudi citizenship, and exception made for Palestinians who are excluded unless married to a male Saudi national, because of Arab League instructions barring the Arab states from granting them citizenship. Saudi Arabia is not a signatory to the 1951 UN Refugee Convention. Culture Saudi Arabia has millennia-old attitudes and traditions, often derived from Arab civilization. Some of the major factors that influence the culture are Islamic heritage and Arab traditions as well as its historical role as an ancient trade centre. The Kingdom also has a very family-oriented culture with an emphasis on preserving family traditions and kinship ties. Religion in society Religion is a core aspect of everyday life in Saudi Arabia; it plays a dominant role in the country's governance and legal system, and deeply influences culture and daily life, although the power of the religious establishment has been significantly eroded in the 2010s. The Hejaz region, where the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina are located, is the destination of the Ḥajj pilgrimage, and often deemed to be the cradle of Islam. Islam is the state religion of Saudi Arabia. There is no law that requires all citizens to be Muslim, but non-Muslims and many foreign and Saudi Muslims whose beliefs are deemed not to conform with the government's interpretation of Islam must practice their religion in private and are vulnerable to discrimination, harassment, detention, and, for foreigners, deportation. Neither Saudi citizens nor guest workers have the right of freedom of religion. The dominant form of Islam in the kingdom—Wahhabism—arose in the central region of Najd, in the 18th century. Proponents call the movement "Salafism", and believe that its teachings purify the practice of Islam of innovations or practices that deviate from the seventh-century teachings of Muhammad and his companions. The Saudi government has often been viewed as an active oppressor of Shia Muslims because of the funding of the Wahhabi ideology which denounces the Shia faith. Prince Bandar bin Sultan, Saudi ambassador to the United States, stated: "The time is not far off in the Middle East when it will be literally 'God help the Shia'. More than a billion Sunnis have simply had enough of them." Saudi Arabia is one of the few countries that have "religious police" (known as Haia or Mutaween), who patrol the streets "enjoining good and forbidding wrong" by enforcing dress codes, strict separation of men and women, attendance at prayer (salat) five times each day, the ban on alcohol, and other aspects of Sharia. However, since 2016 the power of religious police was curbed, which barred them from pursuing, questioning, requesting identification or arresting suspects. In the privacy of homes, behaviour can be far looser, and reports from WikiLeaks indicate that low ranked members of the ruling Saudi Royal family indulge in parties with alcohol, drugs, and prostitutes. Women in society Throughout history, women did not have equal rights to men in the kingdom; the U.S. State Department considers Saudi Arabian government's discrimination against women a "significant problem" and notes that women have few political rights because of the government's discriminatory policies. However, since Mohammed bin Salman was appointed Crown Prince in 2017, a series of social reforms have been witnessed regarding women's rights. Under previous Saudi law, all females were required to have a male guardian, typically a father, brother, husband, or uncle. In 2019, this law was partially amended to exclude women over 21 years old from the requirement of a male guardian. The amendment also granted women rights in relation to the guardianship of minor children. Previously, girls and women were forbidden from travelling, conducting official business, or undergoing certain medical procedures without permission from their male guardians. In 2019, Saudi Arabia allowed women to travel abroad, register for divorce or marriage, and apply for official documents without the permission of a male guardian. In 2006, Wajeha al-Huwaider, a leading Saudi feminist and journalist said "Saudi women are weak, no matter how high their status, even the 'pampered' ones among them, because they have no law to protect them from attack by anyone." Following this, Saudi Arabia implemented the anti-domestic violence law in 2014. Furthermore, between 2017 and 2020, the country addressed issues of mobility, sexual harassment, pensions, and employment-discrimination protections. al-Huwaider and other female activists have applauded the general direction in which the country was headed. Women face discrimination in the courts, where the testimony of one man equals that of two women in family and inheritance law. Polygamy is permitted for men, and men have a unilateral right to divorce their wives (talaq) without needing any legal justification. A woman can only obtain a divorce with the consent of her husband or judicially if her husband has harmed her. However, in 2022, women were granted the right to divorce and without the approval of a legal guardian under the new Personal Status Law. With regard to the law of inheritance, the Quran specifies that fixed portions of the deceased's estate must be left to the Qur'anic heirs and generally, female heirs receive half the portion of male heirs. Heritage sites Saudi Wahhabism is hostile to any reverence given to historical or religious places of significance for fear that it may give rise to 'shirk' (idolatry), and the most significant historic Muslim sites (in Mecca and Medina) are located in the western Saudi region of the Hejaz. As a consequence, under Saudi rule an estimated 95% of Mecca's historic buildings, most over a thousand years old, have been demolished for religious reasons. Critics claim that over the last 50 years, 300 historic sites linked to Muhammad, his family or companions have been lost, leaving fewer than 20 structures remaining in Mecca that date back to the time of Muhammad. Demolished structures include the mosque originally built by Muhammad's daughter Fatima, and other mosques founded by Abu Bakr (Muhammad's father-in-law and the first caliph), Umar (the second caliph), Ali (Muhammad's son-in-law and the fourth caliph), and Salman al-Farsi (another of Muhammad's companions).Seven cultural sites in Saudi Arabia are designated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites: Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih); the Turaif district in Diriyah; Historic Jeddah, the Gate to Mecca; Al-Ahsa Oasis; Rock Art in the Hail Region; Ḥimā Cultural Area; and 'Uruq Bani Ma'arid. Ten other sites submitted requests for recognition to UNESCO in 2015. There are six elements inscribed on UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity list: Al-Qatt Al-Asiri, female traditional interior wall decoration in Asir; Almezmar, drumming and dancing with sticks; Falconry, a living human heritage; Arabic coffee, a symbol of generosity; Majlis, a cultural and social space; Alardah Alnajdiyah, dance, drumming and poetry in Saudi Arabia. In June 2014, the Council of Ministers approved a law that gives the Saudi Commission for Tourism and National Heritage the means to protect Saudi Arabia's ancient relics and historic sites. Within the framework of the 2016 National Transformation Programme, also known as Saudi Vision 2030, the kingdom allocated 900 million euros to preserve its historical and cultural heritage. Saudi Arabia also participates in the International Alliance for the Protection of Heritage in Conflict Areas, created in March 2017, with a contribution of 18.5 million euros. In 2017, Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman promised to return Saudi Arabia to the "moderate Islam" of the era before the 1979 Iranian revolution. A new centre, the King Salman Complex for the Prophet's Hadith, was established that year to monitor interpretations of the Prophet Mohammed's hadiths to prevent them being used to justifying terrorism. In March 2018, the Crown Prince met the Archbishop of Canterbury during a visit to the UK, pledging to promote interfaith dialogue. In Riyadh the following month King Salman met the head of the Vatican's Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue. In July 2019, UNESCO signed a letter with the Saudi Minister of Culture in which Saudi Arabia contributed US$25 million to UNESCO for the preservation of heritage. Dress Saudi Arabian dress strictly follows the principles of hijab (the Islamic principle of modesty, especially in dress). The predominantly loose and flowing, but covering, garments are suited to Saudi Arabia's desert climate. Traditionally, men usually wear a white ankle-length garment woven from wool or cotton (known as a thawb), with a keffiyeh (a large checkered square of cotton held in place by an agal) or a ghutra (a plain white square made of a finer cotton, also held in place by an agal) worn on the head. For rare chilly days, Saudi men wear a camel-hair cloak (bisht) over the top. In public women are required to wear a black abaya or other black clothing that covers everything under the neck with the exception of their hands and feet, although most women cover their head in respect of their religion. This requirement applies to non-Muslim women too and failure to abide can result in police action, particularly in more conservative areas of the country. Women's clothes are often decorated with tribal motifs, coins, sequins, metallic thread, and appliques. Arts and entertainment During the 1970s, cinemas were numerous in the kingdom although they were seen as contrary to Wahhabi norms. During the Islamic revival movement in the 1980s, and as a political response to an increase in Islamist activism including the 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, the government closed all cinemas and theatres. However, with King Abdullah and King Salman's reforms, cinemas re-opened, including one in KAUST. From the 18th century onward, Wahhabi fundamentalism discouraged artistic development inconsistent with its teaching. In addition, Sunni Islamic prohibition of creating representations of people have limited the visual arts, which tend to be dominated by geometric, floral, and abstract designs and by calligraphy. With the advent of the oil-wealth in the 20th century came exposure to outside influences, such as Western housing styles, furnishings, and clothes. Music and dance have always been part of Saudi life. Traditional music is generally associated with poetry and is sung collectively. Instruments include the rabābah, an instrument not unlike a three-string fiddle, and various types of percussion instruments, such as the ṭabl (drum) and the ṭār (tambourine). The national dance is a native sword dance known as ardah. Originating from Najd, it involves lines or circles of men and singing poetry. Bedouin poetry, known as nabaṭī, is popular. Censorship has limited the development of Saudi literature, although several Saudi novelists and poets have achieved critical and popular acclaim in the Arab world—albeit generating official hostility in their home country. These include Ghazi Algosaibi, Mansour al-Nogaidan, Abdelrahman Munif, Turki al-Hamad and Rajaa al-Sanea. In 2016, the General Entertainment Authority (GEA) was formed to oversee the expansion of the Saudi entertainment sector. The first concerts in Riyadh for 25 years took place the following year. Other events since the GEA's creation have included comedy shows, professional wrestling events and monster truck rallies. In 2018 the first public cinema opened after a ban of 35 years, with plans to have more than screens running by 2030. Developments in the arts in 2018 included Saudi Arabia's debut appearances at the Cannes Film Festival and the Venice Biennale. TV and media Television was introduced in Saudi Arabia in 1954. Saudi Arabia is a major market for pan-Arab satellite and pay-TV. It controls the largest share of the pan-Arab broadcasting market; among the major Saudi-owned broadcasting companies are the Middle East Broadcasting Center, Rotana and the Saudi Broadcasting Authority. The Saudi government closely monitors media and restricts it under official state law. Changes have been made to lessen these restrictions; however, some government-led efforts to control information have also drawn international attention. As of 2022, Reporters Without Borders rates the kingdom's press a "very serious" situation. Most of the early newspapers in the Persian Gulf region were established in Saudi Arabia. The first newspaper founded in the country and in the Persian Gulf area is Al Fallah, which was launched in 1920, and the first English-language newspaper is Arab News, which was launched in 1975. All of the newspapers published in Saudi Arabia are privately owned. According to World Bank, as of 2020, 98% of the population of Saudi Arabia are internet users which puts it in the 8th rank among countries with the highest percentage of internet users. Saudi Arabia has one of the fastest 5G internet speeds in the world. The kingdom is the 27th largest market for e-commerce with a revenue of US$8 billion in 2021. Cuisine Saudi Arabian cuisine is similar to that of the surrounding countries in the Arabian Peninsula and the wider Arab world, and has influenced and been influenced by Turkish, Indian, Persian, and African food. Islamic dietary laws are enforced: pork is not allowed, and other animals are slaughtered in accordance with halal. Kebabs and falafel are popular, as is shawarma, a marinated grilled meat dish of lamb, mutton, or chicken. Kabsa, a rice dish with lamb, chicken, fish or shrimp, is among the national dishes as is mandi. Flat, unleavened taboon bread is a staple of virtually every meal, as are dates, fresh fruit, yoghurt, and hummus. Coffee, served in the Arabic style, is the traditional beverage, but tea and various fruit juices are popular as well. The earliest substantiated evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree is from the 15th century, in the Sufi monasteries of Arabia. Sport Football is the national sport in Saudi Arabia. The Saudi Arabia national football team is considered one of Asia's most successful national teams, having reached a joint record six AFC Asian Cup finals, winning three of those finals (1984, 1988, and 1996) and having qualified for the World Cup four consecutive times ever since debuting at the 1994 tournament. In the 1994 FIFA World Cup under the leadership of Jorge Solari, Saudi Arabia beat both Belgium and Morocco in the group stage before falling to defeat Sweden in the round of 16. During the 1992 FIFA Confederations Cup, which was played in Saudi Arabia, the country reached the final, losing 1–3 to Argentina. Scuba diving, windsurfing, sailing and basketball (which is played by both men and women) are also popular with the Saudi Arabian national basketball team winning bronze at the 1999 Asian Championship. More traditional sports such as horse racing and camel racing are also popular. The annual King's Camel Race, begun in 1974, is one of the sport's most important contests and attracts animals and riders from throughout the region. Falconry is another traditional pursuit. Women's sport is controversial because of the suppression of female participation in sport by conservative Islamic religious authorities, however the restrictions have eased. Until 2018 women were not permitted in sport stadiums. Segregated seating, allowing women to enter, has been developed in three stadiums across major cities. Since 2020, the progress of women's integration into the Saudi sport scene began to develop rapidly. 25 Saudi sport federations established a national women's team, including a national football and basketball team. In November 2020, the Saudi Arabian Football Federation announced the launch of the first nationwide Saudi women's premier league. In its vision for modernization the nation has introduced many international sporting events, bringing sports stars to the kingdom. However, in August 2019, the kingdom's strategy received criticism for appearing as a method of sportswashing soon after Saudi's US-based 2018 lobbying campaign foreign registration documentations got published online. The documents showed Saudi Arabia as allegedly implementing a sportswashing strategy, including meetings and official calls with authorities of associations like Major League Soccer, World Wrestling Entertainment, and the National Basketball Association. See also Index of Saudi Arabia–related articles Outline of Saudi Arabia Notes References Bibliography Available at: , especially Chapter 8: Saudi Arabia—Religion, Gender, and the Desire for Democracy. In: The Future of the Gulf Region. Gulf Studies, vol 2. Springer, Cham. The Future of the Gulf Region: Value Change and Global Cycles External links Saudi Arabia. official government website. Saudi Arabia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Saudi Arabia profile from the BBC News Key Development Forecasts for Saudi Arabia from International Futures Arabian Peninsula Countries and territories where Arabic is an official language G20 members Kingdoms Member states of OPEC Member states of the Arab League Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation Member states of the United Nations Middle Eastern countries West Asian countries States and territories established in 1932 1932 establishments in Saudi Arabia Countries in Asia Member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council Islamic monarchies
14600982	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenauheim	Lenauheim	Lenauheim (until 1926 Cetad; , formerly Tschatad) is a commune in Timiș County, Romania. It is composed of three villages: Bulgăruș, Grabaț and Lenauheim (commune seat). Lenauheim was named after the poet Nikolaus Lenau, born here in 1802. Geography Lenauheim is located in the western part of Timiș County, from Timișoara and from Jimbolia, the nearest town. It borders Lovrin and Sânpetru Mare to the north, Biled and Cărpiniș to the east, Jimbolia to the south and Comloșu Mare to the west. Relief Lenauheim lies within a wide plain, slightly inclined to the southwest and south, with an average altitude of 85–90 m. The whole relief is characterized by the predominance of smooth surfaces typical of the extremities of the Pannonian Plain. Climate Lenauheim's climate is classified as warm and temperate and is strongly influenced by the Mediterranean climate, especially the Adriatic one. Winters are relatively mild and often snow-free, springs are short and with sudden shifts from cold to warm seasons, and summers are quite hot and sometimes with heavy rainfall. Autumn is generally marked by good weather, although sometimes, towards the end of this season, there are frosts and snows damaging the crops. The average annual temperature is , with a variation between . The coldest month is January, while the warmest month is July. The average rainfall is per year, with a variation between . During drier years, the area acquires a more pronounced character of steppe, and during the rainier years, of forest-steppe. Most precipitation falls in May – , then in June – . Rainy winds blow from the west and southwest. Sometimes, in the summer, they bring storms and hail. The strength of the winds varies between , but in some cases they turn into real hurricanes. In particular, spring winds sometimes cause serious damage to vegetable crops by destroying nurseries, solariums and greenhouses. Hydrography Located in a steppe area, Lenauheim is deficient in running waters. The hydrographic network is poorly represented, the running waters with constant and permanent flow being absent. However, this situation is supplemented by a network of canals oriented towards Bega (the drainage ones) and towards Mureș (the supply ones), a network that was executed within some hydro-improvement works with the participation of the locals between 1957 and 1960. Flora The vegetation is rich due to favorable climate and soil conditions. The rich humus of the soil makes the grassy vegetation to be widespread, and the weeds to grow vigorously. The plants found in this area are part of different categories of floristic elements, predominating the Central European one with strong Mediterranean influences. Around 1880, in the northwestern part of Lenauheim, there was an oak forest that stretched over several tens of hectares and belonged to the Aerarium. The Aerarium sold it and it was completely cleared, being turned into arable land. The spread of the conifers is limited. However, there are specimens of Picea abies (spruce), Abies alba (silver fir), Abies concolor (white fir), Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas fir), different species of pine (Pinus strobus, nigra and sylvestris), and in the Lenauheim school park small specimens of Larix decidua (larch), Taxus baccata (yew) and Juniperus communis (juniper). Although it is not a fruit-growing region, there are still many species of fruit trees: apple, pear, quince, cherry plum, apricot, plum, peach, walnut, sour cherry, cherry, and among the Mediterranean species, fig and almond. The arboretum is most widespread along the railways, on the edge of roads and ponds and to a lesser extent in people's gardens. Corylus avellana (hazel), Sambucus nigra (black elderberry), Rosa canina (dog rose), Prunus spinosa (blackthorn), Salix purpurea (purple willow), Humulus lupulus (hop), Syringa vulgaris (lilac), Berberis vulgaris (barberry) and numerous other shrub and semi-shrub species grow here. Water plants are less widespread due to the lack of running waters and larger swampy areas. There are, however, small areas covered with a fairly rich aquatic vegetation consisting of reeds and rushes, bulrushes, sedges, and in the waters of the ponds duckweeds and water silk. Fauna The intensive development of agriculture, the cutting of the oak forest near Lenauheim, and more recently of the edges of black locust and the clumps of weeping willows and poplars led to the limitation of the animal species that populate this region. Bustards, little bustards and black storks have disappeared, while grouses and red-breasted geese are birds of passage. During milder winters there are some species of birds that are not commonly found in the area and in its surroundings: little and great bittern, glossy ibis, northern lapwing, water rail, green and black woodpecker, etc. Mammals found here include deer, fox, hare, hamster, suslik, field mouse, some of which are harmful to agricultural crops. Reptiles are represented by viviparous lizard and green lizard, and batrachians by marsh frog, green toad and tree frog. Insects are quite numerous: bees, wasps, mole crickets, locusts, crickets, ants, ladybugs, beetles, caterpillar hunters, Colorado beetles, etc., as well as numerous butterflies. Fish are missing apart from some common species characteristic of stagnant waters. History Lenauheim The first evidence of the existence of a community in present-day Lenauheim is from the 3rd–4th centuries. Archaeological studies from 1960 have brought to light vessels made in the post-Roman period. These vessels are exhibited at the National Museum of Banat in Timișoara. Between 1311 and 1415 are recorded the presence of several landlords, including Mathias von Csatád from which comes the old name of the village – Cetad. Historian Ágoston Bárány suggests that the name derives from the Romanian word cetate ("citadel"), invoking the existence around 1845 of some old foundations identified within the commune's borders. Although unlikely, other historians derive the word csata (Hungarian for "battle") from that name. On 12 May 1470, King Matthias Corvinus donated Cetad to the Dóczy family, one of the most influential families in southern Hungary. They settled only in 1477 and resided here until 1481 when, following the dismissal of the head of the family from the rulership of Banat by Matthias Corvinus, Cetad became the property of the Révay family. However, Cetad came into the possession of the Dóczys once again in 1482. By that time, Cetad was ravaged by Ottoman incursions; a document of 23 March 1482 mentions it as a puszta (Hungarian for "deserted"). Little is known about the fortress at Cetad during the Ottoman occupation of Banat; most likely it was destroyed. From the center of the commune radiate some underground tunnels, built in the form of a vault, which have been little researched. It is assumed that these underground tunnels built of brick with hot lime mortar were specific to some reinforcements from the Banat Plain and were ways of retreat in case of danger. Today's Lenauheim was established in 1767 by colonization with Germans from Luxembourg, Lorraine, Trier, Westphalia and Bavaria. 202 houses were built at the behest of Councilor , and the colony thus established was given the Hungarianized name Csatád, thus recovering the name of the old medieval settlement. In 1925, with the Law for Administrative Unification, the name of the commune changed from Cetad to Lenauheim, after the German-language poet Nikolaus Lenau, born here in 1802. The majority German population began to shrink after World War II. In 1945, 141 locals were deported to the USSR. Also during this period a large number of ethnic Germans were deported to Bărăgan. By Law no. 2/1968 regarding the administrative-territorial reorganization of Romania in Lenauheim commune are included the neighboring localities Bulgăruș and Grabaț, until that law independent communes, the center of the new commune being Lenauheim. Bulgăruș Bulgăruș is first attested by Hungarian documents dating from 1452 and 1493. It was then called Bogaros. During the Ottoman occupation of Banat, it seems that it was completely deserted and disappeared towards the end of the 16th century. However, the name Bogaros appears in several Turkish defters, referring to the praedium of the same name. At the 1717 census it is registered as uninhabited. The old hearth of the village was identified about 100 m from the current village. The village was re-established in 1769 by German colonization, according to the plan of the commander of Timisoara Neumann. The first German (Swabian) colonists began to settle in Bulgăruș in early 1769 and came from Lotharingia, Luxembourg, Upper Austria and Hesse. Each received a plot for house, 34 jugers of land, construction materials and was granted various privileges and tax exemptions. The Germans kept the old name, adapted to their language – Bogarosch. The plague epidemic of 1831–1836 killed a large number of inhabitants. In 1836 alone, 107 people died of plague within three months, while another 700 were ill. The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 had a major impact on village life. Many of the inhabitants were directly involved in the events and many died in the fighting that took place in the area. In 1849 Bulgăruș was practically besieged by an army of 20,000 soldiers and 84 cannons, as well as the battleground between the revolutionaries and the imperial armies. Heavy fighting took place on 8 August 1849 between Bulgăruș and Cetad (present-day Lenauheim), resulting in numerous deaths and injuries among the villagers. The political activity of the Swabians from more than 38 German villages in Banat materialized in the Petition of the Swabians from Bulgăruș on 2 October 1849, which demanded more liberties for the Swabians in Banat. During the Bărăgan deportations, Bulgăruș was one of the most affected in the whole of Banat, no less than 559 people being deported (about a quarter of the total population). The exodus of the Germans to Germany took place during the communist period and after 1990. Germans were replaced by Romanians coming from different parts of the country. Grabaț The name Grabaț is of Slavic origin and already existed when the first Swabians arrived here, but it did not describe a specific settlement, but rather an area sporadically inhabited by Serbian cattle breeders. Count Mercy's map of 1723 shows a praedium (estate) called Grabatz, although the village did not exist at that time. Grabaț was founded in 1764, during the second wave of colonization of Banat, also called the "Theresian Colonization". Within this colonization program, the imperial administration of Banat ordered the creation in the Grabatz estate of a new settlement for German (Swabian) colonists. , the administrative adviser to the Imperial Court in Vienna, was responsible for the establishment of the colony. He first ordered the design of the settlement according to a predetermined model, with the church, the parish house, the school, the town hall and the pub being in the central point of the village, with parallel streets and equal plots for houses. A year later, in 1765, about 40 families of German colonists settled here. Most came from southwestern Germany (Alsace, Lorraine, Rhineland-Palatinate, Württemberg, Schwarzwald and Luxembourg), then Germans from Săcălaz and nearby German villages. In 1769 the settlement already had 200 houses and a Roman Catholic church, built of wood. The brick church was completed only in 1780. Demographics Lenauheim had a population of 5,109 inhabitants at the 2011 census, down 10% from the 2002 census. Most inhabitants are Romanians (78.06%), larger minorities being represented by Roma (10.86%), Germans (1.88%) and Hungarians (1.21%). For 7.5% of the population, ethnicity is unknown. By religion, most inhabitants are Orthodox (73.38%), but there are also minorities of Roman Catholics (10.84%) and Pentecostals (5.07%). For 7.56% of the population, religious affiliation is unknown. Twin towns Mureck Notable people Nikolaus Lenau (1802–1850), poet (1912–1998), writer References External links German website of Lenauheim Romanian website of Lenauheim Communes in Timiș County Former Danube Swabian communities in Romania Localities in Romanian Banat
18666535	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycling%20at%20the%202008%20Summer%20Olympics%20%E2%80%93%20Men%27s%20points%20race	Cycling at the 2008 Summer Olympics – Men's points race	Cycling at the 2008 Summer Olympics – Men's points race The men's points race at the 2008 Summer Olympics took place on August 16 at the Laoshan Velodrome. There were 23 competitors from 23 nations. The event was won by Joan Llaneras of Spain, his second victory in the points race (after 2000) and third consecutive medal in the event (with a silver in 2004). Llaneras was the only person, of any gender, to win multiple medals in the points race, which is no longer on the Olympic programme. His two gold medals made Spain only the second nation to win multiple golds in the men's event; Italy had three (as well as one in the women's event). Silver went to Roger Kluge of Germany. Great Britain earned its first medal in the men's points race with Chris Newton's bronze. Background This was the eighth and final appearance of the event, which would be replaced by the Omnium in 2012 (a multi-component event that concludes with a points race). It was first held in 1900 and not again until 1984; after that, it was held every Summer Games until 2008 when it was removed from the programme. The women's version was held from 1996 through 2008. 12 of the 23 cyclists from the 2004 Games returned: gold medalist Mikhail Ignatiev of Russia, silver medalist (and 2000 gold medalist) Joan Llaneras of Spain, fourth-place finisher Greg Henderson of New Zealand, fifth-place finisher Milan Kadlec of the Czech Republic, seventh-place finisher Peter Schep of the Netherlands, eighth-place finisher Angelo Ciccone of Italy, ninth-place finisher (and 2000 silver medalist) Milton Wynants of Uruguay, eleventh-place finisher Marco Arriagada of Chile, thirteenth-place finisher (and 1996 and 2000 competitor) Juan Curuchet of Argentina, sixteenth-place finisher (and 2000 competitor) Makoto Iijima of Japan, twentieth-place finisher Wong Kam Po of Hong Kong, and non-finisher Chris Newton of Great Britain. In addition to Llaneras and Wynants, veterans of the 2000 competition were Curuchet, Iijima, and Wong; Curuchet had also competed in 1996. Llaneras won the World Championship in 1996, 1998, 2000, and 2007. Newton was the 2002 World Champion. Volodymyr Rybin of Ukraine had won in 2005, Peter Schep of the Netherlands in 2006, and Vasil Kiryienka of Belarus in 2008. Among the medal favorites were Llaneras, Kiryienka, and the defending Olympic champion Ignatiev. For the only time in the eight-appearance history of the event, no nations made their debut in the event. France and Italy both competed for the eighth time, the only nations to have competed in all eight Olympic men's points races. Qualification Each National Olympic Committee (NOC) could qualify 1 cyclist; there were a maximum of 25 quota places, though only 23 were ultimately used in 2008. The reigning World Champion (Kiryienka of Belarus), World Cup leader (Newton of Great Britain), and "B" World Champion (Radoslav Konstantinov of Bulgaria) received quota places. Each of the 16 nations that had qualified in the men's Madison competition also received a place (reduced to 15 because Great Britain qualified in the Madison but Newton already qualified). There was also six spots available through UCI rankings to nations that had not yet qualified. Switzerland had a Madison team but did not use its points race place. Konstantinov withdrew and was replaced through an additional UCI ranking place. Competition format This track cycling event consisted of a single race in which the cyclist with the most points at the end of the race won. This race was a 40 kilometre, 160 lap race. During the race, cyclists could score points in two ways. The first way to score points is to lap the group. Each time a cyclist gained a full lap on the peloton, he scored 20 points. If a cyclist lost a full lap to the peloton, however, he lost 20 points. The other method of scoring points was to place in the intermediate sprints occurring every 10 laps. The first four cyclists in each of the sprints scored points with the first finisher receiving 5 points, the second 3, the third 2, and the fourth 1 point. Schedule All times are China Standard Time (UTC+8) Results Four years earlier, Ignatiev had won by breaking away from the group and finishing a lap ahead of everyone else; this time, he was unable to get away from the peloton. Llaneras, the sprint points leader in 2004 who took silver due to the lap behind Ignatiev, was among a group of five that broke away after the sixth sprint to take a one-lap lead. Two sprints later, he, Kluge, and Newton gained a second lap; they would not be caught, essentially assuring the three men the medals. Llaneras won three sprints shortly thereafter, building a large lead over the other two leaders. That lead held to the end, with the Spaniard holding an insurmountable advantage going into the final sprint, which he did not contest. Kluge won the final sprint to move ahead of Newton for the silver medal. References Track cycling at the 2008 Summer Olympics Cycling at the Summer Olympics – Men's points race Men's events at the 2008 Summer Olympics
436502	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Fulford	Battle of Fulford	Battle of Fulford The Battle of Fulford was fought on the outskirts of the village of Fulford just south of York in England, on 20 September 1066, when King Harald III of Norway, also known as Harald Hardrada ("harðráði" in Old Norse, meaning "hard ruler"), a claimant to the English throne and Tostig Godwinson, his English ally, fought and defeated the Northern Earls Edwin and Morcar. Hardrada's army consisted of allies from Orkney and a contingent with Tostig, as well as those coming from Norway. They crossed the sea in a fleet of ships and made their base east of York at Ricall. On 20 September 1066 the Vikings advanced towards York. The largely inexperienced Saxon army led by Morcar at York and Edwin at Tadcaster moved to block the invaders. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that the opposing armies met on the left bank of the River Ouse and that initially the Saxons caused heavy losses on the Viking army. Ultimately, the Norse army overwhelmed the Saxon army although the earls themselves survived this defeat. After winning, the victorious Norwegians entered York, gathered supplies, and asked for hostages. Background The Anglo-Saxon king Edward the Confessor died on 5 January 1066 without an heir. The only surviving male member of the royal family was Edgar the Ætheling, the young son of Edward the Exile, who was aged about fourteen. On the day of King Edward's funeral, 6 January, Harold Godwinson, the Earl of Wessex, rushed to London, where he was crowned king in the Abbey of Saint Peter of Westminster, by Ealdred, Archbishop of York. Harold Godwinson was elected as King by the Witenagemot, who had gathered in Westminster to celebrate the feast of Epiphany. However, two powerful earls, brothers Edwin of Mercia and Morcar of Northumbria, challenged his authority. Sources indicate that Harold moved north to confront them; however, in the end he secured their loyalty by marrying their sister, Edith, the widow of Griffith of Wales. By securing the loyalty of Edwin and Morcar, Godwinson increased his strength in the north. These men were, in fact, the first barrier between Harold Godwinson and Harald Hardrada. Tostig, the exiled brother of Godwinson, also felt he had a claim to the English throne. During his exile, he lived in Flanders, from where, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, he invaded England in May 1066 against his brother. At Sandwich, Tostig is said to have enlisted and impressed sailors. He then sailed north, where he battled Edwin, the Earl of Mercia. After a quick defeat at the mouth of the Humber, he arrived in Scotland under the protection of King Malcolm III. Later he met, and made a pact with, Harald Hardrada, King of Norway, whereby he agreed to support Hardrada in his invasion of England. The medieval historian Orderic Vitalis has a different version of this story; he says that Tostig travelled to Normandy to enlist the help of William, Duke of Normandy. Then, as William was not ready to get involved at that stage, Tostig sailed from the Cotentin Peninsula, but because of storms ended up in Norway, and made his pact with Harald Hardrada there. Whether in Norway or Scotland, it is certain that Tostig allied himself with Hardrada, as they fought side by side at the Battle of Fulford. Tostig was a useful ally for Hardrada not only because he was the brother of his adversary, but also because he knew the terrain. Hardrada, like Tostig, William of Normandy and King Harold Godwinson, was another claimant to the throne. Hardrada set sail for England in September 1066, stopping in Orkney to pick up supplies, and was later reinforced by Tostig, who brought soldiers and ships. They sailed together along the River Ouse towards the city of York. In Orderic Vitalis's version, it says that in the month of August Hardrada and Tostig set sail across the wide sea with a favourable wind and landed in Yorkshire. They arrived at the mouth of the Humber on 18 September. Having disembarked from their ships, their armies quickly moved towards York. On 20 September 1066, they were confronted by Godwinson's earls, Edwin and Morcar. Battle Deployment Edwin had brought some soldiers to the east to prepare for an invasion by the Norwegians. The battle started with the English spreading their forces out to secure their flanks. On their right flank was the River Ouse, and on the left was the Fordland, a swampy area. The disadvantage to the position was that it gave Harald higher ground, which was perfect for seeing the battle from a distance. Another disadvantage was that if one flank were to give way, the other one would be in trouble. If the Anglo-Saxon army had to retreat, it would not be able to because of the marshlands. They would have to hold off the Norwegians as long as possible. Harald's army approached from three routes to the south. Harald lined his army up to oppose the Anglo-Saxons, but he knew it would take hours for all of his troops to arrive. His least experienced troops were sent to the right and his best troops were on the riverbank. English charge The English struck first, advancing on the Norwegian army before it could fully deploy. Morcar's troops pushed Harald's back into the marshlands, making progress against the weaker section of the Norwegian line. However, this initial success proved insufficient for victory to the English army, as the Norwegians brought their better troops to bear upon them, still fresh against the weakened Anglo-Saxons. Harald's counter-move Harald brought more of his troops from the right flank to attack the centre, and sent more men to the river. The invaders were outnumbered, but they kept pushing and shoving the defenders back. The Anglo-Saxons were forced to give ground. Edwin's soldiers who were defending the bank now were cut off from the rest of the army by the marsh, so they headed back to the city to make a final stand. Within another hour, the men on the beck were forced off by the Norwegians. Other invading Norwegians, who were still arriving, found a way to get around the thick fighting and opened a third front against the Anglo-Saxons. Outnumbered and outmanoeuvred, the defenders were defeated. Edwin and Morcar however, managed to survive the fight. York surrendered to the Norwegians under the promise that the victors would not force entry to their city, perhaps because Tostig would not want his capital looted. It was arranged that the various hostages should be brought in and the Norwegian army retired to Stamford Bridge, east of York, to await their arrival. Aftermath It has been estimated that at Fulford the Norwegians had about 10,000 troops, of whom 6,000 were deployed in the battle, and the defenders 5,000. During the battle, casualties were heavy on both sides. Some estimates claim 15% dead giving a total of 1,650 (based on 11,000 troops being deployed in the battle). From all accounts, it is clear that the mobilised power of Mercia and Northumbria was cut to pieces at Fulford. Because of the defeat at Fulford, King Harold II had to force-march his troops , from London to York. He did this within a week of Fulford and managed to surprise the Viking army and defeat them at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. In the meantime William, Duke of Normandy, had landed his army in Sussex on the south coast. Harold marched his army back down to the south coast where he met William's army, at a place now called Battle just outside Hastings. It is probable that Harold's intention was to repeat his success at Stamford Bridge by catching Duke William unawares. The Anglo-Norman chronicler Florence of Worcester commented that although the king (Harold) was aware that some of the bravest men in England had fallen in two recent battles and that half of his troops were not assembled, he did not hesitate to meet the enemy in Sussex. It is likely that the engagements at Fulford and at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, fought within a week of each other, seriously affected Harold's strength at the Battle of Hastings some three weeks later. There is no doubt that if Harold had not been diverted by the battles in the north, then he would have been better prepared to fight William at Hastings and the result might have been different. Notes Citations References External links Details from the Battlefields Trust Battle of Fulford Conflicts in 1066 1066 in England Battles involving England Battles involving Norway Battles involving the Vikings Battles involving the Anglo-Saxons Norman conquest of England History of North Yorkshire History of York Fulford Harald Hardrada
4035259	https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%87%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BD%20%28%D1%84%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%BA%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B1%29	Їдзін (футбольний клуб)	Їдзін (футбольний клуб) Їдзін — бутанський футбольний клуб з міста Тхімпху, який виступає у Національній лізі Бутану, вищому дивізіоні національного чемпіонату. Заснований 2002 року, у своєму дебютному сезоні в B-Дивізіоні команда виграла турнір та здобула путівку до A-Дивізіону, де виступала протягом решти періоду свого існування. У 2008 році вперше виграла A-Дивізіон, загалом же чотири рази ставала переможцем вище вказаного турніру. У сезонах 2012 та 2013 рока «Їдзін» також кваліфікувався для участі в Національній лізі Бутану, в якій став першим переможцем турніру (2012). Клуб чотири рази представляв Бутан у Кубку президента АФК, аналогічним досягненням відзначився лише «Транспорт Юнайтед». Проте успіхи в національних турнірах команді невдалося підкріпити успішними виступами на континентальному рівні, в чотирьох розіграшах Кубку президента АФК команда посідала останнє місце за підсумками групового етапу, програвши всі матчі й відзначилися лише 5-ма голами. «Їдзін» вважався одним з найбагатших футбольних клубів країни. Історія 2002—2008 У 2002 році «Їдзін» заснував Джигме Норбу, у перший же рік свого існування команда виступала в B-Дивізіоні. Під час групового етапу вони виграли чотири зі своїх п'яти матчів, програвши лише клубу «Рігжунг», який на одне очко випередив «Їдзін». Разом з «Друк Юнайтед» та «Шаркс», які пройшли кваліфікацію з іншої групи, вони вийшли у півфінал. У півфіналі «Їдзін» обіграв «Друк Юнайтед», але в вирішальному поєдинку поступився з рахунком 3:5 (основний час — 1:1) «Рігжунгу». Однак обидва фіналісти вишли до A-Дивізіону на наступний сезон. Перший задокументований виступ «Їдзіна» в турнірі припав на сезон 2003 року, де вони фінішували на шостому місці з десяти команд-учасниць. У вище вказаному сезоні небагато результатів матчів, а для «Їдзіна» — жодного, але відомо, що вони або виграли три, одного разу зіграли внічию й програли чотири з восьми своїх поєдинків, або виграли два, зіграли в нічию чотири та програли два матчі. Невідомо, де команда фінішувала в чемпіонаті наступного сезону, але вочевидь, вони завершили сезон поза межами першої четвірки А-дивізіону 2004. Однак відбулися плей-оф змагання для всіх клубів А-дивізіону, в яких «Їдзін» займав друге місце, програвши «Друку Полу» у фіналі. У 2005 році «Їдзін» продемонстрував найкращий на сьогодні результат, фінішувавши на третьому місці, поступившись одним очком переможцю чемпіонату «Транспорт Юнайтед», та програвши за різницею забитих та пропущених м'ячів срібному призеру, «Друк Полу», але на 14 очок випередив четверту найкращу команду турніру «Друк Старз». Після чотирьох із дванадцяти матчів вони очолили таблицю, отримавши три перемоги та нічию, у тому числі й перемогу (4:0) над «Транспорт Юнайтед». Однак по завершенні першої частини чемпіонату опустилися на друге місце, відставши на два очки від «Друк Пола», але все одно випереджали «Транспорт Юнайтед» за кращою різницею забитих та пропущених м'ячів. Статус-кво зберігався до останньої гри сезону, де «Їдзін» втратив титул, програвши на виїзді з рахунком 1:2 «Транспорт Юнайтед». Також вони програли в Чемпіоншипі на вибування А-Дивізіону, поступившись у серії післяматчевих пенальті (1:3) «Друк Полу». Про наступний сезон дані обмежені, відомо лише, що вони не фінішували ні на першому, ні на третьому, ні на четвертому місці, поступившись з рахунком 1:4 RIHS. Про сезон 2007 року доступно трохи більше даних, «Їдзін» фінішував на четвертому місці з 23 очками, випередивши «Королівську армію Бутану», але поступилася чемпіону «Транспорт Юнайтед», «Друк Пол» та «Друк Старз» у сезоні, який включав перемогу (15:0) над RIHS, коли суперники виставили лише дев’ять польових гравців. Наступного сезону «Їдзін» показав найкращі результати на сьогоднішній день, вигравши як лігу, так і кубок. Вони завершили сезон чемпіонату непереможеним, на чотири очки випередивши на «Транспорт Юнайтед», який програв лише в двох поєдинках, включаючи нічию (1:1) з «Чоденом», команда Бутана U-19, водночас обігравши «Рігжунг» (20:0) у другій половині сезону. «Їдзін» виграв Нокаут-турнір А-Дивізіону 2008 року, перемігши з рахунком 4:3 у фіналі «Королівську армію Бутану». 2009 Однак, незважаючи на те, що забив більше м'ячів, ніж будь-яка інша команда, і більше ніж нижча половина таблиці забила разом взяти, та з рахунками 10:2, 20:0 та 16:1 обіграли «Рігжунг» та «Друк Атлетик» двічі відповідно, вони все ж не змогли захистити чемпіонський титул у сезоні 2009 року, програвши три гри протягом усього сезону та закінчив п'ять очок позаду «Друк Старз», який закінчив сезон без поразки. «Їдзін» також невдало в Клубному кубку Чемпіоншипу. Незважаючи на перемогу над «Нангпою» з рахунком 12:0 у чвертьфіналі та «Чоденом» з рахунком 4:1 у півфіналі, у фіналі вони програли з рахунком «Друк Старз» з рахунком 0:1, віддзеркалюючи досягнення клубу в попередньому сезоні. 2009 рік був також першим сезоном, коли «Їдзін» представляв Бутан у континентальних змаганнях, їх перемога в попередньому сезоні в національному чемпіонаті означає, що вони були нагороджені місцем Бутану в Кубку президента АФК 2009 року. Бутанський колектив потрапив до групи C, разом з киргизьким «Дордой-Динамо», бірманським «Канбауза» та камбоджийським «Пномпень Кроун». Матчі групового етапу проходили в Бішкеку, у всих трьох матчах бутанський клуб програв. «Їдзін» пропустив 14 м'ячів, а забив — 3 (Пема Чопел, Джигме Тензін та Тчепудла). 2010—2011 Наступного сезону «Їдзін» знову провів сезон без жодної поразки, випередивши на дев'ять очок «Друк Пола» та виграв свій другий чемпіонат, втративши очки лише в нічийному (0:0) матчі проти «Друк Пола». Завдяки чемпіонству зайняв місце Бутану в Кубку президента АФК 2011 року. Деталі сезону 2011 знову мінімальні, хоча відомо, що «Їдзін» продовжив свій внутрішній успіх, вигравши другий поспіль титул і третій загалом, у скорочений сезоні, коли їх А-дивізіон проводився в форматі одного колу в очікуванні початку нових змагань національної ліги, які в підсумку були скасовані. Вони також брали участь у Кубку президента АФК 2011 року і були розіграні в групі Б на груповому етапі разом з Істіклолом з Таджикистану, «Яданарбон» з М'янми та «Джабал Аль-Мукабером» з Палестини. Усі матчі проводилися в Янгон в М'янми. Повторивши кампанію 2009 року, вони знову зазнали поразку у всіх трьох матчах, цього разу, не зумівши забити жодного м'яча, і знову не пройшли в наступний раунд. 2012 Наступний сезон розпочався невдало. Незважаючи на дві важкі поразки від «Нангпи» 0:12 та 0:16, «Їдзін» двічі зазнав поразки від «Друк Полу» та двічі зіграв внічию з «Зімдрою» (тепер відомий як «Тхімпху Сіті»), щоб закінчити позаду цих двох вище вказаних команд на третьому місці, а «Друк Пол» взяв титул А-Дивізіону. Однак цього було достатньо для кваліфікації до першого розіграшу Національної ліги Бутану. Ця нова ліга була повноцінним національним змаганням, тоді як колишній А-Дивізіон номінально називався Національною лігою у період між 2001 і 2003 роками, на практиці це була ліга для команд, які базуються в Тхімпху. «Їдзін» кваліфікувався разом з «Друк Полом» та «Зімдрою», до них приєднався «Пхуенчхолінг», всі вони представляючи дзонгхаг Чуха, «Самце» представляв дзонгхаг Самце та «Уг'єн Академі», який представляв дзонгхаг Пунакха. Команда, яка представляла дзонгхаг Сарпанг, також мала ввійти, але, мабуть, не ввійшла. «Їдзін» виступив у змаганнях з сильними результатами, закінчивши лігу після десяти матчів без жодної поразки та пропустив лише п'ять м'ячів. Чемпіонство «Їдзін» оформив після перемоги (2:1) над «Друк Пола», випередивши за кращою різницею забитих та пропущених м'ячів «Друк Полу» на чолі з Джигеля Уг'єна Вангчука, отримавши 400 000 нгултрумів. Незважаючи на те, що вони втратили титул у А-Дивізіоні, оскільки цей конкурс тепер є лише відбором до нової національної ліги, «Їдзін» виграв третій поспіль чемпіонат країни. Вперше команда досягла цього після «Транспорт Юнайтед» у 2006 року, вдруге в історії бутанського футболу. На додаток до їхнього внутрішнього успіху, виграш у чемпіонаті в попередньому сезоні також означав, що вони отримали місце Бутану в Кубку президента АФК 2012 року, вдруге поспіль, коли вони брали участь у турнірі, і третій загалом. «Їдзін» потрапив до групи Б разом із «Дордоєм» (Бішкек) з Киргизстану, непальським «Поліс Клаб» та «Пномпень Кроун» з Камбоджі. Вони поїхали до Пномпеня, де мали відбутися всі ігри групи Б, але знову виступ «Їдзіна» був невтішним, оскільки вони втретє програли всі три матчі та пропустили 23 м'ячі, що є їх найгіршим виступом в обороні на сьогодні. Однак, на відміну від минулорічного турніру, вони змогли забити два голи (Ченчо Г'єлчен та Церінг Вангді), програвши «Дордою» (Бішкек) з рахунком 2:11. 2013-2014 «Їдзін» зміг відвоювати титул у А-Дивізіону в сезоні 2013 року, потрапили до другого розіграші Національної ліги на першому місці після майже ідеального шляху, втративши очки лише в нічийному (0:0) поєдинку проти майбутніми віце-чемпіонами «Тхімпху Сіті», відзначився 27 голами у своїх восьми матчах, включаючи перемогу над «Друк Юнайтед» з рахунком (10:2). Також команда не зазнала жодної поразки в Національнальній лізі, такми чином вперше в історії бутанського футболу місцевий клуб не програв жодного матчу як в А-Дивізіоні, так і в Національній лізі. Зігравши 5 разів внічию, поступилися чемпіонським титулом «Уг'єн Академі», через що не змогли зайняти квоту Бутану в Кубку Президента АФК, вперше за попередні три роки. Однак, оскільки вони виграли попередні змагання у Національній лізі, вони таки третій рік поспіль представляли Бутан у Кубку президента АФК 2013 року. У вище вказаному турнірі «Їдзін» потрапив до групи Б, вдруге постпіль разом з бішкекським «Дордоєм», окрім цього іншими суперниками бутанського клубу стали філіппінський «Глобал» та пакистанський КРЛ. Всі матчі у групі Б проходили в філіппінському місті Себу. Проте бутанський клуб знову виступив невдало, програв всі три матчі й не зміг відзначитися жодним голом у воротах вище вказаних суперників. У 2014 році, після найгіршого у власній історії виступу в Лізі Тхімпху, команду розформували. «Їдзін» здобув три перемоги та двічі зіграв внічию, посів 6-те місце й вперше не зміг кваліфікуватися до Національної ліги. Окрім цього, оскільки в попередньому сезоні вони програли Національну лігу «Уг'єн Академі», то не змогли взяти участь у розіграшві Кубку Президента АФК. У 2016 році, через фінансові проблеми, клуб розформували. Досягнення Національна ліга Бутану Чемпіон (1): 2010 А-Дивізіон Національної ліги Бутану Чемпіон (1): 2008 Клубний чемпіоншип Бутану Чемпіон (1): 2008 Зимовий чемпіоншип Бутану Чемпіон (1): 2006 А-дивізіон Бутану Срібний призер (2): 2006, 2008 Бронзовий призер (1): 2004, 2005. Статистика виступів у Кубку президента АФК Кубок президента АФК (4 виступи): 2009: 4-те місце на груповому етапі 2011: 4-те місце на груповому етапі 2012: 4-те місце на груповому етапі 2013: 4-те місце на груповому етапі Примітки Посилання Офіційном сторінка клубу в соціальній мережі Facebook Профіль клубу на сайті soccerway.com Профіль клубу на сайті transfermarkt.com Профіль клубу на сайті zerozero.pt Профіль клубу на сайті footballdatabase.eu Профіль клубу на сайті worldfootball.net Футбольні клуби Бутану Футбольні клуби, засновані 2002
23768607	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/51%20Pegasi%20b	51 Pegasi b	51 Pegasi b, officially named Dimidium , is an extrasolar planet approximately away in the constellation of Pegasus. It was the first exoplanet to be discovered orbiting a main-sequence star, the Sun-like 51 Pegasi, and marked a breakthrough in astronomical research. It is the prototype for a class of planets called hot Jupiters. In 2017, traces of water were discovered in the planet's atmosphere. In 2019, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded in part for the discovery of 51 Pegasi b. Name 51 Pegasi is the Flamsteed designation of the host star. The planet was originally designated 51 Pegasi b by Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz, who discovered the planet in 1995. The following year it was unofficially dubbed "Bellerophon" by astronomer Geoffrey Marcy, who followed the convention of naming planets after Greek and Roman mythological figures (Bellerophon is a figure from Greek mythology who rode the winged horse Pegasus). In July 2014, the International Astronomical Union launched NameExoWorlds, a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars. The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names. In December 2015, the IAU announced the winning name for this planet was Dimidium. The name was submitted by the , Switzerland. 'Dimidium' is Latin for 'half', referring to the planet's mass of approximately half the mass of Jupiter. Discovery The exoplanet's discovery was announced on October 6, 1995, by Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva in the journal Nature. They used the radial velocity method with the ELODIE spectrograph on the Observatoire de Haute-Provence telescope in France and made world headlines with their announcement. For this discovery, they were awarded the 2019 Nobel Prize in Physics. The planet was discovered using a sensitive spectroscope that could detect the slight and regular velocity changes in the star's spectral lines of around 70 metres per second. These changes are caused by the planet's gravitational effects from just 7 million kilometres' distance from the star. Within a week of the announcement, the planet was confirmed by another team using the Lick Observatory in California. Physical characteristics After its discovery, many teams confirmed the planet's existence and obtained more observations of its properties. It was discovered that the planet orbits the star in around four days. It is much closer to it than Mercury is to the Sun, moves at an orbital speed of , yet has a minimum mass about half that of Jupiter (about 150 times that of the Earth). At the time, the presence of a huge world so close to its star was not compatible with theories of planet formation and was considered an anomaly. However, since then, numerous other "hot Jupiters" have been discovered (such as 55 Cancri and τ Boötis), and astronomers are revising their theories of planet formation to account for them by studying orbital migration. Assuming the planet is perfectly grey with no greenhouse or tidal effects, and a Bond albedo of 0.1, the temperature would be . This is between the predicted temperatures of HD 189733 b and HD 209458 b (–), before they were measured. In the report of the discovery, it was initially speculated that 51 Pegasi b was the stripped core of a brown dwarf of a decomposed star and was therefore composed of heavy elements, but it is now believed to be a gas giant. It is sufficiently massive that its thick atmosphere is not blown away by the star's solar wind. 51 Pegasi b probably has a greater radius than that of Jupiter despite its lower mass. This is because its superheated atmosphere must be puffed up into a thick but tenuous layer surrounding it. Beneath this, the gases that make up the planet would be so hot that the planet would glow red. Clouds of silicates may exist in the atmosphere. The planet is tidally locked to its star, always presenting the same face to it. The planet (with Upsilon Andromedae b) was deemed a candidate for aperture polarimetry by Planetpol. It is also a candidate for "near-infrared characterisation.... with the VLTI Spectro-Imager". Claims of direct detection of visible light The first ever direct detection of the visible light spectrum reflected from an exoplanet has been made by an international team of astronomers on 51 Pegasi b. The astronomers studied light from 51 Pegasi b using the High Accuracy Radial velocity Planet Searcher (HARPS) instrument at the European Southern Observatory's La Silla Observatory in Chile. This detection allowed the inference of a mass of 0.46 Jupiter masses. The optical detection could not be replicated in 2020, implying the planet has an albedo below 0.15. Measurements in 2021 have marginally detected a polarized reflected light signal, which, while they cannot place limits on the albedo without assumptions made about the scattering mechanisms, could suggest a high albedo. See also PSR B1257+12 B PSR B1257+12 C HD 209458 b List of exoplanets discovered before 2000 References Further reading (web version) External links Hot Jupiters Pegasus (constellation) Exoplanets discovered in 1995 Giant planets Exoplanets detected by radial velocity Articles containing video clips Exoplanets with proper names
5169331	https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%20%28%D1%96%D0%BC%27%D1%8F%29	Марсель (ім'я)	Марсель (ім'я) Марсель — французьке особове чоловіче ім'я, яке походить від похідної форми від імені Марко. Зустрічається переважно у Франції, Монако, Швейцарії, Іспанії, Італії, Бельгії, Німеччині, Угорщині, Канаді та частково в Польщі та Румунії. Відомі носії імені А Марсель Аллен (1885—1969) — французький письменник, журналіст. Марсель Альбер (1917—2010)— французький льотчик, Герой Радянського Союзу (1944). Марсель Амон-Тано (1951) — івуарійський політик, обіймав посаду міністра закордонних справ Кот-д'Івуару з 25 листопада 2016 року по 19 березня 2020 року. Марсель Арлан (1898—1986) — французький письменник, есеїст, літературний критик і журналіст. Марсель Артелеса (1938—2016) — французький футболіст, що грав на позиції захисника. Марсель Ашар (уроджений — Марсель-Огюстен Ферреоль, ; 1899—1974) — французький сценарист і драматург. Б Марсель Баєр (1965) — німецький письменник. Марсель Балкестейн (1981) — нідерландський хокеїст на траві, олімпійський медаліст (2012). Марсель Берешоає (1964—2007) — румунський боксер, призер чемпіонату Європи (1991). Марсель Бернар (1914—1994) — колишній французький тенісист. Марсель Блек (1951) — американський політик від Демократичної партії. Марсель Блюваль (1925—2021) — французький режисер, сценарист, актор, директор театру. Марсель Бонен (1931) — колишній канадський хокеїст, що грав на позиції лівого нападника. Марсель Бреєр (1902—1981) — німецький (угорський) і американський архітектор і дизайнер. Марсель Бурген (1890—1916) — французький регбіст. В Марсель ван дер Лінден (1952) — нідерландський історик і соціолог. Марсель Вітечек (1968) — німецький футболіст польського походження, що грав на позиції нападника. Г Марсель Гаккер (1977) — німецький веслувальник, олімпійський медаліст (2000). Марсель Гальстенберг (1991) — німецький футболіст, лівий захисник. Марсель Геллер (1986) — німецький футболіст, півзахисник. Марсель Гіршер (1989) — австрійський гірськолижник зі спеціалізацією в технічних слаломних дисциплінах, дворазовий олімпійський чемпіон (2018). Марсель Гране (1884—1940) — французький китаєзнавець. Марсель Гранольєрс (1986) — іспанський тенісист. Марсель Гріоль (1898—1956) — французький етнограф-африканіст, керівник особливої школи у французькій етнографії. Марсель Гроссманн (1878—1936) — швейцарський математик. Д Марсель Даліо (уроджений — Ізраїль Мойше Блаушильд, ; 1899—1983) — французький актор. Марсель Дангле (1899—1974) — французький футболіст, що грав на позиції нападника. Марсель Дассо (уроджений — Марсель Блох); 1892—1986) — французький авіаконструктор, засновник компанії Société des Avions Marcel Bloch. Марсель де Соуза (1956) — бразильський баскетболіст і тренер. Марсель Депре (1843—1918) — французький інженер і фізик. Марсель Десаї (1968) — французький футболіст ганського походження. Марсель де Йонг (1986) — канадський футболіст, що виступав на позиції захисника. Марсель Дж. E. Голей (1902—1989) — швейцарський математик, фізик та інформаційний теоретик. Марсель Діб (1960) — французький футболіст, що грав на позиції півзахисника. Марсель Діонн (1950) — канадський хокеїст, центральний нападник. Марсель Домерг (1901—?) — французький футболіст, що грав на позиції півзахисника. Марсель Домінго (1924—2010) — французький футболіст, що грав на позиції воротаря. Марсель Дріс (1929—2011) — бельгійський футболіст, що грав на позиції захисника. Марсель Дюпре (1886—1971) — французький композитор, піаніст і органіст. Марсель Дюшан (1887—1968) — французький та американський художник. Е Марсель Евальд (1983) — німецький борець вільного стилю, срібний (2007) та бронзовий (2010) призер чемпіонатів Європи Марсель Еме (1902—1967) — французький письменник, прозаїк і драматург, автор комедій, романів, казок і новел. Марсель Ерран (1897—1953) — французький актор театру та кіно, театральний режисер. І Марсель Ішак (1906—1994) — відомий французький режисер, продюсер, альпініст, гімалаїст. З Марсель Забітцер (1994) — австрійський футболіст, півзахисник. Ж Марсель Жакоб (?—?) — французький автогонщик 1930-х років, переможець Provence Trophy 1933 року. Марсель Жері (1965) — канадський плавець, олімпійський медаліст (1992). К Марсель Камю (1912—1982) — французький кінорежисер і сценарист. Марсель Капелль (1904—1993) — французький футболіст, що грав на позиції захисника. Марсель Карне (1906—1996) — французький кінорежисер. Марсель Кипач (1894—1915) — хорватський винахідник. Марсель Коллер (1960) — швейцарський футболіст, що грав на позиції захисника. Марсель Коммуні (1885—1971) — французький регбіст. Марсель Кузіно (1973) — канадський хокеїст, що грав на позиції воротаря. Л Марсель Ланжіє (1908—1980) — французький футболіст, що грав на позиції нападника. Марсель Л'Ерб'є (1888—1979) — французький кінорежисер, сценарист, продюсер, теоретик кіно. Марсель Ле Пікар (1887—1952) — французький кінооператор. Марсель Леу (1888 або 1889—1936) — французький автогонщик та підприємець. Марсель Лефевр (1905―1991) ― католицький архієпископ Дакару (1955—1962), генеральний настоятель (CSSp) з 1962 по 1968 рік. Марсель Лефевр ((1918—1944) — французький льотчик, Герой Радянського Союзу (1945, посмертно). Марсель Лібман (1929—1986) — бельгійський громадський діяч-марксист польсько-єврейського походження, професор політології та соціології. М Марсель Марсо (1923—2007) — французький актор і художник, мім. Марсель Марті (1925—2010) — іспанський скульптор. Марсель Мауве (1973) — камерунський футболіст, що грав на позиції півзахисника. Марсель Маурон (1929—2022) — швейцарський футболіст, що грав на позиції нападника. Марсель Мосс (1872—1950) — французький етнолог і соціолог. Н Марсель Нгуєн (1987) — німецький гімнаст, олімпійський медаліст (2012). О Марсель Обур (1940) — французький футболіст, що грав на позиції воротаря. П Марсель Паньоль (1895—1974) — французький письменник, драматург та кінематографіст. Марсель Пінель (1908—1968) — французький футболіст, що грав на позиції півзахисника. Марсель Проново (1930—2015) — канадський хокеїст, що грав на позиції захисника. Марсель Пруст (1871—1922) — французький письменник, есеїст та критик. Р Марсель Райх-Раніцкі (1920—2013) — німецький літературний критик та публіцист. С Марсель Салімов (псевдонім — Мар. Салім; 1949) — башкирський письменник-сатирик, поет, публіцист, перекладач. Т Марсель Табюто (1887—1966) — франко-американський гобоїст. Марсель Тіссеран (1993) — конголезький футболіст, захисник. Марсель Турньє (1879—1951) — французький арфіст, композитор, музичний педагог. Ф Марсель Фішер (1978) — швейцарський фехтувальник на шпагах, олімпійський чемпіон (2004). Марсель Флюккігер (1929—2010) — швейцарський футболіст, що грав на позиції захисника. Марсель Фонлантен (1933) — швейцарський футболіст, що грав на позиції нападника. Х Марсель Х. Ван Херпен (1945) — нідерландський політолог і соціолог. Ш Марсель Шанталь (у шлюбі — Марсель Джефферсон-Кон, на початку кар'єри — Марсель Фавр, ; 1901—1960) — французька співачка та акторка. Марсель Швоб (1867—1905) — французький письменник та перекладач. Марсель Шефер (1984) — німецький футболіст, що грав на позиції півзахисника. Марсель Шуген (1993) — німецький футболіст, воротар. Я Марсель Янсен (1985) — колишній німецький футболіст, захисник. Французькі імена
11500785	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20Dead%20Redemption	Red Dead Redemption	Red Dead Redemption is a 2010 action-adventure game developed by Rockstar San Diego and published by Rockstar Games. A successor to 2004's Red Dead Revolver, it is the second game in the Red Dead series. Red Dead Redemption is set during the decline of the American frontier in the year 1911. It follows John Marston, a former outlaw who, after his wife and son are taken hostage by the government in ransom for his services as a hired gun, sets out to bring three members of his former gang to justice. The narrative explores themes of the cycle of violence, masculinity, redemption, and the American Dream. The game is played from a third-person perspective. The player can freely roam in its interactive open world, a fictionalized version of the Western United States and Northern Mexico, primarily by horseback, and on foot. Gunfights emphasize a gunslinger gameplay mechanic called "Dead Eye" that allows players to mark multiple shooting targets on enemies in slow motion. The game uses a morality system by which the player's actions in the game affect their character's levels of honor, fame, and how other characters respond to the player. An online multiplayer mode is included with the original release, allowing up to 16 players to engage in both cooperative and competitive gameplay in a recreation of the single-player setting. The game's development lasted over five years, and it became one of the most expensive video games ever made. Rockstar improved its proprietary game engine to increase its technological capabilities. The development team conducted extensive research, including field trips to Washington, D.C. and analyzing classic Western films, to achieve realism for the game. The team hired professional actors to perform the body movements through motion capture. Red Dead Redemption features an original score composed by Bill Elm and Woody Jackson. The game's development received controversy following accusations of unethical working practices. The working hours and managerial style of the studio was met with public complaints from staff members. Red Dead Redemption was released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in May 2010, and for Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4 in August 2023. It received critical acclaim for its visuals, music, performances, gameplay, and narrative. It won several year-end accolades, including Game of the Year awards from several gaming publications, and is considered by critics as one of the best video games ever made. It had shipped around 23million copies by 2021, making it one of the best-selling video games. After the game's release, several downloadable content additions were released; Undead Nightmare, later released as a standalone game, added a new single-player campaign in which Marston searches for a cure for an infectious zombie plague. A prequel, Red Dead Redemption 2, was released in October 2018. Gameplay Red Dead Redemption is a Western-themed action-adventure game played from a third-person perspective. Players control John Marston and completes missions—linear scenarios with set objectives—to progress through the story; in the epilogue, players control John's son Jack. Outside of missions, players may freely roam the open world, consisting of the American states New Austin and West Elizabeth—fictionalized versions of the Western United States—and the fictional Mexican state Nuevo Paraíso. Different breeds of horses are the main forms of transportation, each with different attributes. Horses must be tamed in the wild, stolen, or purchased. Players can utilize trains and carriages for quick travel. Undeveloped land features rugged and vast landscapes with occasional travelers, bandits, and wildlife. Urban settlements range from isolated farmhouses to crowded towns. Players can witness and partake in random events, including public hangings, ambushes, pleas for assistance, encounters with strangers, ride-by shootings, and dangerous animal attacks. Optional side activities include dueling, bounty hunting, herb collecting, gambling, and hunting. Red Dead Redemption uses an Honor system, which is increased by morally positive deeds, such as capturing an outlaw alive or saving a stranger, and decreased by negative choices like murder. The Fame system affects how non-player characters (NPCs) react to players based on Honor. If players have high Honor, NPCs will greet them and they will receive discounts in some stores; if low, NPCs will act insecure and establishments may close their doors. Players can disguise themselves by wearing a bandana when performing criminal acts. Gunfights are an essential gameplay mechanic. Players can take cover, target a specific person or animal, blindfire, and free aim. Individual body parts can be targeted to take down targets non-lethally. Weapons include revolvers, pistols, rifles, shotguns, knives, explosives, and lassos. Aiming utilizes a gunslinger gameplay mechanic known as Dead Eye, a targeting system allowing players to slow down time and mark targets. Once the targeting sequence ends, players fire to all marked locations in quick succession. The Dead Eye system upgrades and grants more abilities as players progress. The game introduces the bounty system, a crime-governing mechanic inspired by Grand Theft Autos wanted system. When players commit a crime, witnesses run to the nearest police station; players can bribe or kill them before they reach the station, negating consequences. Once the law is alerted, the Wanted meter appears with a bounty set on players' heads. The bounty grows higher as players commit more crimes, and more lawmen will be sent to hunt them; after committing enough crime, the U.S. Marshals or Mexican Army will be sent. To evade law enforcement in pursuit, players must escape a circular zone or kill all lawmen in a town. If players escape, bounty hunters will continue to track them. The bounty will remain on their head until they pay it at a telegraph station or present a pardon letter. The online multiplayer allows up to 16 players to engage in competitive and cooperative gameplay in a recreation of the single-player setting. Each game begins with a Mexican standoff, of which the survivors move to any part of the battlefield in preparation for respawning enemies. Event types include deathmatch scenarios and capture the flag variants. Crates contain extra weapons, ammo, and other powerups. Players can level up and complete weapon challenges to earn rewards such as new character models, golden weapon skins, new titles, and new breeds of animal mounts. Multiplayer features open-world gameplay, wherein players can form or join a group of up to eight players in a "posse" group and partake in hunting or attack other gangs or posses. In some game modes, players are unable to kill each other. Plot In 1911, the family of former outlaw John Marston (Rob Wiethoff) is kidnapped by Bureau of Investigation agents, Edgar Ross (Jim Bentley) and Archer Fordham (David Wilson Barnes), who force him to hunt down his former gang members in exchange for his family's return. John first goes after former ally Bill Williamson (Steve J. Palmer), who now leads his own gang that terrorizes the residents of New Austin. He arrives at Williamson's stronghold at Fort Mercer, but fails to persuade him to surrender, resulting in John being shot and left for dead. Rescued by local rancher Bonnie MacFarlane (Kimberly Irion), he helps her with several jobs around her farm, while formulating a plan to attack Williamson's gang. John makes a number of allies to help him carry out the attack, including U.S. Marshal Leigh Johnson (Anthony De Longis), con artist Nigel West Dickens (Don Creech), treasure hunter Seth Briars (Kevin Glikmann), and an arms smuggler known as "Irish" (K. Harrison Sweeney). Ultimately, John and his allies storm Fort Mercer and kill all of Williamson's men but learn that Williamson has fled to Mexico to seek help from Javier Escuella (Antonio Jaramillo), another former ally of John. John parts ways with his allies and travels to Mexico. Upon his arrival in Nuevo Paraíso, John becomes involved in a local civil war between Colonel Agustín Allende (Gary Carlos Cervantes), the state's tyrannical governor, and Abraham Reyes (Josh Segarra), the leader of a rebellion against Allende's government. John works with both sides in exchange for help in tracking down his targets. When Allende decides to turn on him, John is rescued by Reyes and vows to aid the rebels in gaining an advantage. During a raid on a Mexican Army fortress, the rebels help him find Escuella, who reveals that Williamson is under Allende's protection. After killing or capturing Escuella, John hands him over to Ross and Fordham. Reyes eventually leads an assault on Allende's palace, and John helps him chase and execute Allende and Williamson when they attempt to flee. Leaving Reyes to rule Nuevo Paraíso and lead his revolution to Mexico's capital, John returns to the United States. In Blackwater, Ross and Fordham enlist John's help in tracking down Dutch van der Linde (Benjamin Byron Davis), his former gang's leader and John's former mentor. Dutch has recently formed a gang with disaffected Native Americans, with whom he shares a hatred for the government and modernization. Aided by Ross's associates, John finds Dutch's stronghold in the mountains. After helping Ross and Fordham thwart Dutch's robbery of the Blackwater Bank, John partakes in the U.S. Army's assault on Dutch's stronghold. Chased to a cliff, Dutch concedes defeat and warns John that the Bureau will not give him peace, before committing suicide. Afterward, Ross honors their agreement and allows John to be reunited with his family. Returning to his ranch, John reunites with his wife Abigail (Sophia Marzocchi), son Jack (Josh Blaylock) and former gang member Uncle (Spider Madison) to attempt an honest life again. However, this peace is short-lived as Ross betrays John and leads a U.S. Army unit in an attack on his ranch. John tries to fend them off, but the attacking force is too large, and Uncle is killed. John helps his family escape and stays to face the attackers, who kill him and leave. In 1914, Jack buries Abigail next to John after she dies, before tracking down a newly retired Ross to confront him about John's death. Jack kills Ross in a duel. Themes and analysis Red Dead Redemption explores themes of the cycle of violence, faith, governmental control, law and order, the loss of innocence and freedom, manifest destiny, masculinity, social change, and redemption; it also received commentary for its representation of Native Americans and violence. IGNs Erik Brudvig considered it a commentary on modern political issues such as racism and immigration; writer Dan Houser said the story was not intended as a satire of contemporary America but parallels were inevitable due to the similarities of the time period. Some scholars identified the game conforms to neoliberal values, particularly in its depoliticizing of the sufferers of corporate greed, though others felt it ridicules the selfishness of neoliberals. Matt Margini described the narrative as a tragedy, citing Aristotle's proposal that the hero is neither good nor evil and "tragic heroes are tragic because they bring about their own fall, despite having good intentions". Several scholars noted that, despite the use of the word "redemption" in the game's title, such a feat was impossible for John; Reid McCarter of Bullet Points Monthly described the use of the word as "bitterly ironic" due to the inability of reinvention for both the characters and the country. Margini wrote the final chapter allowed the player to feel they had achieved the promised redemption, only for it to be taken away by the story's end. Conversely, Kotakus Heather Alexandra felt John achieved his redemption upon sacrificing himself to save his family. Benjamin J. Triana found that, while John's death "implies transcendence", it is not overtly sacrificial, nor does it represent John as a hero. Gamasutras Richard Clark considered the depiction of redemption to be "cynical and overly simple". Red Dead Redemption also explores the impacts of the cycle of violence, most notably represented through Jack's continuation of his father's failures by adopting the outlaw status. NPR's Jason Sheehan considered the game a tale of "the senselessness of violence used to solve violence begetting only more violence". M. Melissa Elston found that, like other modern media, it attempts to "reframe the violence and simplistic moral dualism of previous pop-cultural representations of the Old West". The game drew some commentary for its depiction of violence; Margini considered it justifiable since "violence means something". Timothy J. Welsh felt similarly, adding it is "just a game", but recognized the worrisome nihilism it could perpetuate if generalized. Christopher Bartel rebutted this sentiment, expressing hesitancy at the moral justification of virtual murder and noting "even hard-core gamers might balk at virtual sadism". The game presents the ethos of the American Dream in its formation, in contrast with the modern-day representation in Grand Theft Auto IV (2008). While John's violent past rendered him unable to achieve redemption, it also impacted his son's own ability to achieve the American Dream as he becomes an outlaw like his father. The game also features commentary on freedom and control, and the manner in which societal change acts as a catalyst for losing one's control and compromising their morality. The journey from the open fields to the city of Blackwater represents civilization's control over the natural world, though the player lacks control during the opening sequence in which John leaves Blackwater, only gaining it when reentering the city later in the game. While Red Dead Redemption grants the player freedom, they ultimately lack control over the narrative as "being free to do things is not the same as being able to change things", an ideology directly reflected in John's inability to prevent his own death. Triana felt the ending allowed the player to properly understand John's rejection of a developing society and institutions due to the misery endured from the government. The game also demonstrates the disparities of economic inequality; Sara Humphreys identified a connection between MacFarlane's Ranch and the class conflict of Johnson County, Wyoming in the late nineteenth century. While marketing materials presented John as a traditional cowboy—isolated and violent, a "white, heteronormative, rugged individual"—his behavior and ambitions in the narrative are generally unconventional. His ambiguity and internal conflict lead him to exhibit "weariness more than manliness". Regardless, John continues to perpetuate stereotypes in some instances; he continues to preserve lives in his missions for the government despite his bitter opposition to them, described as an enactment of Theodore Roosevelt's masculine ideals. Triana found the game's masculinity to be plural, with the male lead generally pitted against other men, though recognized the dominance of the characters often shifted throughout the narrative. He also recognized that John's challenges reflected those of straight, cisgender men in the modern era. Margini blamed John's downfall on "the false promises of a world built on hypermasculine ideals", emphasized by John's unsuccessful attempts to adopt a new form of masculinity and play an empathetic father to Jack. WiderScreen Ajankohtaistas Juho Tuominen and Olli Sotamaa described John as an idealist and Jack as "the educated youth, a version of a new kind of woke man". The representation of female characters is mixed; Bonnie MacFarlane is presented as "insightful and resourceful" instead of simply "a woman masquerading as a male figure", though still defers to simple domestic tasks in the presence of her father, and on one occasion becomes the damsel in distress. Meanwhile, Abigail is presented as "the good prostitute who serves as a handmaiden" and later becomes "the nagging wife", and other female characters exist simply to reflect back onto John, both positively and negatively. In further opposition with the American Dream, the game's representation of Native Americans is bleak, cruel, and violent. Jodi A. Byrd believed that, in the game's title, "Red Dead" signaled the genocide of the Native Americans. McCarter of Bullet Points felt, while the killing of Native Americans is explained in the context of the story, it is "a shaky rationale meant to echo the rhetoric" surrounding the genocide and forced relocation. Elston recognized the Native American character Nastas as an example of Gerald Vizenor's "manifest manners", a falsification of the indigenous experience being told as truth. Dr. Esther Wright proposed Native American characters were included only to justify and complement the white characters' otherness as oppositional to the government and civilization, describing it as "a disingenuous oversimplification and (mis)use of the complexities of Native American genocide". She also opined that, while John is not overtly racist, his participation in an attack on an Indian reservation implicates him in "a micro-scale recreation of racist, genocidal violence". Margini considered the representation could either be an example of dark satire, or "a crafty way of excusing their genocide at Marston's hand", aligned with a wider erasure seen in other Western media. Triana wrote Native Americans "end up victims to the game's evil social forces" due to John's priority of reuniting with his family. Development After the May 2004 release of Red Dead Revolver, publisher Rockstar Games wanted to create its own Western video game from scratch; it had acquired Revolver from Capcom in 2003 after years of development and completed development within nine months. Early development began in 2005, and full development commenced in 2006, following the formation of a core development team. Rockstar San Diego's 180-person team co-opted Rockstar's Leeds, New England, North, and Toronto studios to facilitate development between a full team of over 1,000. Having exhausted the use of previous hardware on other projects, Rockstar felt inspired after realizing the potential power of the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. Analyst estimations place the game's combined development and marketing budget between and , which would make it one of the most expensive video games to develop. The game's development received controversy following accusations of unethical working practices at Rockstar San Diego, including twelve-hour workdays and six-day weeks, with a lower-than-the-industry-average salary increase. Red Dead Redemptions 1,500-page script was written in two years. Taking inspiration from films like The Wild Bunch (1969), High Plains Drifter (1973), Unforgiven (1992), and The Proposition (2005), the team felt that most Western fiction takes place between 1840 and 1880, and that Red Dead Redemptions setting in 1911 allowed a more intriguing analysis of the transformation from "the old West" into the modern world. Regarding the game's depiction of violence, the team wanted it to "feel slightly raw and unpleasant", attempting realism without exaggeration. The open world was created to represent iconic features of the American frontier. The team organized field trips to Washington, D.C., visiting the Library of Congress and the National Archives Building, captured a multitude of photographs, and analyzed various classic Western films, television shows, and novels. The team considered creating the open world one of the most technically demanding aspect of the game's production, in terms of filling the world with enough content to interest players. Like other projects since Rockstar Games Presents Table Tennis (2006), the game uses the proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine (RAGE) to perform animation and rendering tasks, and the Euphoria and Bullet engines for further animation and environment rendering tasks. Overhauling the potential processing power of RAGE allowed the game to create a high level of detail, including realistic animations and detailed textures. The potential power of the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 experienced through the development kits motivated the team to begin development, and to create a game that could fully render the countryside, which was difficult to achieve on previous hardware. The developers at San Diego sought guidance from other Rockstar studios experienced with developing open worlds, particularly Grand Theft Auto developer Rockstar North. The game was envisioned to improve the core mechanics of Red Dead Revolver by scaling it up to the standard of other Rockstar games, maintaining key gameplay elements like the Dead Eye and dueling mechanics but majorly overhauling the experience otherwise. In particular, the team faced a challenge in creating realistic movement for the horse, resulting in the engagement of a stunt horse to simulate movement for the designers. As the story developed, a range of characters were organically created based on the period; Red Dead Redemption features around 450 characters. The game required a large amount of character dialogue in order to feel alive, comparable to Rockstar's previous game Grand Theft Auto IV. Researchers at Rockstar developed a style guide based on real sayings of the time period. Rockstar hired Rod Edge as the full-time director to handle the game's performances, recorded using motion capture technology, with additional dialogue and sound effects recorded in a studio; the performance capture was recorded in Santa Monica, California. After an audition process, Rob Wiethoff was selected to portray John Marston. John was developed to be a nuanced character, as opposed to an explicit villain or hero, and a "family man". Steve J. Palmer, who portrayed Bill Williamson, felt that John and Bill represented siblings in their former gang, while Dutch van der Linde was more of a parental figure. Benjamin Byron Davis, who portrayed Dutch, was told that Dutch was a well-read, charismatic former gang leader who had "lost his mind". Red Dead Redemption is one of the first games by Rockstar to use an original score. Music supervisor Ivan Pavlovich cited the large scale of the game as one of the largest difficulties when producing the score; to achieve an effective gaming experience, the game could not solely feature licensed music, like previous Rockstar games. In 2008, Rockstar engaged musicians Bill Elm and Woody Jackson, who collaborated to compose approximately 200 tracks for the game over 15 months. The original score and subsequent album were both recorded and mixed at Jackson's studio, Electro-Vox Recording Studios in Los Angeles, and mastered at Capitol Studios. When researching music for inspiration, Jackson found that there was no "Western sound" in 1911; he felt that the soundtracks of 1960s Western films, such as Ennio Morricone's work on the Dollars Trilogy, was more representative of Western music. Rockstar also consulted musicians who played traditional Western instruments, such as harmonica player Tommy Morgan. The game also features vocal performances by Ashtar Command, José González, Jamie Lidell, and William Elliott Whitmore. Release and promotion An early trailer for an untitled Western project by Rockstar Games for PlayStation 3 was shown at Sony's E3 conference in May 2005; it was a technology demonstration of RAGE, and theorized to be a sequel to Red Dead Revolver. Rockstar officially announced Red Dead Redemption on February 3, 2009. The debut trailer was released on May 6, 2009, introducing the game's protagonist. The game received an extensive and expensive marketing campaign, during which Rockstar partnered with several companies and media outlets, including IGN, GameSpot, LoveFilm, Microsoft, and YouTube. To encourage pre-order sales, Rockstar collaborated with several retail outlets to provide pre-order bonuses, including exclusive in-game horses, outfits, and weapons. Rockstar also released a special edition of the game in special packaging, with a copy of the soundtrack. The game was exhibited at PAX East in late March 2010, with a 15–30 minute playable demonstration. Rockstar released a Facebook application, Red Dead Redemption: Gunslingers, in April 2010. The following month, Red Dead Redemption: The Man from Blackwater, a machinima short film directed by John Hillcoat, aired in the United States on the television network Fox. The game missed its original projected late 2009 and April 2010 release dates, pushed back to May 18, 2010, in North America, and May 21 internationally, citing the "optimal time frame" for release. Downloadable content (DLC) for the game was released following its launch, with focus on maps and game types suggested by the community. Outlaws to the End, released on June 22, 2010, added six cooperative side missions for multiplayer. Legends and Killers was released on August 10, 2010, and added multiplayer characters from Red Dead Revolver, as well as new map locations and a Tomahawk weapon. On September 21, 2010, Liars and Cheats added competitive multiplayer modes, minigames, characters, and a weapon. Hunting and Trading, released on October 12, 2010, added a jackalope to the game's world, and some additional outfits. Undead Nightmare adds a single-player campaign, set in a non-canonical, zombie apocalypse-themed alternate reality with ghost towns and cemeteries full of zombies, wherein John searches for a cure to the zombie outbreak. It was released on October 26, 2010, as DLC and in late November as a standalone expansion pack. Myths and Maverick released for free on September 13, 2011, adding additional characters and locations to the multiplayer. A Game of the Year Edition containing all downloadable content was released for both PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 on October 11, 2011, in North America and on October 14, 2011, internationally. Microsoft added the game, along with Undead Nightmare, to its backward compatibility list for Xbox One, the successor to the Xbox 360, in July 2016; Red Dead Redemption had been one of the most requested titles for the feature. The game's sales position on Amazon.com spiked following the announcement. The release runs at a smoother frame rate on the Xbox One. In April 2018, the game received an update as an "Xbox One X enhanced" title, making it playable at 4K resolution (an increase from the game's original 720p resolution) with graphical improvements on the high-end revision of Xbox One, called Xbox One X. The Xbox Series X and Series S can also play the game, with the higher-end Series X running it with its Xbox One X-specific enhancements. Sony added Red Dead Redemption and Undead Nightmare to its PlayStation Now cloud gaming subscription service in December 2016, which allowed them to be played on PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, and Windows; they were removed in October 2022. According to industry sources, Rockstar shelved a Red Dead Redemption remaster after the poor reception of Grand Theft Auto: The Trilogy – The Definitive Edition (2021), instead increasing focus on development for Grand Theft Auto VI. Media speculation restarted in June 2023 after the Game Rating and Administration Committee in South Korea gave Red Dead Redemption a new game rating, and in July after updates to Rockstar's website included minor changes to the game's logos and achievements. In August, Rockstar announced the single-player modes of Red Dead Redemption and Undead Nightmare would release for the Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4 on August 17, developed by Double Eleven. Physical versions were released on October 13. Reactions to the announcement were mixed, with the trailer receiving mostly dislikes on YouTube; some journalists and players appreciated the game becoming available on modern consoles, but lamented the lack of visual and frame rate upgrades, absence of a Windows release, omission of multiplayer, and price point. An update in October added an option to increase the frame rate from 30 to 60 frames-per-second when played on PlayStation 5 via backward compatibility. Reception Critical response Red Dead Redemption received "universal acclaim" from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic. It is among the highest-rated games on Metacritic, and is ranked the sixth-highest rated PlayStation 3 and seventh-highest rated Xbox 360 game. Brudvig of IGN described Red Dead Redemption as "a must-play" and "one of the deepest, most fun, and most gorgeous games around"; GamePros Will Herring named it Rockstar's best game to date, a culmination of its previous successes. Simon Parkin of Eurogamer concluded that Red Dead Redemption was "a blockbuster video game: a string of cinematic set-pieces and flawed yet endearing characters nestled within an orthodox narrative structure, seasoned with generous pinches of extra-curricular tasks". IGNs Brudvig identified that Red Dead Redemptions narrative themes reflected modern society, including racism, government power, and immigration; Will Tuttle of GameSpy found that they occasionally felt "preachy", but were typically more nuanced than expected. Mike Channell of Official Xbox Magazine (OXM) considered the death of the Wild West a pressure that loomed over the narrative. Matt Bertz of Game Informer felt that the narrative momentum suffered from the length of the missions in Mexico, but praised the game's ending for using a "sense of immersiveness only a video game can impart". IGNs Brudvig similarly lauded the game's climax as one of the best in gaming. Herring of GamePro was surprised by the likability of John Marston, describing him as "one of the more sympathetic antiheroes in recent memory". He also felt that, despite being based on caricatures of Spaghetti Western films, the game's secondary characters were "interesting enough that they never feel contrived"; conversely, Paste reviewer Kirk Hamilton opined that the "clichéd and unlikeable" supporting characters undermined the narrative. GameSpots Justin Calvert applauded the detail of the "deeply flawed but very likable" Marston, noting that his scars and outfit made him feel more believable. Brudvig of IGN wrote that Marston's motivations were occasionally confusing and felt alienated from the narrative. Game Informers Bertz named Red Dead Redemption the "best-looking Rockstar game to date". IGNs Brudvig lauded the environmental details and noted that the game's dynamic events and weather provided a rich experience for players. GamePros Herring considered the game's open world superior to its contemporaries, appreciating the change from Grand Theft Auto IVs "brown, muddy 'realism' filter". Tuttle of GameSpy named the game's environment its most impressive element, praising the ecology and geography. Parkin of Eurogamer noted that the world was as dense as Grand Theft Auto IVs Liberty City while maintaining the Western theme of isolation. Edge felt that the world felt emptier than Liberty City, but "Rockstar proves far better at guiding your eye to the relevant parts". Reviewers praised the side missions that appear throughout the game world; Scott Sharkey of 1Up.com described them as "perfect little micro-dramas". Edge wrote that the variety in side content avoided the repetition present in Assassin's Creed. Bertz of Game Informer wrote that Red Dead Redemption "tranpose[d] the Grand Theft Auto gameplay template onto a Wild West setting". Good Game reviewer Stephanie Bendixsen felt that the game used the best elements of Grand Theft Auto IV. GameSpots Calvert lauded the bounty system for adding consequence to the player's actions. The horseback controls received praise from critics; GamePros Herring found that they added authenticity. Parkin of Eurogamer named the relationship between the player and their horse as among the game's greatest successes, but noted some awkward controls, particularly when running. Edge felt that the Dead Eye mechanic "puts gunplay on a pedestal"; Brudvig of IGN wrote that it "makes you feel like a classic gunslinger". Eurogamers Parkin compared the combat favorably to Rockstar's previous titles, particularly praising the horseback shootouts, but criticized the "sticky and outdated" cover mechanic. Bertz of Game Informer found the aiming and cover system to be as "airtight" as in Grand Theft Auto IV, and lauded the uniqueness of the weapons and animations. OXMs Channell commended the variety and handling of the weaponry. G4s Jake Gaskill opined that the Dead Eye "can feel a bit too powerful at times". GameSpy writer Tuttle found that the minimalist score added to the world's authenticity. Herring of GamePro compared the soundtrack favorably to Ennio Morricone's work on the Dollars Trilogy. Eurogamers Parkin named it "standout", praising the use of multiple instruments. Calvert of GameStop described the soundtrack as "superb", though noted that it "occasionally swells up without reason". PSM3s Andy Hartup wrote that the music complemented the action and scenery, never feeling intrusive. Pastes Hamilton thought that the score was integrated into the world seamlessly. The game's vocal tracks also received praise; the scene wherein Marston enters Mexico was described as "beautiful" by GamesRadars Matt Cundy due to the use of the song "Far Away" by José González. Red Dead Redemptions multiplayer received mixed commentary. Bertz of Game Informer described it as "a fully featured complement" to the single-player. GamePros Herring praised the variety of modes and open gameplay, but noted that it put more responsibility on the players for keeping the game interesting. Calvert of GameSpot felt that there was a lack in customization options for players. Sharkey of 1Up.com criticized the leveling mechanics. G4s Jake Gaskill echoed this sentiment, noting that the game often respawns players in close proximity to the opposition. The Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4 versions of Red Dead Redemption and Undead Nightmare received "generally favorable reviews" according to Metacritic, and 65% of critics recommended the game, according to OpenCritic. Several reviewers praised the portability and performance of the Switch version and considered it an improvement over Grand Theft Auto: The Trilogy – The Definitive Edition; GamesRadar+s Joe Donnelly favorably compared it to Rockstar's Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories (2005) for putting an impressive open world on a handheld console. Eurogamers Oliver Mackenzie favored the PlayStation version over Xbox due to anti-aliasing, shadows, and upsampling enhancements, though noted improvements were otherwise sparse and criticized the lack of updates to menus and art. Push Squares Robert Ramsey lauded the increased resolution but bemoaned new animation errors and the lack of frame rate upgrades. Reviewers criticized the price, particularly due to lack of visual improvements, gameplay enhancements, and omission of multiplayer; Nintendo Lifes PJ O'Reilly called the release "bare-bones". Accolades Red Dead Redemption received multiple nomination and awards from gaming publications. At the Spike Video Game Awards in 2010, the game received ten nominations and went on to win four awards: Game of the Year, Best Song in a Game ("Far Away"), Best Original Score, and Best DLC (Undead Nightmare). The game led the 14th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards with nine nominations and five awards, winning Action Game of the Year and Outstanding Character Performance for Wiethoff's portrayal of John Marston. At the 11th Annual Game Developers Choice Awards, Red Dead Redemption won four awards of five nominations, including Game of the Year and Best Game Design. It received ten nominations at the 9th Annual Game Audio Network Guild Awards, of which it won four: Audio of the Year, Music of the Year, Best Interactive Score, and Best Dialogue. The game was not nominated for any of the jury-based awards at the British Academy Games Awards as Rockstar did not submit it for consideration. The game appeared on several year-end lists of the best games of 2010, receiving Game of the Year wins from outlets such as 1Up.com, Computer and Video Games, Digital Spy, Gamasutra, Game Informer, GameSpot, GameSpy, GamesRadar, Good Game, The Guardian, Kotaku, and VentureBeat. Sales Prior to the release of Red Dead Redemption, Michael Pachter of Wedbush Securities estimated that it would need to sell at least 1.75million units (generating ) to break-even, and 3.5million units to earn a profit. According to Joystiq, a source at Rockstar claimed that the game required four million sales to recoup development costs, but that the publisher expected to lose money and was more interested in proving the talent of Rockstar San Diego. Red Dead Redemption was the best-selling game of May 2010, selling over 1.5million copies, according to the NPD Group. It sold over five million copies in its first three weeks. In June 2010, distributor Take-Two Interactive CEO Ben Feder stated that the game was nearing profitability for the company. By September 2010, the game had shipped 6.9million copies, exceeding Take-Two's performance expectations for the quarter. It was the fifth best-selling game of 2010; the Xbox 360 version was the ninth best-selling individual platform game. The game sold 8 million copies by February 2011, contributing to a 7.7 percent profit increase for Take-Two for the quarter. It shipped 8.5million copies in its first year, and over 11million copies by August 2011, 2million of which were retail units of Undead Nightmare. By February 2017, Red Dead Redemption had shipped over 15million units. As of September 2021, the game and its prequel had shipped almost 62million copies combined, with Red Dead Redemption around 23million units shipped, making it one of the best-selling video games. The game topped the charts in the United Kingdom following its release, maintaining the top position until the release of Lego Harry Potter: Years 1–4 in June 2010. According to GfK Chart-Track, 65 percent of UK sales in the first week were on Xbox 360. The game was the fourth best-selling game in the United Kingdom in 2010, as well as the fourth best-selling PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 title. The game sold over 95,000 units in its first week in Japan; the PlayStation 3 version was the fourth best-selling game of the week with over 70,000 sales, while the Xbox 360 version was seventh with over 25,000 sales. Legacy Critics concurred that Red Dead Redemption was among the best games of the seventh generation of video game consoles. Eurogamers Dan Whitehead hoped the eighth generation of consoles would offer "similarly powerful experiences". In September 2013, IGN ranked Red Dead Redemption the fifth-best PlayStation 3 and seventh-best Xbox 360 game. In February 2015, GamesRadar ranked it sixth on its list of best games, recognizing its superiority in narrative over Rockstar's 2013 title Grand Theft Auto V. In July 2015, the game ranked tenth on USgamers "The 15 Best Games Since 2000" list; Jaz Rignall described it as "one of the finest open world games so far seen", praising its gameplay, visuals, soundtrack, narrative, and characterization. GamesRadar+ named it the fourth-best game of the decade in December 2019, comparing it favorably to other sandbox games Grand Theft Auto V and The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt (2015). The game ranked high on several best game lists determined by the public; it featured seventh on Good Games "Top 100 Games" list, and fifth on IGNs "Games of a Generation" list, as voted by the program and website's respective audiences. A prequel, Red Dead Redemption 2, was released in October 2018 for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. The game's main story is set in 1899, 12 years before Red Dead Redemption, and depicts John's life as part of Dutch's gang alongside Bill, Javier, Uncle, Abigail, and Jack. Players control fellow gang member Arthur Morgan. Notes References Bibliography External links 2010 video games Action-adventure games Articles containing video clips Euphoria (software) games Game Developers Choice Award for Game of the Year winners Hunting in video games Multiplayer and single-player video games Nintendo Switch games Open-world video games PlayStation 3 games PlayStation 4 games PlayStation 5 enhanced games Revisionist Westerns Rockstar Advanced Game Engine games Rockstar Games games Spike Video Game Awards Game of the Year winners Take-Two Interactive games Video games about revenge Video games developed in the United States Video games produced by Dan Houser Video games scored by Woody Jackson Video games set in 1911 Video games set in 1914 Video games set in Mexico Video games set in the American frontier Video games with expansion packs Video games with time manipulation Video games written by Dan Houser Western (genre) video games Works about atonement Xbox 360 games
2430106	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg%20Buckner	Greg Buckner	Greg Buckner Gregory Derayle Buckner (born September 16, 1976) is an American former professional basketball player who is the associate head coach for the Cleveland Cavaliers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He had previously served as an assistant coach for the Memphis Grizzlies. Selected in the second round (53rd pick overall) of the 1998 NBA draft by the Dallas Mavericks after playing college basketball at Clemson, he played for the Mavericks, Philadelphia 76ers, Denver Nuggets, Minnesota Timberwolves and Grizzlies. Buckner's first professional experience came with the Grand Rapids Hoops of the Continental Basketball Association (CBA), where he averaged 8.6 points and 3.9 rebounds per game in the 1998–99 season. Playing career College career During his time with the Clemson Tigers, he started all 122 games of his career while guiding the team to three NCAA tournaments. Buckner led the team in scoring all four years becoming the first Clemson Tiger to do so. In 1995, Buckner was named ACC Rookie of the Year. He was entered into the Clemson Athletic Hall of Fame in 2005. Professional career After playing with the Dallas Mavericks from 1999 to 2002, Buckner signed with the Philadelphia 76ers as a free agent. Then he signed with the Denver Nuggets. In 2006, he re-signed with the Dallas Mavericks, but after one season, he was traded to the Timberwolves for Trenton Hassell on September 28, 2007. On June 27, 2008, the Timberwolves traded him to the Memphis Grizzlies with O. J. Mayo, Marko Jarić, and Antoine Walker for Kevin Love, Mike Miller, Brian Cardinal, and Jason Collins. On July 9, 2009, Buckner was traded to the Dallas Mavericks as a part of the four-team deal among Grizzlies, Mavericks, Orlando Magic and Toronto Raptors. Coaching career On July 29, 2011, he joined the Houston Rockets as a player development coach, serving for five seasons. Buckner reached the playoffs three times with the team as part of the coaching staff. He would later become an assistant coach with the Memphis Grizzlies, and in November 2020, became an assistant coach with the Cleveland Cavaliers. On April 21, 2021, Buckner got his first NBA head coaching victory when he temporarily replaced head coach J. B. Bickerstaff as the Cavaliers won 121–105 against the Chicago Bulls. On June 13, 2022, the Cavaliers promoted Buckner to associate head coach position. Career statistics Regular season \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Dallas \| 48 \|\| 1 \|\| 19.2 \|\| .476 \|\| .385 \|\| .683 \|\| 3.6 \|\| 1.1 \|\| .8 \|\| .4 \|\| 5.7 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Dallas \| 37 \|\| 9 \|\| 22.2 \|\| .438 \|\| .286 \|\| .728 \|\| 4.2 \|\| 1.3 \|\| .9 \|\| .2 \|\| 6.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Dallas \| 44 \|\| 16 \|\| 20.1 \|\| .525 \|\| .313 \|\| .690 \|\| 3.9 \|\| 1.1 \|\| .7 \|\| .4 \|\| 5.8 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Philadelphia \| 75 \|\| 5 \|\| 20.2 \|\| .465 \|\| .273 \|\| .802 \|\| 2.9 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .2 \|\| 6.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Philadelphia \| 53 \|\| 3 \|\| 13.3 \|\| .377 \|\| .273 \|\| .741 \|\| 1.9 \|\| .8 \|\| .4 \|\| .1 \|\| 3.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Denver \| 70 \|\| 41 \|\| 21.7 \|\| .528 \|\| .405 \|\| .778 \|\| 3.0 \|\| 1.9 \|\| 1.1 \|\| .1 \|\| 6.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Denver \| 73 \|\| 27 \|\| 24.1 \|\| .434 \|\| .354 \|\| .782 \|\| 2.9 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 1.2 \|\| .3 \|\| 6.7 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Dallas \| 76 \|\| 11 \|\| 18.1 \|\| .411 \|\| .311 \|\| .794 \|\| 2.1 \|\| .9 \|\| .6 \|\| .1 \|\| 4.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Minnesota \| 31 \|\| 4 \|\| 16.8 \|\| .385 \|\| .300 \|\| .864 \|\| 2.1 \|\| 1.3 \|\| .7 \|\| .1 \|\| 4.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Memphis \| 63 \|\| 0 \|\| 13.9 \|\| .384 \|\| .255 \|\| .800 \|\| 2.1 \|\| .9 \|\| .5 \|\| .1 \|\| 2.5 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 570 \|\| 117 \|\| 19.1 \|\| .450 \|\| .334 \|\| .757 \|\| 2.8 \|\| 1.3 \|\| .8 \|\| .2 \|\| 5.0 Playoffs \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2001 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Dallas \| 5 \|\| 0 \|\| 15.0 \|\| .478 \|\| .333 \|\| .700 \|\| 4.2 \|\| .6 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .0 \|\| 6.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2002 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Dallas \| 7 \|\| 0 \|\| 15.0 \|\| .480 \|\| .000 \|\| .750 \|\| 3.7 \|\| .6 \|\| .4 \|\| .1 \|\| 3.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2003 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Philadelphia \| 10 \|\| 0 \|\| 11.2 \|\| .323 \|\| .222 \|\| 1.000 \|\| 1.7 \|\| .3 \|\| .1 \|\| .2 \|\| 2.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2005 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Denver \| 5 \|\| 2 \|\| 20.0 \|\| .222 \|\| .222 \|\| \|\| 3.2 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .4 \|\| .2 \|\| 2.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2006 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Denver \| 5 \|\| 4 \|\| 27.4 \|\| .418 \|\| .313 \|\| .875 \|\| 2.8 \|\| 1.2 \|\| .6 \|\| .2 \|\| 12.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2007 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Dallas \| 6 \|\| 0 \|\| 7.3 \|\| .000 \|\| .000 \|\| .500 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .3 \|\| .3 \|\| .2 \|\| .2 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 38 \|\| 6 \|\| 15.1 \|\| .377 \|\| .259 \|\| .786 \|\| 2.6 \|\| .6 \|\| .4 \|\| .2 \|\| 4.1 References External links 1976 births Living people 20th-century African-American sportspeople 21st-century African-American sportspeople American men's basketball players Basketball coaches from Kentucky Basketball players from Kentucky Clemson Tigers men's basketball players Cleveland Cavaliers assistant coaches Dallas Mavericks draft picks Dallas Mavericks players Denver Nuggets players Houston Rockets assistant coaches Grand Rapids Hoops players Medalists at the 1997 Summer Universiade Memphis Grizzlies assistant coaches Memphis Grizzlies players Minnesota Timberwolves players Philadelphia 76ers players Shooting guards Small forwards Sportspeople from Hopkinsville, Kentucky FISU World University Games gold medalists for the United States Summer World University Games medalists in basketball
11718710	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A5vard%20Nordtveit	Håvard Nordtveit	Håvard Nordtveit (born 21 June 1990) is a Norwegian former professional footballer who played as a defender or defensive midfielder. Club career Norway Nordtveit began his career as a youth in Norway with Vats 94 (where his father, Øyvind Nordtveit, trained him) and Skjold before joining Haugesund. It was announced on 29 June 2006 that he signed his first professional contract with the club, keeping him until 2009. As Nordtveit made a transfer move, both Vats 94 and Skjold received an entitlement share of the money. By August 2006, Nordtveit was called up to the first team for the first time. On 20 August 2006, Nordtveit became the youngest player ever to play for Haugesund, as he was selected for the starting line-up in a 2–0 victory against Sogndal at Haugesund Stadium. This turns out to be his only appearance of the 2006 season. Nordtveit made nine league appearances during the following season for Haugesund in the Norwegian First Division. That season he also appeared in the Norwegian Football Cup, being in the starting line up in the 1–6 victory against Djerv 1919 (1st round), and coming on in the 33rd minute in a 4–0 victory over Løv-Ham scoring one goal (third round). Haugesund went all the way to the final. Arsenal Arsène Wenger travelled to Norway on 11 June 2007 to watch an Adeccoligaen match and begin negotiations to sign Nordtveit. The members of the FKH board stated that the club had rejected Arsenal's initial bid. The player himself said that his club was asking for a "supernaturally high" transfer fee. The price being quoted in the Norwegian media was 20 million Norwegian kroner (approximately £1.7 million at the time). A transfer fee was later finalized on 3 July 2007 for £500,000 initially, rising to £2m after 40 first team appearances. Upon joining the club, Haugesund captain Kevin Nicol and former Norway coach Nils Johan Semb went on to praise him as the brightest defensive talent in Europe. Nordtveit made his Arsenal debut in their first pre-season friendly against Barnet on 14 July 2007, coming on after half-time, replacing Kerrea Gilbert, as they won 2–0. He was named captain of Arsenal's reserve squad for the first match of the 2007–08 FA Premier Reserve League season. In an interview with Arsenal.com, Nordtveit said he was "honoured" to have been named captain, and that he hoped to continue in that role in the future. However, he was plagued with injuries for most of the season. In the final game of the 2007–08 season, Nordtveit was named on the substitutes' bench in Arsenal's 1–0 win over Sunderland. On 21 January 2009, Nordtveit finally made his first appearance for the reserves since spending time on-loan at UD Salamanca, in a 2–2 draw against the Stoke City reserves. Following his loan spell at 1. FC Nürnberg came to an end, Nordtveit returned to Arsenal and said in an interview on transition from playing in the right back position to a centre back. It was reported on 22 July 2010 that he signed a contract with the club, keeping him until 2013. However, Nordtveit continued to spend the rest of the first half of the 2010–11 season, playing for the reserve side. Loan Spells from Arsenal On 18 August 2008, Salamanca of the Segunda División signed him on a six-month loan. Upon joining the club, he played alongside another young Arsenal player, Pedro Botelho. Nordtveit came off the bench to make his debut for UD Salamanca as they drew 1–1 with Sevilla Atlético in the second fixture of the season. He then made his first start for the side, starting the whole game against Girona on 21 September 2008, as the club won 1–0. Arsenal recalled him on 29 October, after becoming unhappy with the amount of playing time the Norwegian had received. However, he was not eligible to play for the club until 1 January 2009. On 10 March 2009, Norwegian top division outfit Lillestrøm signed Nordtveit on loan until 1 August 2009. He made his debut in the Tippeligaen in Lillestrøm's season opener away against Stabæk as a right fullback. This was a role which Nordtveit retained during his time with the Norwegian side, having become a first team regular. Despite missing two matches, he went on to make seventeen appearances for Lillestrøm in all competitions. On 28 July 2009, 1. FC Nürnberg agreed a one-year loan deal for the Norwegian defender from Arsenal for the rest of the 2009–10 season. He made his Nürnberg's debut, coming on as a second-half substitute, in a 2–0 loss against Hannover 96 in the opening game of the season. Nordtveit made his first start for the side, starting in the defensive midfield position and playing the whole game, in a 0–0 draw against VfB Stuttgart on 29 August 2009. After the match, his performance was praised by Bild and Nürnberger Nachrichter. Despite being a centre-back, Nordtveit's primary role at Nürnberg was in the defensive midfield position. This lasted until he suffered injuries for the next three months for the side. Although Nordtveit made three more starts for the side since returning to the starting line–up in March, he appeared as an unused substitute in both legs of the Relegation play-offs, as Nürnberg won 3 – 0 on aggregate. At the end of the 2009–10 season, Nordtveit made twenty appearances in all competitions. Following this, he returned to his parent club. Borussia Mönchengladbach On 30 December 2010, Nordtveit joined Borussia Mönchengladbach on a three-and-a-half-year contract, the transfer fee was £800,000. Upon leaving Arsenal, Manager Arsène Wenger said he needed to leave to get first team football, while also praising his talent. Nordtveit made his competitive debut for the club on 15 January 2011 in their Bundesliga match against Nürnberg, a club Nordtveit played last season. Since making his debut for Borussia Mönchengladbach, he was used mostly as a defensive midfielder, and established himself as a key player for Gladbach, taking the departed Michael Bradley's place in the squad. Nordtveit also played once in right–back and centre–back position along the way. He then scored his first goal in Germany, against 1. FC Köln in a 5–1 victory for Borussia Mönchengladbach on 10 April 2011. He later played in both legs of the Relegation play-offs, as Borussia Mönchengladbach won 2–1 on aggregate and retained its Fußball-Bundesliga spot for the 2011–12 season. Despite being sidelined on two occasions, he finished the 2010–11 season, making eighteen appearances and scoring once in all competitions. At the start of the 2011–12 season, Nordtveit continued to regain his first team place, playing in the defensive midfield position. Nordtveit played a role in the second round of the DFB–Pokal against 1. FC Heidenheim 1846 when he successfully converted the club's third penalty in the shoot–out, winning 4–2 to advance to the next stage. Nordtveit appeared in every match since the start of the 2011–12 season until he suffered a bruise ankle injury that saw him miss one match. Nordtveit started in the semi–finals of DFB-Pokal against Bayern Munich, where he missed the decisive penalty shot in the shoot–out that saw Borussia Mönchengladbach eliminated from the tournament. After serving a one match suspension, Nordtveit scored on his return, in a 2–1 loss against Hannover 96 on 1 April 2012. However, during a match against FC Augsburg on 28 April 2012, he suffered a shoulder injury, resulting in his substitution in the 40th minute and missed the rest of the 2011–12 season. Despite this, Nordtveit started the season well by helping the club go on a winning start for the side and even at one point, reached the top of the table; eventually, the club went on to finish fourth place in the league to qualify for the UEFA Champions League. Having mostly in the defensive midfield position throughout the 2011–12 season, he once played in the centre–back position, coming against VfL Wolfsburg on 19 August 2011. Nordtveit went on to make thirty–six appearances and scoring once in all competitions. At the start of the 2012–13 season, Nordtveit recovered from a shoulder injury and continued to regain his first team place, playing in the defensive midfield position. Nordtveit started the season well when he scored his first goal of the season, in a 2–0 win against Alemannia Aachen in the first round of the DFB–Pokal. Nordtveit then played in both legs of the UEFA Champions League Play–Off Round against Dynamo Kyiv, as Borussia Mönchengladbach lost 4–3 on aggregate and was sent to the UEFA Europa League. His performance against Wolfsburg on 28 November 2012 earn praise from Manager Lucien Favre following his role in setting up the club's first goal of the game and for his "authentic" and "beautiful" performance. After helping the club qualify for the UEFA Europa League knockout stage, he signed a contract extension with Borussia Mönchengladbach, keeping him until 2016. However following a 2–1 win against Fortuna Düsseldorf on 26 January 2013, Nordtveit suffered a knee injury that kept him out for one match. But he made his return to the starting line–up against Bayer 04 Leverkusen on 9 February 2013, setting up the club's first goal of the game, in a 3–3 draw. Despite being sidelined on two occasions, Nordtveit returned to the starting line–up and scored in the last game of the season, losing 4–3 against Bayern Munich. At the end of the 2012–13 season, he went on to make forty–two appearances and scoring two times in all competitions. At the start of the 2013–14 season, Nordtveit found himself behind the pecking order and was placed on the substitute bench. He then played a role, setting up two goals in two matches between 27 September 2013 and 5 October 2013 against Augsburg and Borussia Dortmund. However, Nordtveit suffered an ankle injury that kept him out for two months. It wasn't until on 1 December 2013 when he returned to the first team, coming on as a late substitute, in a 1–0 win against SC Freiburg. Having initially placed on the substitute bench, Nordtveit later regained his first team place, playing in the defensive midfield position for the rest of the season. In a match against Borussia Dortmund, he was sent–off a second bookable offence, in a 2–1 win on 8 March 2014. After serving a one match suspension, Nordtveit returned to the starting line–up, in a 1–0 loss against Eintracht Frankfurt on 15 March 2014. It wasn't until on 19 April 2014, he scored his first goal of the season, in a 4–2 loss. He later helped the club finish sixth place, thereby qualifying for the UEFA Europa League next season. At the start of the 2014–15 season, Nordtveit played in the first leg of the UEFA Europa League Play–Off Round against FK Sarajevo, winning 3–2 as Borussia Mönchengladbach went on to win 10–2 on aggregate to advance to the group stage. However, he found himself in and out of the first team, which saw him placed on the substitute bench. It wasn't until on 2 October 2014 when Nordtveit scored his first European goal, in a 1–1 draw against FC Zürich. A month later on 22 November 2014, he scored his second goal of the season, in a 3–1 loss against Eintracht Frankfurt. Nordtveit then helped the club qualify for the knockout stage of the UEFA Europa League after going on five matches without a loss. He then scored his third goal of the season, in a 3–1 win against Borussia Dortmund on 11 April 2015. However, in the last game of the season against FC Augsburg, Nordtveit was sent–off in the 61st minute for a professional foul, as Borussia Mönchengladbach lost 3–1 and went on to finish third place, thereby qualifying for the UEFA Champions League. Despite this, he made thirty appearances and scoring three times in all competitions. Having served the first two leagues matches of the 2015–16 season, Nordtveit made his first appearance of the season, starting the match and played 68 minutes before being substituted, in a 2–1 loss against Werder Bremen on 30 August 2015. He then made his UEFA Champions League, starting the whole game, in a 3–0 loss against Sevilla on 15 September 2015. Nordtveit scored his first goal of the season, in a 2–0 win against Wolfsburg on 3 October 2015. His second goal of the season came on 31 October 2015, in a 4–1 win against Hertha BSC. Having initially started in the defensive midfield position, Nordtveit began to play in the right–back position. He then scored his third goal of the season, in a 3–2 win against SV Darmstadt 98 on 20 December 2015. Following the absence of Granit Xhaka, Nordtveit captained the side in the next three matches and even scored his fourth goal of the season, in a 5–1 win against Werder Bremen on 5 February 2016. Having played once in the centre–back position earlier in the season, he reverted to the position for the rest of the season. Nordtveit later helped the club qualify for the UEFA Champions League next season by finishing fourth place in the league. At the end of the 2015–16 season, he went on to make thirty–nine appearances and scoring four times in all competitions. West Ham United On 16 May 2016, it was announced that Nordtveit would be joining West Ham United on 1 July 2016 on a five-year contract. It came after on 13 March 2016 that he would be leaving Borussia Mönchengladbach at the end of the 2015–16 season. Upon joining West Ham United, Nordtveit was given a number Nordtveit made his official debut for the Hammers on 28 July in a 2–1 defeat to NK Domžale in the first leg of a Europa League qualifying match, playing the full 90 minutes in the centre–back position. He then started in the return leg, playing in the defensive midfield position, as they won 3–0 to advance to the next round. Two weeks later on 15 August 2016, Reid made his Premier League debut, starting a match and playing 67 minutes before substituted, in a 2–1 loss against Chelsea in the opening game of the season. He then found himself in and out of the starting line–up, due to competitions in both the centre–back and defensive midfield positions. Instead, Nordtveit began to play in the right–back position, though his performance received criticism. He then scored an own goal, as West Ham United lost 5–0 against Manchester City in the third round of the FA Cup. Following this, Nordtveit suffered ankle injury that kept him out for a month. Even after he returned from injury, Nordtveit found himself placed on the substitute bench and didn't make an appearance until on 15 April 2017 against Sunderland, coming on as an 81st-minute substitute, in a 2–2 draw. He then made three more appearances for the side for the last remaining matches of the season, returning to playing in the defensive midfield position. At the end of the 2016–17 season, Nordtveit made twenty–one appearances in all competitions. TSG Hoffenheim On 20 June 2017, West Ham announced that Nordtveit had signed for German side TSG Hoffenheim, for an undisclosed fee. Upon joining the club, he was given a number six shirt for the side. Nordtveit made his Hoffenheim debut, where he started the whole game, in a 1–0 win against Rot-Weiß Erfurt in the first round of the DFB–Pokal. He then made his UEFA Champions League debut in the Play–Off Round First leg against Liverpool, where he started the whole game and set up the club's only goal of the game, in a 2–1 loss. In the return leg against Liverpool, however, Nordtveit was unable to help the club make a comeback, as they lost 4–2, eliminating the side to the UEFA Europa League. Since making his debut for Hoffenheim, he became a first team regular for the side for the next two months. But Nordtveit was plagued with injuries and lost his first team place for the next six months. During the sidelined, he did appear five times between the six months, three of them were starts. It wasn't until on 17 March 2018 when Nordtveit returned to the first team, coming on as an 81st-minute substitute, in a 3–3 draw against his former club, Borussia Mönchengladbach. Following this, he then featured six out of the seven remaining matches of the season. At the end of the 2017–18 season, Nordtveit made twenty–three appearances in all competitions. At the start of the 2018–19 season, Nordtveit was involved in the first team, playing the club's first five matches of the season. He then scored his first Hoffenheim goal, scoring from a header, in a 2–2 draw against Shakhtar Donetsk in the UEFA Champions League match on 17 September 2018. However, Nordtveit suffered a thigh injury that kept him out for weeks. It wasn't until on 27 October 2018 when he returned from injury, coming on as a 63rd-minute substitute, in a 4–0 win against VfB Stuttgart. Nordtveit then appeared in the next five matches since returning from injury. However, he suffered another injury after suffering from bone edema and never played for the club for the rest of the 2018–19 season. Despite being plagued with injuries, Nordtveit made ten appearances and scoring once in all competitions. Following his return from a loan spell at Fulham, Nordtveit, however, found himself behind the pecking order at Hoffenheim's squad and was placed on the substitute bench. It wasn't until on 5 October 2019 when he made his first appearance of the season, coming on as a 79th-minute substitute, in a 2–1 win against Bayern Munich. Nordtveit then suffered a bruised rib and didn't play for two months, even after returning from injury. It wasn't until on 17 December 2019 when he returned to the first team, coming on as a 60th-minute substitute and set up the club's second goal of the game, in a 2–0 win against Union Berlin. As the 2019–20 season progressed, Nordtveit continued to be in and out of the starting eleven for the side despite having injuries along the way. Despite the season was suspended because of the COVID-19 pandemic, he finished the 2019–20 season, making twelve appearances in all competitions. Fulham (loan) On 31 January 2019, Nordtveit join Fulham on loan until 30 June 2019. Nordtveit made his Fulham debut, starting the whole game, in a 3–1 loss against former side West Ham United on 22 February 2019. He then started in the next three matches for the side. In total, Nordtveit made five appearances for Fulham as they were relegated to the Championship. Following this, he returned to his parent club at the end of the 2018 - 19 season. International career Youth career Having previously played for Norway U16, Nordtveit was called up to the Norway U17 squad for the first time in January 2007. He made his Norway U17 debut against Netherlands U17 on 7 February 2007, as they lost 1–0. Nordtveit was a regular for the Norway U-17 in qualifying and they barely missed out on a place at the 2007 European Championships. After that, Nordtveit was promoted to the Norway U19 squad and made his debut for the U19 side against Italy U19 on 25 April 2007, winning 4–1. Three months later on 25 August 2007, he made his Norway U18 debut, starting the whole game, in a 2–1 win against Turkey U18. Nordtveit was ever-present during the 2009 European Championship qualifying, scoring three times, including a brace against Slovenia. However, Norway, once again, did not make it past the elite qualification stage. After being called up to the U-21 team for the first time, Nordtveit made his debut, starting the whole game, in a 3–0 win against Syria on 23 November 2008. He has been a regular for the U-21 team in the 2011 European Championship qualifying campaign. After being left out of the senior team, Nordtveit was instead called up for the under-21 side where he played an important role in the 5–3 win against France U21 when Norway qualified for the 2013 UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship. Nordtveit then made three more appearances of the U21 side, including two appearances in the UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship. Despite this, the team would earn a bronze medal in the tournament. Senior career In May 2011, Nordtveit was called up to the Norway squad for the first time in his career. He made his first international appearance on 7 June 2011, in a friendly game against Lithuania. Three months later on 6 September 2011, Nordtveit made his second appearance for the national side, starting the whole game in the defensive midfield position, in a 2–0 loss against Denmark. Nordtveit scored his first goal for the national team when he scored Norway's first goal in the friendly match against Northern Ireland on 29 February 2012, which Norway won 3–0. Six month later on 15 August 2012, Nordtveit made his next Norway appearance against Greece, starting the whole game and set up the national side's second goal of the game, in a 3–2 loss. Nordtveit later became a regular in the senior squad, but in October 2012 he was suspended from playing the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification match against Cyprus due to yellow cards. After serving a one match suspension, Nordtveit returned to the starting line–up against Hungary on 14 November 2012 and played 45 minutes, as Norway won 2–0. Following Norway's unsuccessful World Cup qualification, he then began playing in the centre–back position for the rest of 2014. Nordtveit then scored his second Norway goal, in a 1–0 win against Azerbaijan on 16 November 2014. He then helped Norway finish third place in the UEFA Euro 2016 Group H to qualify for the qualifying play-offs. However, Nordtveit appeared as an unused substitute in both legs of the Play–Offs, as Norway lost 3–1 on aggregate against Hungary, eliminating the national side from the tournament. Two years later on 13 June 2017 when Nordtveit captained Norway for the first time in his career, starting a match and played 45 minutes before being substituted at half time, in a 1–1 draw against Sweden. Throughout the 2018 World Cup qualifying stage, he helped the side keep three clean sheets in the last three matches of the campaign. They were out of play-off contention after a 6–0 defeat at Germany, and finished fourth in their group. Following this, Nordtveit captained the side in the next two Norway friendly matches for the national side between 11 November 2017 and 14 November 2017. Nordtveit kept a clean sheet in the first match of the Group C of the UEFA Nations League, beating Cyprus 2–0. In a follow–up match against Bulgaria, however, he was sent–off for a second bookable offence, in a 1–0 loss. Despite this, Nordtveit later helped Norway get promoted to the second division. During the Group F of the UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying round, he kept two clean sheets, coming against Faroe Islands and Malta. By the end of the qualifying round, Norway finished third place and was place in Path C of the UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying stage in hopes of securing a UEFA Euro 2020 place. Career statistics Club International goals Scores and results list Norway's goal tally first. Personal life Born and raised in the village of Vats in the district of Haugaland in the far west of Norway, Nordtveit said he grew up idolising Ole Gunnar Solskjær. He has an older brother, Vegard Nordtveit, who was once a footballer before retiring, due to injury. During his time at Lillestrøm, Nordtveit once had his tooth taken out following a clash from Bernt Hulsker and refused to wear fake teeth until deciding to have teeth implants. In the summer of 2014, Nordtveit married his long-term girlfriend, Anna. Together, they have two children, Odin and Elva. Honors Norway U21 UEFA European Under-21 Championship third place: 2013 References External links Norway profile at Fotball.No 1990 births Living people Norwegian men's footballers Norway men's international footballers Norway men's youth international footballers Norway men's under-21 international footballers Men's association football defenders Borussia Mönchengladbach players Arsenal F.C. players FK Haugesund players UD Salamanca players Lillestrøm SK players 1. FC Nürnberg players West Ham United F.C. players Eliteserien players Bundesliga players Premier League players Norwegian expatriate men's footballers Expatriate men's footballers in England Expatriate men's footballers in Spain Expatriate men's footballers in Germany TSG 1899 Hoffenheim players Fulham F.C. players Footballers from Rogaland
4839610	https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%BD%20%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BA%D0%BE%20%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE	Ян Борейко Ходько	Ян Борейко Ходько (24.06.1777, Кривичі — 10.11.1851, Заславль) — громадський і політичний діяч часів Речі Посполитої. Літератор, прозаїк, драматург, поет і юрист. Великий магістр масонської ложи «Північний смолоскип» у Мінську. Підписував свої твори псевдонімами: Ян зі Свислочи, Пан Ян зі Свислочи, Ян зі Свислочи гербу Костеша та інші. Життєпис Ян Борейко Ходько народився в родинному маєтку Кривичі Вілейського повіту, Мінського воєводства. Маєток належав його батькам — шляхтичу Йосипу герба «Костеша» та Констанції з Буйницьких. Навчався у Кривицькій школі Ордену Тринітаріїв. Пізніше закінчив Віленську головну школу (пол. Szkoła Główna Wileńska, з 1803 року перетворена на університет). Займався літературною творчістю, юриспруденцією та громадською діяльністю. Батько помер рано. Для того, щоб уникнути опікунства, юнак звернувся до короля Речі Посполитої Станіслава Августа Понятовського з клопотанням про визнання його повнолітнім. У 16 років Ян був обраний цивільно-військовим комісаром Ошмянського повіту. На Гродненському сеймі 1794 року Ян Ходько був визнаний повнолітнім. 1795 р. став працювати асесором суду в Поставах, потім там же став працювати підсудком. 1808 року Яна Ходька призначили підкаморієм Вілейського повіту. До його обов'язків входив розгляд земельних спорів. У 1811 році обіймав посаду президента земського Трибуналу з Мінської губернії. Був візитатором шкіл Віленської та Мінської губерній. З натхненням сприйняв звістку прихід армії Наполеона Бонапарта у межі Російської імперії влітку 1812 року, сподіваючись, що французький імператор відновить незалежність Речі Посполитої. Зберіг запаси провіанту, які були в місті, які й передав французької армії. Після відступу російської армії з Мінська став начальником Другого департаменту (відділу) губернського суду та очолив Тимчасову раду міста за часів Великого князівства Литовського. Після поразки французів Ян Ходько змушений був залишити батьківщину і повернувся лише після амністії, оголошеної імператором Олександром I. Знову почав брати активну участь у громадському житті. У 1816 році для відстоювання інтересів скарбниці у Радзивілівських справах було створено Прокураторію, яку очолив президент Головного суду 2-го департаменту Мінської губернії Ян Ходзько. Був секретарем Благодійного товариства у Мінську. 1816 року з його ініціативи було створено масонську ложу «Північний смолоскип» у Мінську. Ян Ходько став Великим магістром ложі. До 1822 ложа налічувала 152 «вільних мулярів». Також був одним з організаторів ложи «Школа Сократа» у Вільно та літературного гуртка Товариства Шубравців. У березні 1818 року Я. Ходько звільнився з посади прокуратора радзивілівської комісії та передав справи Михайлу Заліському. Зайнявшись проблемами освіти у краї, Ян Ходзько надрукував у журналі польську. "Dzieje Dobroczynności Krajowey i Zagraniczney" ("Історія благодійності національної та закордонної", № 1, серпень 1820) статтю, в якій висловився за поширення освіти серед народу. 1826 року Ян Ходзько був заарештований у справі філоматів та вивезений до Санкт-Петербурга. Під час слідства перебував у Петропавлівській фортеці, потім був засуджений до 2 років тюремного ув'язнення. У 1828 році його вислали з території колишньої Речі Посполитої: спочатку до Петербурга, потім у Вороніж, В'ятку та Перм під поліцейський нагляд. Із заслання Яну Ходько вдалося втекти. У 1830-1831 роках він брав участь у польському повстанні. Після придушення повстання він був засланий на Урал. 1834 року він повернувся до Кривичів у віці 57 років. Вдома його зустрічали мати, дружина, дочка Софія та син Фелікс. Господарство у Кривичах занепало. Через нестачу фінансових коштів змушений був продати свій маєток. Разом із дружиною Кларою придбав невеликий панський маєток Яновщину. Після смерті зятя, разом із дружиною переїхав до своєї дочки Софії в маєток Роговичі, розташований за 22 км на захід від Мінська. У 1851 році дорогою до Мінська він захворів і в Заславлі помер. Він похований на католицькому цвинтарі біля костелу Різдва Пресвятої Діви Марії у Заславлі. Родина Дружина - Клара з роду Корсаків (1770-1852). Діти – шестеро синів і одна донька: Станіслав Ігнатій Ходько (1794-1861) - хімік, професор, публікував роботи із землеробства; Владислав Ходько (1799-1842) - суддя, засідатель суду Вілейського повіту. Життя закінчилося трагічно — коли захворів, застрелився на квартирі у Вілейці; Йосип Іванович Ходько (1800-1891) - генерал російської армії, відомий вчений - військовий геодезист, географ і картограф. Вперше здійснив Велику тріангуляцію гір Кавказ, названу його ім'ям. На її основі створили перші карти Кавказу на суворій математичній основі. Вперше у світовій практиці в 1850 виробляв точні геодезичні виміри з вершини гори Великий Арарат безперервно протягом декількох днів. Автор теорії виникнення гір Кавказу та першої науково обґрунтованої схеми орографії гірської країни Кавказ. Імператорське Російське географічне товариство нагородило його золотою Костянтинівською медаллю за праці з географії. Кавалер низки орденів Російської імперії за участь у бойових діях на Кавказі; Фелікс Наполеон Ходько — очолював повстанський загін у Кривичах під час повстання 1830—1831 років; на еміграції працював інженером на залізницях у Франції. За досягнення у галузі фізики був нагороджений золотою медаллю; Олександр Ходько (1804—1891) — поет-романтик, фольклорист, професор слов'янських літератур, захоплювався сходознавством. Видав 5 наукових праць, записав фольклор туркменів, персів, склав турецький розмовник; Михайло Ян Ходько (1808-1879) - учасник повстання 1830-1831 років, написав поеми "Десять картинок з поїздки до Польщі" і "Два Акта", сім дослідницьких робіт з краєзнавства, перекладав з німецької та англійської мов; Софія Ходько — жила з чоловіком у маєтку Роговичі, пізніше перебралася на Кавказ у місто Тифліс до брата Йосипа. Леонард Ходько (1800-1871) - двоюрідний брат Яна Ходька; історик, географ, картограф, видавець, архіваріус та громадський діяч. Племінником Яна Ходька був історик і письменник Ігнатій Ходько (1794-1861). Твори Bolesław Krzywousty. Tragikomedia w 5 aktach, wyst. Wilno 1804 i nn.; wyst. również: Warszawa i inne miasta; niewydana; rękopisy: Biblioteka Narodowa (Zbiory Raperswilskie, sygn. 454; zniszczone w roku 1944), Biblioteka Narodowa (BOZ, sygn. 974) Krakus. Tragedia w 5 aktach, powst. 1804; fragmenty ogł.: Dziennik Wileński 1816, t. 3, nr 17, s. 394-406; pt. "Krakus, książę Polski. Tragedia oryginalnie napisana w roku 1804, dotąd drukiem nie ogłoszona", Rubon 1845, t. 5 – 1846, t. 7; wyst. Warszawa 25 lutego 1825; rękopis: Biblioteka Narodowa (BOZ sygn. 974a) Litwa oswobodzona, czyli przejście Niemna. Komedia oryginalna wierszem w 1 akcie, do szczęśliwego odrodzenia się ojczyzny naszej zastosowana, wyst. Mińsk 15 sierpnia 1812, wyd. Mińsk 1812; kopia rękopisu znajdowała się w Bibliotece Narodowej (Zbiory Raperswilskie, sygn. 772; zniszczona w roku 1944) "Mowa Jana Chodźki, byłego prezydenta 2-go departamentu mińskiego, członka Wileńskiego Towarzystwa Dobroczynności, na sesji publicznej tegoż Towarzystwa dnia 16 grudnia 1817 roku miana", wyd. w zbiorku: Posiedzenie publiczne Wileńskiego Towarzystwa Dobroczynności odbyte w Wilnie dnia 16 grudnia 1817 r., Wilno brak roku wydania, s. 17-32; rękopis znajdował się w Bibliotece im. Wróblewskich, Wilno, sygn. 877 Pan Jan ze Świsłoczy, kramarz wędrujący, dziełko uznane przez Rząd Cesarskiego Wileńskiego Uniwersytetu za pożyteczne dla szkół parafialnych, Wilno 1821; wyd. następne: Wilno 1824; wyd. 2 Wilno 1825; zobacz: Pisma rozmaite autora "Pana Jana ze Świsłoczy", t. 11-12, (2 pierwsze wydania bez wskazania nazwiska autora; jest to przeróbka utworu M.L. de Jussieu Simon de Nantua ou le marchand forain), przekł. litewski: J. Rupejko Jonas isz Swisłoczes krominikas wędrawois..., Wilno 1823; wyd. następne: pt. Jonas Iszwisłoczius kromininkas, Wilno 1860 "Pan Wojski. Powieść z końca XVIII wieku", Tygodnik Petersburski 1830, nr: 38-39, 42; odb. w zbiorku: Trzy powieści: Kufer i upiór, Pan Wojski, Waza etruska. Z Tygodnika Petersburskiego, r. 1830, Petersburg 1830; wyd. następne: zobacz Pisma rozmaite autora "Pana Jana ze Świsłoczy", t. 1 Pierwsza miłość, czyli pamiątka dziecinności. Komedioopera w 1 akcie. Wolny przekład z E. Scribe, wyst. Perm' 1831; wyd. zobacz: Pisma rozmaite autora "Pana Jana ze Świsłoczy", t. 2 Stary pan młody. Komedioopera we 2 aktach. Wolny przekład z pp. (E.) Scribe i Milesville (Mélesville), wyst. Perm' 1831; wyd. zobacz: Pisma rozmaite autora "Pana Jana ze Świsłoczy", t. 2 Panna na wydaniu. Komedia we 3 aktach, z jednoaktowego wodewilu francuskiego E. Scribe naśladowano i zastosowano do obyczajów krajowych, wyst. Perm' 1831; wyd. zobacz: Pisma rozmaite autora "Pana Jana ze Świsłoczy", t. 4 Kłamca prawdomówny. Komedia w 1 akcie. Przełożona z wodewilu francuskiego E. Scribe, wyst. Perm' 1831; wyd. zobacz: Pisma rozmaite autora "Pana Jana ze Świsłoczy", t. 4 Dom zajezdny w Górach Pirenejskich. Komedioopera w 1 akcie napisana przez pp. (E.) Scribe i (Ch. G.) Delestre. Wolny przekład, wyst. Perm' 1831; wyd. zobacz: Pisma rozmaite autora "Pana Jana ze Świsłoczy", t. 6 Niewiasta panem domu. Komedioopera w 1 akcie. Wolny przekład z francuskiego oryginału E. Srcibe, wyst. Perm' 1831; wyd. zobacz: Pisma rozmaite autora "Pana Jana ze Świsłoczy", t. 6 Pan bez lokaja, lokaj bez pana. Komedioopera w 1 akcie. Wolny przekład (z E. Scribe i L. E. Dupaty), wyst. Perm' 1831; wyd. zobacz: Pisma rozmaite autora "Pana Jana ze Świsłoczy", t. 8 Bogaty spadek. Komedioopera w 1 akcie. Wolne tłumaczenie pp. (L. E.) Dupaty i (E.) Scribe, wyst. Perm' 1831; wyd. zobacz: Pisma rozmaite autora "Pana Jana ze Świsłoczy", t. 8 Pisma rozmaite autora "Pana Jana ze Świsłoczy", t. 1-6, Wilno 1837; t. 7-11, Wilno 1841; t. 12, Wilno 1842; zawartość: t. 1: "Pani Kasztelanowa i jej sąsiedztwo. Powieści z końca XVIII wieku. T. 1", "Pan Wojski. Powieść z końca XVIII wieku", "Państwo Cześnikostwo t. 2: "Teatr. Wolny przekład lub naśladowanie z pana Scribe i innych. T. 1", "Pierwsza miłość, czyli pamiątka dziecinności. Komedioopera w 1 akcie. Wolny przekład z E. Scribe", "Stary pan młody. Komedioopera we 2 aktach. Wolny przekład z pp. (E.) Scribe i Milesville (Mélesville)" t. 3: "Pani Kasztelanowa... T. 2", "Podróż do pani Kasztelanowej", "Pani Kasztelanowa" t. 4: "Teatr... T. 2", "Panna na wydaniu. Komedia we 3 aktach, z jednoaktowego wodewilu francuskiego E. Scribe naśladowano i zastosowano do obyczajów krajowych", "Kłamca prawdomówny. Komedia w 1 akcie. Przełożona z wodewilu francuskiego E. Scribe" t. 5: "Pani Kasztelanowa... T. 3", "Imieniny pani Kasztelanowej", "Pani Starościna" t. 6: "Teatr... T. 3", "Dom zajezdny w Górach Pirenejskich. Komedioopera w 1 akcie napisana przez pp. (E.) Scribe i (Ch. G.) Delestre. Wolny przekład", "Niewiasta panem domu. Komedioopera w 1 akcie. Wolny przekład z francuskiego oryginału E. Srcibe" t. 7: "Pani Kasztelanowa... T. 7" (!, faktycznie: t. 4), "Sejmiki", "Mój stryjaszek" t. 8: "Teatr... T. 4", "Pan bez lokaja, lokaj bez pana. Komedioopera w 1 akcie. Wolny przekład (z E. Scribe i L. E. Dupaty)", "Bogaty spadek. Komedioopera w 1 akcie. Wolne tłumaczenie pp. (L. E.) Dupaty i (E.) Scribe" t. 9: "Pani Kasztelanowa... T. 5", "Interesa" t. 10: Powieści. Dokończenie "Sąsiedztwa pani Kasztelanowej"' T. 6: I. Henryczek; II. Koroniarz(!) w Wilnie; III. Święta Bożego Narodzenia na Litwie t. 11-12: Pan Jan ze Świsłoczy, kramarz wędrujący, dziełko uznane przez Rząd Cesarskiego Wileńskiego Uniwersytetu za pożyteczne dla szkół parafialnych. Słownik przysłów, przypowieści, zdań obyczajowych i szczególniejszych obrotów mowy polskiej. Ze skrócenia słownika S.B. Lindego oraz z wyjątków późniejszych dzieł ułożony, cz. 1-3, powst. 1830, niewydany Wiadomości historyczno-statystyczne o diecezji rz.-katolickiej mińskiej, cz. 1-2, powst. około roku 1845; rękopis (kopia z autografu): Biblioteka Jagiellońska, sygn. 6039; fragm. ogłoszono pt. "Zapiski śp. Jana Chodźki o niektórych kościołach na Litwie", Pamiętnik Religijno-Moralny 1859, seria II, t. 4 (tu opis kościołów w Krzywiczach i Nieświeżu) Modlitwy sierot, Wilno 1858 Malarz i przędziarka albo moc przyrodzenia. Drama w 3 aktach, niewydana, rękopis znajdował się w Bibliotece im. Wróblewskich, Wilno sygn. 878 Nimfa Niemna. Komedia (?) Artykuły i drobne utwory ogłaszane w czasopismach i wydawnictwach zbiorowych: Athenaeum (tu: "Korespondencja literacka" 1847-1848); Dzieje Dobroczynności Krajowej i Zagranicznej (tu m.in.: "O szkółkach parafialnych i wiejskich" 1820, s. 315-326; "Wspomnienie zmarłych członków Towarzystwa Wileńskiego Dobroczynności na publicznym posiedzeniu dnia 1 lipca 1821 r." 1821, s. 677-683); Dziennik Wileński (tu m.in.: "O eksdywizjach, czyli o podziale sądowym majątku dłużnika dla wierzycieli" 1816, t. 4, s. 194-227); Gazeta Tymczasowa Mińska (1812); Rubon (tu m.in.: "Góra Warhan" 1843, t. 3, s. 3-11; "Odrywek z powieści: Brat i siostra. Rozmowy między książęciem O., jego małżonką i ks. Pafnucym kapelanem 1845, t. 5, s. 123-135; "Myśli o zakonach mniszych w powszechności" 1846, t. 7, s. 32-38; "O trybie instrukcji publicznej w dawnym Wielkim Księstwie Litewskim po skasowaniu zakonu jezuickiego. Wyjątek z pamiętników nieogłoszonych" 1846, t. 7, s. 38-46); Tygodnik Petersburski (1830); Wiadomości Brukowe (tu m.in.: "Nowe doświadczenie magnetyczne" 1817, nr 7). Джерела Tadeusz Turkowski: Chodźko Jan. W: Polski Słownik Biograficzny. T. 3: Brożek Jan – Chwalczewski Franciszek. Kraków: Polska Akademia Umiejętności – Skład Główny w Księgarniach Gebethnera i Wolffa, 1937, s. 384–385. Reprint: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich, Kraków 1989, ISBN 83-04-03291-0 T. 4: Oświecenie. W: Bibliografia Literatury Polskiej – Nowy Korbut. Warszawa: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1966, s. 347-350. Польські правники Польські масони Учасники Листопадового повстання (1830—1831)
2918585	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncommon%20Valor	Uncommon Valor	Uncommon Valor is a 1983 American action war film directed by Ted Kotcheff and starring Gene Hackman, Fred Ward, Reb Brown, Randall "Tex" Cobb, Robert Stack, Patrick Swayze, Harold Sylvester and Tim Thomerson. Hackman plays a former U.S. Marine colonel who puts together a rag-tag team to rescue his son, who he believes is among those still held in Laos after the Vietnam War. Plot In 1972, a group of soldiers in Vietnam carry one of their wounded during the platoon's evacuation to the helicopters, but they are left behind as the helicopter carrying "Blaster", "Sailor", and Wilkes departs the hot landing zone. In the early 1980s, retired Marine Colonel Jason Rhodes is obsessed with finding his son Frank, an Army Lieutenant listed as "missing in action" since 1972. After 10 years of searching Southeast Asia and turning up several leads, Rhodes believes that Frank is still alive and being kept in Laos as a prisoner of war. After petitioning the United States government for help, but receiving none, Colonel Rhodes brings together a disparate group of Vietnam War veterans, including some who were a part of Frank's platoon: the demolitions expert Blaster; the "tunnel rat" Wilkes who suffers from PTSD; and the machine gunner Sailor. Additionally, two helicopter pilot acquaintances of Rhodes, Distinguished Flying Cross recipient Johnson, and Charts, join the group. Former Force Recon Marine Kevin Scott joins the team and later turns out to be the son of a pilot who was shot down in Vietnam and listed as MIA. With the financial backing of good friend and rich oil businessman McGregor, whose son served in Frank's platoon and is also listed among the missing, the men train near Galveston, Texas in preparation to undertake a rescue mission at a remote POW camp in Laos. As the team arrives in Southeast Asia, the CIA, fearing an international crisis from Rhodes' actions, intercepts him in Bangkok and confiscates his weapons and equipment. Still determined to rescue their comrades, the team members put together their expense money given to them by McGregor to purchase replacement weapons and supplies. Rhodes contacts an acquaintance, deposed local drug baron Jiang, who joins the expedition with his two daughters Lai Fun and Mai Lin. Jiang manages to supply them with outdated but capable World War II-era weapons. In the course of the expedition, Charts gradually forms a relationship with Lai Fun. Near the Laotian border, the group is attacked by a border patrol unit and Mai Lin is killed. Later, the group divides: Rhodes leads Charts, Sailor, Johnson, and Lai Fun as the "air team" to a helicopter compound to secure escape transportation, while Jiang, Blaster, Scott, and Wilkes scout out the prison camp as the "ground team." The ground team later discovers four Americans among the prisoners, but are unable to ascertain Frank's whereabouts. The teams spend the night preparing before commencing the attack the next morning. Blaster sets up demolition charges, while Rhodes and his team discover that the air base is not where they expected it to be. Hiking through the jungle, they find it, get the choppers and take off, but are late in arriving at the camp. Blaster makes the decision to blow his charges to prevent the prisoners from leaving the camp, even though the choppers haven't arrived, sacrificing his life in the process. In a heated battle, they manage to spring the prisoners, among them McGregor's son, but Frank is not among them. Jiang is killed during gunfire from the patrol guards during the attack. Upon the surviving team and POWs escaping from the area, the patrol guards attempt to shoot down the helicopter by rocket launcher. Before they can, Sailor, who was mortally wounded in a guard tower, pulls the pin on his grenade and jumps off the tower, killing himself and all the other guards around the tower. The chopper escapes the area safely with Rhodes, Wilkes, Scott, Charts, Johnson, Lai Fun, and the 4 American POWs in the area. McGregor's son recognizes Rhodes, McGregor informs Rhodes that Frank became ill soon after his capture and died, despite McGregor's and the other POWs attempts to nurse him back to health. It is revealed that Frank was the soldier who stopped to carry a wounded McGregor during the platoon's evacuation to the helicopters in 1972. McGregor tells Rhodes that Frank "saved his life that day." Stateside, the group is joyously welcomed by their families with media attention and fanfare. Finally finding closure about Frank, Rhodes embraces his wife, Helen upon arrival. Cast Other notable appearances include Michael Dudikoff as Blaster's assistant, Constance Forslund as Mrs. Charts, Todd Allen as Frank Rhodes, Don Mantooth as a POW, Tad Horino as Mr. Ky, Gloria Stroock as Mrs. MacGregor, Jan Triska as Gericault, and Barret Oliver as a kid. Production The film began with a screenplay by actor Wings Hauser, who says he was inspired by the stories of a childhood friend, Gary Dickerson, who had been to Vietnam. "I saw that he had left something behind in Viet Nam and that triggered the whole thing," said Hauser. "And then I became aware of the MIA and the POW situation and said well that will be the excuse to go back to Nam and get the POWs, but what they’re really going back for is their own clarity and their own integrity right? And that’s the story. That’s the whole film." Hauser says it took 18 months to write the script which he sold to Paramount. The film had at least five title changes, including Last River to Cross. John Milius became attached as producer. The script was rewritten by Joe Gayton. Hauser lost screenplay credit in arbitration however he received sole "Story by" credit. In 1989, Hauser said, without restrictions: "John Milius is a scumbag right-wing bastard and I can't wait for his day to die! That son of a bitch! The (other) guy who got the credit, he was a punk! I don't think he’s sold anything since and I have and he's a joke!" Paramount sent Gayton's script to director Ted Kotcheff late in January 1983. The following month it came out that James Gritz, a former lieutenant colonel in the Green Berets (and the man that both the characters Rambo and Hannibal Smith are based on), had led a secret mission into Laos the previous November to search for MIA American soldiers which ended when they were ambushed by Laotian soldiers. Kotcheff said "We assiduously avoided anything in our story similar to Gritz. Our research amazingly showed there were some 30 groups training for similar missions." Kotcheff said that Milius did write "two or three scenes" as well as making "a number of very creative suggestions" on the script. Among the scenes Milius wrote included one where Hackman gives a speech to the other soldiers about Vietnam being like a company that has gone bankrupt. "It was a wonderful speech," said Kotcheff, adding Milius "did write under pressure but mainly he functioned as a producer." Milius said he wanted James Arness to play the lead role rather than Gene Hackman. Filming Filming started June 6, 1983. The Laotian POW camp that forms the climax of the film was built on a private ranch in the Lumahai Valley on the island of Kauai, Hawaii, and was filmed in early August, 1983. The opening scene depicting the Vietnam War was filmed a short distance away in a rice paddy, two miles (3.2 km) from central Hanalei, Hawaii, and 200 yards (183 m) from the Kuhio Highway (Route 56). Additional parts of the film were shot in: Salt Lake City, Utah, Sun Valley, California, and Castaic, California (which served as the training camp). The helicopters used in the film were purchased (as opposed to rented) and repainted, since the United States Department of Defense was unwilling to rent out the production military-spec Bell UH-1N Iroquois or Bell 206B Jet Ranger helicopters, due to the apparent "anti-government" nature of the film. Milius hired a composer without Paramount's consent and studio chief Jeffrey Katzenberg overruled Milius. Marketing Paramount had originally prepared an advertising campaign that was "factual and rather somber and centred on the plight of prisoners of war", according to one report. However after the marketing department saw the film they decided to create an entirely new campaign. The poster showed a moment invented for the campaign with a soldier (McGregor's son) being carried by another soldier (Sailor) with the copy line: "C'mon, buddy, we're going home." "We were looking to appeal to males on an emotional level", said Paramount's head of marketing, Gordon Weaver. "We were offering them an attainable fantasy. We'd all like to think that we can be heroes, that we would leave our jobs and families to do something really terrific for our friends." Reception Box office The film was a box-office hit, one of the top-earning films of 1983. This was considered a surprise at the time because of the film's lack of stars and the fact it had to compete with Scarface and Sudden Impact. Gordon Weaver, Paramount's president of marketing, thought the film "was successful because of the emotional impact of the ending. The emotional ending really makes you feel terrific." Kotcheff said: "If we knew the secret of a film's success, we'd all be very wealthy. But I think it's partly the strong emotional tug of the father-son relationship." Critical response Critical reception of the film was mixed, with a 60% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on reviews from 10 critics. Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert of This Week at the Movies: The Movie Review Program both gave the film a thumbs down. In his Chicago Sun-Times review of Uncommon Valor, Ebert gave the film a mixed 2-out-of-4 star review that described the squandering of "first-rate talent" like Kotcheff and Hackman in a film that was little more than "two hours of clichés" delivered with "lead-footed predictability". See also Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command Vietnam War POW/MIA issue National League of Families Operation Homecoming References External links 1983 films Vietnam War films 1980s action war films American war adventure films American action war films American action adventure films Paramount Pictures films Films set in Houston Films directed by Ted Kotcheff Vietnam War prisoner of war films Films about the United States Marine Corps Films scored by James Horner Films shot in Utah Films shot in Hawaii Films produced by Buzz Feitshans 1980s English-language films 1980s American films Films set in Laos
467071	https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%20%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5	Аль Капоне	Аль Капоне Альфонс Ґабріель «Аль» Капоне (17 січня 1899 — 25 січня 1947) — американський гангстер італійського походження, який очолював кримінальний синдикат, що займався контрабандою, зокрема контрабандою спиртних напоїв, та іншими незаконними справами в період сухого закону в США в 1920-х та 1930-х роках. Життєпис Народився в сім'ї іммігрантів з південно-східної Італії Ґабріеля та Терезіни Капоне, розпочав свою кар'єру в Брукліні ще до переїзду в Чикаго і став босом злочинної організації, відомої як Чикаго Аутфіт, також на його візитній картці було вказано, що він торговець старими меблями. Наприкінці 1920х років Капоне привернув увагу ФБР, яке помістило його в список державних ворогів. Хоча він так і не був засуджений за бандитизм, його кримінальна кар'єра скінчилася в 1931 році, коли Капоне був звинувачений та засуджений федеральним урядом за ухиляння від сплати податку на прибуток. Нещодавно стало відомо, що Капоне, ніби, мав сина якого звали Вільям Бішоп. Ранні роки в Нью-Йорку Альфонс Ґабріель Капоне народився в Палмдейл, Нью-Йорк, в сім'ї Ґабріеля (12 грудня 1864 — 14 листопада 1920) та Терезіни Капоне (28 грудня 1867 — 29 Листопада 1952) 17 січня 1899 року. Ґабріель був перукарем з Кастелламмаре-ді-Стабія, містечка в 15 милях на південь від Неаполя, Італія. Терезіна працювала швачкою і була дочкою Анджело Райола з Ангрі, містечка в провінції Салерно. Ґабріель та Терезіна мали 8 дітей: Джеймс Вінченцо Капоне (1892 — 1 жовтня 1952), Раффаеле Капоне (який також був відомим, як Ральф Капоне і пізніше став на чолі пивної індустрії Аль Капоне; 12 січня 1894 — 22 листопада 1974), Сальваторе Капоне (січень 1895 — 1 квітня 1924), Альфонс Капоне (17 січня 1899 — 25 січня 1947), Умберто Капоне (1906 — червень 1980), Метью Капоне (1908 — 31 січня 1967), Роза Капоне (народилася та померла в 1910 році) та Мафальда Капоне (пізніше місіс Джон Дж. Мерітот, 28 січня 1912 — 25 травня 1988). Сім'я Капоне іммігрувала до США в 1893 і поселилася на Неві-стріт 95 в Бруклін Неві-ярд, районі передмістя Брукліна, біля перукарні в якій працював Ґабріель на Парк-авеню 29. Коли Алу виповнилося 11, сім'я Капоне переїхала на Ґарфілд Плейс 38 в Парк Слоуп, Бруклін. Капоне покинув середню шкільну освіту в Брукліні у віці 14 років, після виключення з католицької школи. Потім він виконував роботу в різних частинах Брукліна, включаючи роботу в крамниці солодощів та кегельбані. Впродовж цього часу Капоне був під впливом гангстера Джонні Торіо, котрого він вважав своїм наставником. Після участі в недовгострокових бандах, включаючи «Сорок молодих злодіїв», Капоне приєднався до «Бруклінських різників» і сумнозвісної «Банди п'яти наконечників». Над ним взяв шефство та влаштував викидалою на танцювальному майданчику і барменом у салуні «Гарвард-інн» на Коні-Айленд рекетир Френкі Єль. Саме тут Капоне отримав свій шрам через який його почали називати «Скарфейс» (обличчя зі шрамом), він ненавмисно образив жінку в нічному клубі Брукліна, спровокувавши цим самим бійку з її братом Френком Галлучо. Обличчя Капоне було розсічене тричі з лівого боку. Капоне вибачився перед Галлучо на прохання Френкі Єля і згодом найняв свого нападника тілоохоронцем. Коли Капоне фотографувався, він ховав пошрамовану ліву половину обличчя і видавав свої рани за такі, що були отримані під час війни. 30 грудня 1918 року Капоне одружився з ірландкою Мей Жозефін Кофлін. Раніше ніж через місяць вона народила сина, Альберта Френсіса «Сонні» Капоне. Вважають, що Капоне з сім'єю переїхав до Чикаго з Нью-Йорка в 1921 році. Капоне купив скромний будинок на Саус Преірі-авеню 7244 в околицях Парк Менор у південній частині міста в 1923 році за 5500 доларів. Капоне відгукнувся на запрошення Торіо, який шукав можливості для ділової співпраці в торгівлі спиртним, скориставшись сухим законом у США. Торіо заволодів кримінальною імперією Джеймса «Великого Джима» Колосімо після того, як останній відмовився зайнятися цим новим бізнесом, за що і був убитий (ймовірно Френкі Єлем, хоча судова справа проти нього була закрита за браком доказів). В той час Капоне також підозрювався у двох убивствах і шукав кращу роботу, щоб забезпечити свою сім'ю. Діяльність в Сісеро, Іллінойс Після виборів мера Вільяма Емметта Девера, влада міста Чикаго почала чинити тиск на гангстерські угруповування, які діяли на території міста. Щоб розмістити свою штабквартиру за межами міської юрисдикції і створити безпечну зону для своїх операцій, організація Капоне перебазувалася у Сісеро, штат Іллінойс. Це призвело до одного з найбільших тріумфів Капоне: він взяв під контроль владу міста Сісеро в 1924 році. Гангстер з Сісеро Майлс О'Доннел та його брат Вільям «Клондайк» О'Доннел воювали з Капоне за місто. Ця війна вилилась у 200 вбитих, включаючи сумнозвісного Біла МакСвігінса. Вибори до ради міста в 1924 році стали відомі як найбільш нечесні вибори в історії міста, головорізи Капоне залякували виборців на виборчих дільницях. Кандидат у мери, якого підтримував Капоне, переміг із великим відривом, але декілька тижнів по тому він оголосив, що вижене Капоне з міста. Капоне зустрів свого маріонеткового мера і особисто скинув його зі сходів міської ратуші. Ця подія для Капоне була затьмарена смертю його брата, Френка, від рук поліції. За звичаєм, який був серед гангстерів, Капоне висловив свою скорботу, відвідавши похорон неголеним і відкрито плакавши на зібранні. За його наказом, на знак поваги, у Сісеро були на один день зачинені всі бари, де незаконно торгували спиртним. Більшість членів сім'ї Капоне також оселились у Сісеро. У 1930 році сестра Капоне Мафальда одружилася з Джоном Дж. Мерітотом. Достаток Капоне та зміцніння його влади в Сісеро Серйозно поранений під час замаху на нього бандою з Норт Сайду, Капоне отримує бізнес та повертається до Італії. Капоне під час сухого закону був відомий своїм контролем значної частини злочинного світу Чикаго, який щороку давав прибуток приблизно у 100 млн доларів. Джерелами його прибутку були нелегальні підприємства, такі як гральний бізнес та проституція, хоча найбільше грошей приносив продаж спиртних напоїв. У цей період Капоне сам проводив «співбесіди» з новими проститутками для свого клубу. Попит був задоволений транспортною мережею, яка перевозила контрабандний алкоголь від контрабандистів зі східного узбережжя США. Через організовану корупцію, яка включала підкуп мера Чикаго Вільяма Хейла Томпсона, банда Капоне, в роботу якої не було жодного втручання з боку правоохоронних структур, контролювала казино та бари, де торгували контрабандним спиртним, на всій території Чикаго. Багатство також дозволяло Капоне віддаватися втіхам розкішного стилю життя: костюми на замовлення, сигари, їжа для гурманів, ювелірні вироби та жіноча компанія. Він привертав увагу медіа, одними з його улюблених коментарів були: «я всього лише бізнесмен, я даю людям те, що вони хочуть» та «все, що я роблю — це задовольняю громадські потреби». Капоне став знаменитістю. Мафіозні війни Жорстокість, що призвела до цього безпрецендентного успіху у кримінальній сфері, викликала акти помсти зі сторони конкурентів Капоне, зокрема затятими конкурентами були банди з Норт Сайду, якими керували гангстери Хаймі Вайс та Багз Моран. Автомобіль Капоне був зрешечений кулями декілька разів. Особливо цинічним був інцидент, який трапився 20 вересня 1926 року, банда з Норт Сайду розстріляла компанію Капоне, разом з якою він обідав в готелі Хоуторн. Перший поверх будівлі готелю, в якій знаходився ресторан, був зрешечений кулями з автоматів Томпсона, це було зроблено на ходу з десятка автомобілів, які проїжджали повз будівлю. Охоронець Капоне (Френкі Ріо) штовхнув його на підлогу, як тільки почув перші постріли, і накрив його собою. Декілька свідків були поранені битим склом та осколками куль під час нальоту, включаючи хлопчика і його матір, яка втратила би зір, якби Капоне не заплатив за дороге медичне обслуговування. Ця подія примусила Капоне попросити перемир'я, але переговори провалилися. Після цих атак Капоне наказав покрити свій «Кадиллак» бронею, поставити куленепробивне скло, спеціальні шини та поліцейську сирену. Кожен замах на його життя все більше змушував його переживати через Морана, який найімовірніше всього стояв за цими атаками. Цей автомобіль був конфіскований Міністерством фінансів у 1932 році, і пізніше використовувався президентом Франкліном Рузвельтом. Капоне розмістив озброєних охоронців у своїй штабкваритирі в готелі Лексінгтон на 22-й Стріт (пізніше була перейменована в Кермак Роуд) та Мічиган Авеню. Для своїх подорожей за межі Чикаго Капоне мав декілька інших схованок які знаходилися в Брукфілді, Вісконсин; Сент-Полі, Міннесота; Оліені, Нью Йорк; Френч Ліку, Індіана; а також у Тер Хауті, Індіана; Хот-Спрінгзі, Арканзас; Джонсон Сіті, Теннессі. Також Капоне міг зі своїми людьми зненацька з'явитися на залізничному вокзалі Чикаго та викупити цілий спальний вагон у нічному потязі щоб дістатися Клівленда, Омахи, Канзас-Сіті та Літл Рок в Арканзасі, де вони могли провести цілий тиждень у розкішних готельних номерах під вигаданими іменами. У 1928 році Капоне купив чотирнадцятикімнатну схованку на Палм-Айленд, Флорида поблизу Маямі-Біч. Різанина в День Святого Валентина Капоне був організатором найзухвалішого вбивства в кримінальному світі, 1929 року під час різні в День Святого Валентина в Лінкольн-Парк, Чикаго, хоча деталі вбивства семи чоловік дещо суперечливі і ніхто не був притягнений до суду за цей злочин. Різанина була відповіддю банди Капоне банді з Норт Сайд, якою керував Баґз Моран, який зухвало викрадав вантажівки зі спиртним в Капоне та вбив двох керівників банди. Аби вивчити звички цілей, люди Капоне орендували квартиру навпроти складу, який служив Морану штабквартирою. У четвер зранку, 14 лютого 1929 року спостерігачі Капоне дали команду озброєним людям, перевдягненим у поліцейських, розпочати наліт. Поліцейські вишикували сім жертв, які навіть не опиралися, уздовж стіни, а потім дали команду спільникам з автоматами. Сім чоловік були розстріляні з пістолетів та автоматів, кожен отримав від 15 до 20 кульових поранень. Фотографії вбивства шокували громадськість, особа Капоне різко впала в її очах, це спонукало розпочати ретельне розслідування його справ. Засудження та ув'язнення В 1929 році агент Еліот Несс розпочав розслідування справ Капоне. Закриваючи броварні та бари Капоне, Несс повільно позбавляв влади імперію Капоне. Щоб перечекати, Капоне домовився про своє ув'язнення в комфортабельній камері в Філадельфійському виправному закладі Істерн Стейт на дев'ять місяців починаючи з серпня 1929 року. Після свого повернення в Чикаго він виявив, що через проблеми з законом він був відсторонений від справ. В 1931 році Капоне був звинувачений за ухилення від сплати податків та різноманітні порушення закону Волстеда, що регулював заборону на торгівлю спиртним. Зіткнувшись з великою кількістю доказів його адвокати домовилися про визнання вини, але головуючий суддя попередив, що Капоне може не виконати вимог звинувачення, тому Капоне відкликав визнання себе винним. Він намагався підкупити та залякати присяжних, але його план був розкритий людьми Несса. Тоді присяжним дали іншу справу і Капоне був поставлений у безвихідь. В процесі довгого судового слухання він був визнаний винним по деяким статтям за несплату податків (звинувачення про порушення закону Волстеда були зняті). Йому було відмовлено в апеляції. В травні 1932 року Капоне відправили до виправного закладу Сполучених Штатів в Атланті, федеральної в'язниці суворого режиму, але там він мав особливі привілеї. Потім його перевели до в'язниці Алькатрас, де сувора охорона та непохитні наглядачі унеможливили контакт Капоне із зовнішнім світом. Його ізоляція від соратників та скасування сухого закону стрімко зменшили його владу. Коли Капоне відмовився взяти участь в страйку в'язнів, після того як одному із хворих співкамерників було відмовлено в медичній допомозі і той помер, його почали зневажати. Капоне продовжував працювати у в'язничній пральні, його неодноразово цькували інші в'язні і називали штрейкбрехером та щуром. Коли Капоне спробував підкупити сторожу його відправили до карцеру. На його життя неодноразово здійснювали замахи під час всього терміну ув'язнення: в його каву підливали луг та здійснили напад під час того, як він йшов до кабінету дантиста. Хоча він досить добре пристосувався до свого нового оточення, його здоров'я погіршилося через прогресуючий сифіліс, який він підхопив в молодості. Антибіотики, якими лікують хворобу, існували, але в той час їх ще не використовували для лікування сифілісу. Останній рік свого ув'язнення він провів у в'язничній лікарні спантеличений і дезорієнтований. Термін ув'язнення в Алькатрасі скінчився 6 січня 1939 року і його перевели до виправного закладу на Термінал-Айленд в Каліфорнії, щоб відсидіти свій однорічний вирок за дрібні злочини. Його звільнили під чесне слово 16 листопада 1939 року, Капоне провів деякий час в лікарні, а потім повернувся додому в Палм-Айленд, Флорида. Занепад та смерть Контроль та зацікавлення організованою злочинністю різко знизилися після його ув'язнення, і він вже не був здатний керувати бандою після звільнення. Він втратив вагу, його фізичний та розумовий стани погіршилися через сифіліс. Він лютував з приводу комуністів, іноземців та Джорджа Морана, який, Капоне був переконаний, все ще плете змову у своїй камері в Огайо, щоб вбити його. 21 січня 1947 року Капоне розбив параліч. До нього повернулася свідомість і його стан почав покращуватися, але 24 січня він підхопив пневмонію, наступного дня в нього стався серцевий напад. Капоне поховали на цвинтарі Маунт Олівет, в південній частині Чикаго між могилами його батька, Ґабріеля і брата, Френка. Проте, в березні 1950 року рештки всіх трьох членів родини були перенесені до цвинтаря Маунт Кармел в Хілсайд, Іллінойс. Образ Капоне в мистецтві Один із найзухваліших гангстерів XX століття, Капоне, став героєм багатьох статей, книг та фільмів. Образ Капоне та його репутація після його смерті постійно використовуються в літературі як зразок кримінального боса та генія кримінального світу. Стереотипний образ гангстера, одягненого в костюм в тонку смужку та похилений на бік капелюх з полями заснований на фотографіях Капоне, особливо цей образ помітний на фото Капоне, яке було зроблено, коли йому було 19. Його акцент, манери, риси обличчя, інколи постава та пародія на його ім'я використовувалися в численних коміксах про гангстерів, фільмах та літературі. У 2009 році «Madonna Mia», музика яка була написана до пісні, яку Капоне написав в Алькатрасі була виставлена на продаж, та був записаний диск. Комікси У коміксі про Діка Трейсі, головоріза, боса банди звали Альфонс «Біг Бой» Капріче, чиє ім'я засноване на імені Капоне. У коміксі «Тінтін в Америці», хлопчик-репортер Тінтін ловить Капоне, але через прорахунок поліції Капоне тікає. «Аль» Капоне єдиний образ з реального життя, який був використаний в книзі про Тінтіна. Капоне й Еліот Несс — персонажі, які постійно з'являються в серії франко-бельгійських коміксів, написаних Раулем Ковеном. У коміксах «Манґа», Капоне з'являється в ролі боса банди яка пожирає людські душі. Пізніше його вбиває охоронець, який захищає молоду відьму. Фільми Капоне увічнили на екрані: Ніколас Кокенес, Волес Бірі, Пол Муні, Баррі Саліван, Род Стайгер, Невілл Бренд, Джейсон Робертс, Ерік Робертс, Бен Газзара, Роберт де Ніро, Вільям Дівейн, Тітус Велівер, Ентоні Ла Палья, Том Гарді та Вільям Форсайт. В фільмі «Обличчя зі шрамом», який був знятий в 1983 році, Капоне був зображений як Тоні Монтана, якого зіграв Аль Пачіно. Капоне також один з антигероїв фільму «Ніч у музеї 2», де його зіграв Джон Бернтал. Література У романі Маріо П'юзо, «Хрещений батько», який був написаний в 1969 році, Капоне грає невелику роль в описаній в книзі гангстерській війні 1933 року, хоча насправді в 1933 році Капоне був у в'язниці. Капоне був задіяний у романі Кінкі Фрідмана «Любовна пісня Едгара Гувера». У романі Кіма Ньюмена та Юджина Бірна «Назад до СРСР», «Аль» Капоне, Президент Соціалістичних Сполучених Штатів Америки, будучи прототипом Йосипа Сталіна. Джиммі Гоффа та Френк Нітті є уособленнями відповідно В'ячеслава Молотова та Лаврентія Берії. У «Світанку ночі» Пітера Гамільтона, Капоне постає з мертвих і будує нову імперію, що називається «Організація». Музика Під час перебування у в'язниці Капоне зробив аранжування пісні «Madonna Mia». В травні 2009 року його варіант пісні був записаний вперше в історії. Капоне згадується в пісні «The Night Chicago Died» британського гурту Paper Lace, який зобразив війну між бандою Капоне та поліцією Чикаго. Майкл Джексон записав пісню про Капоне. Див. також Американська Мафія П'ять сімей Комісія Джерела Kobler, John. Capone: The Life and Times of Al Capone. New York: Da Capo Press, 2003. ISBN 0-306-81285-1 Pasley, Fred D. Al Capone: The Biography of a Self-Made Man. Garden City, New York: Garden City Publishing Co., 2004. ISBN 1-4179-0878-5 Schoenberg, Robert J. Mr. Capone. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1992. ISBN 0-688-12838-6 Ferrara, Eric — Gangsters, Murderers & Weirdos of the Lower East Side; A self-guided walking tour 2008 MacDonald, Alan. Dead Famous — Al Capone and his Gang Scholastic. Посилання Ресурси Інтернету Miami Beach USA Незваний гість: Аль Капоне в Маямі. (з фото) Колекція фотографій Капоне Файли по Капоне в архіві ФБР Стаття про братів Капоне Аль Капоне на сайті Crime Library Listen online — The Life Story of Al Capone — The American Storyteller Radio Journal Obituary, NY Times, January 26, 1947 Capone Dead At 48; Dry Era Gang Chief Біографія Аль Капоне Роберт Л. Шенберг, автор книги Містер Капоне AlCaponeFanClub Фан-клуб Аль Капоне Сутенери Американці італійського походження Американські гангстери Бутлегери Підприємці США Уродженці штату Нью-Йорк Померли в Сент-Луїсі Померли від бронхопневмонії Засуджені
1363068	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isis%20Unveiled	Isis Unveiled	Isis Unveiled: A Master-Key to the Mysteries of Ancient and Modern Science and Theology, published in 1877, is a book of esoteric philosophy and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky's first major self-published major work text and a key doctrine in her self-founded Theosophical movement. The work has often been criticized as a plagiarized occult work, with scholars noting how Blavatsky extensively copied from many sources popular among occultists at the time. Isis Unveiled is nevertheless also understood by modern scholars to be a milestone in the history of Western esotericism. Overview The work was originally entitled The Veil of Isis, a title which remains on the heading of each page, but had to be renamed once Blavatsky discovered that this title had already been used for an 1861 Rosicrucian work by W. W. Reade. Isis Unveiled is divided into two volumes. Volume I, The "Infallibility" of Modern Science, discusses occult science and the hidden and unknown forces of nature, exploring such subjects as forces, elementals, psychic phenomena, and the Inner and Outer Man. Volume II, Theology, discusses the similarity of Christian scripture to Eastern religions such as Buddhism, Hinduism, the Vedas, and Zoroastrianism. It follows the Renaissance notion of prisca theologia, in that all these religions purportedly descend from a common source; the ancient "Wisdom-Religion". Blavatsky writes in the preface that Isis Unveiled is "a plea for the recognition of the Hermetic philosophy, the anciently universal Wisdom-Religion, as the only possible key to the Absolute in science and theology." Isis Unveiled is argued by many modern scholars such as Bruce F. Campbell and Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke to be a milestone in the history of Western Esotericism. Blavatsky gathered a number of themes central to the occult tradition—perennial philosophy, a Neo-Platonic emanationist cosmology, adepts, esoteric Christianity—and reinterpreted them in relation to current developments in science and new knowledge of non-Western faiths. In doing so, Isis Unveiled reflected many contemporary controversies—such as Darwin's theories on evolution and their impact on religion—and engaged in a discussion that appealed to intelligent individuals interested in religion but alienated from conventional Western forms. Blavatsky's combination of original insights, backed by scholarly and scientific sources, accomplished a major statement of modern occultism's defiance of materialist science. In later theosophical works some of the doctrines originally stated in Isis Unveiled appeared in a significantly altered form, drawing out confusion among readers and even causing some to perceive contradiction. Specifically, the few and—according to many—ambiguous statements on reincarnation as well as the threefold conception of man as body, soul and spirit of Isis Unveiled stand in contrast to the elaborate and definite conception of reincarnation as well as the sevenfold conception of man in The Secret Doctrine (1888). Blavatsky later asserted the correctness of her statements on reincarnation and the constitution of man in Isis Unveiled, attributing the resulting confusion and alleged contradictions to the more superficial or simplified conceptions of the ideas in Isis Unveiled compared to those of later works. Modern Theosophists hold the book as a revealed work dictated to Blavatsky by Theosophy's Masters. Critical reception Detractors often accuse the book of extensive plagiarism, a view first seriously put forth by William Emmette Coleman shortly after publication and still expressed by modern scholars such as Mark Sedgwick. Similarly, historian Geoffrey Ashe noted that Isis Unveiled combines "comparative religion, occultism, pseudoscience, and fantasy in a mélange that shows genuine if superficial research but is not free from unacknowledged borrowing and downright plagiarism." Indeed, Isis Unveiled makes use of many sources popular among occultists at the time, often directly copying significant amounts of text. Historian Bruce Campbell concluded that the large number of borrowed lines suggested plagiarism "on a large scale." Modern copies of Isis Unveiled are often annotated, fully delineating Blavatsky's sources and influences. Historian Ronald H. Fritze considers Isis Unveiled to be a work of pseudohistory. Likewise, Henry R. Evans, a contemporaneous journalist and magician, described the book as a "hodge-podge of absurdities, pseudo-science, mythology and folk-lore, arranged in helter-skelter fashion, with an utter disregard of logical sequence." One of Blavatsky's original goals in writing Isis Unveiled and founding the Theosophical Society was to reconcile contemporary advances in science with occultism, and this synthesis was one of the main appeals of Blavatsky's work for individuals interested in religion but alienated from conventional Western forms at the time. K. Paul Johnson has suggested that many of the more mythical elements of Blavatsky's works, like her later Masters, rather than being outright inventions, were reformulations of preexisting esoteric ideas and the casting of a large group of individuals—who helped, encouraged, or collaborated with her—under a mythological context; all driven by Blavatsky's search for spiritual truth. Sten Bodvar Liljegren notes that in addition to contemporaneous occult sources and the prevailing orientalism of the period, the novels of Edward Bulwer-Lytton heavily influenced Blavatsky's Theosophical ideas. See also Spiritism Theosophy and Christianity Veil of Isis Notes References Further reading Campbell, Bruce F. (1980) Ancient Wisdom Revived: A History of the Theosophical Movement. Berkeley & Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. Farquhar, J. N. (1915). Theosophy. In Modern Religious Movements in India. Macmillan Company. Godwin, Joscelyn. (1994) The Theosophical Enlightenment. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Helena Blavatsky: Western Esoteric Masters Series. (2004) ed. by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books. Johnson, K. Paul. (1994). The Masters Revealed: Madame Blavatsky and the Myth of the Great White Lodge. State University of New York Press. Liljegren, Sten Bodvar (1957). Bulwer-Lytton's Novels and Isis Unveiled. Lundequistka Bokhandeln. External links 1877 non-fiction books Books about religion Books by Helena Blavatsky Books critical of Christianity Books about the paranormal Books involved in plagiarism controversies Theosophical texts Pseudoscience literature
195612	https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%BE	Бордо	Бордо — місто та муніципалітет на південному заході Франції, адміністративний центр регіону та історичної області Нова Аквітанія та департаменту Жиронда. Населення — . Муніципалітет розташований на відстані близько 500 км на південний захід від Парижа. Історія Місто Бордо було засноване кельтами в 3 столітті до н. е. В давнину поселення мало назву Бурдігала (імовірно басксько-аквітанського походження). При римлянах Бурдігала була столицею римської провінції Аквітанія, яка простягалася від Піренеїв до Луари. У той час тут процвітала торгівля. У IV столітті імператор Діоклетіан розділив Аквитанию на три частини і Бурдігала стала столицею провінції Аквітанія Секунда. Під час занепаду Римської імперії регіон навколо Бурдігали переживав період політичної нестабільності. 276 року місто було розграбоване вандалами. Надалі варвари неодноразово нападали на Бордо (вандали в 409, вестготи в 414 і франки в 498). З VI століття місто увійшло до складу Франкської держави. Внаслідок династичних шлюбів, у XII—XV століттях Бордо перебувало під англійським впливом. Після битви під Кастильоном 1453 місто повернулося у склад Франції. У XVI столітті Бордо набуло ваги, коли стало центром торгівлі цукром і рабами з Вест-Індії, на додаток до традиційного вина. Бордо підтримувало Фронду, і було остаточно ефективно приєднане до Французького королівства 1653, коли Людовік XIV увійшов у місто. 18 сторіччя було золотим віком для міста. Багато будинків в діловій частині міста, числом понад 5000, і набережна були зведені саме в цей час. Віктор Гюґо казав про місто: «Візьміть Версаль, додайте Антверпен, і ви отримаєте Бордо». Під час масштабної реконструкції міст за часів Наполеона ІІІ Бордо був взятий як взірець архітектури псевдосередньовіччя, і саме цією архітектурою пишаються сьогодні французи у Парижі. Французький уряд перебирався у Бордо під час війни 1870 року, Першої та Другої світових воєн. Туризм Бордо розташоване на берегах Гаронни, за 32 км від узбережжя Атлантичного океану. Комітет ЮНЕСКО вніс історичний центр міста Бордо, який називається Порт Місяця (Porte de la Lune), в список Світової спадщини у Франції за унікальність міського ансамблю. Дев'яте за величиною місто Франції починалося з римського торгового поста, а згодом, впродовж 300 років належало англійцям, які немало вплинули на стиль і смак Бордо та околиць. Багато з чималих шато в місті й навколо нього досі належать англійцям, і багато шато відкриті для відвідин. Старий Бордо сконцентрований навколо кварталу Святого Петра, від якого розходяться вузькі вулиці і де в ряд розташовані старі церкви і розлогі садиби з балконами з кованого заліза і аркадами. Останніми роками ведеться багато реставраційних робіт, але, не зважаючи на це, багато вулиць все ще виглядають дещо застарілими. Одним з найпишніших свідків минулої слави Бордо є Гранд-Театр, побудований на місці римського храму. Його фасад прикрашений величезним портиком з колонами, увінчаним 12 музами та граціями. Неподалеку розташована еспланада або площа Кенконс, що займає майже 12 гектарів. Це робить її найбільшою площею такого роду в Європі. На меншій за розміром, але красивіший Біржовій площі розташований фонтан Трьох Грацій, а сама площа межує з набережною Гаронни. Через річку перекинутий Кам'яний міст, побудований під час іспанських кампаній Наполеона. Серед найбільших соборів Бордо варто відзначити готичну церкву Сен-Мішель і собор Сен-Андре. Навколо останнього розташовані музеї міста, найпримітнішим з яких є Музей Витончених Мистецтв, що зібрав прекрасну колекцію творів Рейнольдса, Тіциана, Рубенса, Матісса і Марке. Бордо прикрашений унікальними пам'ятниками архітектури, серед яких залишки римського амфітеатру (3 століття), романсько-готична церква Сен-Серен (XI—XIII століть), Сент-Круа (XII—XIII століть) і собор Сент-Андре (середина XII — початок XIV століття), а також готичні церкви Сент-Елалі (XII—XIV століть) і Сен-Мішель (XIV—XVI століть). Віяло вулиць, що склалося в середні віки, веде до майдану Біржі в закруті річки Гаронна. У XVIII столітті вони доповнився регулярною мережею вулиць і площ, які визначили сучасну зовнішність Бордо з його набережними та будівлями в стилі класицизму, такими як Великий театр (1773—1780 року) і мерія (1773—1784 року). Сам регіон славиться головним чином своїми винами, що отримали визнання у всьому світі. Виноробство нерозривно пов'язане з історією Бордо. Ось вже майже два тисячоліття виноградники є формуючим чинником в житті бордолезців. Місто Бордо знаходиться в центрі найбільшого району виноградників, що займають близько 120 тисяч гектарів родючої землі. На цій території розташовані тисячі шато, десятки приватних і кооперативних винних льохів і півсотні торгових домів. Їх вина входять до числа найпрестижніших у світі — Петрю, Ікем, Мутон Ротшильд, Шеваль Блан, Про Бріон. Щороку три мільйони туристів відвідує місто. Сучасність За урядовою програмою міністерства оборони Франції в місті зводиться найпотужніший у світі лазер — Laser Megajoule, для дослідів в галузі лазерних та плазмових технологій. Інвестиції до 2009 сягнуть 2 млрд євро, а місто стане найбільшим осередком і концентрацією фахівців з лазерної оптики в Європі. Близько 20 000 мешканців міста працюють в аерокосмічній галузі, серед інших в місті розташовані підприємства Dassault, EADS. Порт щороку приймає і відправляє 9 млн тонн вантажу. У Бордо є сучасна трамвайна мережа (відкрита 21 грудня 2003 року президентом Франції Жаком Шираком). Демографія Розподіл населення за віком та статтю (2006): Економіка У 2010 році в муніципалітеті нараховувалося 112142 оподатковані домогосподарства, у яких проживали 213904,5 особи, медіана доходів виносила євро на одного особоспоживача Клімат Клімат Бордо морський (Cfb за класифікацією кліматів Кеппена), проте літо, як правило, тепліше, а зими м'якше, ніж в більшості районів з морським кліматом. Лише значні літні опади не дозволяють класифікувати клімат міста як середземноморський. Зими прохолодні через переважання західних вітрів з Атлантичного океану. Через вплив Біскайської затоки (температура поверхні якої досягає 21-22° C) середня зимова температура становить 7,1° C, але останні зими були теплішими. Морози взимку є звичайним явищем і спостерігаються кілька разів протягом сезону, однак снігопади дуже рідкісні, сніг випадає тільки один раз за три роки. Середня літня температура становить 20,7° C. 2003 року відзначена рекордна середня літня температура 23,3° C. Уродженці Децим Магн Авсоній (310—395) — державний діяч Римської імперії, консул 379 року, поет і ритор Арман Емманюель дю Плессі, герцог де Рішельє (1766—1822) — французький та російський державний діяч, військовик, перший градоначальник Одеси, прем'єр-міністр Франції. Оділон Редон (1840—1916) — французький художник, графік та художній критик. Альбер Марке (1875—1947) — відомий художник Франції XX століття. Жак Тібо (1880—1953) — французький скрипаль Анрі Соге (1901—1989) — французький композитор і диригент Жан Ануй (1910—1987) — французький драматург Рене Клеман (1913—1996) — французький кінорежисер Даніель Дар'є (1917—2017) — французька акторка і співачка, яка знялася більш ніж у 140 кінофільмах. Едуар Молінаро (1928—2013) — французький кінорежисер і сценарист. Паскаль Ріберо-Гайон (1930—2011) — французький вчений Філіпп Соллерс (* 1936) — французький письменник, літературний критик, есеїст. Дідьє Куеку (* 1944) — відомий у минулому французький футболіст, нападник, згодом — футбольний тренер. Жером Гнако (* 1968) — відомий у минулому французький футболіст, півзахисник. Поль Байсс (* 1988) — відомий французький футболіст, захисник. Сессі Д'Альмейда (* 1995) — бенінський футболіст, півзахисник. Сусідні муніципалітети Галерея зображень Література Посилання Bordeaux (FRANCE) // «Encyclopaedia Britannica» Туристична інформація про місто Див. також Список муніципалітетів департаменту Жиронда 384 Бурдігала — астероїд, названий латинською назвою міста. LGV Sud Europe Atlantique Бордо (аеропорт) Примітки Міста Франції Муніципалітети департаменту Жиронда Світова спадщина у Франції
112391	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincennes%2C%20Indiana	Vincennes, Indiana	Vincennes, Indiana Vincennes is a city in and the county seat of Knox County, Indiana, United States. It is located on the lower Wabash River in the southwestern part of the state, nearly halfway between Evansville and Terre Haute. Founded in 1732 by French fur traders, notably François-Marie Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes, for whom the Fort was named, Vincennes is the oldest continually inhabited European settlement in Indiana and was its longest serving territorial capital. In addition, Vincennes is also one of the oldest settlements west of the Appalachians. The population was 16,759 at the 2020 census. History The vicinity of Vincennes was inhabited for thousands of years by different cultures of indigenous peoples. During the Late Woodland period, some of these peoples used local loess hills as burial sites; some of the more prominent examples are the Sugar Loaf Mound and the Pyramid Mound. In historic times, prominent local Indian groups who drove these people out were the Shawnee, Wabash, and the Miami tribe. The first European settlers were French, when Vincennes was founded as part of the French colony of Illinois Country, New France. Later on, it would be transferred to the colony of Louisiana. Several years later, France lost the French and Indian War (part of the Seven Years' War), and as result ceded territory east of the Mississippi River, including Vincennes, to the victorious British. Once the area was under British control, it was associated with the Province of Quebec until after the Revolutionary War. It then became part of the Illinois County of the Colony and Dominion of Virginia. Next it became part of Knox County in the Northwest Territory, and it was later included in the Indiana Territory. Vincennes served as capital of the Indiana Territory from 1800 until 1813, when the government was moved to Corydon. New France The first trading post on the Wabash River was established by Sieur Juchereau, Lieutenant General of Montréal. With thirty-four Canadiens, he founded the company post on October 28, 1702, to trade for Buffalo hides with American Indians. The exact location of Juchereau's trading post is not known, but because the Buffalo Trace crosses the Wabash at Vincennes, many believe it was here. The post was a success; in the first two years, the traders collected over 13,000 buffalo hides. When Juchereau died, the post was abandoned. The French-Canadian settlers left what they considered hostile territory for Mobile (in present-day Alabama), then the capital of Louisiana. The oldest European town in Indiana, Vincennes was officially established in 1732 as a second French fur trading post in this area. The Compagnie des Indes commissioned a French officer, François-Marie Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes, to build a post along the Wabash River to discourage local nations from trading with the English. Vincennes founded the new trading post near the meeting points of the Wabash and White rivers, and the overland Buffalo Trace. Vincennes, who had lived with his father among the Miami tribe, persuaded the Piankeshaw to establish a village at his trading post. He also encouraged Canadien settlers to move there, and started his own family to increase the village population. Because the Wabash post was so remote, however, Vincennes had a hard time getting trade supplies from Louisiana for the native nations, who were also being courted by English traders. The boundary between the French colonies of Louisiana and Canada, although inexact in the first years of the settlement, was decreed in 1745 to run between Fort Ouiatenon (below the site of modern-day Lafayette, Indiana) and Vincennes. In 1736, during the French war with the Chickasaw nation, Vincennes was captured and burned at the stake near the present-day town of Fulton, Mississippi. His settlement on the Wabash was renamed Poste Vincennes in his honor. Louisiana Governor Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, next appointed Louis Groston de Saint-Ange de Bellerive to command Poste Vincennes. As the French colonists pushed north from Louisiana and south from Canada, however, the American colonists to the east continued to push west. In addition, British traders lured away many of Indians who had traded with the Canadiens. This competition escalated in the Ohio Country until 1754 and the eruption of the French and Indian War (the North American theater of the Seven Years' War between Britain and France.) British America On February 10, 1763, when New France was ceded to the British at the conclusion of the French and Indian War, Vincennes fell under the authority of Great Britain. British officer John Ramsey came to Vincennes in 1766. He took a census of the settlement, built up the fort, and renamed it Fort Sackville. The population grew quickly in the years that followed, resulting in a unique culture of interdependent Native Americans, Canadien settlers and British traders. Vincennes was far from centers of British power. In 1770 and 1772, Thomas Gage, the commander in chief of Britain's North American forces, received warnings that the residents of Vincennes were agitating against the Crown, and were inciting native tribes along the river trade routes to attack British traders. The Colonial Secretary, the Earl of Hillsborough, ordered the residents to be removed from Vincennes in response. Gage demurred while the residents responded to the charges against them, claiming to be "peaceful settlers, cultivating the land which His Most Christian Majesty [meaning the King of France] granted us." The issue was resolved by Hillsborough's successor, Lord Dartmouth, who insisted to Gage that the residents were not lawless vagabonds, but British subjects whose rights were protected by the Crown. Gage took no action against the residents of Vincennes. In 1778, residents at Poste Vincennes received word of the French alliance with the American Second Continental Congress from Father Pierre Gibault and Dr. Jean Laffont. They mobilized in support of the American revolutionaries, as did the local Piankeshaw, led by Chief Young Tobacco. Revolutionary War Lieutenant Colonel George R. Clark, Captain Leonard Helm, and others created a plan to capture the French forts that the British occupied after Louisiana was ceded. After Kaskaskia was captured by Clark, Lieutenant Governor Henry Hamilton sent British soldiers and reinforcements from Detroit to Fort Vincennes and helped to rebuild the fort. The Italian merchant and Patriot Francis Vigo found Clark and informed the British presence at the fort. Vigo served with the Patriots, ordered war supplies from the Spanish to help, and acted as a secret agent for the Patriots. Clark rounded up enough men to outnumber the British and planned a surprise attack on Fort Vincennes in the heart of winter, a horrible time when no armies were expected to be able to attack due to illness, lack of food, and the flood waters that were high during this time. The Patriots won the Battle of Vincennes on February 23–24, 1779. Hamilton thought of Vincennes as "a refuge for debtors and Vagabonds from Canada." George Rogers Clark recaptured Fort Sackville in the Battle of Vincennes without losing a single soldier. Post-Revolution turmoil Although the Americans would remain in control of Vincennes, it took years to establish peace. In 1786, Captain John Hardin led a mounted Kentucky militia across the Ohio River and destroyed a friendly Piankeshaw town near Vincennes. This led to a series of attacks and counter-attacks between Wabash Indians and American settlers. Finally, on 15 July 1786, the Wabash landed in forty-seven war canoes at Vincennes to drive the Americans back to Kentucky. The Indians warned the Canadians in advance of their attack and assured them that they would not be harmed, but the Canadians warned the Americans. They quickly supplied Fort Patrick Henry and waited out the siege. One American was killed and four wounded, and the war party left after destroying the Americans' farms. In response, Virginia Governor Patrick Henry authorized George Rogers Clark to raise the Kentucky militia and mount an expedition against the warring tribes. General Clark gathered a force of 1,000 militia and departed Clarksville 9 September 1786, along the Buffalo Trace. The militia spent ten days in Vincennes before marching north along the Wabash, but men deserted by the hundreds. Clark was soon forced to return to Vincennes without any action taken. Clark left 150 men to help defend Vincennes, but this force soon turned into a lawless mob, and the citizens of Vincennes petitioned Congress for help. Secretary of War Henry Knox sent Colonel Josiah Harmar and the First American Regiment to restore order. The Kentucky militia fled Vincennes at the approach of U.S. Regulars. Colonel Harmar left 100 regulars under Major Jean François Hamtramck and directed them to build a fort, Fort Knox. Vincennes remained an isolated town, difficult to supply due to its position deep within Indian territory. Secure transport to and from Vincennes meant travelling with a large, armed party, whether over land or via the Wabash River. On 30 September 1790, Major Hamtramck led 350 men from Vincennes as far north as the Vermillion River, to engage some of the Indian villages which had been at war with Vincennes. The Kickapoo tracked the party, however, and evacuated every village along the way before the Americans arrived. Hamtramck destroyed some abandoned villages, but he did not engage any war parties. Faced with desertions from Kentucky militia, Hamtramck returned to Vincennes. The expedition had done no serious harm to the enemies of Vincennes, but it distracted some of the Wabash villages while Josiah Harmar, now a General, led a much larger expedition up through Ohio country towards Kekionga. The Vincennes Tract The earliest land claims by inhabitants of Vincennes were based on a sale by the Indians to the French in 1742 of a tract of land containing 1.6 million acres, known as the Vincennes Tract. It was a rectangular block lying at right angles to the course of the Wabash River at Vincennes. The tract was ceded by France to Britain by treaty in 1763 after the French and Indian War. On October 18, 1775, an agent for the Wabash Company purchased two tracts of land along the Wabash River from the Piankeshaw tribe called the 'Plankashaw Deed'. In these deeds, the Vincennes Tract was excepted, and it was the first recognition of the tract in period documents. Eventually, the United States Supreme Court invalidated the deeds. The claims based on French sovereignty or individual deeds issued under it were eventually rejected by congress, because if there were such grants, they passed to the United States by the Treaty of Paris 1783. By right of conquest, George Rogers Clark secured this land for the United States in 1779 and the Land Act of 1796 honored its boundaries. The Vincennes Donation Lands were embodied in An Act for granting lands to the Inhabitants and settlers at Vincennes and the Illinois country, in the territory northwest of the Ohio, and for confirming them in their possessions (1791). Growth of the town By 1798, the population had reached 2,500. Vincennes was no longer considered a trading outpost, but a thriving city. Elihu Stout published the first newspaper in the Indiana Territory in 1804 at Vincennes. The Indiana Gazette debuted on July 31, 1804. Fire destroyed the printing presses in 1806, but Stout revived the newspaper as the Western Sun in 1807. Vincennes served as the first capital of Indiana Territory until it was moved to Corydon on May 1, 1813. In 1826, "A party of Shawnee Indians ... in men, women, and children, to 500, passed through this place [Vincennes] ... from their reservation at Wapaghkonetta, moving to the Mississippi. The celebrated Indian prophet, and a son of the great Tecumseh, were in the company." Slavery Slavery was practiced in the 16th century, when the present-day state of Indiana was part of New France (1534–1763), by the French and Native Americans. When the area became part of the Northwest Territory, slavery was banned by the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, but slavery and indentured servitude continued. Slaveholders created a "loophole", that the provision did not apply to African Americans who were already enslaved in the state. In 1816, the Constitution of Indiana made forced labor illegal, stating that "there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in this state." Polly Strong, an enslaved woman of Vincennes, was the plaintiff in a case that argued that she should be free. After losing in the Harrison County Circuit Court, she won the case at the Indiana Supreme Court on July 22, 1820, and she was freed. In the case of Clark's attorney appealed the decision with the Indiana Supreme Court in the case of Mary Clark v. G.W. Johnston was a former slave who was made an indentured servant and lived in Vincennes. She won her freedom on November 6, 1821, when the Indiana Supreme Court ruled that servitude violated the state's 1816 Constitution. This was a landmark contract law case for indentured servants and foretold the end of forced labor in Indiana. Time zone controversy On November 4, 2007, Knox County joined Daviess, Martin, Pike, and Dubois counties in returning to the Eastern Time zone. Controversy concerning time in Indiana has caused a change in the time zone of Vincennes on three different occasions since the Standard Time Act of 1918. Unofficial city flag This flag for the city of Vincennes, Indiana, albeit unofficial, is used around the city. It features the signature V, four fleurs-de-lis, symbolizing the city's French heritage, its existence in four centuries: 18th, 19th, 20th, and 21st, since the city's establishment in 1732. Similar in appearance to the flag of Indianapolis, Vincennes' flag is more squared in appearance and has a diamond center rather than a circle. It represents the layout of Vincennes. White stripes radiating from the diamond represent Vincennes' part in the settlement of the frontier, as it was at the crossroads of several great pioneer trails. Geography Vincennes is located on the banks of the Wabash River at the western edge of Knox County; this is also the western edge of the state of Indiana, and Illinois is across the river to the west. The city lies about southwest of Indianapolis. U.S. Route 41 passes through the city from north to south, and U.S. Route 50 passes just to the north of the city from east to west. According to the 2010 census, Vincennes has a total area of , of which (or 99.09%) is land and (or 0.91%) is water. Climate Vincennes has a humid subtropical climate with hot summers and cool winters with heavy rainfall at times throughout much of the year. There are an average of 53.1 days with highs of or higher and an average of 101.5 days with lows of or lower. Average January temperatures are a high of and a low of . Average July temperatures are a high of and a low of . The record high temperature was on June 26, 1988. The record low temperature was on January 19, 1994. Average annual precipitation is . Measurable precipitation occurs on an average of 105.6 days each year. The wettest year was 1990 with and the dryest year was 1988 with . The most precipitation in one month was in November 1985. The most precipitation in 24 hours was . Average annual snowfall is . Measurable snowfall occurs on only 2.6 days. The snowiest season was 1989–90 when fell. The most snow in one month was in December 1990. The most snow in 24 hours was on March 24, 1990. Demographics 2010 census As of the census of 2010, there were 18,423 people, 7,407 households, and 4,108 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 8,259 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 91.9% White, 4.7% African American, 0.3% Native American, 0.7% Asian, 0.7% from other races, and 1.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.9% of the population. There were 7,407 households, of which 26.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.8% were married couples living together, 14.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 44.5% were non-families. 36.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.83. The median age in the city was 33 years. 19.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 20.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.4% were from 25 to 44; 23.6% were from 45 to 64; and 15% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50.3% male and 49.7% female. 2000 census As of the census of 2000, there were 18,701 people, 7,614 households, and 4,332 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 8,574 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 94.34% White, 3.28% African American, 0.25% Native American, 0.72% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.48% from other races, and 0.88% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.02% of the population. There were 7,614 households, out of which 26.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.8% were married couples living together, 12.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.1% were non-families. 35.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.20 and the average family size was 2.85. In the city, the population was spread out, with 20.0% under the age of 18, 20.5% from 18 to 24, 24.0% from 25 to 44, 20.3% from 45 to 64, and 15.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.3 males. The median income for a household in the city was $26,289, and the median income for a family was $35,424. Males had a median income of $27,029 versus $20,254 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,993. About 15.0% of families and 20.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25.9% of those under age 18 and 12.7% of those age 65 or over. Education Public schools Elementary Schools South Knox Elementary School Tecumseh – Harrison Elementary Franklin Elementary Vigo Elementary Riley Elementary Washington Elementary (Decommissioned in May 2010) Middle School South Knox Middle-Highschool Clark Middle School High School South Knox Middle-Highschool Lincoln High School Parochial schools Elementary school Flaget Elementary (K–5) High school Vincennes Rivet High School (6–12) Other private schools Southwestern Indiana Youth Village (4–12) Higher education Vincennes University was established in 1801 as Jefferson Academy. It is the oldest college of higher learning in Indiana. Purdue Polytechnic Institute maintains a satellite campus in Vincennes in a partnership with Vincennes University. Government The city government consists of a seven-member city council. Five of whom are elected from districts the other two are elected at large. The mayor is elected in a citywide vote. Media Television WVUT PBS (22) – 22.1 / 22.2 / 22.3 – Vincennes University Radio 91.1 FM WVUB "Blazer 91-1" – Vincennes University 92.1 FM WZDM "Wisdom 92-1" – The Original Company 96.7 FM WFML – 1450 AM WAOV – The Original Company Newspaper Vincennes Sun-Commercial Legacy The Revolutionary War battle at Vincennes was featured in the 1901 novel Alice of Old Vincennes by Maurice Thompson. Four ships have also been named in honor of this battle; as well as for the city. The first was an 18-gun sloop-of-war commissioned in 1826 and sold in 1867. The second was a heavy cruiser commissioned in 1937 and lost in the Battle of Savo Island in 1942. The third was a light cruiser commissioned in 1944 and decommissioned in 1946. The fourth and most recent was a guided missile cruiser commissioned in 1985 which was decommissioned and scrapped in 2005. Notable people Bruce Barmes (1929-2014), baseball player, Washington Senators Clint Barmes (b. 1979), baseball player, San Diego Padres David Carter, retired football player, center and guard Houston Oilers E. Wallace Chadwick (1884-1969), U.S. Congressman for Pennsylvania's 7th congressional district from 1947 to 1949 Albert K. Dawson (1885–1967), photographer, film correspondent in World War I James C. Denny (1829-1887), Indiana Attorney General (1872-1874) Henry Dodge (1782–1867), U.S. Senator from Wisconsin Mike Eskew, former Chairman and CEO of UPS James Freeman Gilbert, geophysicist Bruce Bouillet, guitarist for Racer X David Goodnow, television news broadcaster William Henry Harrison (1773–1841), Indiana Territorial Governor and 9th President of the United States Mitch Henderson, basketball head coach, Princeton Charles T. Hinde, businessman and riverboat captain; briefly lived in Vincennes Jane Jarvis, (1915-2010), organist for the New York Mets and jazz musician Buck Jones (1891–1942), actor, silent and 1930s film star John Rice Jones, politician and jurist Stanislaus P. La Lumiere, president of Marquette University Julian Morgenstern (1881–1976), rabbi, professor, and president of Hebrew Union College Alvy Moore (1921–1997), actor Curtis Painter (b. 1985) football player, quarterback Purdue University, Indianapolis Colts, Baltimore Ravens, New York Giants William Edward Phipps, film and television actor, born in Vincennes Ollie Pickering (1870–1952), first batter in MLB American League history; lived and died in Vincennes Red Skelton (1913–1997), comedian and film actor, star of The Red Skelton Show Richard L. Stevens, brigadier general, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Dan Stryzinski, football player, punter for Indiana University and eight NFL teams Sarah Knox Taylor (1814–1835), daughter of Zachary Taylor and first wife of Jefferson Davis Waller Taylor, lawyer, Adjutant General, United States Senator from Indiana Alice Terry (1899–1987), actress and director, silent films; wife of director Rex Ingram Samuel Williams (1851–1913), judge and politician Benjamin Willoughby (1855-1940), Justice of the Indiana Supreme Court Local attractions George Rogers Clark National Historical Park, the memorial and park built for the war hero George Rogers Clark. St. Francis Xavier Cathedral and Library, the oldest Catholic church in the state of Indiana and Indiana's oldest library. Grand Rapids Dam was once a dam on the Wabash River near present-day Vincennes; its remains are still visible. Grouseland, the mansion home of William Henry Harrison, 9th United States President. Fort Knox II: Operated by the Indiana State Museum and Historic Sites Corp, Fort Knox was the jumping off point for the Tippecanoe Campaign in 1811. Outline of the fort is marked for self-guided tours. Fort Sackville, one of the forts of Vincennes. The U.S. Navy has named four ships in honor of Vincennes. The Servant of God, Bishop Simon Bruté de Remur, first Catholic Bishop of the Diocese of Vincennes. The Indiana Territorial Capitol. Is the primary site owned by the Indiana State Museum and Historic Sites Corp in Vincennes. The building was once the center of government for the Indiana Territory from 1800 to 1813. The Indiana Military Museum (indianamilitarymuseum.org) Pantheon Theatre The Red Skelton Museum of American Comedy on the campus of Vincennes University contains memorabilia of radio, TV, and movie star Red Skelton, who was born in Vincennes. As of 2017, his birth home still exists, but is in private hands. In addition to the George Rogers Clark National Historical Park, St. Francis Xavier Cathedral and Library, Grouseland, Fort Knox II, and Indiana Territorial Capitol, Gregg Park, Hack and Simon Office Building, Kimmell Park, Old State Bank, Pyramid Mound, Vincennes Fortnightly Club, and the Vincennes Historic District are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Notes See also Indiana Territory Forts of Vincennes, Indiana Grand Rapids Dam Grand Rapids Hotel Piankashaw Indians USS Vincennes, 4 ships References Vincennes. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2011. External links Vincennes, Knox County Convention and Visitors Bureau, Indiana City of Vincennes, Indiana Vincennes University Vincennes brief history (Vincennes University) Vincennes School Corporation George Rogers Clark National Park Indiana Territorial Capitol Revolutionary War Archives – Battle of Vincennes Populated places established in 1732 1732 establishments in the French colonial empire
3066126	https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%83%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%94%D0%B2%D0%BE-%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B5%20%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%20%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE	Чугуєво-Бабчанське лісове господарство	Чугуєво-Бабчанське лісове господарство Державне підприємство «Чугуєво-Бабчанське лісове господарство» засновано на державній власності, входить до складу Харківського обласного управління лісового та мисливського господарства і підпорядковане Державному агентству лісових ресурсів України. Історія Чугуєво – Бабчанський держлісгосп створений як учбово-дослідний в 1927 році на базі лісів Чугуєво – Бабчанської та Малинівської лісових дач і прилеглих „Башкірський” та „Лаптівський” бори загальною площею 8734га. Ведення господарства в цих лісах розпочато ще на початку ХІХ століття. Історія організації лісового господарства на території теперішнього лісгоспу відома ще з 1837 року, коли ліси лісгоспу (Чугуєво-Бабчанська лісова дача) відносились до Управління Південних військових поселень, а в 1862 році були передані Міністерству Державного Майна. Після Жовтневої соціалістичної революції 1917 року “Чугуєво-Бабчанська лісова дача” увійшла до складу Державного лісового фонду і було утворено учбово-дослідне лісництво. В 1923 році були націоналізовані ліси приватних володінь і передані в склад Чугуєво-Бабчанського учбово-дослідного лісництва. В 1927 році Чугуєво-Бабчанське учбово-дослідне лісництво було реорганізовано в Чугуєво-Бабчанський учбово-дослідний лісгосп, який був розділений на два лісництва: Кочетоцьке і Малинівське. Лісгосп знаходився в господарському користуванні Харківського інституту сільського господарства і лісівництва. В 1936 році, після організації Головного Управління лісової охорони і лісонасаджень при СНК СССР, Чугуєво – Бабчанський учбово-дослідний лісгосп був підпорядкований Харківському управлінню лісового господарства, будучи одночасно базою для проведення учбової і виробничої практики студентами Чугуєво – Бабчанського лісового технікуму. У січні 1922 року на базі учбово-дослідного лісництва (Кочетоцька дача) відкрито лісову професійну школу, яку у 1929 році реорганізовують у Чугуєво – Бабчанський лісний технікум. З 1936 року в лісгоспі відбулося ряд реорганізацій, визваних прийманням, або передачею із його складу цілих лісництв і їх частин: 1943 рік – в склад лісгоспу входять Кочетоцьке, Малинівське і частина Печенізького лісництва (Миколаївські посадки); 1943 рік до лісгоспу приєднані Скрипаївське, Мохначанське і Краснополянське лісництва із ліквідованого Мохначанського лісгоспу. Лісгосп був підпорядкований Міністерству лісового господарства УССР; 1948 рік в листопаді місяці був відновлений Мохначанський лісгосп, в склад якого ввійшли Малинівське, Мохначанське і Скрипаївське лісництво, в лісгоспі залишилось Кочетоцьке лісництво; 1953 рік лісгосп був підпорядкований Управлінню лісами зеленої зони міста Харкова; 1954 рік знову ліквідований Мохначанський лісгосп, всі його 4 лісництва передані Чугуєво-Бабчанському лісгоспу. На території Кочетоцької дачі було організовано Тетлізьке, Чугуївське і Кочетоцьке лісництва; 1955 рік Скрипаївське і Мохначанське лісництва були передані Харківському сільськогосподарському інституту ім. В.В. Докучаєва і на їх базі був створений Скрипаївський учбово-дослідний лісгосп; 1959 рік було ліквідовано Управління лісами зеленої зони міста Харкова і був створений Чугуєво – Бабчанський лісгоспзаг Харківського обласного управління лісового господарства і лісозаготівель; 1971 рік до Чугуєво – Бабчанського лісгоспу було приєднано Печенізьке лісництво Вовчанського лісгоспу, площею 8792 га; 1989 рік прийнято від Куп’янського лісгоспу 694 га і передано Зміївському лісгоспу Краснополянське лісництво площею 3615 га і 151 гектар Жовтневому лісгоспу. 1990 рік – прийнято 20 га до Малинівського лісництва від радгоспу “Єсхар” МО СРСР; 1995 рік – було організовано Тетлізьке лісництво на базі Кочетоцького лісництва, загальна площа лісництва склала – Кочетоцького – 5165 га, Тетлізького – 3408 га; 2003 рік – згідно з наказом об’єднання “Харківліс” № 48 від 27.06.2003 року прийнято від Куп’янськогоДЛГ 552 га і організовано Шевченківське лісництво, до якого ввійшла частина Печенізького лісництва. Площа Шевченківського лісництва склала – 1246 га, а лісгоспу – 21565 га.; 2005 рік – перейменовано Чугуєво – Бабчанське державне лісогосподарське підприємство в Державне Підприємство “Чугуєво – Бабчанське лісове господарство” скорочено ДП “Чугуєво – Бабчанський лісгосп”; 2006 рік – до складу Шевченківського лісництва прийнято від сільських рад 624 га, Шевченківського району площа лісгоспу склала – 22016 га. Перше лісовпорядкування частини лісів, які входять до складу лісгоспу було проведено в 1837 році (Кочетоцька дача), в 1848 році (Малинівська дача), 1850 році Башкирський і Лаптівський бір; 1872 р.; 1882 р.; 1901 – 1918 роках. Наступні лісовпорядні роботи проводились в 1926-1936 роках, матеріали були втрачені в роки фашистської окупації, тому лісовпорядні роботи були проведені в 1947 році за програмою первинного лісовпорядкування, а лісовпорядкування 1957 р., 1966р. (Печенізьке лісництво), 1970р.,1980р., проведені за вимогами лісовпорядної інструкції (1964 року) по 1 розряду Харківською експедицією за методом класів віку. Попереднє лісовпорядкування було проведено в 1990 році Харківською державною лісовпорядною експедицією. Роботи виконувались відповідно до вимог Лісовпорядної інструкції 1986 року по першому розряду. Природно-кліматичні умови Згідно з лісорослинним районуванням, територія лісгоспу належить до південно-східної частини лівобережного лісостепу України. (Згідно з районуванням, розробленим С.А.Генеіруком). Клімат району розташування лісгоспу помірно-континентальний з недостатнім і непостійним зволоженням. Із кліматичних факторів, що негативно впливають на ріст і розвиток лісових насаджень, слід відзначити пізні весняні приморозки, високі коливання температури в літній період, нерівномірність опадів, сильні вітри в зимово-весняний період, а також малосніжні зими з глибоким промерзання ґрунту, та зимові відлиги. В цілому клімат лісорослинного району розташування лісгоспу сприятливий для успішного зростання таких деревних та чагарникових порід: сосни звичайної, дуба черешчатого та червоного, кленів, ясеня звичайного, акації білої, тополі, ліщини, бузини чорної і червоної, та інших порід. Територія лісгоспу розташована в рівнинних лісах України. За характером рельєф представляє собою місцевість з широкологими балками, які в деяких місцях сильно розмиті і розрізані довгими і глибокими ярами. Основний лісовий масив лісгоспу (Тетлізьке і Кочетоцькі лісництва) розташований на правому нагорному березі ріки Сіверський Донець і на водорозділі його притоків. Рельєф лівобережних лісових масивів Малинівського і частини Печенізького лісництв відрізняються більш спокійною поверхнею, характерною для заплавних долин і надлугових терас. Рельєф Шевченківського лісництва більше пересічений, лісові масиви приурочені до схилів балок та глибоких ярів і представлені дрібними ділянками лісу. Ґрунти лісгоспу унікальні в Харківській області, оскільки тут поширені темно-сірі лісові опідзолені суглинисті ґрунти, які практично в умовах області не зустрічаються і займають 65% площі лісгоспу. Дерново-підзолисті ґрунти займають 24% площі лісгоспу. 11% площі лісгоспу представлені ґрунти сірі лісові опідзолені, суглинисті, заплавно-лугові (частина Малинівського л-ва), чернозхеми різної ступені вимиті (змиті). Ерозійні процеси розвинуті слабо. Ерозійно небезпечні ділянки вкриті деревною та чагарниковою рослинністю, що перешкоджує розвитку ерозійних процесів. Територія лісгоспу розташована в басейні річки Сіверський Донець і її притоків (Уди, Тетліжка, Зачуговка, Бабка). Печенізьке водосховище розташоване на р. Сіверський Донець від с. Стариця до сел.Печеніги. Акваторія водосховища 86,2 км2, об’єм види 383 млн.м3, довжина 65 км, ширина 1,33 км, глибина середня 4,4 м. За ступенем вологості більша частина ґрунтів відноситься до категорії свіжих ґрунтів.На долю земель з надмірним зволоженням приходиться 0,6% площі, вкритих лісовою рослинністю земель. Болота займають площу 155,4 га. Гідромеліоративні роботи на території лісгоспу не виконуються. Структура підприємства Загальна площа земель лісового фонду складає 22074 га, з них вкриті лісовою рослинністю – 20330,9 га, в тому числі з перевагою твердолистяних порід – 15054 га та хвойних – 4604 га. Об'єкти природно-заповідного фонду Примітка: Заказник “Печенізька лісова дача” кв.26 вид.1-8, пл.3,8 га; кв.27 вид.1-5, пл.6,2 га вилучені із заповідного фонду; кв. 125 пл.5,1 га включені в заповідний фонд – рішенням Харківської облради від 23.12.2003 року. Об’єкти природно-заповідного фонду відповідають межі заповідання. Посилання На сайті Харківського обласного управління лісового та мисливського господарства Додаток до рішення обласної ради Печенізька лісова дача Кочетоцька лісова дача Лісові господарства України Підприємства Харківської області
40371075	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20War%20of%20Art%20%28The%20Simpsons%29	The War of Art (The Simpsons)	The War of Art (The Simpsons) "The War of Art" is the fifteenth episode of the twenty-fifth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons and the 545th episode of the series. It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 23, 2014. It was written by Rob LaZebnik and directed by Steven Dean Moore. The episode was met with generally positive reviews, and was met with much critical analysis over the episode's themes. Upon airing, the episode was watched by 3.98 million American viewers. Plot After Lisa's new pet guinea pig destroys the Simpsons' living room art, Marge falls in love with a beautiful painting at the Van Houtens' yard sale, which Homer purchases for $20. Marge removes the frame and finds that the painting bears the signature of Johan Oldenveldt, an artist of some renown. An art appraiser estimates that it could bring between $80,000 and $100,000 at auction. Marge wants to share the sale proceeds with the Van Houtens, but Homer disagrees, saying that the Simpsons should look after their own financial security first and keep the sale a secret from them. Milhouse eavesdrops on the conversation from Bart's treehouse and tells his parents. The Van Houtens publicly shame the Simpsons for their secrecy, prompting a town-wide division of opinion. As the auction begins, Dawn, a former lover of Kirk's, arrives and claims that he took the painting from her. The auction is suspended until its ownership can be established. Kirk tells Homer that he bought the painting on the island of Isla Verde, Puerto Rico, home to an artists' community. Homer and Lisa travel to the café at which Kirk made the purchase in order to corroborate Kirk's account and the legality of Homer's purchase. The café owner confirms that she sold the painting to Kirk, but as Homer starts to celebrate, one of the customers interrupts. This man is Klaus Ziegler, an art forger who created the painting; he has fooled art galleries around the world by flawlessly imitating other painters' techniques. Although Lisa objects to Ziegler's practices, he convinces her that his forgeries have brought pleasure to the people who see them. Homer pays him to create three new paintings: a family portrait for the Van Houtens, a new sailboat picture for the Simpsons' living room, and a garish picture of a jukebox for Homer. The episode ends with a brief documentary (narrated by Ziegler) on the history of Strupo, a foul-smelling, hallucinogenic, highly addictive alcoholic beverage brewed on Isla Verde. Analysis The episode centers around the theme of the intrinsic value of art and the issue of art forgeries. It also questions the notion of ownership over a "worthless" product that was bought off a friend, which is subsequently deemed worthy; is one required to split the money with the original owners? Tony Sokol of Den of Geek noted that the episode brings out the "beauty of forgery". The article pondered this: "What is ownership? What is commerce? What is art? Art is a mirror held up to reflect reality, and no mirror has been made large enough, so all art is forgery", and then referred to Homer's subjective conditions for great art: nudity, holograms and horrible things happening to Jesus. Another art-related quote from the episode that the article mentions is Homer's "Everyone can have their own opinion about why it sucks". The episode offers no easy answers and instead is open to interpretation and invites all opinions without force-feeding any one in particular. Teresa Lopez of TV Fanatic noted that "It's easy to see how the painting easily divides the entire town of Springfield. We can certainly understand both sides of the debate." David Ng of the Los Angeles Times argued that the episode "echoed a number of real-life art stories, including the case of Wolfgang Beltracchi, the convicted German art forger who was recently profiled on "60 Minutes," as well as the case of a Pierre-Auguste Renoir landscape painting that was purchased at a flea market for $7". Dennis Perkins of The A.V. Club noted that "Homer doesn't need to understand the nature of art here. He needs to realize that being a selfish jerk is, well, selfish and jerky", though added that he does commission paintings to help save Luann and Kirk's marriage and to replace the Simpson boat painting. Den of Geeks Tony Sokol argued that the value of art is something that has a common thread throughout The Simpsons. Marge is a painter, and in one episode she paints a naked picture of Mr Burns, and he said "he knew what he hated in art and he didn’t hate what she created, in spite of the embarrassment it caused him". As her painting communicated emotions despite its ugliness, Sokol argued "it makes perfect sense that Marge would appreciate the artistry of the forgery and still appreciate the simple boat painting she might have gotten in a supermarket". It also refers to Lisa's love of the arts (including jazz and poetry), and says "even El Barto was a great graffiti artiste". Cultural references Richard Branson space flight "prediction" Following Richard Branson's 2021 Virgin Galactic space flight, it was noted that the episode depicted Branson flying in space seven years beforehand. Reception Critical response Dennis Perkins of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B, saying "The War Of Art’ is like early Simpsons on an off day—pleasantly forgettable. Except that if the old show had a bad week, it was a safe bet that the next episode would be better. Now there’s the disheartening sense that an episode of quiet competence without any major missteps will have to suffice." He added that despite one of a number of criticisms of recent Simpsons being "the cast’s perceived disinterest", in this episode it was clear Smith was giving 100% to Lisa in her obsession over the guinea pigs. Tony Sokol of Den of Geek gave the episode 4 stars out of 5, and wrote "I’ve said before and will say again that The Simpsons towers over all current TV sitcoms. That the worst episode of The Simpsons will still have more laughs per minute than the best episode of, say Modern Family...The Simpsons usually pour on the jokes. This particular episode, while still crammed with bits, is more like A Night At The Opera than Monkey Business. They use less actual larfs, bits for an overall finer quality of comedy." Teresa Lopez of TV Fanatic gave the episode two out of five stars, saying "Although The Simpsons Season 25 Episode 15 was a clearly focused and insightful look at the ways money can ruin relationships, it lacked the necessary humor to balance out the heavy-handed lessons." Viewing figures The episode received a 1.9 rating and was watched by a total of 3.98 million people, making it the second most watched show on Animation Domination that night. Awards and nominations Writer Rob LaZebnik was nominated for the Annie Award for Outstanding Achievement for Writing in an Animated Television/Broadcast Production at the 42nd Annie Awards for this episode. References External links "The War of Art" at theSimpsons.com 2014 American television episodes The Simpsons season 25 episodes
3777235	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deleted%20scene	Deleted scene	Deleted scene A deleted scene is footage that has been removed from the final version of a film or television show. There are various reasons why these scenes are deleted, which include time constraints, relevance, quality or a dropped story thread, and can also be due to budgetary concerns. A similar occurrence is offscreen, in which the events are unseen. A related term is extended scene, the longer version of a scene that was shortened for the final version of the film. Often, extended scenes are included in collections of deleted scenes or are referred to as deleted scenes themselves, as is the case with, for instance, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets and Serenity. Reasons for removal Scenes are often removed from films and television shows at the request of a studio or network, or to reduce running time, to improve narrative flow, or that some may be offensive. Requests for alteration The studio or network planning to air or distribute it may be uncomfortable with a certain scene. It may ask for it be altered, removed, or replaced. That is most common in the production of television series since networks and channels often must be mindful of how viewers, critics, or censors will react to programming. There may be a fear of losing ratings, being punished by fines or otherwise, or having trouble finding advertisers. The 2002 Fox series Firefly's original pilot episode ("Serenity", parts 1 and 2) had such a change made, with the original, less action-packed scene being replaced in the final cut of the episode but featuring on the later DVD box set release of the series, as one of several bonus features. A scene in the pilot of 24 involved the destruction of a Boeing 747. Aired just a few months after the 9/11 attacks, the producers made edits to cut out shots of the plane visibly exploding. Running time Concerns about running time may also cause scenes to be removed or shortened. In feature films, scenes may be cut to reduce the length of the film's final cut, sometimes in order to include more screenings of a film each day when released theatrically. In television serials, however, running time becomes an even greater concern because of the strict timeslot limitations, especially on channels supported by advertisements, and there may be only 20 minutes of actual show per half-hour timeslot. Depending on the station and the particular format of the show, that may or may not include opening credits or closing credits; many ad-supported stations now "squish" the closing credits or force them into a split-screen to show more advertising. Most programs are in either a half-hour or a one-hour timeslot. That forces producers of television serials to break up the acts in a manner that will (hopefully) make the viewer want to continue watching after the ad break and to avoid exceeding the stricter running time limits. Disruption of narrative flow Though the quality of the initial and the final cuts of a film is subjective, a scene or version of a scene in a film may have an adverse effect on the film as a whole. It may slow the film down, provide unnecessary details or exposition, or even explain points that should be implied or said more subtly. It is common to remove such scenes at the editing level, but they may be released on the home video release, as a bonus feature. There are at least a few examples, including a number of the deleted scenes on the DVD release of the sequel film Serenity (in fact, the audio commentary on the DVD's deleted scenes collection quite often mentions the plot or the tension being disrupted or slowed by including a scene or too much expositional as the main reason for the scene's removal from the final theatrical cut. Another well known example is the cocoon sequence in the film Alien. The scene added a lot of information about the fate of several crew members and new information on the life cycle of the creature, but it was ultimately deleted, as it was thought to slow down and to disrupt the tension of the end of the film. Formats Deleted or extended scenes may be in any of several different formats. They may or may not feature finished special effects (especially in science fiction and fantasy films in which visual effects are more expensive), and the film quality may or may not be the same as in the rest of the film, but that may depend only on how much post-production editing was done. Additionally, deleted scenes of animated films may not be in the form of a fully animated scene but instead be included in the form of an animatic or a blooper form, as is the case with the deleted scenes on the DVD release of Pixar's Toy Story and Finding Nemo. Parody The DVD release for The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy's feature film also featured not only a handful of regular deleted scenes but also two spoof "Really Deleted" scenes. YTVs ZAPX sometimes makes "deleted scenes" that are not genuine deleted scenes but random scenes of the movie with footage of the program's host, Simon, inserted into the clip, for that purpose. On the DVD for UHF, "Weird Al" Yankovic provides commentary of the deleted scenes and emphasizes that there are hours of film footage but that they were all removed for good reasons. See also Blooper Director's cut Film editing Alternate ending Types of fiction with multiple endings Film censorship Offscreen Outtake References Film scenes Film and video terminology Home video supplements
3009641	https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%20%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%20%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%97%20%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%97%20%281885%E2%80%941896%29	Грошова система Російської імперії (1885—1896)	Грошова система Російської імперії (1885—1896) Грошова система Російської імперії (1885—1896 роки) складалася з основної валюти — паперового рубля, і допоміжної валюти — металевого золотого рубля; взаємний курс цих двох валют визначався ринком. Використання золотої валюти було дозволено тільки в зовнішньоторговельному обігу. Формально паперовий рубль іменувався кредитним квитком (тобто банкнотою, розмінюваною на дзвінку монету) і вважався срібним, а його курс до золота був фіксованим, тобто грошова система юридично була біметалічною. Насправді держава не розмінювала кредитний рубль ні на золото, ні на срібло, а повноцінні срібні монети вийшли з обігу. Паперовий рубль доповнювався допоміжною неповноцінною срібною монетою і мідною монетою. Система почала діяти в 1885 році, з моменту невеликої девальвації золотого рубля, і перестала діяти в 1897 році, після перетворення її в монометалічну золоту грошову систему. Передісторія грошової системи 1885 року З 1843 року в Росії діяла грошова система з повноцінними срібними та золотими (імперіали, червінці) монетами, а також із державними кредитними квитками, що вільно обмінювалися на обидва типи монет. Основною грошовою одиницею був рубль сріблом, який з 1762 року містив у собі 4 золотника 21 частку (17,995 г) чистого срібла, тобто ціна срібла становила 5,557 копійки за грам. Десятирубльовий золотий імперіал з 1763 року (у 1839—1869 роках він офіційно коштував 10 рублів 30 копійок) карбувався в 88-й золотникової пробі (приблизно 917-я метрична) містив у собі 2 золотника 78 часток (11,988 г) чистого золота, що становило 1,199 г золота в рублі і 83,403 копійки за грам золота. Номінал золотого імперіала був виражений у срібних рублях. Відношення золота до срібла по номінальному курсу монети було 1:15, а з урахуванням офіційного 3-процентного лажа — 1:15,45, що приблизно відповідало світовому ринковому співвідношенню цін двох металів (так, наприклад, у Франції було офіційно прийнято співвідношення 1:15,5). Грошова система мала перехідний характер і поєднувала в собі ознаки срібного монометалізму і біметалізму. З одного боку, відношення вартості срібла і золота було зафіксовано законом, на обидва метали поширювалося право вільного карбування, скарбниця була зобов'язана приймати золоту монету в усі платежі. В обігу, а також у металевому запасі держави, срібні і золоті монети були представлені приблизно порівну — все це ознаки біметалізму. З іншого боку, закон визнавав золоту монету факультативною валютою, і в угодах між приватними особами вона використовувалася лише за згодою обох сторін. Крім того, номінал золотої монети був на 3% нижче курсу, за яким скарбниця видавала і приймала цю монету, що теоретично могло свідчити про зарезервоване державою право надалі змінювати цей курс. В очах населення монетний і банкнотний рубль сріблом був продовженням монетного срібного рубля, що був в обігу до 1843 року. Всі ці обставини дозволяли вважати російський грошовий обіг срібним монометалізмом. У 1854 році банківська система Росії почала зазнавати труднощів: з початком міжнародних ускладнень, що передували Кримській війні, курс рубля до європейських валют впав, і населення почало активно розмінювати кредитні квитки на монету. Уряд у відповідь почав впроваджувати різні обмеження щодо сум та умов обміну, в основному щодо золотої монети. Зрештою, в 1858 році обмін кредитних білетів на золото і срібло був повністю припинений. Кредитні квитки перетворилися в паперові (фіатні, незабезпечені) гроші, відношення вартості срібла і золота до них тепер визначалося ринком. Метал у золотій і повноцінній срібній монеті тепер коштував дорожче їх номіналу, в зв'язку з чим ці види монет вийшли з внутрішнього грошового обігу — тепер населення розглядало їх як злитки дорогоцінних металів. Казна продовжувала використовувати імперіали для виплати купонного доходу за державними позиками, номінованого в золоті. З травня 1862 року по листопад 1863 року уряд в спробі відновити металевий грошовий обіг обмінював кредитні квитки на дзвінку монету, але після вичерпання розмінною фонду відмовився від своїх планів. Формально рубль як і раніше вважався кредитним (забезпеченим), фактично ж став паперовим (незабезпеченим). У 1877 році держава зажадала сплачувати митні збори російської золотою монетою, після чого в загальних рисах сформувалася та система грошового обігу, яка буде, з невеликими модифікаціями, діяти до 1897 року. Ця система була двовалютною з плаваючим курсом (в тогочасній фінансовій практиці замість курсу часто враховувався лаж) валют між собою, з паперовим рублем як основної валюти та з золотим монетним рублем як спеціальної валюти для зовнішньої торгівлі. Срібний рубль, формально колишня основна грошова одиниця, фактично зник з обігу і використовувався тільки для облікових цілей. Біметалічний грошовий обіг в Росії припинив існування через недостатність державних фінансів. Але відновити його неможливо було вже з іншої причини: з початку 1860-х років у світі зріс видобуток срібла, і завдяки новим технологіям, впала його собівартість. В результаті срібло, яке історично коштувало до золота як 1:15, з кінця 1860-х стало дешевшати. Перші два рази (в 1870-х і 1880-х) воно подешевшало стрибками, до 1:18 і 1:20, а з початку 1890-х років плавно пішло вниз і за 5—7 років ціна обвалилася до 1:30. Уже в першій половині 1870-х років країни, що мали біметалічний грошовий обіг, припинили вільний розмін на срібло і тим самим перейшли на золотий стандарт. Паперово-грошовий обіг у другий період його існування в Росії (перший був пов'язаний з асигнаціями, другий охопив 1858—1896 роки) зустрічався і в інших розвинених країнах. У Франції незабезпечені металом паперові гроші ходили в 1848—1850 і в 1870—1878 роках, в Австрії — в 1848—1892 роках, в Італії в 1866—1881 роках; в 1892 році Італія не змогла утримати вільний розмін банкнот на золото і знову перейшла до паперово-грошового обігу. На деяких етапах паперово-грошового обігу в цих країнах існувала і паралельна золота валюта, приблизно на тих же підставах, що і в Росії. У США незабезпечені паперові долари (greenbacks) з'явилися в 1860 році, в 1879 році їх циркуляція була обмежена, а курс вирівняний з курсом золотого долара. У 1885 році грошова система Росії була піддана модифікації. Вміст золота в імперіалі було знижено з 11,988 г до 11,614 г (на 3,1%), після чого співвідношення між сріблом і золотом збільшилося до 1:15,495. Це співвідношення було прийнято для встановлення номіналу монет в біметалічному обігу європейських держав (до цього моменту вже реформованого в багатьох країнах в золотий). Вміст золота в монеті було збільшено з 86,8% до 90% за вагою, вміст срібла в повноцінної срібній монеті було зменшено з 91,7% до 90%, що призвело монету до стандартів проби континентальної Європи. Це дозволило перечеканити російську монету на іноземну (і назад) без витрат на рафінування і легування металу, що призводило до збільшення привабливості монети для міжнародного торгового обігу. Будова грошової системи 1885 року Формально-юридична будова грошової системи Гроші Основною грошовою одиницею був срібний рубль, що випускався у вигляді державних кредитних квитків, золотої монети (імперіала) і повноцінної срібної монети. Рубль містив в собі 4 золотника 21 частку (17,995 г) чистого срібла, тобто ціна срібла становила 5,557 копійки за грам. Десятирубльовий золотий імперіал містив в собі 2 золотника 69,36 частки (11,614 г) чистого золота, що становило 1,1614 г золота в рублі і 86,103 копійки за грам золота. Хоча імперіал фізично був золотою монетою, його формальний номінал був виражений в срібних рублях. Відношення золота до срібла по номінальному курсу монети було 1:15,495. Кредитні квитки теоретично випускалися номіналом в 1, 3, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 рублів; у реальному обігу 50-рубльової купюри не було. Золота монета карбувалася номіналом в 10 рублів (імперіал) і в 5 рублів (напівімперіал). Золота монета містила по вазі 90% золота і 10% лігатурного металу (міді), тобто була в 1,111 рази важче свого золотого вмісту. Повноцінна (банківська) срібна монета карбувалася номіналом в 1 рубль, 50 і 25 копійок. Срібна монета містила по вазі 90% срібла і 10% лігатурного металу (міді), тобто була в 1,111 рази важче свого срібного змісту. Повноцінна срібна монета приймалася в усі платежі (без згоди другої сторони) на суму не більше 25 рублів за кожен платіж. Казна мала зобов'язання карбувати золоту і повноцінну срібну монету з металу, принесеного приватними особами (так звана вільна чеканка монети). Золота монета карбувалася за заявками приватних осіб за 0,96% від номінальної ціни золота (136 рублів з пуда чистого золота), срібна монета — за 6,59% від номінальної ціни срібла (60 рублів з пуда чистого срібла); не включаючи сюди технічні витрати на очистку золота. Відношення золота до срібла за курсом карбування в монеті було 1:16,43. Розмінна монета виготовлялася зі срібла (неповновагова монета) і міді. Розмінна срібна монета карбувалася номіналом в 20, 15, 10 і 5 копійок. Монета складалася по вазі з 50% срібла і 50% міді. Вміст чистого срібла в розмінній монеті був у два рази нижчий, ніж у повноваговій (банківської) монеті — 8,998 грам в рублі. Мідна монета карбувалася номіналом в 5, 3, 2 і 1 копійку, в півкопійки і в чверть копійки. Рубль у мідній монеті важив 327,61 г. Розмінна монета приймалася в усі платежі (без згоди другої сторони) на суму не більше трьох рублів у кожному платежі. Держава не зобов'язувалося тримати для випущених кредитних квитків розмінний металевий фонд і не лімітувало їх випуск ніякими заздалегідь оголошеними правилами; кожна окрема емісія кредитних грошей затверджувалася особливим законодавчим актом, що підлягав опублікуванню. Випуск в обіг золотих грошей, завдяки існуванню інституту вільного карбування монети за позовами приватних осіб, не вимагав законодавчого затвердження. Теоретична паритетна вартість золотого рубля в золотих світових валютах становила: 59,12 англійської пенні (при 240 пенсах в фунті), 4,00 франка, 3,24 німецької марки, 1,92 голландського гульдена, 3,81 австро-угорської крони (з 1892 року), 0,773 долара США. Зворотне значення, тобто теоретична паритетна вартість золотих валют в золотих рублях, становила: 4 рубля 06 золотої копійки за фунт, 25 копійок за франк, 30,87 копійки за німецьку марку, 52,08 копійки за голландський гульден, 26,25 копійки за австро-угорську крону, 1 рубль 29,4 копійки за долар США. У 1888—1889 роках кредитні білети вартістю 1, 3, 5, 10 і 25 рублів були обмінені на нові (зразка 1887 року). Цей технічний захід не мав монетарного значення. Цінні папери з ознаками грошей Крім рублів, у грошовому обороті брали участь ще два види цінних державних паперів, що мали деякі властивості грошей. Депозитні металеві квитанції видавалися золотопромисловцям, що здали здобуте золото в державні золотоплавочні лабораторії, зазвичай розташовувалися безпосередньо в районах золотих копалень. Квитанції давали право на отримання відповідно зданої золотої суми в золотій монеті, в конторах Державного банку в Санкт-Петербурзі, Москві, Одесі, Ризі, Ростові і Варшаві. Квитанції випускалися номіналом в 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 500 і 1000 рублів. Квитанції не мали терміну дії, з квітня 1895 року вони могли використовуватися в угодах між приватними особами (за згодою обох сторін) і приймалися державою за номіналом в усі платежі, що зробило їх сурогатом золотої монети обмеженого обігу. Квитки Державного казначейства (так звані серії) представляли собою державні процентні папери, які приносили 4,32% (з 1887 року — 3,79%, з 1894 року — 3%) річних. Квитки випускалися окремими серіями, на термін в 8, 6 і 4 роки; після закінчення терміну випуску квитки підлягали на розсуд скарбниці або викупу, або заміні на наступні випуски на аналогічних умовах. Відсотки по 8- і 6-річних квитках виплачувалися щорічно, по відрізних купонів, по 4-річним — одночасно з викупом квитка. Квитки випускалися номіналом в 50 і 100 рублів. Квитки видавалися державою (за бажанням одержувача) за номіналом в усі платежі і приймалися (починаючи з 1894 року) державою в усі платежі, за номіналом і з урахуванням накопиченого відсотка. Квитки могли використовуватися в угодах між приватними особами (за згодою обох сторін). У 1896 році в обігу перебувало квитків на 216 млн рублів. Монетний обіг регулювався Статутом монетним, а обіг банкнот і державних цінних паперів — Статутом кредитним. Фактична будова грошової системи Фактична будова грошової системи визначалася тією обставиною, що з 1858 року скарбниця відмовилася від вільного розміну кредитних квитків на срібло і золото. Після цього кредитні квитки і розмінні монети перетворилися в паперову валюту, якою обмінюються на золото і срібло за ринковим курсом, але не забезпечену дорогоцінними металами. На кредитних квитках залишився напис про те, що вони підлягають вільному розміну на золоту і срібну монету (цей напис зберігалася навіть на квитках зразка 1887 року); але цю обіцянку фактично не виконувалося державою. Вартість золотого (вираженого в золотій монеті) рубля, жорстко пов'язана з ціною золота, піднялася щодо кредитного (вираженого в неповноцінних кредитних квитках і розмінної монети) рубля вище номіналу, тобто золота і кредитна валюти стали незалежними. Імперіал, формально мав номінал в срібних рублях, тепер по факту був номінований в грошовій одиниці, яка не передбачена діючим законодавством — в золотих рублях. Рубль у кредитних квитках став, також поза термінології законів того часу, називатися кредитною рублем. Ринкова вартість повноцінної срібної монети, пов'язана зі ставленням ринкових цін на золото і срібло, виявилася пов'язаної з ціною золотого рубля. З 1860 по 1893 рік ринкова цінність срібла в полновесной срібній монеті була вище її номіналу. Це призвело до того, що повноцінна срібна монета, скуповують торговцями сріблом, зникла з обігу. У розмінною срібній монеті при цьому вартість срібла була нижче номіналу, тому така монета залишилася в обороті. Рубль у монеті повної ваги, перетворившись практично в умовну розрахункову величину (рахункову грошову одиницю), продовжував називатися срібним рублем. Ще в 1876 році уряд за непотрібністю припинив карбування з приватного срібла, а в 1881-му — відкрив її знову, купуючи срібло вже за біржовою ціною (тобто пріносітель срібла повинен був купити метал за суму більшу, ніж номінал видається йому монети); обсяг карбування був невеликий, а вся монета йшла в Китай, зберігав срібне грошовий обіг, де використовувалася при зовнішньоторговельних розрахунках срібним злитом. Норма про вміст золота в золотому рублі, описана в Монетному статуті, зберегла силу; норма про вміст срібла в кредитному рублі не відповідала дійсності, так як рубль не розмінювався на срібло за жорстким курсом; норма про вміст срібла в монеті повної ваги втратила фактичне значення, так як ця монета вийшла з обігу. Країна практично перейшла на Двовалютна звернення (кредитний рубль і золотий рубль), з вільним ринковим курсом валют одна до одної, з третьої теоретичної розрахункової одиницею — срібним рублем. Держава, вважаючи за необхідне боротися зі спекуляцією на курсі кредитного рубля (щодо золотого рубля), забороняло використовувати золотий рубль у внутрішніх розрахунках, номінувати угоди (крім зовнішньоторговельних) в золотом рублі або металевому золоті, відкривати в банках золоті рахунки (крім як для зовнішньоторговельних потреб), здійснювати біржові угоди з золотом (крім простих поставних угод). У той же час держава використовувала імперіали для виплати відсотків по державних позиках, номінованим в золоті. Держава з 1877 року також вимагало від імпортерів сплачувати митні збори (тільки ввізні, так як вивізних мит в Росії не було) золотими рублями за номіналом. Цей комплекс обмежень привів до схеми циркуляції золотого рубля між скарбницею, власниками золотих державних цінних паперів, імпортерами та знову скарбницею. Емісія золотого рубля здійснювалася частково як приватна золотопромисловець (здається золото оплачувалося тільки золотою монетою), після чого золота монета переходила до імпортерам. Оскільки виплати по золотим позиками зазвичай становили більшу суму, ніж зібрані мита, держава продовжувала купувати на ринку золото за кредитні квитки і карбувати необхідні для розрахунків за позиками імперіали. У той же час золоті гроші під впливом описаних вище обмежень вийшли з ужитку у внутрішньому обороті і були практично невідомі населенню. Ринкова вартість кредитного рубля щодо золота визначалася на Санкт-Петербурзькій біржі за допомогою встановлення курсу на чеки і тримісячні векселі в ходових золотих валютах (фунт, німецька марка, французький франк), видані російським банками на Лондон, Берлін і Париж. Векселі і чеки купувалися імпортерами для розрахунку з закордонними контрагентами. Оскільки до 1880-х років всі ці валюти були жорстко прив'язані до золота (і, отже, жорстко пов'язані між собою), даний курс автоматично визначав вартість золотого рубля і золота в злитках щодо кредитного рубля. Курс Санкт-Петербурзької біржі фактично слідував зворотним курсам (тобто курсам рублевих чеків і векселів на Санкт-Петербург) на європейських біржах. Золотий рубль також мав коливається ринкову вартість, відрізняються від теоретичної паритетній; коливання визначалися величиною поточного попиту і пропозиції на валюту. Коливання були жорстко обмежені золотими точками експорту та імпорту — величиною витрат на перевезення, страхування в шляхи і перекарбовування однієї валюти в іншу. Коли ринковий курс доходив до золотої точки, учасникам ринку ставало вигідніше не купувати векселі на валюту, а фізично перемістити і перекарбувати золоті рублі. Відхилення золотої точки від паритету починалося від 0,9% (операції на Берлін) і доходило до 4,1% (операції на Нью-Йорк). Держава продовжувала дотримуватися своє зобов'язання карбувати монету з металу, принесеного приватними особами. Карбування монети з приватного золота дійсно відбувалася — велика частина видобутого в Росії золота перекарбовують в монету; а карбування повноцінної срібної монети була невигідна для власників срібла і фактично припинилася. Кредитний рубль на міжнародному ринку поводився як волатільна валюта, його курс легко розгойдувався при впливі на ринок спекулянтів. У кінці 1880-х нормальними вважалися річні відхилення в 25% різниці між максимумом і мінімумом курсу. Курс рубля міг утримуватися від коливань, тільки якщо уряд справляв у необхідних випадках ринкові інтервенції. У цьому крилася інша небезпека: уряд не вмів боротися з використанням службової інформації для отримання особистої вигоди (інсайдом). У 1892 році голова Комітету фінансів О. А. Абаза був викритий в тому, що грав на позикові гроші на курс рубля, використовуючи секретну службову інформацію. Разом із тим, ще з кінця 1870-х виявився аттрактор курсу рубля — 66 копійок золотом за кредитний рубль; більше 10 років середньорічні значення курсу майже не відхилялися від цієї величини. Підготовка і введення золотого грошового обігу До початку 1880-х років уряд почав готуватися до поступового переходу на золоте грошовий обіг. Активну і цілком успішну політику в цьому напрямку проводили міністри фінансів Микола Бунге (1881—1886) і Іван Вишнеградський (1887—1892), а завершена ця робота була при Сергію Вітте (1892—1903). З 1884 року почалося поступове накопичення скарбницею золотого фонду; фонд умовно називався розмінним, але не використовувався для гарантування банкнот або для їх розміну і, отже, не впливав на поточний грошовий обіг. З 1888 року було прийнято за правило, що при випуску чергових серій кредитних квитків рівна їм сума в золоті депонувалася в Державному банку. Банкноти, не забезпечені золотом в розмінною фонді, іменувалися тимчасово-випущеними; держава поступово виводило їх з обігу. Сальдо розрахункового балансу за весь час дії монетної системи 1885 року був для Росії негативним — золото мало тенденцію йти з країни. Відповідно, підвищення золотого запасу, яким мала у своєму розпорядженні скарбниця, не могло відбуватися інакше як при зростанні зовнішньої заборгованості Росії — держава безперервно займало все нові і нові засоби на зовнішньому ринку. Ні активний торговельний баланс (за 1882—1897 роки експорт продукції перевищив імпорт на 2635 млн руб.), ні збільшення видобутку золота (в першій половині 1890-х років середньорічна видобуток золота досягла 42 202,7 кг, що склало 17,2% світового видобутку ) не змінювало цієї картини . З літа 1890 року уряд перейшов до політики підтримки курсу кредитного рубля на рівні 3:2, тобто 150 кредитних копійок за золотий рубль. Курс підтримувався шляхом покупки золота на ринку (кредитний рубль в той період демонстрував тенденцію до підвищення). З 1893 року уряд перейшло до непрямих заходів по боротьбі з коливаннями курсу кредитного рубля. Були заборонені форвардні і безпоставкових (на курсову різницю) угоди на золотий рубль на російських біржах. Міністерство фінансів проводило індивідуальні переговори з банками та великими біржовими гравцями, використовуючи адміністративний ресурс для неофіційного заборони участі в угодах на курс кредитного рубля. Зусилля уряду були успішними, і до кінця 1893 року кредитний рубль став показувати низьку волатильність (коливання не більше 3% від цільового курсу — 3:2). Влітку 1893 вартість срібла щодо золота впала нижче його (срібла) від номінальної вартості в полновесной срібній монеті (це було викликано технологічними причинами — здешевленням і збільшенням світового видобутку)), тобто банківська срібна монета стала неполновесной і перестала відрізнятися від розмінною. Уряд не міг підтримувати стала вигідною вільну чеканку срібних монет з принесеного приватними особами срібла і 16 червня 1893 року відкликало це своє зобов'язання. Разом з тим, тепер срібна монета перестала випадати з обігу, і скарбниця змогла почати її чеканку з власного срібла. З огляду на, що срібло тепер коштувало дешевше монети, скарбниця стала отримувати при цій операції монетний дохід. Виготовлення фальшивої срібної монети, раніше безглузде, тепер стало можливим, і уряд заборонив ввезення в країну іноземної срібної монети (за винятком зберегли срібний стандарт азіатських країн, з якими неможливо було б торгувати при такому заборону). До 1895 року курс кредитного рубля настільки стабілізувався відносно 3:2, що в травні уряд дозволив укладати угоди і виробляти розрахунок на золоту монету за поточним біржовим курсом. Це повинно було показати ринку, що спекуляція на золотом рублі більш неможлива, так як уряд володіє достатньою фінансовою силою, щоб утримувати його курс. З 1895 року уряд стало тимчасово приймати різні податки і збори в золотій монеті, вважаючи імперіал (10 рублів) за 14 рублів 80 копійок в кредитних квитках (на 20 копійок менше ідеального для уряду ринкового курсу); види податків, для яких це було можливо, і дозволені періоди встановлювалися індивідуально для кожного випадку. З початку 1896 року курс був піднятий до 15 рублів, що значно полегшило усні розрахунки. У серпні 1896 року Найвищим указом було оголошено, що курс в 15 кредитних рублів за імперіал буде використовуватися як мінімум до грудня 1897 року і далі того, проти цього не буде особливого розпорядження про його скасування. З квітня 1895 скарбниця почала брати до все платежі металеві депозитні квитанції, одержувані золотопромисловець по здачі золота в державні золотосплавочние лабораторії, а також будь-якими особами при здачі в скарбницю іноземної золотої монети. У 1896 році казна, до великого незадоволення публіки, стала примусово насичувати грошовий обіг золотою монетою. Купюри в 1, 3 і 5 рублів вилучалися з обігу, а натомість скарбниця стала виробляти значну частину платежів імперіали і полуімперіали. До цього моменту 90% населення (за оцінкою економіста С. Ф. Шарапова) ніколи не бачило золотої монети, і те, що номінал цих монет (10 і 5 рублів) не відповідав їх реальною ціною (15 і 7,5 рубля), приводило до численних непорозумінь. Таким чином, у 1895—1896 роках грошова система практично перетворилася в монометалічні золоту. Курс кредитного рубля до золотого виявився де-факто фіксованим, скарбниця (шляхом прийняття золотого рубля в платежі за фіксованою ціною) гарантувала, що він не підніметься вище. Єдина відмінність з повноцінним золотим грошовим обігом полягало в тому, що скарбниця не гарантувала, що буде підтримувати цей курс постійно. Крім того, замість зобов'язання нелімітованої розмінювати кредитні квитки на золото скарбниця де-факто гарантувала, що вона буде підтримувати стабільний біржовий курс, що дозволяє кожному виконати цю операцію на вільному ринку. Що перебувають в обігу імперіали і полуімперіали отримали фактичний номінал в 15 і 7,5 рублів, хоча на них було позначено гідність в 10 і 5 рублів. Нарешті, після року успішної дії «майже золотої» грошової системи, з 3 січня 1897 року уряд перейшов на повноцінний золотий грошовий обіг. Десятирубльовий імперіал отримав, при збереженні колишньої ваги в золоті, новий номінал в 15 рублів (тобто золотий рубль був формально девальвований до поточного курсу кредитного рубля); був оголошений вільний розмін кредитного рубля на золоту монету і назад; зобов'язання про обмін кредитного рубля на срібло і назад було ліквідовано; вільне карбування золотої монети зберігалася, вільне карбування срібної монети (скасований в 1893 році) більше не поновлювалася і остаточно перейшла в руки держави, вся срібна монета (з 1893 року неполновесная) залишилася в зверненні. Колишні нерозмінні кредитні квитки (формально номіновані в срібних рублях) перетворилися в кредитні квитки, номіновані в золоті рублях і забезпечені золотим розмінним фондом. Вартість старого кредитного рубля в золоті при перетворенні його в золотий не змінилася; не змінилися, отже, і внутрішні ціни . На цьому тимчасово закінчилася історія російських паперових грошей, яка продовжилася через 16 років, коли перед самим початком Першої світової війни (законом від 27 липня 1914 року) уряд був змушений закрити розмін кредитних білетів на золото і знову перетворити їх у паперові гроші. Основні параметри грошового обігу в 1885—1896 роках Оцінки грошової системи 1885 року Проект введення золотого грошового обігу з середини 1890-х років став об'єктом жвавого обговорення в економічному співтоваристві, в спеціальній літературі, періодичній пресі та навіть в популярній пресі. Оскільки таке обговорення не могло обійтися без порівняння проектованої грошової системи з наявною, грошова система 1885 року на заході свого існування також виявилася в фокусі уваги громадськості і економічної науки. Особливістю дискусії було те, що до моменту її початку історичні альтернативи золотого стандарту — срібний стандарт і біметалізм — вже показали свою неспроможність; вибір був тільки між золотим і паперовим рублем. Таким чином, суперечка йшов про те, чи залишати грошовий обіг в поточному стані або переходити на золотий монометалізм. Першою обговорюваною темою була економічна корисність фіксованого курсу рубля по відношенню до золота і золотим іноземних валют. Прихильники золотого рубля вважали, що фіксований курс зменшує ризики учасників зовнішньої торгівлі. Вважалося, що золотий рубль зробить торгівлю з Росією більш привабливою для країн із золотою валютою: хоча самі зовнішньоторговельні операції велися в золотих рублях, внутрішні ціни (а за ними попит на імпортовані товари і пропозиція товарів, що експортуються) коливалися разом з курсом кредитних квитків. Таким чином, стабілізація повинна була привести до збільшення участі Росії в міжнародній торгівлі. Прихильники паперового рубля вважали, що його коливається курс не є незручністю для тих учасників ринку, які мають навички роботи з цим ризиком — а цими учасниками є якраз російські торговці і банки. Крім того, що коливається курс рубля стабілізував прибуток сільгоспвиробників — в роки низького урожаю експорт падав, курс кредитних квитків падав слідом за ним, і виробники, експортуючи менше зерна в товарному вираженні, отримували більший прибуток у кредитних квитках за одиницю зерна. З точки зору прихильників паперового рубля, плаваючий курс національної валюти давав уряду в руки інструменти фінансового регулювання — інтервенції на валютному ринку, в той час як золоте звернення при сформованому торговому балансі не полишало уряду іншого виходу, крім як робити нові зовнішні позики для підтримки золотого запасу. Другий обговорюваною темою була доцільність витрат, пов'язаних з підтриманням золотого звернення. Обсяг витрат, необхідний для створення і підтримки разменного золотого фонду, легко піддавався обліку та прогнозування. Вигоди ж від золотого звернення носили непрямий характер, і їх точна грошова оцінка була неможливою. Прихильники золотого рубля вважали, що стабільність внутрішніх цін, гарантія від дефіцитності бюджету, фіксований курс рубля щодо світових валют і зняття ризиків коливання валютних курсів перекривають витрати підтримки золотого стандарту. Прихильники паперових грошей вважали, що необхідність безперервного отримання закордонних кредитів для підтримки розмінною фонду якраз і створює зайві ризики; а кошти, омертвлённие у вигляді золотого запасу, принесли б економіці велику користь, перетворившись в інвестиції. Висловлювалася думка, що паперові гроші — незручні, але дешеві — краще підходять для бідних економік (в тому числі і для російської); Росії не слід сліпо слідувати за країнами, що перевершують її по розвитку. Найбільш активними прихильниками паперового рубля були економіст С. Ф. Шарапов і публіцист Г. В. Бутмі. На дискусію вплинула і ситуація в інших країнах. До 1895 року незабезпечені паперові гроші існували тільки в Аргентині, Бразилії, Перу, Португалії, Греції, Іспанії та Італії; причому в Португалії і Італії недавній перехід до паперових грошей стався внаслідок падіння золотого грошового обігу. Всі країни — лідери промислового розвитку і основні торговельні партнери Росії мали або золоте грошовий обіг, або кульгає биметаллизм (біметалізм з фактичним обмеженням розміну і звернення срібла). Точка в суперечці була поставлена вольовим рішенням міністра фінансів С. Ю. Вітте, який відмовився брати до уваги аргументи прихильників паперового рубля і завершив в 1897 році давно підготовлювану грошову реформу. Але і в період 1897—1914 років ідея паперового рубля продовжувала зберігати певну популярність в економічному співтоваристві; критика надмірну дорожнечу золотого звернення для Росії так ніколи і не припинялася. Основна маса оцінок грошової системи Росії в сучасній російській літературі слід апологетичних (по відношенню до золотого обігу) тону і аргументам дореволюційних офіційних джерел. В рамках такого підходу золоте грошовий обіг розглядається як вчинене, а паперове — як перехідна стадія від срібного до золотого, тривала через фінансову слабкість держави. Є і окремі дослідники, які вважають, що Росія, яка прямувала траєкторії наздоганяючого розвитку, марно відмовилася від більш підходящих її економічного укладу паперових грошей. Велика світова економічна література, присвячена історичному аналізу грошових систем, схиляється до оцінки золотого грошового обігу як вигідного для країн «ядра» (Великої Британії, Німеччини, Франції та США), а паперового — вигідного для країн периферії. На думку Йозефа Шумпетера, паперовий грошовий обіг було економічно адекватним для Росії; відмовившись від нього, Росія загальмувала свій ріст і створила складності для самої себе; це рішення, яке не породжене реальними економічними потребами країни, уявлялося Шумпетеру деякою мірою загадковим. Примітки Література Рубль
480148	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clive%20Granger	Clive Granger	Clive Granger Sir Clive William John Granger (4 September 1934 – 27 May 2009) was a British econometrician known for his contributions to nonlinear time series analysis. He taught in Britain, at the University of Nottingham and in the United States, at the University of California, San Diego. Granger was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 2003 in recognition of the contributions that he and his co-winner, Robert F. Engle, had made to the analysis of time series data. This work fundamentally changed the way in which economists analyse financial and macroeconomic data. Biography Early life Clive Granger was born in 1934 in Swansea, south Wales, United Kingdom, to Edward John Granger and Evelyn Granger. The next year his parents moved to Lincoln. During World War II Granger and his mother moved to Cambridge because Edward joined the Royal Air Force and deployed to North Africa. Here they stayed first with Evelyn's mother, then later Edward's parents, while Clive began school. Clive would later recall a primary school teacher telling his mother that "[Clive] would never be successful". Clive started secondary school in Cambridge, but continued in Nottingham, where his family moved after the war. Here two teachers encouraged Granger's interest in physics and applied mathematics. He had anticipated following the convention of completing schooling at age 16 to enter the workforce and saw himself working in a bank or insurance company. However, positive social influence from his peers and support from his father led him to enroll in sixth-form for two years as preparation for a university degree. Granger enrolled in a joint degree in economics and mathematics at the University of Nottingham but switched to full mathematics in his second year. After receiving his BA in 1955, he remained at the University of Nottingham for a PhD in statistics under the supervision of Harry Pitt. In 1956, aged 21, Granger was appointed a junior lecturer in statistics at the university. His interest in applied statistics and economics led him to choose as the topic of his doctoral thesis time series analysis, a field in which he felt that relatively little work had been done at the time. In 1959 Granger completed his PhD degree with a thesis titled "Testing for Non-stationarity". Academic life Granger spent the next academic year, 1959–60, at Princeton University under a Harkness Fellowship of the Commonwealth Fund. He had been invited to Princeton by Oskar Morgenstern to participate in his Econometrics Research Project. Here, Granger and Michio Hatanaka as assistants to John Tukey on a project using Fourier analysis on economic data. In 1964, Granger and Hatanaka published the results of their research in a book on Spectral Analysis of Economic Time Series (Tukey had encouraged them to write this themselves, as he was not going to publish the research results.) In 1963, Granger also wrote an article on "The typical spectral shape of an economic variable", which appeared in Econometrica in 1966. Both the book and the article proved influential in the adoption of the new methods. Granger also became a full professor at the University of Nottingham. In a 1969 paper in Econometrica, Granger also introduced his concept of Granger causality. After reading a pre-print copy of the time series book by George Box and Gwilym Jenkins in 1968, Granger became interested in forecasting. For the next few years he worked on this subject with his post-doctoral student, Paul Newbold; and they wrote a book which became a standard reference in time series forecasting (published in 1977). Using simulations, Granger and Newbold also wrote the famous 1974 paper on spurious regression which led to a re-evaluation of previous empirical work in economics and to the econometric methodology. Granger spent 22 years at the University of Nottingham. In 2005, the building that houses the Economics and Geography Departments was renamed the Sir Clive Granger Building in honor of his Nobel prize award. In 1974 Granger moved to the University of California at San Diego. In 1975 he participated in a US Bureau of Census committee, chaired by Arnold Zellner, on seasonal adjustment. At UCSD, Granger continued his research on time series, collaborating closely with Nobel prize co-recipient Robert Engle (whom he helped bring to UCSD), Roselyne Joyeux (on fractional integration), Timo Teräsvirta (on nonlinear time series) and others. Working with Robert Engle, he developed the concept of cointegration, introduced in a 1987 joint paper in Econometrica; for which he was awarded the Nobel prize in 2003. Granger also supervised many PhD students, including Mark Watson (co-advisor with Robert Engle). In later years Granger also used time series methods to analyse data outside economics. He worked on a project forecasting deforestation in the Amazon rainforest. In 2003, Granger retired from UCSD as a professor emeritus. He was a Visiting Eminent Scholar of the University of Melbourne and the University of Canterbury. He was a supporter of the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, an organisation which campaigns for democratic reform of the United Nations. Granger was married to Patricia (Lady Granger) from 1960 until his death. He was survived by their son, Mark William John, and their daughter, Claire Amanda Jane. Granger died on 27 May 2009, at Scripps Memorial Hospital in La Jolla, California. Honors and awards In 2003, Granger and his collaborator Robert Engle were jointly awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. He was made a Knight Bachelor in the New Year's Honours in 2005. Granger was a fellow of the Econometric Society since 1972 and a Corresponding Fellow of the British Academy since 2002. In 2004, he was voted as one of the 100 Welsh Heroes. See also Gabor–Granger method Granger causality Publications References External links Winner page on the official Nobel Foundation website More maths good for economy – Nobel laureate Sir Clive Granger – Daily Telegraph obituary Academics of the University of Nottingham Alumni of the University of Nottingham British expatriates in the United States British Nobel laureates Econometricians Fellows of the Econometric Society Knights Bachelor Nobel laureates in Economics People from Swansea Time series econometricians University of California, San Diego faculty Welsh statisticians 1934 births 2009 deaths 20th-century British economists Distinguished Fellows of the American Economic Association Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy Welsh Nobel laureates 21st-century Welsh mathematicians 20th-century Welsh mathematicians
2270378	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconquista%20%28Mexico%29	Reconquista (Mexico)	Reconquista (Mexico) The Reconquista ("reconquest") is a term to describe an irredentist vision by different individuals, groups, and/or nations that the Southwestern United States should be politically or culturally returned to Mexico. Known as advocating a Greater Mexico, such opinions are often formed on the basis that those territories were claimed by Spain for centuries and then by Mexico from 1821 until they were annexed by the United States during the Texas Annexation (1845) and the Mexican Cession (1848) because of the Mexican–American War. Background The term Reconquista means "reconquest" and is an analogy to the Christian Reconquista of Moorish Iberia. The areas of greatest Mexican immigration and cultural diffusion are the same as with the territories that were taken by the United States from Mexico during the 19th century. Cultural views Mexican writers In a 2001 article on the Latin American web portal Terra, "Advancement of the Spanish language and Hispanics is like a Reconquista (Reconquest)," Elena Poniatowska stated: In his keynote address at the Second International Congress of the Spanish Language in Valladolid, Spain, in 2003, "Unity and Diversity of Spanish, Language of Encounters," Carlos Fuentes said: In another part of his speech, Fuentes briefly returned to his idea of "reconquista:" Nationalist Front of Mexico The fringe group Nationalist Front of Mexico opposes what it sees as Anglo-American cultural influences and rejects the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, as well as what its members consider the "American occupation" of territory formerly belonging to Mexico and now form the southwestern United States. On its website, the front states: We reject the occupation of our nation in its northern territories, an important cause of poverty and emigration. We demand that our claim to all the territories occupied by force by the United States be recognized in our Constitution, and we will bravely defend, according to the principle of self-determination to all peoples, the right of the Mexican people to live in the whole of our territory within its historical borders, as they existed and were recognized at the moment of our independence. Charles Truxillo A prominent advocate of Reconquista was the Chicano activist and adjunct professor Charles Truxillo (1953–2015) of the University of New Mexico (UNM). He envisioned a sovereign Hispanic nation, the República del Norte (Republic of the North), which would encompass Northern Mexico, Baja California, California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. He supported the secession of US Southwest to form an independent Chicano nation and argued that the Articles of Confederation gave individual states full sovereignty, including the legal right to secede. Truxillo, who taught at UNM's Chicano Studies Program on a yearly contract, suggested in an interview, "Native-born American Hispanics feel like strangers in their own land." He said, "We remain subordinated. We have a negative image of our own culture, created by the media. Self-loathing is a terrible form of oppression. The long history of oppression and subordination has to end" and that on both sides of the US–Mexico border "there is a growing fusion, a reviving of connections.... Southwest Chicanos and Norteno Mexicanos are becoming one people again." Truxillo stated that Hispanics who achieved positions of power or otherwise were "enjoying the benefits of assimilation" are most likely to oppose a new nation and explained: Truxillo believed that the República del Norte would be brought into existence by "any means necessary" but that it would be formed by probably not civil war but the electoral pressure of the region's future majority Hispanic population. Truxillo added that he believed it was his duty to help develop a "cadre of intellectuals" to think about how the new state could become a reality. In 2007, the UNM reportedly decided to stop renewing Truxillo's yearly contract. Truxillo claimed that his "firing" was because of his radical beliefs and argued, "Tenure is based on a vote from my colleagues. Few are in favor of a Chicano professor advocating a Chicano nation state." José Ángel Gutiérrez In an interview with In Search of Aztlán on 8 August 1999, José Ángel Gutiérrez, a political science professor at the University of Texas at Arlington, stated: In an interview with the Star-Telegram in October 2000, Gutiérrez stated that many recent Mexican immigrants "want to recreate all of Mexico and join all of Mexico into one. And they are going to do that, even if it's just demographically.... They are going to have political sovereignty over the Southwest and many parts of the Midwest." In a videotape made by the Immigration Watchdog website, as cited in The Washington Times, Gutiérrez was quoted as saying, "We are millions. We just have to survive. We have an aging white America. They are not making babies. They are dying. It's a matter of time. The explosion is in our population." In a subsequent interview with The Washington Times in 2006, Gutiérrez backtracked and said that there was "no viable" Reconquista movement, and he blamed interest in the issue on closed-border groups and "right-wing blogs." Other views Felipe Gonzáles, a professor at the University of New Mexico (UNM), who is director of UNM's Southwest Hispanic Research Institute, has stated that there was a "certain homeland undercurrent" among New Mexico Hispanics, but the "educated elites are going to have to pick up on this idea [of a new nation] and run with it and use it as a point of confrontation if it is to succeed." Juan José Peña of the Hispano Round Table of New Mexico believed that Mexicans and Mexican Americans lack the political consciousness to form a separate nation: "Right now, there's no movement capable of undertaking it." Illegal immigration to the Southwest is sometimes viewed as a form of Reconquista in light of the fact that Texas statehood was preceded by an influx of US settlers into that Mexican province until US citizens outnumbered Mexicans ten–to-one and took over the area's governance. The theory is that the reverse will happen when Mexicans eventually become so numerous in the region that they wield substantial influence, including political power. Even if it is not intended, some analysts say the significant demographic shift in the Southwest may result in "a de facto reconquista." Political scientist Samuel P. Huntington, a proponent of the widespread popularity of Reconquista, stated in 2004: The neoliberal political writer Mickey Kaus remarked: Other Hispanic rights leaders say that Reconquista is nothing more than a fringe movement. Nativo Lopez, president of the Mexican American Political Association in Los Angeles, when asked about the concept of Reconquista by a reporter, responded, "I can't believe you're bothering me with questions about this. You're not serious. I can't believe you're bothering with such a minuscule, fringe element that has no resonance with this populace." Reconquista sentiments are often jocularly referred to by media for Mexicans, including a recent Absolut Vodka ad that generated significant controversy in the United States for printing of a map of prewar Mexico. Reconquista is a recurring theme in contemporary fiction and nonfiction, particularly among far-right authors. The National Council of La Raza, the largest national Hispanic civil rights and advocacy organization in the United States, stated on its website that it "has never supported and does not endorse the notion of a Reconquista (the right of Mexico to reclaim land in the southwestern United States) or Aztlán." A 2002 Zogby poll reported that 58% of Mexicans in Mexico believed that the southwestern United States rightfully belongs to Mexico. Real approaches Early 20th century In 1915, the capture of Basilio Ramos, an alleged supporter of the Mexican dictator Victoriano Huerta, in Brownsville, Texas, revealed the existence of the Plan of San Diego, whose goal is often interpreted to be reconquering the Southwestern United States to gain domestic support in Mexico for Huerta. However, other theories are that the plan, which included killing all white males at least 16 years old, had been created to push the US, eventually successfully, to support the rule of Venustiano Carranza, a major leader of the Mexican Revolution. Most evidence supports that the Plan of San Diego was by anarchists and intended for independence of only South Texas, not all of the Southwestern United States, for an anarchist political system. In 1917, according to the intercepted Zimmermann Telegram, Germany, in exchange for Mexico joining it as an ally against the United States during World War I, was ready to assist Mexico to "reconquer" its lost territories of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. There is no evidence that the Mexican government ever seriously considered it. The telegram's disclosure promoted anti-Mexican sentiment and was a major factor in the US declaring war on Germany. Modern For Chicano nationalists in the 1960s, the term was not used, but many often felt that "Aztlán" should undergo cultural revival and expansion. In the late 1990s to the early 2000s, as US census data showed that the population of Mexican Americans in the Southwestern United States had increased, and the term was popularized by contemporary intellectuals in Mexico, such as Carlos Fuentes, Elena Poniatowska, and President Vicente Fox, who spoke of Mexican immigrants maintaining their culture and Spanish language in the United States as they migrated in greater numbers to the area. In March 2015, at the midst of the War in Ukraine, when the US was planning on supporting Ukraine to fight against Russia, Dukuvakha Abdurakhmanov, the speaker of the Chechen Parliament, threatened to arm Mexico against the United States and questioned the legal status of the territories of California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming. See also Chicano nationalism Guyana–Venezuela territorial dispute Irredentism Manifest Destiny MEChA Mexica Movement Nativism (politics) Plan Espiritual de Aztlán Revanchism The Great Replacement Great Replacement conspiracy theory in the United States References Mexico–United States relations Southwestern United States History of the Southwestern United States Mexican irredentism Demographics of the United States Hispanic and Latino demographics in the United States Immigration to the United States Culture of the United States Chicano nationalism Mexican nationalism
2599433	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metula	Metula	Metula is a town in the Northern District of Israel. It abuts the Israel-Lebanon border. It had in a population of . History Bronze and Iron Age Metula is located near the sites of the biblical cities of Dan, Abel Bet Ma'akha, and Ijon. Roman and Byzantine periods A settlement existed in the area in the Roman and Byzantine periods. Ancient wine presses and a mosaic pavement have been found here. A tomb excavated in 1967 contained at least four graves dating from between the late third century and the late sixth century. Ottoman period The origin of the town's name is . In 1816 the notable traveller James Silk Buckingham visited "a large village, called Metully, altogether inhabited by Druses". In 1875, Victor Guérin described Methelleh or Metelleh as a village with a spring, occupied by Druzes from the Hauran who cultivated a garden to the east. Soon afterwards, in 1881, the Palestine Exploration Fund's Survey of Western Palestine recorded "El Mutallah: A small village, built of stone, containing about 100 Druzes, situated on slope of hill, near a large stream, surrounded by arable land." Founding of the Jewish moshava When the Druze Rebellion of 1895 broke out the men of Mutallah joined its ranks. Since the women were not able to cope with the work, the owner of the land, a Christian from Sidon named Jabur Bey Riskalas (Greek Diplomat to Middle East), sold 12,800 dunams of land to Baron de Rothschild's chief officer Joshua Ossovetski. It had been inhabited and cultivated by more than 600 Druze tenant farmers. When the Druze Rebellion was put down, the men returned and demanded their tenancy rights back. Ossovetski called in the Turkish authorities, who came to arrest the Druse as deserters and rebels, while Ossovetski offered them paltry compensation to leave the land. Many were dissatisfied and eight years of feuds and violent clashes ensued. Eventually an agreement was reached between the villagers and the Jewish Colonization Association in 1904 for an additional payment of 60,000 francs (3,000 Turkish pounds). This episode brought much criticism of the methods of Rothschild's agents, including some from other Zionists such as Ahad Ha'am. The Druze moved to other Druze-inhabited villages, including Isfiya on Mount Carmel. The Jewish moshava settlement was founded in June 1896 by 60 farming families from more established settlements and 20 families of non-farming professions. Most of the founders were immigrants from Russia. Pioneers (halutzim) from Petah Tikva also joined in settling Metula, as did some religious scholars from Safed. Mandatory period At the end of World War I, Metula was in the area of French military occupation. The British Zionist Norman Bentwich wrote in 1919: The 1920 boundary agreement between Britain and France stated that Metula was to be in Palestine, but it was not until 1924 that the change to British control was complete. During the intervening years, the residents of Metula even took part in elections for the Lebanese parliament. Nahal Ayyun Bridge The bridge over Nahal Ayun was built by the British in the years 1943–44. On June 17, 1946 (Night of the bridges) all four Palmach battalions (the Haganah elite units) captured and destroyed 11 border bridges. As a consequence, on June 29, 1946 ("Black Sabbath"), the British soldiers imprisoned many Yishuv leaders and Palmach members. The bridge was blown up again by the Palmach during the War of Independence. It was repaired in the 1980s. State of Israel In modern Israel, Metula is known as a wealthy town popular as a tourist destination, especially for Israeli schoolchildren on summer vacation. The "Good Fence" (1976–2000) The Good Fence (HaGader HaTova or Fatima Crossing) was a border crossing from Metula to Lebanon; it opened in 1976, and was closed in 2000 after Israel's withdrawal from Lebanon. The border crossing had allowed Lebanese to find jobs in northern Israel, access health services, attend school, and transport goods. 1985 attack The Safari Disaster occurred during the South Lebanon conflict (1985–2000). On the afternoon of Sunday, March 10, 1985, a convoy of IDF soldiers in "Safari" model trucks were driving from Metula towards the Lebanese town of Marjayoun. Dozens of soldiers, having just attended Shabbat, were on their way back to duty. In accordance with regulations, one armed jeep in the forefront and two in the rear, and helmets and bullet-proof vests were worn. As they were crossing the narrow bridge over Nahal Ayyun at 13:45 a red Chevrolet pickup truck drove towards them. The soldiers of the first jeep noticed that the driver had friendly smile, and he was signaled to pull over to let the convoy pass. The first jeep and the first safari truck did so. At 13:50 the driver of the Chevrolet detonated a tremendous explosion which shattered windows in Metula itself. Twelve soldiers were killed and 14 wounded. 2006 Lebanon War During the 2006 Lebanon War, Metula became a temporary ghost town when its populace fled Hezbollah rocket fire. It was hit by 120 rockets during the war. Israel–Hamas war In the midst of the Israel–Hamas war, Hezbollah targeted northern Israeli border communities with rockets and missiles, prompting the evacuation of several, including Metula. On October 17, a Hezbollah-launched anti-tank missile struck Metula, resulting in the injury of one civilian and two IDF reservists. On 19 December, Hezbollah fired artillery shells at the town. Area and population The municipality governs a land area of 2,000 dunams (2 km2). According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), in September 2003 Metula had a population of 1,400, predominantly Jewish. Metula was declared a local council in 1949. Also according to the CBS, the population over the years was: 1948 – 172 1961 – 261 1972 – 333 1983 – 589 1995 – 942 2008 – 1,500 – Geography and climate Metula lies in the northernmost point of Israel, next to the Lebanese border at 520 m above sea level. Winters are usually cold and wet, with an average annual rainfall of 900 mm, whereas summers are warm and dry. The river Nahal Ayoun has its sources in Lebanon, about seven kilometers north of Metula. Notable residents Olga Danilov (born 1973), Israeli Olympic speed skater Alexandra Zaretsky (born 1987), Israeli ice dancer Roman Zaretsky (born 1983), Israeli ice dancer Notes Bibliography External links Metula municipality Places To Visit in Metula (English) Canada Centre Israel Nature and National Parks Protection Authority, Eng+Heb Survey of Western Palestine, Map 2: IAA, Wikimedia commons Local councils in Northern District (Israel)
2104992	https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%20%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%96%D1%97%20%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%82	Структура декомпозиції робіт	Структура декомпозиції робіт, тж. ієрархічна структура робіт у проєктному менеджменті та системотехніці є орієнтованою на доконане виконання проєкту декомпозицією проєкту на менші частки. Структура декомпозиції робіт є ключовою часткою робіт по проєкту, яка організовує командну роботу по проєкту у керовані частини. PMBOK визначає структуру декомпозиції робіт як «ієрархічну декомпозицію робіт, що має бути виконаною командою проєкту та орієнтована на успішне завершення проєкту». Елементом структури декомпозиції робіт може бути продукт, дані, Послуги або будь-яка комбінація вищезгаданого. Крім того, WBS надає необхідний каркас для детальної оцінки термінів та контролю, а також надає управління для розробки графіків робіт і контролю за їх виконанням. Огляд WBS є ієрархічною та інкрементною декомпозицією проєкту у фази, кінцеві результати та пакети робіт. Вона є ієрархічною структурою, що показує подальший розподіл необхідних для виконання мети зусиль; наприклад, програма, проєкт чи договір. У проєкті чи договорі, розробка WBS відбувається, починаючи з кінцевих цілей та успішного розподілу її у керовані частини, що можуть бути оцінені за критеріями розміру, тривалості та відповідальностей (наприклад, системи, підсистеми, компоненти, задачі, підзадачі та пакети робіт) та включають усі необхідні для досягнення мети проєкту кроки. Система декомпозиції робіт надає загальний каркас для природного розвитку загального планування та контролю договору і є базисом для розподілу роботи у такі інкременти, що можуть бути визначеними, та з яких може бути зроблене Технічне Завдання і установлені звіти по технічним даним, графікам, вартостям, робочим годинам . Структура декомпозиції робіт дозволяє зібрати докупи підлеглі витрати по задачах, матеріалах тощо на вищий рівень «батьківських» задач, матеріалів тощо. Для кожного елементу структури декомпозиції робіт генерується опис задачі, що має бути виконаною. Ця техніка (іноді називається структурою декомпозиції системи ) використовується для визначення і налагодження сумарних рамок проєкту. WBS організовується навколо ключових продуктів проєкту (чи запланованих результатів), а не необхідних робіт для випуску продукту (заплановані дії). Так як заплановані результати є бажаним завершенням проєкту, вони формують відносно стабільний набір категорій, у яких ціни запланованих для їх досягнення необхідних дій можуть бути зібрані докупи. Добре розроблена WBS робить легко досяжним призначення кожної діяльності проєкту до виключно однієї термінальної події у WBS. Додатково до її функцій у обліку витрат WBS також допомагає співвіднести вимоги одного рівня системних специфікацій до іншого, наприклад, відповідність матриці вимог перехресних посилань до функціональних вимог на вищий чи нижчий рівні документації. Розробка WBS зазвичай має відбуватися на початку проєкту і перед детальним плануванням проєкту і задач. Історія Концепт структури декомпозиції робіт був розроблений у рамках Техніки Оцінювання та Аналізу Програм (PERT) Міністерством Оборони США (DoD). PERT був запропонований ВМС США у 1957 році для підтримки розробки ракетної програми Поларіс. В той час як термін «структура декомпозиції робіт» не був вживаний, найперша імплементація PERT організувала задачі у продукто-орієнтовані категорії. У червні 1962 року, DoD, NASA та аерокосмічна індустрія опублікували докумен для системи PERT/COST, що описував підходи WBS. Цей путівник був представлений Міністром Оборони для ухвалення всіх послуг. У 1968 році, DoD видав «Структура Декомпозиції Робіт Для Товарів Військової Техніки» (MIL-STD-881), військовий стандарт, що потребував використання структур декомпозиції робіт у DoD. Документ був переглянутий кілька разів, останній раз у 2011 році. Поточна версія цього документу може бути знайдена у «Структури Декомпозиції Робіт для Товарів Військової Техніки» (MIL-STD-881C). Він включає визначення WBS для специфічних систем військових товарів, та стосується елементів WBS, що є спільними для всіх систем. Категорії товарів Військової техніки згідно MIL-STD-881C є: WBS систем повітряних апаратів; WBS електронних систем; WBS ракетних комплексів; WBS систем артилерії; WBS морських систем; WBS космічних систем; WBS систем поверхневого транспорту; WBS систем безпілотних літаючих апаратів; WBS систем безпілотних морських апаратів; WBS систем запуску транспортних засобів; WBS автоматизованих інформаційних систем. Спільними елементами, визначеними у MIL-STD-881C, Додаток L, є: Інтеграція, збір, тестування та перевірка; Інжинірингові системи; Програмний Менеджмент; Тест і Оцінка систем; Тренування; Дані; Обладнання Власної Підтримки; Обладнання Загальної Підтримки; Оперативна/Місцева активація; Промислові об'єкти; Початкові Запчастини та Частини для Ремонту. Стандарт також включає додаткові спільні елементи, що є унікальними для Космічних Систем, Систем Запуску транспортних засобів та Автоматизованих Інформаційних Систем. У 1987 році, Інститут Проєктного Менеджменту (PMI) задокументував розширення цих технік на використання не лише в системах оборони. У книзі Звід Знань по Проєктному Менеджменту (PMBOK) викладений концепт WBS, в той час як «Практичний Стандарт для Структур Декомпозицій Робіт» є порівняним для книги DoD, проте призначений для більш загального використання. Принципи Правило (охоплення) 100 % Важливий принцип проєктування для Структури Декомпозиції Робіт називається «правило 100 %». Він визначається так: Правило 100 % визначає, що WBS включає в собі 100 % роботи, що виділена в межах проєкту та охоплює всі результати — внутрішні, зовнішні, проміжні — що мають бути завершені з точки зору виконуваної роботи, включаючи проєктний менеджмент. Правило 100 % є одним з найважливіших принципів, що керують розробкою, декомпозицією та оцінкою WBS. Правило застосовується до усіх рівнів у наступній ієрархії: сума робіт на «дочірньому» рівні має бути рівною 100 % роботи, що представлена «батьківським» рівнем, а також WBS не має містити будь-якої роботи, яка не є частиною актуальних меж, визначених проєктом, що в свою чергу визначає, що вміст не може бути більшим за 100 % роботи… Важливо пам'ятати, що правило 100 % керування також застосовується до рівня діяльностей. Робота, що відтворюється діяльностями у кожному робочому пакеті, має складати 100 % роботи, необхідної для його завершення. Взаємовиключні елементи Несумісні події: Додатково до правила 100 % охоплення, важливо пам'ятати про відсутність перекриттів між різними елементами у питанні визначенні меж в рамках структури декомпозиції робіт. Ця неоднозначність може призвести до подвійної роботи чи проблем комунікації у питаннях відповідальності та авторитетності. Таке перекриття також може спричинити плутанину щодо обліку витрат проєкту. У випадку, коли назви елементів WBS є неоднозначними, словник WBS може стати у нагоді задля прояснення відмінностей поміж елементами WBS. Словник WBS описує кожен компонент структури WBS разом з віхами, результатами, процесами, межами та інколи датами, ресурсами, витратами, якістю. Заплановані висновки замість дій У разі, якщо автор структури декомпозиції робіт спробує охопити будь-яку дієво-орієнтовану деталь у WBS, він/вона включить або забагато, або замало дій. Забагатість дій перевищать 100 % батьківських меж, в той час як замалість відставатиме від 100 % батьківських меж. Найкращим шляхом є дотримання правила 100 % керування для визначення елементів WBS у термінах результатів, а не дій. Це також гарантує, що WBS не буде занадто приписуючим, що збільшить винахідливість та креативне мислення у частини учасників проєкту. Для нових проєктів, що розробляють продукти, найбільш популярною технікою для гарантування результато-орієнтовної WBS є використання структури декомпозиції продукту. Розробка, керована функціональністю може використовувати схожу техніку, що має утворити структуру декомпозиції ознак. Коли проєкт надає професійні послуги, зазвичай використовується техніка охоплення всіх запланованих результатів для створення результато-орієнтовної WBS. Структури декомпозиції робіт, що розділяють роботу на фази проєкту (наприклад, попередній етап проектування, фаза критичного технологічного планування) мають гарантувати, що фази чітко розділені запланованими результатами та вони також використовуються для визначення критерію завершення (наприклад, затверджений у минулому, чи огляд критичної технічної частини). Рівень деталізації Має існувати кінцева точка завершення поділу роботи на менші частини. Це допоможе у визначенні тривалості діяльностей, що необхідні для вироблення результату, що визначений у WBS. Є кілька евристичних чи «емпіричних» правил, що використовуються при визначенні відповідної тривалості для діяльності чи групи діяльностей, необхідних для вироблення специфічного результату, визначеного WBS. Першим є «правило 80 годин», яке визначає, що жодна одинична діяльність чи група діяльностей на найнижчому рівні деталізації у WBS для отримання результату не може тривати більш ніж 80 робочих годин. Друге емпіричне правило визначає, що жодна діяльність чи група діяльностей на найнижчому рівні деталізації у WBS не боже бути довшою за одиничний звітний період. Таким чином, якщо команда проєкту звітується по прогресу проєкту щомісячно, жодна одинична діяльність чи їх група не може тривати більше місяця. Останнє евристичне правило є правилом «чи є це доцільним». Застосовуючи це емпіричне правило, можна застосувати «здоровий глузд» при створенні тривалостей діяльностей чи груп діяльностей, що необхідні для вироблення результату, визначеного у WBS. Робочий пакет на рівні діяльностей є задачею, яка: може бути реалістично і впевнено оцінена; відповідає критерію недоцільності подальшого поділу; може бути завершена у відповідності згідно одного з вищеописаних евристичних правил; виробляє результат, що можна оцінити; а також формує унікальний пакет робіт, що може бути відданий на аутсорс чи підряднику. Схема кодування Для елементів структури декомпозиції робіт є частою практика послідовної нумерації при створенні ієрархічної структури. Метою нумерації є надання послідовного підходу до визначення та управління WBS у вигляді системи незалежно від вендору чи обслуговування. Наприклад, 1.1.2 Рухова установка (у прикладі нижче) визначає цей елемент як Елемент Рівня 3 структури WBS, так як існує три числа, розділених десятковим розділювачем. Схема кодування також допомагає елементам WBS бути визначеними у будь-якому письмовому контексті. Практичний приклад схеми кодування WBS: 1.0 Система Літаків 1.1 Повітряний апарат 1.1.1 Корпус 1.1.1.1 Інтеграція корпусу, Збір, Тестування та Перевірка 1.1.1.2 Фюзеляж 1.1.1.3 Крило 1.1.1.4 Хвіст 1.1.1.5 Кабіна 1.1.1.6 Інші компоненти корпусу 1..n (Визначити) 1.1.2 Рухова установка 1.1.3 Підсистеми апарату 1.1.4 Авіоніка 1.2 Системний Інжиніринг 1.3 Програмний Менеджмент 1.4 Перевірка і Оцінювання Системи 1.5 Тренування 1.6 Дані 1.7 Обладнання Власної Підтримки 1.8 Обладнання Загальної Підтримки 1.9 Оперативна/Місцева Активація 1.10 Промислові об'єкти 1.11 Початкові Запчастини та Частини для Ремонту Приклад у сфері програмного забезпечення буде виглядати наступним чином: 1267.1 Системна Інтеграція 1267.1.1 Визначення Вимог 1267.1.2 Регламент 1267.1.3 Планування 1267.1.4 Моніторинг та Контроль 1267.1.5 Менеджмент Закупівель 1267.1.6 Закриття 1267.2 Дизайн 1267.2.1 Концептуальний Дизайн 1267.2.2 Попередній Дизайн 1267.2.3 Фінальний Дизайн Термінальний елемент Найнижчим елементом у деревній структурі – термінальним елементом – є такий, що не може бути надалі поділений. У структурі декомпозиції робіт такі елементи є елементами, що оцінюються як вимоги до ресурсів, бюджету та тривалості; пов'язані залежностями; а також заплановані. На стику елементу WBS та організаційного блоку, встановлюються рахунки управління та робочі пакети, планується продуктивність, вимірюється, записується та контролюється. WBS може бути деталізована до будь-якого рівня зацікавленості. Мінімально рекомендованими є три рівні, в той час як додаткові рівні мають бути заданими лише для елементів з високою вартістю чи високим ризиком, і два рівня деталізації у випадках, таких як системний інжинірінг чи програмний менеджмент, зі стандартами прикладами того, що WBS з різною глибиною, такі як розробка програмного забезпечення, доходять до 5 рівнів, або системи керування вогнем, що доходят до 7 рівнів. Відповідність до норм Найвищий рівень структури WBS має відповідати нормам чи шаблонам компанії, що існують всередині організації чи домену. Наприклад, кораблебудування для ВМС США має брати до уваги, що морські умови та відповідна ієрархічна структура мають відповідати стандарту MIL-STD, включеному у Військово-Морську Архітектуру , а також що відповідні Воєнно-Морські офіси і процедури були побудовані у відповідності до цієї архітектури, тому будь-яка істотна зміна у нумерації елементів WBS чи неймінгу у ієрархії буде неприйнятною. Приклад Фігура зліва показує структуру декомпозиції робіт для техніки будування, що демонструє правило 100 % керування, а також техніку «прогресивної розробки». На рівні WBS 1 показано 100 одиниць роботи як загальний обсяг проєкту для конструювання та побудови користувацького велосипеда. На рівні WBS 2, 100 одиниць розподілені у сім елементів. Кількість одиниць, виділених на кожен елемент роботи, може бути базований на об'єму зусиль чи вартості; задачі оцінити тривалість не встановлено. Три найбільших елементи WBS Рівня 2 надалі діляться на Рівні 3. Кожен з двох найбільших елементів на Рівні 3 визначає лише 17 % загального об'єму проєкту. Ці більше елементи можуть бути надалі поділені за допомогою використання техніки прогресивної розробки, що описана вище. Дизайн WBS може бути підтриманий програмним забезпеченням (таким як Електронний аркуш), що дозволить автоматичне встановлення контрольних точок. Оцінки зусиль чи вартостей можуть бути розробленими шляхом обговорень членами команди. Ця спільна техніка створює велику проникність у визначення меж проєкту, припущень та консенсусів, стосовно необхідного рівня деталізації для управління проєктами. Оманливі уявлення WBS не є вичерпним переліком необхідних до виконання робіт. Насправді вона є комплексною класифікацією рамок проєкту. WBS не є ані планом проєкту, ані графіком виконання, ані хронологічним списком. Вона лише визначає, «що» саме буде зроблено, а не «як» чи «коли». WBS не є ієрархією організації, хоча й може використовуватися при призначенні відповідальності. Див. також: Матриця Відповідальності (інша назва Кадрова Матриця). Див. також Глосарій термінів з управління проєктами Ієрархічна структура ресурсів Планування проєкту Статут проєкту Структура декомпозиції продукту Структура декомпозиції значень Система управління проєктами Графік структури Посилання Подальше читання Carl L. Pritchard. Nuts and Bolts Series 1: How to Build a Work Breakdown Structure ISBN 1-890367-12-5 Project Management Institute. Project Management Institute Practice Standard for Work Breakdown Structures, Second Edition (2006) ISBN 1-933890-13-4 (Note: The Second Edition is an extensive re-write of the Practice Standard.) Gregory T. Haugan. Effective Work Breakdown Structures (The Project Management Essential Library Series) ISBN 1-56726-135-3 Dennis P. Miller, PMP, «Building Your Project Work Breakdown Structure — Visualizing Your Objectives, Deliverables, Activities and Schedule». ISBN 1-42006969-1 (Note: This new book is essentially a facilitator's guide for planning a project based on the WBS.) Посилання how to create work breakdown structure WBS using standard Division of work EverySpec.Com copies of MIL-HDBK-881 versions Defense Acquisition University ACQ101 Summary for Work Breakdown Structures How to Make a Work Breakdown Structure NASA Work Breakdown Structure Handbook, NASA/SP-2010-3404, January 2010 Менеджмент Дослідження операцій Керування проєктами Системотехніка Управління бізнесом Примітки
65928	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bass%20Strait	Bass Strait	Bass Strait is a strait separating the island state of Tasmania from the Australian mainland (more specifically the coast of Victoria, with the exception of the land border across Boundary Islet). The strait provides the most direct waterway between the Great Australian Bight and the Tasman Sea, and is also the only maritime route into the economically prominent Port Phillip Bay. Formed 8,000 years ago by rising sea levels at the end of the last glacial period, the strait was named after English explorer and physician George Bass (1771–1803) by European colonists. Extent The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of Bass Strait as follows: On the west. The eastern limit of the Great Australian Bight [being a line from Cape Otway, Australia, to King Island and thence to Cape Grim, the northwest extreme of Tasmania]. On the east. The western limit of the Tasman Sea between Gabo Island and Eddystone Point [being a line from Gabo Island (near Cape Howe, 37°30'S) to the northeast point of East Sister Island (148°E) thence along the 148th meridian to Flinders Island; beyond this Island a line running to the Eastward of the Vansittart Shoals to [Cape] Barren Island, and from Cape Barren (the easternmost point of [Cape] Barren Island) to Eddystone Point (41°S) [in Tasmania]. Differing views of location and context Some authorities consider the strait to be part of the Pacific Ocean as in the never-approved 2002 IHO Limits of Oceans and Seas draft. In the currently in-force IHO 1953 draft, it is instead associated with the Great Australian Bight; the Bight is numbered 62, while the Bass Strait is designated 62-A. The Australian Hydrographic Service does not consider it to be part of its expanded definition of the Southern Ocean, but rather states that it lies with the Tasman Sea. The strait between the Furneaux Islands and Tasmania is Banks Strait, a subdivision of Bass Strait. Discovery and exploration By Aboriginal peoples Aboriginal Tasmanians arrived in Tasmania approximately 40,000 years ago during the last glacial period, across a broad prehistoric land bridge called the Bassian Plain between the nowaday southern Victoria coastline (from Wilsons Promontory to Cape Otway) and the northern Tasmanian shores (from Cape Portland to Cape Grim). After the glacial period ended, sea levels rose and flooded the Bassian Plain to form Bass Strait at around 8,000 years ago, leaving them isolated from the Australian mainland. Aboriginal people lived on Flinders Island until around 4,000 years ago. Based on the recorded language groups, there were at least three successive waves of aboriginal colonisation. By Europeans The strait was possibly detected by Captain Abel Tasman when he charted Tasmania's coast in 1642. On 5 December, Tasman was following the east coast northward to see how far it went. When the land veered to the north-west at Eddystone Point, he tried to keep in with it but his ships were suddenly hit by the Roaring Forties howling through Bass Strait. Tasman was on a mission to find the Southern Continent, not more islands, so he abruptly turned away to the east and continued his continent hunting. The next European to approach the strait was Captain James Cook in the Endeavour in April 1770. However, after sailing for two hours westward towards the strait against the wind, he turned back east and noted in his journal that he was "doubtful whether they [i.e. Van Diemen's Land and New Holland] are one land or no". The strait was named after George Bass, after he and Matthew Flinders sailed across it while circumnavigating Van Diemen's Land (now named Tasmania) in the Norfolk in 1798–99. At Flinders' recommendation, the Governor of New South Wales, John Hunter, in 1800 named the stretch of water between the mainland and Van Diemen's Land "Bass's Straits". In 1798 it became known as Bass Strait. The existence of the strait had been suggested in 1797 by the master of Sydney Cove when he reached Sydney after deliberately grounding his foundering ship and being stranded on Preservation Island (at the eastern end of the strait). He reported that the strong south westerly swell and the tides and currents suggested that the island was in a channel linking the Pacific and southern Indian Ocean. Governor Hunter thus wrote to Joseph Banks in August 1797 that it seemed certain a strait existed. When news of the 1798 discovery of Bass Strait reached Europe, the French government despatched a reconnaissance expedition commanded by Nicolas Baudin. This prompted Governor King to send two vessels from Sydney to the island to establish a garrison at Hobart. Maritime history Strong currents between the Antarctic-driven southeast portions of the Indian Ocean and the Tasman Sea's Pacific Ocean waters provide a strait of powerful, wild storm waves. The shipwrecks on the Tasmanian and Victorian coastlines number in the hundreds, although stronger metal ships and modern marine navigation have greatly reduced the danger. Many vessels, some quite large, have disappeared without a trace, or left scant evidence of their passing. Despite myths and legends of piracy, wrecking and alleged supernatural phenomena akin to those of the Bermuda Triangle, such disappearances can be invariably ascribed to treacherous combinations of wind and sea conditions, and the numerous semi-submerged rocks and reefs within the Straits. Despite the strait's difficult waters, it provided a safer and less boisterous passage for ships on the route from Europe or India to Sydney in the early 19th century. The strait also saved on the voyage. Geography Bass Strait is approximately wide and long, with an average depth of . The widest opening is about between Cape Portland on the northeastern tip of Tasmania and Point Hicks on the Australian mainland. Jennings' study of the submarine topography of Bass Strait described the bathymetric Bass Basin, a shallow depression approximately wide and long (over in area) in the centre of Bass Strait, a maximum depth is the channel between Inner Sister Island and Flinders Island, which navigation charts indicate reaches . Two underwater plateaus, the Bassian Rise and King Island Rise located on the eastern and western margins of Bass Strait, respectively, are composed of a basement of Paleozoic granite. These features form sills separating Bass Basin from the adjacent ocean basins. Associated with the less than -deep Bassian Rise is the Furneaux Islands, the largest of which is Flinders Island (maximum elevation ). The surface of the King Island Rise also occurs in water depths of less than , and includes the shallow Tail Bank at its northern margin as well as King Island itself. Subaqueous dunes (sandwaves) and tidal current ridges cover approximately of the seabed in Bass Strait. During Pleistocene, low sea level stands the central basin of Bass Strait was enclosed by raised sills forming a large shallow lake. This occurred during the last glacial maximum (18,000 BP) when the basin was completely isolated. Sea level rise during the marine transgression flooded the basin, forming a westward embayment from 11,800 BP to 8700 BP, and the basin rim was completely flooded by about 8000 BP, at which point Bass Strait was formed and Tasmania became an isolated island. Like the rest of the waters surrounding Tasmania, and particularly because of its limited depth, it is notoriously rough, with many ships lost there during the 19th century. A lighthouse was erected on Deal Island in 1848 to assist ships navigating in the eastern part of the Straits, but there were no guides to the western entrance until the Cape Otway Lighthouse was first lit in 1848, followed by another at Cape Wickham at the northern end of King Island in 1861. Islands There are over 50 islands in Bass Strait. Major islands include: Western section: King Island Three Hummock Island Hunter Island Robbins Island South eastern section: Furneaux Group Flinders Island (where the surviving Aboriginal Tasmanians were exiled) Cape Barren Island Clarke Island Sister Islands Group and several other islands North eastern section: Kent Group Deal Island and 3 smaller islands Hogan Island Curtis Island Protected areas Federal Within Bass Strait there are several Commonwealth marine reserves, which are all part of the South-east Network. The two larger reserves, Flinders and Zeehan, extend mostly outside of the Bass Strait area. Apollo Beagle Boags East Gippsland Flinders Franklin Zeehan State The smaller islands of Bass Strait typically have some form of protection status. Most notably the Kent Group National Park covers the Kent Group islands of Tasmania, as well as the surrounding state waters which is a dedicated marine reserve. The national park is wholly contained by the Beagle Commonwealth Marine Reserve. Victoria has several marine national parks in Bass Strait, and are all adjacent to the mainland coastline: Bunurong Ninety Mile Beach Point Addis Port Phillip Heads Twelve Apostles Wilsons Promontory Natural resources A number of oil and gas fields exist in the eastern portion of Bass Strait, in what is known as the Gippsland Basin. Most large fields were discovered in the 1960s, and are located about off the coast of Gippsland in water depths of about . These oil fields include the Halibut Field discovered in 1967, the Cobia Field discovered in 1972, the Kingfish Field, the Mackerel Field, and the Fortescue Field discovered in 1978. Large gas fields include the Whiptail field, the Barracouta Field, the Snapper Field, and the Marlin Field. Oil and gas are produced from the Cretaceous-Eocene clastic rocks of the Latrobe Group, deposited with the break-up of Australia and Antarctica. In 2020 activist group No Gas Across the Bass was set up after American company ConocoPhillips put in an application to seismic blast 27km from King Island. Further environmental campaigning followed the Australian government's 2020 Oil and Gas acreage release as this opened up new areas of Tasmania's oceans for exploration. The western field, known as the Otway Basin, was discovered in the 1990s offshore near Port Campbell. Its exploitation began in 2005. The oil and gas is sent via pipeline to gas processing facilities and oil refineries at Longford (Longford gas plant), Western Port (Westernport Refinery closed 1985), Altona (Altona Refinery scheduled to close in 2021) and Geelong (Geelong Oil Refinery), as well as by tanker to New South Wales. Pipelines from the Otway Basin gas fields lead to several processing facilities in the vicinity of Port Campbell (Iona Gas Plant and Otway Gas Plant). In June 2017, the Government of Victoria announced a three-year feasibility study for Australia's first offshore wind farm. The project, which could have 250 wind turbines within a area, is projected to deliver around 8,000 GWh of electricity, representing some 18 per cent of Victoria's power usage and replacing a large part of the output of Hazelwood Power Station, which was closed in early 2017. Infrastructure Transport The fastest and often the cheapest method of travel across Bass Strait is by air. The major airports in Tasmania are Hobart Airport and Launceston Airport, where the main airlines are Jetstar and Virgin Australia. Qantas also operates services. The smaller airports in the north of the state and on the islands in the strait are served either by Rex Airlines, QantasLink or King Island Airlines. Ferries The domestic sea route is serviced by two Spirit of Tasmania passenger vehicle ferries, based in Devonport, Tasmania. The ships travel daily between Devonport and Spirit of Tasmania Quay in Geelong as overnight trips, with additional daytime trips during the peak summer season. Energy The Basslink HVDC electrical cable has been in service since 2006. It has the capacity to carry up to 630 megawatts of electrical power across the strait. Alinta owns a submarine gas pipeline, delivering natural gas to large industrial customers near George Town, as well as the Powerco gas network in Tasmania. Communications The first submarine communications cable across Bass Strait was laid in 1859. Starting at Cape Otway, Victoria, it went via King Island and Three Hummock Island, made contact with the Tasmanian mainland at Stanley Head, and then continued on to George Town. However it started failing within a few weeks of completion, and by 1861 it failed completely. Tasmania is currently connected to the mainland via two Telstra-operated fibre optic cables; since 2006, dark fibre capacity has also been available on the Basslink HVDC cable. Other submarine cables include: Popular culture In 1978, one of the most famous UFO incidents in Australian history occurred over Bass Strait. Frederick Valentich was flying a small aeroplane over the strait when he reported to personnel at a local airport that a strange object was buzzing his plane. He then claimed that the object had moved directly in front of his plane; the airport personnel then heard a metallic "scraping" sound, followed by silence. Valentich and his plane subsequently vanished and neither Valentich nor his plane were ever seen again. The issue of planes, ships and people having been lost in the strait over time has spawned a number of theories. Perhaps the most thorough list of losses and disappearances has been the oft reprinted book of Jack Loney though it is possible that most losses can be adequately explained by extreme weather events. On the popular Australian soap Neighbours, one of its most dramatic storylines unfolded when a 1940s themed joy flight to Tasmania was sabotaged by a bomb. The plane crashed into Bass Strait in the middle of the night and many character's lives were put at risk, with some drowning. Non-motorised crossings Bass Strait is regularly crossed by sailing vessels, including during the annual Melbourne to Hobart Yacht Race. The Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race passes generally east of the strait but is affected by its weather conditions. Sailing The first windsurfer crossing was in 1982 by Mark Paul and Les Tokolyi. In 1998 Australian offshore sailor Nick Moloney took on a different challenge by being the first person to windsurf unaided across the Bass Strait in a time of 22 hours. In terms of dinghy sailing many crossings have been made but in March 2005 Australian Olympic medallist Michael Blackburn set a record when he crossed the strait in just over 13 hours in a Laser sailing dinghy. In March 2009 two young dinghy sailors sailed a B14 (dinghy) from Stanley in north west Tasmania to Walkerville South in Victoria. The purpose of the voyage was to raise funds for the treatment of the endangered Tasmanian Devil, an animal species suffering from a facial tumour disease and, if possible, break the dinghy sailing time record for the crossing. The sailors Adrian Beswick and Josh Philips accompanied by a support vessel successfully completed the crossing in 14 hours 53 minutes. Kitesurfers have also completed the crossing with Natalie Clark in 2010 become the first female to do the crossing. Rowing / Paddling In 1971 lone rower David Bowen from Mount Martha crossed Bass Strait in a dory, leaving from Devonport he landed on Wilson's Promontory. The first crossing by paddleboard was made by Jack Bark, Brad Gaul and Zeb Walsh, leaving Wilsons Promontory in Victoria on 25 February 2014 and arriving at Cape Portland in northeastern Tasmania on 4 March 2014. Rod Harris, Ian and Peter Richards are credited with the first kayak crossing in 1971. Many sea kayakers have since made the crossing, usually by island hopping on the eastern side of the strait. Fewer sea kayak crossings have been made via King Island, due to the leg between Cape Wickam and Apollo Bay. Andrew McAuley was the first person to cross Bass Strait non-stop in a sea kayak in 2003. He made two more crossings of Bass Strait before he died attempting to cross the Tasman Sea in February 2007. Swimming Tammy van Wisse swam part of the strait in 1996, from King Island to Apollo Bay in Victoria, a distance of about in 17 hours and 46 minutes. See also South-east Commonwealth Marine Reserve Network References Further reading Books Broxam and Nash, Tasmanian Shipwrecks, Volumes I and II, Navarine Publishing, Canberra, 1998 & 2000. Cameron-Ash, M. Lying for the Admiralty: Captain Cook's Endeavour Voyage, 2018, Rosenberg Publishing, Sydney, Journal articles External links Tasmanian Department of State Development - Redi Map Bodies of water of Victoria (state) Straits of Australia Bodies of water of Tasmania Barwon South West (region) Gippsland (region)
1488348	https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%20%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0	Інваріант графа	Інваріант графа в теорії графів — деяке значення (зазвичай числове) або упорядкований набір значень (хеш-функція), яке характеризує структуру графа і не залежить від способу позначення вершин або графічного зображення графа. Відіграє важливу роль при перевірці ізоморфізму графів, а також в задачах комп'ютерної хімії. Приклади інваріантів До інваріантів графа відносяться: Діаметр графа — довжина найкоротшого шляху (відстані) між парою найвіддаленіших вершин. Інваріант Колен де Вердьєра. Індекс Вінера — величина , де — мінімальна відстань між вершинами і . Індекс Рандича — величина . Індекс Хосойі — число парувань ребер графа плюс один. Коефіцієнт сітчастості планарного графа — відношення кількості обмежених граней графа до можливого числа граней інших планарних графів з тим самим числом вершин. Міні-код і максі-код матриці суміжності, які одержують шляхом виписування двійкових значень матриці суміжності в рядок з подальшим переведенням отриманого двійкового числа в десяткову форму. Міні-коду відповідає такий порядок слідування рядків і стовпців, при якому отримане значення є мінімально можливим; максі-коду — відповідно максимальним. Мінімальне число вершин, яке необхідно вилучити для отримання незв'язного графа. Мінімальне число ребер, яке необхідно вилучити для отримання незв'язного графа. Мінімальне число вершин, необхідне для покриття ребер. Мінімальне число ребер, необхідне для покриття вершин. Нещільність графа — число вершин максимального по включенню безреберного підграфа (найбільша кількість попарно несуміжних вершин). Легко помітити, що та . Охоплення графа — число ребер в складі мінімального циклу. Визначник матриці суміжності. Щільність графа — число вершин максимальної по включенню кліки. Упорядкований за зростанням або спаданням вектор степенів вершин . В алгоритмах перебору для визначення ізоморфізму графів як можливо-ізоморфні пари вершин вибираються вершини з однаковими степенями, що сприяє зменшенню трудомісткості перебору. Використання даного інваріанта для k-однорідних графів не приводить до зниження обчислювальної складності перебору, так як степені всіх вершин таких графів однакові: . Упорядкований за зростанням або спаданням вектор власних чисел матриці суміжності графа (спектр графа). Сама по собі матриця суміжності не є інваріантом, так як при зміні нумерації вершин вона зазнає перестановки рядків і стовпців. Число вершин і число дуг/ребер . Число компонент зв'язності графа . Число Хардвігера . Характеристичний многочлен матриці суміжності. Хроматичне число . Як інваріант можна розглядати не одне з наведених вище чисел, а їх кортеж (суперіндекс) виду , якому, у свою чергу, може бути зіставлений многочлен виду сумування ведеться до останнього відмінного від нуля значення . Подібним чином можна ввести ще кілька інваріантів графа: , де — число вершин степеня i; , де — число безреберних підграфів з і вершинами; , де — число повних i-вершинних підграфів (i-клік); , де — число різних стягувань зв'язного графа на i-кліку; , де — число компонент зв'язності з і вершин; , де — число i-розфарбувань графа (правильних розфарбувань з використанням і кольорів). Системи інваріантів графа, залежні від двох і більше параметрів, можна записати у вигляді многочленів від кількох формальних змінних Наприклад: , де — число підграфів графа , які мають вершин і ребер; , де — кількість i-вершинних підграфів, для яких число голок (ребер, які з'єднують вершини підграфа з іншими вершинами графа) дорівнює ; , де — кількість i-вершинних підграфів, які мають ребер і голок (узагальнення інваріантів і ); Многочлен Татта. Збіг інваріантів є необхідною, але не достатньою умовою наявності ізоморфізму Повний інваріант Інваріант називається повним, якщо збіг інваріантів графів є необхідним і достатнім для встановлення ізоморфізму. Наприклад, кожне зі значень і є повним інваріантом для графа з фіксованим числом вершин . Трудомісткість обчислення Інваріанти розрізняються за трудомісткістю обчислення. Інваріанти , , і обчислюються тривіально, в той час, як обчислення інваріантів , , , , , і залежних від них може бути досить обчислювально важким. Існують ймовірнісні алгоритми визначення значень наведених «важкообчислюваних» інваріантів, однак застосування подібних алгоритмів допускається не завжди. В даний час повний інваріант графа, обчислюваний за поліноміальний час, невідомий, проте не доведено, що він не існує. Спроби його відшукання неодноразово робилися в 60-х — 80-х роках XX століття, однак не увінчалися успіхом. Застосування в комп'ютерній хімії Багато інваріантів (топологічні індекси) використовуються в комп'ютерній хімії для вирішення широкого кола загальних і спеціальних завдань. До цих завдань відносяться: пошук речовин з наперед заданими властивостями (пошук залежностей типу «структура-властивість», «структура-фармакологічна активність»), первинна фільтрація структурної інформації для безповторної генерації молекулярних графів заданого типу та ряд інших. Часто при цьому поряд з топологічними індексами (залежними тільки від структури молекули) використовується інформація і про хімічний склад з'єднання. Див. також Ізоморфізм графів Примітки Інваріанти графа Теорія графів
75860378	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Tukalskyi-Nelyubovych	Joseph Tukalskyi-Nelyubovych	Joseph Tukalskyi-Nelyubovych, (born Nenkovychi or Mutvytsia, Brest Litovsk Voivodeship, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, died 26 July 1675, Chyhyryn) was a political and religious leader of the Cossack Hetmanate and the last Metropolitan of Kyiv, Galicia and all Rus in the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Biography Joseph Tukalskyi was born in a family of Eastern Orthodox nobility (szlachta) from Pinsk region (Polesye). He began his monastic life at a young age. He received tonsure in the Lishchyna monastery, which was quite famous at the time. And from 1654 he became its archimandrite. For almost four years, from 1657 to 1661, Joseph Tukalskyi-Nelyubovych was the hegumen of the Vilnius Holy Spirit Monastery. He was elected and ordained to the Mstislav, Mogilev and Orsha see by his predecessor Metropolitan Dionysius Balaban[-Tukalskyi] of Kyiv, who in addition to that was a relative of Joseph Nelyubovych-Tukalsky. Having just ascended the cathedral see, he repeated the fate of many Eastern Orthodox bishops of that time. Having suffered unbearable persecution from the apologists of the union (Union of Brest), Joseph Nelyuborvych-Tukalskyi came to Chyhyryn. Soon, at the election council in November 1663 in Korsun, Bishop Joseph Nelyubovych-Tukalskyi was elected Metropolitan of Kyiv. Many Ukrainian clergy and representatives of the Ukrainian nobility and Cossacks took part in the election of the First Hierarch. In Right-Bank Ukraine, a somewhat even sarcastic situation developed in the place belonging to the Polish Crown, located in the city of Sharhorod (Podolia). For the privilege to be appointed a metropolitan, there arrived three candidates at once: Yaskulskyi, the Uniate bishop from Mogilev, Antonii Vynnytskyi, the bishop of Przemysl, and Hedeon Khmelnytskyi (Yuriy Khmelnytskyi), the former Hetman's Bulava (mace) holder, the son of Bohdan Khmelnytskyi. King Jan Casimir refused Yakulsky and Vynnytskyi to the appointment, and unexpectedly even for the monk Hedeon himself, he chose him to be the Metropolitan of Kyiv. This shocked the still young and inexperienced wearer of the black-colored vestment and he shied away from such "royal mercy". The Bishop of Przemyśl, Antonii Vynnytskyi, having met with failure in the place belonging to the Polish Crown, turned to the hetman of Right-Bank Ukraine, Pavlo Teteria, for support. It was not easy for the latter to do. But soon an auspicious hour came for this. The Crown hetman and voivode of Kyiv Stefan Czarniecki, having received unlimited power in Ukraine, took up the task of persuading the Cossacks to return to the supremacy of the Polish Crown. Knowing what kind of power the newly elected Metropolitan Joseph Nelyubovych-Tukalskyi had over the Cossacks, he invited him together with Hegumen Hedeon Khmelnytskyi to his place. There was no constructive conversation between the Metropolitan and the Polish Crown Hetman Stefan Czarniecki. The answer of the humble saint was more than categorical: "It is not up to humble monks to interfere in worldly affairs." Such a concession by Joseph Nelyubovych-Tukalsky greatly offended Stefan Czarniecki, and he ordered to arrest the metropolitan and the hegumen and send them to Warsaw. The hetman of Teteria learned about all this and wrote a complaint to the king about the practically already imprisoned dignitaries of the Ukrainian Church. Joseph Nelyubovych-Tukalskyi and Hedeon Khmelnytskyi were sent to the Marienburg prison by order of the Polish king. This unfortunate event took place in July 1664. Only after that, Antonii Vynnytskyi unhindered declared himself also Metropolitan of Kyiv and managed the department for two years, without even coming to Kyiv. The arrest and exile of Metropolitan Joseph Nelyubovych-Tukalskyi made a very unpleasant impression within Ukraine, and the same Teteria, who was the main culprit in this case, already in the spring of 1664 began to ask the king for the release of the metropolitan, but with the caveat that former prisoners they will live somewhere near Pinsk or in Volhynia and not "interfere in politics". As a result of such a rehabilitation campaign, on November 29, 1665, Metropolitan Joseph Nelyubovych-Tukalskyi and Archimandrite Hedeon Khmelnytskyi took an oath "standing on their knees and placing two fingers on the cross" and assuring everyone that they would be loyal to Poland and would not communicate with its enemies, especially rebels, insurrectionists, Muscovites, and Cossacks and will listen to Hetman Teteria, living where he tells them. This seemingly humiliating oath of the metropolitan was later printed on January 24, 1671 in the Universal decree of the Polish king Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki and fell into the hands of the Cossack chronicler Samiylo Velychko, who hastened to include it in his work. But, more than Pavlo Teteria, for the imprisoned metropolitan was petitioning hetman Petro Doroshenko. In every letter to the king, the Bulava (mace) holder asked for the release of the hierarch and the archimandrite, and the release came in February 1666. After leaving the prison, the Metropolitan went to his native Lishchyna Monastery and from there, as the Metropolitan of Kyiv, Galicia and All Rus, issued a charter releasing the residents of Mogilev from the curse falsely imposed on them by the Patriarch Nikon of Moscow. After staying in Belarus for a little more than a year, the metropolitan was forced to move to Ukraine, because he was once again slandered. Under the threat of new imprisonment, Joseph Nelyubovych-Tukalsky, with only one serviceman (cheliad) in a boat, sailed down the Dnieper straight to Cherkasy, and from there he was taken to Chyhyryn to hetman Peter Doroshenko, who received him with love, gave him a court and manor estates. Metropolitan Joseph Nelyubovych-Tukalskyi became the closest adviser to Hetman Petro Doroshenko and had considerable influence on him. He sat in the Cossack officer council, conducted diplomatic correspondence with influential political figures. The Cossack officers did not like such a relationship between the hetman and the metropolitan, and everyone began to complain that "Hetman Doroshenko does not consult with anyone, only Metropolitan Tukalskyi." It was the Metropolitan of Kyiv who was considered the main promoter of the policy that led Petro Doroshenko to the Turkish coast. "It is obvious," writes historian D. Doroshenko, "the presence of the head of the Orthodox Ukrainian Church and the son of Bohdan Khmelnytskyi gave the court of Hetman Doroshenko a special shine and strengthened his authority in the eyes of the population". The Moscow agent Tyapkin wrote in a report to Moscow that "the black peoples (commoners) on both sides of the Dnieper love and respect Metropolitan Tukalsky very much." The relations between Metropolitan Joseph Nelyubovych-Tukalskyi and Hetman Pyotr Doroshenko were constantly influenced by foreign policy and Chyhyryn's attitude towards the three states that wanted to take Ukraine into their hands, under the so-called protection: the Muscovite Tsardom, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Ottoman Empire. Moscow exerted its influence on Metropolitan Joseph Nelyubovych-Tukalsky through Kyiv-Pechersk Monastery Archimandrite Innocent Giesel, who was on friendly terms with the Metropolitan. Of course, then the metropolitan would have to influence Hetman Petro Doroshenko. However, let's not forget that Moscow did not recognize Joseph Nelyubovych-Tukalsky as a metropolitan, but a significant part of the Ukrainian clergy, especially the Kyiv clergy, highly respected him and recognized his authority. The metropolitan himself understood this, which is why he came in the fall of 1667 to the Mezhyhiria Saviour-Transfiguration Monastery in order to meet with Archimandrite Innocent Giesel. The latter behaved very cautiously and did not dare to go to Mezhyhiria, showing the Metropolitan's letter to Voivode Peotr Sheremetiev the Great, who asked Moscow whether he should meet with Joseph Nelyubovych-Tukalskyi. The White-stoned city (Kremlin), Innocent Giesel was ordered to meet with the metropolitan without fail in matters concerning the beginning of Moscow's conflict with Doroshenko. Subsequently, in December 1667, Moscow, through Voivode Sheremetiev, sent the nobleman Vasiliy Dubensky and rittmaster Ivan Roslavlev to Chyhyryn, who, during a meeting with Metropolitan Joseph Nelyubovych-Tukalskyi and Archimandrite Hedeon Khmelnytskyi, persuaded him to influence the hetman to break the alliance with the Sublime Porte (busurmans). Hetman Petro Doroshenko, in his goals of establishing relations with Moscow, sought only one thing - not to give Kyiv away to the Poles. But this time, too, Moscow cheated. The Truce of Andrusovo between Moscow and Poland on October 28, 1667 greatly struck Petro Doroshenko. Having learned about this from the letter of Voivode Sheremetiev, the hetman fell ill and lay ill for two days after that. Before that, Polish ambassadors came to Chyhyryn, but Doroshenko returned them with nothing and sent his ambassadors to the Turkish sultan with news about the Polish-Moscow accord. The Moscow ambassador Tyuterev was mentioning these events in Chyhyryn. The hetman took him with him to the church, where Metropolitan Joseph Nelyubovych-Tukalskyi and Archimandrite Hedeon Khmelnytsky celebrated the Liturgy. At all ectenia, as Tyuterev noted, the Polish king was commemorated, and during the grand entrance, Archimandrite Hedeon also commemorated the Moscow czar. Moscow sent not only spies such as Dubensky and Tyuterev to Petro Doroshenko. For the actual negotiations with the hetman, Afanasy Ordin-Nashchokin authorized the solicitor, resident Vasiliy Tyapkin, one of his best diplomats, in the future the first Moscow resident in Warsaw. See also The Ruin (Ukrainian history) Polish–Ottoman War (1672–1676) Russo-Turkish War (1676–1681) Ottoman Ukraine Notes References External links ИОСИФ. www.pravenc.ru Tukalsky-Neliubovych, Yosyf at the Encyclopedia of Ukraine Митрополит Київський, Галицький і всієї Руси, Екзарх Константинопольського престолу Йосиф Нелюбович-Тукальський. www.pomisna.info. 24 November 2021 1600s births 1675 deaths Year of birth uncertain People from Rivne Oblast Metropolitans of Kiev, Galicia and all Rus' (1620-1686) Constantinople Exarchs of Ukraine Orthodox bishops of the Cossack Hetmanate 17th-century Eastern Orthodox bishops Ruthenian nobility of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
931735	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu%20Arae	Mu Arae	Mu Arae (μ Arae, abbreviated Mu Ara, μ Ara), often designated HD 160691, officially named Cervantes , is a main sequence G-type star approximately 50 light-years away from the Sun in the constellation of Ara. The star has a planetary system with four known extrasolar planets (designated Mu Arae b, c, d and e; later named Quijote, Dulcinea, Rocinante and Sancho, respectively), three of them with masses comparable with that of Jupiter. Mu Arae c, the innermost, was the first hot Neptune or super-Earth discovered. Nomenclature μ Arae (Latinised to Mu Arae) is the star's Bayer designation. HD 160691 is the entry in the Henry Draper Catalogue. The established convention for extrasolar planets is that the planets receive designations consisting of the star's name followed by lower-case Roman letters starting from "b", in order of discovery. This system was used by a team led by Krzysztof Goździewski. On the other hand, a team led by Francesco Pepe proposed a modification of the designation system, where the planets are designated in order of characterization. Since the parameters of the outermost planet were poorly constrained before the introduction of the 4-planet model of the system, this results in a different order of designations for the planets in the Mu Arae system. Both systems agree on the designation of the 640-day planet as "b". The old system designates the 9-day planet as "d", the 310-day planet as "e" and the outer planet as "c". Since the International Astronomical Union has not defined an official system for designations of extrasolar planets, the issue of which convention is 'correct' remains open, however most subsequent scientific publications about this system appear to have adopted the Pepe et al. system, as has the system's entry in the Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia. In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched NameExoWorlds, a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars. The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names. In December 2015, the IAU announced the winning names were Cervantes for this star and Quijote, Dulcinea, Rocinante and Sancho, for its planets (b, c, d, and e, respectively; the IAU used the Pepe et al system). The winning names were those submitted by the Planetario de Pamplona, Spain. Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (1547–1616) was a famous Spanish writer and author of El Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quixote de la Mancha. The planets are named after characters of that novel: Quijote was the lead character; Dulcinea his love interest; Rocinante his horse, and Sancho his squire. In 2016, the IAU organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. In its first bulletin of July 2016, the WGSN explicitly recognized the names of exoplanets and their host stars approved by the Executive Committee Working Group Public Naming of Planets and Planetary Satellites, including the names of stars adopted during the 2015 NameExoWorlds campaign. This star is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names. Stellar characteristics According to measurements made by the Gaia astrometric satellite, Mu Arae exhibits a parallax of 64.0853 milliarcseconds as the Earth moves around the Sun. When combined with the known distance from the Earth to the Sun, this means the star is located at a distance of . Seen from Earth it has an apparent magnitude of +5.15 and is thus visible to the naked eye. Asteroseismic analysis of the star reveals it is approximately 10% more massive than the Sun and significantly older, at around 6.34 billion years. The radius of the star is 36% greater than that of the Sun and it is 90% more luminous. The star contains twice the abundance of iron relative to hydrogen of the Sun and is therefore described as metal-rich. Mu Arae is also more enriched than the Sun in the element helium. Mu Arae has a listed spectral type of G3IV–V. The G3 part means the star is similar to the Sun (a G2V star). The star may be entering the subgiant stage of its evolution as it starts to run out of hydrogen in its core. This is reflected in its uncertain luminosity class, between IV (the subgiants) and V (main sequence dwarf star stars like the Sun). Planetary system Discovery In 2001, an extrasolar planet was announced by the Anglo-Australian Planet Search team, together with the planet orbiting Epsilon Reticuli. The planet, designated Mu Arae b, was thought to be in a highly eccentric orbit of around 743 days. The discovery was made by analysing variations in the star's radial velocity (measured by observing the Doppler shift of the star's spectral lines) as a result of being pulled around by the planet's gravity. Further observations revealed the presence of a second object in the system (now designated as Mu Arae e), which was published in 2004. At the time, the parameters of this planet were poorly constrained and it was thought to be in an orbit of around 8.2 years with a high eccentricity. Later in 2004, a small inner planet designated Mu Arae c was announced with a mass comparable with that of Uranus in a 9-day orbit. This was the first of the class of planets known as "hot Neptunes" to be discovered. The discovery was made by making high-precision radial velocity measurements with the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher (HARPS) spectrograph. In 2006, two teams, one led by Krzysztof Goździewski and the other by Francesco Pepe independently announced four-planet models for the radial velocity measurements of the star, with a new planet (Mu Arae d) in a near-circular orbit lasting approximately 311 days. The new model gives revised parameters for the previously known planets, with lower eccentricity orbits than in the previous model and including a more robust characterization of the orbit of Mu Arae e. The discovery of the fourth planet made Mu Arae the second known four-planet extrasolar system, after 55 Cancri. System architecture and habitability The Mu Arae system consists of an inner Uranus-mass planet in a tight 9-day orbit and three massive planets, probably gas giants, on wide, near-circular orbits, which contrasts with the high-eccentricity orbits typically observed for long-period extrasolar planets. The Uranus-mass planet may be a chthonian planet, the core of a gas giant which has had its outer layers stripped away by stellar radiation. Alternatively it may have formed in the inner regions of the Mu Arae system as a rocky "super-Earth". The inner gas giants "d" and "b" are located close to the 2:1 orbital resonance which causes them to undergo strong interactions. The best-fit solution to the system is actually unstable: simulations suggest the system is destroyed after 78 million years, which is significantly shorter than the estimated age of the star system. More stable solutions, including ones in which the two planets are actually in the resonance (similar to the situation in the Gliese 876 system) can be found which give only a slightly worse fit to the data. A 2022 study finds a stable orbital fit to the system, and estimates a lower limit on the system inclination of about 20°. Astrometric observations using the Hubble Space Telescope have not detected any of the known planets, but have set upper limits on the masses of the outer three planets: planet b is , planet d is , and planet e is . Searches for circumstellar discs show no evidence for a debris disc similar to the Kuiper belt around Mu Arae. If Mu Arae does have a Kuiper belt, it is too faint to be detected with current instruments. The gas giant planet "b" is located in the liquid water habitable zone of Mu Arae. This would prevent an Earth-like planet from forming in the habitable zone, however large moons of the gas giant could potentially support liquid water. On the other hand, it is unclear whether moons sufficiently massive to retain an atmosphere and liquid water could actually form around a gas giant planet, due to a theorized scaling law between the mass of a planet and its satellite system. In addition, measurements of the star's ultraviolet flux suggest that any potentially habitable planets or moons may not receive enough ultraviolet to trigger the formation of biomolecules. Planet "d" would receive a similar amount of ultraviolet to the Earth and thus lies in the ultraviolet habitable zone. However, it would be too hot for any moons to support surface liquid water. See also 55 Cancri Exoplanet Lists of exoplanets PSR B1257+12 Notes References External links GJ 691 HR 6585 Image Mu Arae Extrasolar Planet Interactions by Rory Barnes & Richard Greenberg, Lunar and Planetary Lab, University of Arizona Ara (constellation) Arae, Mu CD-51 11094 G-type main-sequence stars G-type subgiants 0691 160691 086796 6585 Planetary systems with four confirmed planets
47585813	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian%20cruiser%20Iride	Italian cruiser Iride	Italian cruiser Iride was a torpedo cruiser of the built for the Italian (Royal Navy) in the 1880s. Laid down in February 1889 at the shipyard, she was launched in July 1890 and was commissioned in November 1892. Her main armament were her six torpedo tubes, which were supported by a battery of ten small-caliber guns. spent most of her career in the main Italian fleet, where she was primarily occupied with training exercises. During the Italo-Turkish War in September 1911, she remained in Italian waters until late in the conflict; she escorted a troop convoy to North Africa in April 1912 and bombarded Ottoman positions in June and July. was eventually broken up for scrap in December 1920. Design The -class cruisers were derivatives of the earlier, experimental s, themselves based on the preceding cruiser . The class marked a temporary shift toward the ideas of the in Italian naval thinking. The doctrine emphasized the use of small, torpedo-armed craft to destroy expensive ironclads. was long overall and had a beam of and an average draft of . She displaced normally. The ship had a short forecastle deck that terminated at the conning tower. She had a crew of between 96 and 121 personnel. Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple-expansion steam engines, each driving a single screw propeller. Steam was supplied by four coal-fired locomotive boilers, which were vented through two widely spaced funnels. Specific figures for s engine performance have not survived, but the ships of her class had top speeds of at . The ship had a cruising radius of about at a speed of . was armed with a main battery of one /40 gun placed on the forecastle. Close-range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a secondary battery of six /43 guns mounted singly. She was also equipped with three /20 guns in single mounts. Her primary offensive weapon was her six torpedo tubes. The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to thick; her conning tower was armored with the same thickness of steel plate. Service history was laid down at the (Royal Dockyard in Castellammare di Stabia) on 21 February 1889, and was launched on 20 July 1890. After fitting-out work was completed, the ship was commissioned into the fleet on 1 November 1892. took part in the annual fleet exercises in 1893 in the "attacking squadron", which also included six ironclads, her sister ship and the torpedo cruisers and . Beginning on 14 October 1894, the Italian fleet, including , assembled in Genoa for a naval review held in honor of King Umberto I at the commissioning of the new ironclad . The festivities lasted three days. In 1895, was stationed in the 2nd Maritime Department, split between Taranto and Naples, along with most of the torpedo cruisers in the Italian fleet. These included her sister ships , , , , , and , the four s, and . In 1902, was assigned as the station ship for Constantinople, responsible for safeguarding Italian interests in the Ottoman Empire. In 1904–1905, was assigned to the Levant Station in the eastern Mediterranean. She took part in the 1907 fleet maneuvers that took place in September and October that year. At the start of the Italo-Turkish War in September 1911, was stationed in Italy, alternating between the ports of La Spezia and Naples, along with her sister ships and . By January 1912, had been stationed in Tripoli to support the garrison there against Ottoman forces. In early April, , the torpedo cruiser , and six torpedo boats rendezvoused with a troop convoy carrying 10,000 men to Zuwarah near the border with Tunisia. In June and July, and the armored cruiser bombarded Turkish forces near Zuara. The Ottomans eventually agreed to surrender in October, ending the war. Italy declared neutrality after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, but by July 1915, the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers with promises of territory acquisition in . The Austro-Hungarian Navy, which had been Italy's primary rival for decades, was the primary opponent in the conflict. The Austro-Hungarian battle fleet lay in its harbors directly across the narrow Adriatic Sea. Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel, the Italian naval chief of staff, believed that the narrow waters and numerous islands of the Adriatic allowed Austro-Hungarian submarines and minelayers to operate with a great degree of freedom. The threat from these underwater weapons to his capital ships was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way. Instead, Revel decided to implement blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the battle fleet, while smaller vessels, such as the MAS boats, conducted raids on Austro-Hungarian ships and installations. As a result, did not see action during the war. She was sold for scrap in December 1920 and was subsequently broken up for scrap. Footnotes Notes Citations References External links Iride Marina Militare website 1890 ships Partenope-class cruisers Ships built in Castellammare di Stabia Italo-Turkish War naval ships of Italy

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