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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echo%20%28Marvel%20Comics%29
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Echo (Marvel Comics)
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Echo (Marvel Comics)
Echo (Maya Lopez) is a character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by David Mack and Joe Quesada, the character first appeared in Daredevil #9 (December 1999). Maya Lopez is a Native American of the Cheyenne Nation. Her Echo guise includes a white handprint that covers part of her face. She is one of the few deaf comic book characters. She has also adopted the Ronin codename and was a host of the Phoenix Force.
Maya Lopez is the adopted daughter of the supervillain Kingpin. She is also a supporting character of the superhero Matt Murdock / Daredevil. The character has been a member of the Avengers and the New Avengers at various points in her history.
Alaqua Cox portrays Maya Lopez in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, debuting in the television series Hawkeye (2021), and starring in her own spin-off series Echo (2024).
Development
Concept and creation
Writer David Mack created Maya Lopez to mirror Daredevil, saying, "Daredevil deciphers much of his world from sound instead of sight. Echo grew up not having access or understanding of this "audible world" and therefore learned to decipher all of the visual cues of the world as a language that she pieced together by an acute pattern recognition." He was influenced by his Cherokee uncle who told him Native stories as a child to develop the character. Maya Lopez uses American Sign Language to communicate with others.
The Ronin identity was an attempt by Brian Michael Bendis to create a mystery after the apparently male character was depicted on several comic book covers, including issues of The New Avengers and one The Pulse issue. Fan speculation was high, with the most common guess that Ronin was Matt Murdock; Bendis eventually revealed this to be the original intention despite initially denying that this was the case. The decision to depict Maya Lopez as Ronin was initially supported by David Mack.
Publication history
Maya Lopez debuted as Echo in Daredevil #9 (December 1999), created by writer David Mack and artist Joe Quesada. She later debuted as Ronin in The New Avengers #11 (November 2005), created by writer Brian Michael Bendis and artist David Finch. She appeared in the 2021 Phoenix Song: Echo series, her first solo comic book series. She appeared in the 2022 Marvel Unlimited Marvel's Voices Infinity Comic series. She appeared in the 2023 Daredevil & Echo series.
Fictional character biography
Maya Lopez was still a young girl when her father Willie "Crazy Horse" Lincoln was killed by the Kingpin (Wilson Fisk). Crazy Horse dies, leaving a bloody handprint on Maya's face and a last dying wish: that the Kingpin raise Maya well. Kingpin honors his dying wish, caring for her as his own daughter. Believed to be mentally disabled, Maya is sent to an expensive school for people with learning disabilities. There, she manages to completely replicate a song on the piano. She is subsequently sent to another expensive school for prodigies.
Echo
Maya is sent by the Kingpin to prove Matt Murdock's weakness, telling her that Matt believes Fisk is a bad person and that she is the only way to prove him wrong. As Maya believes Fisk, it would not appear to be a lie when she tells Matt.
Murdock and Maya soon fall in love. She later takes on the "Echo" guise to hunt down Daredevil. On her face, she paints a white handprint, similar to the bloody handprint left by her dying father. Maya proves more than a match for Daredevil, having watched videos of Daredevil and Bullseye fighting. After several failed attempts, noticing that Daredevil can easily move through the dark, Maya easily figures out Daredevil's weakness and exploits this by having a fight in a place where Daredevil's heightened senses are useless. Maya easily takes down Daredevil and nearly kills the vigilante, refusing only when she finds out Matt and Daredevil are one and the same. Matt manages to expose the Kingpin's lies. In revenge, Maya confronts and shoots Fisk in the face, blinding Fisk and starting the chain of events that lead to the man's eventual downfall (Kingpin later partially recovered eyesight through reconstructive eye surgery).
After realizing the horror of her actions and the lies with which she has grown up, Maya flees the United States to do some soul-searching. When she comes back, she tries reuniting with Murdock, only to find out Matt is now with a blind woman and that the Kingpin is still alive (despite Maya's attempts). Leaving Matt, Maya visits the Kingpin in prison who tells her that he does not blame her for what she did, and (that despite all that had happened) the Kingpin still loves her like a daughter. Unsatisfied and still needing peace, Maya turns to the Chief (her father's old friend) noted for wisdom. The Chief sends Maya on a vision quest to calm her soul. On her quest, she meets and befriends Wolverine who helps her recover and passes on knowledge of Japanese culture and Japanese organized crime. Soon enough, Maya makes peace with her past and is back doing performance art.
Ronin and the Avengers
After a recent identity crisis and feeling unable to join the New Avengers due to a refusal to tarnish the reputations of heroes by working alongside them, Maya dons a suit that conceals her identity as well as her gender and rechristens herself Ronin (Japanese for "wanderer", a class of masterless samurai).
Daredevil recommends Maya to Captain America to aid the Avengers in seizing the Silver Samurai in Japan. After joining the Avengers, Maya returns to Japan to keep an eye on dangerous assassin Elektra Natchios rumored to be leading the Hand, check on the Silver Samurai from time to time, and hopefully solve the conflict between The Hand and Clan Yashida. Around the conclusion of the Civil War between the pro-registration and anti-registration factions in America, Maya fights Elektra and is killed, but is soon resurrected by the Hand with the same process used to raise Elektra. Maya is taken captive with the intent of turning her into an assassin for The Hand. Luke Cage, Spider-Man, Wolverine, Doctor Strange, Spider-Woman, Iron Fist, and the new Ronin rescue her and escape, leaving Elektra to furiously send the Hand after them. During a brief lull in the fight with the Hand in which Luke tries to negotiate with Elektra to buy time, it is revealed that the Hand has been successful in brainwashing Maya, as she subsequently stabs Dr. Strange with a sword given to her by one of the Hand. She continues to fight the New Avengers until Dr. Strange is able to release an astral form with Wong's help, and frees Maya from the brainwashing. Maya then charges straight for Elektra (who is fighting Luke) and stabs her, revealing that Elektra is a Skrull warrior in disguise. They return to New York, after Spider-Woman's apparent betrayal of stealing Elektra's Skrull impersonator's corpse. The Avengers hide in a hotel room (Strange's magic making it appear that Maya is the only person in the room) before returning to Strange's Sanctum Sanctorum. Maya officially hands the Ronin identity over to Clint Barton after they arrive. After Strange confirms their identities by casting a spell that shows everyone their true nature - Maya appearing dressed in a female variation of Daredevil's costume - the team heads to Stark Tower to stop the Hood's attack on the building. There, they encounter the Mighty Avengers locked in battle with an army of invading symbiotes, one of which latches on to Maya before Iron Man manages to cure those infected.
World War Hulk
Echo attempts to defend Rick Jones from Hiroim and Elloe of the Hulk's Warbound during their attack on the Sanctum Sanctorum to capture Doctor Strange. She is defeated and captured, along with Iron Fist and Barton.
Avengers/Invaders
During the Invaders' appearance in the present due to D'Spayre's manipulations acquiring a Cosmic Cube, Echo proved vital in defeating the villain as her deafness meant that D'Spayre was unable to manipulate her emotions.
Secret Invasion: The Infiltration
After the defeat of the Hood's criminal organization, Echo remains on the team as Doctor Strange departs to the astral plane to heal himself, setting up base in a building owned by Iron Fist's company but technically leased to Samuel Sterns for the year. After a brief run-in with a Skrull disguised as Daredevil, Barton admits being attracted to her, and the two sleep together.
Secret Invasion
Echo goes with the rest of the New Avengers to the Savage Land when a Skrull ship crash lands. When the ship opens, it reveals various superheroes in outdated outfits. Echo joins with the Mighty Avengers and New Avengers to fight the "old" heroes from the Skrull ship. The battle is then broken up by a dinosaur causing everyone to split up. Later, she encounters "Spider-Woman" who is actually the Skrull Queen and the force behind the Skrull Invasion. "Spider-Woman" incapacitates Echo by repeatedly blasting her with venom blasts and then slams her into a nearby tree trunk. Echo helps the other Avengers kill all the other Skrull impostors, then heads to New York and confronts an army of Super Skrulls along with various other heroes and villains. She is invited back to Captain America's apartment by Iron Fist but does not show up.
Heroic Age
Following the reformation of the New Avengers during the Heroic Age, Cage and Jessica Jones seek a nanny for their child; Echo is one of several respondents to the offer, but declines and then angrily asks if Cage even remembers that she used to be a member of the Avengers.
Moon Knight
Echo appears in the fourth Moon Knight series, where she worked undercover in a strip club in L.A., until she blew the cover saving Marc Spector. Moon Knight later proposes that they join forces against the West Coast Kingpin, and invites her to dinner. Moon Knight is obviously attracted to Echo and it is suggested that Echo feels the same, despite punching Moon Knight in the face for kissing her. When she meets up with Moon Knight, they are attacked by the Night Shift. Although Echo and Moon Knight beat them, the police arrive, and attempt to apprehend the duo as well. Echo is killed by Count Nefaria, the man trying to be the new West Coast Kingpin.
Resurrection
Mysterious circumstances later lead to Maya's resurrection. During her first team-up with Daredevil since her return, she helps save New York from a sonic virus created by Klaw.
Captain Marvel
Echo later aids Captain Marvel and her friends against Radioactive Man.
Enter the Phoenix
During the "Enter the Phoenix" storyline, Echo is chosen by the Phoenix Force to participate in her tournament alongside many other heroes and villains to decide her next host. Along with the other champions, Echo is empowered by a spark of the Phoenix's cosmic fire and is pitted against Namor in an underwater match. Due to the vast disadvantage, Echo is soundly defeated by Namor, presumably eliminating her from the tournament and losing her portion of the Phoenix's power. However, despite her loss, Echo's despair and refusal to die draws the Phoenix to her, making her the new host of the entity. After taking the Phoenix's power from the remaining participants and brutally beating Namor as payback for her earlier defeat, Maya declares herself as the new Thunderbird and fully bonds with the entity. Maya is telepathically congratulated by the Phoenix's previous host, Jean Grey, who also gives her words of advice on controlling the entity's power.
Powers and abilities
Maya Lopez is an Olympic-level athlete. She possesses "photographic reflexes" or the ability to perfectly copy other people's movements. While watching other people, she has become a concert-level pianist, a strong martial artist, a highly skilled acrobat, and a gifted ballerina (and on one occasion even piloted a Quinjet for a few minutes). In addition, she has also gained Daredevil's acrobatic abilities and Bullseye's aim after watching tapes of their fights.
Her absolute reliance on visual cues renders her helpless in the dark, and her ability to communicate by reading lips prevents her from taking oral commands and communicating with people who are wearing masks or are not in direct visual contact; when she initially meets the Avengers, Captain America has to repeat all of Iron Man's questions for her. Notably, she has been incorrectly depicted as able to hear and respond to voices despite not seeing the person's mouth when standing away from them or the person talking right behind her. It has since been established that Maya Lopez can read lips from some distance or with the corner of her eye even if the talker is wearing a mask if the mask is thin enough (as the rather simple fabric masks used by Clint Barton and Spider-Man), and relay their conversation to closer individuals. She still retains her inability to communicate with people wearing sturdier or thicker masks or fully covering their mouths.
Additionally, Maya Lopez has been a host of the Phoenix Force.
Reception
Cian O'Luanaigh of The Guardian stated Maya Lopez possesses an emotional backstory unlike the majority of deaf characters in literature, calling her a "superhero like no other." Dais Johnston of Inverse said Maya Lopez made a "resounding splash" since her introduction, calling her a "great female role model and foil to the blind Matt Murdock." Deirdre Kaye of Scary Mommy called Maya Lopez a "role model" and a "truly heroic" female character. Beaty Drew of Screen Rant named Maya Lopez one of Marvel's most notable Native American heroes, saying, "Maya's inclusion among the publisher's most well-known and minimally flawed heroes reads as honest and realistic."
Impact
Maya Lopez has been described as Marvel's first deaf and indigenous superhero. She is the first deaf, indigenous, and amputee character portrayed in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). Her own miniseries Echo became the first Marvel television show centered on a deaf Native American superhero.
Literary reception
Volumes
Phoenix Song: Echo - 2021
According to Diamond Comic Distributors, Phoenix Song: Echo #1 was the 59th best selling comic book in October 2021.
Dustin Hilland of Comic Book Resources called Phoenix Song: Echo #1 an "enthralling first issue that sets the stage for a thrilling and complex new series," stating, "Phoenix Song: Echo #1 introduces several sources of tension in Echo's life and hints at the beginnings of a few different confrontations of epic proportions. But this comic's strength lies in the intimidating and fascinating character that Roanhorse and Maresca are developing in Echo. Her struggle to maintain her identity while harnessing the power of the Phoenix Force seems to be propelling this series into new and exciting directions." Matthew Aguilar of ComicBook.com gave Phoenix Song: Echo #1 a grade of 3.5 out of 5, writing, "If Phoenix Song: Echo continues the momentum of this issue's second half and delivers on the promise it holds, we could have an amazing series on our hands. If it stays at the surface, it could still be enjoyable, but it won't come near to what it could be. Here's hoping the former is true because all of the elements are here for Phoenix Song: Echo to be something truly special."
Other versions
Daredevil: End of Days
An alternate version of Maya Lopez appears in the miniseries Daredevil: End of Days. She is old and retired from the Avengers. She is now working as a college professor. She is later interviewed by Ben Urich for a story about Matt Murdock's death.
Heroes Reborn
An alternate version of Maya Lopez appears in an alternate reality depicted in the 2021 miniseries Heroes Reborn. She was empowered by the Phoenix Force and imprisoned in Ravencroft Asylum before Blade and Captain America break her out to help them restore their reality. She later recruits Thor to help them further before the Avengers confront the Squadron Supreme of America. After eventually defeating the Squadron, Lopez and Star Brand use their powers in conjunction with the Pandemonium Cube to restore reality to how it was previously.
Ultimate Marvel
An alternate version of Maya Lopez appears in the Ultimate Marvel universe. Echo makes a cameo in Ultimate Spider-Man #122. She appears in a police station shouting "Who can you trust? WHO CAN YOU TRUST?!", referencing Brian Bendis' frequent use of the character in New Avengers and Secret Invasion.
In other media
Television
Maya Lopez / Echo makes a cameo appearance in the Ultimate Spider-Man episodes "Agent Venom" and "The Next Iron Spider" as one of several young superheroes who were inspired by Spider-Man and is monitored by S.H.I.E.L.D.
Maya Lopez appears in two television series set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, portrayed by Alaqua Cox as an adult and by Darnell Besaw (Cox's cousin) as a child. This version, who sports a prosthetic leg since childhood, is the Choctaw leader of the Tracksuit Mafia, with Kazimierz "Kazi" Kazimierczak (portrayed by Fra Fee) serving as her second-in-command and ASL interpreter.
She debuted in the live-action Disney+ series Hawkeye (2021). In flashbacks during the Blip, her father William Lopez (portrayed by Zahn McClarnon) was killed by Ronin. In the present, she seeks revenge on Ronin and initially targets Kate Bishop, who inadvertently wore the Ronin suit to fight off Lopez's men, before setting her sights on Clint Barton. However, she learns Barton was tasked by an informant working for Lopez's boss and adoptive father, Wilson Fisk, with killing her father and becomes suspicious of Kazi, who was absent the night of her father's murder. After confronting Kazi, she confronts Fisk.
Echo, a spin-off series centered on Lopez, was announced in March 2021 to be in early development for Disney+, with Cox reprising her role and Etan Cohen and Emily Cohen initially set to write and executive produce respectively, later changed to Marion Dayre for both during the official announcement in November 2021. The miniseries premiered on January 9, 2024. Hunted by Wilson Fisk's organization, Maya returns to her hometown in Oklahoma, where she must come to terms with her past, reconnect with her Native American roots, and embrace her family and community.
Video games
Maya Lopez / Echo appears as a boss in Daredevil. This version is a villain who believes that the titular character was never in league with the Kingpin.
Maya Lopez / Ronin appears as an unlockable playable character in the PSP version of Marvel Ultimate Alliance, voiced by Marabina Jaimes. An unmasked variant and her Echo persona appear as alternate costumes while she also appears as an unlockable character in the Wii version via a mod.
Maya Lopez / Echo appears as a playable character in Marvel Puzzle Quest.
Maya Lopez / Echo appears as an unlockable playable character in Marvel Future Fight.
Maya Lopez / Echo appears as an unlockable playable character in Lego Marvel's Avengers, voiced by Tonantzin Carmelo.
Maya Lopez / Echo appears as a playable card in Marvel Snap.
Miscellaneous
Maya Lopez appears in Spider-Man: Hostile Takeover, a prequel novel to the video game Spider-Man. This version was raised to believe Spider-Man killed her father and plots with the Kingpin and Blood Spider to seek revenge. However, Spider-Man proves that Kingpin killed her father, which leads to her allying with Spider-Man. She provides evidence to incriminate the Kingpin, enabling a prosecution and leading into the video game's events.
In 2024, Funko released a Maya Lopez Funko Pop figure inspired by the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) incarnation of the character.
References
External links
Avengers (comics) characters
Characters created by Joe Quesada
Comics characters introduced in 1999
Daredevil (Marvel Comics) characters
Female soldier and warrior characters in comics
Fictional avatars
Fictional Cheyenne people
Fictional deaf characters
Fictional Native American people in comics
Fictional Native American women
Marvel Comics female superheroes
Marvel Comics martial artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian%20Forest%20cat
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Norwegian Forest cat
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Norwegian Forest cat
The Norwegian Forest cat (and ) is a breed of domestic cat originating in Northern Europe. This landrace breed is adapted to a very cold climate, with a top coat of long, glossy hair and a woolly undercoat for insulation. The breed's ancestors may have been a landrace breed of short-haired cats brought to Norway about A.D. 1000 by the Vikings, who may also have brought with them long-haired cats, like those ancestral to the modern Siberian and Turkish Angora.
During World War II, the Norwegian Forest cat was nearly extinct; then the Norwegian Forest Cat Club's breeding program increased the cat's number. It was registered as a breed with the European Fédération Internationale Féline in the 1970s, when a cat fancier, Carl-Fredrik Nordane, took notice of the breed and made efforts to register it. The breed is very popular in Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Iceland, and France.
It is a large breed with a strong body, similar to the Siberian and Maine Coon cat breeds, with long legs, a bushy tail, and a sturdy body. It is very good at climbing, partly because of strong claws.
History and adaption
The Norwegian Forest cat is adapted to survive Norway's cold weather. Its ancestors may include cold-adapted black and white British Shorthair cats brought to Norway from Great Britain some time after 1000 AD by the Vikings, and longhaired cats brought to Norway by Crusaders around the 14th century. These cats could have reproduced with farm and feral stock and may have eventually evolved into the modern-day Norwegian Forest breed. The Siberian and the Turkish Angora, longhaired cats from Russia and Turkey, respectively, are also possible ancestors of the breed.
Norse legends refer to the as a "mountain-dwelling fairy cat with an ability to climb sheer rock faces that other cats could not manage." Since the Norwegian Forest cat is a very adept climber, author Claire Bessant believes that the folktale could be about the ancestor of the modern Norwegian Forest breed. The name Norse is used by some breeders and fancier organisations for the modern breed.
The ancestors of the Norwegian Forest cat most likely served as ships' cats (mousers) on Viking ships. The original landrace lived in the Norwegian forests for many centuries, but were later prized for their hunting skills and were used on Norwegian farms, until they were discovered in the early 20th century by cat enthusiasts.
In 1938 the first organisation devoted to the breed, the Norwegian Forest Cat Club, was formed in Oslo, Norway. The club's movement to preserve the breed was interrupted by World War II. Owing to cross-breeding with free-ranging domestic cats during the war, the Norwegian Forest cat became endangered and nearly extinct until the Norwegian Forest Cat Club helped the breed make a comeback by developing an official breeding program.
In the 1950s, King Olav V declared them the official cat of Norway. Since the cat did not leave Norway until the 1970s, it was not registered as a breed in the Fédération Internationale Féline (FIFe), the pan-European federation of cat registries, until Carl-Fredrik Nordane, a Norwegian cat fancier, took notice of the breed, and made efforts to register it. The breed was registered in Europe by the 1970s, and in the American Cat Fanciers Association in 1994. In 1978, it was recognised in Sweden as an official breed, and in 1989, they were accepted as a breed in the United Kingdom by the Norwegian Cat Club of Britain.
The Norwegian Forest breed is very popular in Norway and Sweden. Since 2003, it has been the fifth most popular cat breed in France, where there are about 400 to 500 births per year.
Description
Appearance
The Norwegian Forest cat is strongly built and larger than an average cat. Adult females weigh ; males, . The breed has a long, sturdy body; long legs; and a bushy tail. The coat consists of a long, thick, glossy, water-repellent top layer and a woolly undercoat and is thickest at the legs, chest, and head. The undercoat appears as a ruff. The profile of the breed is generally straight. Their water-resistant coat with a dense undercoat developed to help the cat survive in the harsh Scandinavian climate.
The head is long with an overall shape similar to an equilateral triangle, a strong chin, and a muzzle of medium length; a square or round-shaped head is considered to be a defect. The eyes are almond shaped and oblique, and may be of any colour. The ears are large, wide at the base, and high set, have a tufted top, are placed in the extension of the triangle formed by the head, and end with a tuft of hair like the ears of the lynx.
All coat colours and divisions in the traditional, sepia and mink categories are accepted. Since the cats have very strong claws, they are very good climbers, and can even climb rocks.
Behaviour
They are friendly, intelligent, and generally good with people. The Norwegian Forest cat has a lot of energy. Fanciers note that these cats produce a variety of high-pitched "chirping" vocalisations.
Norwegian Forest cats that live primarily outdoors become swift and effective hunters, but the breed can also adapt to indoor life.
A study comparing Norwegian Forest cat kittens to Siamese, Oriental, and Abyssinian kittens found the Norwegian Forest cat to be more likely to explore and try to escape.
Health
In an experiment directed by John C. Fyfea, Rebeccah L. Kurzhals, and others, it was concluded that a complex rearrangement in the breed's Glycogen branching enzyme (GBE1) can cause both a perinatal hypoglycemic collapse and a late-juvenile-onset neuromuscular degeneration in glycogen storage disease type IV in the breed. This disorder, while rare, can prove fatal to cats that have it. Glycogen storage disease type IV due to branching enzyme deficiency was found in an inbred family of Norwegian forest cats.
The breed has also been known to suffer from hip dysplasia, which is a rare, partially hereditary disease of the hip joint.
An analysis of pedigree records of cats in England found evidence of hereditary cardiomyopathy. A study looking at 17 cases of eosinophilic granuloma complex in Norwegian Forest cats found a link between the cats after reviewing pedigree analysis, suggesting a hereditary nature of the condition.
See also
Maine Coon
Siberian cat
Norwegian Elkhound
Norwegian Lundehund
Norwegian sheep landrace
Norwegian chicken landrace
References
External links
Cat breeds originating in Norway
Linebred animals
Natural cat breeds
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-League
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I-League
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I-League
The I-League is the men's second-tier of the Indian football league system. Currently contested by 12 clubs, It operates as a system of promotion and relegation with the Indian Super League (ISL) and the I-League 2.
The competition was founded in 2007 as the successor to the National Football League, with the first season starting in November 2007. The league was launched as India's first top-tier professional football league with the aim to increase the player pool for the India national team. I-League operates on a system of promotion and relegation with the I-League 2 and at first only promotion system with the ISL, from the 2022–23 season.
Since the inception of the I-League, a total of ten clubs have been crowned champions. Dempo have won the most titles in league history, being crowned champions three times. Churchill Brothers, Mohun Bagan, Bengaluru and Gokulam Kerala have won the league twice. Salgaocar, Aizawl, Minerva Punjab, Chennai City, Roundglass Punjab and Mohammedan have won it once.
History
Origins
In 1996, the first domestic league was started in India, known as the National Football League, in an effort to introduce professionalism in Indian football. Despite that ambition, that has not been achieved to this date. During the National Football League days, the league suffered from poor infrastructure and unprofessionalism from its clubs. One of the clubs in the league, FC Kochin, went defunct in 2002 after it was revealed that the club had not paid salaries since 2000, after making up 2.5 crores of losses in a season.
After a decade of decline with the National Football League, the All India Football Federation decided it was time for a change. This resulted in the modern day iteration of the top-tier in India.
Formation
After the 2006–07 NFL season, it was announced that it would be rebranded as the I-League for the 2007–08 season. The league's first season consisted of eight teams from the previous NFL campaign and two teams from the 2nd Division to form a 10 team league. Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC), the title sponsors of the previous NFL, were named as the title sponsors of the I-League before the league kicked off in November 2007. The league also announced a change in their foreign-player restrictions with the new rule being that all the clubs could sign four foreigners – three non-Asian and one which must be Asian. The league also announced that, for the first season, matches will be broadcast on Zee Sports.
The original ten clubs in the I-League's first season were Air India, Churchill Brothers, Dempo, East Bengal, JCT, Mahindra United, Mohun Bagan, Salgaocar, Sporting Goa and Viva Kerala.
The early seasons (2007–2012)
The first I-League match took place on 24 November 2007 between Dempo and Salgaocar. The match, which took place at the Fatorda Stadium in Margao, ended 3–0 in favour of Dempo with Chidi Edeh scoring the first goal in league history in the third minute. After eighteen rounds it was Dempo who came out as the first champions in the I-League. Viva Kerala and Salgaocar, however, ended up as the first two teams to ever be relegated from the I-League.
The next season the I-League was expanded from 10 to 12 teams. Mumbai, Chirag United, Mohammedan, and Vasco were all promoted from the I-League 2 to make the expansion possible. This however brought up early concerns over how "national" the I-League was. The 2008–09 season would see eleven of the twelve teams come from three different cities. The previous season saw all ten teams come from four different cities. Bhaichung Bhutia, then captain of the India national team, said that it was the federations job to spread the game across the country and that it needed to happen.
Regardless of the early criticism, the I-League went on as scheduled and once the 2008–09 season concluded. it was Churchill Brothers who came out on top. Then, before the 2009–10 season, the league was once again expanded from 12 teams to 14. In order to make this happen Salgaocar, Viva Kerala, Pune, and Shillong Lajong were all promoted from the 2nd Division to the I-League. This helped the I-League retain some criticism about how national the league was as now the league would be played in seven different cities/states: Goa, Kerala, Kolkata, Mumbai, Pune, Punjab, and Shillong.
After the 2009–10 season it was Dempo who came out on top for the second time in I-League history.
Conflict of parties
On 9 December 2010 the All India Football Federation signed a 15-year, 700-crore deal with Reliance Industries and International Management Group of the United States. The deal gave IMG-Reliance exclusive commercial rights to sponsorship, advertising, broadcasting, merchandising, video, franchising, and rights to create a new football league. This deal came about after the AIFF ended their 10-year deal with Zee Sports five years early.
Two months later, on 8 February 2011, it was reported that twelve of the fourteen I-League clubs held a private meeting in Mumbai to discuss the ongoing issues related to the league. It was never revealed what was exactly talked about at this meeting. Then, on 22 February, it was announced that the same twelve I-League clubs that attended the meeting would not be signing the AFC–licensing papers needed to play in the I-League. The reasoning for this was because the I-League clubs were not happy over the fact that IMG-Reliance had so far done nothing to promote the I-League and that they demanded the I-League be made a separate entity from both the AIFF and IMG-Reliance. At this time however there were rumours that IMG-Reliance had been planning on revamping the I-League along the same lines as Major League Soccer of the United States for the 2012–13 season.
On 11 March 2012, following the disbanding of two former I-League clubs – JCT and Mahindra United, it was announced that the I-League clubs would be forming their own organization known as the Indian Professional Football Clubs Association (IPFCA) in order to safeguard their interest and promote football in India. Every club, except for HAL and AIFF–owned Pailan Arrows, joined the newly formed organization. Soon after, it was announced that there would be a meeting held between the AIFF, IMG-Reliance, and the IPFCA on 20 April 2012. In this meeting, IMG-Reliance would present their plan on how they would grow the I-League but the meeting never occurred for reasons unknown.
Then, on 4 May 2012, the AIFF hosted the last ad hoc meeting – an annual meeting between the AFC and AIFF to assess the growth of Indian football. The AFC president at the time, Zhang Jilong, was also in attendance at this meeting. It was reported that the IPFCA would use this meeting to voice their displeasure at the AIFF and IMG-Reliance but the association never showed up at the meeting.
On 18 June 2012 the IPFCA was officially sanctioned under the Society's Act of 1960.
League improvement
Despite the ongoing war between the AIFF, IMG-Reliance, and the IPFCA, the league did manage to improve its product on the field and awareness did increase during this period. It all started when the India national team participated in the AFC Asian Cup in 2011 for the first time in 27 years. Despite being knocked-out in the group stage after losing all three of their games, India came back home more popular than ever. Subrata Pal, of Pune gained the most popularity after his impressive performances in goal for India during the Asian Cup. At the same time, before the Asian Cup, Sunil Chhetri became the second Indian footballer in the modern footballing era to move abroad when he signed for the Kansas City Wizards in Major League Soccer in 2010. He also became the first exported Indian from the I-League.
The league was then given a major boost from its main derby, the Kolkata derby, between East Bengal and Mohun Bagan. On 20 November 2011, 90,000 people watched at the Salt Lake Stadium as Mohun Bagan defeated East Bengal 1–0. The league also saw more expansion to others areas with the promotion of United Sikkim from the 2nd Division, however, their reign was short lived as financial troubles saw them relegated the next season.
Meanwhile, while the league continued to grow, so did the players' demand. During this period plenty of Indian players were wanted on trial by foreign clubs, mainly in Europe. After his return from MLS, Sunil Chhetri and international teammate Jeje Lalpekhlua were called for trials at Scottish Premier League side Rangers in 2011. Subrata Pal had trials at RB Leipzig before finally signing for Vestsjælland in 2014. And Gurpreet Singh Sandhu underwent trials at then Premier League side Wigan Athletic and finally signing for Stabæk Fotball, Norway in 2014.
At the same time, as Indian players demand abroad increased, the demand for higher quality foreigners in the I-League also increased. Former A-League player of the year and Costa Rican international Carlos Hernández signed with Prayag United before the 2012–13 season from the Melbourne Victory. Lebanese international Bilal Najjarine also signed with Churchill Brothers in 2012.
Demotion to second tier
On 18 May 2016, IMG–Reliance, along with the AIFF and I-League representatives met during a meeting in Mumbai. At the meeting, it was proposed that starting from the 2017–18 season, the Indian Super League becomes the top-tier football league in India while the I-League gets relegated to the second tier, but the idea was not entertained by the I-League representatives.
In 2017, FIFA and the AFC had appointed a committee to look at the footballing landscape in the country which was in disarray due to two simultaneous leagues running together, and come up with solutions to re-establish a singular league pyramid which would be acceptable for everyone. In the month of June, IMG–Reliance, the AIFF and the I-League representatives, met with the AFC in Kuala Lumpur in order to find a new way forward for Indian football. The AFC were against allowing the ISL as the premier league in India while the clubs like East Bengal and Mohun Bagan wanted a complete merger of ISL and I-League. A couple weeks later, the AIFF proposed that both ISL and I-League run simultaneously on a short–term basis with the I-League champions retaining the spot for the AFC Champions League qualifying stage, while the AFC Cup qualifying stage spot going to the ISL champions. The proposal from the AIFF was officially approved by the AFC on 25 July 2017, with the ISL replacing the domestic cup competition, the Federation Cup.
On 14 October 2019, the AFC held a summit in Kuala Lumpur, chaired by the AFC Secretary General Windsor John, which involved key stakeholders from the AIFF, the FSDL, the ISL and the I-League clubs, and other major stakeholders to propose a new roadmap to facilitate the football league system in India. Based on the roadmap that was prepared by the AFC and the AIFF at the summit and was finally approved by the AFC Executive Committee on 26 October in Da Nang, in 2019–20 season, ISL will attain the country's top-tier league status, allowing the ISL premiers to play AFC Champions League and the I-League champions to play AFC Cup. In addition, starting with the 2022–23 season, I-League will lose the top-tier status, wherein the champion of the I-League will stand a chance to be promoted to the ISL with no participation fee. In its recommendation for 2024–25, it was agreed to fully implement promotion and relegation between the two leagues, and abolition of parallel league system.
Competition format
Since the league began in 2007, the rules have changed almost yearly. Currently, the league has 12 teams. Each club plays each other twice during the season, once at home and the other time away. At the end of the season, the team with the most points wins the league and gains promotion to the top flight Indian Super League. In the case of a tie then head-to-head record is looked upon. Further, in the case of a tie the goal difference is looked upon the tied teams.
Clubs
A total of 39 clubs have participated so far in the I-League since its inception from 2007, up to the 2023-24 season.
Current clubs
All-time points table
The following is a list of clubs that have played in the I-League at any time since its formation in 2007 to the current season. Teams playing in the next season are indicated in bold.
Clubs qualifying for I-League
Clubs promoted/relegated from I-League
Timeline
Sponsorship
Since the original National Football League, the Indian league has always been sponsored. When the I-League began in 2007 the last sponsor from the old National Football League, ONGC, were brought in as the sponsors, making the league be known as the ONGC I-League. However, after the 2010–11 season, the deal with ONGC was not renewed and the I-League was left without a sponsorship deal till 2013. On 24 September 2013, it was announced that telecommunications company, Airtel would be the new title sponsor of the I-League, thus making the league known as the Airtel I-League. In December 2014, it was announced that Hero MotoCorp would replace Airtel as the title sponsor for the league and hence the league would be known has Hero I-League.
The league is currently without a title sponsor, as Hero decided not to renew its sponsorship deal with Indian football after 2022–23 season.
Media coverage
Stadiums
Home stadiums (2023–24)
Coaches
The role of the head coach in the I-League varies from club to club. Some like to appoint technical or sporting directors as well as manager-style coaches. The All India Football Federation does impose licensing requirements for head coaches in the I-League, the rule being that the head coach must have an AFC Professional Coaching Diploma in order to coach in the I-League. However, some clubs and coaches like Subhash Bhowmick, Subrata Bhattacharya, Sukhwinder Singh and Bimal Ghosh were known for accepting a technical director role in order to bypass the head coaching requirements. This has bought about a lot of controversial news, most recently being when Churchill Brothers won the I-League after the 2012–13 season with Subhash Bhowmick not winning the "Coach of the Year" award, due to being listed as the technical director.
Seeing this, the AIFF technical director, Rob Baan, as well as others, advocated that the federation make it mandatory for both technical directors and head coaches to have an AFC Pro-Diploma. On 14 May 2014 this was officially put into act by the AIFF during their I-League licensing committee meeting.
In terms of coaching performance, after the first seven seasons of the I-League, an Indian head coach has won the I-League four times while a foreign head coach has won it three times. Zoran Đorđević of Serbia was the first foreign head coach to win the I-League. Italian coach Vincenzo Alberto Annese became the first coach to win back-to-back I-League titles in 2020–21 and 2021–22 seasons.
Armando Colaco was the first Indian coach to win the I-League in the league's opening season and he has the most I-League championships at three. Khogen Singh is the latest Indian coach to win the I-League in 2017–18 season.
Champions
Successful clubs by seasons
Notes
Performance by clubs
Stats and players
Individual game highest attendance records
Seasonal statistics
Player transfer fees
Top transfer fees paid by I-League clubs
Top transfer fees received by I-League clubs
Top scorers
Season after season, players in the I-League compete for the golden boot title, which is awarded at the end of each season to the top scorer throughout the entire season. The most recent winner of the golden boot is Bidyashagar Singh, who won the golden boot at the end of the 2020–21 season after scoring 12 goals. Ranti Martins is both currently the holders of the most golden boot titles with five golden boots. Along with Odafa Onyeka Okolie, the two Nigerians make up the eight golden boots won by Nigerians, the most of any nationality in the league.
Awards
The trophy
The I-League has only been awarding a proper trophy to the champion since 2013 when the 2012–13 season champions, Churchill Brothers, won the league. Before 2013 the I-League champions received a basic trophy. The new trophy was designed in Europe and is modeled along the lines of the champion trophies in the top European leagues. Regarding the trophy, the AIFF general secretary, Kushal Das, said: "It is the endeavour of AIFF to practice the best principles of other leagues and accordingly we thought to create a more contemporary look to the I-League trophy in line with trophies given in European leagues".
Season awards
End of the season I-League awards were previously conducted by the Football Players' Association of India and All India Football Federation since 2008–09 season. Currently the awards include the Hero of the league, the golden boot, the golden glove, the best head coach (Syed Abdul Rahim Award), the best defender (Jarnail Singh Award), the best midfielder and the emerging player of the league, all of which are sponsored by Hero.
Hero of the League
Syed Abdul Rahim Award
Emerging player of the season
Foreign player of the year
Indian Player of the Season
Fans' player of the year
I-League clubs in Asia
Traditionally, I-League clubs have done particularly well in the AFC Cup. In 2008 Dempo managed to reach the semi-finals of the AFC Cup before being defeated by Al-Safa of Lebanon. East Bengal also managed to reach the semi-finals in 2013 before being knocked-out by Al-Kuwait. Bengaluru is the only I-League club to reach the AFC Cup Final in 2016 but lost to Al-Quwa Al-Jawiya of Iraq.
However, in the AFC Champions League, no I-League club has ever managed to make it past the qualifiers.
See also
Football in India
History of Indian football
List of football clubs in India
2021–23 Indian football club competition play-offs for AFC
IFA Shield
NFL Second Division
NFL Third Division
References
External links
"iLeague Fixtures" – League Winner (archived 29 June 2017). Retrieved on 31 May 2015.
All India Football Federation
2
2007 establishments in India
Sports leagues established in 2007
Sports leagues in India
Professional sports leagues in India
Second level football leagues in Asia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splinter%20%28Teenage%20Mutant%20Ninja%20Turtles%29
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Splinter (Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles)
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Splinter (Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles)
Splinter, often referred to as Master Splinter or Sensei by his students/sons, is a fictional character from Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles comics and all related media. A mutant rat, he is the grave and stoic sage of the Turtles, their ninjutsu and martial arts instructor, and their adoptive father. The character was originally a parody of the Marvel Comics character Stick.
Mirage Comics, original films, 2003 cartoon, 2023 film
In both the original comics and the live-action movies, Splinter is a pet of a ninja named Hamato Yoshi in Japan, and uniquely intelligent for his species. Yoshi becomes embroiled in a deadly dispute with a fellow ninja by the name of Oroku Nagi and is eventually murdered in turn by Nagi's brother, Oroku Saki, as revenge for his brother's death. However, in the 1990 film and 2003 TV series Nagi is removed entirely. Additionally, in the 1990 film, Splinter escapes from his cage during the murder, and attacks Saki, clawing at his face. Saki, in turn, slices his ear off. It is suggested that this mutilation is the reason Saki took the Shredder disguise to hide the scars. In contrast, in the 2003 TMNT cartoon series, it was Hun's face which Splinter clawed.
Without a home, Splinter is forced to run away and live in New York City's sewers. Due to a traffic accident, four baby turtles and a canister of mutagenic ooze are sent down into the sewer. The canister mutates both Splinter and the turtles; it also enhances the former's already sophisticated intellect. Splinter names the four turtles Leonardo, Donatello, Raphael, and Michelangelo (after a book on Renaissance artists that he found in a storm drain) and trains them in the arts of ninjutsu so that they can avenge his dead master while raising them as his own sons, as well as educating them.
In the 2003 TMNT cartoon, he possesses a significant reputation as a ninja master; in a multi-part episode, he is revealed to be a champion of the Battle Nexus, a multi-dimension-spanning contest where the greatest combatants of various dimensions come together to fight each other for the title of Battle Nexus Champion. When the Turtles learn of the Battle Nexus, they participate as well, resulting in Splinter forfeiting when called upon to fight Michelangelo, as he wishes to allow his sons the opportunity to fight where he succeeded in the past.
In the episode "Tempus Fugit", Splinter and the Turtles, who time-traveled into the future, are sent back to the present time, but the villain, Viral, blasts Splinter with a decompiler ray that scatters his bits all over the internet. While Splinter was not seen much in the "Back to the Sewers" season, the focus of those episodes is the Turtles' efforts to find Splinter's data bits by traveling all over cyberspace. Splinter is restored in the final episode and helps defeat the Cyber Shredder.
In Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Mutant Mayhem, much like the 2014 film, he is not Hamato Yoshi, nor is he connected to him in any way. But like the Mirage comics, he is exposed to mutagen in the sewer and not experimented on. He was a street rat that hated humans and went into the sewers to scavenge for food. But instead of food, Splinter found four baby turtles that were covered in green ooze. Splinter rescued the Turtles and got some of the ooze on him, transforming him and the Turtles. After a bad encounter with humans, Splinter decided to learn ninjutsu from online videos and Jackie Chan movies and teach it to his sons.
1987 animated series
In the 1987 TMNT cartoon, Splinter and Yoshi are the same person. He is a martial art instructor for the Foot Clan in Japan, and also has a passion for Renaissance art. Yoshi is framed by his rival, Oroku Saki, for trying to murder their common dojo master. Unable to prove his innocence and expelled from the Foot Clan, Splinter moves to New York City, where he lives as a hermit in its sewers and befriends the rats. One day, he comes across four baby turtles which were accidentally dropped by a boy through a sewer grate. Splinter keeps them as pets and treats them like his children. When he finds the turtles near some broken barrels that are oozing glowing pink, later retconned to green, chemical liquid, he tries to clean them with his bare hands. As a result, they are all affected by the leaking chemical, which is a mutagen. The mutagen combines the DNA of living beings who have been in contact. Thus, the turtles, being in a pet store with people touching them, turn into young humanoid turtles. Yoshi, having been in contact with sewer rats, becomes a humanoid rat. Although, Master Splinter did get the chance to be human again in the episode "Splinter No More", but realizes he prefers being with the turtles and had no place as a human anymore.
Yoshi raises the turtles by himself and gives them the names of his favorite Renaissance artists: Leonardo, Donatello, Raphael, and Michelangelo. Yoshi is given the nickname "Splinter", due to his proficiency at breaking wooden boards, and he teaches them the art of ninjutsu in order to protect themselves. Like many real-life ninja masters, he has a strong sense of honor and follows very strict rules which all four of his students adopt. Master Splinter always has a wise quote or speech for the turtles and often steps in with his ninja skills when the turtles are caught in a, seemingly inescapable, predicament.
Master Splinter does not have a father/son relationship with the turtles, as suggested in other versions, but more of a teacher/student bond. Despite not having that father/son relationship with the turtles, Splinter, in the episode "The Old Switcheroo", shows a glimpse of fatherly concern for Leonardo when he is injured by one of Donatello's contraptions. In addition, in Turtles Forever the old 1987 series turtles are surprised when the 2003 series turtles call Splinter "father". However, in the movie, the 2003 series Leonardo comments that it feels right to be with the 1987 Splinter regardless of the differences between the two worlds. Splinter's assurances that he feels the same, coupled with his comment that Leonardo and his brothers will always be welcome there, helps Leonardo see the common similarities between the teams, regardless of their different styles and methods.
In the final episode, "Divide and Conquer", Splinter explains to the turtles after they defeated Dregg that they are no longer his students but his equals and they have finally become ninja masters.
Coming Out of Their Shells tour
The 1990 live action concert tour entitled "Coming Out of Their Shells", saw Splinter described as the rat owned by Hamato Yoshi mutated to a humanoid form, rather than Yoshi himself mutated into a ratlike body, bringing him more in line with the original Mirage Comics incarnation as well as that of the then recently released feature film, which also followed the Mirage origin. In the concert events, he is still the Turtles' mentor in the martial arts, as well as encouraging their musical pursuits, and sings the track Skipping Stones as a solo ballad. He encourages the Turtles as they deal with the Shredder's plot to steal all music in the world, though he does not physically join the battles against Shredder or his foot soldiers. Peter Renaday reprises his role as Splinter's voice in non-musical portions of the event, though the VHS tape of the inaugural show held at Radio City Music Hall leaves him uncredited.
Archie TMNT Adventures comics
Archie Comics published the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures which began as an adaptation of the 1987 TV series in comic form, though the series eventually deviated from this and began telling its own stories with little to no connection to the original cartoon, effectively becoming a separate continuity. In the comic, they maintained Splinter's human background even when they started publishing original storylines.
2012 animated series
In the 2012 series, Splinter is again introduced as Hamato Yoshi, voiced by Hoon Lee. His relationship with Oroku Saki is mostly intact, with the Hamato and Foot Clans later revealed to have had a long-term conflict with each other. Despite being raised as brothers, both Yoshi and Saki become rivals due to their affection for Tang Shen, and Saki wishes to discredit Yoshi in front of her. Yoshi loses his temper by mistake and the altercation forever destroyed their relationship, culminating with Saki learning of his true heritage and starting a battle that burns down the Hamato Clan monastery, indirectly killing Shen and, seemingly, Shen and Yoshi's daughter, Miwa.
After moving to New York City, Yoshi has just purchased four pet turtles when he stumbles upon an exchange in an alley between two Kraang droids. Seeking to silence Yoshi before he can share what he has seen, a fight ensues and the canister the droids have been carrying smashes open, splashing both Yoshi and his turtles with a mutagen. As the result of stepping on the tail of a black rat upon entering an alley, Yoshi mutates while the Turtles take on human characteristics. Realizing he can no longer live a normal life, he retreats to the New York sewers where he raises his pets as sons and teaches them ninjutsu. Compared to his earlier counterparts, he is very strict in this series.
Splinter's sons, along with their new friend April O'Neil, soon become involved in the conflict with both of Splinter's old enemies, the Shredder and the Kraang. Reluctantly allowing the group to get involved, Splinter appoints Leonardo as their leader and continues to offer counsel and lessons as they engage various foes. Recognizing great sensitivity in April, he begins training her as a kunoichi and comes to regard her with a fatherly fondness. Splinter ventures from his lair on only two occasions. The first is when he falls under the control of the Rat King, who attempts to persuade him to forsake his humanity and embrace the life of a rat. Splinter eventually breaks free with the Turtles' help and defeats the Rat King. The second is when Shredder kidnaps April and lures Splinter to his stronghold for a final confrontation. Splinter overpowers Shredder's men and engages his old foe. Shredder reveals that Splinter's daughter, Miwa, had not died and that Shredder had taken her and raised her as his own. Splinter nearly defeats Shredder, only to be attacked by Miwa; Miwa, whose name is now Karai, has been taught, by Shredder, that Splinter is responsible for her mother's death.
As the second season progresses, Splinter tells the turtles about his true relationship with Karai. He is eventually able to convince Karai of the truth about their past, but she subsequently mutates into a snake-like being when Shredder's plan for revenge backfires. Later, Earth is invaded by the Kraang and, in the ensuing battle, much of Splinter's lair is destroyed before Splinter is able to defeat Kraang Sub-Prime. Splinter then leaves the lair to find his missing sons. Splinter again engages Shredder in battle and, seemingly victorious, Splinter prepares to reunite with his sons, April, and Casey Jones, only to be attacked from behind by Shredder and thrown into a sewer drain. He is rescued from drowning by Karai and left in an area of the sewer to recover.
At the end of the 3rd season, Splinter asks Shredder for a truce to stop the alien Triceratons. Shredder agrees but at the end of the battle, Shredder kills Splinter. The turtles hold him one last time before they, Casey and April flee with Fugitoid, as he arrives at the very last moment in a spaceship as Earth is sucked into a black hole.
When the turtles go through the time and fail to claim all the Black-Hole Generator pieces to help in the battle against the Triceratons and warn Splinter in time to stop Shredder from killing him. Splinter defeats Shredder, somewhat paralyzing him as Tiger Claw takes him away. When Shredder has himself infused with mutagen, he kidnaps Karai and demands her to come. Splinter fights Shredder along with the turtles, and the fight, leading up to rocky crevices and chasms below, Splinter and Shredder fall into a gaping chasm. Shredder's fall stops short as he lands on a rock outcrop as Splinter falls way down. He is still alive but his leg is broken. He sees the Rat King come toward him, seemingly surviving his fall down as well. Meanwhile, the turtles try to find him but Shredder goes after them. Splinter fights the Rat King but soon tumbles down and realizes that his fight with the Rat King was all a hallucination because of his fever he had developed in the chasm. He finds the skeletal remains of the Rat King and Donatello and Michelangelo find him, alive and well.
He later attempts to use his healing mantras to help April recover from the influence of the crystal fragment of the mystical Sol Star, and receives a vision of the ancient Aeons themselves but is overpowered by the form of a demonic Aeon. As April becomes possessed by the cosmic entity from within the Sol Star fragment, he attempts to reach her but is contained by April's exceptionally strong telekinesis. Regaining consciousness in the ransacked lair, he warns Donatello to be very careful as that being was not April. When April awakens from her ordeal, he expresses how impressed he is at how April was able to literally destroy her demons. He is once again killed by Shredder during a battle when Super Shredder impales him with his mutated claws and throws him off a rooftop. Splinter is buried at the O'Neil farmhouse. His spirit still gives his sons advice.
In season 5, Splinter's spirit briefly returns to the physical plane in order to help his family and friends after Shredder's henchmen accidentally open a portal to the nether world in an attempt to revive the Shredder and bring him back to life. After the crisis is stopped, Splinter has a final goodbye with his family and friends, and his spirit peacefully floats into the sky and returns to the afterlife once more.
IDW comics and 2014 film
The IDW Comics series, which began in 2011, presents a new origin for both Splinter and the Turtles. All five were originally test subjects at Baxter Stockman's bioengineering firm, Stockgen Corporation. When agents of the Foot Clan break into Stockgen and attempt to steal an alien mutagen, Splinter and the Turtles escape but are exposed to the mutagen in the process. While the element of Splinter being Hamato Yoshi is still present, Oroku Saki is now the Foot Clan's medieval leader, with Splinter and the Turtles being the reincarnations of Yoshi and his sons.
In the back-story, Hamato Yoshi was a member of the Foot Clan in feudal Japan. He is initially known for his unruly temper and lack of discipline. But with the help of his master, Masato, and his love, Tang Shen, he learned to control his temper and becomes a skilled warrior. His contemporary, Oroku Saki, seeks to make the Foot a clan to be feared. When Yoshi openly objects to the needless slaughter of a village connected to an assassination target, he and his family are declared traitors. Yoshi cannot save Tang Shen from being murdered but does save his sons. Yoshi raises and trains his sons for three years until Saki and the Foot find them. When his sons are executed before his eyes, Yoshi swears that he will destroy Oroku Saki before he, himself, falls under the blade.
The live-action 2014 reboot uses the test subject origin story, but Splinter is neither a reincarnation of Hamato Yoshi nor is he associated with him in any way. In fact, Yoshi is written out of the script entirely and Splinter simply learns ninjutsu from a discarded book after being mutated. In the movie, Splinter tells April that he does not remember his life before being in a laboratory, implying that there may be more to Splinter's character.
2018 animated series
In Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, voiced by Eric Bauza and Sander Argabrite (as a younger version of the character), Splinter is once again Hamato Yoshi, a descendant of the Hamato clan; however, as a young child, he escapes the responsibility of his clan in order to pursue a career as a martial arts film star (taking inspiration from Jackie Chan and Bruce Lee) under the stage name "Lou Jitsu". He lives with his sons in their sewer lair and can be seen spending his time reliving his glory days by rewatching his movies as an action hero before he had been unexpectedly mutated into a rat. As the Turtles were intentionally mutated using Yoshi's DNA (revealed in 'Evil League of Mutants', and later shown in 'Goyles, Goyles, Goyles'), they are his biological sons in this iteration rather than adopted.
Splinter shows a great aptitude in using anything as a potential weapon, as shown in his films' he fights with Fish and Ladders in the episode 'Evil League of Mutants'.
Afraid that his sons would be put in harm's way he is less diligent in training them in ninjutsu, until he learns that the Foot Clan have been assembling the Shredder's armour, and he takes a more active role in preparing them for the danger his irresponsibility has placed them in. When they discover that their idol Lou Jitsu that they have been playfully emulating for years is in fact their sensei, they learn to appreciate their father more.
It is revealed that Splinter escaped his responsibility as a Hamato due to his mother being forced to leave him because of it when he was young, causing him to dislike his clan and their duty.
Appearance
Splinter's physical appearance remains fairly consistent in all incarnations of the character; he is portrayed as an elderly rat dressed in robes. The coloration of his fur varies depending on the incarnation. While brown fur is the most common depiction, he is sometimes depicted as having gray fur. In the original live-action movies, he is missing part of his right ear, which was cut off by Saki. In the 2012 series, Splinter is physically taller and younger than he was in past incarnations. He also has a more rat-like design along with distinctive body marks on his fur.
Personality
Splinter is portrayed as wise, intelligent, and a skilled "elderly martial arts master". He is nearly always calm. Even when angry, he refrains from raising his voice. He is the quintessential calm, all-knowing, and wise master of all martial arts. Also, Splinter has strong willpower as he doesn't give up without a fight. Also, in the 1987 series, Splinter can control his brain waves through his willpower.
Splinter cares for his adopted sons with fierce devotion, rescuing them in very critical moments in the series, such as when Shredder attempted to execute the four on a building, or when Bishop tried to literally tear them apart for science. He is furious when the Foot attempts to slay the Turtles with a robot Splinter and goes all the way to Japan after the four are kidnapped by the Tribunal. Splinter does go to the Turtles for help whenever he was in a tough spot, especially shown in the 1987 series episode "The Old Switcheroo" when an accident caused himself and Shredder to switch bodies as he went to them for help in getting back to his real body but had a hard time convincing them at first but they believed him when they heard his wise wisdom and that he didn't want to fight them as they worked together to set things right.
Despite his love for his sons, Splinter is fairly militant with them, especially when they are young and inexperienced. Splinter's main fear is that he and his family will one day be exposed to the outside world, as he is understandably protective. He disciplines the turtles when they become disobedient or unruly. His punishments include making them do back-flips repeatedly in the second live-action movie, or being sent to the Hashi, a form of punishment in the 2014 film by using chopsticks for balance. At times, Splinter does get physical with the Turtles whenever he gets mad with them or breaks up their siblings arguments, which led him to ground them, especially in 2012 series.
Splinter is not completely cut off from the pleasures of modern culture. Splinter is often depicted to be a fan of soap operas. This is stated in a few different incarnations but is most displayed in the 2003 series sixth season, where that hobby is mentioned several times. It is also mentioned in both the 2007 animated film and the 2012 series that he very much enjoys dessert, particularly Ice pops.
In the 2018 series, Splinter is displayed as somewhat irresponsible, spending most of his time eating and watching TV, although he occasionally shows the traits mentioned above.
In the 2023 film Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Mutant Mayhem, he is shown to have an extreme hatred for the human race due to a perception that they were all out to hurt mutants, and as a result, he is overly protective of the Turtles. He is depicted as less of a traditional martial arts master and more of a worrisome single father figure, though he is still skilled in martial arts.
Portrayal
In the 1987 series, he was voiced by Peter Renaday in the American version and by Hideyuki Umezu (TV), Yuzuru Fujimoto (NHK-BS2) and Kiyoshi Kobayashi (VHS) in the Japanese versions. The film Turtles Forever features this incarnation, voiced by David Wills. Renaday would reprise the role of Splinter during spoken portions of the inaugural 'Coming out of their Shells' live action concert tour which was taped from Radio City Music Hall, though he went uncredited in the VHS tape.
In Ninja Turtles: The Next Mutation, Splinter is voiced by Stephen Mendel.
In the 2003 animated series and Turtles Forever American version, Splinter is voiced by Darren Dunstan. In the Japanese version, he is voiced by Shōto Kashii.
In the first two movies, he is voiced by Kevin Clash, and in the third, he was voiced by James Murray. In the 2007 animated film, he was voiced by Mako Iwamatsu; Iwamatsu died during production, and his new fill-in Greg Baldwin stepped in to provide a large share of Splinter's dialogue in the finished film (receiving a credit only for "additional voices"). Splinter was Mako's final role before his death. In the Japanese versions, he was voiced by Kiyoshi Kobayashi and Joji Yanami in the first film, Michio Hazama in the second, Hideyuki Umezu in the third and Shoto Kashii in the fourth.
In the 2007 TMNT game, he is voiced by Terrence Scammell.
In the 2012 animated series, Splinter is voiced by Hoon Lee.
In the 2013 video game TMNT: Out of the Shadows, Splinter is voiced by Feodor Chin.
In the 2014 reboot, Splinter was portrayed by actor Danny Woodburn and his voice was provided by Tony Shalhoub. In Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of the Shadows, the film's sequel, Shalhoub again voices Splinter and the motion-capture for the character is done by Peter D. Badalamenti.
In the 2018 animated series, Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, Splinter is voiced by Eric Bauza.
In the 2020 pinball machine Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles by Stern, Splinter is voiced by Marc Silk.
In the 2023 animated feature, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Mutant Mayhem, Splinter is voiced by Jackie Chan. This version is portrayed as less of a sensei and more like a typical middle-aged father, though he still retains his knowledge of ninjutsu and martial arts, which he learns from watching videos about it.
Video games
Splinter appears as a supporting character in most video games based on the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles franchise. In Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles on the Nintendo Entertainment System, he transforms back into a human if the player reaches the ending. Splinter is a playable character in the 2003 video game, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles 2: Battle Nexus, TMNT: Mutant Melee, TMNT: Smash Up and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Shredder's Revenge. Splinter appears as a supporting character in Nickelodeon All-Star Brawl 2 with Hoon Lee reprising his role. In December 2023, he was added to Fortnite as an outfit.
References
Anthropomorphic mice and rats
Comics characters introduced in 1984
Comic martial artists
Fictional Buddhist monks
Fictional characters from Kansai
Fictional characters from Tokyo
Fictional characters with precognition
Fictional human–animal hybrids
Fictional immigrants to the United States
Fictional Japanese people in television
Fictional martial arts trainers
Fictional mutants
Fictional ninja
Fictional schoolteachers
Japanese comics characters
Male characters in comics
Superhero film characters
Superhero television characters
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaroslav%20Paniot
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Yaroslav Paniot
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Yaroslav Paniot
Yaroslav Vadymovych Paniot (born 26 December 1997) is a Ukrainian-American figure skater who competes for the United States. He is the 2021 U.S. national pewter medalist.
Representing Ukraine, he is the 2017 CS Tallinn Trophy bronze medalist, the 2017 Philadelphia International silver medalist, and a two-time Ukrainian national champion (2014, 2017). He has reached the free skate at four ISU Championships and qualified a spot for Ukraine at the 2018 Winter Olympics, where he finished 30th. He last competed for Ukraine in November 2018.
Career
Early career
Paniot began skating in 2003. In his early years, he was taught by Yuriy Sukholentsev and Oleksandr Zelensky in Ukraine. From 2009 to 2011, he was coached by Alexei Tchetverukhin in Russia.
In January 2012, Paniot won silver in the team event at the Winter Youth Olympics in Innsbruck, Austria. He debuted on the ISU Junior Grand Prix (JGP) series the following season, in late August 2012. In February 2013, Paniot took silver at the European Youth Olympic Winter Festival in Poiana Brașov, Romania. He trained mainly in Kyiv until 2014.
2014–2015 season: ISU Championship debut
During the season, Paniot trained mainly in Irvine, California, coached by Viacheslav Zagorodniuk. Competing in the 2014 JGP series, he finished 17th in Aichi, Japan, having dropped from 7th after the short program, and won the bronze medal in Dresden, Germany, after placing fourth in the short and third in the free skate. Making his senior international debut, he finished 12th at the Warsaw Cup, an ISU Challenger Series event. In December, Paniot won the Ukrainian senior national title; ranked first in the short program and second in the free skate, he finished ahead of silver medalist Ivan Pavlov by less than half a point.
Paniot was selected to compete at two senior-level ISU Championships and reached the free skate at both. In January, he finished 16th at the 2015 European Championships in Stockholm, Sweden, having ranked 14th in the short program and 18th in the free skate. In March, he placed 20th in the short, 24th in the free, and 24th overall at the 2015 World Championships in Shanghai, China.
2015–2016 season
Paniot finished second to Pavlov at the Ukrainian Championships in December 2015. He changed coaches in January 2016, joining Nikolai Morozov a week before the Ukrainian Junior Championships. In March, he competed at the 2016 World Junior Championships in Debrecen, Hungary and qualified for the free skate by placing 15th in the short. He was 8th in the free skate and 11th overall.
2016–2017 season
Competing in the 2016 JGP series, Paniot placed 5th in Saint Gervais-les-Bains and Dresden. He ranked 12th at the 2016 CS Golden Spin of Zagreb. At the Ukrainian Championships, he placed first in the short and second in the free, finishing second to Pavlov by a margin of 0.87.
Ahead of the 2017 World Junior Championships, Paniot trained under Halyna Kukhar and Anton Kovalevski in Ukraine. At Junior Worlds in Taipei (Taiwan), Paniot finished in 10th place after scoring personal bests in every portion of the competition.
2017–2018 season
In early August, Paniot received the silver medal at the Philadelphia Summer International, having finished second to Timothy Dolensky and ahead of Max Aaron. In mid-September, he placed fourth at the 2017 CS U.S. International Classic. At the end of the month, he competed at the 2017 CS Nebelhorn Trophy, the final qualifying opportunity for the 2018 Winter Olympics. By placing 7th, he earned a spot for Ukraine in the men's event at the Olympics.
Paniot won bronze at the 2017 CS Tallinn Trophy and then won his second senior national title. In February 2018, he competed at the 2018 Winter Olympics in PyeongChang, South Korea. He was eliminated after placing 30th in the short program.
2018–2019 season
Paniot placed eighth at the 2018 CS U.S. International Figure Skating Classic. In November, he made his Grand Prix debut, placing 12th at the 2018 NHK Trophy. It was his final international appearance for Ukraine.
2019–2020 season
Paniot competed at the 2020 Southwest Regionals, finishing third in the short and second in the free to come in second overall and qualify for Sectionals. At the 2020 Pacific Coast Sectionals, he was first after the short and third in the free, coming in second overall, only .88 behind the winner, Joonsoo Kim. This qualified him for Nationals. In his US Nationals debut, Paniot finished ninth in the short and tenth in the free, to place tenth overall at the 2020 U.S. Championships.
2020–2021 season
Paniot competed in the virtual Championship Series, placing second in his group and second overall behind Eric Sjoberg. This qualified him for his second consecutive national championship. Competing at the 2021 U.S. Championships, he placed fourth in the short program with a clean skate. In the free program, he landed three quads and placed third in that segment, remaining in fourth place overall and taking the pewter medal.
In an interview following the national championships, Paniot said he would be released from the Ukrainian federation on May 21, 2021, and would be eligible to compete for the United States the following season. He also said he expected to receive American citizenship in late 2021, making him eligible to compete at the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing.
2021–2022 season
In early June, Paniot was officially added to the USFSA's International Selection Pool roster. Paniot was fourth at the Skating Club of Boston's Cranberry Cup, a small international competition. Paniot was named as the host pick for the 2021 Skate America in September. He was slated to compete at the 2021 CS Lombardia Trophy but withdrew during the short program due to boot issues. He later withdrew from Skate America as well.
Paniot placed seventh in the short program at the 2022 U.S. Championships but had to withdraw from the free skate after suffering another problem with his boots.
Records and achievements
The first European skater to have completed a quad flip in international competition. He landed the jump in his free skate at the 2017 US International Figure Skating Classic.
Programs
Competitive highlights
GP: Grand Prix; CS: Challenger Series; JGP: Junior Grand Prix. Pewter medals (4th place) awarded only at U.S. national, sectional, and regional events.
For the United States
For Ukraine
References
External links
1997 births
Ukrainian male single skaters
Living people
Figure skaters from Odesa
Figure skaters at the 2018 Winter Olympics
Olympic figure skaters for Ukraine
Figure skaters at the 2012 Winter Youth Olympics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross%20national%20income
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Gross national income
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Gross national income
The gross national income (GNI), previously known as gross national product (GNP), is the total domestic and foreign output claimed by residents of a country, consisting of gross domestic product (GDP), plus factor incomes earned by foreign residents, minus income earned in the domestic economy by nonresidents.
Comparing GNI to GDP shows the degree to which a nation's GDP represents domestic or international activity. GNI has gradually replaced GNP in international statistics. While being conceptually identical, it is calculated differently. GNI is the basis of calculation of the largest part of contributions to the budget of the European Union. In February 2017, Ireland's GDP became so distorted from the base erosion and profit shifting ("BEPS") tax planning tools of U.S. multinationals, that the Central Bank of Ireland replaced Irish GDP with a new metric, Irish Modified GNI (or "GNI*"). In 2017, Irish GDP was 162% of Irish Modified GNI.
Comparison of GNI and GDP
GNI (Atlas method) nominal
Nominal, Atlas method – millions of current US$ (top 15)
GNI (Atlas method) PPP
PPP – millions of international dollars (top 15)
Gross national product
Gross national product (GNP) is the market value of all the goods and services produced in one year by labor and property supplied by the citizens of a country. Unlike gross domestic product (GDP), which defines production based on the geographical location of production, GNP indicates allocated production based on location of ownership. In fact it calculates income by the location of ownership and residence, and so its name is also the less ambiguous gross national income.
GNP is an economic statistic that is equal to GDP plus any income earned by residents from overseas investments minus income earned within the domestic economy by overseas residents.
GNP does not distinguish between qualitative improvements in the state of the technical arts (e.g., increasing computer processing speeds), and quantitative increases in goods (e.g., number of computers produced), and considers both to be forms of "economic growth".
When a country's capital or labour resources are employed outside its borders, or when a foreign firm is operating in its territory, GDP and GNP can produce different measures of total output. In 2009 for instance, the United States estimated its GDP at $14.119 trillion, and its GNP at $14.265 trillion.
The term gross national income (GNI) has gradually replaced the Gross national product (GNP) in international statistics. While being conceptually identical, the precise calculation method has evolved at the same time as the name change.
Use of GNP
The United States used GNP as its primary measure of total economic activity until 1991, when it began to use GDP. In making the switch, the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) noted both that GDP provided an easier comparison of other measures of economic activity in the United States and that "virtually all other countries have already adopted GDP as their primary measure of production". Many economists have questioned how meaningful GNP or GDP is as a measure of a nation's economic well-being, as it does not count most unpaid work and counts much economic activity that is unproductive or actually destructive.
GNI vs GDP
While GDP measures the market value of all final goods and services produced in a given country, GNI measures income generated by the country's citizens, regardless of the geographic location of the income. In many states, those two figures are close, as the difference between income received by the country versus payments made to the rest of the world is not significant. According to the World Bank, the GNI of the US in 2016 was 1.5% higher than GDP.
In developing countries, on the other hand, the difference might be significant due to a large amount of foreign aid and capital inflow. In 2016, the GNI of Armenia was 4.45% higher than GDP. Based on the OECD reports, in 2015 alone, Armenia has received a total of US$409 million development assistance. Over the past 25 years, USAID has provided more than one billion USD to improve the living of the people in Armenia. GNI equals GDP plus wages, salaries, and property income of the country's residents earned abroad that also constitutes the higher GNI figure. According to the UN report on migration from Armenia in 2015–17, every year around 15–20 thousand people leave Armenia permanently, and roughly 47% of those are working migrants that leave the country to earn income and sustain the families left in Armenia. In 2016 Armenian residents received in a total of around $150 million remittances. Armenia's GNI, measured in US dollars, amounted to USD 13.5 billion in 2021, according to the National Statistical Office. This is an 8.23% increase over the prior year. GNI in USD terms in Armenia has historically ranged from a record high of USD 13.8 billion in 2019 to a record low of USD 1.06 billion in 1992. Regarding interest rates on GNI expressed in USD, Armenia is ranked 119th out of the 155 monitored nations.
Lists of GNI per capita
List of countries by GNI (nominal) per capita
List of countries by GNI (PPP) per capita
See also
Net national income
Measures of national income and output
Gross national income in the European Union
Gross world product
National average salary
Gross domestic product (GDP)
Irish modified GNI (or GNI*)
List of U.S. states by adjusted per capita personal income
References
Gross domestic product
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerville%2C%20Massachusetts
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Somerville, Massachusetts
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Somerville, Massachusetts
Somerville is a city located directly to the northwest of Boston, and north of Cambridge, in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States. As of the 2020 United States Census, the city had a total population of 81,045 people. With an area of , the city has a density of , making it the most densely populated municipality in New England and the 19th most densely populated incorporated municipality in the country. Somerville was established as a town in 1842, when it was separated from Charlestown. In 2006, the city was named the best-run city in Massachusetts by The Boston Globe. In 1972, 2009, and 2015, the city received the All-America City Award. It is home to Tufts University, which has its campus along the Somerville and Medford border.
History
Early settlement
The territory now comprising the city of Somerville was first settled by Europeans in 1629 as part of Charlestown. In 1629, English surveyor Thomas Graves led a scouting party of 100 Puritans from the settlement of Salem to prepare the site for the Great Migration of Puritans from England. Graves was attracted to the narrow Mishawum Peninsula between the Charles and Mystic rivers, linked to the mainland at the present-day Sullivan Square. The area of earliest settlement was based at City Square on the peninsula, though the territory of Charlestown officially included all of what is now Somerville, as well as Medford, Everett, Malden, Stoneham, Melrose, Woburn, Burlington, and parts of Arlington and Cambridge. From that time until 1842, the area of present-day Somerville was referred to as "beyond the Neck" in reference to the thin spit of land, the Charlestown Neck, that connected it to the Charlestown Peninsula.
The first European settler in Somerville of whom there is any record was John Woolrich, an Indian trader who came from the Charlestown Peninsula in 1630, and settled near what is now Dane Street. Others soon followed Woolrich, locating in the vicinity of present-day Union Square. In 1639 colonists officially acquired the land in what is now Somerville from the Squaw Sachem of Mistick. The population continued to slowly increase, and by 1775 there were about 500 inhabitants scattered across the area. Otherwise, the area was mostly used as grazing and farmland. It was once known as the "Stinted Pasture" or "Cow Commons", as early settlers of Charlestown had the right to pasture a certain number of cows in the area.
John Winthrop, the first colonial governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, was granted of land in the area in 1631. Named for the ten small knolls located on the property, Ten Hills Farm extended from the Cradock Bridge in present-day Medford Square to Convent Hill in East Somerville. Winthrop lived, planted, and raised cattle on the farm. It is also where he launched the first ship in Massachusetts, the "Blessing of the Bay". Built for trading purposes in the early 1630s, it was soon armed for use as a patrol boat for the New England coast. It is seen as a precursor to the United States Navy. The "Ten Hills" neighborhood, located in the northeastern part of the city, has retained the name for over 300 years. New research has found that less than a decade after John Winthrop moved to the farm in 1631, there were enslaved Native American prisoners of war on the property. Each successive owner of Ten Hills Farm would depend upon slavery's profits until the 1780s, when Massachusetts abolished the practice.
In a short time, the settlers began laying out roads in all directions in search of more land for planting and trade with various Native American tribes in the area. Laid out as early as the mid-1630s, the earliest highway in Somerville was probably what is now Washington Street, and led from present-day Sullivan Square to Harvard Square. In its earliest days, Washington Street was known as the "Road to Newtowne" (renamed Cambridge in 1638). During the 1700s and early 1800s Somerville Avenue was "Milk Row," a route favored by Middlesex County dairy farmers as the best way to get to the markets of Charlestown and Boston.
Laid out in 1636, Broadway was likely the second highway built in the area. Originally called "Menotomie's Road", it ran from the Charlestown Neck to the settlement at Menotomy (present-day Arlington). Initially bordered by farmsteads, Broadway would come into its own as a commercial thoroughfare after horse-drawn trolleys were
introduced to the highway in 1858.
Role in the Revolutionary War
Somerville was home to one of the first hostile acts of the American Revolutionary War. The removal of gunpowder by British soldiers from a powder magazine in 1774, and the massive popular reaction that ensued, are considered to be a turning point in the events leading up to war.
First built by settlers for use as a windmill in the early 1700s, the Old Powder House was sold to the colonial government of Massachusetts for use as a gunpowder magazine in 1747. Located at the intersection of Broadway and College Avenue in present-day Powder House Square, the Old Powder House held the largest supply of gunpowder in all of Massachusetts. General Thomas Gage, who had become the military governor of Massachusetts in May 1774, was charged with enforcement of the highly unpopular Intolerable Acts, which British Parliament had passed in response to the Boston Tea Party. Seeking to prevent the outbreak of war, he believed that the best way to accomplish this was by secretly removing military stores from storehouses and arsenals in New England.
Just after dawn on September 1, 1774, a force of roughly 260 British regulars from the 4th Regiment, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel George Maddison, were rowed in secrecy up the Mystic River from Boston to a landing point near Winter Hill. From there they marched about to the Powder House, and after sunrise removed all of the gunpowder. Most of the regulars then returned to Boston the way they had come, but a small contingent marched on to Cambridge, seizing two field pieces from the Cambridge Common. The field pieces and powder were then taken from Boston to the British stronghold on Castle Island, then known as Castle William (renamed Fort Independence in 1779).
In response to the raid, amid rumors that blood had been shed, alarm spread through the countryside as far as Connecticut and beyond, and American Patriots sprang into action, fearing that war was at hand. Thousands of militiamen began streaming toward Boston and Cambridge, and mob action forced Loyalists and some government officials to flee to the protection of the British Army. This action provided a "dress rehearsal" for the Battles of Lexington and Concord seven months later in the famous "shot heard 'round the world", and inflamed already heated feelings on both sides, spurring actions by both British and American forces to remove powder and cannon to secure locations.
After the raid on the Powder House, the colonists took action to conceal arms and munitions of war in Concord. When General Gage found out, he was resolved to take the powder by force if necessary. The Americans learned that the British intended to start for Concord on April 18, 1775, and couriers Paul Revere and William Dawes set out on their famous ride to warn the farmers and militiamen in between Boston and Concord, including Sam Adams and John Hancock. That night, he set out from the North End through Charlestown towards East Somerville. In Revere's own written account of his ride, he mentions a specific location in Somerville (then part of Charlestown). The location was the site where the executed body of a local slave known as "Mark", owned by John Codman, was publicly gibbeted and displayed for several years after his execution. The location is probably near the site of the present day Holiday Inn on Washington Street. Revere wrote "nearly opposite where Mark was hung in chains, I saw two men on Horse back, under a Tree", which he then realized were two British officers stationed on Washington Street. They immediately pursued him, and Revere galloped up Broadway towards Winter Hill and eventually eluded them. His warning gave the militia enough time to prepare for battle, and launch the American Revolution.
Shortly after Paul Revere set out on his ride, Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith and 700 British Army regulars landed near Lechmere Square. As it was nearly high tide, East Cambridge was an island and the troops, skirting the marshes, were obliged to wade "thigh deep" to reach Somerville. They probably came through Prospect Street into Washington Street, and through Union Square.
Defeated and in retreat, the British army passed again through Somerville en route back to Boston. Upon reaching Union Square, the British marched down Washington Street as far as the base of Prospect Hill, where a skirmish took place. The handful of rebellious locals, having heard of the storied battles at Lexington and Concord earlier that day, caught an exhausted retreating British contingent off guard. As the story goes, 65-year-old minuteman James Miller lost his life in the scuffle while standing his ground against the British. He was shot thirteen times after famously telling a retreating colleague, "I am too old to run."
Somerville occupied a conspicuous position during the entire Siege of Boston, which lasted nine months, and Prospect Hill became the central position of the Continental Army's chain of emplacements north of Boston. Its height and commanding view of Boston and the harbor had tremendous strategic value and the fortress became known as the "Citadel". Originally occupied by just 400 men, Prospect Hill became a primary encampment for American forces after General Israel Putnam's retreat from the Battle of Bunker Hill. It is believed that on January 1, 1776, the Grand Union Flag flew for the first time at the Citadel, the first official raising of an American flag.
Independence, urbanization and rapid growth
With the Revolutionary War over, the residents of Somerville were able once again to devote their energies wholeheartedly to the business of making a living. From the 1780s until Somerville's separation from Charlestown in 1842, material progress was continuous, if a bit slow. As transportation infrastructure gradually transformed the area, new industries sprang up, such as brickmaking, quarrying and dairy farming.
Transportation improvements in the early to mid-1800s factored significantly in the growth of a more urban residential form and Somerville's incorporation as a City in 1872. These improvements included the opening of the Middlesex Canal through Somerville in 1803, various turnpikes such as Medford and Beacon streets, built during the 1810s and 1820s, and especially the introduction of rail lines. In 1841, the Fitchburg Railroad was built between Boston and Fresh Pond in Cambridge, paralleling the route of Somerville Avenue. This led to the establishment of industries along its path. Soon after, in 1843 the Fitchburg Railroad commenced passenger service and enabled residential development along the southern slopes of Prospect and Spring hills. By the early 1840s, the population of present-day Somerville topped 1,000 for the first time.
Despite the growth, however, discontent was growing steadily outside the "neck". The area's rural farmers paid taxes to the local government in Charlestown, but received little in return. By 1842, the area had no churches, few schools, no taverns, and suffered from poor and impassable roads. For many years after the Revolution the two parts of Charlestown styled "within" and "without the neck" were nearly equal in population; the former had by this time completely outstripped the latter. With this growth of population and trade came the need of city institutions, and consequently greater expenses were involved. Therefore, the rural part of Charlestown found itself contributing to the paving of the streets, the maintenance of a night watch, to the building of engine houses, and various other improvements from which they derived little benefit.
In 1828, a petition was presented to the Legislature asking that a part of
Charlestown be set off as a separate town, to be known as Warren. This petition was subsequently withdrawn. The desire for a separate township continued to spread, and by 1841, becoming impatient at the neglect of the government to adequately provide for their needs, the inhabitants again agitated a division of the town, and a meeting in reference to the matter was held November 22 in the Prospect Hill school house.
A petition was accordingly drawn up and signed by Guy C. Hawkins and 151 others, and a committee deputed to further its passage through the Legislature, then in session. A bill incorporating a new town was signed by the governor on March 3, 1842. The original choice for the city's new name, after breaking away from Charlestown, was Walford, after the first settler of Charlestown, Thomas Walford. However, this name was not adopted by the separation committee. Charles Miller, a member of this committee, proposed the name "Somerville", which was ultimately chosen. It was not derived from any one person's name, and a report commissioned by the Somerville Historical Society found that Somerville was a "purely fanciful name".
Before Somerville became a township in 1842 the area was primarily populated by British farmers and brick makers who sold their wares in the markets of Boston, Cambridge and Charlestown. As the markets grew, the population of Somerville increased six-fold between the years of 1842 and 1870 to 14,685. With the sharp influx of immigrants to the Somerville area, industry boomed and brick manufacturing became the predominant trade. Before mechanical presses were invented, Somerville produced 1.3 million bricks a year. Thereafter, production increased rapidly to 5.5 million bricks a year, and the success of the brickyards began to attract numerous other industries. In 1851, American Tubes Works opened, followed by meat processing and packaging plants. Other Somerville factories came to produce steam engines, boilers, household appliances, glass, and iron.
Shortly thereafter Somerville incorporated as a city in 1872. The population growth was due in part to improvements in pre-existing transportation lines, as well as a new rail line, the Lexington and Arlington Railroad, introduced through Davis Square in 1870. At its height, Somerville was served by eight passenger rail stations. Somerville's buoyant economy during this period was tied to industries that tended to locate at the periphery of the residential core, near freight rail corridors. By the mid-1870s meat packing plants were the primary employers and profit centers of the community.
The Late Industrial Period (1870–1915) was a time of phenomenal growth for Somerville in all spheres including civic and commercial ventures. Infrastructure such as rail, water lines, telegraph and electricity were established and connected to surrounding towns. The population soared from 15,000 to 90,000. While brickmaking had taken a hold in the area after the railroads first arrived in the 1830s, Somerville's brickyards boomed through 1870. Meatpacking soon displaced brickmaking as the primary industry in the city, dubbed "The Chicago of New England". Additionally, Somerville's location adjacent to Boston and proximity to rail and road transportation made it an ideal location for distribution facilities.
It was in this period that Irish immigrants moved to Somerville to work in the brickyards and on the railroad. At the same time, older residents of East Boston and Charlestown moved to Somerville to seek a more bucolic setting than that of more densely populated areas. They also worked to maintain political control over immigrant groups, using slogans such as "Keep Somerville Republican" and establishing a local branch of the anti-Catholic American Protective Association.
Between 1915 and 1930 population growth slowed slightly as Somerville's industries consolidated rather than expanded, and the period's most important enterprises were meat packing, dairy processing, ice and food distribution. In 1920, 73% of meatpacking in Massachusetts occurred in Somerville. Construction of the McGrath Highway in 1925 marked the turning point of Somerville as an industrial city, which accelerated when the Ford Motor Company built a plant in Assembly Square in 1926. In the years that followed, Somerville would see itself transformed into a major industrial center as automobile assembly surpassed meat packing as Somerville's most important industry.
By 1930, 70% of Somerville residents had either been born outside of the United States or had parents who were. The population was then estimated to be 60% Catholic.
Although Union Square and Davis Square continued to be the largest commercial areas during the first decades of the 20th century, smaller, less-developed squares grew as well. Ball Square, Magoun Square and Teele Square were developed with one- or two-story masonry commercial buildings, and the public green at Gilman Square was surrounded by multiple four-story commercial buildings. Retail development and banking facilities also spread. During this time of industrial prosperity, continuing through World War II, the city of Somerville reached its population apex at 105,883 residents in 1940. The building boom continued until the 1940s, creating the dense residential fabric the "city of homes" is known for.
Deindustrialization and decline
By mid-century, powerful social and economic forces precipitated a period of industrial and population decline that lasted into the 1980s. The postwar period was characterized by the ascent of the private automobile, which carried significant implications for Somerville. Streetcar lines that had crisscrossed the city since 1890 were systematically ripped out and commuter rail service was discontinued at the city's eight railway stations, one by one. Passenger rail service along the Fitchburg and Lowell lines had been declining for some time, and stations such as the Winter Hill station at Gilman Square were removed as early as the late 1940s. Passenger rail service stopped altogether by 1958.
The number of cars on Somerville's streets continued to rise, and road construction projects proliferated. The Alewife Brook Parkway, Mystic Valley Parkway and the Fells Connector Parkways, originally conceived in the 1890s as a means for city residents to reach the metropolitan parks, evolved into congested commuter routes for suburban drivers. Highway projects were advanced in the wake of the Federal Highway Aid Act (1956), in some instances displacing entire neighborhoods. The Brickbottom neighborhood was razed in 1950 to prepare for a proposed Inner Belt Expressway, and construction of Interstate 93 resulted in demolition of homes in The States neighborhood during the late 1960s.
In 1970, the state authorized rent control in municipalities with more than 50,000 residents. Somerville, Lynn, Brookline, and Cambridge subsequently adopted rent control. Rent control was repealed statewide in 1994 via ballot initiative. At the time, only Boston, Cambridge, and Brookline had rent control measures in place.
Industry slowly moved outward to the metropolitan fringes, encouraged by highway access and cheap, undeveloped land. The Ford Motor Plant in Assembly Square, which had been one of the region's largest employers, closed its doors in 1958 with severe consequences for the local economy. From the late 1950s through the early 1970s, Finast Supermarkets used the building that had earlier housed the Ford assembly plant on Middlesex Avenue, but in 1976 it too closed its doors. By 1976, Assembly Square was becoming a ghost town: Finast Stores, the Boston and Maine Railroad, and Ford Motor Company, which had each paid the city over $1 million in annual taxes, were gone. By the late 1970s, Somerville was losing population, revenue and jobs.
Somerville also has a history of racial tension. It only hired its first black police officer, a person named Francis Moore, in 1974. Moore subsequently won a suit charging that the police department was "blatantly discriminatory" against him, including an episode in which he was told to patrol the East Somerville neighborhood of Glen Park at night without his issued firearm, night stick, Mace, or communication devices. Moore's name had been written on a barrel in the neighborhood and used for target practice by local youth.
Contemporary revitalization
In the last years of the 20th century, the situation in Somerville stabilized and growth returned—first to West Somerville, and then the rest of the city.
Almost thirty years after passenger rail service to Somerville was halted, the Red Line Northwest Extension reached Davis Square in 1984. The city and community used the creation of the new station as a catalyst for revitalizing the faded square, promoting new commercial development and sponsoring other physical and infrastructural improvements. However, when the new transit station opened, business around Davis Square did not immediately thrive. The number of retail stores in the area declined from 68 in 1977 to 56 in 1987.
However many non-retail uses, such as beauty salons and real estate offices, had already begun to fill the empty retail spaces. With the Boston area's emergence from its long recession, the area truly began to revive. Clearly, the community's vision of a rebirth of commercial and retail activity has, in the past few years, been fully realized. All benefit from their proximity to the MBTA station, with connections to Cambridge and Boston. Retail vacancy rates around the square were close to zero as of 2013.
The telecommunication and biotechnology booms of the mid-to-late 1990s significantly contributed to Somerville's revitalization. As with the housing boom a century earlier, the sudden increase in the number of jobs available in the cities of Somerville, Boston, and particularly Cambridge—as well as in the other communities immediately surrounding Somerville—led to a new surge in the demand for housing. Additionally, the end of rent control in Cambridge coincided with the economic recovery in 1995, increasing demand for Somerville's affordable housing options.
The city also had a very high car theft rate, once being the car theft capital of the country, and its Assembly Square area was especially infamous for this.
However, after the gentrification period the city went through in the 1990s, and an influx of artists to the area, this name has mostly faded from use and the city has instead gained a reputation for its active arts community and effective government, including being named the best-run city in Massachusetts in 2006. Nowadays lobbying by grassroots organizations is attempting to revive and preserve Somerville's "small-town" neighborhood environments by supporting local business, public transit and gardens. For some Somerville residents, some of these efforts, such as the 2022 Green Line extensions into Somerville, present a challenge for balancing accessibility of public transit and the need for affordable housing.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, Somerville has a total area of , of which is land and , or 2.61%, is water. Somerville is bordered by the cities of Cambridge, Medford, Everett, Arlington and the Boston neighborhood of Charlestown. It is located on the west bank of the Mystic River.
Millennia ago, glaciation left a series of drumlins running west to east across the landscape of what would become Somerville. These ridges would later become known as the "Seven Hills" of Somerville (like many other cities claiming to be built on seven hills, following the seven hills of Rome):
Central Hill
Clarendon Hill
Cobble Hill
Ploughed Hill (or Mount Benedict)
Prospect Hill (or Mount Pisgah)
Spring Hill
Winter Hill
These hills rise from the floodplain of the Mystic River, and generally run west to east, providing for beautiful vistas of Boston to the south and Medford/Everett to the north. Physical boundaries are also defined by prominent waterways: the Mystic River to the north, its tributary Alewife Brook to the west, and the Miller's River to the southeast.
Land in early Somerville was used primarily as grazing commons and small farms. After the proliferation of the railroads in the area during the mid-1800s, industrialization transformed the landscape. In the 1800s, the Millers River was used as a sewer and dumping ground for local industry and would be ordered filled by the Commonwealth before the end of the century, for health reasons. As a result of landfill and the elimination of former Cobble Hill, the Millers River marsh was turned into railyards, slaughterhouses and other large-scale land uses.
Squares and neighborhoods
Somerville's commercial property is not concentrated in a recognized downtown central business district but instead is spread over many different nodes or corridors of business activity. The difference in character ranges from the vibrant nightlife, live music and theaters of Davis Square to the large scale retail and highway access of Assembly Square. This spatial allocation is directly related to the early influence of rail and streetcar systems which caused economic activity to occur at stops. The other key factor in the creation of commercial squares is the area's topography. The numerous hills making up Somerville's landscape determined where road networks would allow neighborhood commercial development.
Somerville has a number of squares that are centers for business and entertainment, as well as a number of other neighborhoods:
Assembly Square
Ball Square
Brickbottom (north of McGrath Highway, south of Inner Belt District)
Clarendon Hill (near Broadway and Arlington border)
Davis Square (the Post Office here is called West Somerville, but Google Maps shows West Somerville as a narrow strip near Alewife Brook Parkway and Mystic Valley Parkway, northwest of Teele Square)
Duck Village (north of Beacon Street, just west of Union Square)
East Somerville (East of McGrath Highway, between Washington and Broadway Streets)
Gilman Square (at the junction of Medford Street, Pearl Street, and Marshall Street)
Inner Belt District
Magoun Square
Nunnery Grounds (Mount Benedict)
Powder House Square
Prospect Hill (part of Union Square)
Spring Hill
The Aves, occasionally known as "The States", or "The Nunnery Grounds" (streets named after U.S. states, between Broadway in East Somerville and I-93 near Assembly Square)
Teele Square
Ten Hills
Tufts
Union Square
Wilson Square (Elm Street and Somerville Avenue), known as Oak Square before 1920
Winter Hill
Demographics
Somerville has experienced dramatic growth since the Red Line of Boston's MBTA subway system was extended through Somerville in 1985, especially in the area between Harvard and Tufts. This was especially accelerated by the dot-com bubble of the late 90s, rising incomes, and concomitant rises in demand for urban housing. This growth did not, however, translate into an increase in the population of the city overall, as seen in the table.
Tensions between long-time residents/families and recent arrivals exist (often referred to as “yuppies”), with many of the former accusing the latter of ignoring problems such as drugs and gang violence. Incidents such as anti-"yuppie" graffiti, appearing around town in 2005, highlighting this rift. The economic and cultural clash between the city of Somerville and its neighboring cities of Boston and Cambridge has created an underlying tension between residents that has persisted for multiple generations.
Due to Somerville's proximity to various institutions of higher education, the city has a constant influx of college students and young professionals, who reside in sections near Cambridge where Harvard University, Lesley University, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology are located and near Tufts University, which straddles the Somerville-Medford city line. The city is inhabited by blue collar Irish American, Italian American, Greek American, and Portuguese American families, who are spread throughout the city.
In November 1997, the Utne Reader named Davis Square in Somerville one of the 15 hippest places to live in the U.S.
Somerville is home to a thriving arts community and boasts the second highest number of artists per capita in America.
Statistics
As of the 2020 census, there were 81,045 people and 34,523 households residing in the city. The population density was . The racial makeup of the city was 74.3% White, 5.0% Black or African American, 0.2% American Indian or Alaska Native, 9.4% Asian, and 6.9% Two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 12.3% of the population, and White, non-Hispanic or Latino residents were 68.8%. The city regularly provides translation services and alerts into Spanish, Portuguese, Haitian Creole, and Nepali.
There were 34,523 households, out of which 15.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.9% were married couples living together, and 60.5% were non-families. 31.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.25 and the average family size was 2.83.
The median income for a household in the city was $108,896 (in 2021 dollars), and the per capita income for the city was $58,437. About 10.4% of the residents were below the poverty line.
Economy
Somerville's industrial past left behind many legacies, including the invention of Marshmallow Fluff by Archibald Query. In 1914, the city became the home of the original Economy Grocery Store, which later grew into the Stop & Shop grocery chain. Two related food service chains, Steve's Ice Cream and Bertucci's, sprung from adjacent lots in Davis Square.
Companies based in Somerville today include Gentle Giant Moving Company, Formlabs and Candlewick Press.
In 2016, one of the Commonwealth's largest employers, the Mass General Brigham healthcare system moved its headquarters to the redeveloped Assembly Square location in the city. In the timeframe since, a growing number of other entities have placed purpose-built corporate offices both in Assembly Row and other developments in Union Square. Work is additionally being considered to extend development along the Amelia Earhart Dam to connect the nearby Everett with pedestrian bridges to allow more commuters to walk or cycle to the Assembly Row development from neighboring communities.
Top employers
According to Somerville's 2013 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:
Arts and culture
Davis Square is home to the Somerville Theatre, which formerly housed the Museum of Bad Art and plays host to the Independent Film Festival of Boston each spring. Union Tavern and the Crystal Ballroom are live music venues in the city.
Somerville has been home to Porchfest which is a citywide festival that features around 200 bands every May at residents' houses. It has been around since 2011.
Two major art studios, the Brickbottom Artists Building and the Joy Street Studios, are located in former industrial buildings in the Brickbottom district. The Brickbottom Artists Association has been hosting annual open studio events in the fall since 1987. Starlab Studios, a multimedia artist studio space and the host of Somerville's annual Starlabfest, opened in Union Square in 2009. Additionally, Artisan's Asylum on Tyler Street between Union and Porter squares is a hackerspace, where 150 members and 200 students have been participating in the maker culture since 2011.
The Somerville Public Library has three branches.
The Somerville Arts Council and Somerville Open Studios both host annual events involving the community in homegrown arts. The Boston chapter of the Dorkbot community meets in Somerville at the Willoughby & Baltic studio, in the Brickbottom district. Starting in 2006, an annual Fluff Festival has been held to celebrate the invention of Marshmallow Fluff in Somerville. "What the Fluff?" is produced by Union Square Main Streets and includes vendors, activities, entertainment and the crowning of the Pharaoh of Fluff. It has been described in food journal Gastronomica as an "orgiastic frenzy of all things fluffy--old-world village celebration meets American kitsch." Somerville mayor Joseph Curtatone attended in 2006 and declared, "My house always has been, and always will be, stocked with fluff."
The popular Halloween holiday song Monster Mash was written and sung by Somerville native Bobby "Boris" Pickett
Points of interest
Dilboy Stadium
George Dilboy Memorial Stadium is a multi-purpose public stadium in city. It is known as the home of the Boston Renegades women's tackle football team. It was also the home field of the Boston Militia women's tackle football team from 2008 to 2014. The Boston Breakers women's soccer club made Dilboy Stadium their home in 2012 and 2013. The stadium is named after George Dilboy, who was awarded the Medal of Honor during World War I.
Historic places
Somerville has eighty-four sites listed on the National Register of Historic Places. These places include various houses, libraries, parkways, churches, among other places, and have been declared landmarks within the city.
Somerville Museum
The Somerville Museum preserves memorabilia chronicling the city's roots, with historical and artistic exhibits. It is located at 1 Westwood Road, on the corner of Central Street.
Parks and recreation
The Somerville Community Path is a tree-lined rail trail that runs from Lowell Street to the Cambridge border near Davis Square. It connects with the Alewife Linear Park, which in turn connects with the Minuteman Bikeway and the Fitchburg Cutoff Path. Community activists hope to extend the path eastward to Lechmere Square, which would connect with the Charles River Bike Paths and the proposed East Coast Greenway. In May 2013, construction began on an extension of the path between Cedar and Lowell streets, which was completed in 2015. , the city has a total of 63 parks, playgrounds, playing fields, and community gardens.
With the establishment of the Playground Association of America in 1906, many cities, including Somerville, began to sponsor supervised playgrounds for the children of the city during the summer months. Though the Recreation Department was not formally established in Somerville until 1917, supervised play, sponsored in part by the city and the Playground Association of America, began in 1909.
The Recreation Department provides many recreational and play activities for residents of all ages, including Summertime Playgrounds, outdoor games and sports leagues, theater groups, and an active Senior Citizens Club.
Government
City government
Somerville has a mayor-city council form of municipal government. The City Council (formerly a Board of Aldermen) consists of four at-large (citywide) positions and seven ward representatives, where each ward is a specific section of the city. The change from Aldermen to Council came in 2018 when gender equity was honored. As of January 3, 2022, the City Council compromised the following councilors:
The first Democratic mayor of the city was John J. Murphy in 1929. Every mayor prior, since 1872, had been unaffiliated with a party or Republican. Murphy succeeded on his seventh try by uniting the Irish, Italian, Greek, and Portuguese communities. There were candlelit processions with thousands marching in rallies in the middle of Union Square and other squares in the city. The current mayor of Somerville is Katjana Ballantyne.
In July 2020, the Somerville City Council voted to recognize polyamorous domestic partnerships in the city, becoming the first city in the United States to do so. This measure was passed in order to allow those in a polyamorous relationship easier access to their partners' health insurance.
Alongside these, Somerville boasts a large subsidized housing program with 1400 units and 4,328 people (5% of the population) living in them. There are 13 developments, the largest being the Mystic River Projects and Clarendon Hill Apartments.
Mystic River Development (Winter Hill – 240 units)
Clarendon Hill Apartments (Teele Square – 216 units)
Mystic View Development (Winter Hill – 215 units)
Bryant Towers (East Somerville – 134 units)
Properzi Manor (Union Square – 110 units)
Brady Towers (Inner Belt District – 84 units)
Weston Manor (Teele Square – 80 units)
Ciampa Manor (Davis Square – 53 units)
Highland Gardens (Winter Hill – 42 units)
Corbett Apartments (Winter Hill – 31 units)
Hagan Manor (Union Square – 24 units)
Waterworks Apartments (Alewife – 21 units)
Federal and state representation
Somerville is part of Massachusetts's 7th congressional district for purposes of elections to the United States House of Representatives. It is represented by Representative Ayanna Pressley.
For representation to the Massachusetts Senate, Somerville is entirely within the Second Middlesex district. For representation to the Massachusetts House of Representatives, Somerville is part of the 26th, 27th and 34th Middlesex districts. The 26th Middlesex district includes East Somerville, Brickbottom, and a portion of the Union Square area, as well as portions of Cambridge, The 34th Middlesex district includes Winter Hill and Teele Square, as well as portions of Medford. The remainder of the city, just over half, comprises the 27th Middlesex district, which does not extend outside Somerville.
Education
The School Committee has seven independently elected officials as well as the Mayor and the President of the Board of Aldermen. The budget is approved by both the School Committee and the Board of Aldermen. The Chair is Adam Sweeting from Ward 3 and the Vice-Chair is Carrie Normand from Ward 7.
Also included in the school district is the Somerville Center for Adult Learning Experiences. The former Powder House Community School (which closed due to low enrollment in 2004) is being considered for redevelopment, either as a consolidated location for city offices if funding is obtained under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 or as some other type of development.
Though formally listed as being located in Medford, Tufts University is also located in Somerville. The Somerville–Medford line runs through the Tufts campus, splitting the university's Tisch Library. The school employs many local residents and has many community service projects that benefit the city, especially those run through the Leonard Carmichael Society and the Jonathan M. Tisch College of Citizenship and Public Service.
Somerville Public Schools
Somerville Public Schools (SPS) operates ten schools from pre-kindergarten to secondary schools. The majority of the schools in Somerville (with exception of Somerville High School, Benjamin G. Brown School, Capuano Early Childhood Center, and Next Wave/Full Circle) are schools that go from kindergarten through 8th grade. There are 4,691 students enrolled in Somerville Public Schools.
Somerville High School
East Somerville Community School
Arthur D. Healey School
John F. Kennedy School
Benjamin G. Brown School (K–5)
West Somerville Neighborhood School
Albert F. Argenziano School
Winter Hill Innovation Community School
Michael E. Capuano Early Childhood Center (pre-kindergarten)
Next Wave/Full Circle (6–12 grades)
Edgerly Education Center
East Somerville Community School, which was temporarily closed after a fire in 2007, was demolished and reconstructed, reopening in fall 2013. During its closure students were transferred to the nearby Edgerly and Capuano schools.
Somerville High School underwent renovations after having been the oldest un-renovated high school in the nation. Its renovations lasted from early 2012 to January 2021.
Winter Hill was temporarily closed for the remainder of the 2022–2023 school year following an incident where a slab of concrete broke off onto the floor of a stairwell. Suffering from foundation weakening and lack of maintenance, the school was deemed unsafe for public use and is indefinitely closed. Students and staff have since relocated to the Edgerly building as of the 2023 school year. The fate of the building is undetermined.
Somerville High School
Somerville High School (SHS) is located right next to the Somerville City Hall at 81 Highland Avenue. It is in Winter Hill near the border of East Somerville and Union Square.
Somerville High School offers a vocational program (CTE) as well as musical programs and athletics programs. It hosts roughly 1,215 students throughout 4 grades. Its student proficiency in math and science is at 73% and its proficiency for English and history is at 83%. Its student to teacher ratio is 10:1. It is in the top 20% of the state's schools composite averages. It has a graduation rate of 89.9%.
The school demographics as of 2021 are 45% Hispanic or Latino, 32% White, 14% African American, 8% Asian and 1% other. 54.6% of students in the school do not have English as their first language. 48.1% of students are economically disadvantaged. 16.9% of students have a disability.
Dilboy Stadium is where the SHS soccer, football, lacrosse, tennis and track teams compete. It is located on 110 Alewife Brook Parkway, roughly from the school itself. It is close to the Dilboy Pool (which is open solely in the summer), as well as the Clarendon Hill Towers and Clarendon Hill Projects (an installment of the Somerville Housing Authority). The SHS hockey team plays at Veterans Memorial Rink at 570 Somerville Avenue next to Conway Park and Playground.
Somerville High School is home to the student theatre group Highlander Theatre Company, which performs full-length and shorter productions every year.
The school is also home to the FIRST Robotics Competition team, FRC 6201 The Highlanders, who competes in the FIRST Robotics Competition every year.
In the spring of the 2022–2023 school year, the school's practice field was completed and the Somerville Memorialization Committee voted to dedicate the field to Phil Reavis. This field is the first public space dedicated to an African American in Somerville.
Higher education
Somerville is home to Tufts University. Lincoln Technical Institute also has a campus in the city.
Media
The city is served by a number of news sources, including:
Somerville Community Access Television
The Boston Globe
Somerville Journal (website)
The Somerville News Weekly (daily blog, despite name)
The Somerville Times (newspaper)
Scout Somerville (bimonthly magazine)
The public radio show Living on Earth is recorded in Davis Square. In addition, Candlewick Press, a major children's book printing company, is operated in Somerville.
Infrastructure
Transportation
Somerville, originally built as a streetcar suburb of Boston, has a framework and layout ideal for public transit. Its traditionally designed neighborhoods, set among grid-like street networks, connect in a walkable, transit-friendly system. Transit systems shrunk and all but disappeared as automobiles became the primary mode of transportation, however, and streetcars left the city several decades ago. The City of Somerville is serviced by the Massachusetts Bay Transit Authority (MBTA) transit service.
Rail
Somerville is served by seven MBTA subway stations: Davis station on the Red Line, Assembly station on the Orange Line, and , , , , and on the Green Line. Davis opened in 1984, and Assembly in 2014. The Green Line stations opened in 2022 as part of the Green Line Extension, which the state was legally obligated to build since 1990. Both Porter Square station on the Red Line and Commuter Rail's Fitchburg Line in Cambridge and Sullivan Square station on the Orange Line in Boston's Charlestown neighborhood are located adjacent to Somerville along the border.
Road
Although only 43.6% of Somerville commuters drove alone to work in 2013, several major arteries pass through the city.
McGrath Highway is a major north–south route that represents the portion of Massachusetts Route 28 through the city of Somerville. McGrath is the continuation of Monsignor O'Brien Highway in Cambridge to the southeast and is known as the Fellsway north of the junction with Mystic Avenue and Interstate 93 in Medford. The highway has a long and complex history that hints to the changing nature of transportation throughout Somerville and the greater Boston metropolitan region. Originally constructed in 1928 to create a speedier connection for Route 28 between the Charles and Mystic Rivers, McGrath was elevated in the 1950s to further facilitate increased travel speed. The result was to cut off East Somerville and the Inner Belt District from Winter Hill and the rest of the city. When Route 28 was built, its primary purpose was to serve regional commuters traveling into Boston. However, it soon became clear that McGrath would need to be replaced by a larger and safer highway. The construction of the elevated Northern Expressway (Massachusetts), part of Interstate 93, was completed in the early 1970s and essentially rendered McGrath redundant. Today, the infrastructure of the two raised portions (the McCarthy Overpass, running from Somerville Avenue to Medford Street, and the Squires Bridge, running above the MBTA Fitchburg line near Twin City Plaza) are decaying and decrepit. In 2013, the Massachusetts Department of Transportation recommended that the McCarthy Overpass that crosses over several streets in Somerville be torn down, and proposed a boulevard-syle reconstruction with bike lanes and sidewalks for pedestrians. No date has been set for construction to begin.
Northern Expressway (Massachusetts) runs northwest and southeast through Somerville, separating Ten Hills and Assembly Square from the rest of the city. The massive elevated "Northern Expressway" was completed in the early 1970s and passes directly through Somerville running alongside and/or above Mystic Avenue (Massachusetts Route 38). Commonly referred to as the "upper and lower decks of 93", the Somerville-Charlestown section of the Northern Expressway carries three lanes of northbound traffic on the upper deck, and three lanes of southbound traffic on the lower deck. The highway also serves to cut off East Somerville from Charlestown.
As of 2010, snow removal from city streets and properties uses 42 pieces of equipment (including front-loaders and plows), about of salt imported from Egypt, and a budget of $500,000. When the mayor declares a snow emergency that puts special parking restrictions into effect, in addition to electronic media and a press release, a switch at DPW headquarters on Franey Road activates 16 blue lights at major intersections to alert the public. Two crews of four people (with help from school janitors) clear sidewalks at 33 city-owned buildings. Excess snow in major pedestrian squares is removed and dumped on a vacant lot on Winter Hill.
Walking and cycling
Somerville is considered to be a highly walkable and bikeable city. In 2013, 7.8% of all commutes were made by bicycle, ranking Somerville fifth among U.S. cities for its share of bicycling. In 2013, 49.8% of Somerville commuters either walked, biked or used public transit. Somerville launched its first Bluebikes (originally Hubway) stations during the summer of 2012 and now hosts 21 stations.
The Somerville Community Path is a mixed-use path that runs along the old Boston and Lowell Railroad right-of-way from Davis Square across Somerville to the Cambridge border near Lechmere Square. Roughly of the path is finished and in use. The two finished segments feature pavement interspersed with brick and surrounded by grass, trees, pedestrian connections to nearby streets, and a community garden. The path is lit at night and snowplowed in the winter.
In 2013, the city broke ground on the first extension in almost twenty years that extended the path another east from its then-terminus at Cedar Street to Lowell Street.
Bus
Somerville has among the highest bus ridership in the Boston metro area. Nearly 40,000 passengers board the buses that pass through Somerville each day, and 15 MBTA bus routes operate in Somerville.
Emergency services
Somerville is protected by the 152 paid, professional firefighters of the city of Somerville Fire Department (SFD). The Somerville Fire Department currently operates out of five firehouses, located throughout the city, and operates five engine companies, three ladder companies, and one rescue company, commanded by an on-duty district chief and deputy chief each shift. Emergency Medical Services have been provided by Cataldo Ambulance Service, a private ambulance company, since it was founded as Somerville Ambulance Service in 1977.
Waste
The city provides contracted trash, single-stream recycling, yard waste, and hazardous waste pickup for residents in buildings with six or fewer units, and textile recycling pickup for all residents. Single-stream recycling materials are sent to the Casella Waste Systems processing facility in neighboring Charlestown.
Notable people
James E. Barlow, civil engineer and city manager
Léone Boudreau-Nelson, phonetician
Robert A. Bruce, noted cardiologist and professor
Mike Capuano, member of the House of Representatives and mayor of Somerville
Richard Carle, actor
Gosder Cherilus, National Football League player
Neil Cicierega, musician, filmmaker, and animator
Hal Clement, author
Mildred Codding, medical illustrator
Mike Colman, Ice hockey player for the 1991–1992 San Jose Sharks
Hal Connolly, athlete, Olympic gold medalist in National Track and Field Hall of Fame
George Dilboy, Medal of Honor recipient
Henry F. Gilbert (1868–1928), music composer
Nick Gomez, film director and writer
Henry Kimball Hadley, composer and conductor
Henry Oliver Hansen, raised the first flag in the Battle of Iwo Jima
Hazel Heald, pulp fiction writer who collaborated on several stories with H.P. Lovecraft
Arthur Daniel Healey, Member of the U.S. House of Representatives
Alan Hovhaness, composer
James "Hutch" Hutchinson, studio musician and longtime Bonnie Raitt bassist
Jake Kilrain, noted boxer
Howie Long, NFL Hall of Famer, actor and sports analyst
Martha Perry Lowe (1829–1902), poet, education activist
Peter Mamakos (1918–2008), American film and television actor
Patricia Head Minaldi, United States District Court judge
Connie Morella, member of the House of Representatives
Randall Munroe, cartoonist and writer
Jack Parker, head coach of the Boston University Terriers hockey team, 1973–2013
Bobby Pickett, composer of "Monster Mash"
Harry Nelson Pillsbury, chess champion
Alfred M. Pride, United States Navy admiral and pioneer naval aviator
Archibald Query, inventor of Fluff
Phil Reavis, competitor in the high jump at the 1956 Olympics
Charles Revson, founder of Revlon
Reverend Leonard Grimes, abolitionist
Alex Rocco, actor
Paul Ryan, born in Somerville; comic artist on Fantastic Four and The Phantom
Daniel Alfred Sanborn, a surveyor who founded the Sanborn Map Company was born in Somerville
John Shea, playwright
Paul Sorrento, former Major League Baseball first baseman for four teams over eleven seasons
Pie Traynor former Major League Baseball third baseman and member of the Major League Baseball Hall of Fame
Daniel Chapman Stillson, inventor of the modern adjustable pipe wrench
David Foster Wallace, author
Barbara Weeks, actress
Winter Hill Gang, noted crime group
Eliza Trask Hill, women's suffrage leader and prison reformer
Aline van Barentzen, classical pianist
Sister cities
Somerville's sister cities are:
Gaeta, Italy
Nordeste, Portugal
Tiznit, Morocco
Yucuaiquín, El Salvador
References
Bibliography
Drake, Samuel Adams. History of Middlesex County, Massachusetts, Volume 1 (A-H), Volume 2 (L-W) published 1879 and 1880. 572 and 505 pages. Somerville article by E.C.Booth in volume 2 pages 309–338. Somerville Fire Local 76 .
Dutton, E.P. Chart of Boston Harbor and Massachusetts Bay with Map of Adjacent Country. Published 1867.
Ostrander, Susan A. Citizenship and Governance in a Changing City: Somerville, MA (Temple University Press; 2013) 190 pages; study of tensions between immigrants and a new middle class in politics and community activism
Samuels, Edward Augustus; Kimball, Henry Hastings, "Somerville, past and present: an illustrated historical souvenir", Boston : Samuels & Kimball, 1897
Somerville, Arlington and Belmont Directory. 1869; 1873; 1876.
Wall & Gray. 1871 Atlas of Massachusetts. Map of Massachusetts. Map of Middlesex County.
External links
Somerville Chamber of Commerce
Cities in Massachusetts
Irish-American neighborhoods
Populated places established in 1630
Cities in Middlesex County, Massachusetts
1630 establishments in the Massachusetts Bay Colony
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area%20%28band%29
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Area (band)
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Area (band)
Area – International POPular Group, most commonly known as Area or AreA, is an Italian progressive rock, jazz fusion, electronic, experimental group formed in 1972 by singer Demetrio Stratos and drummer Giulio Capiozzo. They are considered one of the most respected, innovative and important bands of the blooming 1970s Italian progressive rock scene.
History
Demetrio Stratos' years: 1972–1979
Area were formed in Milan in 1972. They were originally composed of Demetrio Stratos (vocals), Giulio Capiozzo (drums and percussion), Victor Edouard "Eddie" Busnello (saxophone and flutes), Leandro Gaetano (piano), and Johnny Lambizzi (guitar), soon followed by Patrick Djivas (bass) and Patrizio Fariselli (keyboards). The band was led by Stratos, who was originally from Egypt, having been born in Alexandria to Greek parents. In 1973, Lambizzi left the band and was replaced by Paolo Tofani (guitar and synthesizer). That year, they recorded their first studio album Arbeit macht frei ("Work Brings Freedom"), taken from the inscription that was found on the gate at the entrance to Auschwitz Nazi concentration camp. It was released by Cramps Records and the band performed in many musical and cultural events. Area went on tour in Chile and, representing Italy, took part in the eighth Biennale de Paris. At that time, Area's sound was a mish-mash that drew from rock, jazz, Eastern, and Arabic music. The band soon grew to prominence because the youth of the time were able to identify with Area's socialist lyrics, and the band was founded on a strong and virtuoso musicianship.
In 1974, Eddie Busnello and Patrick Djivas left the band. Djivas, who would later play with Premiata Forneria Marconi, was replaced by Ares Tavolazzi (bass). Early in the band, Area had prominent saxophone work from Busnello but when he left, the Area sound became more guitar and keyboard oriented. The new line-up was composed of Demetrio Stratos on vocals, Hammond organ and steel drum; Giulio Capiozzo on percussion; Patrizio Fariselli on piano and keyboards; Ares Tavolazzi on bass and trombone; and Paolo Tofani on guitar and VCS 3 synthesizer.
Gianni Sassi, founder of the Cramps Records label, took care of the group's image and was an unofficial member of the group. Sassi was involved in nearly all of the cultural projects of the time and was a component of the Italian Fluxus movement, the international network of artists, composers, and designers noted for blending different artistic media and disciplines in the 1960s. Area held a "therapeutic" concert at the Psychiatric Hospital of Trieste, directed by Franco Basaglia. They recorded their second studio album Caution Radiation Area, and played at the Parco Lambro Festival in Milan and at the first International Festival of Rovereto. They represented Italy at the first Pop Festival of Bern and performed at the Velodromo Vigorelli event against the Vietnam War together with Joan Baez.
During 1975, the number of their live performances and exhibitions increased. They participated at the second Parco Lambro Festival and at the "Festa Nazionale de L'Unità" in Florence; in November of that year, Area recorded their third studio album Crac!, and their recordings were published for the first time in France.
In 1976, their recordings were distributed in Japan. They were featured at the third Parco Lambro Festival. That year, Area played around 200 concerts in Italy. They were invited to take part in the Fête de L'Humanité, held in the working class suburbs of Paris at Le Bourget, near Aubervilliers, and at the Festa do Avante! in Lisbon. Giulio Capiozzo and Ares Tavolazzi left the group for a couple of months to meet the Andrea Mingardi Orchestra. Fariselli, Tofani, and Stratos did a concert at the University of Milan with Steve Lacy and Paul Lytton, and from that concert their live album was released, Event 76. Area recorded their fourth studio album Maledetti with the Arze brothers, Steve Lacy, Paul Lytton, Walter Calloni, and Hugh Bullen as guest musicians.
During a concert at the Teatro Uomo in Milan in 1977, the band presented their compilation album Anto/Logicamente, and Paolo Tofani left the group.
In 1978, Area left the Cramps record label for Ascolto, a record label owned by CGD; in that year, their fifth studio album was released, 1978 Gli Dei Se Ne Vanno, Gli Arrabbiati Restano!. In March, they played three concerts in Lisboa, Coimbra, and Oporto in Portugal; in July, the band had two dates in Havana, Cuba at the World Festival of Youth and Students (for Anti-Imperialist Solidarity, Peace and Friendship).
1979 was the year of study, experimentation, and research. Members of the group guested on PFM violinist/flautist's first solo album, "Mauro Pagani" (released in Tokyo in 1979 on Seven Seas and distributed by King Record Co.) with contributions by Demetrio Stratos, Giulio Capiozzo, Patrizio Fariselli, and Ares Tavolazzi ("L'Albero Di Canto" and "L'Albero Di Canto II" with Area members backing Pagani exclusively). Later Demetrio Stratos left Area, and Fariselli, Capiozzo, and Tavolazzi recruited several musicians: Massimo Urbani, Pietro Tonolo, Sara Borsarini, and Guido Guidoboni. In April 1979, Demetrio Stratos was diagnosed with a severe case of aplastic anemia. His condition deteriorated rapidly and he was transferred to New York City Memorial Hospital for treatment. Meanwhile, in Italy, his friends organized a concert to pay for his medical expenses. Many musicians accepted the invitation to perform, and the concert was planned for 14 June 1979. It was to become Demetrio Stratos' memorial concert, where over a hundred musicians played in front of an audience of 100,000. He died in New York City Memorial Hospital on 13 June 1979 at the age of thirty–four, while waiting for a bone marrow transplant (the official cause of death was myocardial infarction, more commonly known as heart attack). The band, Demetrio Stratos, Patrizio Fariselli and Paolo Tofani were included in the Nurse with Wound list, a list of musicians and bands that accompanied the first album by Nurse With Wound, entitled Chance Meeting on a Dissecting Table of a Sewing Machine and an Umbrella and released in 1979.
Area released five studio albums and two live albums before Demetrio Stratos's death in 1979.
Post Demetrio Stratos years and Area II: 1980–1986
Tic&Tac, their sixth studio album, was released in 1980. Then, Area released Gli Uccelli ("The Birds"), a Greek classic comedy by Aristophanes, in collaboration with the theatrical company Nuova Scena and directed by Memè Perlini. Gli Uccelli was performed in Italy around 100 times and finished in Brussels in May 1981. Larry Nocella was recruited and the band did several concerts with him.
In 1982, together with Nuova Scena company, they prepared and performed Tristano e Isotta ("Tristan and Iseult"), a theatrical representation with dance and music of that influential romance/tragedy under the choreography and direction of Amedeo Amodio. In 1983, Area disbanded and the musicians continued their musical activities separately. There was a reappearance of Area II in the mid-1980s. Area II released two studio albums, but this was in fact a project by Area drummer Giulio Capiozzo with session musicians. Area II's two albums were released during 1986 and 1987, but were much closer to jazz than the previous Area style of music.
First reunion: 1993–2000
In 1993, Patrizio Fariselli, Giulio Capiozzo, and briefly, Ares Tavolazzi, resumed the live activity of Area, experimenting with new sounds, materials, and new languages. Ares Tavolazzi left the band and was replaced by Paolo Dalla Porta and Pietro Condorelli.
Chernobyl 7991, their seventh and last studio album, was released in 1997. Gigi Cifarelli, John Clark and Pietro Condorelli featured as guest musicians. In January, the record was presented at the Centro Sociale Leoncavallo in Milan, where they were denounced for "abuse of musical instruments and serious acoustic pollution". The group commonly known as Area II had several live concerts performed as a trio consisting of Fariselli, Capiozzo, and Paolo Dalla Porta.
In 1998, Marco Micheli replaced Dalla Porta, and the band also recruited Angela Baggi. This line-up toured until its split in 1999. Capiozzo died a year later.
Second reunion: 2009–present
On 25 August 2009 in Siena, Patrizio Fariselli, Ares Tavolazzi, and Paolo Tofani with Capiozzo's son, Christian on drums, and Mauro Pagani on vocals and violin perform together for the first time in over a decade during the ninth Edition of the festival "La Città Aromatica", dedicated to Demetrio Stratos thirty years after his death. On 29 and 30 January 2010, there was another reunion when Fariselli, Tavolazzi, and Tofani with UT Gandhi (Umberto Trombetta) on drums, played together at the San Lazzaro di Savena (Bologna) theatre as part of "StratosFerico: Omaggio a Demetrio Stratos", a tribute to Demetrio Stratos. On 2 May, Fariselli, Tofani, and Tavolazzi reunited again for a performance at New York's Brecht Forum, accompanied by Italian session drummer Walter Paoli and former collaborator Mauro Pagani on violin and vocals.
The official Reunion Tour started on 21 September 2010 in Milano at Blue Note Club, with Fariselli, Tavolazzi, Tofani, Walter Paoli on drums and Mauro Pagani as special guest. During the Reunion Tour that still continues, AREA had several special guests among them Maria Pia De Vito on vocals. In November 2012 AREA released a new double live CD entitled "Live2012" that features some of the best live performances recorded during the Reunion Tour.
Band members
Current members
Patrizio Fariselli – piano, keyboards (1973–present)
Paolo Tofani – lead guitar, synthesizer, VCS 3 (1973-1977, 2009–present)
Ares Tavolazzi – bass guitar, upright bass, trombone (1974–1993, 2009–present)
Walter Paoli – drums (2010–present)
Former members
Demetrio Stratos – lead vocals, organ, steel drums (1972–1978; died 1979)
Giulio Capiozzo – drums, percussion (1972–2000; died 2000)
Victor Edouard "Eddie" Busnello – saxophone, flute, bass clarinet (1972-1973; died 1984)
Patrick Djivas – bass guitar (1972-1973)
Massimo Urbani – saxophone (1979; died 1993)
Piero Tonolo – saxophone (1979)
Sara Borsarini – lead vocals (1979)
Guido Guidoboni – trumpet (1979)
Larry Nocella – saxophone (1980-1982; died 1989)
Paolo Dalla Porta - bass guitar, upright bass (1993-1997)
Pietro Condorelli - lead guitar (1993-1997)
Angela Baggi – lead vocals (1998-2000)
Marco Micheli - bass guitar, upright bass (1998-2000)
Christian Capiozzo – drums (2009)
Pre-first album members
Johnny Lambizzi - guitar (1972)
Leandro Gaetano - piano (1972)
Collaborators
Gianni Sassi - manager, art director, lyricist (1972–1977; died 1993)
Steve Lacy - saxophone (1976; died 2004)
Paul Lytton - percussion (1976)
Walter Calloni - drums (1976)
Hugh Bullen - bass (1976)
Anton Arze - txalaparta (1976)
Josè Arze - txalaparta (1976)
Eugenio Colombo - kazumba (1976)
Umberto Benedetti Michelangeli - strings (1976)
Armando Burattin - strings (1976)
Paolo Salvi - strings (1976)
Giorgio Garulli - strings (1976)
Luciano Biasutti - trumpet (1980)
Gigi Cefarelli - guitar (1997)
John Clark - French horn (1997)
Mauro Pagani - violin (live guest 2009-2010)
Maria Pia de Vito - vocals (live guest 2011)
Eugenio Finardi - vocals (live guest 2011)
Discography
Studio albums
1973: Arbeit macht frei
1974: Caution Radiation Area
1975: Crac!
1976: Maledetti (Maudits)
1978: 1978 Gli Dei Se Ne Vanno, Gli Arrabbiati Restano!
1980: Tic&Tac
1997: Chernobyl 7991
Live albums
1975: Are(A)zione
1979: Event '76 (recorded in Milan, 26 October 1976)
1996: Concerto Teatro Uomo (recorded in Milan, 29th or 30 April 1977)
1996: Parigi-Lisbona (recorded in Paris and Lisboa, 1976)
2004: Live in Torino 1977
2012: Live 2012
Compilations
1977: Anto/Logicamente
1980: Area '70
1996: Gioia e Rivoluzione
Singles
Boxsets
2002: Live Concerts Box (includes "Concerto Teatro Uomo" and "Parigi-Lisbona")
2002: Revolution Boxset (includes ""Arbeit Macht Frei", "Caution Radiation Area", "Crac!" and "Are(A)zione")
Related albums
1976: Parco Lambro (includes a 1976 live version of "Gerontocrazia")
1979: Il Concerto - Omaggio a Demetrio Stratos
2013: L'Album Biango (studio album by Elio e le Storie Tese, contains a track written and performed by Area)
See also
Art rock
Demetrio Stratos
Electronic music
Experimental music
Italian progressive rock
Jazz fusion
Jazz rock
Progressive rock
World music
References
External links
Cramps Music
Italian art rock groups
Experimental musical groups
Free jazz ensembles
Italian jazz fusion ensembles
Musical groups established in 1972
Italian electronic music groups
Musical groups from Milan
Italian progressive rock groups
Italian rock music groups
Italian experimental rock groups
Italian experimental musical groups
1972 establishments in Italy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smokeless%20tobacco
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Smokeless tobacco
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Smokeless tobacco is a tobacco product that is used by means other than smoking. Their use involves chewing, sniffing, or placing the product between gum and the cheek or lip. Smokeless tobacco products are produced in various forms, such as chewing tobacco, snuff, snus, and dissolvable tobacco products. Smokeless tobacco is widely used in South Asia and this accounts for about 80% of global consumption. All smokeless tobacco products contain nicotine and are therefore highly addictive. Quitting smokeless tobacco use is as challenging as smoking cessation.
Using smokeless tobacco can cause a various harmful effects such as dental disease, oral cancer, oesophagus cancer, and pancreas cancer, coronary heart disease, as well as negative reproductive effects including stillbirth, premature birth and low birth weight. Smokeless tobacco poses a lower health risk than traditional combusted products. However it is not a healthy alternative to cigarette smoking. The level of risk varies between different types of products (e.g., low nitrosamine Swedish-type snus versus other smokeless tobacco with high nitrosamine levels) and producing regions. There is no safe level of smokeless tobacco use. Globally it contributes to 650 000 deaths each year.
Smokeless tobacco products typically contain over 3000 constituents, which includes multiple cancer-causing chemicals. Approximately 28 chemical constituents present in smokeless tobacco can cause cancer, among which nitrosamine is the most prominent.
Smokeless tobacco consumption is widespread throughout the world. Once addicted to nicotine from smokeless tobacco use, many people, particularly young people, expand their tobacco use by smoking cigarettes. Males are more likely than females to use smokeless tobacco.
Types
Most smokeless tobacco use involves placing the product between the gum and the cheek or lip. Smokeless tobacco is a noncombustible tobacco product.
Types of smokeless tobacco include:
Mixed routes of administration:
Kuber, a smokeless tobacco product known for its highly addictive properties and its unique presentation disguised as a mouth freshener. Users commonly add it to tea or consume it directly by placing a pinch under the lower lip.
Nasal administration:
Snuff, a type of tobacco that is inhaled or "snuffed" into the nasal cavity. Traditionally, a specialized tool called a snuff spoon was used for this purpose. However, modern users may simply pinch the snuff between their thumb and forefinger or use pre-measured packets.
Oral (buccal, sublabial, or sublingual):
Chewing tobacco, a type of tobacco that is chewed
Creamy snuff, a fluid tobacco mixture marketed as a dental hygiene aid, albeit used for recreation
Dipping tobacco, a type of tobacco that is placed between the lower or upper lip and gums. This form of tobacco (Hindi: Khaini) is commonly used in Indian subcontinent. It is the second most common form of tobacco consumption in India, after cigarrette smoking.
Dissolvable tobacco, a variation on chewing tobacco that completely dissolves in the mouth
Gutka, a mixture of tobacco, areca nut, and various flavoring sold in South Asia
Iqmik, an Alaskan tobacco product which also contains punk ash
Naswar, an Afghan tobacco product similar to dipping tobacco
Pituri, a nicotine-containing substance traditionally made from Australian tobacco plants, used by Indigenous Australians for chewing and placed between the lower lip and gums. They use it in high doses to induce stupor or trance.
Snus, similar to dipping tobacco although the tobacco is placed under the upper lip and there is no need for spitting
Tobacco chewing gum (example, Big League Chew), a kind of chewing gum containing tobacco
Toombak and shammah, preparations found in North Africa, East Africa, and the Arabian peninsula
Topical:
Topical tobacco paste, a paste applied to the skin and absorbed through the dermis
Since there are varied manufacturing methods, products can differ greatly in chemical arrangement and nicotine level. Smokeless tobacco products typically contain over 3000 constituents which play a part in their taste as well as scent.
Nicotine levels
Smokeless tobacco differs depending on the type of product, the types of tobacco used, and the amount of each tobacco type used within a product. Each variable results in different level of nicotine. Furthermore, nicotine is absorbed by the body to different degrees depending on the pH level of the product, which is known as the free nicotine or unionized nicotine level.
Below are some measured nicotine levels of various smokeless tobacco products from 2006 and 2007 and their corresponding free nicotine levels as calculated by the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation.
Health effects
Various national and international health organizations, including the World Health Organization, the US National Cancer Institute, the UK Royal College of Physicians, stated that, even if it is less dangerous than smoking, using smokeless tobacco is addictive, represents a major health risk, has no safe level use and is not a safe substitute for smoking.
Using smokeless tobacco can cause a number of adverse health effects such as dental disease, oral cancer, oesophagus cancer, and pancreatic cancer, cardiovascular disease, asthma, and deformities in the female reproductive system. It also raises the risk of fatal coronary artery disease, fatal stroke and non-fatal ischaemic heart disease
Globally it contributes to 650 000 deaths each year with a significant proportion of them in Southeast Asia.
Smoking cessation and harm reduction
Quitting smokeless tobacco use is as challenging as smoking cessation. There is no scientific evidence that using smokeless tobacco can help a person quit smoking.
It is not recommended to use any smokeless tobacco product as part of a harm reduction strategy. Tobacco companies that sell smokeless tobacco products promote them as harm reduction products and a less harmful substitute to cigarettes. This creates a false perception of safety while real risk reduction can be achieved by smoking less.
Safety
Smokeless tobacco products vary extensively worldwide in both form and health hazards. The level of health risk varies between different types of products (e.g., low nitrosamine Swedish-type snus versus other smokeless tobacco with high nitrosamine levels from South Asia).
Even though smokeless tobacco poses a lower health risk than traditional combusted products, it is not a healthy alternative to cigarette smoking. There is no safe level of smokeless tobacco use.
The declines in smokeless tobacco initiation among adolescents and young adults is particularly relevant to improving their health because smokeless tobacco use is often linked to subsequent cigarette initiation. Smokeless tobacco users can experience negative health consequences at any age. Youth use of tobacco in any form is unsafe.
Cancer
Smokeless tobacco (including products where tobacco is chewed) is a cause of oral cancer, oesophagus cancer, and pancreas cancer. Increased risk of oral cancer caused by smokeless tobacco is present in countries such as the United States but particularly prevalent in Southeast Asian countries where the use of smokeless tobacco is common.
Smokeless tobacco can cause white or gray patches inside the mouth (leukoplakia) that can develop into oral cancer.
Carcinogens
All tobacco products, including smokeless, contain cancer-causing chemicals. These carcinogenic compounds occurring in smokeless tobacco vary widely, and depend upon the kind of product and how it was manufactured. There are 28 known cancer-causing substances in smokeless tobacco products.
Carcinogenic compounds in smokeless tobacco belong primarily to three groups of compounds: tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNA), N-nitrosoamino acids and N-nitrosamines. Among these TSNAs are the most abundant in smokeless tobacco and the most carcinogenic. N-nitrosonornicotine and ketone are group 1 carcinogens to humans. These two nitrosamines found in smokeless tobacco products are the main agents for the majority of cancers in smokeless tobacco users.
Products such as 3-(methylnitrosamino)-proprionitrile, nitrosamines, and nicotine initiate the production of reactive oxygen species in smokeless tobacco, eventually leading to fibroblast, DNA, and RNA damage with carcinogenic effects in the mouth of tobacco consumers. The metabolic activation of nitrosamine in tobacco by cytochrome P450 enzymes may lead to the formation of N-nitrosonornicotine, a major carcinogen, and micronuclei, which are an indicator of genotoxicity. These effects lead to further DNA damage and, eventually, oral cancer.
Other chemicals found in tobacco can also cause cancer. These include the radioactive element polonium-210 found in tobacco fertilizer. Harmful chemicals are also formed when tobacco is cured with heat (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons). Furthermore tobacco contains harmful metals such as arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, lead, nickel, and mercury.
The amounts of nicotine in saliva from using smokeless tobacco could be at amounts that can be toxic to cells in the oral cavity.
Cardiovascular disease
Using smokeless tobacco increases the risk of fatal coronary heart disease and stroke. In 2010 more than 200 000 people died from coronary heart disease due to smokeless tobacco use. Use of smokeless tobacco also seems to greatly raise the risk of non-fatal ischaemic heart disease among users in Asia, although not in Europe.
Effects during pregnancy
Smokeless tobacco can cause adverse reproductive effects including stillbirth, premature birth, low birth weight. Nicotine in smokeless tobacco products that are used during pregnancy can affect how a baby's brain develops before birth.
Management
Due to the harm caused by smokeless tobacco, it use might lead to the need for management or treatment. Some medications that show some benefits are varenicline and nicotine lozenges. Some behavioural interventions may also help.
Prevalence
More than 300 million people are using smokeless tobacco worldwide. People of many regions, including India, Pakistan, other Asian countries, and North America, have a long history of smokeless tobacco use. Once addicted to nicotine from smokeless tobacco use, many people, particularly young people, expand their tobacco use by smoking cigarettes. Because young people who use smokeless tobacco can become addicted to nicotine, they may be more likely to also become cigarette smokers. Youth are particularly susceptible to starting smokeless tobacco use.
United States
Males were more likely than females to have used smokeless tobacco in the past month. In 2014, 3.3 percent of people aged 12 or older (an estimated 8.7 million people) used smokeless tobacco in the past month. Past month smokeless tobacco use remained relatively stable between 2002 and 2014. Past month smokeless tobacco use between 2002 and 2014 was mostly consistent among adults aged 26 or older. There was more variability in the percentages of young adults aged 18 to 25 and adolescents aged 12 to 17 who used smokeless tobacco between 2002 and 2014. Smokeless tobacco use for adolescents aged 12 to 17 was higher during the mid-2000s, but the 2014 estimates were closer to the lower levels seen in the early 2000s. In 2014, an estimated 1.0 million people aged 12 or older used smokeless tobacco for the first time in the past year; this represents 0.5 percent of people who had not previously used smokeless tobacco. Prevalence of smokeless tobacco types that contain areca nut is increasing in the Western Pacific.
In 2016 about 2 of every 100 middle school students in the US (2.2%) reported current use of smokeless tobacco. In 2016 nearly 6 of every 100 high school students in the US (5.8%) reported current use of smokeless tobacco.
Public policy
WHO FCTC policies
The WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) contains a set of common goals, minimum standards for tobacco control policy in the 168 countries which signed it. The FCTC policies are also applicable for smokeless tobacco however they are less implemented in regards to these products. Only 57 countries have policies regulating smokeless tobacco use. 13 countries and the European Union apply a ban for advertising and promoting smokeless tobacco. The sale of smokeless tobacco to minors (Article 16 of FCTC) is restricted only in 13 countries and the WHO-defined Eastern Mediterranean region. 11 countries use taxation and pricing measures (Article 6) to reduce use in the general population.
In countries where they are applied to smokeless tobacco, FCTC policies had a positive impact on reducing their use. If multiple policies, including large taxes, are implemented, premature deaths can be prevented. However if taxation is higher for smoking products only people might switch to cheaper alternatives like smokeless tobacco.
Banning
The manufacture, distribution and sale of smokeless tobacco is banned completely in Bhutan, Singapore, and Sri Lanka. Partial bans on import and sales on some products are in effect in Australia, Bahrain, Brazil, India, Iran, Tanzania, Thailand, New Zealand, the UK and the European Union.
History
Smokeless tobacco was first discussed in the English language in 1683 as a powdered tobacco for breathing into the nose. People have used it for over a thousand years. Cigarette manufacturers have penetrated the smokeless tobacco market.
Positions of medical organizations
As long ago as 1986, the advisory committee to the Surgeon General concluded that the use of smokeless tobacco "is not a safe substitute for smoking cigarettes. It can cause cancer and a number of noncancerous oral conditions and can lead to nicotine addiction and dependence". According to a 2002 report by the Royal College of Physicians, "As a way of using nicotine, the consumption of non-combustible tobacco is of the order of 10–1,000 times less hazardous than smoking, depending on the product". A panel of experts convened by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in 2006 stated that the "range of risks, including nicotine addiction, from smokeless tobacco products may vary extensively because of differing levels of nicotine, carcinogens, and other toxins in different products". In 2010 the National Cancer Institute stated that "because all tobacco products are harmful and cause cancer, the use of all of these products should be strongly discouraged. There is no safe level of tobacco use. People who use any type of tobacco product should be urged to quit". In 2015 the American Cancer Society stated that "Using any kind of spit or smokeless tobacco is a major health risk. It's less lethal than smoking tobacco, but less lethal is a far cry from safe." In 2017 the World Health Organization states that "Smokeless tobacco use is a significant part of the overall world tobacco problem."
Public perceptions
Many people who use smokeless tobacco may think it is safer than smoking, but all tobacco products contain toxicants, and use of smokeless tobacco poses its own significant health risks. In South and South-East Asia these products are considered part of the cultural heritage and there is little enthusiasm for regulation. Around 80% of users live in these regions.
See also
Herbal cigarette
Tobacco
Tobacco usage in sport
References
Tobacco products
Carcinogens
IARC Group 1 carcinogens
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korona%20Kielce
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Korona Kielce
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Korona Kielce (Korona – Crown – symbol of club and city, Kielce – name of city where club is based) is a Polish football club based in Kielce, competes in Ekstraklasa in the 2024–25 season. From 2002 to 2008, the club belonged to a Polish holding company Kolporter Holding and achieved its greatest success – winning promotion to the top tier in 2005. Since then, Korona has spent 16 seasons in the Polish football top level (as of 2024–25). In the 2006–07 season, Korona played in the final of the Polish Cup.
Honours
League
Ekstraklasa
Fifth place: 2006–07, 2012–13, 2016–17
I liga
Champions: 2004–05
II liga (group IV)
Champions: 1989–90, 1996–97, 2003–04
Cup
Polish Cup
Runners-up: 2006–07
Semi-finalists: 2006–07, 2018–19
Ekstraklasa Cup
Quarter-finalists: 2007–08
Youth teams
Polish U-19 Championship
Champions: 2009, 2019
Runners-up: 1997
History
The club was founded in 1973 after the union of two clubs from Kielce – Iskra and SHL. The new club got its first promotion to the Polish 2nd league in 1975. Unfortunately, the team did not play very well and was soon relegated. The next promotion was in 1982. Korona played in the 2nd league until 1990 when it was once again relegated. 1996 brought several changes. Nida Gips from Gacki became the new sponsor and the club's name changed to Miejski Klub Sportowy Sekcja Futbolowa Korona. During the 1998–99 season, Korona again played in the 2nd league but dropped down at the end of the season. In 2000 Korona merged with another club from Kielce – Błękitni Kielce and was renamed to Kielecki Klub Piłkarski Korona.
In 2002, the golden era for Korona had begun. Kolporter became the new sponsor, Krzysztof Klicki the new chairman, and the club's name changed to Kielecki Klub Piłkarski Kolporter Korona. In 2003, the team was again renamed, this time to Sportowa Spólka Akcyjna Kolporter Korona. The goal was simple – to be the best Polish football team. The dream started to become reality in 2005 when Korona won the 2nd league and for the first time in the club's history was promoted to the Polish premier league.
Korona's first match in the Ekstraklasa was against Cracovia and the final score was 0–0. Korona ended the 2005–06 season fifth in the league table. Prior to the 2006–07 season, at a meeting with supporters, the chairman announced that club would revert to its historical coat of arms. Korona's second season in the Ekstraklasa started off strongly with an away win against Arka Gdynia (3–0). 20 September 2006 was a significant one in Korona's history. After an away victory against Odra Wodzisław Śląski, the club climbed to the top of the league table for the first time in its history although it ended the 2006–07 season in 7th place. Its third and final season in the top division was 2007–08, placing 6th but being relegated for its involvement in match-fixing in the 2003–04 season. In August 2008, Klicki sold the club to the city of Kielce for a nominal fee.
After one year, on 14 July 2009, Korona Kielce was promoted to the Ekstraklasa. In the 2019–20 season, Korona finished in 15th place and were relegated back to I liga. On 29 May 2022 Korona returned to the Ekstraklasa following a 3–2 win over Chrobry Głogów in the promotion play-off final after the winning goal scored in the final minutes of extra time.
Stadium
In response to Korona's successes and the club owner, Krzysztof Klicki's, affirmation that the club would play in the premier league and battle for European cups, Kielce municipal authorities approved the construction of a new stadium. Unfortunately, the stadium turned out to be much too small. Because of this the club played its first round in the highest division at its old stadium (currently used by reserves and youth teams) to permit further work on the new facility.
Only eighteen months after the start of the building project, the keys of the new stadium were officially handed to the club. The first premier league match was played on 1 April 2006 against Zagłębie Lubin.
The Korona stadium, although it stands on the same site as an earlier stadium, is an entirely new facility, built according to UEFA recommendations and modern design ideas. In this way it differs from most other football stadiums in Poland which were built during the communist era or earlier and only slightly modernized to meet basic UEFA standards.
Kielce stadium can seat 15,550 fans, however, due to Polish regulations, which require a buffer zone between local fans and the visitors section, league matches can only accommodate 13,823 Korona fans and 777 visiting fans. However, on one occasion the stadium was full to capacity during a league match. This occurred during the 2006–07 season when fans of visiting club Legia Warsaw were prohibited from entering due to the vast number of their 'red brigade' supporters who made the trip down to watch their club in Kielce.
Pitch dimensions are 105 x 68 m, and the entire surface is heated. Automatic sprinklers water the pitch in between match days. Kielce stadium has a complete system of monitoring, which could serve as a model for other Polish stadiums. Korona's stadium is also considered by the Polish Football Association for international games.
Since 2006, when the club moved to the most modern stadium in Poland, it often had one of the highest attendance statistics in the Polish league, although these numbers have declined since the club's relegation at the end of the 2007–08 season.
Club crest
A new club crest was introduced in 2002, featuring a redesigned coat of arms. However, many fans were disappointed by the removal of the beloved black crown from the emblem.
Before the 2006–07 season, the chairman announced in a meeting with supporters that the club would return to the historical coat of arms. Thanks to the fans and good will of the chairman, Korona again has the crown in her coat of arms.
Supporters
Supporters of Korona are some of the most enthusiastic in the Ekstraklasa and have received many awards for their artistic match 'frames'. In the spring round of 2006–07, Korona Kielce fans were awarded 5 times in 8 matches for their superb 'frames'.
Korona supporters' tireless cheering for their team often helps their team to victories. The most faithful fans are seated in the "Młyn" – "the Mill" – which contains 500 – 2,000 people.
On 14 June 2006, the Stowarzyszenie Kibiców Korony Kielce "Złocisto-Krwiści" (Korona Kielce Supporters Association "Golden-Blooded") was officially registered at a Kielce court. Official appointing of Korona Kielce fans had become a fact. This association brings together representatives of various Korona supporters groups.
The association is a partner for the club and many institutions, which it wants to cooperate with. The fans are invaluable in the creation of memorable football events, and the association has an important role in increasing fan input on football life in Korona. The most important role of the association however is to improve the quality of support.
The association also organizes special trains and coaches for fans for away matches. It also organizes events promoting the Club such as "Golden-bloody stadium in Kielce", "Small toy – children's benefit" (fans donated toys to an orphanage), "Action Banner" (a lot of flags and banners were sewed). In short, the association has introduced a new supporting style at Korona matches which will attract even more fans to the stadium on Ściegiennego street.
Korona Kielce fans have a friendship with fans of Stal Mielec and Sandecja Nowy Sącz.
Their biggest rivals are KSZO Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski with whom they contest the Holy Cross Province derby. Other fierce rivals are Radomiak Radom and Wisła Kraków.
Korona Kielce II
The club operates a reserve team.
Ownership
Since 2020, the club is wholly owned by the city of Kielce, after it acquired the remaining shares held by the previous majority owner, former German international footballer Dieter Burdenski. In April 2017, he purchased 72% of the club shares and subsequently signed his son Fabian in June that year.
Current squad
Out on loan
Other players under contract
Notable players
The following players received international caps for their respective countries. Players whose name is listed in bold represented their countries while playing for Korona Kielce.
Poland
Grzegorz Bonin (2005–08)
Piotr Celeban (2007–08)
Radosław Cierzniak (2007–10)
Paweł Golański (2005–07) (2010–15)
Artur Jędrzejczyk (2010)
Marcin Kaczmarek (2005–08)
Arkadiusz Kaliszan (2004–06)
Jacek Kiełb (2006–10, 2011–12, 2013–15, 2016–18, 2020–23)
Wojciech Kowalewski (2007–08)
Marcin Kuś (2007–08)
Andrzej Niedzielan (2010–11)
Grzegorz Piechna (2004–06)
Piotr Świerczewski (2007–08)
Maciej Wilusz (2015)
Łukasz Załuska (2004–07)
Marcin Żewłakow (2012–13)
Michał Żyro (2019–20)
Belarus
Yevgeniy Shikavka (2022–)
Dzmitry Verkhawtsow (2016)
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Iliyan Mitsanski (2007, 2017)
Canada
Milan Borjan (2017)
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Charlie Trafford (2015–17)
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Felicio Brown Forbes (2018–19)
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Michal Papadopoulos (2019–20)
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Ken Kallaste (2016–19)
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Olivier Kapo (2014–15)
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Senegal
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Serbia
Nemanja Miletić (2019–20)
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Erik Pačinda (2019–20)
Slovenia
Goran Cvijanović (2017–18)
Managers
Zbigniew Pawlak (1973)
Bogumił Gozdur (1973–77)
Zbigniew Lepczyk (1978)
Marian Szczechowicz (1979)
Wojciech Niedźwiedzki (1979–80)
Antoni Hermanowicz (1980–83)
Józef Golla (1983–84)
Czesław Palik (July 1, 1984 – June 30, 1985)
Czesław Fudalej (1985)
Witold Sokołowski (1986)
Antoni Hermanowicz (1986)
Bogumił Gozdur (1986)
Antoni Hermanowicz (1987–88)
Czesław Palik (July 1, 1988 – Dec 31, 1991)
Volodymyr Bulhakov (1992)
Marian Puchalski (1993)
Antoni Hermanowicz (1993)
Marek Parzyszek (1994)
Czesław Palik (July 1, 1994 – June 30, 1996)
Włodzimierz Gąsior (July 1, 1996 – June 30, 1999)
Stanisław Gielarek (1999)
Antoni Hermanowicz (2000)
Jacek Zieliński I (July 1, 2000 – Dec 20, 2000)
Czesław Palik (Jan 1, 2001 – June 30, 2001)
Robert Orłowski (July 1, 2001–02)
Tomasz Muchiński (2002 – Sept 23, 2002)
Dariusz Wdowczyk (Sept 23, 2002 – Dec 12, 2004)
Ryszard Wieczorek (Dec 13, 2004 – May 7, 2007)
Jacek Zieliński II (July 1, 2007 – May 17, 2008)
Włodzimierz Gąsior (June 3, 2008 – May 4, 2009)
Marek Motyka (May 18, 2009 – Nov 23, 2009)
Marcin Gawron (interim) (Nov 24, 2009 – Nov 29, 2009)
Marcin Sasal (Nov 29, 2009 – May 12, 2011)
Włodzimierz Gąsior (interim) (May 12, 2011 – June 9, 2011)
Leszek Ojrzyński (July 1, 2011 – Aug 5, 2013)
Sławomir Grzesik (interim) (Aug 5, 2013 – Aug 13, 2013)
Pacheta (Aug 13, 2013 – June 2014)
Ryszard Tarasiewicz (June 17, 2014 – June 10, 2015)
Marcin Brosz (June 25, 2015 – June 30, 2016)
Tomasz Wilman (June 30, 2016 – November 10, 2016)
Maciej Bartoszek (November 10, 2016 – June 30, 2017)
Gino Lettieri (July 1, 2017 – August 31, 2019)
Mirosław Smyła (September 16, 2019 - March 6, 2020)
Maciej Bartoszek (March 6, 2020 - April 15, 2021)
Dominik Nowak (April 16, 2021 – November 29, 2021)
Leszek Ojrzyński (December 17, 2021 – October 29, 2022)
Kamil Kuzera (October 29, 2022 – present)
See also
Football in Poland
List of football teams
References
External links
Official website
Unofficial website
Fan site
Fans forum
Football clubs in Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship
Sport in Kielce
Association football clubs established in 1973
1973 establishments in Poland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Times%20They%20Are%20a-Changin%27%20%28Bob%20Dylan%20album%29
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The Times They Are a-Changin' (Bob Dylan album)
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The Times They Are a-Changin' (Bob Dylan album)
The Times They Are a-Changin is the third studio album by the American singer-songwriter Bob Dylan. It was released on February 10, 1964, through Columbia Records. Whereas his previous albums, Bob Dylan and The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan, combined original material and cover songs, this was the first to feature only original compositions. The album consists mostly of stark, sparsely arranged ballads concerning issues such as racism, poverty, and social change. The title track is one of Dylan's most famous; many feel that it captures the spirit of social and political upheaval that characterized the 1960s.
Some critics and fans were not quite as taken with the album as a whole, relative to his previous work, for its lack of humor or musical diversity. Still, The Times They Are a-Changin peaked at No. 20 on the US chart, eventually going gold, and belatedly reaching No. 4 in the UK in 1965.
Recording sessions
Dylan began work on his third album on August 6, 1963, at Columbia's Studio A, located at 799 Seventh Avenue in New York City. Once again, Tom Wilson was the producer for the entire album. Dylan had, by the time of recording, become a popular, influential cultural figure.
Eight songs were recorded during that first session, but only one recording of "North Country Blues" was ultimately deemed usable and set aside as the master take. A master take of "Seven Curses" was also recorded, but it was left out of the final album sequence.
Another session at Studio A was held the following day, this time yielding master takes for four songs: "Ballad of Hollis Brown", "With God on Our Side", "Only a Pawn in Their Game", and "Boots of Spanish Leather", all of which were later included on the final album sequence.
A third session was held in Studio A on August 12, but nothing from this session was deemed usable. However, three recordings taken from the third session eventually saw official release: "master" takes of "Paths of Victory," "Moonshine Blues," and "Only a Hobo" were all included on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1–3 (Rare & Unreleased) 1961–1991 released in 1991. In 2013, "Eternal Circle" (Take 4), "Hero Blues" was included in the 1963 entry of The 50th Anniversary Collection 1963.
Sessions did not resume for more than two months. During the interim, Dylan toured briefly with Joan Baez, performing a number of key concerts that raised his profile in the media. When Dylan returned to Studio A on October 23, he had six more original compositions ready for recording. Master takes for "The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll" and "When the Ship Comes In" were both culled from the October 23 session. A master take for "Percy's Song" was also recorded, but it was ultimately set aside and was not officially released until Biograph in 1985. An alternate take on "Percy's Song," a "That's All Right" (Arthur Crudup)/"Sally Free and Easy" (Cyril Tawney) medley and "East Laredo Blues" were released in 2013 on the 1963 entry of The 50th Anniversary Collection.
Another session was held the following day, October 24. Master takes of "The Times They Are a-Changin'" and "One Too Many Mornings" were recorded and later included in the final album sequence. A master take for "Lay Down Your Weary Tune" was also recorded, but ultimately left out of the final album; it was eventually released on Biograph. Two more outtakes, "Eternal Circle" and "Suze (The Cough Song)", were later issued on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1–3 (Rare & Unreleased) 1961–1991. A final outtake, "New Orleans Rag", was released in 2013 on "The 50th Anniversary Collection".
The sixth and final session for The Times They Are a-Changin was held on October 31, 1963. The entire session focused on one song — "Restless Farewell"— whose melody is taken from an Irish-Scots folk song, "The Parting Glass", and it produced a master take that ultimately closed the album.
Songs
The Times They Are a-Changin opens with the title track, one of Dylan's most famous songs. Dylan's friend, Tony Glover, recalls visiting Dylan's apartment in September 1963, where he saw a number of song manuscripts and poems lying on a table. "The Times They Are a-Changin'" had yet to be recorded, but Glover saw its early manuscript. After reading the words "come senators, congressmen, please heed the call", Glover reportedly asked Dylan: "What is this shit, man?", to which Dylan responded, "Well, you know, it seems to be what the people like to hear".
Dylan recalled writing the song as a deliberate attempt to create an anthem of change for the moment. In 1985, he told Cameron Crowe: "This was definitely a song with a purpose. It was influenced of course by the Irish and Scottish ballads … 'Come All Ye Bold Highway Men', 'Come All Ye Tender Hearted Maidens'. I wanted to write a big song, with short concise verses that piled up on each other in a hypnotic way. The civil rights movement and the folk music movement were pretty close for a while and allied together at that time."
The climactic lines of the final verse: "The order is rapidly fadin'/ And the first one now/ Will later be last/ For the times they are a-changin'" have a Biblical ring, and several critics have connected them with lines in the Gospel of Mark, 10:31, "But many that are first shall be last, and the last first."
A self-conscious protest song, it is often viewed as a reflection of the generation gap and of the political divide marking American culture in the 1960s. Dylan, however, disputed this interpretation in 1964, saying "Those were the only words I could find to separate aliveness from deadness. It had nothing to do with age." A year later, Dylan would say: "I can't really say that adults don't understand young people any more than you can say big fishes don't understand little fishes. I didn't mean "The Times They Are a-Changin'" as a statement … It's a feeling."
"Ballad of Hollis Brown" was originally recorded for Dylan's previous album, The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan. That version was rejected and the song was eventually re-recorded for The Times They Are a-Changin. Described by Clinton Heylin as a "'tragic tale of independence and free will' culled from the folk idiom", it is a grim, rural Gothic story of a father killing his starving family ("There's seven people dead on a South Dakota farm").
"With God on Our Side" was first performed at New York's Town Hall on April 12, 1963 (which also happened to be Dylan's debut appearance at that venue). Although Dylan claims it is an original composition, the melody to "With God on Our Side" bears a striking resemblance to "The Patriot Game", the lyrics of which were written by Dominic Behan and the melody borrowed from the traditional Irish folk song, "The Merry Month of May". Behan called Dylan a plagiarist and a thief, in an attempt to goad Dylan into a lawsuit; Dylan made no response. "The Patriot Game" was originally introduced to Dylan by Scottish folk singer Nigel Denver. Scottish songwriter Jim McLean recalls Dylan asking him in late 1962: "'What does it mean, 'Patriot Game'?'... I explained—probably lectured him—about Dr. Johnson, who's one of Dominic's favourite writers, and that's where Dominic picked up [the] saying: 'Patriotism is the last refuge of a scoundrel.'" Music critic Tim Riley writes: "'With God on Our Side" manages to voice political savvy mixed with generational naiveté" as it "draws the line for those born long enough after World War I to find its issues blurry ('the reasons for fightin'/I never did get') and who view the forgiveness of the World War II Germans as a farce."
Dylan follows "With God on Our Side" with a soft, understated ballad: "One Too Many Mornings". "It's the sound of someone too smitten by love to harbor regrets, grown too independent to consider a reunion," writes Riley. One of the more celebrated songs on The Times They Are a-Changin', Dylan would dramatically rearrange it on his legendary 1966 concert tour for a full electric band.
"North Country Blues" tells the story of a mining company's decision to outsource its operations to countries where labor costs are cheaper than in the U.S.A. ("It's much cheaper down in the South American towns/Where the miners work almost for nothing".) The song marks the first time Dylan wrote a narrative from the point of view of a woman: the ex-wife of a miner whose work has disappeared. This song has been described by many critics as Dylan's portrait of his hometown, Hibbing, Minnesota.
Dylan first performed "Only a Pawn in Their Game" at a voter registration rally in Greenwood, Mississippi. The song refers to the murder of Medgar Evers, who was the Mississippi leader of the NAACP. Civil rights activist Bernice Johnson would later tell critic Robert Shelton that "'Pawn' was the very first song that showed the poor white was as victimized by discrimination as the poor black. The Greenwood people didn't know that Pete [Seeger], Theo[dore Bikel] and Bobby [Dylan] were well known. (Seeger and Bikel were also present at the registration rally.) They were just happy to be getting support. But they really like Dylan down there in the cotton country."
The melody for "Boots of Spanish Leather" was inspired by Martin Carthy's arrangement of the English folksong "Scarborough Fair" (also the melody of an earlier Dylan composition, "Girl from the North Country"). Dylan learned Carthy's arrangement during his first trip to England in late 1962. After finishing his obligations in England (including a brief appearance in a BBC drama, Madhouse on Castle Street), Dylan traveled to Italy looking for his girlfriend, Suze Rotolo, apparently unaware that she had already returned to America (reportedly the same time Dylan left for England). While in Italy, Dylan created an early draft of "Boots of Spanish Leather". Salon.com critic Bill Wyman called the song "an abstract classic and one of the purest, most confounding folk songs of the time".
According to Dylan biographer Clinton Heylin, "When the Ship Comes In" was written in August 1963 "in a fit of pique, in a hotel room, after his unkempt appearance had led an impertinent hotel clerk to refuse him admission until his companion, Joan Baez, had vouched for his good character." Heylin speculates that "Jenny's Song" from Brecht and Weill's Threepenny Opera was also an inspiration: "As Pirate Jenny dreams of the destruction of all her enemies by a mysterious ship, so Dylan envisages the neophobes being swept aside in 'the hour when the ship comes in'." Dylan's former girlfriend Suze Rotolo recalls that her "interest in Brecht was certainly an influence on him. I was working for the Circle in the Square Theatre and he came to listen all the time. He was very affected by the song that Lotte Lenya's known for, 'Pirate Jenny'."
"The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll" tells the story of a hotel barmaid who died after being struck by a wealthy white man. The song was inspired by Dylan's reading a newspaper account of the incident which took place in a hotel in Maryland, in February 1963.
The closing song of the album, "Restless Farewell" takes its melody from the traditional Irish-Scots song "The Parting Glass". Dylan's lyrics have an edge due to the way that Newsweek had treated Dylan. In a profile of the singer, published in October 1963, Dylan was portrayed as someone who had lied about his middle-class origins. Furthermore, it was implied that Dylan had plagiarised the lyrics of his best-known composition, "Blowin' in the Wind". Stung by these untrue allegations, Dylan composed a song about the pain of having "the dust of rumor" flung in his eyes. He swiftly recorded the work a few days after the Newsweek profile appeared on October 31, 1963. The album ends with Dylan's vow "I'll make my stand/ And remain as I am/ And bid farewell and not give a damn".
Outtakes
The sessions for The Times They Are a-Changin produced a large surplus of songs, many of which were eventually issued on later compilations. According to Clinton Heylin, "perhaps the two best songs, 'Percy's Song' and 'Lay Down Your Weary Tune', would not make the final album, failing to fit within the narrow bounds Dylan had decided to impose on himself."
"'Lay Down Your Weary Tune' ... along with 'Eternal Circle' ... marked a new phase in Dylan's songwriting", writes Heylin. "It is the all-important link between the clipped symbolism of 'A Hard Rain's a-Gonna Fall' and the more self-conscious efforts to come the following year. A celebration of song itself, 'Lay Down Your Weary Tune' was also an admission that there were certain songs 'no voice can hope to hum'."
Riley describes "Lay Down Your Weary Tune" as "a hymn to music's instrumental spectrum ... it's about the heightened awareness of nature and reality available to performer and listener in the course of a highly charged musical experience". The song is also rich in natural imagery, often in surreal, musical terms ("The cryin' rain like a trumpet sang/And asked for no applause"). Steven Goldberg writes that the song depicts nature "not as a manifestation of God but as containing God within its every aspect". The Byrds released their own celebrated version of "Lay Down Your Weary Tune" in 1965 on their critically acclaimed second album, Turn! Turn! Turn!
"Percy's Song" is sung from the point of view of a man who visits a judge in a futile, last-ditch attempt to save his friend from a severe prison sentence. It is based on a tune taken from "The Wind and the Rain", a song introduced to Dylan by Paul Clayton. "'Percy's Song', along with ... 'Seven Curses' and 'Moonshine Blues', showed that Dylan's command of traditional themes, housed in traditional melodies, remained undiminished by the topicality of other efforts", writes Heylin. Fairport Convention recorded their own celebrated rendition of "Percy's Song" on their critically acclaimed third album, Unhalfbricking.
Written sometime in late 1962 or early 1963, "Only a Hobo" was also recorded during these sessions but ultimately set aside. Described by Heylin as "a superior reworking of [Dylan's earlier composition] 'Man on the Street' that took as its source the 'Poor Miner's Lament'", the song is sung from the point of view of a sympathetic narrator who stumbles upon a homeless man lying dead in a gutter. Rod Stewart later released his own celebrated version of "Only a Hobo" on the critically acclaimed Gasoline Alley in 1970. Dylan himself re-recorded "Only a Hobo" for Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits Vol. II, only to reject that version as well. He eventually released his own version in 1991 on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1–3 (Rare & Unreleased) 1961–1991.
Dylan also recorded demo versions for publishing purposes of several songs on the album. The demos, recorded for his first two publishing companies, Leeds Music and M. Witmark & Sons, were available for many years as bootlegs and were officially released by Columbia Records in October 2010 on The Bootleg Series Vol. 9 – The Witmark Demos: 1962–1964.
Legacy
On October 26, 1963, three days after recording the final song for The Times They Are a-Changin, Dylan held a concert at New York's Carnegie Hall. That night, he performed eight songs from his forthcoming third album, as well as several outtakes from the same album sessions (including "Percy's Song", "Seven Curses", and "Lay Down Your Weary Tune"). Columbia recorded the entire concert, but it was decades before a substantial portion of it was officially released (in fact to date the concert in its entirety has not been released). Nevertheless, the performance was well received by the press and audience alike.
A month later, on November 22, 1963, President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas. Dylan's friend Bob Fass was sitting with Dylan in Carla Rotolo's apartment the day of the shooting. According to Fass, Dylan was deeply affected by it and said: "What it means is that they are trying to tell you 'Don't even hope to change things'." Dylan later claimed that Kennedy's death did not directly inspire any of his songs, but in a manuscript written shortly after the assassination, he wrote: "it is useless to recall the day once more." In another, he repeatedly wrote: "there is no right or left there is only up and down."
Three weeks to the day after Kennedy's assassination, the Emergency Civil Liberties Committee gave Dylan their annual Tom Paine award for his contribution to the civil rights movement. Dylan gave an acceptance speech at the awards ceremony held at Hotel Americana in New York. In his closing remarks, he stated the following:
"I want to accept this award, the Tom Paine Award, from the Emergency Civil Liberties Committee. I want to accept it in my name but I'm not really accepting it in my name and I'm not accepting it in any kind of group's name, any Negro group or any other kind of group. There are Negroes - I was on the march on Washington up on the platform and I looked around at all the Negroes there and I didn't see any Negroes that looked like none of my friends. My friends don't wear suits. My friends don't have to wear suits. My friends don't have to wear any kind of thing to prove that they're respectable Negroes. My friends are my friends, and they're kind, gentle people if they're my friends. And I'm not going to try to push nothing over. So, I accept this reward - not reward, (Laughter) award in behalf of Phillip Luce who led the group to Cuba which all people should go down to Cuba. I don't see why anybody can't go to Cuba. I don't see what's going to hurt by going any place. I don't know what's going to hurt anybody's eyes to see anything. On the other hand, Phillip is a friend of mine who went to Cuba. I'll stand up and to get uncompromisable about it, which I have to be to be honest, I just got to be, as I got to admit that the man who shot President Kennedy, Lee Oswald, I don't know exactly where … what he thought he was doing, but I got to admit honestly that I too - I saw some of myself in him. I don't think it would have gone - I don't think it could go that far. But I got to stand up and say I saw things that he felt, in me - not to go that far and shoot. (Boos and hisses) You can boo but booing's got nothing to do with it. It's a - I just a - I've got to tell you, man, it's Bill of Rights is free speech and I just want to admit that I accept this Tom Paine Award in behalf of James Forman of the Students Non-Violent Coordinating Committee and on behalf of the people who went to Cuba." (Followed by applause and boos)
It was voted number 378 in the third edition of Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums (2000).
Clinton Heylin wrote: "in less than six months [Dylan] had turned full circle from the protest singer who baited Paul Nelson into someone determined to write only songs that 'speak for me' … Dylan's ambitions as a writer for the page … may have been further fed at the end of December when he met renowned beat poet Allen Ginsberg, author of Howl and Kaddish." Dylan was already familiar with Ginsberg's work. By now, beat poetry and French symbolists had become an enormous influence on Dylan's work, as Dylan "passed from immediate folk sources to a polychrome of literary styles". In an interview taken in 1985, Dylan said that he didn't start writing poetry until he was out of high school: "I was eighteen or so when I discovered Ginsberg, Gary Snyder, Philip Whalen, Frank O'Hara and those guys. Then I went back and started reading the French guys, Rimbaud and François Villon."
Many critics took note of the stark pessimism on The Times They Are a-Changin', which NPR's Tim Riley later described as "'Masters of War' stretched out into a concept album" due to its "social preening and black-and-white moralism".
By the time the album was released in February 1964, Dylan was already entering a new phase in his career, pulling further away from his popular image as a protest singer.
The album was re-released in 2010 with new liner notes by Greil Marcus.
In popular culture
In 1994, Dylan licensed "The Times They Are a-Changin'" to be used in an advertisement for the auditing and accountancy firm Coopers & Lybrand, as performed by Richie Havens. Two years later, in 1996, a version of the song by Pete Seeger was used in a TV advertisement for the Bank of Montreal. This song was also used as the background track to the opening montage in the movie Watchmen.
The album and the song are mentioned in writer Walter Isaacson's biography of Steve Jobs, as works of Dylan that were particularly meaningful to Jobs, the song is also referenced in the movie, where Jobs and John Sculley debate what lyrics of the song to use in the unveiling of the Macintosh.
Track listing
Personnel
Bob Dylan – vocals, acoustic guitar, harmonica
Tom Wilson – production
Charts
Weekly charts
Singles
Certifications
References
Sources
External links
1964 albums
Albums produced by Tom Wilson (record producer)
Bob Dylan albums
Columbia Records albums
Albums recorded at CBS 30th Street Studio
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Будинок на Терещенківській вулиці, 5
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Будинок на Терещенківській вулиці, 5 — житловий будинок у Шевченківському районі Києва, на вулиці Терещенківській. Має статус пам'ятки архітектури та історії місцевого значення (охоронний № 1111-Кв). Зведений у 1934 році за проєктом харківського архітектора С. Григор'єва у стилі пізнього конструктивізму. У цьому будинку, первісно відомому як «Перший будинок Раднаркому», мешкало багато діячів науки та культури радянської доби.
Історія
Після перенесення у червні 1934 року столиці УСРР з Харкова до Києва, Рада народних комісарів УСРР наказала збудувати у Києві низку житлових будинків для своїх співробітників і працівників ДПУ, штабу УВО, ЦК, ВУЦВК, чия загальна потреба у житлі становила 1140 квартир. У першій хвилі будівництва запланували звести п'ять житлових будинків загалом на 192 квартири, першим з яких став будинок на 12 квартир у київському Старому місті, на вулиці Терещенківській (тоді — Чудновського), 5 (інші чотири будинки спорудили на Липках). Будівництво житла для радянських урядовців довірили команді архітекторів з колишньої столиці — Харкова — на чолі з Сергієм Вікторовичем Григор'євим, чиєю першою спорудою в Києві став саме будинок на Терещенківській.
Вочевидь, проєктування першого урядового будинку почали ще до офіційного перенесення столиці до Києва, тому що так званий «Перший будинок Раднаркому» звели ударними темпами і урочисто здали того ж 1934-го року, до 27-ї річниці Жовтневого перевороту.
За радянських часів квартири у цьому будинку давали урядовцям і культурним діячам, лояльним до радянської влади. Так, у будинку жили голова правління Спілки письменників України, депутат Верховних Рад УРСР і СРСР Микола Бажан, міністр освіти УРСР Іван Білодід, голова Держкіно УРСР Василь Большак, міністр освіти УРСР, голова Верховної Ради УРСР Павло Тичина. 26 січня 1980 року у квартирі, де жив останній, відкрили його літературно-меморіальний музей-квартиру. Також у 1990—1996 роках у будинку діяв діяв меморіальний музей Миколи Бажана на громадських засадах, який очолювала вдова поета. Після її смерті у 1996 році меморіальний музей-квартира Бажана став частиною Національного музею літератури України.
Під час повномасштабного вторгнення Росії в Україну будинок № 5 постраждав від ракетного удару 10 жовтня 2022 року: були пошкоджені фасади та частково вибиті вікна, зокрема, в Літературно-меморіальному музеї Павла Тичини та музеї Миколи Бажана. Музейні експозиції не постраждали.
Опис
Будинок чотириповерховий, з підвалами, цегляний, вкритий чотирисхилим вальмовим дахом, внутрішні перекриття пласкі. У плані прямокутний, двосекційний, на 12 дво-, три- та чотирикімнатних квартир.
В архітектурному плані будинок все ще відносять до періоду пізнього конструктивізму, проте в його плануванні та оздобленні вже помітні риси неокласицизму 1930-х років. Останній проявляється перш за все у симетричному, вертикально розчленованому фасаді, центральна частина якого підкреслюється невисоким аттиком із ліпним фризом, а фланкують її невисокі рустовані ризаліти, в які винесені об'єми сходових кліток і суміжні з ними одновіконні прясла. Вхідні групи в ризалітах первісно мали бути оформлені портиками, проте це викликало зауваження при затвердженні проєкту, тому реалізували інший, скромніший варіант, за яким вхідні двері обрамовувалися класицистичними спарованими пілястрами та увінчувалися ліпною аркою-архівольтом із замковим каменем під нею. Втім, в оздобленні будинку все ще багато елементів, притаманних конструктивізму. Так, сходові клітки мають вертикальне засклення, розділене на три нерівні фрагменти вузькими віконними перекладками. Балкони, що прилягають до ризалітів, зроблені кутовими, а прямокутні вікна чолового фасаду здебільшого майже квадратні, що також характерно для стилю конструктивізм.
Оздоблення чолового фасаду стримане: перший поверх і ризаліти прикрашені білими рустуванням, вікна третього і четвертого поверху — білими ліпними підвіконними фільонками, притаманними українському бароко, аттик центральної частини — великим білим ліпним панно. Також білим кольором прокреслені рамкові облямування віконних прорізів з другого по четвертий поверх і декоративні архівольти над вхідними дверима. Автором ліпних вставок був скульптор М. І. Гельман. Підвіконні вставки-фільонки містять декоративні рослинно-квіткові композиції, в центрі яких, в залежності від розмірів вікон, розташовується рельєфна ваза (у більших за розмірами фільонках) або куманець (у менших). Ліпне панно у фризі центральної частини первісно, за пропозицією Гельмана, мало містити зображення на тему дозвілля і відпочинку, натякаючи на те, що в цьому будинку відпочивають у родинному колі стомлені важкою працею радянські урядовці. Втім, у реалізованому варіанті панно містить стандартні радянські символи: серп і молот у щиті, роги достатку та гірлянди.
Особливістю цього будинку став темно-сірий тиньк, яким вкриті його стіни. Річ у тім, що наприкінці 1920-х років виснажилися місцеві поклади зеленої спондилової глини — основної складової київської жовтої цегли. Окрім того, київські цегельні заводи після довгого періоду занепаду і розрухи були реконструйовані згідно із новими вимогами соціалістичного господарства, що, втім, призвело до зниження якості цегли. Будинки, зведені у 1920-х роках, не тинькували, тому під впливом клімату вони швидко втрачали гарний вигляд. Це було абсолютно неприпустимо для будинків, де мала жити радянська еліта, тому новий будинок на Терещенківській (та й більшість наступних будинків цього періоду) вкрили рельєфним темно-сірими тиньком «під шубу».
У 1937 році професор С. Гіляров у своїй статті «Два роки столичної архітектури» назвав будинок на Терещенківській, 5 «першою ластівкою столичної архітектури» і однією з «найбільш вдалих будов столичного Києва». Будинок № 5 — цікавий зразок архітектурного поєднання конструктивізму 1920-х та класицистично-монументальних форм 1930-х років.
Відомі мешканці
I поверх:
кв. № 1 — академік Білодід Іван Костянтинович (липень 1957 — грудень 1974)
II поверх:
кв. № 3 — поет Тичина Павло Григорович (у 1944—1967 роках)
кв. № 4 — диригент Турчак Стефан Васильович (у 1980—1988 роках)
III поверх:
кв. № 5 — у 1934—1938 роках — радянський державний діяч Сухомлин Кирило Васильович (репресований), у 1944—1983 роках — письменник і громадський діяч Бажан Микола Платонович
кв. № 6 — академік Шліхтер Олександр Григорович (у 1936—1940 роках)
IV поверх:
кв. № 9 — письменник Большак Василь Григорович (у 1973—1988 роках)
№ квартири невідомий — оперна співачка Мірошниченко Євгенія Семенівна (у 1985—2009 роках)
№ квартири невідомий — письменник Загребельний Павло Архипович (у 1977—1999 роках)
Меморіальні дошки
Миколі Бажану — бронзова з барельєфним портретом, скульптор І. Макогон, архітектор О. Стукалов; встановлена у 1984 році.
Павлу Загребельному — бронзова з барельєфним портретом; встановлена 20 серпня 2014 року.
Євгенії Мірошниченко — бронзова з барельєфним портретом, скульптор І. Мельничук; встановлена 27 квітня 2019 року.
Кирилові Сухомлину — бронзова з барельєфним портретом, скульптор В. Проскуров, архітектор Г. Урсатий; встановлена у 1989 році, демонтована.
Павлу Тичині — бронзова з барельєфним портретом, скульптор А. Фуженко, архітектор Т. Довженко; встановлена у 1971 році.
Стефану Турчаку — бронзова з рельєфним зображенням ліри і нотного стану, скульптор В. Сівко; встановлена у 1994 році.
Олександру Шліхтеру — білий мармур, архітектор І. Шмульсон; встановлена у 1959 році, демонтована в рамках декомунізації.
Примітки
Джерела
Пам'ятки архітектури України місцевого значення в Києві
Пам'ятки архітектури Шевченківського району
Київський конструктивізм
будинок 05
Об'єкти Києва, пошкоджені чи знищені в ході російського вторгнення в Україну (2022)
Житлові будівлі України
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76538079
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024%20New%20Jersey%20earthquake
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2024 New Jersey earthquake
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2024 New Jersey earthquake
On April 5, 2024, at 10:23 EDT (14:23 UTC), a 4.8 earthquake occurred in the U.S. state of New Jersey, with the epicenter in Tewksbury Township. While it was felt across the New York metropolitan area, Delaware Valley, the Washington D.C metropolitan area, and other parts of the northeastern United States between Virginia and Maine, it had a relatively minor impact, with no major damage reported. There were dozens of aftershocks throughout the rest of the week and into the next.
It was the strongest earthquake to affect New Jersey since the 5.3 1783 New Jersey earthquake, and the strongest to hit New York City since an estimated 5.0 magnitude earthquake on August 10, 1884.
Tectonic setting
The causative fault for the earthquake was likely in the area of the Ramapo Fault zone, which extends from Pennsylvania to New York and was formed by the break-up of the supercontinent Pangaea during the Late Triassic. Another possible origin is the Flemington Fault, a younger fault in the same area.
The Whitehouse Station, New Jersey area had previously experienced an earthquake on March 14, 2024. The USGS considers this to be part of the event sequence.
Earthquake
The earthquake had a moment magnitude of 4.8 and a depth of . Its epicenter was in Tewksbury Township, New Jersey, at 40.689°N 74.754°W, about 1 mile (1.6 km) north of Oldwick and 5 miles (8.0 km) east of Lebanon. Tremors were felt all across the Northeastern United States from Maine in the north to Washington, D.C., and Norfolk, Virginia, in the south.
As of May 1, over 159 aftershocks were reported, the strongest of which had a magnitude of 3.7 and took place about from Gladstone around 17:59, around 7 hours and 36 minutes after the original quake. Aftershocks have varied in magnitude, ranging from 3.0 to 1.0. The USGS projected a 12% chance of an aftershock with a magnitude greater than 3 and a 1% chance of a stronger earthquake with a magnitude above 4.
Impact
Several buildings in New York City, Philadelphia, and Long Island were shaken. The USGS estimated that the earthquake was felt by about 42 million people in the area.
The earthquake interrupted a meeting of the Security Council on the Israel–Hamas war at the United Nations Headquarters in Manhattan, while a performance at the New York Philharmonic was briefly delayed by cell phones sounding an alert at 11:02, which was sent about 40 minutes after the earthquakes were felt. Gas leaks were reported in Rockland County, New York, and an administrative building in Morristown, New Jersey. In Huntington, New York, a vehicle was damaged after falling into a sinkhole shortly after the earthquake.
Up to 150 buildings were damaged across New York City, and a school gym in East New York sustained damage. Four three-story houses on Seventh Avenue in Newark, New Jersey, were damaged by the earthquake. Twenty-eight residents were evacuated, but no injuries were reported. Three of the houses were "partially toppled" and were subsequently condemned. The upper portion of the 264-year old Col. John Taylor's Grist Mill collapsed into a road. Additionally, the earthquake caused water main breaks in Essex County and Morris County.
Damage to a Northeast Philadelphia home was the only confirmed report of structural damage caused by the earthquake in Pennsylvania.
Aftermath
The Federal Aviation Administration completely halted flights at Newark Liberty International Airport, Philadelphia International Airport and John F. Kennedy International Airport. Arrivals into Baltimore/Washington International, LaGuardia, and Teterboro Airports were delayed. The air traffic control tower at Newark Liberty International Airport was also evacuated. Five flights bound for Newark were diverted to Lehigh Valley International Airport in Allentown, Pennsylvania.
The first emergency alert sent to New York City residents came 26 minutes after the earthquake to subscribers of the Notify NYC service. A Wireless Emergency Alert was sent out to the broader region even later, with New Yorkers reporting it arriving 40 minutes after the earthquake. Amid criticism, New York City Emergency Management Commissioner Zach Iscol defended the delayed response in a press conference, saying that "Twenty minutes is very fast for a public alert," and that they needed that time to confirm that it was indeed an earthquake.
The PATCO Speedline was temporarily suspended for inspection "out of an abundance of caution." Amtrak train speeds were restricted throughout the Northeast while railroad tracks were being inspected for damage, and NJ Transit trains on all lines was delayed around 20 minutes due to track inspection. AirTrain Newark at the Newark Liberty International Airport was also closed for inspection while its flights were ungrounded.
The Holland Tunnel, a major crossing of the Hudson River, was briefly closed for inspection between 11:00 and 11:15 local time. The Lincoln Tunnel was also briefly closed, backing up traffic in Weehawken.
Within hours of the earthquake, a custom T-shirt shop in Manhattan began printing a joke souvenir reading "I survived the NYC earthquake April 5, 2024." The store put it on the shop window and a pedestrian took a photo of it, which was shared widely on social media, causing hundreds of sales.
See also
Seismicity of the New York City area
List of earthquakes in the United States
List of earthquakes in 2024
2011 Virginia earthquake – felt in New York City and New Jersey
Notes
References
2024 earthquakes
2024 natural disasters in the United States
Earthquake
2024 in New York City
April 2024 events in the United States
Earthquakes in New Jersey
Natural disasters in New York City
Hunterdon County, New Jersey
Lebanon, New Jersey
Bedminster, New Jersey
Tewksbury Township, New Jersey
Ramapo Fault
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5349766
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Bulatovich
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Alexander Bulatovich
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Alexander Bulatovich
Alexander Ksaverievich Bulatovich (26 September 1870 – 5 December 1919) tonsured Hieroschemamonk Anthony was a Russian military officer, explorer of Africa, writer, hieromonk and the leader of the imiaslavie movement in Eastern Orthodox Christianity.
Biography
Early life
Alexander was born to a family of Oryol nobility and was of Russian/Belarusian, French, Georgian, and Tatar descent. He studied in Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, then served in the Hussar Leib Guard regiment.
Military service
In 1896 he was a member of the Russian mission of the Red Cross in Ethiopia, where he became a confidant of Negus Menelek II of Ethiopia. Bulatovich later joined the expedition of Ras Welde Giyorgis Aboye and became the first European to provide a scientific description of the Kaffa province (conquered by Menelek II where Bulatovich was among the Army). He was the first European to reach the mouth of the Omo River. Among the places named by Bulatovich is the Nicholas II Mountain range. He had to ask permission from the Emperor himself to name the range in his honour.
After Bulatovich returned to Russia he received a Silver Medal from the Russian Geographical Society for his work in Ethiopia and the military rank of a poruchik (later Rittmeister) of the Leib Guard Hussars. He served in Saint Petersburg. In 1903 after his talks with Saint John of Kronstadt he resigned from the Army and became a monk (later hiero-schema-monk) of the Russian Skete of Saint Andrew near the much larger St. Panteleimon Monastery on Mount Athos in Greece. He also visited Ethiopia again trying to establish a Russian Orthodox Monastery there. He was tonsured as Father Antony and became known as Hieromonk Antony Bulatovich.
In 1907 after reading the book On Caucasus Mountains by the schema-monk Hilarion (Domrachov), he became one of the leaders of the imiaslavie movement within the Russian Orthodox Church. When the movement was proclaimed a heresy and disbanded by a Russian military force in 1913, he was in St. Petersburg pleading the cause of monks.
He continued his fight for the recognition of imiaslavie, published many theological books proving its dogmas, obtained an audience with the Nicholas II and eventually managed to secure some sort of rehabilitation for himself and his imiaslavtsy comrades. They were allowed to return to their positions in the Church without repentance.
On August 28, 1914, Antony Bulatovich received permission to join the Russian Army as an army priest. During World War I Father Antony not only served as a priest but on "many occasions led soldiers to attack" and was awarded the Cross of St. George
Later life
After returning from the war he took part in the discussion about the imiaslavie. In October 1918 the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church canceled the decision allowing imyaslavtsy to participate in church services provided they repent. The decision was signed by Patriarch Tikhon of Moscow. In January 1919, Anthony Bulatovich stopped any relations with the Holy Synod and Tikhon and returned to his family estate in Lebedinka, where he started a small skete and lived the life of a hermit. He was the spiritual opponent of any civil war.
Death
On the night of December 6, 1919 he was murdered. There are conflicting accounts if the killers were deserters of White Army or Red Army or some unaffiliated robbers.
Bulatovich in Russian literature
Antony Bulatovich was most probably the original for the grotesque Schema-Hussar Alexei Bulanovich from the novel The Twelve Chairs by Ilf and Petrov. He is also the hero of Valentin Pikul's story The Hussar on a Camel. In addition he is the hero of the novel The Name of Hero by Richard Seltzer (published by Houghton Mifflin in 1981). The complete text of that novel is online for free at http://www.seltzerbooks.com/hero.html
"Mazepa! Layers of Legend," short story by Richard Seltzer inspired by Bulatovich's life. Online for free at https://medium.com/@seltzer_57387/mazepa-layers-of-legend-1d4173fea9dd
Writings
A. K. Bulatovich, Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000, . http://www.seltzerbooks.com/russianeyes.html
A. K. Bulatovich, With the Armies of Menelik II translated by Richard Seltzer http://www.seltzerbooks.com/armies.html
A. K. Bulatovich, From Entotto to the River Baro translated by Richard Seltzer http://www.seltzerbooks.com/entotto.html
A. K. Bulatovich, My Third Journey to Ethiopia, 1899-1900 translated by Richard Seltzer http://www.seltzerbooks.com/thirdjourney.html
See also
Russian people in Ethiopia
Leonid Artamonov
Nikolay Leontiev
Nikolay Gumilyov
References
Article in the Bibliographical Dictionary of Victims of Political Repressions
Article on the site of Russian orthodox Church
Article on Krotov's library
Article on site geographia.ru
Tatiana Sénina (moniale Kassia), Un palamite russe du début du XXème siècle : le hiéromoine Antoine Boulatovitch et sa doctrine sur l’énergie divine, in Scrinium, t. 6: Patrologia Pacifica Secunda (2010) 392–409.
Tatiana Senina (Nun Kassia), The status of divine revelation in the works of Hieromonk Anthony Bulatovich, in Scottish Journal of Theology 64:4 (2011) 377–389.
Tatiana Sénina (moniale Kassia), La doctrine du hiéromoine Antoine Boulatovitch sur les idées et sa théorie de la connaissance, in Scrinium. Journal of Patrology, Critical Hagiography and Ecclesiastical History, vol. 7-8: Ars Christiana: In Memoriam Michail F. Murianov (21.XI.1928-6.VI.1995) (2011-2012) Pt. 2, p. 314-325.
THE ORIGINS OF ‘HERESY’ ON MOUNT ATHOS: ILARION’S NA GORAKH KAVKAZA (1907)
For numerous related documents, including his official military record, as well as interviews with and letters from his sister Princess Mary Orbeliani see http://seltzerbooks.com/sourcesandrelateddocuments.html
External links
1870 births
1919 deaths
People from Oryol
People from Orlovsky Uyezd (Oryol Governorate)
Nobility from the Russian Empire
Explorers of Africa
Theologians from the Russian Empire
Religious leaders from the Russian Empire
Imperial Russian Army officers
Explorers from the Russian Empire
Anthropologists from the Russian Empire
Geographers from the Russian Empire
20th-century Eastern Orthodox theologians
19th-century Eastern Orthodox theologians
Russian military personnel of World War I
Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum alumni
Murder victims from the Russian Empire
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4592701
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICE%201
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ICE 1
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ICE 1
The ICE 1 is the first batch-produced German high-speed train and one of six in the Intercity Express family. Revenue service at speeds up to started in 1991. It was raised to in May 1995 and temporary reduced to again, as a result of the Eschede accident.
Trainsets consist of two power cars (Class 401) and up to 14 intermediate cars (Classes 801 to 804). Occasionally, power cars and intermediate cars of the ICE 2 are used as well (Classes 402, 805 to 808). Trainsets always operate as a whole train and cars cannot be coupled in regular service.
One of the 60 trainsets (trainset 51) was destroyed in the Eschede train disaster. The others were refurbished between 2005 and 2008 and will remain in service for ten to fifteen additional years.
Formation
ICE 1 trains consist of two powerheads and 9 to 14 intermediate cars. Because trainsets are not separated in regular service, they can be seen as multiple units from an operational point of view. During the first refurbishment, which was completed in late 2008, trainsets were standardized to 12 intermediate cars.
Until the first refurbishment was completed, there had been three different configurations of ICE 1 trainsets:
Refurbished trainsets consist of two power cars and 12 intermediate cars. These include four first class cars, including the service car with the conductors' compartment (numbered 9, 11, 12, 14), one restaurant car (8) and seven second class cars (1 to 7). Smoking is prohibited in all cars. Cars 1, 3, 9, 11 and 14 are equipped with cellular repeaters.
Non-refurbished trainsets for domestic service consisted of three first class cars (11, 12 and 14), seven second class cars (1 to 7), a service car (9) and a restaurant car (10). Car number 7 might have been one of three types: an original second class car of the ICE 1, a second-class-car from the ICE 2 or a first class car from the ICE 1, marked as second class. The first class car number 13 was removed; this was one of two first class cars for smokers, but without the additional equipment of car 14 (video, telephone)
Non-refurbished trainsets for service into Switzerland consisted of four first class cars (11 to 14) and six second class cars (1 to 6) plus a service and a restaurant (9 and 10)
A train consisting of 14 cars had a length of . Prior to the refurbishment this train would have had 192 seats in first class, 567 seats in second class and 40 seats in the restaurant car plus four in the conference compartment. Two spaces for wheelchairs are available.
Most cars of the ICE 1 offer both compartments and rows of seats, just like the seating in German InterCity cars. Cars at the ends of the trainsets used to be smoking areas. There are "quiet" cars as well as cars that were later equipped with cell phone repeaters. Some seats were designed to turn to face the direction of travel, but this was never used in revenue service.
Power Cars (Class 401)
The class 401 power car includes the cab and the engine compartment. Besides the driver's seat and controls, the cab features a second seat and several controls behind the seats. The engine compartment has a central corridor with door at both ends as well as a door on each side of the power car.
Both bogies are powered by four forced-air cooled traction motors each. Each motor has a continuous power rating of , the UIC power rating of the vehicle is , and the largest starting tractive effort . The drive system uses asynchronous three-phase AC motors pioneered in the Henschel-BBC DE 2500 locomotives as well as the InterCityExperimental. These motors are fitted between bogies and frame using pneumatics that are electronically adjusted depending on the current speed ("Umschaltbare Antriebsmasse UmAn," i.e., switchable drive mass). The power cars are directly derived from the Class 120 locomotives.
At the time they entered into service, the power cars were considered exceptionally advanced technology. Each power car alone had ten computer systems. Displays on both sides of the driver's console allowed, for example, controlling operating conditions or entering failure notifications, that were automatically reported to the maintenance facility via radio.
While the InterCityExperimental's power cars were higher than the intermediate cars, both heights would be adjusted for the ICE 1 series. A significant change to the predecessor is the pressure-sealed cab.
Power cars 001 to 020 and 501 to 520 had conventional power converters. All other power cars (051 to 090 and 551 to 591) have power converters that use GTO thyristors which are responsible for the distinctive "melody" when the power car is brought up to speed. Power cars with conventional power converters weigh about , those with GTO power converters two and a half tons less. In October 2007, Deutsche Bahn tendered refitting two power cars with IGBT power converters instead of the GTOs. After field testing, up to 36 additional power cars were converted.
The power converters are rated to . The transformers output : for traction and for heating, air-conditioning and auxiliary circuits.
On the front, power cars feature a Scharfenberg coupler underneath a cover. Contrary to all other variants of ICE trains, the coupler of ICE 1 power cars is not used in regular service.
The ICE 2 power cars (Class 402) are compatible to the intermediate cars of the ICE 1 and are used with ICE 1 trains when necessary. Two ICE 2 power cars were ordered specifically for powering ICE 1 trains (402 045 and 402 046).
Power cars for service into Switzerland are equipped with a second pantograph matching Swiss specifications and the Swiss Integra-Signum safety system as well as ETCS. The other power cars are prepared for fitting a second pantograph.
Usually the power car 401 0xx is coupled to the first class cars, while the power car 401 5xx is coupled to the second class end of the train.
First Class Intermediate Car (Class 801)
When delivered, these cars were divided into two main areas. One area had rows of seats in a 2+1 arrangement further divided by a coat rack in the middle of the area. Seats were spaced apart and the aisle was wide. The other area comprised three compartments with five seats each. Between the compartments and the doors were the toilet, three display cabinets, lockers and several trash cans.
The first order of ICE 1 trains (41 trainsets) included 105 cars of this type.
First Class Intermediate Car with Special Equipment (Class 801.8)
These cars are the same as the class 801 car, except for a C-Netz telephone, that was placed between the toilet and the first compartment.
The first order of ICE 1 trains included 41 cars of this type.
Second Class Intermediate Car (Class 802)
These cars are divided into two main areas as well. One part comprises two toilets and four passenger compartments with six seats each. The other part is fitted with rows of seats in a 2+2 arrangement, divided in two halves by a coat rack. Prior to the refurbishment, this area had six tables with seats arranged on both sides. This has been reduced to four in favor of additional seats.
Seats were spaced apart before the refurbishment, and the backrests could be reclined up to 40 degrees. Each car was designed in one of three different sets of colors for carpets and seat covers.
Some units, running as car number 1 (smokers' car second class), had one compartment refitted for storing luggage containers for the AIRail Service. This was used for airline passengers travelling between Stuttgart and Frankfurt Airport. These special compartments were removed during the refurbishment.
The first order of ICE 1 trains (41 trainsets) included 246 cars of this type.
Second Class Car with Special Configuration (Class 802.9)
The order for the ICE 2 trainsets in October 1993 included additional cars to be coupled into ICE 1 trainsets. 24 second class cars (class 806.9) and one first class car (class 805.9) were collectively designated class 802.9 and coupled into ICE 1 trainsets as car number 7, after two years of passenger service had shown that second class capacity was too low.
Service Car (Class 803)
Prior to the refurbishment, the class 803 service car had 39 second class seats, two wheelchair spaces and a conference compartment with four seats. Additionally, there is the conductors' compartment, one compartment for employees of the restaurant car and a wheelchair-accessible toilet including a changing table. The doors are wider compared to other cars to improve accessibility for wheelchairs. There is an additional toilet reserved for employees of the restaurant car to ensure food safety.
The second class seats were arranged just like in the usual second class intermediate cars. Originally, these cars also held the train's second phone booth.
At the time of commissioning, the conference compartment was equipped with a large table, four freely movable chairs, an electronic typewriter, a fax machine, a telephone and power sockets. It could be used with a reservation of at least three seats. Originally, first-class tickets were necessary. If there were no reservations in the conference compartment, it could be used at the head conductor's discretion. In 1992, demand was high: the conference compartments were booked 8197 times. A year later, that number dropped to 4400. Before the refurbishment program, the train's only power sockets for passengers were located in the conference compartment.
The train's information displays are controlled from the conductor's compartment, which is also where announcements are usually recorded.
The first order of ICE 1 trains (41 trainsets) included 41 cars of this type.
Restaurant Car (Class 804)
The restaurant car (class 804, also referred to as Bordrestaurant, former spelling BordRestaurant) has a total of 40 seats. On the side facing the first class cars is a dining area, where guests are served at eight tables with 24 seats in a 2+1 arrangement. The central part of the car comprises the galley that is connected to a counter facing the BordBistro area (formerly referred to as Bord-Treff "on-board meeting point"). This self-service area is designed for 16 seated and 10 standing guests.
The restaurant car can easily be recognized by its raised roof, which is higher than the rest of the train. This was necessary in order for all the kitchen equipment to fit into the car. Unlike all other intermediate cars, the restaurant car has no sideways doors for passengers to enter or exit the car from the platform. There is, however, a door in the kitchen area that can only be opened from inside.
In the refurbishment program, the galley was redesigned. It now includes a microwave oven, storage space for containers and a new coffeemaker.
There is one restaurant car in every ICE 1 trainset. Originally, it was planned to serve meals at the tables of the neighboring first-class car as well, if all seats in the restaurant car were taken.
History
The trains are based on the experimental vehicle InterCityExperimental which was completed in 1985. Project planning of the series had already started the year before. Specification and a project schedule were completed in 1985, but because of the lack of practical experience it was considered provisional. After many details were changed, Deutsche Bundesbahn published tender documents on 2 January 1986.
Procurement
A first series of 41 trainsets was eventually ordered after lengthy discussion between the Bundesbahn and the Federal Ministry of Transport.
The development of the power cars was tendered in March 1986, with development of the intermediate cars in June. By the end of the year, all contracts were awarded.
At the delivery ceremony of the first Class 120 locomotive on 13 January 1987, Werner Dollinger, the federal minister for transport, said: "I hereby empower the board of the Deutsche Bundesbahn to order the first ten units of the series version of the ICE from the industry at once. Financing is assured." ("Hiermit ermächtigte ich den Vorstand der Deutschen Bundesbahn, sofort zehn Exemplare der Serienausführung des ICE bei der Industrie in Auftrag zu geben. Die Finanzierung ist gesichert.") Prior to that statement there had been speculation that the federal government would not provide funding for the trains that were necessary to effectively use the high-speed lines that were designed for speeds of . When the high-speed lines were to be opened in 1991, plans called for 40 to 50 ICE trainsets ready for service. The power output of the power cars was designed for trains with 14 intermediate cars at a speed of , while bogies and brakes were designed to .
Using a letter of intent, Bundesbahn ordered 82 power cars in September 1987 and 482 intermediate car in July 1988 (according to a different source, 492 intermediate cars). The Federal Ministry of Transport approved of the order in July 1988. The contracts were officially awarded to the consortiums on 20 January (power cars) and 20 February 1989 (intermediate cars). Delivery of the first power car was planned for August 1989, the first intermediate car was to be delivered in April 1990, and testing of the trains was to start in spring of 1990.
The purchase price of the first 41 trainsets ordered was about 1.8 billion DM, about 1.2 billion DM of which was for the electric equipment. The Bundesbahn claims to have reduced the price by about 300 million DM through negotiations. One power car cost 8.7 million, a restaurant car four million, a service car three million and a regular intermediate car 2.7 million DM.
In July 1990, Bundesbahn ordered 19 additional trainsets of two power cars and twelve intermediate cars (including one service car) for another billion DM. These 19 trainsets were approved for service in Switzerland and made services past Basel via Bern to Interlaken and to Zürich possible. Delivery of these units started in the fall of 1991.
A further development of the ICE 1 into a multi-system train for international services was specified as ICE-M. While this concept was later implemented in the ICE 3M, while plans for a fast freight train for piece goods based on the ICE 1 (called ICE-G) were shelved.
Power Cars
Production of the power cars began in the fall of 1988, based just on a letter of intent, however, the production contract became legally binding much later. The first 82 power cars received fleet numbers 401 001 to 020, 401 051 to 071, 401 501 to 520 and 401 551 to 571.
When production of the power cars started in the fall of 1988, bogies and other parts were already in production. The skeletons of the bodies were built at Krauss-Maffei at Munich. Further construction of the bodies was shared in equal parts between Krauss-Maffei, Krupp (Essen) and Thyssen-Henschel (Kassel). A consortium of ABB (BBC), AEG and Siemens supplied the electrical equipment.
The first power car of the serial production was officially delivered to Bundesbahn on 26 September 1989 at Krauss-Maffei's factory in Munich. Numerous guests of honor were present for the ceremony, including the federal minister of transport Friedrich Zimmermann, the federal minister of research Heinz Riesenhuber and Bundesbahn CEO Reiner Gohlke. Delivery of the first 41 trainsets was planned to be completed by April 1991, while in early 1989 complete delivery had been planned for September 1991. Commissioning of the first vehicle began shortly after delivery, with one power car being delivered every week. After some initial delays, delivery was back on schedule by spring 1990. By the end of May 1990, 35 power cars had been delivered. In the spring of 1990, 401 015 and 401 515 were delivered, which were the first power cars equipped with additional pantographs for service in Switzerland.
The first presentation of the ICE outside Europe was the Technogerma exposition at Seoul from 27 February to 9 March 1991. Power car 401 555 and one intermediate car were brought there by ship.
Intermediate Cars
Development and production of the intermediate cars was lead-managed by LHB (Salzgitter). Main partners were Duewag (Krefeld-Uerdingen), Waggon Union (Berlin), and MBB Verkehrstechnik (Donauwörth). MAN and several smaller companies were involved as well. Preparations for production began in mid-1988, actual production started one year later. The bodies were a lightweight construction made from large extruded profiles of an aluminium-silicon alloy, the base plan was built as a hollow chamber profile.
The first car (of class 802) was delivered by MBB at Donauwörth on 2 July 1990. The first cars of classes 801 and 803 were delivered by Duewag at Krefeld-Uerdingen on 13 August. The first restaurant cars followed in the fall of the same year.
Commissioning
When the first ICE 1 power cars were commissioned in late 1989, the intermediate cars were not yet available. Instead, they were coupled to retired couchette cars (type yl) that were homologated for . These were fitted with special couplings for compatibility to the power cars. Usually, Class 110 locomotives served as Angstlok as well as for pulling the train on the return trip. For braking tests, the locos were sometimes coupled between two power cars, with match wagons on both sides. The test runs usually started at the Opladen repair workshop and used lines in the vicinity. Fast runs at up to were to Bielefeld and Bremen. Because of time pressure, some power cars were used for tests that had not yet been accepted by Bundesbahn. For longer test runs, two "dummy trainsets" comprising eleven couchette cars and ten InterCity cars (type Bm 235) respectively were used to replace the missing intermediate cars.
Besides the test runs, the first power cars were used for various other purposes. 401 006 was sent to the Bundesbahn school at Munich-Aubing for three weeks in April 1990. Later the same month 401 005 was used for fine-tuning the new depot at Hamburg-Eidelstedt to the trains. Starting 22 May, 401 504 and 401 008 were used to train drivers for acceptance runs at Nuremberg. At the same time, 401 503 was sent to Nuremberg for a test disassembly. In early June 1990, 401 010 was sent to the environmental test chamber at the Austrian Research and Test Center Arsenal.
When the first intermediate cars became available, the first complete ICE 1 trains underwent trials between Fulda and Würzburg on the Hanover-Würzburg high-speed rail line, where they reached speeds of .
Distinctive features
Compared to the InterCity, the new train had several distinctive features. Besides the increased top speed (instead of ), traveling comfort was improved significantly. The ICE 1's cars are 20 centimeters wider than the newest IC cars at the time, the number of seats per second class car was reduced from 88 to 66 while the car length remained the same.
All passenger cars were air conditioned. The passages between the cars were wide and without doors, the seat pitch of (second class) and (first class) was larger than on any other German train. Furthermore, the doors were unusually wide and featured steps that deployed automatically when the doors were opened to make entry as convenient as possible, and the glass doors dividing the two major areas of the intermediate cars were opened by proximity sensors. The ICE 1 was the first German train in which smokers and non-smokers were separated not into different parts of the same car, but to different cars altogether.
Each seat featured a standard 3.5 mm audio jack with controls for switching between eight channels: three radio programs from public broadcasters, three programs played from Compact Disc and two audio channels for video programs. In both classes, some seats featured video monitors in the backrests of the seats. Luggage could be stored both above and below the seats. The main part of the car was divided by a coat rack. Every seat had its own reading lamp and information monitors in the entrance areas switched between displaying the train's route and the current speed.
Because they were conceived in the 1980s, the trainsets had no power sockets available to travellers except for the conference compartment prior to the refurbishment. The few power sockets were placed in order to operate cleaning equipment and were usually disabled during the journey.
Start of operation
Service trials of the first ICE 1 trainsets started in the fall of 1990, about a year later than originally planned. On 28 February 1991 the ICE 1 was officially presented to the press at Fulda, on 8 March the press was invited for a run from Hamburg to Ulm and back.
The first regularly scheduled ICE train, Münchner Kindl, departed from in Hamburg at 5.53 am on 2 June 1991. For the inauguration of the ICE system, ICE 1 trainsets operated on one ICE line from Hamburg to Munich, via Hanover, Fulda, Frankfurt, Stuttgart and Augsburg, at hourly intervals. This coincided with the inauguration of the first two German high-speed rail lines Mannheim-Stuttgart and Hanover-Würzburg, which required 18 trainsets. At the time of the inauguration a total of 25 trainsets were available. Originally, the trainsets were made up of 13 intermediate cars: four first class, restaurant car, service car and seven cars second class.
In 1991 and 1992, ICE 1 trainsets gradually took over additional services between Hamburg/Bremen and Munich. On 31 May 1992, this IC service was officially transferred to the ICE. On the same day, the ICE Sprinter service was introduced.
In 1992 and 1993, the IC service from Hamburg to Basel via Frankfurt and Karlsruhe was gradually transferred to the ICE 1. Starting 27 September 1992, some trains continued into Switzerland to Zürich for the first time.
Since 23 May 1993, some ICE services have started in Berlin instead of Hamburg or Bremen. With three lines operating, the planned requirements of rolling stock increased to 48 trainsets. On 28 May 1995, some services were extended to Interlaken, on 24 May 1998 an ICE service to Vienna was introduced.
Further Development
On 12 August 1995, the Chinese head of state Jiang Zemin travelled on board the ICE from Ludwigsburg (near Stuttgart) of Rolandseck (near Bonn). For this purpose, a special trainset had been coupled from two power cars and six intermediate cars, one of which had been converted to a palace car. The Guest of the State was accompanied by the Federal Minister of Transport Matthias Wissmann, DB chief of passenger operations Klaus Daubertshäuser and several board members of AEG and Siemens. The train reached a maximum speed of . A visit to the cab that was scheduled for five minutes was extended to about 30 minutes by the Guest of the State. The companies involved hoped to sell ICE technology for the Beijing to Shanghai connection.
Starting 29 May 1995, ICE 1 trains were allowed to travel at their top speed of . This was used on ICE line 3 (Hamburg–Frankfurt–Basel) in conjunction with other measures to cut travel time by a total of 17 minutes. This significantly improved the trains' connections for Switzerland's synchronized timetable. In 1998, the top speed was again lowered to . Since mid-2006, single ICE 1 services on the Nuremberg–Ingolstadt high-speed railway travel at . In 2008, the ICE 1 service ICE 783 uses its top speed on the Hanover–Würzburg line.
Since 1 September 2007, smoking has been prohibited in all of Deutsche Bahn's trains. Smoking areas had gradually been reduced to both cars at the very ends of the ICE 1 trainsets (cars 1 and 14). Until 30 September 2006, smoking was allowed in the Bistro area of the restaurant car. The restaurant area had always been smoke-free. Starting in late 2005, smoking in the first class cars of refurbished trains had already been limited to the three compartments of car 14.
First Refurbishment
By mid-2005, each ICE 1 trainset had travelled 6.5 to 7.9 million kilometers and had been in revenue service for up to 14 years. In the summer of 2005 a refurbishment program was started, referred to by Deutsche Bahn as "Redesign". It was planned to toughen up all trainsets for another 10 to 15 years of service at the Nuremberg main railway workshop completing in December 2008.
For the refurbishment, trainsets were taken out of service for five weeks (25 work days). Refurbishing a single ICE 1 trainset costs about three million Euro, a fraction of the cost of buying new trains. The entire program cost about 180 million Euro.
About 80 percent of the materials are re-used, including 16,000 tons of steel and 1,200 tons of copper from the power cars' traction motors. Compared to buying new trains, the program saves about 1.3 billion Euro. About 35,000 tons of carbon dioxide emissions were avoided as well as about 500,000 tons of industrial waste.
After several weeks of testing, the first refurbished ICE 1 (trainset 11 "Nürnberg") went back into service on 5 August 2005. By March 2006, eleven trainsets had been refurbished, by February 2007 half the fleet (30 trainsets), by June 2007 37 of the 59 trainsets. In 2005, nine trainsets were refurbished, in 2006 and 2007 20 each. Until the end of 2007, two trains underwent refurbishment at the same time. The remaining trainsets were refurbished one-by-one.
The refurbishment program uses the full capacity of the Nuremberg workshop with 320 jobs.
In each of the 708 intermediate cars, about 3500 parts were removed, processed or replaced and reinstalled. This included 42,000 seats, 40,000 square meters of carpets, 5000 tables, 42,000 reservation displays and 11,000 window shades. The interior design was adapted to the newer ICE generations.
Interior changes included:
new colors, brighter lights
panelling from teak wood, similar to the second-generation ICE 3 interior
reduction to the seat pitch in second class to 920 mm. This allows the installation of 60 additional seats per trainset. Because the window arrangement was not changed, this resulted in some "wall window seats": Window seats without windows next to them.
power sockets on the seats and luggage racks in the center of the car. For supplying the power sockets, four additional power circuits were installed in each car.
passenger information displays were modernized and displays indicating reserved seats were installed.
new design of the restaurant car, which now resembles the restaurant cars of the first series ICE T
the accessible toilet now features a panic button. Buttons to call for assistance have been installed at the wheelchair spaces.
reduced maximum power due to set IGBT instead of GTO.
During the refurbishment, the audio and video systems were removed as well as the phone booths, the foot-rests in second class, the terminals for timetable information and the buttons in first class that were used to call the conductor. The backrests in second class compartments do not recline any more, those in second class row seats only by a limited amount. The seat cushion can still be moved to the front by about five centimeters.
The power cars received new bogie frames and a new power supply for the air conditioning. The power cars of trainsets 01 to 20 were refitted with GTO power converters. Smaller measures included diagnosis and subsequent repair of the driver's brake valve, the installation of new relays into some safety circuits and some software changes.
After the refurbishment, all trainsets were coupled to a standardized combination of 12 intermediate cars. During the refurbishment, seats that differ between both versions cannot be reserved.
Field tests
Starting in mid-1993, a newly developed bogie with air suspension was tested in a first class intermediate car (801 088-6) in scheduled service. The two-year trial was to prove that the bogie that was homologated for 300 km/h was ready to go into production for the ICE 2.
Since 1995, two ICE 1 trainsets have been used as so-called idea trains ("Ideenzüge") on services from Hamburg to Basel and Stuttgart. These trainsets were used to test cellular repeaters, returnable bottles in the restaurant car and different concepts for in-train Internet access. Later these trainsets were used in regular ICE service, without tests being conducted. During the refurbishment, the additional installations were removed.
For the early-morning service Ernst Barlach from Hamburg to Munich, two compartments in cars 1 and 7 were reserved for the storage of skis in early 1995. In each compartment, racks for 28 pairs of skis were installed. This service was offered at no extra cost, reservation of storage space was not possible.
From 13 January to 23 March 1996, the same service was offered in a compartment of car 5 of ICE trains 585 and 588 from Hamburg to Garmisch-Partenkirchen and back. On a pair of ICE trains between Berlin Zoo and Interlaken this was offered as well on specific dates from mid-December 1995 to mid-April 1996.
In 1995, some ICE 1 cars were used to field-test new air conditioning units that used air as cooling agent and therefore did not require special refrigerants. These units were later installed in the ICE 3.
In the late 1990s, trainset 13 had ICE 2 power cars and a new intermediate car with traction motors for testing the distributed traction concept. The train was referred to as ICE D.
ICE train North America tour
In June 1993, an eight-car trainset was shipped from Bremerhaven to the United States. The trainset included two power cars 401 084 and 584, one first class car, two second class cars, one restaurant car, and one service car. Starting in April 1993. the train had been adapted to service on the Northeast Corridor. Changes included adaptations to the 11 kV, 25 Hz electrification system and changed wheel profiles.
The trainset did presentation runs to 25 cities in the US and Canada. Starting 4 October, it was used in Metroliner service between Washington, D.C., and New York City for two months. On other lines the train was pulled by diesel locomotives, specifically the experimental F69PHAC.
Siemens and AEG-Westinghouse hoped to win a contract by Amtrak for 26 trainsets for a fast Boston–New York–Washington service that would eventually become the Acela Express. Had the bid been won, the trainsets would have been built at five plants of the GM Electro-Motive Division in the United States.
Other attempts to sell ICE 1 technology outside Germany remained unsuccessful as well. In 1993/1994 AES and Siemens offered the ICE to Taiwan, hoping to win an order for 45 trainsets. The Taiwanese Minister for Transport Liu Chao-shiuan tested the ICE in the summer of 1993, while in Germany.
Swiss speed record
On 8 November 2007, trainset 89, which had been shortened to about , set a Swiss land speed record for railed vehicles during trial runs for the ETCS cab signalling inside the Lötschberg Base Tunnel. The trainset reached . The trainset had a modified pantograph, but two of the eight traction motors had been disabled.
Second Refurbishment
Starting from 2019 all ICE 1 trainsets will receive a second major overhaul to stay in service until at least 2030. The first of these refurbished sets was finished in April 2020, and is used in passenger service since June of the same year. Changes include:
Each trainset being shortened from 12 to 9 cars, with one First Class Car and two Second Class Cars being removed. These cars will be used as donors for spare parts.
The Service Car being refurbished as a Second Class Car.
LED displays (viewable from outside of the cars) and passenger information system screens (viewable from the inside) are installed at the doors, displaying the ICE's line number, next stops and Terminus, similar to those installed in the ICE 2 cars.
Additional storage room for the passengers' luggage.
A renovation of the restrooms and the Family Areas.
New seats in the cabs.
The refurbished units are planned to be used on the ICE Sprinter lines and on routes with medium high traffic. On those with high to extremely high traffic they are to be replaced by the ICE 4 trains .
Accidents
Eschede
On 3 June 1998 ICE 1 set 151 derailed on the Hanover–Hamburg railway at Eschede, approximately north of Hanover. The train was on its way from Munich to Hamburg as ICE 884 "Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen", when the wheel of a first class car broke, and changed the setting of a railroad switch. Subsequently, the following cars derailed and crashed into the pillars of a bridge the train was just passing under, causing it to collapse on top of the train.
101 people were killed and 88 were seriously injured. It remains the worst rail disaster in the history of the Federal Republic of Germany and the worst high speed rail disaster worldwide.
Set 151 was almost completely destroyed; only the almost undamaged power car 410 051 as well as a few other intermediate cars have been reused in other sets. The trailing power car was used for the reconstruction of power car 401 573.
Technology
Traction of the ICE 1 trainsets is achieved by the eight driven axles of both power cars. Because relatively few axles have traction, the steepness of the grade the trains can safely negotiate are limited. The ICE 1 is limited to grades of about 3.5%. Steeper grades cannot be negotiated safely, because the wheels could slip due to the low adhesion under adverse conditions, which may lead to a stopped train becoming stuck on a grade. This is one of the reasons the ICE 1 is not homologated for the Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed rail line, which has grades of up to 4%.
The intermediate cars sit on type MD 522 bogies with steel suspension and an axle base of . New wheels have a diameter of . They are replaced when they reach a diameter of . The cars are coupled above the rails by a semi-automatic coupling that was designed specifically for the ICE 1. It couples two brake pipes, two electric trainlines, cables and two fibre-optic cables. The passage between two cars is wide and high. Unlike on the InterCityExperimental, they are not positive locked on the outside.
The acceleration distance of a trainset with 14 cars to − starting at standstill, on level terrain − is given as (66 seconds), to on (200 s) and to on (380 s). Braking distance of a service stop under LZB control (0,5 m/s²) from is given as that of a fast braking (1,05 m/s²) at . For braking all cars have disc brakes. Additionally, the power heads use regenerative brakes, the intermediate cars have electromagnetic track brakes. The power cars have spring-loaded parking brakes; intermediate cars use screw brakes for the same purpose. The bogies facilitate replacing the track brakes with eddy current brakes.
The pantograph type DSA-350 S was specifically developed by Dornier for use in the ICE 1. At they were considered very lightweight with minimal resonance. Unlike its predecessor InterCityExperimental, the ICE 1 does not have a high-voltage connection of both power cars. Because of this, the pantographs of both power cars are raised during operation.
In the 1990s, the two phone booths inside each trainset were connected to Deutsche Telekom's C-Netz by 13 so-called Funkfeststationen. Inside the tunnels of the first two high-speed lines, repeaters were installed at a distance of 1500 meters that communicated with the trains using leaky feeders. Between the tunnels, directional antennas were used. Inside the trains, antennas were installed in the service cars. Calls cost 0.7 DM per time unit. The same time unit cost 0.23 DM when using a landline.
ETCS Cab Signalling
The 19 ICE 1 trainsets used for service into Switzerland were equipped with the European Train Control System (ETCS) in 2007 The cost of 34 million Swiss Francs was paid by the Swiss government. Spending tax money for refitting foreign trains has been a target for criticism.
Switzerland paid for the equipment after Deutsche Bahn had announced the it would not convert any of their high-speed lines to ETCS cab signalling within the following ten years. Because of this, DB claimed to have no interest in refitting ICE trainsets with ETCS. If ETCS is used on any high-speed line in Germany within ten years, Switzerland has to be paid back part of the cost.
ETCS is used in Switzerland on the newly built Mattstetten–Rothrist line that has been used by ICE 1 trains since 10 December 2006. Currently, the line is used by three to four pairs of ICE trains each day, including one intra-Swiss ICE from Bern to Basel.
Design
The exterior design of the InterCityExperimental by Alexander Neumeister was applied to the series production with only minor adjustments. Neumeister's concept for the interior however was not used. The interior was designed by Jens Peters. The same team had designed the InterRegio trains in the mid-1980s.
Aerodynamic reasons led to the design of the power cars' front as well as the flush fitting of the windows and the low skirts. In places without windows, thick glass is used to continue the ribbon glazing.
The exterior design is very similar to that of the ICE 2. A major difference to all other ICE generations is the raised roof of the restaurant car. The ICE 1 is the only ICE without electronic displays for route information of the outside; the car numbers are indicated by adhesive labels. ICE 1 trainsets have car numbers ranging from 1 to 14, while all other ICE trains have car numbers from 21 to 44.
Operation
Deutsche Bahn is the sole operator and owner of ICE 1 trains. There are currently 59 units of twelve intermediate cars. At about 750 seats and a length of 360 meters, the ICE 1 trainsets are the longest ICE trains that have been built yet. Other ICE trains have the same length and capacity when two (sometimes three) trainsets are coupled.
The trainsets are used in synchronized schedules on the Hanover-Würzburg high-speed rail line:
Hamburg-Altona via Hannover–Göttingen–Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe–Frankfurt (Main)–Mannheim–Karlsruhe–Baden-Baden–Freiburg to Basel (ICE line 20) or to Stuttgart (branching off at Mannheim, ICE line 22)
Berlin via Wolfsburg–Braunschweig–Hildesheim–Göttingen–Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe–Fulda–Hanau–Frankfurt (Main)–Mannheim to Karlsruhe–Offenburg–Basel (ICE line 12) or Stuttgart–Ulm–Augsburg–Munich (ICE line 11)
Hamburg-Altona via Hannover–Göttingen–Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe–Würzburg–Nuremberg–Ingolstadt to Munich (ICE line 25)
Hamburg-Altona to Berlin (part of ICE line 28)
Additionally, there are single trains of other ICE lines serviced by ICE 1 trainsets. Until December 2007, ICE trains from Germany to Innsbruck and Vienna were ICE 1 services as well.
Because they exceed the UIC loading gauge, ICE 1, ICE 2 and Metropolitan trainsets are collectively referred to as ICE A in internal use.
All 59 trainsets are based at Hamburg-Eidelstedt.
Names
Since October 2002, certain ICE trainsets have carried the names of cities:
See also
List of high-speed trains
Sources
Railway coaches of Germany
Deutsche Bundesbahn locomotives
Electric multiple units of Germany
Electric multiple units with locomotive-like power cars
Intercity Express
Articles containing video clips
Passenger trains running at least at 250 km/h in commercial operations
Train-related introductions in 1989
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%20%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85%20%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B2%20%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%94%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%2047
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Лідери ескадрених міноносців проєкту 47
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Лідери ескадрених міноносців проєкту 47 — тип радянського броньованого лідера ескадрених міноносців з універсальною артилерією головного калібру. Кораблі проєкту призначалися для лідирування в океанській зоні великих ескадрених міноносців проєкту 35; для виконання свого призначення лідери проєкту 47 мали бути добре озброєними і захищеними. У квітні 1941 року, перед початком німецько-радянської війни, проєктування броньованого лідера було призупинено і відновлено вже після завершення війни. Незважаючи на те, що проєкт 47 так і не був реалізований, його двобаштовий варіант став прототипом ескадреного міноносця проєкту 41.
Передісторія
Вперше ідея броньованого лідера в радянському флоті була висловлена на початку 1920-х років начальником Військово-морської академії та відомим морським теоретиком М. О. Петровим під час підготовки проєкту «морської програми». Фахівці Військово-морської академії та Головного морського технічного управління вважали за доцільне на основі аналізу досвіду боротьби на морських комунікаціях періоду першої світової війни створити захищений палубним бронюванням есмінець з шестидюймовою артилерією, потужним мінно-торпедних озброєнням, що має швидкість повного ходу до 40 вузлів. Розроблене оперативно-тактичне завдання на такий корабель залишилося незатребуваним і не було перевірене методами дослідного проєктування.
У зміненому вигляді ідея виникла в середині 1930-х років, коли під впливом італійського кораблебудування з'явилися проєкти швидкісних «броньованих лідерів-розвідників». 1935 року з'явилися два передескізних проєкти броньованого лідера, розроблені кораблебудівною секцією ЦНДІ ВК і . Передескізний проєкт ЦКБС-1 було опрацьовано конструкторами в п'яти варіантах; 23 грудня 1935 року його представили у Відділ кораблебудування Управління Морських сил РККА (УМС РККА). Оптимальний варіант проєкту було прийнято для подальшого проєктування з присвоєнням проєктного номера 24. 10 лютого 1936 року заступник начальника главку П. Г. Гойнкіс підписав наряд № 51/20-377с, за яким ЦКБС-1 було наказано «зробити розробку ескізного проєкту і спільного проєкту броньованого лідера-розвідника» (проєкт 24); до 18 лютого проєкт було розроблено. Згідно з ним лідер мав такі тактико-технічні елементи: стандартну водотоннажність 3400 т; ніс артилерію головного калібру з восьми 130-мм гармат у двоствольних броньованих установках, два чотириствольних 37-мм зенітних автомати, два побортно розташовані 533-мм п'ятитрубні торпедні апарати; мав бронювання: борти і траверзи — 50 мм, палуби — 25 мм, бойових рубок — 35-60 мм; повний запас палива — 950 т, дальність ходу економічною швидкістю (16 вузлів) — 6000 морських миль, швидкість за водотоннажності 3650 т і з двовальною головною енергетичною установкою (ГЕУ) потужністю 100 000 к. с. повинна була досягти величини 47 вузлів. Лідер повинен був мати головні розміри 140 × 13,0 × 4,1 м. Про проєкт забули, як тільки перед Відділом кораблебудування УМЗ РККА на «порядку денному» виникло проєктування лінкорів і важких крейсерів.
Проєктування в 1939—1941 роках
Тактико-технічне завдання
Розробка тактико-технічного завдання (ТТЗ) на проєкт броньованого лідера під індексом 47 наказом заступників наркомату ВМФ і наркомату суднобудівної промисловості № 0447/129с від 8 вересня 1939 року було доручено комісії під головуванням флагмана 1 рангу . 17 січня 1940 року комісія сформулювала такі оперативно-тактичні вимоги:
1. Для лідирування ЕМ під час виходу в атаку великий ЕМ не годиться (не захищений, являє собою велику ціль).
2. Потрібен броньований корабель (який може не боятися КРЛ).
3. Таким кораблем може бути збільшений великий ЕМ з броньовою палубою і бортовими скосами… Десять 130-мм гармат вигідніші ніж шість 152-мм для ураження на близьких дистанціях ЕМ і сковування КРЛ (результат бою біля Монтевідео). Швидкість ходу лідируючого корабля м. б. дещо меншою, ніж у лідованого ЕМ, що можна використати для бронювання…
Основним призначенням радянського броньованого лідера було лідирування есмінців розбудовуваного «великого флоту», тобто виведення їх на торпедну атаку, і, крім того, розвідка, боротьба на комунікаціях на закритих театрах (Балтійське і Чорне моря), ППО і ПЧО лінкорів і крейсерів у складі угруповання і поставлення мінних загороджень.
Згідно з розробленим ТТЗ лідер повинен був мати на озброєнні: десять 130-мм універсальних гармат у баштах, вісім 37-мм зенітних автоматів у зчетверених установках, зенітні кулемети, два розташовані побортно п'ятитрубні 533-мм торпедні апарати, літак-розвідник (без катапульти). Корабель повинен був мати бронювання похилого пояса (з нахилом броньових плит — 45° усередину) — 70 мм, носового траверзу — 70 мм, палуби — 25 мм. Швидкість повного ходу — 36 вузлів, дальність ходу економічною швидкістю — 8000 морських миль. Стандартна водотоннажність не повинна була бути більше 4500 т.
При розгляді оперативно-тактичного завдання в управлінні кораблебудування РКВМФ (КК РКВМФ) «було висловлено побажання збільшити швидкість до 40 вузлів (за рахунок зменшення товщини бортової броні до 50 мм і заміни п'ятитрубних апаратів тритрубними), а (ГМШ), „забувши“ про торпедне озброєння і підтвердивши вимогу про підвищення швидкості, запросив 6 шестидюймових гармат головного калібру (при цьому „автоматично“ анулювалася вимога про їх універсальність) і збільшення зенітного калібру до 45 мм. У такому формулюванні реальність виконання вимог була сумнівною, тим більше, що виявилася серйозна розбіжність між КК і ГМШ щодо артилерійського озброєння». Начальник ГМШ, флагман флоту 2 рангу вже 11 січня 1940 року в листі начальнику КК РКВМФ сформулював вимоги до броньованого лідера так:
а) озброєння: шість 152-мм гармат у трьох двогарматних баштах з розташуванням двох у носі і однієї в кормі; вісім 45-мм автоматів і дванадцять 12,7-мм кулеметів;
б) швидкість ходу — не менше 40 вузлів;
в) захист повинен бути пророблений у трьох варіантах:
1) протикульний;
2) від 130-мм снаряда на заданих в ТТЗ дистанціях бою;
3) від 152-мм снаряда на дистанціях 80-100 каб. (найбільш життєві частини) Для прийняття остаточного рішення прошу терміново провести розрахунок (орієнтовну примірку) в які габарити і водотоннажність виллються викладені вище вимоги.
Прохання Л. М. Галлера прорахувати габарити і водотоннажність такого лідера було виконано не скоро — 17 червня 1940 начальник управління кораблебудування контр-адмірал А. А. Жуков поставив свій підпис під такими вимогами до лідера проєкту 47: головний калібр — вісім — десять 130-мм гармат; зенітний калібр — вісім 37-мм автоматів; торпедне озброєння — три тритрубні торпедні апарати; швидкість — 38 вузлів; дальність ходу — 8000 морських миль. При 50-мм бортовому бронюванні і 25-мм бронюванні палуби стандартна водотоннажність лідера обмежувалося значенням 4000 т. Як припускає Д. Ю. Літинський, запропонований Л. М. Галлером проєкт 40-вузлового броньованого лідера з шестидюймовою артилерією з очевидним впливом німецької оперативно-тактичної думки «був нейтралізований вказівкою вищого керівництва КК РКВМФ — заступником наркома з кораблебудування флагманом 1 рангу Іваном Степановичем Ісаковим. Останній, бувши „міноносником“ з досвіду служби та своїми очима побачивши еволюцію ЕМ в американському флоті під час недавнього відрядження до США, явно не підтримував ідею збільшення калібру артилерії торпедно-артилерійських кораблів понад 130 мм і, головне, ратував за якнайшвидше введення універсальних гармат головного калібру».
Передескізний проєкт
Після проведення розрахунків варіантів «крейсер-есмінець» було виключено з розгляду, а прохання виконати передескізне проєктування броньованого лідера з десятьма 130-мм універсальними гарматами Управління кораблебудування (КК РКВМФ), яке мало після хвилі репресій катастрофічну нестачу кваліфікованих фахівців, переадресувало ЦКБ-17 (колишньому ЦКБС-1). Технічний проєкт пропонувалося завершити в IV кварталі 1940 року. Вартість проєктних робіт була оцінена в 2,6 млн рублів. Фахівці ЦКБ-17 не стали заглиблюватися в мотивування вибору базових головних розмірів корпусу і змінювати склад озброєння і, варіюючи тільки параметри головної енергетичної установки, спробували довести, що ТТЗ можна здійснити тільки за нормальної водотоннажності, що відповідає «повноцінному» легкому крейсеру.
Примітки
Література
Вікіпедія:Статті з іншим значенням на Вікіданих
Лідери ескадрених міноносців
Військово-морський флот СРСР
Скасовані військові проєкти
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE%20%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%B9%20%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87
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Фоменко Сергій Миколайович
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Фоменко Сергій Миколайович
Сергій Миколайович Фоменко (творче прізвисько «Фома»; *19 березня 1972) — український співак, гітарист, композитор і автор пісень. Фронтмен та лід-вокаліст українського фолк-рок-гурту «Мандри». Громадський діяч. Заслужений артист України (2007). Народний артист України (2018).
Куратор міжнародної виставки «Майдан. Україна. Шлях до Свободи».
Креативний продюсер та ведучий «Твоя Країна Fest” (2018/19)
Продюсер та режисер документальних фільмів проєкту «Видатні Українці Сучасності», телеведучий.
Автор- постановник музичного дитячого різдв‘яного мюзикла « Велика Мандрівка Св. Миколая».
Кіно: «Альманах Десь Поряд»; «Заборонений»; «Толока»; «Граблі»;
Мультфільми: «Чарівний Горох»(дід чаклун, Крутивус)-; «Теркель і Халепа» (Нігель).
Життєпис
Сам про себе Фома каже так: «Народився під сузір'ям Риб у рік Щура» в березні 1972 року.
У дитинстві думав: «Або стану водієм, або артистом».
У підлітковому віці навчився грати на баяні та гітарі, співав, писав пісні та оповідання. Мандрував автостопом по великих містах України, Білорусі, східної Балтики та Росії. Після кількарічних мандрів повернувся до Києва. Працював двірником у Києво-Печерській лаврі, Софіївському соборі, гардеробником Археологічного музею, працівником сцени у театрі, ведучим радіопрограм.
Коли навчався у школі, був російськомовним, але з 23 років свідомо перейшов на українську.
Серед захоплень — творчість письменників Гоголя, Булгакова, Георга Тракля, художників Шагала, Піросманішвілі, Марії Примаченко, режисерів Параджанова, Бергмана, Віма Вендерса.
Улюблені історичні постаті — Будда, Григорій Сковорода, Олександр Вертинський.
Улюблені герої з книжок — Гекльберрі Фінн та Дон Кіхот.
Фомі подобається естрада 70-х років — Івасюк, Білаш, з іноземних виконавців — Челентано,Серж Гінзбур, Синатра, Марлен Дітріх, Едіт Піаф. Він слухає дуже різну музику (Eminem, реґґі, «Брати Гадюкіни», українські етнічні диски (наприклад, Тарас Компаніченко), «Кино», Жанна Агузарова, «Tequilajazzz», сприймає всю музику, аби вона була гарною).
Хобі — велосипед і малювання (іноді малює олією «наївні сюжети», великі картини і портрети). Разом зі своїми картинами–героями Фома зіграв роль художника у фільмі молодого режисера Сергія Наталушка «Спокуса». Те, що робить Фома–художник, мистецтвознавці називають «урбаністичний наїв».
Найбільше в житті Фома цінує внутрішню свободу.
Живе і працює в Києві. Одружений, дружина Надія Максименко. У Сергія та його дружини Надії троє дітей (два сини — Тимофій та Ява-Костянтин, та донька Квітка Марія).
Музика
Взимку 1990–го Фома вперше з'явився на сцені київського рок-фестивалю «Йолки-палки»-90, організованого популярною музичною сторінкою «Фонограф» газети «Молода гвардія». Він вивів свій перший склад гурту «День помирає рано». Запам'ятався Фома меланхолійно–сумними піснями і нетутешніми, самозаглибленими образами, у нього в житті тоді був дуже важкий період і він фактично сповідався через пісні й шукав підтримки. Його гурт «День помирає рано» деякий час існував, робив записи і концертував. Завдяки творчій формації «День вмирає рано» Фома стає відомим в музичному андеграунді Києва. Фома мав сольний проект, а також грав у гурті «Ярн» і з Іваном Москаленком (він же діджей Дербастлер) записав три спільні альбоми.
А вже 1997 Фома (гітара, вокал), Олександр Коханівський (бас) та Олег Воробйов (перкусія) створюють гурт «Мандри», звучання якого було переважно акустичним.
Через декілька місяців виходить перший магнітоальбом, записаний на студії «Астероїд» (однак пісні були записані в атмосфері поспішності, що залишило відбиток на якості альбому). У серпні 1998 р. виходить у світ перший відеокліп на пісню «Романсеро про ніжну королеву» (режисер Антон Трофімов), який швидко піднявся на почесні сходинки музичних відео-чартів України, а вже у вересні на Першому Всеукраїнському конкурсі музичного відео увійшов до трійки найкращих та був визнаний як один з найкращих в номінації «режисура». У грудні 1998 р. виходить перший CD — сингл гурту «Мандри». Протягом 1998 р. «Мандри» з концертами відвідують Львів, Дніпропетровськ, Херсон, Донецьк, Мінськ та концертують у Києві. У лютому 1999 р. на національному телеканалі «1+1» відбулась прем'єра другого відеокліпа на пісню «Картата сорочка». Навесні цього ж року у Будапешті гурт відвідав фестиваль, присвячений 50-річчю Європейського Союзу. А влітку «Мандри» виступають на міжнародних фестивалях «Rock-Київ» у Києві, «Pepsi-Sziget» у Будапешті та «Слов'янський Базар» у Вітебську. Квітень 2000 р. — «Мандри» презентують CD — альбом «Романсеро про ніжну королеву» та відеокліп «Русалки». У червні 2000 р. «Мандри» беруть участь у Міжнародному фестивалі української культури у Сопоті (Польща).
Вересень 2000 р. - гурт бере участь у фестивалі «Рок-екзистенція». У листопаді 2000 р. гурт презентує максі-сингл «Русалки». У травні 2001 р. гурт гастролює містами Польщі (Вроцлав, Варшава, Краків, Щецин, Глівіце, Білосток, Ольштин, Сопот, Люблін). На початку листопада 2001 р. компанією "Creon Music" у Франції було видано компакт диск — збірку «Український рок», до якого увійшли декілька пісень гурту «Мандри». Березень 2002 р. — на телеекранах України йде ротація відеокліпу на пісню «Дочка мельника». 19 травня 2002 р. «Мандри», разом з групою музичних колективів і виконавців, що представляли сучасну українську молодіжну культуру, дають концерт в одному з найпрестижніших клубів Лондона «Hippodrome» (концерт відбувся в рамках Фестивалю української культури у Великій Британії). Наприкінці вересня 2002 р. на українському телеканалі відбулася прем'єра анімаційного відеокліпу гурту на пісню «Орися». 17 жовтня 2002 р. «Мандри» презентували слухачам свій новий альбом «Легенда про Іванка та Одарку». 17 травня 2003 р. у Києві «Мандри» беруть участь у міжнародному фестивалі, присвяченому Дню Об'єднаної Європи. У жовтні 2003 р. на всеукраїнському музичному каналі М1 відбулася прем'єра нового музичного кліпу гурту на пісню «Вітре цигане». Навесні 2004 р. з'являється нова відео робота на пісню «Калина». 14 липня 2004 р. гурт бере участь у першому міжнародному етнофестивалі «Країна мрій». Восени 2004 р. музиканти гурту стають активними учасниками Помаранчевої революції (пісня «Не спи, моя рідна земля» без перестанку лунає на столичному Майдані).
10 липня 2005 р. гурт виступає на другому етнофестивалі «Країна мрій», а у вересні — на київській «Рок-екзистенції». 1 лютого 2006 р. у світ виходить третій повноцінний компакт-диск гурту — «Дорога». Навесні 2006-го на телеекрани вийшли дві відеороботи «Мандрів» — «Не спи, моя рідна земля» та «Любов» (написана спеціально до короткометражного фільму «Христина і Денис танцюють танець діжкарів» із серії «Любов — це…», де Фома зіграв одну із ролей). У 2006 р. гурт відіграв понад сто концертів. Під впливом подорожей Португалією у Фоми народилася «Ріо Ріта». 28 червня 2008 р. гурт відіграв на фестивалі «Golden Maple» у Торонто. У липні гурт бере участь у фестивалі української культури «Сопот 2008». У січні 2008 р. гурт дає концерт для миротворчого батальйону у Пріштіні (Косово).
Гурт грає музику в стилі Мандри: це не просто фольк. Гурт використовує різні музичні стилі: і рок, і естраду, і фольклор, змішує все в таку собі історію, яка називається Мандри. «Мандри» створюють власний стиль, ні на що не схожий.
Благодійність
Сергій Фоменко активно підтримує різноманітні благодійні проекти в Україні, виступає на численних благодійних концертах. Є членом Наглядових рад Національного конкурсу «Благодійник року» і Всеукраїнської благодійної організації «Асоціація благодійників України»
Примітки
Посилання
http://www.pisni.org.ua/persons/346.html
http://www.pisni.org.ua/persons/80.html
https://web.archive.org/web/20151222141950/http://www.mandrymusic.com/members/foma/
Збірка інтерв’ю з Фомою
http://www.rock-oko.com/knizhki/legendi-ximernogo-krayu/portreti-v-nterr/mandri.html
https://vk.com/mandrymusic
Твітер Сергія Фоменка
Співаки України XX століття
Співаки України XXI століття
Українські співаки
Українські музиканти
Українські рок-музиканти
Учасники проєкту «Голос країни»
Українські музиканти, які долучились до захисту України під час російського вторгнення 2022 року
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Мелуа Аркадій Іванович
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Мелуа Аркадій Іванович
Аркадій Іванович Мелуа (нар. 7 лютого 1950, Козятин) — радянський і російський вчений, генеральний директор і головний редактор Наукового видавництва біографічної міжнародної енциклопедії «Гуманистика». Професор (з 21 січня 1993 р.), доктор філософських наук (з 12 липня 1991 р.), кандидат технічних наук (з 1 липня 1985 р.).
Біография
У 1973 році без відриву від військової служби отримав інженерну освіту в Ленінградському інженерно-будівельному інституті. У 1974 році закінчив Відділення міжнародних відносин Університету марксизму-ленінізму ЛГК КПРС. З 1969 року служив і працював на інженерних посадах на об'єктах Міноборони. В КПРС прийнятий в 1970 році політвідділом. Двічі Червонопрапорного Балтійського флоту. З 1970 по 1974 рік брав участь у спорудженні навчального атомного реактору в одному з військових вишів Ленінграду, в будівництві навчальних і наукових корпусів Вищого військово-морського училища підводного плавання їм. Ленінського комсомолу в Ленінграді та інших об'єктів.
З 1974 року веде науково-дослідну роботу. Учасник радянського проекту колонізації Місяця і створення довготривалої місячної бази (науковий керівник — головний конструктор КБОМ академік В. П. Бармін, куратор в Ленінграді — професор Н. А. Крилов), автор однієї з перших у країні винаходів спеціальних місячних споруд, дослідницьких приладів і методів досліджень та захисту споруд. Як учений секретар «місячної лабораторії» в Ленінграді був залучений до організації робіт і випробувань у ряді НДІ країни.
Проходив короткочасні стажування за картографії в МДУ їм. М. В. Ломоносова, техніці космічних носіїв у ВКА їм. А. Ф. Можайського, медико-біологічних питань на кафедрі авіакосмічної медицини ВМА ім. Кірова і в інших установах. У ці ж роки почав знайомитися з науково-технічними документами сім'ї Нобель (у зв'язку з патентуванням способів вибухозахисту проектованих місячних споруд).
В кінці 1970-х років представив на міжнародний симпозіум в Новосибірську доповідь з пропозиціями щодо використання космічної технології в цивільних галузях; з цього часу почалося його співробітництво з академіками А. Л. Яншиним і В. П. Казначеєвим. В одній зі своїх монографій вперше в СРСР сформулював методичні засади застосування космічних знімків у містобудуванні. Працював під керівництвом А. Л. Яншина в Науковій раді з космічних досліджень Сибіру і Далекого Сходу, в Науковій раді з біосфері при Президії АН СРСР, у Комісії з вивчення природних ресурсів Землі з космосу (член бюро), Комісії з вивчення наукової спадщини академіка в. І. Вернадського, Комісії з вивчення творчої спадщини М. К. Реріха (голова комісії). В кінці 1970-х років за програмою підсупутникових досліджень навколишнього середовища був одним з розробників методики і організатор лазернолокационных досліджень повітряного басейну в Ленінграді і Вінниці (спільно з НДІ прикладних фізичних проблем БДУ і ЛенНИХИ). Брав участь під керівництвом В. П. Казначеєва в дослідженнях біополів і нетехнічних сенсорних каналів передачі даних; організатор конференцій з космічної антропоэкологии. У 1980-ті роки — учасник науково-методичного забезпечення експериментів по десантуванню великих вантажів в полярні райони (керівники групи професор Н. П. Селіванов і полковник ВПС А. З. Сидоренко). Брав участь у військових навчаннях (1976, 1981).
Один з організаторів (спільно з академіком К. Я. Кондратьєвим) і заступник голови Наукової ради з космічних досліджень для народного господарства при МКС АН СРСР в Ленінграді. У 1984 році в ІМБП (стаціонар) і в Зоряному містечку (ГМК) успішно пройшов медичну комісію з підготовки до космічних польотів. У 1985 році захистив кандидатську дисертацію з технічних наук («Автоматизовані системи управління космічними об'єктами», перший офіційний опонент — К. Я. Кондратьєв). В червні 1991 року в Академії суспільних наук при ЦК КПРС захистив докторську дисертацію з філософії («Методологія біосферних досліджень»).
Член багатьох громадських наукових товариств і академій. З 1975 року протягом більше 20 років вів викладацьку роботу. Автор, редактор, видавець понад 1200 наукових робіт (винаходу, монографії, статті і збірники, навчально-методичні видання, енциклопедії), з проблем мирного використання досягнень космонавтики, екології, історії науки і техніки, спеціальних інженерних робіт, а також деяких аспектів розвитку фінансового ринку в Росії в 1990-е роки. Автор сценарію 44-хвилинного відеофільму про в. І. Вернадском «Життя — явище космічне» (Леннаучфильм, 1988; сувм. з режисером Л. М. Волковим). У співавторстві з В. Р. Мигуренко і Ст. Л. Станкевичем підготував і опублікував серію монографій про фахівців підприємства «Спецгидроэнергомонтаж», створеної в 1942 році для забезпечення блокадного Ленінграда електроенергією (2008—2014). Автор біографічної енциклопедії «Блокада Ленінграда» (1999).
Працював старшим науковим співробітником, директором філії Інституту історії природознавства і техніки РАН (1987—1995). Засновник (25 червня 1992) і генеральний директор (з 1995 р.) Наукового видавництва біографічної міжнародної енциклопедії «Гуманистика». Член Ради директорів ВАТ «Промислово-будівельний банк» (Санкт-Петербург) (1994—1996). У 1986 році заснував громадську організацію «Міжнародний фонд історії науки»; президент фонду. 10 серпня 1989 року брав участь у передачі криголама «Красін» на баланс Міжнародного фонду історії науки. Криголам використовувався для ввезення в Росію старих машин, а потім був проданий СП «Техимэкс». Пізніше СП «Техимэкс» нібито планував продаж криголама в США в металобрухт. Газетні публікації про те, що криголам «Красін» планувався до продажу на металобрухт в США, спростовані публікацією в 2015 р. документів урядових установ.
Ініціатор вивчення Нобелівського руху як соціального феномена в історії науки та суспільства (1989). Діяльність Сім'ї Нобель розглядає в контексті історії європейського суспільства другої половини XIX століття — роки появи і розвитку Віденської системи міжнародних відносин. У вересні 1989 року за участю посла СРСР в Швеції Б. Д. Панкіна обговорив у резиденції Нобелівського Фонду в Стокгольмі плани вивчення історії сім'ї Нобель і запропонував концепцію спорудження меморіального знаку Альфреду Нобелю в Ленінграді у будинку 24 на Петроградської набережної. Організував конкурс на проектування меморіального знака (1990). За погодженням з МЗС СРСР (куратор — Е. П. Рымко) запросив на засідання журі конкурсу президента Нобелівського Фонду академіка Л. Гилленстена, виконавчого директора барона С. Рамеля, главу сімейства Нобель Sven Nobel (травень 1990). Після перемоги в конкурсі авангардного проекту (автори С. Ю. Аліпов, П. А. Шевченка, Ст. Н. Жуйков) організував на кошти Міжнародного фонду історії науки спорудження меморіального знака і його відкриття до 90-річчя присудження першої Нобелівської премії (жовтень 1991 року) (Рішення Ленгорисполкома № 855 від 1 жовтня 1990 р.). Першим в СРСР підписав основні документи по вивченню спадщини сім'ї Нобель: з керівництвом Нобелівського фонду декларації про спільні дії в цьому напрямку (1990, 1991); з Шведською Королівською академією наук про поширення в Росії інформації про нобелівських лауреатів (1999). Співпрацюючи з представляли Швеції в СРСР і в Росії дипломатами , Т. Бертельманом, вченими , та ін., сприяв проведенню спільних історико-наукових досліджень.
Організатор двох Санкт-Петербурзьких симпозіумів лауреатів Нобелівських премій (1990, 1991). Ініціатор гуманітарного співробітництва між Радянським фондом культури і Нобелівським фондом, спільно з президентами цих фондів академіком Д. С. Ліхачьовим і Л. Гилленстеном підписав декларацію про співпрацю (1991). Учасник (спільно з нобелівським лауреатом академіком Н. Р. Басовим) ювілейної Асамблеї Нобелівського Фонду в 1991 році. Організатор і спонсор видання російською мовою фундаментального каталогу Музею Нобеля (автор — Ulf Larsson) до вперше проведеної в Росії виставці «Альфред Нобель. Мережі інновацій» (2009, за участю президента Шведської Королівської академії наук С. Линдквиста). У 2011—2012 роках організував у Гельсінкі дві виставки «Родина Нобель в Росії» (в 2012 році — спільно з Національним Архівом Фінляндії). Після випуску в світ 14-го тому «Документів житті й діяльності Сім'ї Нобель» (2014) почав публікацію раніше маловідомих архівів родини Нобель з різних європейських країн. Провів експедиції з пошуку та вивчення артефактів діяльності і досвіду мемориализации спадщини Нобелів в Фінляндії, Швеції, Німеччині, Італії, Франції, Чехії та інших країнах.
Видавець серії нобелівських монографій, «Нобелівського огляду» (російською мовою) і багатотомного видання «Документи житті й діяльності сім'ї Нобель». Ввів у широкий науковий обіг праці багатьох нобелівських лауреатів, в тому числі Івана Павлова, Іллі Мечникова, Василя Леонтьєва, Іллі Пригожина, Матері Терези. Його книги знаходяться у великих бібліотеках різних країн: БАН, РДБ, РНБ, Британська бібліотека, Бібліотека Конгресу США, Нью-Йоркська публічна бібліотека, Бібліотека Шведської Академії та ін. Розробив і створив базу даних з нобелівської тематики: вперше узагальнив численні архіви сім'ї Нобель, що зберігаються в різних містах Росії і в інших країнах.
Заснував серію біографічних енциклопедій «Гуманистика», в 1990 році видав перший словник і програму біографічної енциклопедії; автор і видавець перших вийшли у цій серії томів. Розробив і реалізує план створення біографічної бази даних і випуску на її основі 100-томної Російської біографічної енциклопедії (РБЭ) «Велика Росія» (голова Наглядової ради — Я. Я. Голко), включаючи використання архівів російських діаспор у більш ніж 120 країнах. У 2014 році опубліковані тт. 11-12 «Вчені-природники німецького походження» (укл. В. І. Гохнадель) і тт. 13-14 «Біографічний словник Бібліотеки РАН» (ред. професор В. П. Леонов). Запропонував комплекс методів роботи з терабайтними і петабайтными масивами даних при реалізації плану створення РБЭ.
У 1993 році Президією РАН удостоєний премії ім. акад. А. П. Виноградова за монографію «Уроки екологічних прорахунків» (совм. з А. Л. Яншиным). Нагороджений державними нагородами (медалі) та громадськими відзнаками.
У його родині троє дітей: дочка Анна (історик, бібліограф), сини Анрі (к.т.н., керівник робіт з цифрової поліграфії) і Олександр (економіст, юрист, програміст).
Зноски
Випускники Санкт-Петербурзького державного архітектурно-будівельного університету
Доктори філософських наук
Історики науки
Кандидати технічних наук
Уродженці Козятина
Російські філософи
Члени КПРС
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5154400
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%88%D1%96%20%D0%86%D1%88%D1%96
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Хідетоші Іші
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Хідетоші Іші
Хідетосі Іші (нар. 1976) — стратег, міжнародний правозахисник із міста Фукуока, Японія. Він є експертом з питань етнічних меншин Азії, і він має широку мережу в світі. Підтримує та пропагує незалежність Тибету, Уйгурів, Південної Монголії, Тайваню, Гонконгу та інших етнічних меншин/громадян, які страждають від утисків.
Біографія
Політичною діяльністю почав займатися під час навчання в університеті Кюсю, який згодом закінчив.
Після роботи в економічній організації Ішії був офіційно затверджений кандидатом від Партія для Японського Кокоро на виборах у Палата радників Японії, які відбулися в 2016 році.
У 2017 році балотувався на виборах до Палата представників Японії, як офіційний кандидат від Партія Надії (Японія).
У 2011 році Ішії заснував НПО «Юме Дай Азія (Мрія — Велика Азія)». Відтоді він є президентом НКО.
Починаючи з 2014 року, його громадська організація також привернула загальну увагу публікацією журналу (том 1-3) «Yume Dai Asia (Мрія — Велика Азія)», який спеціалізується на азіатських питаннях
у 2018 роц він став віце-президентом FIPA (Вільний індо-тихоокеанський альянс — міжнародна організація проти китайського експансіонізму та пригнічення прав людини, яка складається з Тибету, Уйгурії, Південної Монголії, Тайваню, Індії, В'єтнам і Японія. Він співпрацює з лідером уйгурів Ребією Кадір, який став президентом FIPA. FIPA привертає увагу на міжнародному рівні.
У червні 2019 року Ішіі спланував і організував акцію протесту під назвою J20, спрямовану проти Сі Цзіньпіна — це відбулося під час участі Сі в G20 в Осаці. Прес-конференція J20, зібрання та масштабний марш протеступривернули увагу ЗМІ як у країні, так і за її межами.
Дії J20 в Осаці стали прямою причиною потрапляння Ішії в чорний список «Hong Kong Leaks», який складається з 3000 осіб, який, за даними AFP, був зроблений за участю уряду Китаю. Ішії — єдиний японець у списку. Прокитайські газети в Гонконгу критикували його як «активіста, який маневрує за незалежність Тибету, Уйгурії, Південної Монголії, Гонконгу та Тайваню», на що китайська влада найбільше насторожена.
Зараз пише для відомих політичних журналів та інтернет-ЗМІ. Він також відвідує різні місця, виголошуючи публічні промови про свої спеціальності.
Із 2022 є активним учасником Форуму Вільних Народів Постросії.
Цитати
Його найвідоміші девізи: «Свобода і незалежність для Азії»
«Японія повинна бути фортецею свободи в Азії»
Список статей
2023
Візит делегації SMHRIC до Японії (Південномонгольський інформаційний центр прав людини, 27 червня 2023 р.) https://www.smhric.org/news_723.htm
Зловмисний вплив Китаю в Монголії загрожує всім ліберальним демократіям (JAPAN Forward, 4 квітня 2023 р.) https://japan-forward.com/chinas-malign-influence-in-mongolia-threatens-all-liberal-democracies/
Питання Тибету має бути винесене на міжнародний рівень: Йоко Ішіі про вільний Тибет Фукуока та японську підтримку Тибету (Tibet Rights Collective, 28 березня 2023 р.) https://www.tibetrightscollective.in/op-eds-commentaries/yoko
Монгольський письменник і активіст Мунхбаяр Чулуундорж номінований на Нобелівську премію миру 2023 року (Південномонгольський інформаційний центр прав людини, 7 лютого 2023 р.)
Понад 100 глобальних правозахисних груп закликають до негайного звільнення монгольського письменника та активіста Мунхбаяра Чулуундоржа (Південномонгольський інформаційний центр прав людини, 11 січня 2023 р.)
Понад 100 глобальних правозахисних груп закликають до негайного звільнення монгольського письменника та активіста Мунхбаяра Чулундоржа (Міжнародна тибетська мережа, 11 січня 2023 р.)
2022
Таємна підтримка Тибету: Давайте визнаємо уряд у вигнанні (JAPAN Forward, 29 грудня 2022 р.) https://japan-forward.com/secret-support-for-tibet-next-lets-acknowledge-the-exiled-government/
Представник д-р Арья відвідує прес-зустріч у конференц-залі парламенту Японії (Центральна адміністрація Тибету, 16 червня 2022 р.) https://tibet.net/representative-dr-arya-attends-press-meeting-at-japan-parliament-conference-room/
2021
Представник д-р Ар'я інформує кандидата в президенти від правлячої партії Японії пані Санае Такаїчі (Центральна адміністрація Тибету, 27 вересня 2021 р.) https://tibet.net/representative-dr-arya-briefs-japan-ruling-partys-presidential-candidate-ms-sanae-takaichi/
Ексклюзив — Лідер бойкоту Олімпійських ігор у Пекіні: мовчання спортсменів щодо Китаю розбудило демонстрацію «подвійних стандартів» (BREITBART, 4 вересня 2021 р.) https://www.breitbart.com/asia/2021/09/04/exclusive-beijing-olympics-boycott-leader-woke-athletes-silence-on-china-shows-double-standards/
Інтерв'ю з паном Хідетоші Ішіі та пані Йоко Ішіі про «Вільний Тибет, Фукуока, Японія» (Tibet TV, 2 травня 2021 р.) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HSpoAfcppSk
Лист від Груп підтримки Тибету (Центральна адміністрація Тибету, 2 квітня 2021 р.) https://tibet.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Letter-from-Tibet-Support-Groups-1.pdf
Ексклюзив — організатор бойкоту Олімпійських ігор у Пекіні: «Якщо Америка покаже слабкість, свобода буде втрачена» (BREITBART, 16 лютого 2021 р.) https://www.breitbart.com/asia/2021/02/16/exclusive-beijing-olympics-boycott-organizer-if-america-shows-weakness-freedom-will-be-lost/
Олімпійські ігри в Пекіні 2022: активісти закликають бойкотувати захід через рекорд Китаю щодо порушень прав людини (Індія Блумс, 8 лютого 2021 р.) https://www.indiablooms.com/world-details/SA/27925/beijing-2022-olympics-activists-call-to-boycott-event-over-china-s-record-on-human-rights-abuse.html
Шануйте олімпійські цінності, бойкотуйте Олімпійські ігри в Пекіні 2022 року, кажуть 180 правозахисних груп (JAPAN Forward, 5 лютого 2021 р.) https://japan-forward.com/honor-olympic-values-boycott-beijing-2022-olympics-say-180-human-rights-groups/
Правозахисники в Японії закликають бойкотувати зимову Олімпіаду в Пекіні 2022 року (ARAB NEWS Японія, 5 лютого 2021 р.) https://www.arabnews.jp/en/japan/article_38052/
Антикитайські активісти в Японії закликають бойкотувати Ігри в Пекіні 2022 (REUTERS, 4 лютого 2021 р.) https://jp.reuters.com/article/uk-olympics-2022-japan-idUKKBN2A40WH/
Протест проти утисків прав людини в Китаї: Обара, Уда, Лі, Джіргал та Ішіі (Клуб іноземних кореспондентів Японії, 4 лютого 2021 р.) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Opt_EOU9b1U
Прес-конференція: протест проти утисків прав людини в Китаї (Клуб іноземних кореспондентів Японії, 4 лютого 2021 р.) https://www.fccj.or.jp/event/press-conference-protesting-against-chinas-human-rights-oppression
2020
Уйгури та тибетці в Японії засуджують утиски Пекіном прав людини на їхніх батьківщинах на засіданні парламенту (JAPAN Forward, 7 жовтня 2020 р.) https://japan-forward.com/uyghurs-tibetans-in-japan-decry-beijings-oppression-of-human-rights-in-their-homelands-at-diet-meeting/
Чому я висуваю борця за свободу Гонконгу на Нобелівську премію (The American Conservative, 27 березня 2020 р.) https://www.theamericanconservative.com/why-im-nominating-a-hong-kong-freedom-fighter-for-the-nobel/
ЕКСКЛЮЗИВ — Номінант на Нобелівську премію миру: єдиний шлях для Гонконгу — це незалежність (BREITBART, 18 лютого 2020 р.) https://www.breitbart.com/asia/2020/02/18/exclusive-nobel-peace-prize-nominee-the-only-way-for-hong-kong-is-independence/
2019
Ми вимагаємо негайного звільнення «Енді» Чана Хо-тіна, запрошеного спікера на J-CPAC2019 (Спілка консерваторів Японії, 30 серпня 2019 р.) https://conservative.or.jp/news-eng/freeandy/
Протести в Гонконзі — це не заворушення — це справжній голос непочутого в Гонконзі (JAPAN Forward, 13 липня 2019 р.) https://japan-forward.com/hong-kong-protests-are-not-riots-they-are-the-true-voice-of-the-unheard-in-hong-kong/
Активісти висвітлюють порушення Китаєм прав людини на G20 в Осаці (JAPAN Forward, 29 червня 2019 р.) https://japan-forward.com/activists-put-spotlight-on-chinas-infringement-of-human-rights-at-osaka-g20/
Вільний індо-тихоокеанський альянс дає право голосу пригнобленим меншинам Китаю (JAPAN Forward, 31 січня 2019 р.) https://japan-forward.com/free-indo-pacific-alliance-gives-voice-to-chinas-oppressed-minorities/
2018
Японія вшановує лауреата Нобелівської премії Лю Сяобо через рік після смерті в китайській в'язниці (JAPAN Forward, 10 серпня 2018 р.) https://japan-forward.com/japan-honors-nobel-laureate-liu-xiaobo-a-year-after-death-in-chinese-prison/
2017
Йоко Мада дає інтерв'ю Хідетоші Іші: «Японія повинна бути фортецею свободи в Азії» (JAPAN Forward, 23 серпня 2017 р.) https://japan-forward.com/yoko-mada-interviews-hidetoshi-ishii-japan-should-be-the-fortress-of-freedom-in-asia/
Примітки
Японці
Правозахисний рух
Форум Вільних Народів Постросії
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40663428
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna%20van%20der%20Breggen
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Anna van der Breggen
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Anna van der Breggen (born 18 April 1990) is a Dutch former professional road bicycle racer, who rode professionally between 2009 and 2021 for Team Flexpoint, , and . She won the gold medal in the women's road race at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, and has won the Giro d'Italia Femminile on four occasions. In 2018 and 2020, she won the women's road race at the UCI Road World Championships.
Considered one of the most versatile riders of her generation, Van der Breggen excelled in both the one-day classics and stage races, particularly when run on a hilly terrain. Apart from the Olympic road race title and three Giro Rosa titles, other notable wins include La Flèche Wallonne on seven consecutive occasions, Liège–Bastogne–Liège two times, the Tour of Flanders, Amstel Gold Race, Strade Bianche, Omloop Het Nieuwsblad and the European Road Race Championships. In addition, she has won the general classification and numerous stages in smaller stage races.
In 2017, she won all three Ardennes classics races in one week, which earned her the nickname Queen of the Ardennes. She went on to secure her second Giro d'Italia win the following summer. In April 2019, she won the La Flèche Wallonne Féminine, her fifth consecutive win in the race. In 2020, she won both the Individual Time Trial as well as the Road Race at the UCI World Championships.
Following her retirement at the end of the 2021 season, Van der Breggen now works as a directeur sportif for her final professional team, UCI Women's WorldTeam .
Career
Early life and amateur career
Anna van der Breggen was born in Zwolle into a cycling family. She has three brothers and a sister who all practiced cycling at some point. She started bike-racing at the age of seven with the local club WV Noordwesthoek and became more serious about it in the juniors category. In 2007, aged 17, she was fifth in the juniors world championship road race in Aguascalientes but had a difficult transition to the elite category. She considered quitting the sport after she suffered in the back of the peloton during the Grote Prijs Gerrie Knetemann.
2012–2013: Turning professional
Van der Breggen turned professional in 2012 with the . In April, she took a ninth-placed finish at the Tour of Flanders, and in July, she won the Tour de Bretagne Féminin. She won three of the four stages and secured the overall classification with a lead of almost three minutes over Sofie De Vuyst. She also won the time trial at the Tour Féminin en Limousin as well as the gold medal in the women's under-23 time-trialling event at the European championships. As a result, she was selected for the 2012 World Championships. Whilst playing a domestique role for her team leader, Marianne Vos, she managed to finish fifth herself in the road race.
In 2013 she devoted herself to finishing her studies and rode a low-key season, with the highlight of the year a fourth place at the Trofeo Alfredo Binda. After she obtained her nursing degree, she became a full-time professional cyclist and finished 18th in the Giro Rosa in the summer. She was selected to compete in the World Championships in Florence where she finished fourth in the road race. In preparation for the 2014 season, she announced she would be joining the team.
2014: Stage race success
Van der Breggen's first season on the Rabo team proved highly fruitful. She opened the year with top-10 finishes in the Ronde van Drenthe, Trofeo Alfredo Binda, and the Tour of Flanders, and started showing her stage racing potential throughout the season. She claimed notable wins in the overall classification of both the Ladies Tour of Norway and Grand Prix Elsy Jacobs in Luxembourg; as well as a runner-up spot in the Belgium Tour and third places in the Emakumeen Euskal Bira and the Giro Rosa, in a podium made up entirely of riders.
Her season came to an abrupt end when she broke her pelvis at the UCI Road World Championships in Ponferrada, Spain. Her teammate Annemiek van Vleuten crashed just before the finish of the Women's Team Time Trial after clipping the roadside barriers and brought down Van der Breggen and two other riders. Van der Breggen broke her ilium and was transported to hospital.
2015: First Giro Rosa win
She recovered from her pelvic fracture in the winter of 2015 and won her first major classic, the Omloop Het Nieuwsblad, in late February. Van der Breggen had broken away from a lead group together with Ellen van Dijk on the Molenberg, at from the finish. She beat her fellow Dutch in the sprint. The following week, she was second in Le Samyn des Dames. In April she won La Flèche Wallonne with an attack at the foot of the Mur de Huy, and recorded several podium positions in one-day races. She highlighted her stage race potential again by taking the overall classification at the Grand Prix Elsy Jacobs, which she led from the prologue to the end of the race.
In June, she won the bronze medal in the women's road race at the inaugural European Games in Baku. She was part of a four-woman breakaway together with Ellen van Dijk, Katarzyna Niewiadoma and Alena Amialiusik, when an acceleration by Van der Breggen caused her teammate van Dijk to be dropped, for the race to be decided in a three-up sprint. Van der Breggen led out the sprint from afar but was passed by both Amialiusik and Niewiadoma.
Van der Breggen claimed her greatest career victory to that point in July when she won the general classification at the Giro d'Italia Femminile, the most important stage race on the women's calendar and the only Grand Tour for women. She finished fourth in the prologue and second in stage 2, after which she remained in the top-three until the Alpine stages. Van der Breggen was in third position overall behind maglia rosa wearer Megan Guarnier, when she moved into the race lead on the penultimate day after winning the individual time trial to Nebbiuno. She won the time trial more than one minute ahead of Guarnier and secured her overall win with a second place in the final stage. Later she won the second edition of La Course by Le Tour de France on the Champs-Élysées; and she won the final stage of the Belgium Tour in Geraardsbergen.
At the World Championships in September in Richmond, she claimed the silver medals in both the individual time trial and the road race. She finished at two seconds from Linda Villumsen in the time trial, and was narrowly beaten by Lizzie Armitstead in the road race after she started the sprint from afar. She ended the year as second in the UCI Road World Cup, behind Armitstead, and was awarded the Gerrit Schulte Trophy for best female Dutch cyclist of the year.
2016: Olympic and European champion
Van der Breggen opened the 2016 season with 5th place at the Strade Bianche, 4th at the Ronde van Drenthe and 6th at the Trofeo Alfredo Binda in March; but failed to claim a victory until she successfully defended her title at La Flèche Wallonne. She counterattacked a move by Katarzyna Niewiadoma on the Côte de Cherave, at from the finish, and was followed by only four others over the top. She broke clear again with Evelyn Stevens at from the finish and powered away from Stevens on the finishing Mur de Huy to claim her second victory in succession.
In July, she finished third overall in the Giro Rosa. She was third in the prologue, but lost time in the mountain stages in the Dolomites. She climbed back to third place after finishing second in stage 7's individual time trial and held on to her podium place until the finish.
During the Giro she announced she would leave to join for the 2017 season onwards.
On 7 August 2016, Van der Breggen won the gold medal in the women's road race at the Rio Olympics. On the final climb, the long Vista Chinesa, five riders had remained in the front: Van der Breggen and her teammate Annemiek van Vleuten, American Mara Abbott, Italian Elisa Longo Borghini and Sweden's Emma Johansson. Van Vleuten jumped away shortly before the top and only Abbott managed to join. In the sinuous descent that followed, van Vleuten distanced Abbott and looked on her way to win the race, when she crashed into a concrete banking with to go and needed to be transported to hospital. Suddenly Abbott seemed on her way to Olympic glory but she was caught back by the three upcoming riders at from the finish. Van der Breggen beat Johansson and Longo Borghini in the three-up sprint on Copacabana Beach to become Olympic road race champion. Three days later she won the bronze medal in the individual time trial, 11 seconds behind winner Kristin Armstrong. Following her Olympic success, she was knighted in the Order of Orange-Nassau.
In mid-September, she took part in the European Road Championships. She finished second in the time trial behind Ellen van Dijk. In the road race she followed an acceleration of Niewiadoma on the final climb, together with Longo Borghini, Alena Amialiusik and Rasa Leleivytė. Van der Breggen launched the five-woman sprint from afar and became the first ever professional European road race champion. At the World Championships in October, she was a disappointing 13th in the time trial and 87th in the road race, telling reporters she "didn't have the legs anymore after a long season".
2017: Ardennes Triple and second Giro win
After placing 15th in both the Ronde van Drenthe and the Tour of Flanders, and finishing second overall in the Healthy Ageing Tour in early 2017, Van der Breggen became the first woman to win all three of the Ardennes classics in a single year. She won the rebooted Amstel Gold Race with an attack at from the finish. Three days later, she secured her third straight Flèche Wallonne win after powering away on the Mur de Huy, before emerging triumphant at the first ever Liège–Bastogne–Liège the following Sunday. Her dominance in the climbers races earned her the nickname Queen of the Ardennes. Three weeks later she won the Tour of California, after she surpassed Katie Hall during the last stage thanks to bonus seconds won at an intermediate sprint.
In the summer, she won the Giro Rosa for the second time. Her team had won the opening Team time trial, and Van der Breggen moved into the race lead after placing second in stage 2. She won the final general classification with more than a minute over Elisa Longo Borghini and Annemiek van Vleuten. After Tom Dumoulin's win in the men's Giro d'Italia held in May, it was the first time a Grand Tour was won by both a Dutch man and woman in the same year.
Later, Van der Breggen won a stage and was second overall in the Holland Ladies Tour, which secured her lead in the final standing of the UCI Women's World Tour ahead of van Vleuten. At the Road World Championships in Norway her team finished second to in the team time trial event. She also placed second in the individual time trial behind van Vleuten, and eighth in the road race.
2018: Queen of the Classics and first rainbow jersey
As world number one, she kicked off the 2018 season at the Strade Bianche. She won the race, in abysmal weather, after an attack on the penultimate gravel sector of Colle Pinzuto at from the finish. Three weeks later she won the Tour of Flanders after a solo breakaway. Van der Breggen made her decisive move on the Kruisberg and increased her lead over the Oude Kwaremont and Paterberg to claim her first Tour of Flanders win.
The following week she won the opening time trial and finished fourth overall in the Healthy Ageing Tour, before attempting to defend her titles in the Ardennes classics. She finished 38th in the Amstel Gold Race after an early crash, but won her fourth consecutive Flèche Wallonne three days later, on her 28th birthday. She concluded the Ardennes week with her second win in Liège–Bastogne–Liège, after she powered away from Amanda Spratt on the uphill drag to the finish line.
Following the spring classics, Van der Breggen was unable to mount a defence of her title at the Tour of California and rode at the Emakumeen Euskal Bira instead: the two races clashed on the calendar, Boels–Dolmans did not have enough riders or staff to send squads to both, and chose to enter the European race. Van der Breggen also elected not to defend her Giro Rosa title in 2018, choosing instead to focus on preparing for a bid to win her first title at the Road World Championships. She did compete in La Course in July, held on a mountainous parcours: Van der Breggen attacked in the final kilometre of a climb up the Col de la Colombière and led over the top, being pursued on the 14 km descent by Van Vleuten. However, Van der Breggen ran out of steam on the rise to the finish line in Le Grand-Bornand, and was overhauled by Van Vleuten in the last 100 metres of the race. The following month she raced at the European Road Championships, where she was narrowly defeated in the time trial by countrywoman Ellen van Dijk, securing a one-two for the Netherlands.
At the Worlds in Innsbruck in September, she started her campaign by taking a silver alongside her Boels–Dolmans team-mates in the women's team time trial. She took a second silver in the individual time trial, where she was denied the rainbow jersey by her compatriot Van Vleuten and formed part of a Dutch clean sweep of the podium places ahead of the third placed Van Dijk. She finally won her first Worlds gold in the road race, bridging over from a chase group to a group of five at the head of the race on the penultimate climb, before launching a solo attack with 39 km to go and crossing the finishing line alone with a lead of over three and a half minutes over runner-up Amanda Spratt.
2019: Success on- and off-road
Van der Breggen started her 2019 season relatively quietly, making her first two road appearances in the spring at Omloop Het Nieuwsblad and Strade Bianche: in the latter race she worked as a domestique for team-mate Annika Langvad, who finished in second. Having made some appearances in mountain bike racing the previous year, in March she entered the Cape Epic mountain bike stage race alongside Langvad: the duo won the race by over half an hour. She subsequently announced that she would not defend her Tour of Flanders title so she could recover from her exertions at the Cape Epic, focusing instead on the Health Ageing Tour and the Ardennes Classics later in April. She went on to win her fifth consecutive Flèche Wallonne attacking with 200 m to the finish line on the Mur de Huy to match Marianne Vos' record for wins at the race and securing her first road win since the 2018 Worlds. In May she won the overall at the Tour of California, as well as taking the opening stage after attacking on the final climb of the day to cross the finishing line alone.
Later in the year, Van der Breggen won the GP de Plouay – Bretagne with a solo attack from the finishing line. At the Road World Championships in Yorkshire, she took two silver medals: in the individual time trial she finished behind champion Chloé Dygert and ahead of Van Vleuten, whilst in the road race she acted as a marker in a chase group attempting to reel in her team-mate Van Vleuten, who made an ultimately successful long-range solo attack with to go. Van der Breggen attacked fellow chaser Amanda Spratt in the closing kilometres of the course to secure the silver.
2020: Third Giro win and Worlds double
In 2020, Van der Breggen enjoyed some early season success at the Setmana Ciclista Valenciana in February: she won the race's second stage with a solo attack on the final climb, the -long Alto de Tudons, taking the overall race lead in the process, which she held on the remaining two stages of the race. In May she announced that she would retire from competition at the end of 2021 after the postponed 2020 Summer Olympics, which were scheduled to be held in the summer of 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Upon the resumption of racing in July, she finished third in the Emakumeen Nafarroako Klasikoa and second in Durango-Durango Emakumeen Saria before placing fourth at Strade Bianche. In August she won the Dutch National Road Race Championships for the first time in her career: before the halfway point of the race she and Anouska Koster bridged across to Van der Breggen's team-mate Jip van den Bos, who had earlier broken away from the peloton. Van der Breggen eventually dropped the other two riders at the front, whilst they were being chased by another three rider group of Van Vleuten, Vos and Amy Pieters, which similarly disintegrated when Van Vleuten dropped the other two riders. Van der Breggen crossed the finish line over a minute ahead of Van Vlueten in second. Shortly afterwards she took the gold medal in the individual time trial at the European Road Championships in Plouay, finishing 30 seconds ahead of Van Dijk.
The following month Van der Breggen won the Giro Rosa, becoming the fourth woman to win three editions of the race. She went into the lead on the penultimate eighth stage, where she was pipped to the stage win by Elisa Longo Borghini after the pair went clear of the rest of the leading group on the final climb, taking the pink jersey from Katarzyna Niewiadoma, who in turn had inherited it after previous leader Van Vleuten crashed out of the race on the previous day. Later that month, at the UCI Road World Championships in Imola, Van der Breggen was crowned world time trial champion for the first time, having previously taken four silver medals in the event: she finished ahead of Marlen Reusser and Van Dijk after reigning champion Dygert crashed out of the race. She went on to win a second road race world title, following and overhauling an acceleration by Van Vleuten with an attack over the top of the penultimate climb of the Cima Gallisterna with to the finish, and taking victory with a margin of 1 minute 40 seconds over silver and bronze medallists Van Vleuten and Longo Borghini. In doing so she became only the second rider in history to win world titles in the time trial and the road race in the same year, after Jeannie Longo in 1995. Shortly after the Worlds, Van der Breggen set a new record for wins at Flèche Wallonne when she won the race for a sixth time, moving one clear of Vos, outclimbing Cecilie Uttrup Ludwig and Demi Vollering up the final ascent of the Mur de Huy to clinch victory.
2021: Fourth Giro win, retirement
In 2021, Van der Breggen won her fourth Giro Donne, as well as other races including La Flèche Wallonne Féminine (for a record seventh time), the Vuelta a Burgos Feminas, and Omloop Het Nieuwsblad. She also won the Dutch National Time Trial Championships for the second time. At the Tokyo 2020 Olympics, she won a bronze medal in the time trial competition, before retiring from professional competition.
Directeur sportif role
Following her retirement, Van der Breggen now works as a directeur sportif for her final professional team, UCI Women's WorldTeam SD Worx.
Return to Professional Competition
On the 20th of June, 2024, Van Der Breggen announced that she would be returning to the professional peloton for the 2025 season with her former team, Team SD Works-Protime.
Personal life
Van der Breggen lives in Hasselt, in the northeast of the Netherlands, with her husband Sierk Jan de Haan, who is a coach for UCI WorldTeam . She comes from a religious family and is a member of the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (Liberated). She is a trained nurse, having graduated from nursing school in 2012. Apart from cycling, she plays the piano and enjoys painting and knitting.
Major results
Source:
2007
5th Road race, UCI Juniors World Championships
2008
6th Road race, UEC European Junior Road Championships
10th Parel van de Veluwe
2009
2nd Ronde van Noordhorn
4th Profronde van Surhuisterveen
6th Ronde van De Westereen
8th Profronde van Stiphout
9th Ronde van Heerenveen
2010
1st Ronde van Noordeloos
1st Ronde van Oudewater
2nd Ronde van Waddinxveen
5th Gouden Pijl
6th Omloop van Strijen
9th Profronde van Surhuisterveen
2011
2nd Ronde van Noordeloos
5th Berkelse Wielerdag
6th Profronde van Stiphout
8th Profronde van Surhuisterveen
2012
1st Time trial, UEC European Under-23 Road Championships
1st Overall Tour de Bretagne Féminin
1st Points classification
1st Young rider classification
1st Stages 1, 2 (ITT) & 4
1st Duo Normand
1st Ronde van Noordeloos
2nd Overall Trophée d'Or Féminin
1st Stage 2 (TTT)
2nd Omloop van de IJsseldelta
2nd Wenduine
3rd Ronde van Noordhorn
4th GP de Plouay – Bretagne
4th Belsele (Sint-Niklaas)
4th Profronde van Surhuisterveen
5th Road race, UCI Road World Championships
5th Time trial, National Road Championships
5th Overall Ster Zeeuwsche Eilanden
5th Overall Tour Féminin en Limousin
1st Young rider classification
1st Stage 2 (ITT)
6th GP Comune di Cornaredo
6th Ronde van Luyksgestel
7th Overall Holland Ladies Tour
9th Tour of Flanders
2013
1st Omloop van de IJsseldelta
2nd Overall Trophée d'Or Féminin
2nd Ronde van Zuid Oost-Friesland
2nd RaboRonde Heerlen
3rd GP de Plouay
4th Road race, UCI Road World Championships
4th Overall Emakumeen Euskal Bira
4th Overall Thüringen Rundfahrt der Frauen
Open de Suède Vårgårda
4th Team time trial
5th Road race
4th La Flèche Wallonne
4th Holland Hills Classic
4th Profwielerronde Etten-Leur
4th Berkelse Wielerdag
5th Overall Grand Prix Elsy Jacobs
5th Overall Tour Languedoc Roussillon
6th Le Samyn des Dames
7th Overall Holland Ladies Tour
7th Tour of Flanders
8th Omloop Het Nieuwsblad
9th Trofeo Alfredo Binda-Comune di Cittiglio
10th Overall Energiewacht Tour
2014
1st Overall Ladies Tour of Norway
1st Points classification
1st Stage 1
1st Overall Festival Luxembourgeois du cyclisme féminin Elsy Jacobs
1st Stage 1
1st Dwars door de Westhoek
2nd Overall Belgium Tour
1st Mountains classification
1st Stages 2 (TTT) & 4
2nd Ronde van Drenthe
2nd Open de Suède Vårgårda TTT
3rd Overall Emakumeen Euskal Bira
1st Mountains classification
3rd Overall Giro Rosa
4th Trofeo Alfredo Binda-Comune di Cittiglio
4th Durango-Durango Emakumeen Saria
5th GP de Plouay
6th Tour of Flanders for Women
7th Holland Hills Classic
10th Ronde van Gelderland
2015
1st Time trial, National Road Championships
1st Overall Giro Rosa
1st Stage 8 (ITT)
1st Overall Festival Luxembourgeois du cyclisme féminin Elsy Jacobs
1st Prologue
1st La Flèche Wallonne
1st Omloop Het Nieuwsblad
1st La Course by Le Tour de France
1st Open de Suède Vårgårda TTT
2nd Overall UCI Women's Road World Cup
UCI Road World Championships
2nd Road race
2nd Time trial
3rd Team time trial
2nd Le Samyn des Dames
3rd Road race, European Games
3rd Overall Belgium Tour
1st Mountains classification
1st Stage 4
3rd Trofeo Alfredo Binda
3rd Tour of Flanders
3rd Time trial, EPZ Omloop van Borsele
5th Overall Ladies Tour of Norway
5th Strade Bianche
5th Crescent Women World Cup Vårgårda
6th GP de Plouay
7th Overall Energiewacht Tour
1st Combativity classification
1st Prologue & Stage 4
7th Durango-Durango Emakumeen Saria
8th Overall Emakumeen Euskal Bira
2016
Olympic Games
1st Road race
3rd Time trial
UEC European Road Championships
1st Road race
2nd Time trial
1st Omloop van de IJsseldelta
1st La Flèche Wallonne
3rd Overall Giro Rosa
3rd Overall Festival Luxembourgeois du cyclisme féminin Elsy Jacobs
3rd Crescent Vårgårda UCI Women's WorldTour TTT
4th Ronde van Drenthe
5th Strade Bianche
5th Giro dell'Emilia Internazionale Donne Elite
6th Trofeo Alfredo Binda-Comune di Cittiglio
7th Overall Holland Ladies Tour
2017
1st Overall UCI Women's World Tour
1st Overall Giro Rosa
1st Stage 1 (TTT)
1st Overall Tour of California
1st Amstel Gold Race
1st La Flèche Wallonne
1st Liège–Bastogne–Liège
1st Crescent Vårgårda UCI Women's WorldTour TTT
UCI Road World Championships
2nd Time trial
2nd Team time trial
8th Road race
2nd Overall Holland Ladies Tour
1st Stage 5
2nd Overall Healthy Ageing Tour
1st Stage 2 (TTT)
3rd Time trial, UEC European Road Championships
3rd Time trial, National Road Championships
2018
UCI Road World Championships
1st Road race
2nd Time trial
2nd Team time trial
1st Overall Cyprus Sunshine Cup
1st Stage 2
1st Strade Bianche
1st Tour of Flanders
1st La Flèche Wallonne
1st Liège–Bastogne–Liège
1st Durango-Durango Emakumeen Saria
UEC European Road Championships
2nd Time trial
8th Road race
2nd Time trial, National Road Championships
2nd La Course by Le Tour de France
2nd Postnord UCI WWT Vårgårda WestSweden TTT
3rd Overall Emakumeen Euskal Bira
1st Points classification
3rd Overall Holland Ladies Tour
4th Overall Healthy Ageing Tour
1st Stages 1 (ITT) & 3b (TTT)
2019
1st Overall Tour of California
1st Sprints classification
1st Stage 1
1st Overall Cape Epic (with Annika Langvad)
1st La Flèche Wallonne
1st GP de Plouay – Bretagne
UCI Road World Championships
2nd Road race
2nd Time trial
2nd Overall Giro Rosa
1st Stage 9
3rd Time trial, National Road Championships
9th Overall Holland Ladies Tour
9th Strade Bianche
10th La Course by Le Tour de France
2020
UCI Road World Championships
1st Road race
1st Time trial
1st Time trial, UEC European Road Championships
1st Road race, National Road Championships
1st Overall Giro Rosa
1st Overall Setmana Ciclista Valenciana
1st Stage 2
1st La Flèche Wallonne
2nd Durango-Durango Emakumeen Saria
3rd Emakumeen Nafarroako Klasikoa
4th Strade Bianche
2021
1st Time trial, National Road Championships
1st Overall Giro Rosa
1st Points classification
1st Stages 2 & 4 (ITT)
1st Overall Vuelta a Burgos Feminas
1st Points classification
1st Mountains classification
1st Stage 4
1st La Flèche Wallonne
1st Omloop Het Nieuwsblad
1st Gran Premio Ciudad de Eibar
1st Durango-Durango Emakumeen Saria
3rd Time trial, Olympic Games
3rd Strade Bianche
4th La Course by Le Tour de France
5th Liège–Bastogne–Liège
8th Tour of Flanders
General classification results timeline
Classics results timeline
Major championship results timeline
See also
UCI Women's Road World Cup
UCI Women's World Tour
List of women's road bicycle races
References
External links
1990 births
Living people
Dutch female cyclists
Dutch nurses
Olympic cyclists for the Netherlands
Olympic gold medalists for the Netherlands
Olympic bronze medalists for the Netherlands
Olympic medalists in cycling
Cyclists at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Cyclists at the 2020 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2020 Summer Olympics
European Games bronze medalists for the Netherlands
European Games medalists in cycling
Cyclists at the 2015 European Games
Cyclists at the 2019 European Games
Knights of the Order of Orange-Nassau
Reformed Churches Christians from the Netherlands
UCI Road World Championships cyclists for the Netherlands
Cyclists from Overijssel
Sportspeople from Zwolle
21st-century Dutch women
21st-century Dutch people
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СКА (баскетбольний клуб, Київ)
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СКА (баскетбольний клуб, Київ)
Київський СКА — історичний український баскетбольний клуб з міста Київ, виступав у чемпіонаті УРСР, чемпіонаті СРСР та чемпіонаті України. З 1944 до 1980 рр. команда неодноразово грала у вищій лізі чемпіонату СРСР. Команда була заснована 1925 року. Розформована в 2005 році.
Клуб є одним з найтитулованіших баскетбольних клубів Києва і України. Клуб чотири рази ставав чемпіоном України (1951, 1953, 1954, 1957), і два рази був володарем
Кубка України(1997, 1999).
Історія
У 1925 році створено секцію баскетболу при Київському будинку червоної армії. З 1937/40 та 1944 рр. виступала під назвою будинок червоної армії Київ. У 1947 р. та з 1950 по 1956 рр. як окружний будинок офіцерів. З 1956 року команда виступала під назвою - спортивний клуб армії. В 1945 році в звільнений Київ з Одеси повернувся один з кращих баскетболістів країни тих років Наполеон Каракашьян, на той час шестиразовий чемпіон України в складі харківського ХВАТУ. Саме Каракашьяну, армійське керівництво Києва довірило створення команди при Окружному домі офіцерів Київського військового округу (ТДВ КВО).
Каракашьян досить швидко зібрав боєздатний колектив, якому вже в 1951 році вдалося виграти чемпіонат України. За київських армійців тоді грали такі видатні баскетболісти тих років, як сам Каракашьян також Прокоф’єв, а в нападі – Бородаєнко, Вербицький і Скоморохов. Це була воістину «чудова п’ятірка». Правда, через рік Каракашьян зосередиться на тренерській роботі. Зате в команді з’явився Віктор Гуревич. Таким складом армійці виграли ще три чемпіонати України – 1953, 1954 і 1957 років. У проміжках кияни задовольнялися срібними та бронзовими нагородами, але з числа призерів не випадали ніколи.
В 1960-му році, вигравши чемпіонат СРСР серед команд класу Б, київський СКА виходить до еліти радянського баскетболу. На той момент в складі армійців вже виділялися юний розігрувач Валентин Радзієвський, а також Карен Манукян та Віктор Фомченко, від яких вимагалося визначати гру команди в перших для неї сезонах серед елітних колективів. Крім того, команду підсилили: Семен Копитов і майбутній чемпіон світу Геннадій Чечуро. Останнього з рідної Вінниччини привіз за дорученням Каракашьяна Борис Рижков, який на той час уже виконував функції начальника команди.
Свого піку армійці досягли в 1967 році. Точніше, це було спільне досягнення двох київських клубів - СКА та «Будівельника». Вони виграли ювілейну Спартакіаду народів СРСР 1967 року. Завдяки високому класу гравців, армійці виграли також срібло чемпіонату СРСР 1968 року, посівши друге місце слідом за тбіліським «Динамо».
Новий же виток розвитку київського СКА дав прихід на тренерський місток Олександра Леонова, фахівця, який раніше працював з жіночим «Динамо». Разом з Леоновим команда поступово оживилася, склад СКА поповнився молодими гравцями. Серед них виділявся розігрувач Зураб Хромаєв. В складі СКА в ті роки виділялися Володимир Салухін, Дмитро Новиков, Володимир Брянцев, також прийшли з «Будівельника» Євген Філозоф і Василь Окіпняк. Не дивно, що такою потужною компанією армійці вдруге в історії самостійно здійнялися на п’єдестал чемпіонату СРСР, досягши бронзи в 1972 році.
Київські армійці показали свій потенціал в зимовому чемпіонаті 1976 року. Збірна СРСР теж виступала в цьому чемпіонаті, але поза конкурсом. Слідом за "збірниками" фінішував київський СКА,тобто вигравши золоті медалі зимового чемпіонату СРСР.
Хто б міг подумати, що надалі СКА узагалі покине елітний дивізіон союзного чемпіонату. Але так і сталося. Річ у тім, що на той час, крім Чечуро, команду покинув Зураб Хромаєв, який виїхав виступати за Південну групу військ до Угорщини. Незабаром команду залишив і Леонов. Олександра Дмитровича на посаді головного тренера змінив Геннадій Чечуро.
У вищу лігу ми повернулися після того, як з командою протягом двох сезонів пропрацював Віктор Боженар. Виходити в еліту могли ще в 1978-му, але тоді провели гру з командою Єревана без тренера і в підсумку на турі в Алма-Аті залишилися третіми, тоді як в еліту потрапляло дві кращі команди. Зате через рік, коли команду підсилили московські армійці Іван Єдешко і Микола Руднєв, коли з’явився в СКА
Олександр Сальников, ми вже повноправно повернулися у вищий дивізіон. На лідируючі позиції у вищій лізі армійці повернулися всього через рік. Правда, тоді біля керма команди був вже Зураб Хромаєв.
З 1985 року в СКА почалася нова епоха. Так вже вийшло, що саме того року під керівництвом Валентина Мельничука в армійському клубі заграли два на той момент зовсім юні гравці, які надалі були вірні СКА до останнього дня його існування – Олег Рубан та Ігор Ватажок. Тоді була команда, де що не гравець, то ім’я! Коробков, покійний Сергій Коваленко, Сальников, Бережний, надалі до цієї компанії додався Білостінний. Там був справжній чоловічий, армійський колектив. Також відзначу, що Валентин Федорович, незважаючи на велику кількість зірок, довіряв молодим баскетболістам.
На початку 90-х, коли український баскетбол з набуттям країною незалежності перейшов на самостійні рейки, саме Рубан і Ватажок стали творцями першого успіху команди – в сезоні-1992/93 р.р. СКА посів друге слідом за «Будівельником» місце в національному чемпіонаті.
На чемпіонат світу серед військовослужбовців до США в 1996 році київський СКА у складі збірної України сильно засмутили місцеву публіку, коли обіграли в півфіналі збірну Сполучених Штатів. Причому за 0,02 секунди до фінальної сирени рахунок був нічийним. Але в цей момент гравець господарів буквально виштовхнув за лицьову лінію Андрія Харчинського. Андрій перший штрафний кидок промахнувся, але другий закинув й приніс СКА, точніше, Україні перемогу. В фіналі вона з невеликою перевагою поступилася італійцям, у складі яких було половина гравців національної збірної.
З другої половини сезону-1996/97 р.р. СКА посилює свій склад одним з кращих українських розігрувачів В’ячеславом Євстратенком. З його допомогою армійці вперше в історії стають володарями Кубка України, обігравши у фіналі «Денді-Баскет».
Остання яскрава сторінка армійського клубу пов’язана з приходом на пост головного тренера команди в 1998 році Андрія Подковирова. Разом з тренером в СКА тоді прийшла група висококласних виконавців на чолі з Ігорем Харченком та Ігорем Молчановим, який, до слова, в 1989 році починав свою кар’єру саме в армійському клубі. Підійшов СКА також юний нападник Віктор Кобзистий. Мозговим центром тієї команди фахівці називали Віталія Чернія.
Першим серйозним трофеєм під керівництвом Подковирова стала перемога армійців в Кубку України. Потім було срібло в чемпіонаті – у фіналі СКА поступився МБК «Одеса». Цей успіх дозволив армійцям в сезоні-1999/2000 р.р. стартувати в другому за значущістю єврокубковому турнірі – Кубку Корача. Там кияни зробили справжній фурор, по черзі обігравши російський «Урал-Ґрейт», польський «Анвіл», литовський «Паневежіс» та французький «Нансі». Лише в 1/8 фіналу СКА поступився одному з головних фаворитів змагань – французькому «Ліможу», котрий у підсумку й став володарем трофею.Той феєричний сезон СКА завершив бронзою національного чемпіонату.
Потім клуб змінював свою назву на ЦСКА-ВППО, «ЦСКА-Ріко», але все це були формальності. А вже 2005 року клуб припинив своє існування.
Досягнення
Чемпіонат України
Чемпіон (4) – 1951, 1953, 1954, 1957
Срібний призер (3) - 1955, 1993, 1999
Бронзовий призер (2) - 1956, 2000
Кубок України
Володар (2) - 1997, 1999
Чемпіонат СРСР •
• 🏆 5 разовий чемпіон збройних сил СРСР
Чемпіонат СРСР (вища ліга)
Срібний призер (1) - 1968
Бронзовий призер (1) - 1972
Примітки
Посилання
СКА Київ: гвардія помирає, але не здається
Спортивні клуби Києва
Баскетбольні клуби України
засновані в Україні 1946
1946 в українському спорті
Баскетбольні клуби, засновані 1946
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BE%20%D0%B6%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85%20%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%20%28%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%29
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Бюро журналістських розслідувань (Лондон)
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Бюро журналістських розслідувань (Лондон)
Бюро журналістських розслідувань (скорочено TBIJ або просто "Бюро") - неприбуткова новинна організація, що базується в Лондоні. Заснована 2010 року і проводить розслідування, які «викликають публічний інтерес», та фінансується за рахунок благочинності. Бюро співпрацює з видавцями та власниками телерадіокомпаній, щоб максимально поширити вплив власних розслідувань. З моменту заснування Бюро співпрацювало з такими передачами, як «», «» і «» компанії Бі-Бі-Сі, та компанії Ченнел-фор, а також газетами «Файненшл таймз», «Дейлі телеґраф» та «Санді таймз» та іншими. Бюро висвітлювало широкий спектр подій і здобуло численні нагороди, зокрема, за висвітлення війн між дронами та розслідування звинувачень у вбивстві "об'єднаного товариства". Його головна редакторка - .
Історія
2010 року Бюро заснували колишня репортерка газети Санді-таймз Елейн Поттер, яка працювала над викриттям скандалу з талідомідом, зі своїм чоловіком , засновником компанії з розробки програмного забезпечення . Початкове фінансування проекту, в розмірі 2 млн. фунтів стерлінгів, надав благодійний фонд Поттерса. Одним із джерел натхнення Елейн називає неприбуткову організацію ProPublica, створену за два роки до того, що базується в Нью-Йорку, діє з подібною місією, й також фінансується за рахунок благочинності.
Додаткова підтримка надійшла від , що надав приміщення під офіс, а також від компанії Google, яка надала програмне забезпечення та провела навчання.
Напередодні початку роботи виконувачем обов'язків редактора був , до того як першим постійним головним редактором став .
У грудні 2012 року Крістофер Гірд, колишній редактор команди , змінив Ієна Овертона на цій посаді, а 2014 року головною редакторкою стала .
Відомі розслідування
Рейд США на Яклу (Ємен)
29 січня 2017 року Сили спеціальних операцій США провели операцію в селі Якла, район Кіфа, провінції Аль-Байда в центральному Ємені. Це був перший рейд, санкціонований президентом Дональдом Трампом. Американські військові спочатку заперечували наявність жертв серед мирного населення, але пізніше заявили, що ведуть розслідування, чи вони були. У ході розслідування, проведеного Бюро на місці, було виявлено, що загинуло 9 дітей віком до 13 років, а наймолодшою жертвою стала тримісячна дитина. Окрім дев'яти дітей, також було вбито одну вагітну жінку. Ґардіан, Ньюзвік та багато інших ЗМІ підхопили цей сюжет.
Операції агентства "Bell Pottinger" в Іраку
2 жовтня 2016 року Бюро, у співпраці з газетою Санді-таймз, повідомило, що Пентагон заплатив британському PR-агентству "Bell Pottinger" $ 540 млн. за створення фальшивих відео про терористів, фейкових статей для арабських інформаційних каналів та відео з пропагандою.
Розслідування Ебіґейл Філдінґ-Сміт та Крофтона Блека викрили деталі цієї багатомільйонної операції. З травня 2007 року по грудень 2011 року, згідно з Таймз і Бюро, Міністерство оборони США заплатило агентству Bell Pottinger за п'ять контрактів . Лорд Белл підтвердив, що агентство Bell Pottinger доповіло Пентагону, ЦРУ та Раді національної безпеки США про свою роботу в Іраку.
Смерть від стійкості до антибіотиків
Бюро продовжує розслідувати загрозу, викликану бактеріями стійкими до антибіотиків. У грудні 2016 року Мадлен Девіс, у співпраці з газетою Санді-телеґраф, виявила, що супербактерії вбивають щонайменше вдвічі більше людей, ніж за оцінками уряду. У жовтні 2016 року Ендрю Васлі, працюючи з Ґардіан, виявив, що свинина, інфікована , продається в мережах супермаркетів Asda та Sainsburys.
Таємна війна дронів
Бюро моніторить людські втрати внаслідок , та Сомалі. У Ємені та Сомалі ці цифри також включають жертви внаслідок ударів дронів, авіаударів, ракетних ударів і наземних операцій. На відміну від інших організацій, що відстежують такі випадки загибелі, Бюро зосереджується на визначенні смертельних випадків серед невійськових, включаючи дітей. Дані цього дослідження опубліковані в Інтернеті. 2013 року Джек Серле став одним із трьох репортерів Бюро, що виграли премію Марти Ґеллгорн в галузі журналістики за "їхнє дослідження дронових воєн Барака Обами та їх наслідків для цивільних осіб".
Бінарні опціони
Серія статей 2016 року авторства Мелані Ньюман викрила "справжніх вовків з Волл-стріт", що були учасниками шахрайства з бінарними опціонами. За даними глави кримінального відділу Національного бюро розвідки шахрайства, детектива-головного інспектора Енді Файфа, це найбільше шахрайство, яке нині здійснюється проти британських об'єктів. Щодня поліція отримує в середньому два звіти про шахрайства з бінарними торговими опціонами, а пересічний інвестор втрачає 16 тис. фунтів стерлінгів. Файф описав це як "лише вершину айсберга", тому що про більшість шахрайств не повідомляють у поліцію, оскільки шахраї зазвичай перебувають за кордоном.
Об'єднане товариство
У лютому 2016 року Верховний суд Великої Британії постановив, що закон про «» у справах про вбивство, який дозволяє пред'явити звинувачення декільком особам в одному й тому ж злочині, хоча вони, можливо, відігравали в ньому зовсім різні ролі, був неправильно витлумачений. Це сталось після тривалого розслідування Бюро про об'єднане товариство. Бюро виявило, що чорношкірих британців більш ніж утричі частіше засуджують до довічного ув'язнення за звинуваченням в об'єднаному товаристві, ніж усіх інших ув'язнених. Троє репортерів Бюро, включаючи Мейва Маккленагана, отримали нагороду за юридичний репортаж у 2013-14 роках за висвітлення цього випадку.
Мільйони, украдені в Європи
Це розслідування, у співпраці з Файненшл таймз, про те, як використали структурні фонди Європейського Союзу, й чи така політика досягла поставлених цілей. Виявилось, що організовані злочинні синдикати виводили мільйони євро, і ці гроші використали для підтримки багатонаціональних корпорацій замість малих та середніх підприємств, включаючи фінансову допомогу для тютюнової фабрики British American Tobacco. Бюро, спільно з компанією Бі-Бі-Сі, створило про цю історію серію програми «» яка отримала Європейський приз за репортаж Університетської асоціації сучасних європейських студій (UACES).
Прихований вплив лобіювання
Фірма зі зв'язків з громадськістю була в центрі операції з прихованою зйомкою Бюро, історію про яку опублікувала газета Індепендент. У кадрі вище керівництво запевняє, що може організувати розмову прем'єр-міністра Великої Британії Девіда Камерона з китайським прем'єром від імені одного з їхніх клієнтів протягом 24 годин, і що у них є команда, яка "сортує" негативне висвітлення у Вікіпедії.
Згодом агентство Bell Pottinger поскаржилось у на це розслідування, проте скаргу відхилили.
Смерть у поліцейському відділку
Розслідування у співпраці з газетою Індепендент виявило, що кількість людей, яка померла у поліцейському відділку, після примусового затримання, була вищою, ніж в офіційних даних. Причиною стало виключення кожного, хто помер після затримання, але на той час не був офіційно заарештованим. Бюро також повідомило про свої висновки на Бі-Бі-Сі в серії програми Файл-он-4.
Цей репортаж отримав .
Журнали війни в Іраку
- це 391 832 засекречених польових звіти армії США, що потрапили на сайт WikiLeaks через витік. Перш ніж опублікувати їх у повному об'ємі онлайн, він поділився ними з багатьма інформаційними організаціями, включаючи Бюро. Бюро працювало разом з каналами Аль-Джазіра та Channel 4, щоб проаналізувати документи, які детально описують катування, страти без суду та військові злочини, здійснені армією США.
Репортажі Бюро отримали .
Критика
Ньюзнайт і звинувачення МакЕлпайна
Бюро зазнало серйозної критики після інциденту Ньюзнайт МакЕлпайна, який стався в листопаді 2012 року. Програма Бі-Бі-Сі-Ньюзнайт транслювала розслідування скандалу про насилля над дітьми у Північному Вельсі. Репортаж вів Анґус Стіклер, якого Бюро відрядило в Бі-Бі-Сі. У своєму репортажі Стіклер стверджував, що відомий, але неназваний, колишній політик-консерватор змушував дітей до сексу в 1970-х роках. Користувачі мережі Twitter та інших соціальних мереж одразу ж подумали, що це . Після того, як газета Ґардіан написала, що це припущення помилкове, Лорд МакЕлпайн оприлюднив рішуче заперечення. Обвинувач безумовно й щиро вибачився, визнавши, що як тільки він побачив фотографію тієї людини, то зрозумів, що помилився. Пізніше того ж дня подав у відставку. Головний редактор Бюро Ієн Овертон та Анґус Стіклер також подали у відставку.
Примітки
Посилання
Журналістські розслідування
Журналістські організації
Міжнародні організації
Свобода слова
Організації Лондона
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Державний науково-дослідний інститут будівельних конструкцій
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Державний науково-дослідний інститут будівельних конструкцій (НДІБК) — багатопрофільна наукова установа України у формі державного підприємства. Повна назва — Державне підприємство «Державний науково-дослідний інститут будівельних конструкцій».
Від 2012 року директором НДІБК є доктор технічних наук, професор Г. Г. Фаренюк
НДІБК забезпечує науково-технічний розвиток будівництва, надійність i безпечний стан будівельних об'єктів, здійснює дослідження та проектування у будівництві та виробництві будівельних матеріалів і конструкцій, проводить експертизу будівельних споруд.
НДІБК внесено до Державного реєстру наукових установ, яким надається підтримка держави.
Історія
1943—1947 роки
НДІБК утворено Постановою Ради народних комісарів СРСР від 26 жовтня 1943 р. № 1170 у складі Народного Комісаріату житлового будівництва Української РСР під назвою «Український науково-дослідний Інститут споруд» (УкрНДІС), з тимчасовим розташуванням у м. Москва.
Головною метою інституту стало освоєння та впровадження в будівництво новітніх досягнень науки і техніки, проведення науково-дослідних робіт щодо житлово-цивільного будівництва та надання технічної допомоги будівельним організаціям. НДІБК брав безпосередню участь у здійсненні програми відновлення у стислі терміни будівельних об'єктів, зруйнованих під час Другої світової війни, а також та пошуку найраціональніших конструкцій, економії будівельних матеріалів, заміни їх менш дефіцитними.
Після здійснення організаційно-технічних заходів щодо створення УкрНДІС, його діяльність у березні 1944 р. була перенесена до Києва. Інститут виконав низку розробок у науково-технічне забезпечення післявоєнної відбудови, будівництво нових об'єктів народно-господарського комплексу та житлового фонду. Це, зокрема, показове будівництво житлових будинків у селах Київської області, створення нових систем несучих конструкцій будівель, нових будівельних матеріалів з високоміцного гіпсу, розроблення технології використання доменних шлаків і згорілих порід.
1948—1956 роки
У цей період інститутом виконувались дослідження щодо освоєння на заводах будівельної індустрії власних розробок з випуску шлакобетонних виробів, гіпсової сухої штукатурки та гіпсових блоків для перегородок, азбестоцементних покрівельних матеріалів і плиток для підлог тощо.
У зв'язку із збільшенням темпів індустріалізації будівництва із застосуванням збірних конструкцій і виробів будівельної індустрії, пріоритетною тематикою наукових досліджень стає створенні нових збірних конструкцій, методів їх розрахунку, а також технологій виготовлення. Започатковується комплексний підхід до втілення у життя нових наукових розробок у будівництві, на базі інституту починає працювати Експериментально-конструкторське бюро для випробування нових конструкцій та відпрацювання технологій їх виготовлення.
1957—1962 роки
Відповідно до Постанови Ради Міністрів Української РСР від 29.11.1956 р. № 1423 УкрНДІС перейшов до складу Академії будівництва і архітектури УРСР і увійшов складовою частиною до Науково-дослідного Інституту будівельних конструкцій. Проводяться дослідження у новій галузі попередньо напружених сталевих конструкцій, вивчаються проблемии та закономірності взаємодії будівель з неоднорідними ґрунтовими основами. Держбудом СРСР з 1961 року Україну була визначено базовою республікою з будівництва на просідаючих ґрунтах і підроблюваних територіях, отже значимість теоретичних і експериментальних робіт була доволі високою, а роботи мали практичне застосування та втілення. Унікальні натурні експерименти на великопанельних будинках в Запоріжжі (1960—1962), Макіївці (1961) і Дніпрі (1962—1963) дозволили отримати нові наукові дані та створити базу для розробки теорії розрахунків будівель і споруд на лесових просідаючих основах і підроблюваних територіях, створити відповідні нормативні документи.
З 1962 року в НДІБК проводяться науково-дослідні та експериментальні роботи з вирішення загальнодержавної проблеми — забудови територій над гірничими виробками Донбасу та інших вугільних родовищ України. Спрямованість досліджень стосувалася пошуків ефективних конструкцій фундаментів (зубчастих стрічкових, клиновидних, паль з декількома розширеннями тощо).
В 1962 році створено підрозділ під керівництвом С. М. Клепікова, який розпочинає теоретичні та експериментальні дослідження на моделях та в натурних умовах роботи конструкцій на нерівномірно деформованих ґрунтових основах, вирішуючи проблему розрахунків конструкцій будівель і споруд, пов'язану з впливом деформацій земної поверхні, з урахуванням взаємодії наземної частини споруди з її ґрунтовою основою.
1962—1975 роки
В НДІБК удосконалюється виробничо-експериментальна база, розширився обсяг робіт Експериментально-конструкторського бюро. Це дало змогу виконувати роботи комплексно ‒ від початку наукової розробки, виготовлення дослідних зразків, випробувань, відпрацювання технології виготовлення до впровадження у практику будівництва.
Започатковано нові напрями науково-технічної діяльності: будівництво в складних інженерно-геологічних умовах, просторові конструкції покриття одноповерхових будівель, усунення кренів будинків і споруд, використання енергії вибуху при ущільненні просідаючих ґрунтів. За роботи у цих напрямах фахівцям було присуджено Державну премію СРСР. При НДІБК створюється та успішно функціонує міжвідомча координаційна науково-технічна Рада СРСР з питань будівництва та захисту будинків, споруд, територій зі складними інженерно-геологічними умовами.
Значна увага приділяється питанням розрахунку залізобетонних фундаментів на пружно-повзучій основі з урахуванням довготривалих процесів у бетоні, розрахункам протизсувних споруд, влаштування та натурних випробувань буронабивних паль. Розробляються рекомендацій щодо визначення зсувного тиску і забезпечення стійкості споруд на зсувах, вдосконалюються методи розрахунку залізобетонних конструкцій, зокрема фундаментів. Фахівцями НДІБК розроблені та успішно впроваджені нові конструктивні рішення фундаментних систем для житлових будинків та будівель промислового і сільськогосподарського призначення.
1976—1991 роки
НДІБК був підпорядкований Держбуду СРСР і став науковим центром будівельного профілю, визнаним в Україні та в інших республіках тодішнього СРСР. Започатковано Бюро впровадження, працівники якого допомагали впроваджувати наукові будівельні розробки, що пройшли випробування на базі НДІБК та отримали схвалення для масового застосування на будівельних майданчиках.
У НДІБК було створено новий напрямок в будівництві ‒ мобільні будівлі та споруди із збірно-розбірних складаних блок-секцій та блок-контейнерів. Виробництво таких споруд було налагоджено, зокрема, на Павлоградському заводі мобільних будинків Дніпропетровської області, Старокостянтинівському заводі «Металіст» Хмельницької області, Серпуховському КСК Московської області.
1992—2011 роки
Після проголошення незалежності України НДІБК вдалося зберегти кадровий потенціал, провідних учених та спеціалістів з великим досвідом наукової роботи, не допустити занепаду та руйнування експериментальної та виробничої бази, знайти шляхи укріплення матеріально-технічної бази.
НДІБК значно розширив діяльність, утворивши підрозділи у Полтаві, Одесі, Донецьку, Луганську, Рівному, Дніпрі, Миколаєві та плідно співпрацював з провідними фірмами Франції, Великобританії, Сполучених Штатів Америки, Німеччини, Польщі, Росії, Білорусі та інших країн.
Тривало створення і розвиток наукових шкіл та розширення тематики наукових досліджень. Вагому частину науково-технічних розробок склали роботи з дослідження та відновлення національних пам'яток історії та архітектури: Національної філармонії, Михайлівського Золотоверхого монастиря, Успенського собору Києво-Печерської лаври, Андріївської церкви, Київського та Одеського академічних театрів опери та балету, музейного комплексу «Мистецький арсенал».
Фахівцями НДІБК успішно виконуються роботи з науково-технічного супроводу реконструкції залізничного вокзалу «Київ-Пасажирський», будівництва вокзалу «Південний» у м. Києві, реконструкції Національного спортивного комплексу «Олімпійський» (до чемпіонату з футболу «Євро-2012»), будівництва висотних будівель у м. Києві та сейсмічних районах України тощо.
1990-ті роки стали періодом початку розроблення нормативної бази України у галузі будівництва. Упродовж 1991—1992 років за участі фахівців НДІБК було розроблено першу концепцію створення такої бази. Роботи з технічного регулювання продовжуються досьогодні.
Об'єкт «Укриття» Чорнобильської АЕС
Найважливішим завданням стають науково-технічні роботи з вирішення будівельних проблем об'єкта «Укриття» Чорнобильської АЕС щодо перетворення його в екологічно безпечну систему.
НДІБК проводить дослідження на Чорнобильському майданчику з 1989 р. Систематичні дослідження стану конструкцій об'єкта «Укриття» складалися з:
аналізу проектної і будівельної документації та її удосконалення (П. І. Кривошеєв, М. В. Сидоренко, А. М. Бамбура, Ю. І. Кураш, С. І. Орбелін, В. Г. Абросимов, Л. В. Родюк, М. Г. Мар'єнков та ін.);
вивчення результатів вимірів параметрів об'єкта, включаючи віброметричні, геодезичні виміри деформацій і контроль температури (О. К. Хавкін, М. Г. Мар'єнков, В. Г. Поклонський, В. П. Глуховський, А. М. Юров);
натурних обстежень стану конструкцій і вивчення властивостей ґрунтів основи (Ю. І. Немчинов, М. В. Сидоренко, Ю. І. Кураш, В. Г. Абросимов, Ю. М. Кундрюцький та ін.);
розробки паспортів на будівельні конструкції і приміщення об'єкта «Укриття» (В. О. Крітов, О. А. Іщенко, О. Г. Ісаєнко, О. К. Хавкін, Л. В. Родюк, М. Г. Мар'єнков, В. А. Дунін та ін.);
геотехнічних досліджень й оцінки несучих властивостей основи та фундаментів (В. Г. Абросимов, І. В. Матвєєв, Ю. М. Кундрюцький, Г. І. Черний, Г. Б. Соловйова, А. І. Кисіль та ін.);
оцінки постульованих вихідних подій природного і техногенного характеру для проектування підсилення об'єкта «Укриття» (Ю. І. Немчинов, В. Г. Тарасюк, Г. В. Шарапов, Д. А. Коршунов, М. Г. Мар'єнков та ін.);
розробки комп'ютерних моделей і експериментальних досліджень конструкцій (А. М. Бамбура, О. К. Хавкін, І. В. Матвєєв, І. Р. Сазонова, Ю. В. Смирнов, О. Г. Недзведська та ін.);
розробки нормативних документів з експлуатації і стабілізації конструкцій (М. В. Сидоренко, Ю. І. Кураш, В. Г. Тарасюк, Г. В. Шарапов, Л. О. Варченко та ін.).
У 2002 р. Український консорціум КСК (КІЕП, ДНДІБК і МНТЦ «Укриття») виграв тендер на розробку робочого проекту стабілізації будівельних конструкцій об'єкту «Укриття», а у травні 2002 року був підписаний контракт № SIP 03-2-016 на розробку 11 першочергових стабілізаційних заходів об'єкту «Укриття».
Основні технічні рішення концептуального проекту нового безпечного саркофагу об'єкту «Укриття» були розроблені Міжнародним консорціумом «BISI» (Bechtel&Battel, США та EDF, Франція) за участю Українського консорціуму КСК (КІЕП, НДІБК і МНТЦ «Укриття») як підрядної ліцензованої організації. Переможцем тендеру на проектування, будівництво і введення в експлуатацію нового безпечного саркофага об'єкту «Укриття» в серпні 2007 року була визнана компанія NOVARKA (спільне підприємство французьких компаній Vinci Construction Grands Projets і BOUYGUES). Було заплановано збудувати НБК у вигляді так званої «Арки» для накриття застарілого об'єкту «Укриття». Роботи з будівництва тривали з квітня 2012 року до початку 2017 року. В цьому проекті НДІБК у складі консорціуму КСК виконував важливу роль інженера-клієнта від української сторони, виконуючи проектні роботи, здійснюючи розрахунки, проводячи науково-технічний супровід проекту. Новий безпечний саркофаг запустили в експлуатацію у липні 2019 року.
З 2012 року по теперішній час
З 2012 року і дотепер інститут очолює доктор технічних наук, професор Геннадій Григорович Фаренюк.
На початку другого десятиліття ХХІ ст. економіка України знаходилась у регресії внаслідок впливу світової фінансової кризи, що вплинуло на будівельну галузь та призвело до падіння обсягів наукових досліджень. Оптимізація наукової діяльності НДІБК дозволила зменшити вплив кризових явищ, і у 2013 році суттєво зросла кількість та якість науково-дослідних робіт. У ці роки суттєво оновлювалась експериментальна база Інституту, лабораторії оснащувались сучасним обладнанням та програмними комплексами, що дозволило отримувати атестати акредитації випробувальних підрозділів Інституту згідно з вимогами міжнародних стандартів.
В НДІБК створені і функціонують наукові школи за напрямами: теорія залізобетону; теоретичні основи будівельних конструкцій; будівельна механіка; фундаменти, механіка ґрунтів; будівництво в складних інженерно-геологічних і сейсмічних умовах; геотехніка; будівельна теплотехніка та акустика.
НДІБК виконує комплексні науково-дослідні роботи щодо визначення стану основ, фундаментів, несучих і огороджувальних конструкцій будівель та споруд різного призначення. Щороку НДІБК виконує оцінку технічного стану з визначенням залишкового ресурсу будівельних конструкцій понад 500 будівельних об'єктів, розробляє і реалізує заходи щодо підсилення та відновлення різноманітних будівельних конструкцій.
НДІБК розвиває нові наукові напрямки, пов'язані з будівельною фізикою щодо захисту від шуму та підвищення енергоефективності будівельної продукції і енергозбереження при експлуатації об'єктів. Особливий розвиток отримав напрямок з енергоефективності будівельних об'єктів, який системно розвивався під керівництвом професора Фаренюка Г. Г. упродовж 25 років. Наукові дослідження та обґрунтування критеріїв і принципів забезпечення енергоефективності будівель були реалізовані на законодавчому рівні — у Законі України «Про енергетичну ефективність будівель», у державних будівельних нормах та національних стандартах. За цикл робіт з енергоефективності д.т.н. Г. Г. Фаренюк нагороджений у 2013 році Державною премією України в галузі науки і техніки.
НДІБК має сертифіковану систему управління якістю, що підтверджено Сертифікатом на систему управління якістю відповідно до ДСТУ EN ISO 9001:2018 «Системи управління якістю. Вимоги (EN ISO 9001:2015, IDT; ISO 9001:2015, IDT)» за напрямами: наукові роботи у галузі будівництва, у тому числі в атомній енергетиці.
У складі НДІБК діють акредитовані Національним агентством з акредитації України Випробувальний центр у сфері випробування будівельних конструкцій, будівель та споруд, виробів, матеріалів та ґрунтів за показниками фізико-механічних характеристик та експлуатаційних властивостей та Відділ будівельної фізики та енергоефективності у сфері випробування матеріалів, виробів, конструкцій, будівель за теплофізичними та акустичними показниками, характеристиками довговічності та надійності, визначення питомих тепловитрат будівель, споруд, приміщень відповідно до ДСТУ EN ISO/IEC 17025:2019 «Загальні вимоги до компетентності випробувальних та калібрувальних лабораторій (EN ISO/IEC 17025:2017, IDT; ISO/IEC 17025:2017, IDT)», а також Орган з сертифікації продукції ОС «ЦЕНТРОСЕПРОБУД» у сфері будівельних матеріалів, виробів та конструкцій, будівель та споруд відповідно до ДСТУ EN ISO/IEC 17065:2019 «Оцінка відповідності. Вимоги до органів з сертифікації продукції, процесів та послуг (EN ISO/IEC 17065:2012, IDT; ISO/IEC 17065:2012, IDT)».
НДІБК дотримується принципу комплексності виконання наукових досліджень: "наукова гіпотеза − лабораторні та польові дослідження — випробування − проектування — виготовлення дослідних зразків − відпрацювання технологій виготовлення − технологій зведення − супровід впровадження інновації − супровід та забезпечення неруйнівного контролю під час експлуатації − подовження ресурсу об'єкту будівництва − супровід робіт з виводу з експлуатації. НДІБК виконує функції секретаріату трьох технічних комітетів стандартизації: ТК 302 «Енергоефективність будівель і споруд», ТК 303 «Будівельні конструкції», ТК 304 «Захист будівель і споруд».
З 2012 року і дотепер Інститут очолює доктор технічних наук, професор Геннадій Григорович Фаренюк. Заступниками директора Інституту з наукової роботи є доктор технічних наук Ю. І. Немчинов та кандидат технічних наук Ю. С. Слюсаренко.
Керівники НДІБК
Інститут засновано Постановою Ради народних комісарів СРСР від 26 жовтня 1943 р. № 1170 у складі Народного Комісаріату житлового будівництва Української РСР під назвою «Український науково-дослідний Інститут споруд» (УкрНДІС).Виконання обов'язків директора УкрНДІС було покладено на начальника головного будівельного управління степової зони Народного Комісаріату з житлово-цивільного будівництва УРСР Вавицького І.Д. Після здійснення організаційно-технічних заходів щодо створення УкрНДІС його діяльність у березні 1944 р. була перенесена до Києва.
У вересні 1944 р. директором УкрНДІС призначено Козулю І. К., якому доручається здійснити заходи щодо покращення діяльності інституту.
З 1948 по 1956 рр. інститут очолює Горський Б.З.
У листопаді 1956 р. УкрНДІС увійшов складовою частиною до Науково-дослідного Інституту будівельних конструкцій (НДІБК). Директором Інституту було призначено Плєхова М.Д.
У 1962 році директором НДІБК призначено В. О. Михайлова.
З 1976 по 1992 р. інститут очсолював А. Й. Буракас.
У 1992 році директором призначено П. І. Кривошеєва.
Відповідно до Наказу Мінрегіонбуду від 10.10.2008 р. № 456 найменування Інституту змінено на Державне підприємство «Державний науково-дослідний Інститут будівельних конструкцій» (ДП НДІБК).
З 2012 року і дотепер НДІБК очолює доктор технічних наук, професор Г. Г. Фаренюк.
Видатні науковці інституту
У різні періоди в НДІБК працювали видатні науковці та інженери у галузі будівництва, які зробили вагомий внесок у розвиток будівельної галузі України:
• будівництво в складних інженерно-геологічних умовах: доктори технічних наук: І. М. Литвинов, С. М. Клепіков, А. М. Рижов; кандидати технічних наук: В. О. Михайлов, П. І. Дранішніков, М. Ш. Мінцковський, М. С. Метелюк, В. П. Шумовський, Г. М. Григор'єв, А. С. Трегуб, І. О. Розенфельд, Ю. М. Кундрюцький, Ю. К. Болотов, Г. Ф. Шишко, І. В. Матвєєв, Я. Й. Червинський, В. Г. Абросімов, Г. Б. Соловйова, О. Т. Шулькевич, К. Г. Собко, І. С. Степура, В. С. Шокарев; інженери: А. В. Машкін, О. М. Толстов, З. М. Варейкіс та ін.;
• теорія розрахунків бетонних та залізобетонних конструкцій: доктори технічних наук: Й. І. Улицький, О. Б. Голишев, Я. Д. Лівшиць, А. М. Бамбура; кандидати технічних наук: В. Й. Скатинський, С. В. Кіреєва, А. М. Дубинський, О. О. Диховичний, В. Я. Бачинський, М. М. Федоренко та ін.;
• залізобетонні, керамічні та інші конструкції: доктори технічних наук: І. О. Рохлін, М. А. Янкелевич, А. С. Дехтяр; кандидати технічних наук: В. О. Михайлов, А. Й. Буракас, П. І. Кривошеєв, В. Д. Таїров, В. Г. Леліченко, А. Д. Ліберман, А. О. Цейтлін, В. Д. Галич, Л. І. Крівельов, Ю. О. Катруца, Б. П. Ковтунов, В. О. Крітов, В. І. Кретов, Л. Ф. Вознесенський, О. К. Хавкін, А. М. Дубинський, О. О. Диховичний, Є. Й. Стаковиченко, О. М. Рубач, Т. Ф. Гордєєва, Ф. В. Ярмульник, І. О. Белінський, В. Г. Савченко-Бельський, О. Г. Ісаєнко; інженери: Г. А. Овсепян, Ю. І. Белецький, А. В. Чемер, Е. М. Воловик та ін.;
• будівлі та споруди із залізобетонних панелей-оболонок: доктор технічних наук В. І. Колчунов; кандидати технічних наук: А. Й. Буракас, В. Д. Галич, А. О. Цейтлін, Т. Ф. Гордєєва, В. П. Овчар, О. Г. Ісаєнко; інженери: Т. В. Борисова, О. А. Козодой та ін.;
• вантові конструкції: доктор технічних наук В. М. Шимановський; кандидати технічних наук: Д. А. Коршунов, Р. Б. Харченко, Ю. В. Смирнов, В. І. Сайгак, В. Н. Мацвейко, Ю. С. Слюсаренко, М. В. Сидоренко, Ю. І. Кураш; інженер В. В. Осадчук та ін.;
• будівельні конструкції із застосуванням нових та місцевих матеріалів: кандидати технічних наук: М. І. Каракурчі, І. А. Лукашенко, І. М. Ткаченко, М. В. Боровський, А. Я. Ціотов. В. І. Ситник, Б. К. Кравцов; інженери: І. М. Майборода, П. М. Козелецький, 3.О. Швець та ін.;
• системи контролю якості будівельних конструкцій та матеріалів, в тому числі неруйнівними методами: кандидати технічних наук: Г. О. Попович, Л. М. Радченко, С. І. Ногін, Д. А. Коршунов, П. С. Вітюк, О. М. Лещинский, В. О. Токарев, П. А. Чуйко, В. П. Глуховський; інженери: В. С. Голобородько, А. С. Колотилов, В. В. Ходаков, М. І. Шлякцу та ін.;
• технологія та обладнання для виготовлення бетонних та залізобетонних конструкцій: доктор технічних наук Л. О. Шейніч; кандидати технічних наук: М. І. Ситник, В. І. Булаковський, О. Б. Кузякіна, К. М. Козлова, С. В. Глазкова, Г. Б. Гірштель, В. П. Овчар; інженери: П. П. Мірошников, А. Т. Аксьонов, Л. П. Корнєєва, М. В. Гакен, В. М. Січкаренко, Г. П. Шаргородський, П. П. Кудряшов, М. Д. Драговоз, І. А. Демиденко, В.X. Погрібний, Л. В. Водоп'янов, Л. В. Соломонов, Ю. В. Лушкарьов та ін.;
• об'ємно-блокове домобудування: кандидати технічних наук: М. Д. Плєхов, В. І. Різниченко, П. І. Голуб, В. В. Віроцький, Е. В. Єндржеєвський, В. С. Костіков, А. М. Філатова; інженери: П. І. Білошкурський, А. М. Лупан, Н. О. Піддубна, В. А. Ластік, Т. П. Мірошник; архітектор Л. С. Абрамов та ін.;
• автоматизація наукових досліджень у будівництві: доктор технічних наук Ю. І. Немчинов; кандидати технічних наук: В. Г. Тацій, В. С. Кравчук, І. І. Педаховський, Ф. В. Ярмульник, О. К. Хавкін, Г. В. Шарапов; інженери: М. І. Римар, В. Г. Міщенко, Р. В. Петрушок та ін.;
• мобільні будівлі та споруди: кандидати технічних наук: І. М. Ткаченко, Ю. С. Слюсаренко, В. Н. Мацвейко, А. Я. Ціотов; інженери: М. Б. Яцишин, О. А. Козодой, Ю. І. Белецький, П. П. Татков та ін.;
• будівельна фізика: доктор технічних наук Г. Г. Фаренюк; кандидати технічних наук: В. М. Мякшин, К. Д. Хмелюк, Є. Г. Фаренюк, інженери: М. М. Дужкін, Є. А. Кожан, М. О. Трохименко, Л. М. Осипчук, Е. М. Сторожук та ін.;
• методи і засоби дослідження будівельних матеріалів, виробів та конструкцій і оцінювання їх відповідності: доктори технічних наук: Ю. І. Немчинов, А. М. Рижов; кандидати технічних наук: Д. М. Пекус-Сахновський, Б. М. Шехтман, П. І. Кривошеєв, В. Г. Тарасюк, С. Я. Мазур, Ю. М. Кардовський, Г. М. Ремінець, О. І. Марченко, В. І. Кретов, Г. В. Шарапов, Ф. В. Ярмульник, В. П. Овчар, Л. О. Жарко; інженери: А. І. Бородін, Л. С. Стрельченко, А. Я. Панченко, А. П. Самойленко та ін.;
• реконструкція та відновлення пам'яток історії та архітектури: доктор технічних наук Г. І. Черний; кандидати технічних наук: І. М. Ткаченко, Ю. О. Катруца, Б. П. Ковтунов, І. В. Матвєєв, Ю. С. Слюсаренко, В. О. Крітов, А. І. Кісіль, Г. Б. Соловйова, О. Т. Шулькевич; інженер А. В. Чемер та ін.;
• сейсмостійке будівництво: доктори технічних наук: Ю. І. Немчинов, М. Г. Мар'єнков; кандидати технічних наук: О. К. Хавкін, В. Г. Поклонський, К. М. Бабік;
• економічне обгрунтування будівельної діяльності: кандидати економічних наук: К. Р. Кучеренко, С. М. Гінзбург, Є. М. Майданик, М. І. Зубовська, Л. О. Варченко, Н. П. Івлєва, П. М. Турчин; інженер Е С. Тотоєва та ін.;
• транспортування будівельних конструкцій: доктор технічних наук В. П. Легеза; кандидати технічних наук: І. О. Скачков, О. А. Іщенко, В. І. Пастушенко, А. П. Лісовець та ін.;
• науково-технічний супровід експлуатації об'єктів атомної енергетики України, в тому числі об'єкта «Укриття» ЧАЕС: доктори технічних наук: Ю. І. Немчинов, Г. І. Черний, Л. О. Шейніч, А. М. Бамбура, Ю. І. Калюх, М. Г. Мар'єнков; кандидати технічних наук: П. І. Кривошеєв, М. В. Сидоренко, І. М. Ткаченко, Ю. С. Слюсаренко, О. М. Лісений, С. І. Орбелін, Ю. І. Кураш, Л. Ф. Вознесенський, О. К. Хавкін, І. В. Матвєєв, Ю. М. Кундрюцький, В. Г. Пошивач, В. Г. Тарасюк, Я. Й. Червинський, В. М. Сенаторов, К. М. Бабік; інженери: П. М. Козелецький, Ю. Ф. Столярчук, М. Б. Яцишин та багато інших.
Відновлення будівель і споруд, пошкоджених внаслідок воєнної агресії
Широкомасштабна російська агресія проти України супроводжується значними обсягами пошкодженнями житлових та інших цивільних об'єктів.
НДІБК бере участь в експертній оцінці таких об'єктів, надає висновки, рекомендації та розробляє технічні рішення щодо можливості відновлення зруйнованих або пошкоджених будівель та споруд.
За умов політичної та економічної кризи, викликаною російською агресією, було важливо зберегти науковий потенціал Інституту, що було успішно виконано. НДІБК ані на день не припиняв свою діяльність, основну увагу приділяючи ліквідації наслідків військових дій. Вже на початку квітня 2022 року фахівці інституту на чолі з директором Г.Г Фаренюком виїхали до м. Буча для проведення обстежень пошкоджених та зруйнованих будівель. Протягом 2022-2023 років фахівцями Інституту проведено детальні інструментальні дослідження більш ніж 400 багатоповерхових житлових будівель, громадських будівель, будівель та споруд промислового призначення, які отримали пошкодження у містах у Києві, Чернігові, Сумах, Ірпені, Гостомелі, Умані та Бучі, розроблено біля 100 проектів з відновлення пошкоджених будівель, підсилення та ремонту, з проведенням авторського нагляду за виконанням робіт по їх здійсненню, що дозволило десяткам тисяч громадян України повернутися до їх помешкань.
Взаємодія з науковою спільнотою, участь у євроінтеграційних процесах
Відповідно до науково-технічних напрямків діяльності інституту, НДІБК є членом міжнародних громадських організацій відповідного профілю, співпрацює з закордонними науково-технічними установами та бере участь у міжнародних конференціях, конгресах та симпозіумах.
НДІБК представляє Україну в (fib). Фахівці інституту щорічно беруть участь в засіданнях керівних органів fib, конференціях та симпозіумах. Інститут є представником України у Європейському союзі з ухвалень будівельної продукції (UEAtc).
Науковий журнал
НДІБК видає науково-технічний журнал «Наука та будівництво», який входить до переліку наукових фахових видань України, де публікуються результати дисертаційних робіт на здобуття наукових ступенів доктора і кандидата технічних наук.
Журнал є частиною наукової та реферативної бази даних Index Copernicus (IC), яка застосовується як визнаний інструмент для визначення цитованості наукових статей.
Примітки
Проєктні інститути України
Організації Києва
Будівельна промисловість
Будівельні конструкції
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%20%D0%94%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87
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Кудрицький Володимир Дмитрович
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Кудрицький Володимир Дмитрович
Володимир Дмитрович Кудрицький — голова правління ПрАТ «Національна енергетична компанія Укренерго», яка є оператором української системи передачі електроенергії, фігурант низки корупційних скандалів.
Освіта
Закінчив з відзнакою факультет міжнародної економіки Київського національного економічного університету імені Вадима Гетьмана. Є членом асоціації присяжних бухгалтерів Великобританії (АССА), а також сертифікованим внутрішнім аудитором Інституту внутрішніх аудиторів США (СІА).
Кар’єра до «Укренерго»
З 2007 по 2011 рік працював на різних посадах в одній із найбільших аудиторських та консалтингових компаній Grant Thornton Ukraine, що входить до складу . Керував аудиторськими та консалтинговими проєктами, проєктами з розвитку та реструктуризації бізнесу для таких замовників як НАК «Нафтогаз України», «Южмаш», польська металургійна компанія Centrostal.
Працював Директором з внутрішнього аудиту ТНК-BP Україна з 2011 року до моменту поглинання компанії НК «Роснефть» у 2013 році.
Впродовж 2013-2016 років брав участь у низці консалтингових проєктів для різних компаній. Зокрема, керував проєктами з оптимізації продажів, логістики, закупівель АТ «Миронівський хлібопродукт», займався реорганізацією системи внутрішнього контролю та управління ризиками на дочірніх підприємствах Групи тощо. Керував антикризовими заходами для медіа-напряму інвестиційно-консалтингової групи EastOne , зокрема реструктуризацією видавництва «Економіка», розробкою стратегічних та операційних планів медіа-активів групи (ТВ-група Starlightmedia, видавництво «Економіка», газета «Факти і коментарі»), впроваджував management buy-out бізнесу.
У 2015-2016 роках був директором з розвитку ПАТ «Укртранснафта». До компанії Кудрицький прийшов під час оновлення частини менеджерського складу.
З грудня 2017 року по травень 2019 року був представником держави у наглядовій раді НАК «Нафтогаз України» . Входив до складу аудиторського комітету та комітету з відокремлення діяльності. У наглядовій раді відстоював інтереси підконтрольних Ігорю Коломойському компаній, зокрема «Укрнафти».
Є членом консультативно-наглядової групи ініціативи з забезпечення прозорості будівництва CoST.
Робота в «Укренерго»
Призначення на посаду голови правління «Укренерго»
У 2016 році прийшов до «Укренерго» на посаду керівника офісу управління проєктами. Потім став заступником директора з інвестицій та першим заступником голови правління.
З 27 лютого 2020 року - в.о. голови правління, після того як попередній керівник «Укренерго» Всеволод Ковальчук пішов у відставку. 2 серпня 2020 року наглядова рада «Укренерго» за результатами конкурсу призначила Володимира Кудрицького головою правління.
Після призначення на посаду голови правління «Укренерго», Кудрицький продовжив реалізацію ключової стратегічної цілі компанії – інтеграція енергосистеми України до ENTSO-E.
Кредитне фінансування, яке залучило правління Кудрицького, дозволило «Укренерго» отримати у 2021 році прибуток 141 млн гривень, а у І кварталі 2022 року - 2 млрд гривень.
Конфлікт інтересів через зв’язки з Ігорем Коломойським
До ПрАТ «Національна енергетична компанія Укренерго» Кудрицький прийшов з компанії ПАТ «Укртранснафта», що була підконтрольна Ігорю Коломойському, в момент активного протистояння з діючим керівником Всеволодом Ковальчуком. Працівники підприємства проводили тривалі акції протесту, блокуючи роботу офісу «Укренерго». Як тільки Володимира Кудрицького призначили головою правління «Укренерго», конфлікт було вичерпано, зі сторони Коломойського більше не було негативних заяв щодо керівництва компанії. У ЗМІ з’явилося журналістські розслідування про те, що Ігор Коломойський має вплив на «Укренерго». Також журналісти інформували про інші форми лояльності до компанії Коломойського. Наприклад, «Центренерго» продало електроенергію «Юнайтед енерджі», підконтрольній Коломойському, за ціною, нижчою від собівартості.
Аудит «Укренерго»
За результатами аудиту компанії «Укренерго» за 2019-2023 роки Держаудитслуби виявила зловживань на 68 млрд грн, а працівники Офісу генпрокурора провели обшуки в офісі «Укренерго». Державний оператор намагався оскаржити результати аудиту в суді, але програв справу Держаудитслужбі. Аудитори виявили, що діяльність працівників «Укренерго» призвела до несвоєчасного припинення постачання електроенергії компанії «Юнайтед Енерджі», що спричинило несплату боргу, а також через невиконання умов договорів та судових позовів державний оператор сплатив штрафів та судового збору на 285 млн грн. Крім того, навесні 2022 року «Укренерго» закупило бронежилети за завищеними цінами, витративши понад 20 млн грн, хоча їхня ринкова ціна була вдвічі меншою.
Справа щодо розкрадання 1,4 млрд грн
За даними розслідування журналіста Сергія Іванова, на початку вторгнення компанія «Юнайтед Енерджі», якою володіє партнер бізнесмена Ігоря Коломойського Михайло Кіперман, отримала від «Укренерго» електроенергії на суму понад 1,4 млрд грн, перепродала її на ринку та не розрахувалася з державним оператором. Журналіст стверджує, що ймовірно керівництво «Укренерго» сприяло реалізації цієї схеми. Два топ-менеджера «Укренерго», які безпосередньо відповідали за договір з «Юнайтед-Енерджі», виїхали за кордон у службові відрядження та не повернулися. Один дозвіл на відрядження особисто підписував Володимир Кудрицький.
Також за фактом втрати державою 1,4 млрд грн НАБУ відкрило кримінальне провадження. «Укренерго» подало в суд на банк-гарант «Альянс», щоб перекласти провину на фінансову установу. Банк вважає, що умови надання гарантії були грубо порушені учасниками договору. Фінансову установу Офіс генпрокурора визнав потерпілою стороною, а Центр судової експертизи та експертних досліджень визнав законність дій голови правління банку. ДАСУ та НКРЕКП визнали посадових осіб «Укренерго» відповідальними за виникнення та несплату заборгованості. Банк подав зустрічний позов проти «Укренерго» та виграв першу інстанцію.
Освоєння коштів на будівництві об’єктів укриття
За різними даними, на будівництво укриття для захисту об’єктів критичної інфраструктури було витрачено понад 50 млрд грн. Головними отримувачами бюджетних коштів стали Державне агентство відновлення та розвитку інфраструктури України, діяльність якого курував екс-віце-прем’єр Олександр Кубраков та «Укренерго» під керівництвом Володимира Кудрицького. Зокрема, за даними видання «Наші гроші», лише протягом періоду з 14 серпня до 4 вересня 2023 року «Укренерго» уклало низку угод на 2,8 млрд грн. А у вересня 2023 року уряд виділив додатково ще 9,7 млрд грн на захист стратегічних об’єктів енергетики. У серпні 2023 року в «Центренерго», що входить до складу «Укренерго», заявили про фізичний захист Трипільської ТЕС на 100%, Зміївської ТЕС – на 70%. У березні та квітні 2024 року 100% генерації цих двох ТЕС було знищено через обстріл російськими ракетами.
Експерти-енергетики, зокрема, Віктор Куртєв зазначали, що президента ввели в оману планом захисту енергетичних об’єктів за допомогою бетонного укриття, який виявився неефективним. Віктор Куртєв наголошує на тому, що існували альтернативні, більш ефективні шляхи захисту об’єктів енергосистеми. Проте був обраний найменш дієвий та непрозорий варіант. Олександр Кубраков був звільнений 9 травня 2024 року, Володимир Кудрицький залишився на посаді.
Засекречена зарплата в «Укренерго»
У відповідь на запит ЗМІ «Укренерго» відповіло, що в законі немає вимоги називати зарплату «поосібно», тому розміру доходів Володимира Кудрицького окремо не вказали. Навели дані щодо зарплат всього правління: Володимира Кудрицького та чотирьох членів правління. Середня місячна зарплата для одного члена правління сягає більш ніж 2 млн грн. За грудень 2023 року вони отримали майже 8 млн грн, за січень 2024 року – 4,2 млн грн, за квітень 2024 року – 8,5 млн грн. Середня зарплата працівників «Укренерго» в 2023 році складала 35,4 тис. грн.
OSINT-розслідування щодо збагачення
За даними OSINT-розслідування групи Blackboxosint, у грудні 2022 року дружина Володимира Кудрицького Олександра Ястремська придбала земельну ділянку у столиці по вулиці Генерала Павленка за $14 тис, хоча ринкова вартість ділянки становить близько $75 тис. Зараз там розташований новозбудований будинок вартістю $300-400 тис. 13 вересня 2023 року дружина Кудрицького придбала автомобіль TOYOTA Highlander 2022 року випуску за 2,3 млн грн. Сам Кудрицький за час дії воєнного стану 11 разів виїжджав за кордон, зокрема, відвідував Польщу, Бельгію, Швейцарію та США.
Примітки
Керівники підприємств України
НАК «Нафтогаз України»
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814434
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%20%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%8E%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F
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Конструктор копіювання
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Конструктор копіювання — особливий конструктор в мові програмування C++, який використовується для створення нових об'єктів як копії існуючого об'єкта. Першим аргументом такого коструктора є посилання (константне або ні) на об'єкт того ж типу, що й тип об'єкта який ми конструюємо, за цим параметром можуть іти інші будь-яких типів, але обов'язково із значеннями за замовчанням.
Зазвичай компілятор самостійно створює коструктор копіювання для кожного класу (відомий як уставний конструктор копіювання), але при потребі програміст створює конструктор копіювання, відомий як користувачевий або визначений користувачем конструктор копіювання. В таких випадках компілятор не створює його.
Користувацький конструктор копіювання здебільшого потрібен, коли об'єкт має вказівники або неспільні посилання, такі як файл, в цьому випадку деструктор і оператор присвоювання також мають бути написані (дивись Правило трьох).
Визначення
Копіювання об'єктів досягається через використання конструктора копіювання і оператора присвоювання. Перший параметр конструктора копіювання це посилання (можливо const або volatile) на його власний тип класу. Він може мати більше аргументів, але інші мають мати значення за замовчанням. В наступному прикладі наводяться правильні конструктори для класу X:
X(const X& copyFromMe);
X(X& copyFromMe);
X(const volatile X& copyFromMe);
X(volatile X& copyFromMe);
X(const X& copyFromMe, int = 10);
X(const X& copyFromMe, double = 1.0, int = 40);
X a = X(); // в даному випадку, завдяки оптимізації, одразу створюється об'єкт а
// без використання конструктора копіювання,
// хоча може бути створений тимчасовий константний об'єкт із
// використанням звичайного конструктора X,
// який потім, за допомогою конструктора копіювання,
// ініціалізує a як копію тимчасового об'єкта.
Розглянемо різницю між першим і другим конструкторами копіювання
X const a;
X b = a; // вірно для X(const X& copyFromMe), але не вірно X(X& copyFromMe)
// бо другий конструктор вимагає неконстантне посилання X&
Варіант X& використовується при потребі змінити об'єкт, що копіюється. Таке потрібно дуже рідко, але це можна побачити в стандартній бібліотеці std::auto_ptr.
X a;
X b = a; // вірно для всіх конструкторів копіювання
Наступні конструктори копіювання не вірні через те, що copyFromMe передається не як посилання:
X(X copyFromMe);
X(const X copyFromMe);
тобто виклик такого конструктора викличе копіювання параметрів, що в свою чергу призведе до нескінченної рекурсії.
Конструктор копіювання може викликатися в наступних випадках:
Коли об'єкт повертається за значенням
Коли об'єкт передається в функцію за значеннам як аргумент
Коли об'єкт ініціалізується за допомогою іншого об'єкта (того ж типу)
Коли об'єкт створюється компілятором як тимчасовий
Всі ці випадки тотожні до:
T x = a;
У деяких випадках компілятор може з метою оптимізації не викликати конструктор копіюваня.
Операції
Об'єктові може бути присвоєне значення двома шляхами:
Явне присвоєння у виразі
Ініціалізація
Явне присвоєння у виразі
Object A;
Object B;
A = B; // перекладається як Object::operator=(const Object&), тобто викликається A.operator=(B)
// (викликається просте копіювання, а не конструктор копіювання!)
Ініціалізація
Об'єкт може бути ініціалізований у будь-який спосіб з наступних.
a. Через оголошення
Object B = A; // перекладається як Object::Object(const Object&) (виклик конструктора копіювання)
b. Через аргументи функції
type function (Object a);
c. Через повернене значення
Object a = function();
Конструктор копіювання використовується виключно для ініціалізації, і не застосовується для присвоювання де використовується оператор присвоювання натомість.
Неявний конструктор копіювання класу викликає базовий конструктор копіювання і копіює члени класу підходящим для їхнього типу чином. Якщо це тип класу, тоді відповідний конструктор копіювання викликається, якщо це скалярний тип, використовується вбудований оператор присвоювання. Насамкінець, якщо це масив, кожен елемент копіюється відповідно до його типу.
Шляхом визначення користувачевого конструктора копіювання програміст може задати необхідну поведінку при копіюванні.
Приклади
Наступні приклади показують як працюють конструктори копіювання і навіщо вони потрібні.
Неявний конструктор копіювання
Розглянемо наступний приклад.
#include <iostream>
class Person {
public:
int age;
explicit Person(int age)
: age(age) {}
};
int main()
{
Person timmy(10);
Person sally(15);
Person timmy_clone = timmy;
std::cout << timmy.age << " " << sally.age << " " << timmy_clone.age << std::endl;
timmy.age = 23;
std::cout << timmy.age << " " << sally.age << " " << timmy_clone.age << std::endl;
return 0;
}
Виведення
10 15 10
23 15 10
Як і очікувалось, timmy був скопійований в новий об'єкт, timmy_clone. І хоча вік timmy був змінений, вік timmy_clone залишився тим самим. Причина цього в тому, що це зовсім різні об'єкти.
Компілятор створив конструктор копіювання для нас, і він може бути записаний так:
Person(const Person& copy)
: age(copy.age) {}
Тобто, коли ж ми дійсно потребуємо користувачевого конструктора копіювання? Наступний розділ дасть відповідь на це питання.
Користувацький конструктор копіювання
Тепер, уявімо дуже простий клас динамічних масивів:
#include <iostream>
class Array
{
public:
int size;
int* data;
explicit Array(int size)
: size(size), data(new int[size]) {}
~Array()
{
delete[] data;
}
};
int main()
{
Array first(20);
first.data[0] = 25;
{
Array copy = first;
std::cout << first.data[0] << " " << copy.data[0] << std::endl;
} // (1)
first.data[0] = 10; // (2)
return 0;
}
Виведення
25 25
Segmentation fault
Через те, що ми не визначили конструктор копіювання, компілятор створив його для нас. Створений конструктор може виглядати схожим на наступний:
Array(const Array& copy)
: size(copy.size), data(copy.data) {}
У даному разі конструктор виконав поверхове копіювання вказівника data. Він скопіював лише адресу первісного члена даних; тобто вони обидва використовують вказівник на одну ділянку пам'яті, нам би хотілось іншого. Коли програма досягає рядка (1), викликається деструктор копії (через автоматичне знищення об'єкта у стеку при виході з його області видимості). Деструктор масиву видаляє масив data, що використовується обома об'єктами. Після цього на рядку (2) ми намагаємось отримати доступ до неіснуючого об'єкта і записати туди! Це викликає відому помилку сегментації.
Якщо ми напишемо власний конструктор копіювання, який виконує глибоке копіювання, тоді ми позбудемось цієї проблеми.
Array(const Array& copy)
: size(copy.size), data(new int[copy.size])
{
std::copy(copy.data, copy.data + copy.size, data); // #include <algorithm> для std::copy
}
Тут, ми створюємо новий масив і копіюємо вміст у нього. Тепер деструктор copy видалить лише власні дані і не зачепить дані об'єкта first. Рядок (2) відтепер не викликатиме помилку сегментації.
Замість того, щоб робити глибоке копіюваня одразу, можна використати один із способів оптимізації. Вони дозволяють безпечне спільне використання даних кількома об'єктами, таким чином зберігаючи пам'ять. Стратегія копіювання при записі робить копію даних тільки при спробі запису. Лічильник посилань слідкує за тим скільки об'єктів посилаються на дані, і знищує їх тільки тоді, коли кількість дорівнює нулю (наприклад boost::shared_ptr).
Конструктори копіювання і шаблони
Всупереч очікуванням, шаблонний конструктор копіювання не є користувачевим конструктором копіювання. Тож недостатньо мати:
template <typename A> Array::Array(const A& copy)
: size(copy.size()), data(new int[copy.size()])
{
std::copy(copy.begin(),copy.end(),data);
}
(Зауважте, що тип A може бути Array.) Користувачевий, нешаблонний конструктор копіювання має бути визначений для конструювання Array на основі Array.
Явний конструктор копіювання
Явний коструктор копіювання визначається за допомогою ключового слова explicit. Наприклад:
explicit X(const X& copyFromMe);
Він використовується для запобігання копіюванню об'єктів під час виклику функцій або під час ініціалізації копіюванням.
X a;
X b = a; // помилка
X b(a); // вірно
Примітки
C++
Метод (програмування)
Статті з прикладами коду мовою C++
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1364702
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0%20%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%D1%83%20%D0%92%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%96%D1%97%20%281341%E2%80%941347%29
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Громадянська війна у Візантії (1341—1347)
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Громадянська війна у Візантії (1341—1347)
Міжусобна війна у Візантії 1341–1347 років — одна з найбільших політичних подій в історії Візантійської імперії, що привела до остаточного занепаду країни. Мала політичний, соціальний та релігійний характер. Сторонами конфлікту виступали прибічники малолітнього імператора Іоанна V Палеолога, зілоти й варлааміти з одного боку та прибічники його регента, який пізніше проголосив себе імператором, Іоанна VI Кантакузина та паламіти з іншого боку. До конфлікту були втягнуті не тільки сили всередині Візантійської імперії, але й сусідні народи й держави. Підсумком війни стало остаточне послаблення імперії, яка віднині не могла серйозно протистояти туркам, і за 106 років припинила своє існування.
Передумови
Після смерті імператора Андроніка III 15 червня 1341 року, імператором було короновано малолітнього Іоанна V Палеолога. Однак фактична влада залишилась у руках одного з найбільш знатних та заможних землевласників Фракії, великого доместика Іоанна Кантакузина, який став регентом малолітнього імператора. Він спирався на крупну провінційну аристократію та армію. Його військовим центром була Дідімотика — потужна фракійська фортеця.
В опозиції до нього перебували чиновники й торгово-ремісничі кола столиці. Однак, поки Андронік III займав престол, опозиція була змушена миритись із засиллям у столиці крупної провінційної знаті, оскільки виступи проти Кантакузина означали б заколот проти самого імператора. Тепер політична ситуація змінилась. На чолі опозиції стояли:
Анна Савойська, мати Іоанна V Палеолога,
Патріарх Іоанн Каліка (Апрійський)
Олексій Апокавк — впливовий сановник незнатного походження, раніше старий сподвижник Кантакузина. Апокавк завідував державними фінансами й державними солеварнями, потім був великим дукою флоту. Він уклав значну суму в будівництво військового флоту й здобув низку перемог у сутичках з турецькими ескадрами, які перешкоджали торгівлі візантійців. Він зміг організувати проти провінційних аристократів не тільки вище столичне чиновництво, але й торгово-ремісничі кола. Причому, якщо у перших невдоволення викликала провінційність походження опонентів, то у других основною причиною роздратування були економічні привілеї феодальних землевласників. Кантакузин писав про Апокавка, що його влада була ненависною «благородним», й тому Апокавк вирішив їх усіх знищити.
Початок конфлікту
Спочатку конфлікт набув форми громадянської війни, обмежившись палацовими інтригами у Константинополі, оскільки поблизу кордонів Візантії формувалась складна зовнішньополітична обстановка. Серби, турки й болгари загрожували кордонам імперії, а армія перебувала на боці Кантакузина. Ще за життя Андроніка III у Фракії поблизу Дідімотики 1341 року відбулась битва болгарського загону з військовими силами пінкерна Ангела, який повертався від Константинополя. Рештки розбитого болгарського загону полонили турки. Війська Івана Александра 1341 року тримали в облозі Адріанополь, частина болгар була відряджена царем грабувати міста Західної Фракії. Спочатку обставини складались сприятливо для Кантакузина. Йому вдалось досягти миру з болгарським царем Іваном Александром, укласти угоду з Орханом та відбити набіги сельджуцьких загонів, землевласники Ахейського князівства дали зрозуміти, що віддадуть перевагу підпорядкуванню імператору, а не наміснику Катерини Валуа. Здавалось, надавалась можливість нарешті повернути весь Пелопоннес, завершити оточення каталонського герцогства в Афінах, а потім домогтись повного возз'єднання грецьких земель в єдиній державі.
Однак, дії опозиції не змусили на себе чекати. Одразу по смерті імператора патріарх Іван XIV Калека зажадав участі у регентстві, й Кантакузин був змушений поступитись.
Потім, скориставшись перебуванням Кантакузина в Дідімотиці, Апокавк організував у Константинополі путч, звернувшись до народу з прямим закликом до відкритої збройної боротьби проти Кантакузина та його прибічників. Під час путчу були розграбовані будинки прибічників Кантакузина, багато з них загинули, опинились у в'язниці чи втекли до Кантакузина в Дідімотику. Були взяті під варту син Кантакузина Матвій та його мати Феодора (зрештою, вона померла від голоду). Кантакузин втратив усі посади й чини, його земельні володіння було передано торгівцям та ремісникам. 26 жовтня 1341 року в Дідімотиці прибічники Кантакузина проголосили його імператором. 19 листопада 1341 року відбулась коронація Іоанна V Палеолога, регентом при якому була оголошена Анна Савойська. Алексій Апокавк отримав титул епарха Константинополя.
Щоб надати своїм діям більшої легітимності, Кантакузин не став посягати на офіційне усунення від престолу Іоанна V Палеолога й Анни Савойської. У своїх грамотах він сповіщав населення, що бореться проти «дурного» оточення імператорської родини, передусім — проти Апокавка. Одночасно свої грамоти від імені імператора Іоанна V Палеолога розіслав і Апокавк. Його заклики «підбурювали народ проти багатих, натовп ремісників — проти тих, хто видається славою та родом».
У конфлікті взяли участь прибічники різних релігійних течій. Ідеологія ісихастів, які закликали до глибокого примирення, була вигідною для крупних феодалів, хоча спочатку багато прибічників ісихастів підтримували зілотів. Кантакузин та його прибічники встали під прапор ісихазму, щоб розколоти зілотів. І, дійсно, багато прибічників ісихастів підтримали спочатку Паламу, хоч у подальшому каялись, коли зрозуміли, що Палама не був ісихастом, а просто зумів розколоти табір супротивників Катакузина. Патріарх Іоанн Каліка був, навпаки, палким противником паламітів. Боротьбу з паламітами відновив учень Варлаама Акіндін, який користувався покровительством Анни Савойської. В цілому варлаамізм чи антипаламізм був характерною рисою ворожого до Кантакузина табору. Лідер паламітів Палама невдовзі був ув'язнений.
Константинополем прокотилась нова хвиля репресій проти прибічників Кантакузина. Його столичні палаци були цілком розгромлені. Почались антифеодальні заворушення у Фракії. Феодалів били, їхнє майно розграбовували, будинки руйнували, самих їх передавали до Константинополя. Найвизначнішим було повстання в Адріанополі, де землевласники скликали народ на майдані для виголошення грамот Кантакузина. Під час цього виголошення грамот почали лунати вигуки супротивників Кантакузина. Їх було схоплено та побито. Вночі якийсь землекоп Вранос зі своїми товаришами Мугдуфом та Франкопулом обійшли будинки городян та схилили їх до відкритого повстання проти знаті. Склавши загін, вони заарештували майже всіх знатних осіб. Вранці піднялось все населення міста. Будинки феодалів та лихварів були розграбовані та зруйновані. Заарештовані були відправлені до столиці.
Бойові дії
До весни 1342 року, переконавшись, що його справа у Фракії програна, Кантакузин вирішив йти на захід, сподіваючись заволодіти Фессалоніками, правителем яких був його прибічник Сінадін, та Македонією. У Фракії у нього залишилась тільки Дідімотика, в якій він залишив родину. Одночасноз ним до Фессалоніки рушив урядовий флот на чолі з Алексієм Апокавком. В цей час у Фессалоніці почалось повстання зілотів проти прибічників Кантакузина. Їх було вигнано з міста, декого було вбито чи заарештовано. Кантакузин розграбував передмістя Фессалонік і взяв місто в облогу, яка не мала успіху. Невдовзі до Фессалонік прибув флот Апокавка, що змусило Кантакузина влітку 1342 року з рештками свого війська піти до Сербії.
Там він почав перемовини про союз із Стефаном Душаном та одночасно звернувся до айдинського еміра Умура з проханням про допомогу. Влітку 1342 року Єлена, дружина сербського правителя Стефана Душана й сестра болгарського царя Івана Александра, відвідала Тирново. На думку сучасних істориків сербській королеві удалось переконати свого брата не перешкоджати діям Стефана Душана. Прибічники Іоанна V Палеолога не скористались перепочинком для зміцнення свого становища. Обложена урядовими військами в Дідімотиці, дружина Кантакузина Ірина звернулась по допомогу до болгарського царя Івана Александра. Проте болгарські війська, відігнавши сили Іоанна V Палеолога, самі прагнули заволодіти родовим гніздом Кантакузинів. У розпал зими 1342–1343 років емір Айдіна Умур з військом висадився у гирлі Мариці, піднявся її течією та відкинув болгар від Дідімотики. Однак невдовзі сильні холоди змусили його піти додому.
У цей час Кантакузин, уклавши угоду зі Стефаном Душаном, почав навесні 1343 року наступ. Він захопив Соєк, Петру, Старідол, Платамон, Сервію та фортецю Верія. На його бік перейшла Фессалія, довічним правителем якої був призначений Іоанн Ангел, племінник Кантакузина. Потім Кантакузин знову взяв в облогу Фессалоніки, проте зілоти знову відбили нападників.
Але невдовзі через інтриги венеційців відбувся розрив Кантакузина зі Стефаном Душаном. Сербський правитель зайняв відкрито ворожу до Кантакузина позицію. У Фессалоніки з флотом і сельджуцькими загонами знову прибув Алексій Апокавк. Сельджуки здійснили рейд углиб зайнятої Кантакузином території та розграбували околиці Веррії.
Становище Кантакузина знову стало важким, проте на допомогу йому знову прийшов емір Айдіна Умур. Восени 1343 року він трьомастами суднами з'явився до Кантакузина до Південної Македонії. З приходом Умура Апокавк і сельджуцькі загони повернулись до Константинополя. Не втрачаючи часу на підкорення Македонії, що загрожувало сутичкою з Душаном, і на нову облогу Фессалонік, Кантакузин та Умур до кінця осені 1343 року зайняли Фракію та вступили до Дідімотики. Турки спустошили зайняті області.
Після цього Умур пішов назад в Азію, де проти нього почала діяти нова латинська коаліція. Становище Кантакузина знову різко погіршилось. Стефан Душан захопив Лерін, Воден, Касторію, майже всю Албанію та Македонію.
У Фракії одночасно діяли війська Кантакузина, Іоанна V Палеолога, болгарського царя, турецьких емірів та незалежного болгарського правителя Родопії Момчила. Апокавк домігся союзу з болгарським царем проти Кантакузина. Як плату Іван Александр отримав на півночі Фракії значну область з містами Філіпополь, Стенімах, Цепіна, але при цьому фактично не надавав Константинополю жодної допомоги. Взимку 1343–1344 років Кантакузин зумів перетягнути Момчила на свій бік та віддав йому в управління значну область в Родопах. Апокавк зав'язав з Момчилом перемовини та зумів схилити його до розриву з Кантакузином, надавши Момчилу титул деспота. Становище Кантакузина у Фракії знову похитнулось. Апокавк знову підступив до Дідімотики.
На початку 1344 року флот Умура був спалений латинянами поблизу берегів Південно-Східної Македонії. Близько трьох тисяч турків, що висадились на берег були змушені повертатись додому сушею. Дорогу їм перетнув сербський воєвода Прелюб. Однак під час бою поблизу Стефаніани вінзазнав поразки, й турки прибули до Кантакузина. Вони допомогли йому розбити болгар, а Іван Александр уклав мир з Кантакузином. Апокавк був знову відкинутий від Дідімотики. Момчил порвав з Апокавком, отримавши від Кантакузина титул севастократора , що визнав його суверенітет. З літа 1344 до літа 1345 року Кантакузин підкорив більшу частину Фракії. У прибічників Іоанна V Палеолога залишався під контролем тільки Константинополь з околицями, міста Енос та Гексамілій, півострів Галліполі й далека напівнезалежна Фессалоніка.
1 червня 1345 року в Константинополі прибічники Кантакузина убили Апокавка. Містом прокотилась нова хвиля погромів. 7 липня 1345 року в запеклій битві під Періторою об'єднане військо Кантакузина й Умара розбило сили Момчила. Сам Момчил загинув під час битви. Після цього у серпні Кантакузин та Умур вирушили до міста Серре, яке тримали в облозі серби. Серед них перебував і Сулейман — син еміра Сарухан. Проте дорогою Сулейман несподівано помер. Остерігаючись ускладнень у стосунках з еміром Сарухана й отримавши звістку про новий похід коаліції проти нього, Умур пішов до Азії (у травні 1348 року його було розбито латинянами поблизу Смирни, сам він загинув у битві). Кантакузин повернувся до Дідімотики. 1345 року, завоювавши Галліпольський півострів, Кантакузин уклав союз із османським еміром Сулейманом, сином Орхана I. Сулейман допоміг затвердитись Кантакузину у Східній Фракії та став посередником у перемовинах зі своїм батьком, Орханом. Союз був укладений та скріплений шлюбом Орхана з дочкою Кантакузина Феодорою.
Наприкінці весни — початку літа 1345 року у Фессалоніці урядовий архонт Іоанн Апокавк (син Алексія Апокавка), заманивши лідера зілотів Михайла Палеолога на засідання своєї ради, наказав убити його та захопив до своїх рук всю повноту влади у Фессалоніці. Почались арешти зілотів. Однак задум Апокавка здати місто Кантакузину спричинив бурю невдоволення серед населення. Андрій Палеолог, брат Михайла, очолив успішне повстання проти Апокавка. Знатних прибічників Апокавка, та, передусім, його самого, скинули зі стіни фортеці.
Восени 1345 року Душан узяв Серри та Веррію. Зневажаючи угодою з Анною Савойською він контролював усю Македонію, окрім Фессалонік й Афону. Кантакузин тим часом за допомогою османів закріпився у Фракії. Його акт проголошення себе імператором 28 жовтня 1341 року було підкріплено коронацією 21 травня 1346 року в Адріанополі, проведеною єрусалимським патріархом. Одночасно собор відданих Кантакузину єпископів, який зібрався в Адріанополі, усунув патріарха Іоанна Каліку.
У цей час становище прибічників Іоанна V Палеолога різко погіршилось через невдалий союз з еміром Сарухана. Влітку 1346 року Анна Савойська найняла у нього 6-тисячний загін для боротьби з Кантакузином. Але, побачивши Фракію цілковито спустошеною, турки Сарухана не бажали воювати з Кантакузином й пішли грабувати Південну Болгарію. Зворотним шляхом турки, підійшовши до Константинополя, зажадали від Анни винагороди за свою «службу». Отримавши відмову, турки винищили передмістя столиці, уклали союз з Кантакузином та пішли додому.
У червні 1346 року учасник латинської коаліції генуезець Сімоне Віньйозе захопив Хіос. Відряджений проти нього на чолі флоту італієць Фоччолаті, замість походу до Хіосу захопив генуезьке торгове судно та привів його до Константинополя. Обурені генуезці Галати перекрили постачання продовольства до столиці й у місті почався голод. Анна пообіцяла генуезцям видати їм Фоччолаті на розправу. Фоччолаті вступив до змови з Кантакузином, і в ніч на 3 лютого 1347 року відчинив його військам браму Константинополя. За день до цього Анна Савойська усунула Івана Калеку і поставила замість нього на патріарший престол ісихата Ісидора. Лідер ісихатів Палама був звільнений з в'язниці.
Наслідки
8 лютого 1347 року було підписано угоду, відповідно до якої вся влада мала упродовж десяти років залишатись в руках Кантакузина. Потім Іоанн V мав стати рівноправним співправителем Іоанна VI Кантакузина. Дочка Кантакузина Єлена стала дружиною Іоанна V Палеолога. Проголошувалась загальна амністія, у той же час заборонялось вимагати відшкодування майна, розкраденого чи зруйнованого під час війни. Однак, багатства прибічників Кантакузина, вилучені у них під час війни, мали бути повернені їхнім власникам. 13 травня 1347 року константинопольським патріархом була проведена нова коронація Кантакузина та його дружини Ірини.
Політично-економічне положення Візантії в результаті війни різко погіршилось. Більша частина західних володінь була зайнята сербами, а рештки візантійських земель в Епірі, Фессалії та Македонії були ізольовані. Фессалоніки, які перебували під владою зілотів, відмовилась визнати владу Кантакузина. Морея, в якій правив син Кантакузина Мануїл, фактично стала незалежною. Частина північної Фракії перейшла до болгар, а решта була цілком розграбована. Візантія втратила контроль над Егейським морем. Генуезці захопили Фокею, Хіос, Самос, Ікарію, Панагію.
Флот фактично не існував. Скарбниця була порожньою. Закладене венеційцям за 30 тисяч дукатів коштовне каміння з імператорської корони так ніколи й не було викуплене. Місце коштовностей в імператорському убранні посіли позолота і скляні підробки.
Значення
Громадянська війна завдала Візантії по суті смертельного удару. Історія імперії вступила у свою фінальну фазу. На думку більшості істориків, існування Візантії ще упродовж століття було насправді тільки агонією, що затягнулась.
Примітки
Бібліографія
Посилання
Громадянські війни у Візантії
Війни XIV століття
1340-ві в Європі
Конфлікти в 1341
Конфлікти в 1342
1341 у Європі
1342 у Європі
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1181818
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signed-digit%20representation
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Signed-digit representation
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Signed-digit representation
In mathematical notation for numbers, a signed-digit representation is a positional numeral system with a set of signed digits used to encode the integers.
Signed-digit representation can be used to accomplish fast addition of integers because it can eliminate chains of dependent carries. In the binary numeral system, a special case signed-digit representation is the non-adjacent form, which can offer speed benefits with minimal space overhead.
History
Challenges in calculation stimulated early authors Colson (1726) and Cauchy (1840) to use signed-digit representation. The further step of replacing negated digits with new ones was suggested by Selling (1887) and Cajori (1928).
In 1928, Florian Cajori noted the recurring theme of signed digits, starting with Colson (1726) and Cauchy (1840). In his book History of Mathematical Notations, Cajori titled the section "Negative numerals". For completeness, Colson uses examples and describes addition (pp. 163–4), multiplication (pp. 165–6) and division (pp. 170–1) using a table of multiples of the divisor. He explains the convenience of approximation by truncation in multiplication. Colson also devised an instrument (Counting Table) that calculated using signed digits.
Eduard Selling advocated inverting the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 to indicate the negative sign. He also suggested snie, jes, jerd, reff, and niff as names to use vocally. Most of the other early sources used a bar over a digit to indicate a negative sign for it. Another German usage of signed-digits was described in 1902 in Klein's encyclopedia.
Definition and properties
Digit set
Let be a finite set of numerical digits with cardinality (If , then the positional number system is trivial and only represents the trivial ring), with each digit denoted as for is known as the radix or number base. can be used for a signed-digit representation if it's associated with a unique function such that for all
This function, is what rigorously and formally establishes how integer values are assigned to the symbols/glyphs in One benefit of this formalism is that the definition of "the integers" (however they may be defined) is not conflated with any particular system for writing/representing them; in this way, these two distinct (albeit closely related) concepts are kept separate.
can be partitioned into three distinct sets , , and , representing the positive, zero, and negative digits respectively, such that all digits satisfy , all digits satisfy and all digits satisfy . The cardinality of is , the cardinality of is , and the cardinality of is , giving the number of positive and negative digits respectively, such that .
Balanced form representations
Balanced form representations are representations where for every positive digit , there exist a corresponding negative digit such that . It follows that . Only odd bases can have balanced form representations, as otherwise has to be the opposite of itself and hence 0, but . In balanced form, the negative digits are usually denoted as positive digits with a bar over the digit, as for . For example, the digit set of balanced ternary would be with , , and . This convention is adopted in finite fields of odd prime order :
Dual signed-digit representation
Every digit set has a dual digit set given by the inverse order of the digits with an isomorphism defined by . As a result, for any signed-digit representations of a number system ring constructed from with valuation , there exists a dual signed-digit representations of , , constructed from with valuation , and an isomorphism defined by , where is the additive inverse operator of . The digit set for balanced form representations is self-dual.
For integers
Given the digit set and function as defined above, let us define an integer endofunction as the following:
If the only periodic point of is the fixed point , then the set of all signed-digit representations of the integers using is given by the Kleene plus , the set of all finite concatenated strings of digits with at least one digit, with . Each signed-digit representation has a valuation
.
Examples include balanced ternary with digits .
Otherwise, if there exist a non-zero periodic point of , then there exist integers that are represented by an infinite number of non-zero digits in . Examples include the standard decimal numeral system with the digit set , which requires an infinite number of the digit to represent the additive inverse , as , and the positional numeral system with the digit set with , which requires an infinite number of the digit to represent the number , as .
For decimal fractions
If the integers can be represented by the Kleene plus , then the set of all signed-digit representations of the decimal fractions, or -adic rationals , is given by , the Cartesian product of the Kleene plus , the set of all finite concatenated strings of digits with at least one digit, the singleton consisting of the radix point (or ), and the Kleene star , the set of all finite concatenated strings of digits , with . Each signed-digit representation has a valuation
For real numbers
If the integers can be represented by the Kleene plus , then the set of all signed-digit representations of the real numbers is given by , the Cartesian product of the Kleene plus , the set of all finite concatenated strings of digits with at least one digit, the singleton consisting of the radix point (or ), and the Cantor space , the set of all infinite concatenated strings of digits , with . Each signed-digit representation has a valuation
.
The infinite series always converges to a finite real number.
For other number systems
All base- numerals can be represented as a subset of , the set of all doubly infinite sequences of digits in , where is the set of integers, and the ring of base- numerals is represented by the formal power series ring , the doubly infinite series
where for .
Integers modulo powers of
The set of all signed-digit representations of the integers modulo , is given by the set , the set of all finite concatenated strings of digits of length , with . Each signed-digit representation has a valuation
Prüfer groups
A Prüfer group is the quotient group of the integers and the -adic rationals. The set of all signed-digit representations of the Prüfer group is given by the Kleene star , the set of all finite concatenated strings of digits , with . Each signed-digit representation has a valuation
Circle group
The circle group is the quotient group of the integers and the real numbers. The set of all signed-digit representations of the circle group is given by the Cantor space , the set of all right-infinite concatenated strings of digits . Each signed-digit representation has a valuation
The infinite series always converges.
-adic integers
The set of all signed-digit representations of the -adic integers, is given by the Cantor space , the set of all left-infinite concatenated strings of digits . Each signed-digit representation has a valuation
-adic solenoids
The set of all signed-digit representations of the -adic solenoids, is given by the Cantor space , the set of all doubly infinite concatenated strings of digits . Each signed-digit representation has a valuation
In written and spoken language
Indo-Aryan languages
The oral and written forms of numbers in the Indo-Aryan languages use a negative numeral (e.g., "un" in Hindi and Bengali, "un" or "unna" in Punjabi, "ekon" in Marathi) for the numbers between 11 and 90 that end with a nine. The numbers followed by their names are shown for Punjabi below (the prefix "ik" means "one"):
19 unni, 20 vih, 21 ikki
29 unatti, 30 tih, 31 ikatti
39 untali, 40 chali, 41 iktali
49 unanja, 50 panjah, 51 ikvanja
59 unahat, 60 sath, 61 ikahat
69 unattar, 70 sattar, 71 ikhattar
79 unasi, 80 assi, 81 ikiasi
89 unanve, 90 nabbe, 91 ikinnaven.
Similarly, the Sesotho language utilizes negative numerals to form 8's and 9's.
8 robeli (/Ro-bay-dee/) meaning "break two" i.e. two fingers down
9 robong (/Ro-bong/) meaning "break one" i.e. one finger down
Classical Latin
In Classical Latin, integers 18 and 19 did not even have a spoken, nor written form including corresponding parts for "eight" or "nine" in practice - despite them being in existence. Instead, in Classic Latin,
18 = duodēvīgintī ("two taken from twenty"), (IIXX or XIIX),
19 = ūndēvīgintī ("one taken from twenty"), (IXX or XIX)
20 = vīgintī ("twenty"), (XX).
For upcoming integer numerals [28, 29, 38, 39, ..., 88, 89] the additive form in the language had been much more common, however, for the listed numbers, the above form was still preferred. Hence, approaching thirty, numerals were expressed as:
28 = duodētrīgintā ("two taken from thirty"), less frequently also yet vīgintī octō / octō et vīgintī ("twenty eight / eight and twenty"), (IIXXX or XXIIX versus XXVIII, latter having been fully outcompeted.)
29 = ūndētrīgintā ("one taken from thirty") despite the less preferred form was also at their disposal.
This is one of the main foundations of contemporary historians' reasoning, explaining why the subtractive I- and II- was so common in this range of cardinals compared to other ranges. Numerals 98 and 99 could also be expressed in both forms, yet "two to hundred" might have sounded a bit odd - clear evidence is the scarce occurrence of these numbers written down in a subtractive fashion in authentic sources.
Finnish Language
There is yet another language having this feature (by now, only in traces), however, still in active use today. This is the Finnish Language, where the (spelled out) numerals are used this way should a digit of 8 or 9 occur. The scheme is like this:
1 = "yksi" (Note: yhd- or yht- mostly when about to be declined; e.g. "yhdessä" = "together, as one [entity]")
2 = "kaksi" (Also note: kahde-, kahte- when declined)
3 = "kolme"
4 = "neljä"
...
7 = "seitsemän"
8 = "kah(d)eksan" (two left [for it to reach it])
9 = "yh(d)eksän" (one left [for it to reach it])
10 = "kymmenen" (ten)
Above list is no special case, it consequently appears in larger cardinals as well, e.g.:
399 = "kolmesataayhdeksänkymmentäyhdeksän"
Emphasizing of these attributes stay present even in the shortest colloquial forms of numerals:
1 = "yy"
2 = "kaa"
3 = "koo"
...
7 = "seiska"
8 = "kasi"
9 = "ysi"
10 = "kymppi"
However, this phenomenon has no influence on written numerals, the Finnish use the standard Western-Arabic decimal notation.
Time keeping
In the English language it is common to refer to times as, for example, 'seven to three', 'to' performing the negation.
Other systems
There exist other signed-digit bases such that the base . A notable examples of this is Booth encoding, which has a digit set with and , but which uses a base . The standard binary numeral system would only use digits of value .
Note that non-standard signed-digit representations are not unique. For instance:
The non-adjacent form (NAF) of Booth encoding does guarantee a unique representation for every integer value. However, this only applies for integer values. For example, consider the following repeating binary numbers in NAF,
See also
Balanced ternary
Negative base
Redundant binary representation
Notes and references
J. P. Balantine (1925) "A Digit for Negative One", American Mathematical Monthly 32:302.
Lui Han, Dongdong Chen, Seok-Bum Ko, Khan A. Wahid "Non-speculative Decimal Signed Digit Adder" from Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Saskatchewan.
Non-standard positional numeral systems
Number theory
Ring theory
Arithmetic dynamics
Coding theory
Formal languages
Sign (mathematics)
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37235915
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013%20Norwegian%20parliamentary%20election
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2013 Norwegian parliamentary election
|
2013 Norwegian parliamentary election
{{Infobox election
| country = Norway
| type = parliamentary
| previous_election = 2009 Norwegian parliamentary election
| previous_year = 2009
| next_year = 2017
| seats_for_election = All 169 seats in the Storting
| majority_seats = 85
| election_date = 8 and 9 September 2013
| image_size = 130x130px
| image1 = Norges statsminister Jens Stoltenberg vid Nordiska Radets session i Helsingfors 2008-10-28 (1).jpg
| leader1 = Jens Stoltenberg
| party1 = Labour Party (Norway)
| last_election1 = 35.37%, 64 seats
| seats1 = 55
| seat_change1 = 9
| popular_vote1 = 874,769
| percentage1 = 30.84%
| swing1 = 4.53pp
| image2 = Erna Solberg, Wesenberg, 2011 (1).jpg
| leader2 = Erna Solberg
| party2 = Conservative Party (Norway)
| last_election2 = 17.24%, 30 seats
| seats2 = 48
| seat_change2 = 18
| popular_vote2 = 760,232
| percentage2 = 26.81%
| swing2 = 9.57pp
| image3 = SivJensen2428 2E jpg DF0000062823.jpg
| leader3 = Siv Jensen
| party3 = Progress Party (Norway)
| last_election3 = 41 seats, 22.9%
| seats3 = 29
| seat_change3 = 12
| popular_vote3 = 463,560
| percentage3 = 16.35%
| swing3 = 6.56 pp
| image4 = Knut Arild Hareide (KrF).JPG
| leader4 = Knut Arild Hareide
| party4 = Christian Democratic Party (Norway)
| last_election4 = 5.54%, 10 seats
| seats4 = 10
| seat_change4 =
| popular_vote4 = 158,475
| percentage4 = 5.59%
| swing4 = 0.05pp
| image5 = Navarsete kandidater Sp, stortingsvalget 2013.jpg
| leader5 = Liv Signe Navarsete
| party5 = Centre Party (Norway)
| last_election5 = 6.15%, 11 seats
| seats5 = 10
| seat_change5 = 1
| popular_vote5 = 155,357
| percentage5 = 5.48%
| swing5 = 0.67pp
| image6 = Trine Skei Grande 2012.jpg
| leader6 =
| party6 = Liberal Party (Norway)
| last_election6 = 3.88%, 2 seats
| seats6 = 9
| seat_change6 = 7
| popular_vote6 = 148,275
| percentage6 = 5.23%
| swing6 = 1.35pp
| image7 = Audun Lysbakken jamstalldhetsminister Norge.jpg
| leader7 = Audun Lysbakken
| party7 = Socialist Left Party (Norway)
| last_election7 = 6.20%, 11 seats
| seats7 = 7
| seat_change7 = 4
| popular_vote7 = 116,021
| percentage7 = 4.09%
| swing7 = 2.11pp
| image8 = Hanna Elise Marcussen (bilde 01).JPG
| leader8 = Hanna E. MarcussenHarald A. Nissen
| party8 = Green Party (Norway)
| last_election8 = 0.35%, 0 seats
| seats8 = 1
| seat_change8 = 1
| popular_vote8 = 79,152
| percentage8 = 2.79%
| swing8 = 2.44pp
| title = Prime Minister
| posttitle = Prime Minister after election
| before_election = Jens Stoltenberg
| before_party = Labour Party (Norway)
| after_election = Erna Solberg
| after_party = Conservative Party (Norway)
| map_image = 2013 Norwegian parliamentary election results map.svg
| map_caption = Results by county
}}Parliamentary elections' were held in Norway on 8 and 9 September 2013 to elect all 169 members of the unicameral Storting. The centre-right coalition obtained 96 seats, while the incumbent red–green coalition government obtained 72 seats and the Green Party obtained one. The Labour Party won the largest share (30.8%) of the votes cast, with the Conservatives coming second (26.8%), after increasing its share by 9.6 percentage points.
Elections in Norway are held on a Monday in September, usually the second or third Monday, as determined by the king-in-council (i.e. the government). In 2013, the election was held on the second Monday. Each municipality was permitted to open some or all of its polling stations on the day before the nationwide election day. This option was exercised by 206 of the 428 municipalities. The main period for early voting was 12 August to 6 September; it was also possible to make an even earlier vote after 1 July by contacting the municipal government.
The election was the fourth for incumbent Prime Minister of Norway Jens Stoltenberg, whose party was previously defeated in the 2001 parliamentary election, but who won both the 2005 parliamentary election and the 2009 parliamentary election (though in the latter election, the opposition narrowly received more votes than the coalition) leading the red–green coalition. Had he been re-elected, Stoltenberg would have been the first prime minister in Norway to be elected for three consecutive terms.
The election ended with a victory for the four opposition right-of-center parties, which won a total of 96 seats out of 169 (85 needed for a majority). The biggest gain was by the Conservative Party, which took 26.8% of the vote, while the governing red–green coalition lost ground; following convention, Stoltenberg's government resigned and handed over power in October. The Labour Party, however, remained the largest party in parliament with 30.8% of the popular vote. The Progress Party also lost ground, but nevertheless became a participant in the new government.
Among the smaller parties, the centrist Liberal Party and Christian Democrats emerged holding the balance of power. Both had campaigned for a change in government. On 30 September the two parties announced that they would support a minority coalition of the Conservative and Progress parties, but they would not participate in the cabinet themselves. The two smaller members of the red–green coalition both lost ground. The Centre Party lost only one seat and maintained a sizable parliamentary delegation, while the Socialist Left Party only narrowly reached the election threshold of 4%. The Green Party, which had not declared support for either bloc, received its first ever member of parliament with a single seat from Oslo.
Electoral system
The election used party-list proportional representation in nineteen multi-member constituencies, one for each of the counties of Norway.
The number of members to be returned from each constituency varies between 4 and 19. To determine the apportionment of the 169 seats amongst the 19 counties, a two-tier formula is used, based on population and geographic size. Each inhabitant counts one point, while each square kilometer counts 1.8 points.
150 of the seats are regular district seats. These are awarded based on the election results in each county, and are unaffected by results in other counties. Nineteen of the seats (one for each county) are leveling seats which are given to parties that win fewer seats than their share of the national popular vote entitles them to. A party must win 4% of the popular vote in order to win compensation seats, but may still win district seats even if it fails to reach this threshold. The system for apportioning seats is biased in favour of rural areas since the area of the county is a factor, but the system of compensation seats reduces the effect this has on final party strength.
The total number of seats in the parliament remained unchanged at 169, but population changes meant that some counties gained or lost seats. Hedmark, Sogn og Fjordane, Nord-Trøndelag, Nordland and Troms all lost one seat each. Akershus, Hordaland and Rogaland gained one each, whilst Oslo gained two.
Contesting parties
Parliamentary parties
Labour Party (Arbeiderpartiet), leader: Jens Stoltenberg. The Labour Party was the largest party in the 2009–2013 Storting, and the majority party in Stoltenberg's Second Cabinet. They got 35.4% of the votes and won 64 seats in the 2009 election. The party is primarily social democratic.
Progress Party (Fremskrittspartiet), leader: Siv Jensen. The Progress Party was the largest opposition party in the 2009–2013 Storting, but have been the third-largest party in most public opinion polls of early 2013. The party is primarily right-libertarian.
Conservative Party (Høyre), leader: Erna Solberg. The Conservative Party was the second-largest opposition party in the 2009–2013 Storting, with 17.2% of the votes in the last elections. However, the party has been the largest opposition party in most of the public opinion polls in early 2013.
Socialist Left Party (Sosialistisk Vensterparti), leader: Audun Lysbakken. The Socialist Left Party was the second-largest government party. It is a democratic socialist party.
Centre Party (Senterpartiet), leader: Liv Signe Navarsete. The Centre Party was the third-largest party in the current government. It is agrarian, staunchly eurosceptic and serves the interests of farmers and people in rural areas.
Christian Democratic Party (Kristelig Folkeparti), leader: Knut Arild Hareide. The Christian Democratic Party was represented with 10 members of the 2009–2013 Storting.
Liberal Party (Venstre), leader: Trine Skei Grande. The Liberal Party is a centrist and liberal party. They earned 3.9% of the votes in the 2009 elections, and thus they were only represented with 2 seats in parliament, due to their failure at passing the electoral threshold of 4% on a nationwide scale.
Green Party (Miljøpartiet de Grønne), leader: Hanna Marcussen, Harald A. Nissen. The Greens experienced what has been described as a breakthrough in the 2011 Norwegian local elections. In this election the Greens won their first parliamentary seat.
Extra-parliamentary parties
Red Party (Rødt), leader: Bjørnar Moxnes. The Red Party is a communist political party on the far-left. With 1.3% of the votes, the party failed to get any parliamentary seats in the 2009 general election.
Pensioners' Party (Pensjonistpartiet), leader: Einar Lonstad. Following the last legislative election in Norway, the Pensioners' Party became the 9th largest party, with 0.4% of the votes. The party's primary aim is to promote the interests of pensioners and elderly people. It ran in only 12 counties.
Christian Unity Party (Kristent Samlingsparti), leader: Morten Selven. The party is a Christian ultra-conservative party. Running in only 12 counties, it received 0.2% of the votes in the 2009 election.
The Christians (De Kristne), leader: Erik Selle. The party, founded in 2011 in Bømlo, participated in the local elections in Bømlo and received 6.5% of the votes and two representatives in the local council. The party is founded on Christian conservative values, and is considered to lie between the Christian Democratic and the Christian Unity parties on the political spectrum. It ran in all counties.
The Democrats (Demokratene i Norge), leader: Elisabeth Rue Strencbo. A nationalist and populist party, it received 0.1% of the votes in the 2009 election. It ran in all counties.
Liberal People's Party (Det Liberale Folkeparti), leader: Vegard Martinsen. The party is libertarian, and advocates minimal government. It received below 0.1% of the votes in the 2009 election, and ran in only six counties.
Coastal Party (Kystpartiet), leader: Bengt Stabrun Johansen. A national conservative party, known for defending the rights of fishermen and whalers in northern Norway. It received only 0.2% of the vote in the 2009 elections, but in 2001 won as much as 10% in Nordland county, where it secured a single seat in the national parliament, held by the well-known whaling activist Steinar Bastesen. The party ran in all counties.
Pirate Party (Piratpartiet), leader: Øystein Jakobsen. Founded on the basis of the better-known international Pirate Parties in late 2012, its main cause is transparency in government. This was the party's first election. It ran in all counties.
Communist Party (Norges Kommunistiske Parti), leader: Svend Haakon Jacobsen. The Marxist–Leninist party is one of the oldest in Norway, dating back to 1923. It received under 0.1% of the votes in the 2009 election. It ran in seven counties.
People's List Against Oil Drilling in Lofoten, Vesterålen and Senja (Folkeliste mot oljeboring i Lofoten, Vesterålen og Senja), first candidate: Øystein Meier Johannessen. A single-issue party against oil drilling in the Lofoten, Vesterålen and Senja, an issue of great debate in Norway. This was the first election for the party, which ran a single candidate in Nordland.
People's Power (Folkemakten), leader: Siv Gørbitz. The party was founded in 2012, and advocates direct democracy. It fielded a single candidate in Hordaland.
Society Party (Samfunnspartiet), leader: Øystein Meier Johannessen. An anarchist party. It received below 0.1% of the votes in the 2009 election. It only ran in four counties.
A Hospital for Alta (Sykehus til Alta''). First participation by this single-issue party which advocated the building of a new and modern hospital in Alta and ran only in Finnmark.
Leadership changes
Liberal Party
Lars Sponheim, who had been leader of the Liberal Party since 1996, stepped down in 2010. Trine Skei Grande was elected new leader on 18 March 2010.
Christian Democratic Party
Dagfinn Høybråten, who had been leader of the Christian Democratic Party since 2004, stepped down on 30 April 2011. Knut Arild Hareide was elected leader on the same day.
Socialist Left Party
Kristin Halvorsen, who had been leader of the Socialist Left Party since 1997, stepped down in early 2012. Audun Lysbakken was elected as the new leader of the party on 11 March 2012.
Red Party
Turid Thomassen, who had been leader of the Red Party since 2010, stepped down in early 2012. Bjørnar Moxnes was elected as the new leader on May 6, 2012.
Campaign
Going into the campaign, the governing red–green coalition were far behind in the polls. Several polls had also shown that a "blue-blue" coalition of the Conservative and Progress parties might gain a majority.
The Labour Party continued to criticize the non-socialist opposition for being unable to propose a coalition that was endorsed by all parties. The Conservative Party desired a four-party coalition of all the opposition parties. The Liberal Party and Christian Democrats wanted a coalition with the Conservatives, while the Progress Party declared that they would not support a government they were not participating in. The opposition parties criticized the sitting government for health care queues and not making more use of private providers, for failure to invest in infrastructure, and for high tax rates.
The Green Party had never been in parliament before, but performed strongly in several polls, some even showing them above the threshold which would give them a sizable delegation in parliament. The Greens did not declare support for either the red–green or non-socialist blocs, but the Conservative Party considered the Greens to be well on the left side of the political spectrum. As their showings in polling rose, they began to face criticism for highly radical proposals. Nonetheless, the environmentally oriented Liberal and Socialist Left parties expressed worry that the Greens could become a spoiler by taking votes from them.
The Conservative Party's image branding of its leader Erna Solberg tried to take a softer tone after she had been dubbed in the media as "Iron Erna" when she tightened immigration rules as local government minister about a decade ago. Instead, their election website had shown her with pictures of hearts and of her smiling. The party's campaign issues included for secure jobs, healthcare, education and better roads. It also campaigned for abolishing the inheritance tax, means-testing for welfare recipients, tax incentives for private savings, simplifying procurement rules to make it easier for smaller businesses to offer for government tenders and the deregulation of alcohol sales.
The 2011 Norway attacks were not a central issue of the campaign. All the main parties had strongly condemned both the attacks and the political ideology of the perpetrator. When Stoltenberg accused the Conservatives of poor leadership skills for failing to offer a united alternative to the red–green coalition, Solberg retorted by pointing out that the Gjørv Report had cited poor leadership prior to the attacks. The retort provoked a negative reaction and was described as legitimate but unwise by the political commentator Frank Aarebrot. 33 survivors of the attacks ran for parliament on a Labour ticket, with four being elected, but their status as survivors was not a campaign issue. The Progress Party focused less on this issue and more on healthcare and infrastructure.
Slogans
Debates
Opinion polls
In the run up to the election, various organizations conducted opinion polls to gauge voting intentions. Below is a month by month average of all opinion polls.
For the smaller parties, the election threshold of 4% became a threat. Several opinion polls showed the Socialist Left Party below the threshold, and on August 18 the party called a press conference declaring that the future of a political force left of Labour was at stake. In the lead-up to the election, opinion polls consistently predicted a victory for the Conservative-led coalition.
Seat predictions
The total number of seats in the parliament will remain 169, but due to changes in the population, some counties will gain or lose seats. Hedmark, Sogn og Fjordane, Nord-Trøndelag, Nordland and Troms all lose one seat each. Akershus, Hordaland and Rogaland gain one each, whilst Oslo gains two.
Results
The voting centres closed at 19:00 GMT and the publication of exit polls followed.
Voter demographics
Seat distribution
Reactions
Conservative Party leader Erna Solberg said: "The voters had the choice between 12 years of red/green government or a new government with new ideas and new solutions". Labour Party leader Jens Stoltenberg has conceded defeat, saying that the party tried "to do what almost no one has done, to win three elections in a row, but it turned out to be tough". Progress Party leader Siv Jensen said: "We will ensure a solid footprint in a new government and if we are going to have good solutions, all four parties must have a place, all must be visible". Christian Democrat leader Knut Arild Hareide said: "The centre will play a key role. We and Trine Skei Grande (Liberal Party leader) have got a key role for the next four years. We are ready to put a new government in place".
Several commentators noted in half-jest that all the parties had won something from the election. The four parties on the right gained a majority and were as such the victors, but also, for the defeated red–green coalition, there was a silver lining. The Labour Party's numbers in the polls rose during the campaign and they retained their status as the largest party. The Socialist Left Party had a historically bad election, but they succeeded at climbing over the election threshold and retained seven seats, as compared with a mere two seats had they fallen under. The Centre Party did better than expected, and emerged from eight years in government with about the same amount of support as before. Meanwhile, the Green Party could celebrate their first ever member of parliament.
Analysis
University of Bergen politics professor Frank Aarebrot said of the election campaign that it was dominated by classical welfare issues such as better care for the elderly, improved hospitals and better schools. At the same time, he pointed out that no party called for Norwegians to pay privately for such things as hospital visits, college education or elderly care.
Government formation
The Conservative Party was said to be looking for coalition talks with the Progress Party, Liberal Party and the Christian Democrats. Solberg said that while staying committed to cutting taxes, reducing the size of government and improving health care, she acknowledged a need to make policy concessions. "We will all have to give and take to get a policy stance that has a firm direction and will last over time. All three (other parties) will be tough negotiators in issues close to their hearts". Four-party talks involved the Conservatives, Progress Party (FrP), Christian Democrats (KrF) and Liberals. FrP demanded Siv Jensen become the new finance minister.
On 30 September the four parties on the right announced that they had reached an agreement for a minority cabinet consisting of the Conservative and Progress parties with confidence and supply from the Liberal and Christian Democratic parties.
References
General elections in Norway
2010s elections in Norway
Norway
Parliamentary
Norway
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocannabinoid%20system
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Endocannabinoid system
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Endocannabinoid system
The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is a biological system composed of endocannabinoids, which are endogenous lipid-based retrograde neurotransmitters that bind to cannabinoid receptors, and cannabinoid receptor proteins that are expressed throughout the vertebrate central nervous system (including the brain) and peripheral nervous system. The endocannabinoid system remains under preliminary research, but may be involved in regulating physiological and cognitive processes, including fertility, pregnancy, pre- and postnatal development, various activity of immune system, appetite, pain-sensation, mood, and memory, and in mediating the pharmacological effects of cannabis. The ECS plays an important role in multiple aspects of neural functions, including the control of movement and motor coordination, learning and memory, emotion and motivation, addictive-like behavior and pain modulation, among others.
Two primary cannabinoid receptors have been identified: CB1, first cloned (or isolated) in 1990; and CB2, cloned in 1993. CB1 receptors are found predominantly in the brain and nervous system, as well as in peripheral organs and tissues, and are the main molecular target of the endogenous partial agonist, anandamide, as well as exogenous tetrahydrocannabinol, the most known active component of cannabis. Endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), which was found to be two and three orders of magnitude more abundant in mammalian brain than anandamide, acts as a full agonist at both CB receptors.
The endocannabinoid system is sometimes referred to as the endocannabinoidome or expanded endocannabinoid system.
Basic overview
The endocannabinoid system, broadly speaking, includes:
The endogenous arachidonate-based lipids, anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamide) and 2-AG, besides other N-acylethanolamines (NAEs); these are known as "endocannabinoids" and are physiological ligands for the cannabinoid receptors. Endocannabinoids are all eicosanoids.
The enzymes that synthesize and degrade the endocannabinoids, such as fatty acid amide hydrolase or monoacylglycerol lipase.
The cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2, two G protein-coupled receptors that are located in the central and peripheral nervous systems.
The neurons, neural pathways, and other cells where these molecules, enzymes, and one or both cannabinoid receptor types are all colocalized collectively comprise the endocannabinoid system.
The endocannabinoid system has been studied using genetic and pharmacological methods. These studies have revealed that cannabinoids act as neuromodulators for a variety of processes, including motor learning, appetite, and pain sensation, among other cognitive and physical processes. The localization of the CB1 receptor in the endocannabinoid system has a very large degree of overlap with the orexinergic projection system, which mediates many of the same functions, both physical and cognitive. Moreover, CB1 is colocalized on orexin projection neurons in the lateral hypothalamus and many output structures of the orexin system, where the CB1 and orexin receptor 1 (OX1) receptors physically and functionally join to form the CB1–OX1 receptor heterodimer.
Expression of receptors
Cannabinoid binding sites exist throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems. The two most relevant receptors for cannabinoids are the CB1 and CB2 receptors, which are expressed predominantly in the brain and immune system respectively. Density of expression varies based on species and correlates with the efficacy that cannabinoids will have in modulating specific aspects of behavior related to the site of expression. For example, in rodents, the highest concentration of cannabinoid binding sites are in the basal ganglia and cerebellum, regions of the brain involved in the initiation and coordination of movement. In humans, cannabinoid receptors exist in much lower concentration in these regions, which helps explain why cannabinoids possess a greater efficacy in altering rodent motor movements than they do in humans.
A recent analysis of cannabinoid binding in CB1 and CB2 receptor knockout mice found cannabinoid responsiveness even when these receptors were not being expressed, indicating that an additional binding receptor may be present in the brain. Binding has been demonstrated by 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) on the TRPV1 receptor suggesting that this receptor may be a candidate for the established response.
In addition to CB1 and CB2, certain orphan receptors are known to bind endocannabinoids as well, including GPR18, GPR55 (a regulator of neuroimmune function), and GPR119. CB1 has also been noted to form a functional human receptor heterodimer in orexin neurons with OX1, the CB1–OX1 receptor, which mediates feeding behavior and certain physical processes such as cannabinoid-induced pressor responses which are known to occur through signaling in the rostral ventrolateral medulla.
Endocannabinoid synthesis, release, and degradation
During neurotransmission, the pre-synaptic neuron releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft which bind to cognate receptors expressed on the post-synaptic neuron. Based upon the interaction between the transmitter and receptor, neurotransmitters may trigger a variety of effects in the post-synaptic cell, such as excitation, inhibition, or the initiation of second messenger cascades. Based on the cell, these effects may result in the on-site synthesis of endogenous cannabinoids anandamide or 2-AG by a process that is not entirely clear, but results from an elevation in intracellular calcium. Expression appears to be exclusive, so that both types of endocannabinoids are not co-synthesized. This exclusion is based on synthesis-specific channel activation: a recent study found that in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, calcium entry through voltage-sensitive calcium channels produced an L-type current resulting in 2-AG production, while activation of mGluR1/5 receptors triggered the synthesis of anandamide.
Evidence suggests that the depolarization-induced influx of calcium into the post-synaptic neuron causes the activation of an enzyme called transacylase. This enzyme is suggested to catalyze the first step of endocannabinoid biosynthesis by converting phosphatidylethanolamine, a membrane-resident phospholipid, into N-acyl-phosphatidylethanolamine (NAPE). Experiments have shown that phospholipase D cleaves NAPE to yield anandamide. This process is mediated by bile acids.
In NAPE-phospholipase D (NAPEPLD)-knockout mice, cleavage of NAPE is reduced in low calcium concentrations, but not abolished, suggesting multiple, distinct pathways are involved in anandamide synthesis. The synthesis of 2-AG is less established and warrants further research.
Once released into the extracellular space by a putative endocannabinoid transporter, messengers are vulnerable to glial cell inactivation. Endocannabinoids are taken up by a transporter on the glial cell and degraded by fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), which cleaves anandamide into arachidonic acid and ethanolamine or monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), and 2-AG into arachidonic acid and glycerol. While arachidonic acid is a substrate for leukotriene and prostaglandin synthesis, it is unclear whether this degradative byproduct has unique functions in the central nervous system. Emerging data in the field also points to FAAH being expressed in postsynaptic neurons complementary to presynaptic neurons expressing cannabinoid receptors, supporting the conclusion that it is major contributor to the clearance and inactivation of anandamide and 2-AG after endocannabinoid reuptake. A neuropharmacological study demonstrated that an inhibitor of FAAH (URB597) selectively increases anandamide levels in the brain of rodents and primates. Such approaches could lead to the development of new drugs with analgesic, anxiolytic-like and antidepressant-like effects, which are not accompanied by overt signs of abuse liability.
Binding and intracellular effects
Cannabinoid receptors are G-protein coupled receptors located on the pre-synaptic membrane. While there have been some papers that have linked concurrent stimulation of dopamine and CB1 receptors to an acute rise in cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) production, it is generally accepted that CB1 activation via cannabinoids causes a decrease in cAMP concentration by inhibition of adenylyl cyclase and a rise in the concentration of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAP kinase). The relative potency of different cannabinoids in inhibition of adenylyl cyclase correlates with their varying efficacy in behavioral assays. This inhibition of cAMP is followed by phosphorylation and subsequent activation of not only a suite of MAP kinases (p38/p42/p44), but also the PI3/PKB and MEK/ERK pathway. Results from rat hippocampal gene chip data after acute administration of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) showed an increase in the expression of transcripts encoding myelin basic protein, endoplasmic proteins, cytochrome oxidase, and two cell adhesion molecules: NCAM, and SC1; decreases in expression were seen in both calmodulin and ribosomal RNAs. In addition, CB1 activation has been demonstrated to increase the activity of transcription factors like c-Fos and Krox-24.
Binding and neuronal excitability
The molecular mechanisms of CB1-mediated changes to the membrane voltage have also been studied in detail. Cannabinoids reduce calcium influx by blocking the activity of voltage-dependent N-, P/Q- and L-type calcium channels. In addition to acting on calcium channels, activation of Gi/o and Gs, the two most commonly coupled G-proteins to cannabinoid receptors, has been shown to modulate potassium channel activity. Recent studies have found that CB1 activation specifically facilitates potassium ion flux through GIRKs, a family of potassium channels. Immunohistochemistry experiments demonstrated that CB1 is co-localized with GIRK and Kv1.4 potassium channels, suggesting that these two may interact in physiological contexts.
In the central nervous system, CB1 receptors influence neuronal excitability, reducing the incoming synaptic input.
This mechanism, known as presynaptic inhibition, occurs when a postsynaptic neuron releases endocannabinoids in retrograde transmission, which then bind to cannabinoid receptors on the presynaptic terminal. CB1 receptors then reduce the amount of neurotransmitter released, so that subsequent excitation in the presynaptic neuron results in diminished effects on the postsynaptic neuron. It is likely that presynaptic inhibition uses many of the same ion channel mechanisms listed above, although recent evidence has shown that CB1 receptors can also regulate neurotransmitter release by a non-ion channel mechanism, i.e., through Gi/o-mediated inhibition of adenylyl cyclase and protein kinase A.
Direct effects of CB1 receptors on membrane excitability have been reported, and strongly impact the firing of cortical neurons.
A series of behavioral experiments demonstrated that NMDAR, an ionotropic glutamate receptor, and the metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) work in concert with CB1 to induce analgesia in mice, although the mechanism underlying this effect is unclear.
Potential functions
Memory
Mice treated with tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) show suppression of long-term potentiation in the hippocampus, a process that is essential for the formation and storage of long-term memory. These results may concur with anecdotal evidence suggesting that smoking cannabis impairs short-term memory. Consistent with this finding, mice without the CB1 receptor show enhanced memory and long-term potentiation indicating that the endocannabinoid system may play a pivotal role in the extinction of old memories. One study found that the high-dose treatment of rats with the synthetic cannabinoid HU-210 over several weeks resulted in stimulation of neural growth in the rats' hippocampus region, a part of the limbic system playing a part in the formation of declarative and spatial memories, but did not investigate the effects on short-term or long-term memory. Taken together, these findings suggest that the effects of endocannabinoids on the various brain networks involved in learning and memory may vary.
Role in hippocampal neurogenesis
In the adult brain, the endocannabinoid system facilitates the neurogenesis of hippocampal granule cells. In the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus, multipotent neural progenitors (NP) give rise to daughter cells that, over the course of several weeks, mature into granule cells whose axons project to and synapse onto dendrites on the CA3 region. NPs in the hippocampus have been shown to possess fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and express CB1 and utilize 2-AG. Intriguingly, CB1 activation by endogenous or exogenous cannabinoids promote NP proliferation and differentiation; this activation is absent in CB1 knockouts and abolished in the presence of antagonist.
Induction of synaptic depression
Endocannabinoids are known to influence synaptic plasticity, and are in particular thought to mediate long-term depression (LTD, which refers to neuronal firing, not psychological depression). Short-term depression (STD) has also been described (see the next paragraph). First reported in the striatum, this system is known to function in several other brain structures such as the nucleus accumbens, amygdala, hippocampus, cerebral cortex, cerebellum, ventral tegmental area (VTA), brain stem, and superior colliculus. Typically, these retrograde transmitters are released by the postsynaptic neuron and induce synaptic depression by activating the presynaptic CB1 receptors.
It has further been suggested that different endocannabinoids, i.e., 2-AG and anandamide, might mediate different forms of synaptic depression through different mechanisms. The study conducted with the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis found that the endurance of the depressant effects was mediated by two different signaling pathways based on the type of receptor activated. 2-AG was found to act on presynaptic CB1 receptors to mediate retrograde STD following activation of L-type calcium channeles, while anandamide was synthesized after mGluR5 activation and triggered autocrine signalling onto postsynapic TRPV1 receptors that induced LTD. These findings provide the brain a direct mechanism to selectively inhibit neuronal excitability over variable time scales. By selectively internalizing different receptors, the brain may limit the production of specific endocannabinoids to favor a time scale in accordance with its needs.
Appetite
Evidence for the role of the endocannabinoid system in food-seeking behavior comes from a variety of cannabinoid studies. Emerging data suggests that THC acts via CB1 receptors in the hypothalamic nuclei to directly increase appetite. It is thought that hypothalamic neurons tonically produce endocannabinoids that work to tightly regulate hunger. The amount of endocannabinoids produced is inversely correlated with the amount of leptin in the blood. For example, mice without leptin not only become massively obese but express abnormally high levels of hypothalamic endocannabinoids as a compensatory mechanism. Similarly, when these mice were treated with an endocannabinoid inverse agonists, such as rimonabant, food intake was reduced. When the CB1 receptor is knocked out in mice, these animals tend to be leaner and less hungry than wild-type mice. A related study examined the effect of THC on the hedonic (pleasure) value of food and found enhanced dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens and increased pleasure-related behavior after administration of a sucrose solution. A related study found that endocannabinoids affect taste perception in taste cells. In taste cells, endocannabinoids were shown to selectively enhance the strength of neural signaling for sweet tastes, whereas leptin decreased the strength of this same response. While there is need for more research, these results suggest that cannabinoid activity in the hypothalamus and nucleus accumbens is related to appetitive, food-seeking behavior.
Energy balance and metabolism
The endocannabinoid system has been shown to have a homeostatic role by controlling several metabolic functions, such as energy storage and nutrient transport. It acts on peripheral tissues such as adipocytes, hepatocytes, the gastrointestinal tract, the skeletal muscles and the endocrine pancreas. It has also been implied in modulating insulin sensitivity. Through all of this, the endocannabinoid system may play a role in clinical conditions, such as obesity, diabetes, and atherosclerosis, which may also give it a cardiovascular role.
Stress response
While the secretion of glucocorticoids in response to stressful stimuli is an adaptive response necessary for an organism to respond appropriately to a stressor, persistent secretion may be harmful. The endocannabinoid system has been implicated in the habituation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis) to repeated exposure to restraint stress. Studies have demonstrated differential synthesis of anandamide and 2-AG during tonic stress. A decrease of anandamide was found along the axis that contributed to basal hypersecretion of corticosterone; in contrast, an increase of 2-AG was found in the amygdala after repeated stress, which was negatively correlated to magnitude of the corticosterone response. All effects were abolished by the CB1 antagonist AM251, supporting the conclusion that these effects were cannabinoid-receptor dependent. These findings show that anandamide and 2-AG divergently regulate the HPA axis response to stress: while habituation of the stress-induced HPA axis via 2-AG prevents excessive secretion of glucocorticoids to non-threatening stimuli, the increase of basal corticosterone secretion resulting from decreased anandamide allows for a facilitated response of the HPA axis to novel stimuli.
Exploration, social behavior, and anxiety
These contrasting effects reveal the importance of the endocannabinoid system in regulating anxiety-dependent behavior. Results suggest that glutamatergic cannabinoid receptors are not only responsible for mediating aggression, but produce an anxiolytic-like function by inhibiting excessive arousal: excessive excitation produces anxiety that limited the mice from exploring both animate and inanimate objects. In contrast, GABAergic neurons appear to control an anxiogenic-like function by limiting inhibitory transmitter release. Taken together, these two sets of neurons appear to help regulate the organism's overall sense of arousal during novel situations.
Immune system
In laboratory experiments, activation of cannabinoid receptors had an effect on the activation of GTPases in macrophages, neutrophils, and bone marrow cells. These receptors have also been implicated in the migration of B cells into the marginal zone and the regulation of IgM levels.
Female reproduction
The developing embryo expresses cannabinoid receptors early in development that are responsive to anandamide secreted in the uterus. This signaling is important in regulating the timing of embryonic implantation and uterine receptivity. In mice, it has been shown that anandamide modulates the probability of implantation to the uterine wall. For example, in humans, the likelihood of miscarriage increases if uterine anandamide levels are too high or low. These results suggest that intake of exogenous cannabinoids (e.g., cannabis) can decrease the likelihood for pregnancy for women with high anandamide levels, and alternatively, it can increase the likelihood for pregnancy in women whose anandamide levels were too low.
Autonomic nervous system
Peripheral expression of cannabinoid receptors led researchers to investigate the role of cannabinoids in the autonomic nervous system. Research found that the CB1 receptor is expressed presynaptically by motor neurons that innervate visceral organs. Cannabinoid-mediated inhibition of electric potentials results in a reduction in noradrenaline release from sympathetic nervous system nerves. Other studies have found similar effects in endocannabinoid regulation of intestinal motility, including the innervation of smooth muscles associated with the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.
Analgesia
At the spinal cord, cannabinoids suppress noxious-stimulus-evoked responses of neurons in the dorsal horn, possibly by modulating descending noradrenaline input from the brainstem. As many of these fibers are primarily GABAergic, cannabinoid stimulation in the spinal column results in disinhibition that should increase noradrenaline release and attenuation of noxious-stimuli-processing in the periphery and dorsal root ganglion.
The endocannabinoid most researched in pain is palmitoylethanolamide. Palmitoylethanolamide is a fatty amine related to anandamide, but saturated and although initially it was thought that palmitoylethanolamide would bind to the CB1 and the CB2 receptor, later it was found that the most important receptors are the PPAR-alpha receptor, the TRPV receptor and the GPR55 receptor. Palmitoylethanolamide has been evaluated for its analgesic actions in a great variety of pain indications and found to be safe and effective.
Modulation of the endocannabinoid system by metabolism to N-arachidinoyl-phenolamine (AM404), an endogenous cannabinoid neurotransmitter, has been discovered to be one mechanism for analgesia by acetaminophen (paracetamol).
Endocannabinoids are involved in placebo induced analgesia responses.
Thermoregulation
Anandamide and N-arachidonoyl dopamine (NADA) have been shown to act on temperature-sensing TRPV1 channels, which are involved in thermoregulation. TRPV1 is activated by the exogenous ligand capsaicin, the active component of chili peppers, which is structurally similar to endocannabinoids. NADA activates the TRPV1 channel with The high potency makes it the putative endogenous TRPV1 agonist. Anandamide has also been found to activate TRPV1 on sensory neuron terminals, and subsequently cause vasodilation. TRPV1 may also be activated by methanandamide and arachidonyl-2'-chloroethylamide (ACEA).
Sleep
Increased endocannabinoid signaling within the central nervous system promotes sleep-inducing effects. Intercerebroventricular administration of anandamide in rats has been shown to decrease wakefulness and increase slow-wave sleep and REM sleep. Administration of anandamide into the basal forebrain of rats has also been shown to increase levels of adenosine, which plays a role in promoting sleep and suppressing arousal. REM sleep deprivation in rats has been demonstrated to increase CB1 receptor expression in the central nervous system. Furthermore, anandamide levels possess a circadian rhythm in the rat, with levels being higher in the light phase of the day, which is when rats are usually asleep or less active, since they are nocturnal.
Physical exercise
The endocannabinoid system is also involved in mediating some of the physiological and cognitive effects of voluntary physical exercise in humans and other animals, such as contributing to exercise-induced euphoria as well as modulating locomotor activity and motivational salience for rewards. In humans, the plasma concentration of certain endocannabinoids (i.e., anandamide) have been found to rise during physical activity; since endocannabinoids can effectively penetrate the blood–brain barrier, it has been suggested that anandamide, along with other euphoriant neurochemicals, contributes to the development of exercise-induced euphoria in humans, a state colloquially referred to as a runner's high.
Cannabinoids in plants
The endocannabinoid system is by molecular phylogenetic distribution of apparently ancient lipids in the plant kingdom, indicative of biosynthetic plasticity and potential physiological roles of endocannabinoid-like lipids in plants, and detection of arachidonic acid (AA) indicates chemotaxonomic connections between monophyletic groups with common ancestor dates to around 500 million years ago (Cambrian). The phylogenetic distribution of these lipids may be a consequence of interactions/adaptations to the surrounding conditions such as chemical plant-pollinator interactions, communication and defense mechanisms. The two novel EC-like molecules derived from the eicosatetraenoic acid juniperonic acid, an omega-3 structural isomer of AA, namely juniperoyl ethanolamide and 2-juniperoyl glycerol (1/2-AG) in gymnosperms, lycophytes and few monilophytes, show AA is an evolutionarily conserved signalling molecule that acts in plants in response to stress similar to that in animal systems. The endocannabinoid Docosatetraenoylethanolamide has been found in Tropaeolum tuberosum (Mashua) and Leonotis leonurus (Lion's tail) Maca contains several N-benzylamides referred to as "macamides" that are structurally related to endocannabinoids such as the N-Benzyl analog of Oleamide. Echinacea contains alkylamides structurally related to endocannabinoids.
Cannabinoids in Cyanobacterium
Serinolamide A is a cannabinoid structurally related to endocannabinoids found in cyanobacteria such as Lyngbya majuscula and other species in the Oscillatoria family.
Endocannabinoid articles
Anandamide
2-Arachidonoylglycerol
2-Arachidonyl glyceryl ether
Oleamide
Oleoylethanolamide
Virodhamine
Docosatetraenoylethanolamide
Stearoylethanolamide
N-Arachidonylglycine
Arachidonoyl serotonin
N-Arachidonoyl dopamine
N-Acylethanolamine
See also
Endocannabinoid enhancer
Endocannabinoid reuptake inhibitor
Cannabinol
Cannabinoid receptor antagonist
Jasmonate
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor
TRPV
References
External links
Homepage of the ICRS – The International Cannabinoid Research Society
Neurochemistry
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anson%20County%2C%20North%20Carolina
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Anson County, North Carolina
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Anson County, North Carolina
Anson County is a county located in the U.S. state of North Carolina. As of the 2020 census, the population was 22,055. Its county seat is Wadesboro.
History
Anson County was originally occupied by the Catawba Siouan tribe as a vast territory with indefinite northern and western boundaries.
The county was formed in 1750 from Bladen County. It was named for George Anson, Baron Anson, a British admiral who circumnavigated the world. Anson purchased land in the state. The county seat was designated at New Town in 1783. Four years later it was renamed Wadesboro.
Reductions to its extent began in 1753, when the northern part of it became Rowan County. In 1762 the western part of Anson County became Mecklenburg County. In 1779 the northern part of what remained of Anson County became Montgomery County, and the part east of the Pee Dee River became Richmond County. Finally, in 1842 the western part of Anson County was combined with the southeastern part of Mecklenburg County to become Union County.
Geography
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which is land and (1.05%) is water. It is bordered by the North Carolina counties of Stanly, Montgomery, Richmond, and Union, and the South Carolina county of Chesterfield.
National protected area
Pee Dee National Wildlife Refuge (part)
State and local protected areas/sites
Arrowhead Lake
Gaddy Covered Bridge
Pee Dee River Game Land (part)
Wadesboro Downtown Historic District
Major water bodies
Blewett Falls Lake
Brown Creek
Goulds Fork
Great Pee Dee River
Lanes Creek
Rocky River
Thoroughfare Creek
Major highways
(future bypass of Wadesboro)
Major infrastructure
Anson County Airport
Demographics
2020 census
As of the 2020 census, there were 22,055 people, 9,521 households, and 5,809 families residing in the county.
Anson is a majority minority county. Between the 2010 and 2020 censuses, Anson's population declined by 18.2 percent.
2010 census
At the 2010 census, there were 26,948 people. The racial makeup of the county was 48.58% African American, 47.15% White American, 1.07% Asian, 0.61% Native American, 1.25% multiracial and 1.32% of other race. People of Hispanic and Latino origin account for 3.02% of the population.
2000 census
At the 2000 census, there were 25,275 people, 9,204 households, and 6,663 families residing in the county. The population density was . There were 10,221 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the county was 51.64% Black or African American, 48.53% White, 0.45% Native American, 0.57% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.32% from other races, and 0.46% from two or more races. 0.83% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 9,204 households, out of which 31.00% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.80% were married couples living together, 19.80% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.60% were non-families. 25.10% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.00% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.59 and the average family size was 3.09.
In the county, the population was spread out, with 25.20% under the age of 18, 8.60% from 18 to 24, 29.00% from 25 to 44, 22.80% from 45 to 64, and 14.40% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 96.50 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.80 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $29,849, and the median income for a family was $35,870. Males had a median income of $27,297 versus $20,537 for females. The per capita income for the county was $14,853. About 15.50% of families and 17.80% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23.90% of those under age 18 and 16.70% of those age 65 or over.
Government and politics
Anson County is governed by a board of commissioners, which constitutes seven members elected by district.
The board of commissioners appoint a county manager who oversees county administration and implements the policies of the board.
Anson County is a member of the regional Centralina Council of Governments.
Anson County, like several neighboring rural counties, has historically favored Democratic candidates in most elections. After 2012, Republicans enjoyed more electoral success in the region, though Anson County voted more Democratic than its neighbors. In 2016, the Democratic presidential candidate, Hillary Clinton, won the county by a margin of 13 percent, though in 2020 the Democratic candidate, Joe Biden, won by only four percent. The county favored a Republican candidate for federal office in 2022—the first time since 1972.
Education
There are 11 schools in the Anson County Schools system that serve the students of the county.
The county is served by South Piedmont Community College, which has a campus near Polkton.
Communities
Towns
Ansonville
Lilesville
McFarlan
Morven
Peachland
Polkton
Wadesboro (county seat and largest community)
Unincorporated communities
Burnsville
Pee Dee
Townships
Ansonville
Burnsville
Gulledge
Lanesboro
Lilesville
Morven
Wadesboro
White Store
Ghost town
Sneedsboro
Population ranking
The population ranking of the following table is based on the 2020 census of Anson County.
† = county seat
Notable people
Stephone Anthony (born 1992), linebacker with the New Orleans Saints of the NFL
Hugh Hammond Bennett (1881–1960), soil conservation specialist
John Culpepper (1761–1841), United States Congressman from North Carolina, and long-tenured Baptist minister
Blind Boy Fuller (1907–1941), American blues guitarist and vocalist
James Holland (1754–1823), United States Congressman from North Carolina
Juanita Moody (1924–2015), cryptographer whose intelligence gathering contributed greatly during the Cuban Missile Crisis
Leonidas Lafayette Polk (1837–1892), first North Carolina Commissioner of Agriculture
Sylvester Ritter (1952–1998), professional wrestler also known as "The Junkyard Dog" or "JYD"
David Lutz (born 1959), tackle with the Kansas City Chiefs and Detroit Lions of the NFL
See also
List of counties in North Carolina
National Register of Historic Places listings in Anson County, North Carolina
Anson County Regiment, militia in the American Revolution
References
Works cited
External links
1750 establishments in North Carolina
Populated places established in 1750
Majority-minority counties in North Carolina
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%20%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B2%20%D0%9B%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87
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Байков Лев Львович
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Байков Лев Львович
Лев Львович Байков (1869—1938) — російський воєначальник, генерал-лейтенант, учасник Першої світової війни.
Біографія
Народився 15 червня 1869 року у Ізюмі, син генерал-лейтенанта Лева Матвійовича Байкова.
Освіту здобув у 1-му кадетському корпусі, після закінчення якого 1 вересня 1888 року був прийнятий до 1-го військового Павлівського училища. Випущений 10 серпня 1889 року підпоручиком у 16-й гренадерський Мінгрельський полк. Потім служив у 26-й артилерійській бригаді. 10 серпня 1893 року підвищений до поручика.
У 1897 році Байков завершив по 1-му розряду проходження курсу наук у Миколаївській академії генерального штабу, причому 19 травня 1897 року за успіхи був підвищений до штабс-капітана. По закінченню академії призначений до Одеського військового округу.
22 грудня 1898 року призначений старшим ад'ютантом штабу 14-ї піхотної дивізії та 18 квітня 1899 року підвищений до капітана. Перебуваючи на цій посаді Байков з 16 жовтня 1900 року по 20 жовтня 1901 року проходив цензове командування ротою у 54-му піхотному Мінському полку. З 22 квітня 1902 року був столоначальником Головного штабу та 6 квітня 1903 року отримав чин підполковника.
23 березня 1904 року Байков був переведений до Окремого корпусу прикордонної варти та призначений начальником штабу 5-го округу, 22 квітня 1907 року підвищений до полковника. З 17 червня по 13 жовтня 1907 року був відряджений до армійської піхоти та відбував цензове командування батальйоном у 59-му піхотному Люблінському полку.
23 березня 1913 року Байков отримав у командування 53-й піхотний Волинський полк.
З самого початку Першої світової війни Байков брав участь у боях та за відзнаки 16 серпня 1914 року був підвищений до генерал-майора і незабаром призначений командиром 2-ї бригади 71-ї піхотної дивізії. У бою 7 жовтня 1914 року був контужений у голову, але продовжував залишатися в строю до 2 листопада, коли був евакуйований до тилу для лікування контузії. За відзнаки у осінніх боях був нагороджений мечами до ордену св. Володимира 3-го ступеня.
Найвищим наказом від 24 лютого 1915 року Байкову було подаровано Георгіївську зброю.
Найвищим наказом від 24 квітня 1915 року він був нагороджений орденом св. Георгія 4-го ступеня.
1 квітня 1915 року Байков був призначений начальником штаба 32-го армійського корпусу, з 2 листопада 1916 року командував 115-ю піхотною дивізією, а 24 червня 1917 року отримав у командування 38-у піхотну дивізію, дещо пізніше отримав звання генерал-лейтенант.
Після Жовтневої революції Байков з чином генерал-хорунжого був прийнятий до гетьманської армії в Україні, 11 жовтня 1918 року призначений начальником штабу Окремого корпусу прикордонної варти. На початку 1919 року Байков вступив доЗбройних сил Півдня Росії.
На початку 1920 року евакуювався з Одеси до Салоніків. З травня того ж року проживав у Югославії. Помер у Белграді 23 листопада 1938 року.
Нагороди
Серед інших нагород Байков мав ордени:
Орден Святого Станіслава 3-го ступеня (1901 рік)
Орден Святого Станіслава 2-го ступеня (1906 рік)
Орден Святого Володимира 4-го ступеня (1910 рік)
Орден Святого Володимира 3-го ступеня (14 квітня 1913 року, мечі до цього ордену подаровані в кінці 1914 року)
Георгіївська зброя (24 лютого 1915 року)
Орден Святого Георгія 4-го ступеня (24 квітня 1915 року)
Орден Святого Володимира 2-го ступеня з мечами
Літературні труди
Після себе Байков залишив декілька військово-літературних праць:
«Добірка запитань для перевірки знань артилерійських розвідників» (СПб., 1910)
«Властивості бойових елементів та підготовка військ до війни та бою» (Одеса, 1910)
«Стратегія в епоху Наполеона та у сучасні війни»
«Бойова служба військ вночі»
Джерела
Волков С. В. Генералитет Российской империи. Энциклопедический словарь генералов и адмиралов от Петра I до Николая II. Том I. А—К. — , 2009. — С. 98. — ISBN 978-5-9524-4166-8.
Высочайшие приказы по военному ведомству. К № 1273 «Разведчика». — С. 209.
Высочайшие приказы по военному ведомству. К № 1285 «Разведчика». — С. 604.
Ганин А. В. Корпус офицеров Генерального штаба в годы Гражданской войны 1917—1922 гг.: Справочные материалы. — , 2009. — С. 160, 432, 721. — ISBN 978-5-85887-301-3.
«Новое время». — 10 (23) января 1915. — № 13948.
Пограничная служба России: Энциклопедия. Биографии. — , 2008. — С. 87. — ISBN 978-5-9950-0005-1.
Список полковникам по старшинству. Составлен по 1 марта 1914 г. — , 1914. — С. 224.
Шабанов В. М. Военный орден Святого Великомученика и Победоносца Георгия. Именные списки 1769—1920. Биобиблиографический справочник. — , 2004. — С. 394. — ISBN 5-89577-059-2.
Нагороджені Георгіївською зброєю
Кавалери ордена Святого Станіслава 2 ступеня
Кавалери ордена Святого Станіслава 3 ступеня
Кавалери ордена святого Володимира 2 ступеня
Кавалери ордена святого Володимира 3 ступеня
Кавалери ордена Святого Володимира 4 ступеня
Кавалери ордена Святого Георгія 4 ступеня
Генерал-лейтенанти (Російська імперія)
Випускники першого кадетського корпусу
Вікіпедія:Статті з іншим значенням на Вікіданих
Померли в Белграді
Персоналії за алфавітом
Померли 1938
Померли 23 листопада
Уродженці Ізюма
Народились 1869
Народились 15 червня
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi-class%20submarine
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Marconi-class submarine
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Marconi-class submarine
The Marconi class was a class of six submarines built for the Royal Italian Navy. The submarines were all launched between 1939 and 1940, and all but one, , were lost in the Atlantic during the Second World War.
Class members
Guglielmo Marconi
Guglielmo Marconi (pennant number MN) was launched 27 July 1939 and completed on 2 February 1940. On its first wartime patrol in the Mediterranean Sea, Marconi torpedoed the Royal Navy destroyer on 8 July 1940. Marconi sailed on 6 September 1940 and passed the Strait of Gibraltar on 11 September for an Atlantic patrol to Bordeaux on 29 September. En route Marconi sank the neutral Spanish fishing boat Almirante Jose de Carranza. Marconi sank one ship on its first BETASOM patrol from Bordeaux. After an unsuccessful patrol, Marconi sank three ships on its third BETASOM patrol and damaged a Yugoslavian freighter on the following patrol which was later sunk by . Marconi was lost to unknown causes sometime after 28 October 1941 on its fifth BETASOM patrol.
Leonardo da Vinci
(pennant number LV) was launched 16 September 1939. da Vinci sailed on 22 September 1940 and passed the Strait of Gibraltar on 27 September for an Atlantic patrol to Bordeaux on 31 October. After unsuccessful patrols from 21 December to 20 January 1941 and from 4 April to 4 May, da Vinci sank one ship on its third BETASOM patrol. After another unsuccessful patrol from 15 August to 24 September, da Vinci sank two ships during Operation Neuland and four ships on the following patrol. After being modified to carry a midget submarine, da Vinci sailed without the midget submarine and sank four ships. Sailing again without the midget submarine, da Vinci sank six ships on its last patrol. While attempting to return to Bordeaux, da Vinci was sunk on 23 May 1943 by the escorts of convoy KMF 15. There were no survivors. Leonardo da Vinci was the top scoring non-German submarine of the entire war.
Michele Bianchi
(pennant number BH) was launched 3 December 1939. Its first war patrol was in the Mediterranean Sea from 15 August to 3 September 1940. Bianchi sailed on 27 October 1940 and reached the Strait of Gibraltar on 3 November. The attempted transit to the Atlantic was detected by Royal Navy forces; and Bianchi took refuge in the neutral port of Tangier. Bianchi sailed from Tangier on 12 November and reached Bordeaux on 18 December 1940. Bianchi sank three ships on its first BETASOM patrol from Bordeaux; but the next patrol from 30 April to 30 May 1941 was unsuccessful. After sailing from Bordeaux on 4 July 1941, Bianchi was sunk with all hands by on 5 July.
Luigi Torelli
Torelli (pennant number TI) was launched 6 January 1940. After one short war patrol in the Mediterranean, Torelli sailed on 31 August 1940 and passed the Strait of Gibraltar on 8 September for an Atlantic patrol to Bordeaux on 5 October. Torelli sank four ships on its first BETASOM patrol; and, after an unsuccessful second patrol, sank one ship on a third patrol. After another unsuccessful patrol, Torelli assisted the three s on a rescue mission of 254 sailors from the sunken in December 1941.
Torelli sank two ships during Operation Neuland. Torelli again sailed from Bordeaux on 2 June 1942, but was twice damaged by aircraft and sought refuge in the neutral Spanish ports of Avilés and Santander, Cantabria before returning to Bordeaux on 15 July. After an extensive refit, Torelli was again damaged at sea by aircraft on 16 March 1943 and returned to Bordeaux on 3 April. Torelli was then selected for conversion to a "transport submarine" in order to exchange rare or irreplaceable trade goods with Japan. Cargo capacity of 160 tons reduced reserve buoyancy from 20–25% to 3.5–6%; and armament was reduced to defensive machine guns. Torelli sailed as a transport submarine on 18 June 1943 and reached Penang on 27 August 1943.
UIT-25
Torelli was commissioned into the German Kriegsmarine as UIT-25 when Italy capitulated to the Allies in September 1943.
I-504
UIT-25 was taken over by the Imperial Japanese Navy and became I-504 when Germany surrendered in May 1945. I-504 shot down a B-25 Mitchell bomber while under Japanese flag near the very end of the war in the Pacific, allegedly the last success of a Japanese naval vessel in that conflict. It was found at Kobe when Japan surrendered and scuttled by the United States Navy in Kii Suido.
Alessandro Malaspina
(pennant number MP) was launched 18 February 1940 and completed on 20 June 1940. Its first patrol was through the Strait of Gibraltar on 3 August for an Atlantic patrol. Malaspina sank one ship before reaching Bordeaux on 4 September. Admiral Karl Dönitz visited Malaspina on 30 September to welcome Regia Marina sailors to the German base. The first BETASOM patrols from 9 October to 9 November 1940, from 5 January to 28 February 1941 were unsuccessful; but during a third patrol Malaspina damaged the British liner Lycaon on 3 May 1941. Malaspina then sank two ships on the next patrol. Malaspina sailed from Bordeaux on 7 September 1941; and is believed to have been sunk on 10 September by No. 10 Squadron RAAF Short Sunderland "U".
Maggiore Baracca
(pennant number BC) was launched 21 April 1940 and completed on 10 July 1940. Its first patrol was through the Strait of Gibraltar on 7 September for an Atlantic patrol. Baracca sank one ship before reaching Bordeaux on 6 October. Baracca sank one ship on its first BETASOM patrol from Bordeaux, but last four patrols were unsuccessful. On the final patrol, Baracca was sunk by on 7 September 1941. Thirty-two members of the submarine crew survived the sinking.
See also
Italian submarines of World War II
Notes
References
Marconi class at regiamarina.net
Bagnasco, Erminio (1977) Submarines of World War Two London, Cassell & Co,
Brice, Martin (1981) Axis Blockade Runners of World War II Annapolis, MD, Naval Institute Press,
Kafka, Roger & Pepperburg, Roy L. (1946) Warships of the World Cornell Maritime Press
Taylor, J.C. (1966) German Warships of World War II Doubleday & Company
Willmott, H.P. (2009) The Last Century of Sea Power: From Port Arthur to Chanak, 1894-1922 Indiana University Press,
External links
Guglielmo Marconi (1939) Marina Militare website
Submarine classes
Marconi
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Double%20Life%20%281947%20film%29
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A Double Life (1947 film)
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A Double Life (1947 film)
A Double Life is a 1947 American film noir which tells the story of an actor whose mind becomes affected by the character he portrays. It stars Ronald Colman and Signe Hasso. It is directed by George Cukor, with screenplay by Ruth Gordon and Garson Kanin. Ronald Colman won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance in this film.
Plot
Celebrated stage actor Anthony "Tony" John, riding high on the success of his current comedy "A Gentleman's Gentleman", is offered the lead in a new production of Shakespeare's Othello by theatrical producer Max Lasker. Lasker also wants Tony's ex-wife, Brita, to co-star as Desdemona.
Tony initially declines the offer, to the relief of director Victor Donlan, who knows that Tony becomes overly involved in his roles. Brita agrees with Donlan and warns press agent Bill Friend that although Tony's mood is delightful when appearing in a comedy, he is terrifying when performing in a drama. She warns Friend that Tony becomes so immersed in roles, that they can take over his reality.
Tony changes his mind after becoming obsessed with the idea of portraying Othello. While contemplating the role, Tony meets waitress Pat Kroll at an Italian restaurant, and the two soon begin a casual affair. Brita reluctantly accepts the role of Desdemona and rehearsals begin. The production opens to rave reviews, but Tony gradually becomes absorbed in his role and begins to lose a grip on where the play ends and his real life begins. Tony sees jealousy as the key to his character.
Just before the 300th performance of the play, Brita shows him a locket Bill gave her for her birthday and this sparks jealous rages within him. That night, during Othello's "kiss of death" scene with Desdemona, Tony becomes overcome with the role and nearly chokes Brita to death. When the play begins its second year, Tony asks Brita to remarry him, but she refuses. Tony suspects Brita is in love with Bill. Enraged, confused and delirious, Tony goes to Pat's apartment. The play and reality become conflated in his mind and he eventually kills Pat with Othello's "kiss of death." Tony returns to Brita's and falls asleep on her couch.
The next day, reporter Al Cooley offers Bill front page publicity for Tony's play by pointing out the similarities between Pat's murder and Othello's "kiss of death." Tony is enraged when he sees the story, and physically attacks Bill. Bill suspects Tony is Pat's killer and goes to the police, only to find that Pat's drunken neighbor has been arrested for her murder. Tony demands Bill's dismissal, and Bill plans a short vacation. Bill tells Brita he loves her, but Brita does not return his feelings. However, Brita reveals to Bill that Tony left her home on the night of Pat's murder.
Bill hires an actress to dress up like Pat, including wearing Pat's distinctive earrings, and plants her as a waitress in the restaurant where Pat had worked. Bill invites Tony to the restaurant, and with police captain Pete Bonner watching. Tony becomes distraught upon seeing Pat's "double" and rushes out of the restaurant. Suspicious now, Bill and the police follow Tony to the theater. Standing in the wings, they watch the performance and are seen there by Tony. At the climax of the performance of Othello that evening, a guilt-ridden Tony stabs himself to death with a real dagger - at the point Othello does within the play. Backstage, bleeding from his self-inflicted wound, he confesses all and dies.
Cast
Production
The leading role had originally been slated for Laurence Olivier. Colman was initially anxious about doing Shakespeare on screen. To reassure him, Cukor told the actor that the film had been designed to get him a long-overdue Oscar (which he later won); Colman had been nominated three times before.
Miklós Rózsa's music, for which he won his second Academy Award, mixes his own modern idiom with passages in the Venetian style of the sixteenth century. The composer later adopted the title Double Life for his 1982 memoir to signify the division in his career between absolute music and Hollywood film scores.
Reception
When the film premiered at the Radio City Music Hall, The New York Times film critic Bosley Crowther wrote, "We have it on the very good authority of Ruth Gordon and Garson Kanin, who should know—they being not only actors and playwrights but wife and spouse—that what seems a fairly safe profession, acting, is as dangerous as they come and love between people of the theatre is an adventure fraught with infinite perils. Especially is it risky when an actor takes his work seriously and goes in for playing "Othello." Then handkerchiefs and daggers rule his mind. At least, that is what is demonstrated in a rich, exciting, melodramatic way in the Kanins' own plushy production...George Cukor, in his direction, amply proves that he knows the theatre, its sights and sounds and brittle people."
Critic Jerry Renshaw wrote in 1999, "A Double Life is an unusually intelligent, literate noir that is a classy departure from the pulpy "B" atmospherics often associated with the genre. Keep an eye out for Paddy Chayefsky and John Derek in minuscule bit parts."
Accolades
Others
The film was nominated by the American Film Institute for its 2005 compilation AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores.
See also
Carnival (1921)
Carnival (1931)
References
External links
1947 films
1947 drama films
American drama films
American black-and-white films
Film noir
Films about actors
Films based on Othello
Films featuring a Best Actor Academy Award-winning performance
Films featuring a Best Drama Actor Golden Globe winning performance
Films that won the Best Original Score Academy Award
Films directed by George Cukor
Films scored by Miklós Rózsa
Blackface minstrel shows and films
Universal Pictures films
1940s American films
1940s English-language films
Films with screenplays by Ruth Gordon
Films with screenplays by Garson Kanin
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine%20Lives%20%28Aerosmith%20album%29
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Nine Lives (Aerosmith album)
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Nine Lives (Aerosmith album)
Nine Lives is the twelfth studio album by American rock band Aerosmith, released on March 18, 1997. The album was produced by Aerosmith and Kevin Shirley, and was the band's first studio album released by Columbia Records since 1982's Rock in a Hard Place. In the United States, it peaked at number one on the Billboard 200 and sold over two million copies. One of the album's singles, "Pink", won a Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. Until Music from Another Dimension!, Nine Lives was their longest album, at 63 minutes.
Production
Early recordings took place at Criteria Studios in Miami, Florida, where the band worked with producer Glen Ballard. There, Steven Tyler and Ballard co-wrote the lyrics for "Falling in Love (Is Hard on the Knees)", "Taste of India" and "Pink". Other collaborators, including Desmond Child and Taylor Rhodes, joined Tyler and guitarist Joe Perry to write songs. Child previously collaborated with Aerosmith on such hits as "Angel". "Crazy" and "Dude (Looks like a Lady)".
Only a week before rehearsals, drummer Joey Kramer was suffering from depression, having grieved the loss of his father a few years prior. With Kramer unavailable, rumors began to circulate that the band would disband. Steve Ferrone was brought in to play drums until Kramer was able to return. "I came back with a nice perspective on what I bring to the table in Aerosmith," Kramer reflected. "That was healthy for me. We ended up rerecording because people were listening to the tracks and were saying some negative stuff about it and saying the band didn't sound the same."
Originally set for a summer release in 1996, the album was delayed, because Columbia Records felt dissatisfied with the nine tracks that Aerosmith and Ballard had produced. Further issues occurred in July that year, when the band asked their manager Tim Collins to step down after almost twelve years of partnership. In his 2014 autobiography Rocks: My Life In and Out of Aerosmith, Perry recounted that Aerosmith felt betrayed by Collins, as he would pit the members against one another. With their longtime manager gone, the band decided to hire in-house producer Kevin Shirley, and set up at Avatar Studios in New York City. Shirley, who had also worked with Journey, helped with the album's overtones and instruments, particularly the guitar sounds. In a 1997 MTV special promoting the making of Nine Lives, Tyler declared: "He's got it somewhere stuck between Toys in the Attic and Rocks."
The new sessions began in September 1996, and continued to November. Following the shift in production, Kramer recovered from his depression, and returned to the studio. Instead of playing his tracks over Ferrone's, the band rerecorded from scratch on all of the completed tracks with Kramer.
John Kalodner, Columbia's A&R executive was brought back to supervise the project, after he had been pushed off the production in Florida by Collins. He helped trim the twenty-four songs that had been written to thirteen. Initially, the band called the album "Vindaloo" after adding in elements of Indian music throughout some of the songs, including a sarangi intro by Ramesh Mishra on the song, "Taste of India". But upon completing the track "Nine Lives", the band felt that would make the perfect title, serving as a metaphor for the album's troubled conception.
Artwork
The booklet for Nine Lives contains 12 pieces of album art (including the cover). Each picture contains a smaller version of the previous picture within itself. The final picture is included in the first, creating an infinite loop. It was designed by Stefan Sagmeister.
The original cover art, inspired by a painting in a book by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, features Lord Krishna (with a cat's head and female breasts) dancing on the head of the snake demon, Kāliyā. The Hindu community protested, feeling the artwork was offensive. The band had been unaware of the source of the artwork, and the record company apologized, leading to the next prints removing the art from the cover and booklet. The new cover features a cat tied to a circus knife-thrower's wheel.
Reception
In his AllMusic review, Stephen Thomas Erlewine compared Nine Lives to previous Aerosmith albums stating, “Nine Lives, in contrast, is overlabored, with Aerosmith making a conscious effort to sound hip and vibrant, which ironically simply makes them sound tired." He also criticized the album's troubled production saying, "Not only are the performances perfunctory, but the songs aren't catchy -- no matter how hard it tries, 'Falling in Love (Is Hard on the Knees)' never develops a hook, and it is not an exception". Elysa Gardner from Rolling Stone was more favorable in her 1997 review concluding, "For those who simply can't abide a collection of Aerosmith tunes without its share of power ballads, Nine Lives doesn't disappoint".
Outtakes
Some releases of Nine Lives feature different track listings, most notably the two Japanese editions which both feature the song "Fall Together". The song was included as a B-side on the album's first single "Falling in Love (Is Hard on the Knees)". The track "What Kind of Love Are You On" was originally titled "What Kind of Lover You Want", and was one of many outtakes left from the recording sessions in Florida. The song was re-titled "What Kind of Love Are You On" and features in the 1998 movie Armageddon, as well as its associated soundtrack. The track was later featured on the European re-release of the album's third single "Pink". Unfinished tracks that were discarded during the recording sessions in Florida include, "Bacon Biscuit Blues", "Bridges Are Burning", "Heart of Passion", "Loretta", and "Trouble". Tyler also mentioned a song called "Where the Sun Never Shines" during an MTV interview shortly after the album's release.
Track listing
Personnel
Aerosmith
Steven Tyler – lead vocals, keyboards, hand organ, piano, harmonica, hammer dulcimer, percussion
Joe Perry – guitar, slide guitar, dulcimer, backing vocals, lead vocals on "Falling Off"
Brad Whitford – guitar, acoustic guitar
Tom Hamilton – bass guitar, Chapman Stick
Joey Kramer – drums
Additional personnel
David Campbell – arranger, conductor (track 2)
Ramesh Mishra – sarangi
John Webster – keyboards, backing vocals
Suzie Katayama - strings, conductor
Production
ProducersKevin Shirley and Aerosmith
EngineersMark Hudson, Joe Perry, Rory Romano, Elliot Scheiner, Kevin Shirley, Steven Tyler
Second engineerRory Romano
MixingElliot Scheiner, Kevin Shirley
MasteringLeon Zervos
ProgrammingSander Selover
Horn arrangementsDavid Campbell, Steven Tyler
String arrangementsDavid Campbell
Guitar techniciansJim Survis
Guitar technicians (Additional)Lisa Sharken, Archie Avila
Drum technicianAndy Gilman
Production engineerDavid Frangioni
Art directionChristopher Austopchuk, Gail Marowitz
Photo art directionChristopher Austopchuk, Gail Marowitz
PhotographyF. Scott Schafer
CalligraphyJeanne Greco
StylistFiona Williams-Chappel
Credits verified from the album's liner notes.
Charts
Weekly Charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
Awards
Grammy Awards
References
External links
Steven Tyler talks about "Where the Sun Never Shines" (Aerosmith outtake) on YouTube
Aerosmith albums
Albums produced by Kevin Shirley
Albums with cover art by Stefan Sagmeister
Columbia Records albums
Hinduism-related mass media and entertainment controversies
Obscenity controversies in music
1997 albums
Indian mythology in music
Religious controversies in music
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B2%20%D0%90%D1%80%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%20%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87
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Кушнарьов Артур Сергійович
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Кушнарьов Артур Сергійович (2 листопада 1935, Якутськ, РСФРР, СРСР — 6 листопада 2017, Мелітополь, Запорізька область) — доктор технічних наук, член-кореспондент Національної академії аграрних наук України, професор, заслужений працівник народної освіти України, Почесний громадянин міста Мелітополя.
Біографія
Народився Артур Сергійович 2 листопада 1935 року у м. Якутську (Російська Федерація). У 1952 році, по закінченню школи, він вступає до Московського інституту інженерів сільського господарства, який з відзнакою закінчує в 1957 році.
Протягом 1957—1960 рр. — інженер-механік БМУ «Меліоводбуд». З 1960 по 1963 рік Артур Сергійович аспірант Московської сільськогосподарської академії імені К. А. Тімірязєва.
З 1963 року починається трудова діяльність майбутнього науковця в стінах Мелітопольського інституту механізації сільського господарства. За, майже, п'ятдесят років праці в навчальному закладі А. С. Кушнарьов працював на посадах асистента, доцента, професора, завідувача кафедри, проректора з наукової роботи.
У 1964 р. у Всесоюзному інституті сільськогосподарської заочної освіти захистив кандидатську дисертацію «Освоєння мілкодолинних луків Якутії», а в 1982 р. у Челябінському інституті механізації та електрифікації сільського господарства — докторську дисертацію «Механіко-технологічні основи процесу дії робочих органів ґрунтообробних машин і знарядь на ґрунт».
З 1974 по 1985 роки А. С. Кушнарьов — проректор з наукової роботи МІМСГу. Будучи проректором з наукової роботи, Артур Сергійович організував підготовку наукових кадрів для інституту в найбільших наукових центрах СРСР (у Москві, Ленінграді, Мінську, Києві та інших містах). В окремі роки готувалося до 10 кандидатів наук.
Упродовж 1985—1993 рр. — завідувач кафедри Мелітопольського інституту механізації сільського господарства. У 1985 році йому присвоєно вчене звання професора. Коло наукових інтересів вченого:
механіко-технологічні основи землеробської механіки та механіки ґрунту;
ґрунтозахисні технології та засоби механізації для їхнього здійснення;
комплексна програма забезпечення населення України молочними продуктами.
Педагогічна діяльність професора А. С. Кушнарьова відзначена знаком «Відмінник вищої школи СРСР». Артуром Сергійовичем проводилася велика робота по залученню студентів до науково-дослідної роботи. Його авторитет в області наукової роботи студентів підтверджується тим, що за наявності в СРСР 102 сільськогосподарських вишів Кушнарьов А. С. п'ять років очолював Всесоюзний конкурс на найкращу студентську роботу в галузі механізації, електрифікації та автоматизації сільського господарства. Багато його учнів виросли від студентів до доцентів, докторів наук, професорів.
Він автор понад 200 наукових статей, монографій, довідників, авторських свідоцтв. Як член Експертної ради ВАК СРСР та Міжнародного товариства сільськогосподарських інженерів Артур Сергійович встановив контакти з провідними вченими-аграріями практично у всіх державах Європи та СНД. Сьогодні ці контакти як ніколи можуть послужити для інтеграції економіки на пострадянському просторі і розвитку економічних зв'язків з аграрних питань.
А. С. Кушнарьов — засновник ряду нових напрямків в аграрній науці. Розвиток наукової школи Кушнарьова А. С. — привело до того, що в 80-і роки Всесоюзні конференції з землеробської механіки з Москви перемістилися у м. Мелітополь. Представники практично всіх республік СРСР і великих наукових центрів неодноразово брали участь в роботі цих конференцій. На кафедрі, керованої професором Кушнарьовим. А С. зародилися нові наукові напрями: збирання зернових методом очісування та виготовлення регулярних волоконно-оптичних джгутів.
У 1993—1997 років — Генеральний директор Інституту механізації тваринництва Української академії аграрних наук у Запоріжжі. Перебуваючи на посаді генеральним директором, Артур Сергійович Кушнарьов основну увагу приділяв продовольчому ринку і місцю аграрного сектора АПК у світовій економіці.
A. C. Кушнарьовим обґрунтовані механіко-технологічні основи обробітку ґрунту, створено типорозмірний ряд робочих органів для ґрунтозахисної технології, більшість з яких поставлено на виробництво на машинобудівних заводах України. Розроблена методика комплексної оцінки техніки і технологій для тваринництва, птахівництва та кормовиробництва.
A. C. Кушнарьов — член міжнародної організації ISO. Брав участь у роботі міжнародних конференцій у Польщі, Голландії, Білорусі, Казахстані, Росії.
Нагороди
Визнання наукових досягнень А. С. Кушнарьова в галузі охорони ґрунтів відзначено ювілейною медаллю В. В. Докучаєва, заснованою Академією наук СРСР. Його розробки багаторазово відзначені срібними, бронзовими медалями та дипломами ВДНГ СРСР і України.
Серія робіт з ґрунтозахисного землеробства і безпосередня організація впровадження цих технологій в степовій зоні України дозволили забути жителям півдня України найбільшу екологічну катастрофу тих років — пилові (або «чорні») бурі. За ці роботи Кушнарьов А. С. був нагороджений орденом «Знак пошани».
Педагогічна діяльність професора А. С. Кушнарьова відзначена знаком «Відмінник Вищої школи СРСР».
Бібліографія
Кушнарьов А. С. опублікував понад 200 наукових праць. Має 13 авторських свідоцтв на винаходи.
Під керівництвом вченого підготовлено 4 доктори та 23 кандидати наук. Обраний у 1993 p. членом-кореспондентом УААН: відділення землеробства, меліорації та механізації.
Найвідоміші публікації:
Кушнарев А. С. Исследование технологических систем первичной обработки мелкодолинных закочкаренных лугов Центральной Якутии: автореферат дис… канд. техн. наук / А. С. Кушнарев ; ВСХИЗО. — М., 1964. — 24 с.
Кушнарев А. С. Механико-технологические основы процесса воздействия рабочих органов почвообрабатывающих машин и орудий на почву: автореферат дис… д-ра техн. наук : 05.20.01 / А. С. Кушнарев ; ЧИМЭСХ. — Челябинск, 1981. — 50 с.
Кушнарев А. С. Проектирование рыхлительных рабочих органов культиваторов / А. С. Кушнарев. — К., 1979. — 20 с.
Довідник по регулюванню сільськогосподарських машин / В. І. Кочев, А. С. Кушнарьов, В. Д. Роговий[та ін.; за ред. В. І. Кочева. — К.: Урожай, 1985. — 312 с.
Кушнарев А. С. Механико-технологические основы обработки почвы / А. С. Кушнарев, В. И. Кочев. — К.: Урожай, 1989. — 139 с.
Кушнарев А. С. Технология производства овощей на капельном орошении: доклад на заседании отделения механизации, электрификации и автоматизации сельского хозяйства / А. С. Кушнарев, С. А. Кушнарев ; Украинская академия аграрных наук. — Мелитополь, 2003. — 52 с.
Кушнарев А. С. Дискатор — новое почвообрабатывающее орудие, обеспечивающее переход от традиционной технологии производства сельскохозяйственной продукции к энергосберегающей технологии No-till / А. С. Кушнарев. — Белая Церковь, 2010. — 60 с.
Кушнарев, А. С. Концепция научно-технической политики по обеспечению специальной техникой мелких производителей овощей и картофеля / А. С. Кушнарев // Техніка АПК. — 2007. — № 4/5. — С. 33-36.
Использование методов математического (имитационного) моделирования при разработке конструктивных и технологических параметров высевающего аппарата / А. Кушнарев [и др.] // Техніка і технології АПК. - 2008. - № 3-4. - С. 11-15
Механика взаимодействия рабочих органов на упругой подвеске с почвой / А. С. Кушнарев, И. А. Шевченко, В. П. Дюжаев, С. А. Кушнарев // Техніка АПК. — 2008. — № 8. — С. 22-25.
Кушнарев, А. Методологические предпосылки выбора способа обработки почвы / А. Кушнарев, В. Погорелый // Техніка АПК: науково-технічний журнал. — 2008. — N1. — С. 17-20.
Кушнарев, А. С. Стохастический анализ сил, действующих на рабочие органы дискатора / А. С. Кушнарев, Е. В. Бобровный, И. А. Шевченко, С. А. Кушнарев. — // Науковий вісник Таврійського державного агротехнологічного університету: електронне фах. видання / ТДАТУ. — Мелітополь, 2012. — Вип. 1, т. 3. — С. 259—271
Использование априорной информации для построения полиномиальных моделей взаимодействия сферических дисков дискаторов с почвой / А. Кушнарев и др. // Техніка і технології АПК. — 2009. — № 2. — С. 21-25.
Кушнарев А. С. Проблемы совершенствования технологии уборки зерновых / А. Кушнарёв, В. Кравчук, А. Леженкин // Техніка і технології АПК: науково-виробничий ж-л. — 2010. — N2. — С. 6-12.
Кушнарев А. Новые научные подходы к выбору способа обработки почвы / А. Кушнарев, В. Кравчук // Техніка і технології АПК. — 2010. — № 5. — С. 6-10
Кушнарев А. С. Дослідження процесу капсування насіння овочевих культур / А. С. Кушнарьов, Л. Мазурик // Техніка і технології АПК: науково-жвиробничий ж-л. — 2011.- № 4. — С. 23-25
Кушнарев, А. С. Моделирование динамики свойств дражированных семян в почве / А. С. Кушнарев, Е. К. Сербий. — Електрон. текстові дані. — on-line // Науковий вісник Таврійського державного агротехнологічного університету: електронне наукове фахове видання / ТДАТУ; ред. В. Т. Діордієв. — Мелітополь, 2016. — Вип. 6, т. 1. — С. 35-52
Хронологічний період авторських публікацій з 1962 до 2015 року включно охоплює бібліографічний покажчик: Кушнарьов Артур Сергійович: біобібліографічний покажчик публікацій з 1962 по 2015 рік / ТДАТУ; наукова бібліотека; укладач Н. М. Семенюк. — Мелітополь, 2015. — 52 с. — («Біобібліографістика провідних вчених ТДАТУ»)
Посилання
ПОЧЕТНЫЙ ГРАЖДАНИН МЕЛИТОПОЛЯ АРТУР КУШНАРЕВ ПРИНИМАЛ ПОЗДРАВЛЕНИЯ ОТ ГОРОДСКОЙ ВЛАСТИ // Мелітопольська міська рада.
Кушнарьов Артур Сергійович // Наука України: доступ до знань
Почесні громадяни Мелітополя
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Девід Бореаназ
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Девід Бореаназ (16 травня 1969, Буффало, Нью-Йорк) — американський актор, телевізійний продюсер, режисер, найбільш відомий своєю роллю Енджела у серіалі «Баффі — переможниця вампірів» і «Енджел» та Сілі Бута у кримінально-комедійному серіалі «Кістки».
Раннє життя
Девід Бореаназ народився 16 травня 1969 року у Буффало, Нью-Йорк і виростав у Філадельфії, Пенсільванія, де його батько Дейв Робертс був ведучим прогнозу погоди на 6 Каналі, власником якого була компанія ABC, а мати, Патті Бореаназ, була туристичною агенткою. У нього італійське коріння зі сторони батька (прізвище Бореаназ має північноіталійске коріння). Його мати наполовину словачка і наполовину ірландка, німкеня, француженка та швейцарка.
Бореаназ спочатку відвідував Роземонтську школу Святої Дитини (Rosemont School of the Holy Child), а пізніше середню школу Малверна(Malvern Preparatory School), Пенсільванія, і вчився в Ітацькому коледжі(Ithaca College) в Ітаці, Нью-Йорк. Після випуску Бореаназ поїхав в Голлівуд, Каліфорнія, щоб розпочати свою акторську кар'єру.
Кар'єра
Перша оплачувану акторську роботу Бореаназ отримав у 1993 року у серіалі «Одружені … та з дітьми», де він грав хлопця-байкера Келлі Банді, якого пізніше побив Ел, її батько. Бореаназа було обрано грати у телесеріалі «Баффі — переможниця вампірів» після того, як один з сусідів Бореаназа побачив, як він вигулює собаку і запропонував Марті Ноксону дати Бореаназу роль. У цьому культовому серіалі Бореаназ грав загадкового Енджела — вампіра, якого прокляли душею за його минулі гріхи. Шоу було надзвичайно популярним, особливо персонаж Бореаназа. Саме тому творці Баффі створили новий серіал, який повністю концентрувався на розвитку персонажа Бореаназа. У цьому телесеріалі вся увага приділялась Енджелу та його спробі спокутувати свої гріхи, які він вчинив ще перед тим, як йому віддали назад його душу. Він грав у «Баффі — переможниця вампірів» із 1997 до 1999, після чого розпочав роботу над «Енджелом», який тривав до 2004, появляючись після того ще декілька разів у «Баффі — переможниця вампірів».
У 2001 році Бореаназ зіграв свою єдину роль у високобюджетному фільмі «Валентин», разом із Деніс Річчардс та Кетрін Гейґл. У 2002 році Бореаназ грав другорядну роль у телефільмі каналу Lifetime «Я з Люсі» («I'm with Lucy»). У 2003 Бореаназ зіграв камео у кліпі Dido на пісні «White Flag» і озвучив Леона Сквола Леонхарта в відео грі «Kingdom Hearts», але не продовжив цю роль у продовженні серії.
У 2005 Бореаназ розпочав роботу у серіалі «Кістки» разом із Емілі Дешанель, з якою згодом став також і продюсером даного шоу. Також він грав у «Ці дівчата» («These Girls»), канадійському фільмі, де він грав байкера; фільм показували лише у вибраних кінотеатрах у Канаді в березні 2006, прем'єра відбулася як і на Торонтському Фестивалі Фільму, так і на Ванкуверському Міжнародному Фестивалі Фільму. Він також грав ролі у таких незалежних фільмах як «Містер Фікс Іт» (2006) і «Страждаючи від людської благодійності» (на DVD фільм вийшов під назвою «Письменник-Привид»), а також у «Ворон: Молитва грішника», де разом із ним працювала Тара Рід. У 2006 він зіграв у «Важке легко» разом із Ніком Лечі.
Того ж року він озвучив Хела Джордана в анімаційному серіалі компанії DC Comics «Ліга Справедливості: нова межа». В останньому епізоді третього сезону «Кісток» персонаж Бореаназа Сілі Бут сидить у ванній і читає комікс про Зеленого Ліхтаря, персонажа його він озвучив.
Крім того, що Бореаназ продюсером телесеріалу «Кістки», починаючи із третього сезону, він також був режисером багатьох серій, наприклад «Кістки, що піняться», «Куля у мозку», «Затемнення під час хуртовини» та соту серію «Кісток» «Частини у загальній сумі». Також він був режисером декількох серії серіалу «Енджел».
BuddyTV назвало його № 13 у списку «100 найсексуальніших акторів телебачення 2010 року» and #18 in 2011.
Бореаназ також зіграє в незалежному фільму-фентезі «Офіцера поранено».
У фільмі 2011 року «Потужні маки» Бореаназ зіграв Еда Раща, суддю NBA та чоловіка баскетбольного тренера Кеті.
Особисте життя
Родина
Бореаназ живе у Лос-Анджелесі, Каліфорнія. Був одружений із Інгрід Квін від 7 червня 1997 до жовтня 1999. З 24 листопада 2001 року він одружений із акторкою та колишньою дівчиною Плейбоя Джеймі Берґман. Вони мають сина Джейдена (Джейден рейн Бореаназ, 2 травня 2002) та дочку Беллу (нар. Бердот Віта Бореаназ 31 серпня 2009, пізніше її ім'я змінили на Белла Віта Бердот Бореаназ).
Відновлювальна операція
У 2004 році Бореаназ був змушений лягти на операцію передньої хрестоподібної зв'язки лівого коліна, яка була результатом травми, якої Бореаназ зазнав ще у середній школі. Його відновлення після операції не зупинило зйомку «Енджела», але задало ліміт щодо фізичних можливостей актора у декількох серіях, включаючи його режисерський дебют.
Подружня зрада
У травні 2010 року Бореаназ зізнався, що зраджував дружину. Було з'ясовано, що Бореаназ зраджував з колишньою коханкою Тайгера Вудса, Рейчел Учітел. Спочатку Учітел заперечувала свій роман із Бореаназом, але пізніше зізналась. Вона не хотіла відкривати судову справу проти Бореаназа, але її адвокатка Глорія Аллред заявила, що він обманув Учітел.
Фільмографія
Актор
Режисер, продюсер
Примітки
Посилання
Cover story from Smoke Magazine (Spring, 2008)
Bullz-Eye.com interview (November 1, 2006)
the Globe & Mail interview (October 10, 2005)
MovieHole interview (May 13, 2004)
David Boreanaz Gallery and Interview
www.davidboreanaz.es (Website in Spanish)
Уродженці штату Нью-Йорк
Актори США
Діячі американської культури, що підтримали Україну
Французи США
Німці США
Уродженці Баффало
Актори, які зіграли роль Смерті
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66761774
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karelian%20Labor%20Commune
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Karelian Labor Commune
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Karelian Labor Commune
The Karelian Labor Commune was an autonomous region established in 1920 following the successes of the Red Army's incursion into the Republic of Uhtua, to undermine and discredit the separatist movements and to make Finland give up on attempting to liberate East Karelia shortly before the beginning of negotiations for the Treaty of Tartu and during the Heimosodat. Edvard Gylling and Yrjö Sirola, former members of the government of the Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic, met with Vladimir Lenin in the Kremlin to propose autonomy for Karelia within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. The Commune was founded on 8 June 1920 and was disestablished on 25 July 1923 and succeeded by the Karelian ASSR, following the end of the Heimosodat.
Government
Karelian Revolutionary Committee & the Executive Committee of Olonets
The Government of the Karelian Labor Commune was ran by the Karelian Revolutionary Committee (Karrevkom), which was headed by Edvard Gylling, a former member of the government of the FSWR. Much of the leadership of the Karelian Labor Commune were that of Red Finns, who were expatriates that got government jobs, such as Gylling, Aleksandr Šotman and et cetera. Around 20,000 Finnish people, mostly people who were a part of the Finnish People's Delegation or Red Guards fled to the Commune following or nearing the end of the Finnish Civil War.
The Capital of the Commune was chosen to be Petrozavodsk. This was a problem as this led to the formation of two administrative centers for the Commune, for the existence of the Executive Committee of Olonets. The existence of two administrative centers led to infighting and petty disputes, such as the demarcation of the border based on either ethnic, legal/historical or economic boundaries.
The borders of the Karelian Labor Commune were drawn in such a way that the Karelian people and/or Finnish people would form to be the majority of the region, as according to the census carried out in 1920, 145,753 people lived there, of which 60.8%, or 89,951 people, were ethnically Karelians. The bitter infighting led to the eastern border to run roughly along the Murmansk railroad from the White Sea to Lake Onega, so that Shunga, Shyoltozero and the mouth of the River Svir would remain outside of the Commune, to limit the number of Russian people within the borders of the labor commune.[[File:Карельская трудовая коммуна и Олонецкая губерния (1920).png|thumb|390x390px|Map of the situation between the Executive Committee of Olonets and the Karelian Revolutionary Committee (Karrevkom). Green represents areas under the Karrevkom/the Labour Commune and Red represents areas under the control of the Olonets Governorate. The borders which the Executive Committee of Olonets wished for were those of the Olonets Governorate of that under the Russian Empire. As they saw it to be the legitimate option as the Governorate had never been formally dissolved and in de jure control of the Executive Committee of Olonets.
Karelization
Gylling was infavour of Karelization or Karelianization, which in his words meant:
This led to the policy of regions that spoke majority Karelian language or Finnish language would only have their services in the Finnish language. The policy of Karelization was meant to make the Karelian people not support the Karelian United Government and the Finnish Government due to their sponsoring of anti-communist and separatist movements.
All-Karelian Congress of Soviets
The 1. All-Karelian Congress of Soviets of Workers', Peasants' and Red Army Deputies was held between 11 and 19 February 1921. The 1. All-Karelian Congress of Soviets elected the chairman of the Karelian Regional Executive Committee (Karoblispolkom), which had jurisdiction over all territory other than that in conflict with the Executive Committee of Olonets. 144 delegates took part in this session of congress and Edward Gylling was elected to be chairman of the Karoblispolkom.
The All-Karelian Congress of Soviets of Workers', Peasants' and Red Army Deputies held a congress in Petrozavodsk between 1–3 July 1920 and it was a de facto election between the 142 delegates representing 24 Karelian volosts of the Karelian Labor Commune, within the congress the delegates represented around 105,000 Karelian people. The All-Karelian Congress of Soviets was held to see the opinions of regions relating to the subject of independence, joining Finland or staying in the RSFSR. The results of the congress were that 88.3% of all respondents were in favor of remaining a part of the RSFSR, 10.8% were in favor of independence, and 0.9% were in favor of joining Finland.
The congress was filled with regionalist debate, with the Executive Committee of Olonets having wishes to stay within the RSFSR, while the White Karelia region wishing more for outright independence or joining Finland. The congress itself was promoted by the Executive Committee of Olonets on April 28, 1920, when they adopted a special resolution in which a congress would be held on the subject of independence, joining Finland or staying within Russia for Karelia. The All-Karelian Congress of Soviets was however not only related to independence, as it also adopted an order for the Karelian Revolutionary Committee to take measures to combat hunger, in order to prevent a famine, restore agriculture, fisheries and the forestry industry.
The All-Karelian Congress of Soviets of Workers', Peasants' and Red Army Deputies became the supreme state power of the Karelian Labour Commune following a resolution on 8 June 1920 when the Karrevkom resigned due it having completed its temporary task.
Joint Presidium & the Provincial Executive Committee
The Karelian Revolutionary Committee (Karrevkom) despite its continued authority over the Executive Committee of Olonets, resorted to a Joint Presidium between the two groups, which was called a provincial executive committee, alongside this a lot of political power was granted to a Council of People's Commissars (CPC). The formation of the Provincial Executive Committee did not solve a lot of problems, as areas which were inside the Olonets Governorate but outside the reach of the CPC still were under de jure control of the Executive Committee of Olonets. These areas outside the Commune which retained their powers were neighbouring areas of Petrozavodsk and Povenets.
This led to the Administrative Commission of the Presidium proposing to include the Petrozavodsk and Povenets unincluded regions, this was rejected by all parties, including the People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs of the RSFSR, who rejected the proposal. This led to the proposal being given to the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars, who rejected the proposal on 11 September 1920, the rejection to the proposal was signed by Vladimir Lenin, and it was said to be a need for the preservation of the old province, and its subject economic, food and land departments. P.F. Anokhin was later elected the chairman of the Presidium in August 1920.
Economy
The Karelian Labor Commune was faced with a labor shortage due to conflict in the region, this alongside the political motives of the Bolshevik Party had established various forced labor camps within its territory, such as a sawmill in Neglinka which was run by the Cheka until Gylling requested it for it to be run by the Karelian Economic Council. The extreme infighting within the Karelian Labor Commune led to the sporadic division of resources between the Executive Committee of Aunus and the Karelian Economic Council, which was headed by Šotman. The Karelian Labor Commune had been given economic and administrative autonomy relating to their resources by the Government in Moscow.
Planned Expansion
The Karelian Labor Commune was not meant to be just limited to East Karelia or Karelia as a whole, the intentions reflecting the sometimes debated intentions of the Karelo-Finnish SSR in its expansion. It is often thought that the Commune was meant to be a runway for the expansion of the communist revolution to Finland. These ideas were killed with the Socialism in One Country policy applied by Stalin, in result of the Soviet failure in the Polish–Soviet War.
References
History of the Republic of Karelia
Russian Civil War
History of Karelia
Communism in Russia
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28507379
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngaro%20people
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Ngaro people
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Ngaro people
The Ngaro are an Australian Aboriginal group of people who traditionally inhabited the Whitsunday Islands and coastal regions of Queensland, employing a seafaring lifestyle in an area that archaeologically shows evidence of human habitation since 9000 BP. Ngaro society was destroyed by warfare with traders, colonists, and the Australian Native Police. The Native Police Corps forcibly relocated the remaining Ngaro people in 1870 to a penal colony on Palm Island or to the lumber mills of Brampton Island as forced labourers.
Language
There is some doubt about the status of the language, now extinct, of the Ngaro people. It may have been the same as the Wiri language or Giya language (both dialects of Biri), or a separate dialect.
Country
According to Norman Tindale, Ngaro territory amounted to some , from Whitsunday and Cumberland islands, ranging over Cumberland Islands and including the coastal mainland areas around Cape Conway. Their inland extension reached as far as the mountains to the east of Proserpine. Tindale's mapping was influential but is contested by descendants of several related groups in the area. South Molle Island was an important quarry for materials used in stone manufacture, and Nara Inlet on Hook Island affords archaeologists insights into the earliest Ngaro habitation in this area.
The Gia people and language have also been assigned Ngaro as a synonym, and vice versa, but it appears that the Gia lived on the mainland.
, a Traditional Owner Reference Group consisting of representatives of the Yuwibara, Koinmerburra, Barada Barna, Wiri, Ngaro, and those Gia and Juru people whose lands are within Reef Catchments Mackay Whitsunday Isaac region, helps to support natural resource management and look after the cultural heritage sites in the area.
Social organisation
The Ngaro were divided into kin groups; the name of at least one is known:
Googaburra
Lifestyle
Whitsunday Island formed the centre of Ngaro life, furnishing the only permanent area of habitation. The Ngaro were noted for their distinctive sewn three-piece canoes, crafted from ironbark and known as winta. Despite assertions, notably by Alfred Cort Haddon, that outrigger technology never reached further down the east Queensland coast that 300 miles north of Whitsunday Islands, the entries in Captain James Cook's Endeavour journals prove that by 1770, the first contact date with Europeans, outriggers were already employed in this area.
On these the Ngaro made their journeys and fishing expeditions, sailing not only about the islands in their immediate area but covering an estimated 100 kilometres in and along the reefs, including those between St.Bees and Hayman Island, reefs which they knew intimately. Ngaro oral accounts are consistent throughout the historical record in their description of seasonal visits to the Great Barrier Reef, 43 miles from the mainland and 25 miles from the nearest island, in their canoes.
Their diet consisted of sea turtles, flying foxes, fowls, wild cherries, Burdekin plum, damson berries, trochus shells, baler shells, green ant and cockatoo apples. They also hunted large sea mammals such as small whales from these canoes. This was only possible due to their development of barbed harpoon technology that enabled the Ngaro to kill their prey by exhausting them rather than bleeding them to death, which would attract sharks to compete for the catch.
The Ngaro traded with the mainland, and their artifacts such as baler shells for carrying water, and juan knives fashioned from rock at South Molle, which had one of the largest of such pre-European quarries in Australia, found their way a good distance inland and far up the coast.
Rock art
The earliest archaeological evidence for habitation in the area has been found at Nara Inlet on Hook Island. Cave openings and nearby mounds, or middens, of oyster-like shells are still visible in the steep slopes of Nara Inlet.
The painting of a hashed oval shape is often presumed to be a sea turtle shell, a prominent food source for the Ngaro and Aboriginal people of the mainland. However, it may represent the fruit of the pandanus plant and its seed.
History of contact
Early settler accounts suggest that the Ngaro population consisted of about 100 people, which represents an island population density of roughly one person per . They may have been decimated through early contacts by disease, but this figure still represents a comparatively high figure. Derrick Stone writes of their fate as white colonisation penetrated their area:
Warfare, colonist expansion, disease and the Native Police Corps made their existence tenuous but the Aborigines' final downfall came in 1870 when they were forcibly relocated to a mission settlement on Palm Island and others to Brampton Island to work in timber mills.
Memories of old songs sung in a mixture of Ngaro and Biri are still recalled by descendants.
Alternative names
Ngalangi
Googaburra
Some words
winta (canoe)
Notes
Citations
Sources
Aboriginal peoples of Queensland
Whitsunday Islands
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14657749
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty%20on%20the%20Functioning%20of%20the%20European%20Union
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Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union
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Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union
The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) is one of two treaties forming the constitutional basis of the European Union (EU), the other being the Treaty on European Union (TEU). It was previously known as the Treaty Establishing the European Community (TEC).
The Treaty originated as the Treaty of Rome (fully the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community), which brought about the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC), the best-known of the European Communities (EC). It was signed on 25 March 1957 by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany and came into force on 1 January 1958. It remains one of the two most important treaties in the modern-day European Union (EU).
Its name has been amended twice since 1957. The Maastricht Treaty of 1992 removed the word "economic" from the Treaty of Rome's official title and, in 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon renamed it the "Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union".
Following the 2005 referendums, which saw the failed attempt at launching a European Constitution, on 13 December 2007 the Lisbon Treaty was signed. This saw the 'TEC' renamed as the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) and, once again, renumbered. The Lisbon reforms resulted in the merging of the three pillars into the reformed European Union.
In March 2011, the European Council adopted a decision to amend the Treaty by adding a new paragraph to Article 136. The additional paragraph, which enables the establishment of a financial stability mechanism for the Eurozone, runs as follows:
Present contents
The consolidated TFEU consists of seven parts:
Part 1, Principles
In principles, article 1 establishes the basis of the treaty and its legal value. Articles 2 to 6 outline the competencies of the EU according to the level of powers accorded in each area. Articles 7 to 14 set out social principles, articles 15 and 16 set out public access to documents and meetings and article 17 states that the EU shall respect the status of religious, philosophical and non-confessional organisations under national law.
Part 2, Non-discrimination and citizenship of the Union
The second part begins with article 18 which outlaws, within the limitations of the treaties, discrimination on the basis of nationality. Article 19 states the council with the consent of the European Parliament "may take appropriate action to combat discrimination based on sex, racial or ethnic origin, religion or belief, disability, age or sexual orientation". Articles 20 to 24 establishes EU citizenship and accords rights to it; to free movement, consular protection from other states, vote and stand in local and European elections, right to petition Parliament and the European Ombudsman and to contact and receive a reply from EU institutions in their own language. Article 25 requires the commission to report on the implementation of these rights every three years.
Part 3, Union policies and internal actions
Part 3 is the largest in the TFEU. Articles 26 to 197 concern the substantive policies and actions of the EU.
Title I: Internal market
Title II: Free movement of goods
Including the customs union
Title III: Agriculture and Fisheries
Common Agricultural Policy and Common Fisheries Policy
Title IV: Free movement of workers, services and capital
Title IV concerns free movement of people, services and capital:
Chapter 1: Workers (articles 45–48, ex articles 39–42 TEC), including the right to move freely in order to "accept [an] offer of employment actually made
Chapter 2: Right of Establishment (articles 49–55), including the right to take up and pursue activities as [a] self-employed person
Chapter 3: Services (articles 56–62)
Chapter 4: Capital and Payments (articles 63–66), including free movement of "capital between member states and between member states and third countries".
Title V: Area of freedom, justice and security
Including police and justice co-operation
Title VI: Transport
Title VII: Common Rules on Competition, Taxation and Approximation of Laws
European Union competition law, taxation and harmonisation of regulations (note Article 101 and Article 102)
Title VIII: Economic and monetary policy
Articles 119 to 144 concern economic and monetary policy, including articles on the euro. Chapter 1: Economic policy - Article 122 deals with unforeseen problems in the supply chain and "severe difficulties caused by natural disasters or exceptional occurrences beyond its control" Chapter 1: Economic policy – Article 126 deals with how excessive member state debt is handled. Chapter 2: Monetary policy – Article 127 outlines that the European System of Central Banks should maintain price stability and work with the principles of an open markets and free competition. The Article 140 describes the criteria for inclusion in monetary union (the euro) or having exception from it, and also says that it is a majority of the council, not the state alone, which decides upon usage of euro or national currency. Thereby are states obliged (except UK and Denmark) to introduce the euro if the council finds they fulfil the criteria.
Titles IX to XV: Employment, social and consumer policy
Title IX concerns employment policy, under articles 145–150. Title X concerns social policy, and with reference to the European Social Charter 1961 and the Community Charter of the Fundamental Social Rights of Workers 1989. This gives rise to the weight of European labour law.
Title XI establishes the European Social Fund under articles 162–164. Title XII, articles 165 and 166 concern education, vocational training, youth and sport policies. Title XIII concerns culture, in article 167. Title XIV allows measures for public health, under article 168. Title XV empowers the EU to act for consumer protection, in article 169.
Titles XVI to XXIV: Networks, industry, environment, energy, other
Title XVI, articles 170–172 empower action to develop and integrate Trans-European Networks. Title XVII, article 173, regards the EU's industrial policy, to promote industry. Title XVIII, articles 174 to 178 concern economic, social and territorial cohesion (reducing disparities in development). Title XIX concerns research and development and space policy, under which the European Research Area and European Space Policy are developed.
Title XX concerns the increasingly important environmental policy, allowing action under articles 191 to 193. Title XXI, article 194, establishes the Energy policy of the European Union.
Title XXII, article 195 is tourism. Title XXIII, article 196 is civil protection. Title XXIV, article 197 is administrative co-operation.
Part 4, Association of the overseas countries and territories
Part 4, in articles 198 to 204, deals with association of overseas territories. Article 198 sets the objective of association as promoting the economic and social development of those associated territories as listed in annexe 2. The following articles elaborate on the form of association such as customs duties.
Part 5, External action by the Union
Part 5, in articles 205 to 222, deals with EU foreign policy. Article 205 states that external actions must be in accordance with the principles laid out in Chapter 1 Title 5 of the Treaty on European Union. Article 206 and 207 establish the common commercial (external trade) policy of the EU. Articles 208 to 214 deal with co-operation on development and humanitarian aid for third countries. Article 215 deals with sanctions while articles 216 to 219 deal with procedures for establishing international treaties with third countries. Article 220 instructs the High Representative and Commission to engage in appropriate co-operation with other international organisations and article 221 establishes the EU delegations. Article 222, the Solidarity clause states that members shall come to the aid of a fellow member who is subject to a terrorist attack, natural disaster or man-made disaster. This includes the use of military force.
Part 6, Institutional and financial provisions
Part 6, in articles 223 to 334, elaborates on the institutional provisions in the Treaty on European Union. As well as elaborating on the structures, articles 288 to 299 outline the forms of legislative acts and procedures of the EU. Articles 300 to 309 establish the European Economic and Social Committee, the Committee of the Regions and the European Investment Bank. Articles 310 to 325 outline the EU budget. Finally, articles 326 to 334 establishes provision for enhanced co-operation.
Part 7, General and final provisions
Part 7, in articles 335 to 358, deals with final legal points, such as territorial and temporal application, the seat of institutions (to be decided by member states, but this is enacted by a protocol attached to the treaties), immunities and the effect on treaties signed before 1958 or the date of accession.
See also
Berlin Declaration (2007)
Four Freedoms (European Union)
References
Treaties concluded in 1957
Treaties entered into force in 1958
Euro
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3446854
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D1%80
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Секвенційний простір
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Секвенційний простір
У топології секвенційним простором називається топологічний простір у якому властивість збіжності чи розбіжності послідовностей повністю визначає топологію. Поняття вперше формально ввів американський математик Стен Френклін у 1965 році.
Секвенційно відкриті і секвенційно замкнуті множини
Означення
Нехай X — топологічний простір.
Підмножина U простору X називається секвенційно відкритою якщо для кожної послідовності (xn) точок X, що збігається до точки з U існує N таке, що xn є точкою U для всіх n ≥ N.)
Підмножина F простору X називається секвенційно замкнутою якщо для кожної послідовності (xn) точок F, що збігається до x, точка x теж належить F.
Властивості
Доповнення секвенційно відкритої множини є секвенційно замкнутою множиною і навпаки.
Нехай U є секвенційно відкритою, F= X\U є її доповненням і (xn)n∈ℕ є збіжною послідовністю точок із F. Якщо , тоді . Це суперечить тому, що всі xn є елементами F. Тобто кожна така послідовність збігається до точки F і тому F є секвенційно замкнутою.
Навпаки, нехай F є секвенційно замкнутою і U= X\F її доповненням. Нехай також (xn)n∈ℕ є послідовністю у X для якої і припустимо, що для будь-якого , тобто . Розглянемо підпослідовність таких елементів (їх очевидно має бути нескінченно багато). Ця підпослідовність є збіжною як підпослідовність збіжної послідовності, і всі її елементи належать F. Томі і границя має бути елементом F, що суперечить тому, що x∈U. Відповідно всі елементи послідовності xn, починаючи з деякого належать U і тому U є секвенційно відкритою множиною.
Кожна відкрита підмножина у X є секвенційно відкритою і кожна замкнута підмножина є секвенційно замкнутою.
Нехай (xn)n∈ℕ є послідовністю у X, що збігається до точки x∈U. Оскільки U є відкритою множиною, то вона є околом точки x і, за означенням збіжності послідовностей, існує . Це доводить твердження для відкритих множин. Твердження для замкнутих множин випливає із того, що доповнення замкнутої множини є відкритою множиною, а доповнення секвенційно замкнутої — секвенційно відкритою.
Секвенційно відкриті множини утворюють топологію, яка є сильнішою від початкової і має однакові властивості щодо збіжності послідовностей.
Порожня множина і X є очевидно секвенційно відкритими множинами. Нехай(Ui)i∈I є сім'єю секвенційно відкритих підмножин, і (xn)n∈ℕ — послідовність у X, що збігається до x∈U. Якщо x є елементом об'єднання, то і, згідно означення секвенційно відкритих множин, усі елементи послідовності xn, починаючи з деякого, належать Ui0. Якщо є скінченним перетином секвенційно відкритих підмножин, то послідовність, що збігається до елемента x∈V задовольняє умови . Якщо взяти , то .
Означення секвенційних просторів
Секвенційним простором називається топологічний простір X, що задовольняє еквівалентні умови:
Кожна секвенційно відкрита підмножина простору X є відкритою множиною.
Кожна секвенційно замкнута підмножина простору X є замкнутою множиною.
Для кожної підмножини S ⊆ X, яка не є замкнутою, тобто , існує послідовність елементів S, що збігається до елемента .
Тобто початкову топології можна відтворити на основі інформації про те які послідовності є збіжними.
Еквівалентність перших двох умов відразу випливає з того, що доповнення замкнутої множини є відкритою множиною, а доповнення секвенційно замкнутої — секвенційно відкритою.
: Якщо S не є замкнутою, то S не є секвенційно замкнутою і тому існує послідовність елементів S, що збігається до точки, що не належить S. Оскільки ця точка є точкою дотику для S, то вона належить замиканню S.
Навпаки, припустимо, що виконується умова 3 і підмножина S:=F є секвенційно замкнутою але не замкнутою. Згідно умови 3 тоді існує послідовність у F, що збігається до точки у , тобто гранична точка не належить F. Це суперечить секвенційній замкнутості F.
Іншими еквівалентними умовами є:
X є фактор-простором, топологічного простору, що задовольняє першу аксіому зліченності.
X є фактор-простором метричного простору.
Для кожного топологічного простору Y відображення f : X → Y є неперервним якщо і тільки якщо для кожної послідовності точок (xn) у X, що збігається до x, послідовність (f(xn)) збігається до f(x).
Секвенційне замикання
Для підмножини простору , секвенційним замиканням називається множина
тобто множина всіх точок для яких існує послідовність у , що збігається до . Оператор
називається оператором секвенційного замикання.
Оператор секвенційного замикання має багато властивостей спільних із оператором замикання:
і тому секвенційне замикання замкнутої множини є тією ж множиною.
позначає замикання множини .
для всіх .
Проте, на відміну від звичайного замикання, оператор секвенційного замикання загалом не є ідемпотентним, тобто можливі випадки коли
і також , навіть коли є підмножиною секвенційного простору .
Ще одним варіантом є трансфінітне секвенційне замикання. Для його означення нехай спершу є рівним і для звичайного ординала є рівним Для граничного ординала за означенням є рівним . Тоді існує найменший ординал для якого і тоді називається трансфінітним секвенційним замиканням множини (зокрема завжди , де є першим незліченним ординалом). Трансфінітне секвенційне замикання є очевидно ідемпотентним.
Найменше для якого для всіх називається секвенчійним порядком простору X. Секвенційний порядок є визначеним для всіх секвенційних просторів.
Простір Фреше
Топологічний простір у якому секвенційне замикання будь-якої множини є рівним її замиканню називається простором Фреше. Тобто у цьому просторі
для всіх .
Топологічний простір є простором Фреше, якщо і тільки якщо кожен його підпростір є секвенційним простором.
Кожен топологічний простір, що задовольняє першу аксіому зліченності є простором Фреше. Дійсно, нехай точка має зліченну базу околів Для кожного можна вибрати точку Тоді послідовність збігається до
Очевидно, що кожен простір Фреше є секвенційним простором. Обернене твердження не є справедливим.
Топологічний простір називається сильним простором Фреше якщо для кожної точки і кожної послідовності підмножин простору для якої , існують точки такі, що .
Приклади
Кожен простір, що задовольняє першу аксіому зліченності є секвенційним. Як наслідок простори, що задовольняють другу аксіому зліченності, метричні простори і дискретні простори є секвенційними. Інші приклади можна отримати застосувавши категорні властивості секвенційних просторів. Наприклад кожен CW-комплекс є секвенційним, оскільки він є фактор-простором метричного простору.
Фактор-простір дійсних чисел R одержаний ідентифікацією цілих чисел Z є секвенційним простором, що не задовольняє першу аксіому зліченності.
Топологічний простір із козліченною топологією на незліченній множині не є секвенційним. Кожна збіжна послідовність у такому просторі є константою починаючи з якогось номера, тому кожна множина є секвенційно відкритою. Але козліченна топологія не є дискретною.
Категорні властивості
Повна підкатегорія Seq усіх секвенційних просторів є замкнутою щодо таких операцій у категорії топологічних просторів Top:
Фактор-простори
Неперервні відкриті чи замкнуті образи
Суми топологічних просторів
Фінальні топології
Відкриті і замкнуті підпростори
Натомість Seq не є замкнутою щодо таких операцій у Top:
Неперервні образи
Підпростори
Скінченні добутки
Оскільки вони є замкнутими щодо сум і фактор-просторів, секвенційні простори утворюють корефлективну підкатегорію категорії топологічних просторів. Більш того вони є корефлективною оболонкою метризовних просторів (тобто найменшим класом топологічних просторів, що є замкнутим відносно сум і фактор-просторів і містить метризовні простори).
Підкатегорія Seq є декартово замкнутою щодо свого добутку (не добутку у Top). Її експоненційні об'єкти наділені топологією збіжних послідовностей. P.I. Booth і A. Tillotson довели, що Seq є найменшою декартово замкнутою підкатегорією категорії Top, що містить топологічні простори усіх метричних просторів, CW-комплексів, диференційовних многовидів і є замкнутою щодо кограниць, фактор-категорій і деяких додаткових рівностей введених Норманом Стінродом.
Див. також
Перша аксіома зліченності
Примітки
Джерела
Arkhangel'skii, A.V. and Pontryagin, L.S., General Topology I, Springer-Verlag, New York (1990) .
Booth, P.I. and Tillotson, A., Monoidal closed, cartesian closed and convenient categories of topological spaces Pacific J. Math., 88 (1980) pp. 35–53.
Engelking, R., General Topology, Heldermann, Berlin (1989). Revised and completed edition.
Franklin, S. P., "Spaces in Which Sequences Suffice ", Fund. Math. 57 (1965), 107-115.
Franklin, S. P., "Spaces in Which Sequences Suffice II ", Fund. Math. 61 (1967), 51-56.
Goreham, Anthony, "Sequential Convergence in Topological Spaces"
Steenrod, N.E., A convenient category of topological spaces , Michigan Math. J., 14 (1967), 133-152.
Аксіоми зліченності
1965 у науці
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1907472
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0%20%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%8F
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Домусульманська Аравія
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Домусульманська Аравія — період, що охоплює історію Аравійського півострова до появи ісламу і створення Праведного халіфату в VII столітті. В ісламській теології культура доісламського періоду позначається терміном «джагілія», що перекладається як «часи невігластва».
Вивчення домусульманської епохи також є важливим напрямком у відповідній науці.
Стан наукових досліджень
Наукові дослідження доісламських арабів починаються з арабістів початку XIX ст., коли епіграфістам вдалося розшифрувати написи південно- (X ст. до н. е.) та північноаравійською (VI ст. до н. е.) і решти письмен доісламської Аравії. Таким чином, дослідження відтоді не обмежуються письмовими традиціями, які не є місцевими через відсутність збережених звітів арабських істориків про ту епоху. Нестача матеріалу компенсується письмовими джерелами інших культур (таких як єгиптяни, греки, римляни тощо), тому події цієї епохи доволі складно реконструювати в повному об'ємі. Починаючи з III-го століття н. е., арабська історія стає більш помітною в джерелах з підйомом хим'яритів, а також з появою кахтанітів у Леванті та поступовою асиміляцією набатеїв останніми на початку перших століть н. е. Апогеєм розширення і заявлення про себе арабів стали мусульманські завоювання VII ст.
Джерела історії включають археологічні докази, іноземні розповіді та усні традиції, пізніше записані ісламськими вченими, особливо в доісламських віршах, і хадиси, а також низку давніх арабських документів, які дійшли до середньовіччя, коли їх частини цитувалися або записувалися. Археологічні дослідження на Аравійському півострові були нечисленними, але плідними; сучасні розкопки виявили багато стародавніх місць.
Найновіше детальне дослідження доісламської Аравії — «Араби та імперії до ісламу» — опубліковане видавництвом Оксофордського університету у 2015 році. У цій книзі зібрано різноманітні стародавні тексти та написи для історії, особливо північного регіону в цей період часу.
Доісторичні часи
Є докази того, що люди жили на Аравійському півострові приблизно від 106 000 до 130 000 років тому. Суворий клімат історично перешкоджав поселенням на доісламському Аравійському півострові, за винятком невеликої кількості міських торгових поселень, таких як Мекка та Медіна, розташованих у Хіджазі на заході півострова.
Більшість вчених давно визнає Аравійський півострів першоосновою семітських мов.
Хронологія
Убейдська культура (VI — поч. IV тис. до н. е.) — одна з версій вказує на її виникнення в Аравії.
Культура Умм ан-Нар (2600—2000 рр. до н.е)
Сабрська культура (2000 р. до н.е)
Культура Ваді Сук (1900—1300 рр. до н.е)
Лізк/Румайлах — Рання залізна доба (1300—300 рр. до н.е)
Самадський період — Пізня залізна доба (100 р. до н.е — 300 н. е.)
Плейстоцен
В епоху раннього палеоліту саме Аравія стала одним з перших місць, звідки людство поширилося далі в Сирію і долини Тигру та Євфрату, почавши свій шлях з Африки. В епоху верхнього палеоліту і мезоліту територію Аравії населяли племена носіїв гаплогрупи С. 130 тис. років тому Аравійський півострів був відносно спекотнішим, кількість дощових опадів була вищою, завдяки чому він був покритим рослинністю і був придатним для проживання землю. У цей час рівень Червоного моря впав, і ширина його південної частини становила всього 4 км. Це на короткий час створило для людей можливість форсування Баб-ель-Мандебської протоки, через яку вони досягли Аравії і заснували ряд перших стоянок на Близькому Сході — таких, як .
Між Червоним морем і Джебель-Файя (ОАЕ) — відстань 2000 км, де нині розташовується непридатна до життя пустеля. З кінцем льодовикового періоду в Європі клімат став більш спекотним і посушливим і Аравія перетворилася на пустелю, погано пристосовану для життя людини.
Розселення семітів
Деякі автори вважають, що Аравія була вітчизною стародавніх семітів, однієї з гілок яких були араби. Інші вважають, що семіти в V тис. до н. е. мігрували з африканського регіону Сахари. Хай там як, вони вже на рубежі IV—III тис. до н. е. влаштувалися в Аравії. Стародавні кочівники-араби поклонялися богині Аллат, шанували зірки і вірили в талісмани (культ чорного каменю сягає глибокої давнини).
Перші згадки та держави
Адити влаштувалися в Південній Аравії (сучасний Ємен), оселившись на схід від племені Кахтан. Вони заснували державу Ад приблизно від X ст. до н. е. до III століття н. е. Згадуються в Корані.
Націю Ад знали греки та єгиптяни. «Географія» Клавдія Птолемея (II ст. н. е.) називає цю територію «землею Іобаритів», регіон, який пізніше в легенді назвали Убарі, який також згадується в Корані під назвою Ірам.
Мідіяни — один з народів, що згадуються в Книзі Буття та Корані. Походження мідіянців не встановлено. Через мікенські мотиви на тому, що називається мідіянською керамікою, деякі вчені, зокрема Джордж Менденголл, Пітер Парр і Бено Ротенберґ, припустили, що мідіяни спочатку були народами моря, які мігрували з регіону Егейського моря, та згодом зазнали впливу семітів, переселившись на їх землі. Питання про походження досі залишається відкритим. У пізніші часи мідіяни, ймовірно, змішалися з іншими кочовими народами Аравії і втратили свою самобутність.
Традиційно відомості про існування мідіянців ґрунтувалися виключно на біблійних і класичних джерелах, але нещодавно посилання на регіон Мідіян було виявлено в тайманському написі, датованому до IX століття до нашої ери.
Маккан засвідчено як назву торгового партнера шумерів. Це була гірнична країна, яка поставляла мідь і діорит. Часто припускають, що вона знаходилася на теренах сучасного Оману. Найдавніші знахідки міді та перші рудники датують тут III тис. до н. е. Основний район розробок зосереджувався в горах поблизу Оманської затоки, де на території площею близько 30 тис. км² розташовувалось більше 100 мідних родовищ і рудопроявів.
Головні тогочасні держави
В часи виникнення перших осередків цивілізацій на Східному Середземномор'ї, Месопотамії та Єгипті, Аравія, будучи на перехресті трьох континентів, Європи, Азії та Африки, не стала воротами Передньої Азії. Прадавні вогнища старосхідної культури оминули перші аравійські держави, які постали на півдні півострова — Мінейське та Сабейське царства. Джерельна база часів перших держав достатньо детальна: крім власне арабських матеріалів, повідомлення Біблії, античних авторів (Геродот, Діодор, Страбон тощо) і сусідніх народів. Проте подібні згадки зазвичай містять періодичний і малоінформативний характер.
Хадрамаут
Перші написи про державу Хадрамаут відомі з VIII ст. до н. е. Вперше воно згадується сторонньою цивілізацією в старосабейському написі Карабіль-Ватар з початку VII ст. до н. е., в якому правитель Хадрамаута, Ядаїл, згадується як один із його союзників. Дільмун вперше з'являється на шумерських клинописних глиняних табличках, датованих кінцем IV тис. до н. е., знайдених у храмі богині Інанни в місті Урук.
Держава згадується в Таблиці народів під іменем , також у Страбона під назвою Хатрамотітіс.
Саба
Сабеї були стародавнім народом, який розмовляв старою південноаравійською мовою і жив на території сучасного Ємену, на південному заході Аравійського півострова; з 2000 до н. е. до 8 століття до н. е. Деякі сабеї також жили в Д'мті, розташованому в Еритреї та північній Ефіопії, завдяки їхній гегемонії над Червоним морем. Вони тривали з початку 2-го тис. до 1-го століття до н. У 1 столітті до нашої ери воно було завойоване хим'яритами, але після розпаду першої хим'яритської імперії царів Саба і дху-Райдана Середньосабське царство знову з'явилося на початку 2 ст. Він був остаточно завойований хим'яритами наприкінці III ст.
Сабейське царство сприятливо впливало на прогрес в суміжних регіонах Африки. У VIII столітті до н. е. на ефіопських землях постала велика сабейська колонія, яка стрімко відокремилася від своєї аравійської метрополії. З прибуттям сабеїв пов'язана відома ефіопська легенда про «Соломонову династію», представниками якої нібито були ефіопські царі. Згідно з легендою, всі вони були нащадками Давньоізраїльского царя Соломона і біблійної цариці Савської, тобто, правительки Сабейського царства. Ефіопи традиційно називали царицю Савську ефіопською Македою або Білкіс. Переселення аравійців на плато Тигре призвело до поширення в Ефіопії не тільки семітських мов, а й численних навичок: кам'яного будівництва методом сухої кладки та різьбленню по каменю, розписної кераміки і ще деяких досягнень цивілізації. Змішавшись з кушитами, що мешкали в регіоні Тигре, аравійські переселенці утворили агазі — Давньоефіопську народність, на ім'я якої сучасна територія Тигре стала відома як «країна Агазі», а давньоефіопська мова — як геєз.
Аусан
Стародавнє Аусанське царство зі столицею в Хаджар Яхірр у ваді Марха, на південь від ваді Байхан, тепер позначене телем, який місцеві називають Хагар-Асфаль. Колись це було одне з найважливіших малих держав Південної Аравії. Місто було зруйноване в VII ст. до н. е. мукаррібом Саби Каріб'іл Ватар, згідно з сабейським текстом.
Хаджар Яхірр був центром надзвичайно великого міста для Південної Аравії, на яке вплинула елліністична культура, з храмами та палацовою спорудою, оточеною глинобитними будинками, з ймовірним місцем для базару чи ринку та караван-сараю.
Набатея
У II ст. до н. е. на північному заході Аравії утворилося Набатейське царство зі столицею в Петрі. Крім території Йорданії набатеї контролювали захід сучасної Саудівської Аравії (Мадаїн-Саліх), а також мали свої форпости на Синаї (Дахаб) і в південній Сирії (Ас-Сувейда). Набатейці користувалися набатейським письмом, яке послужило основою для арабського алфавіту.
Походження набатеїв залишається неясним. Через подібність звуків Єронім припустив зв'язок із племенем Небайот, згаданим у Бутті, але сучасні історики обережні щодо ранньої набатейської історії. Вавилонський полон, який почався в 597 р. до н. е. із завоюванням Єрусалима, створив вакуум влади в Юдеї, і коли ідумейці переселялися на юдейські пасовища, набатейські написи почали залишатися на території едомітян (раніше 312 р. до н. е., коли на них безуспішно напав у Петрі Антигон I). Перша достовірна поява відбулася в 312 р. до н. е., коли Єронім Кардійський, офіцер Селевкідів, згадав про набатеїв у бойовому звіті. У 50 році до н. е. давньогрецький історик Діодор Сицилійський цитував Єроніма у своїй доповіді та додавав наступне: «Так само, як Селевкіди намагалися підкорити їх, римляни зробили кілька спроб отримати в свої руки цю прибуткову торгівлю».
Петра або Села була стародавньою столицею Ідумеї; набатеї, ймовірно, зайняли стару країну ідумеїв і досягли успіху в торгівлі після того, як ідумеї скористалися вавилонським полоненням, щоб просунутися до південної Юдеї. Ця міграція, дату якої визначити неможливо, також зробила їх господарями берегів затоки Акаба та важливої гавані Елат. Тут, за словами Агатархіда, певний час вони, як руйнівники та пірати, заважали відновити торгівлю між Єгиптом і Сходом, доки їх не покарали правителі Птолемеїв Олександрії.
106 р. н. е. Набатея була захоплена Римською імперією, яка перейменувала її на Аравію Петрейску. Араби повернули регіон в ході ісламських завоювань бл. 630 р.
Хим'яр
Одночасно з Набатейським царством в південній Аравії з'являється Хим'яр, що прийшов на зміну Сабейському царству в 115 до н. е., завоювавши його бл. 280 р. н. е.
Столицею Хим'яру став . З часом (при Зу-Нувасі) у ньому сильні позиції зайняв юдаїзм. У IV та VI столітті ефіопське військо двічі розорило південно-західну Аравію. Після другого походу ефіопський гарнізон на чолі з ефіопським намісником Абрахою підняв заколот і утворив самостійну провізантійску державу Хим'яр з центром у Сані, яка стала центром поширення християнства в південній Аравії. Це була панівна держава в Аравії до 525 року нашої ери. Основою економіки було землеробство. За легендою в 570 році Абраха направив каральну експедицію в тоді ще язичницьку Мекку, яка закінчилася провалом (Рік Слона).
Зовнішня торгівля базувалася на експорті ладану та мирри. Протягом багатьох років він також був основним посередником, що зв'язував Східну Африку та Середземноморський світ. Ця торгівля в основному полягала в експорті слонової кістки з Африки для продажу в Римській імперії. Кораблі з Хим'яру регулярно подорожували східноафриканським узбережжям, і держава політично контролювала торгові міста вздовж Східної Африки.
Експансія Хим'яра в центральну Аравію призвела до появи Кінда. Геополітично орієнтовані на Візантію Кіндіти зіткнулися з «перськими арабами» під проводом Лахмідів, що кочували в низинах Євфрату. По території Аравії пройшов цивілізаційний розлам між християнською Візантією і зороастрійською Персією, в зоні якого палала запекла міжплемінна війна. У VI столітті на зміну послабленим кіндітам візантійську політику стали проводити Гассаніди, які також зазнали поразки і до кінця VI століття Аравія була перетворена на перську околицю.
Лахміди
Лахмідське царство було засноване племенем Лакхум, яке іммігрувало з Ємену в II ст. та управлялося династією Бану Лахм. Держава була сформована групою арабів-християн, які жили в Південному Іраку, і зробили Аль-Хіру своєю столицею в 266 р. Засновником династії був Амр, а його син — Імру аль-Каїс — прийняв християнство. Поступово все місто перейшло в цю віру. Впродовж свого існування, Лахміди були в васальній залежності від Сасанідів. Імру аль-Каїс мріяв про об'єднану і незалежну аравійську державу, внаслідок чого провадив агресивну військову політику.
Зокрема Лахміди тривалий час боролися з Кіндідами, здобувши перемогу. Також воювали з Гассанідами, але останніх ліквідували візантійці. 602 року перси повалили династію Лахмідів, а 611 — остаточно ліквідували царство.
Гассаніди
Гасаніди були групою християнських племен Південної Аравії, які емігрували на початку III-го ст. з Ємену до Хаврану між Йорданією і Сирією, де вони одружилися з еллінізованими римськими поселенцями та грецькомовними ранньохристиянськими громадами. Еміграція Гасанідів передавалася в багатій усній традиції південної Сирії. Згідно з ними, Гасаніди походили з міста Маріб в Ємені. У цьому місті була однойменна гребля, однак одного року було так багато дощу, що дамбу віднесло наступною повінню. Тому людям довелося виїхати. Мешканці емігрували, бажаючи жити в менш посушливих землях, і розсіялись. Прислів'я «Вони були розпорошені, як люди Саби» відноситься до того виходу в історії. Емігранти були вихідцями з південного арабського племені Азд гілки Кахлан племен Кахтані.
Релігія
Доісламські релігії в Аравії представляли арабські місцеві язичницькі вірування і давні семітські релігії, тобто ті, що передували авраамічним релігіям. Також в пізніший час ряд поповнився різними формами (зокрема єретичними) християнства, юдаїзму, самаритянства та мандеїзму, маніхейства, зороастризму, набагато рідше індуїзму та буддизму.
Згідно з ісламською традицією, арабський політеїзм був домінуючою формою релігії, заснованою на шануванні божеств і духів. Поклонялися різним богам і богиням, включаючи Хубала та богинь Аллат, Аль-Узза та Манат, у місцевих святинях і храмах, можливо, таких як Кааба в Мецці. Божества вшановували і закликали через різноманітні ритуали, включаючи паломництва та ворожіння, а також ритуальні жертвопринесення. Були запропоновані різні теорії щодо ролі Аллага в мекканській релігії. Багато фізичних описів доісламських богів пов'язані з ідолами, особливо біля Кааби, яка, за ісламською традицією, нібито містила до 360 богів.
Мистецтво
Література
В доісламський період існувала переважно усна література, передусім поезія, якій був притаманний високий рівень розвитку форми (касида). Давньоарабська моноритмічна поезія опиралася на різниці між довгими та короткими голосними і мала точно окреслені засади будови. Типовими для давньоарабської поезії були описи природи, коней і верблюдів. Серед давньоарабських поетів можна вирізнити кілька груп:
пустельні поети (Аль-Мугальгіль, якого традиційно вважають першим автором досконалої касиди)
придворні поети, пов'язані з дворами Лахмідів (Ан-Набіга аз-Зуб'яні) чи Гассанідів (Хасан ібн Сабіт, що пізніше став панегіристом Мухаммеда)
релігійні поети (Ас-Самуаль Ібн Адія)
мандрівні поети (Тааббата Шарран і Аш-Шанфара)
Основною темою усного фольклору та епосу були перекази про війну. Ці перекази дійшли до нас у вигляді розрізнених збірок, які в повному об'ємі не дійшли до нас. Проте відомий збірник «Дні арабів», що дійшов до нас через згадки в пізніших творах. В подальшому часі, після виникнення ісламу, зокрема Корану, вплив релігії відчувається майже повсюдно.
Підйом ісламу
Початок VII ст. в Аравії почався з найдовшого та найруйнівнішого періоду візантійсько-сасанідських воєн. Це залишило і Візантійську, і Сасанідську імперії виснаженими та сприйнятливими до атак третіх сторін, особливо з боку арабів-кочівників, об'єднаних під новоствореною релігією. За словами історика Джорджа Ліски, «невиправдано тривалий візантійсько-перський конфлікт відкрив шлях ісламу».
Демографічна ситуація також сприяла арабській експансії: перенаселення та брак запасів спонукали арабів до міграції з Аравії.
Падіння імперій
Перед візантійсько-сасанідською війною 602—628 рр. спалахнула чума Юстиніана (541—542 рр.), яка поширилася через Персію на територію Візантії. Візантійський історик Прокопій, який був свідком чуми, задокументував, що в Константинополі щодня вмирало 10 000 громадян. Точна кількість, однак, стає предметом дискусії сучасних істориків. Обидві імперії були назавжди ослаблені пандемією, оскільки їхні громадяни боролися зі смертю, а також із високими податками, які збільшувалися, коли кожна імперія концентрувалася на експансії.
Візантійський імператор Юстиніан I спробував відродити могутність Римської імперії, поширившись на Аравію. Півострів мав довгу берегову лінію для торговельних суден і область пишної рослинності, відому як Родючий Півмісяць, яка могла допомогти фінансувати його подальшу експансію в Європу та Північну Африку. Вторгнення на територію Персії також поклало край виплаті данини сасанідам, що призвело до угоди видавати 5 000 кг данини персам щорічно в обмін на припинення вогню.
Однак Юстиніан не міг дозволити собі подальших втрат в Аравії. Візантійці та сасаніди підтримували потужних найманців-кочівників із пустелі, які мали достатню силу, щоб запобігти можливій агресії в Аравії. Басилевс вважав своїх найманців настільки цінними за запобігання конфлікту, що нагородив їхнього вождя титулами патриція та філарха — найвищими почестями, які він міг надати будь-кому. До кінця VI-го ст. непростий мир зберігався, поки не спалахнули суперечки між найманцями та їхніми імперіями-покровительками.
Союзником Візантії було християнське арабське плем'я з кордонів пустелі, відоме як Гасаніди. Союзник сасанідів; Лахміди також були християнізованим плем'ям, але з території сучасного Іраку. Однак конфесійні розбіжності спричинили розкол між альянсами. Офіційною релігією візантійців було православне християнство, яке вважало, що Ісус Христос і Бог були двома природами в одній сутності. Гасаніди, як християни-монофізити з Іраку, вірили, що Бог та Ісус Христос були лише однією природою. Ця незгода виявилася непримиренною і призвела до остаточного розриву союзу.
Водночас імперія Сасанідів розірвала союз з Лахмідами через фальшиві звинувачення в зраді вождя Лахмідів; сасаніди анексували державу в 602 р. Родючі землі та важливі торговельні шляхи Іраку тепер були ідеально підготовлені для подальших потрясінь.
Підйом ісламу
Коли глухий кут у протистоянні нарешті посунувся і здавалося, що Візантія нарешті взяла верх у битві, араби-кочівники вторглися з кордонів пустелі, принісши з собою новий соціальний порядок, який наголошував на релігійній відданості, а не на членстві в племені.
До того часу, як у 628 році завершилася остання візантійсько-сасанідська війна, Аравія почала об’єднуватися під політико-релігійним керівництвом Мухаммеда. Напад мусульман на обидві імперії виявився вдалим, що призвело до знищення імперії Сасанідів і завоювання територій Візантії в Леванті, на Кавказі, в Єгипті, Сирії та Північній Африці.
Див. також
Стародавній Близький Схід
Історія Саудівської Аравії
Історія Бахрейну
Шлях пахощів
Рахманан
Примітки
Джерела та література
О. П. Крижанівський. Історія Стародавнього сходу: підручник // — Вид. 4-те, стереотип. — : Либідь, 2009. 592 с. ISBN 978-966-06-0661-9
І. Ш. Шифман. Набатейська держава і його культура. // — Вид. 2-ге. — : СПбДУ, 1976. 208 с. ISBN 978-5-288-04364-2
А. Г. Браницький, О. О. Корнілов. Релігії регіону. // — Нижній Новгород: ННГУ, 2013. 305 с.
Гаррієт Кроуфорд. Дільмун та його сусіди в Затоці. // — Кембридж: Видавництво Кембріджського університету, 1998. 188 с. ISBN 978-0521583480
Стюарт Мунро-Хей. Аксум: африканська цивілізація пізньої античності. // — Единбург: Видавництво Единбурзького університету, 1991. 294 с. ISBN 978-0748601066
Патрісія Кроун. Середньовічна ісламська політична думка. // — Вид. 2-ге, відредаг. — Единбург: Видавництво Единбурзького університету, 2005. 462 с. ISBN 978-0748621941
Фред Доннер. Ранні ісламські завоювання. // — Мічіган: ACLS HEB, 1986. 516 с. ISBN 978-1597402002
Метью Гордон. Розквіт ісламу. // — Індіанополіс: Hackett Publishing, 2008. 240 с. ISBN 978-0872209312
Джордж Ліска. Розширення реалізму. // — Ланем: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998. 307 с. ISBN 978-0847686797
Луїз Герберт Грей. Вступ до семітського порівняльного мовознавства: том перший // — Нью-Йорк: Видавництво Колумбійського університету, 1934. 147 с. ISBN 978-0231916264
Джон Джеймс Кортні. Мова Палестини та суміжних регіонів. // Единбург: T&T Clark, 1920. 278 с.
Бургарт Кінаст. Історичне семітське мовознавство. // Вісбаден: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2001. 641 с. ISBN 978-3447043595
Джеффрі В. Бромілі. Міжнародна стандартна біблійна енциклопедія. // — Вид. 2-ге, передрук, виправл. — Гранд-Рапідс: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1979. 1006 с. ISBN 9780802837813
Річард Булліт. Верблюд і колесо. // — Вид. 2-ге, відредаговане — Нью-Йорк: Видавництво Колумбійського університету, 1990. 327 с. ISBN 978-0231072359
Мухаммад Гафіз Гані. Абу Бакр: Коханий мого коханого. // — Вид. 1-ше — KDP (самоопублікування), 2010. 158 с. ISBN 979-8411680225
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Археологія Близького Сходу
Археологія Саудівської Аравії
Археологія Об'єднаних Арабських Еміратів
Археологія Йорданії
Археологія Оману
Археологія Ємену
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knidos
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Knidos
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Knidos or Cnidus (Knídos) was a Greek city in ancient Caria and part of the Dorian Hexapolis, in south-western Asia Minor, modern-day Turkey. It was situated on the Datça peninsula, which forms the southern side of the Sinus Ceramicus, now known as Gulf of Gökova. By the 4th century BC, Knidos was located at the site of modern Tekir, opposite Triopion Island. But earlier, it was probably at the site of modern Datça (at the half-way point of the peninsula).
It was built partly on the mainland and partly on the Island of Triopion or Cape Krio. The debate about it being an island or cape is caused by the fact that in ancient times it was connected to the mainland by a causeway and bridge. Today the connection is formed by a narrow sandy isthmus. By means of the causeway the channel between island and mainland was formed into two harbours, of which the larger, or southern, was further enclosed by two strongly built moles that are still in good part entire.
The extreme length of the city was little less than a mile, and the whole intramural area is still thickly strewn with architectural remains. The walls, both of the island and on the mainland, can be traced throughout their whole circuit; and in many places, especially round the acropolis, at the northeast corner of the city, they are remarkably perfect.
History
Antiquity
Knidos was a Hellenic city of high antiquity. According to Herodotus' Histories) (I.174), the Cnidians were Lacedaemonian colonists; however, the presence of demiurges there argues for foundation or later influence by other Doric Greeks, possibly Argives. Diodorus Siculus (Bibliotheca Historica 5.53) claimed that Cnidus was founded by both Lacedaemonians and Argives. Along with Halicarnassus (present day Bodrum, Turkey) and Kos, and the Rhodian cities of Lindos, Kamiros and Ialyssos it formed the Dorian Hexapolis, which held its confederate assemblies on the Triopian headland, and there celebrated games in honour of Apollo, Poseidon and the nymphs. This was also the site of the Temple of Aphrodite, Knidos.
The city was at first governed by an oligarchic senate, composed of sixty members, and presided over by a magistrate; but, though it is proved by inscriptions that the old names continued to a very late period, the constitution underwent a popular transformation. The situation of the city was favourable for commerce, and the Knidians acquired considerable wealth, and were able to colonize the island of Lipara, and founded a city on Corcyra Nigra in the Adriatic. They ultimately submitted to Cyrus, and from the battle of Eurymedon to the latter part of the Peloponnesian War they were subject to Athens. During the Hellenistic age, Knidos boasted a medical school; however, the theory that this school already existed at the beginning of the classical age is an unwarranted extrapolation.
In their expansion into the region, the Romans easily obtained the allegiance of Knidians, and rewarded them for help given against Antiochus III the Great by leaving them the freedom of their city.
Eudoxus, the astronomer, Ctesias, the writer on Persian history, and Sostratus, the builder of the celebrated Pharos at Alexandria, are the most remarkable of the Knidians mentioned in history. Artemidorus, a minor character in the Shakespeare play “Julius Caesar", was also from Knidos.
Byzantine era
During the Byzantine period there must still have been a considerable population: for the ruins contain a large number of buildings belonging to the Byzantine style, and Christian sepulchres are common in the neighbourhood.
Bishop Ioannes of Cnidus took part in the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE and was one of the signatories of the letter that in 458 the bishops of the Roman province of Caria, to which Cnidus belonged, wrote to Byzantine Emperor Leo I the Thracian after the murder of Proterius of Alexandria. Bishop Evander was at the Second Council of Constantinople in 553 and Bishop Stauratius at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787. No longer a residential bishopric, Cnidus is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.
Excavation history
The first Western knowledge of the modern site was due to the mission of the Dilettante Society in 1812, and the excavations executed by C. T. Newton in 1857–1858.
The agora, the theatre, an odeum, a temple of Dionysus, a temple of the Muses, a temple of Aphrodite and a great number of minor buildings have been identified, and the general plan of the city has been very clearly made out. The most famous statue by Praxiteles, the Aphrodite of Knidos, was made for Cnidus. It has perished, but late copies exist, of which the most faithful is in the Vatican Museums.
In a temple enclosure Newton discovered the fine seated statue of Demeter of Knidos, which he sent back to the British Museum, and about three miles south-east of the city he came upon the ruins of a splendid tomb, and a colossal figure of a lion carved out of one block of Pentelic marble, ten feet in length and six in height, which has been supposed to commemorate the great naval victory, the Battle of Cnidus in which Conon defeated the Lacedaemonians in 394 BC. The Knidos Lion is now displayed under the roof of the Great Court in the British Museum.
In 2022, the low tide revealed ruins of an ancient port near the site which is believed to have been the port of Knidos.
See also
Battle of Cnidus
Iris Love
List of ancient Greek cities
Notes
References
Further reading
Marin Buovac: Prilog boljem poznavanju simbolike zoomorfnih recipijenata iz antičke luke u Zatonu kraj Nina - Toward better understanding of the symbolism of the zoomorphic receptacles from the ancient port of Zaton near Nin, Diadora, vol. 31, 2017.
External links
Official website
The Knidia of Praxiteles and its setting
Archaeological sites in the Aegean Region
Greek colonies in Caria
Doric Hexapolis
Spartan colonies
Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey
Former populated places in Turkey
History of Muğla Province
Buildings and structures in Muğla Province
Members of the Delian League
Greek city-states
Populated places in ancient Caria
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Goebbels
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Joseph Goebbels
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Joseph Goebbels
Paul Joseph Goebbels (29 October 1897 – 1 May 1945) was a German Nazi politician and philologist who was the Gauleiter (district leader) of Berlin, chief propagandist for the Nazi Party, and then Reich Minister of Propaganda from 1933 to 1945. He was one of Adolf Hitler's closest and most devoted followers, known for his skills in public speaking and his deeply virulent antisemitism which was evident in his publicly voiced views. He advocated progressively harsher discrimination, including the extermination of the Jews in the Holocaust.
Goebbels, who aspired to be an author, obtained a doctorate in philology from the University of Heidelberg in 1921. He joined the Nazi Party in 1924, and worked with Gregor Strasser in its northern branch. He was appointed Gauleiter of Berlin in 1926, where he began to take an interest in the use of propaganda to promote the party and its programme. After the Nazis came to power in 1933, Goebbels's Propaganda Ministry quickly gained control over the news media, arts and information in Nazi Germany. He was particularly adept at using the relatively new media of radio and film for propaganda purposes. Topics for party propaganda included antisemitism, attacks on Christian churches, and (after the start of the Second World War) attempts to shape morale.
In 1943, Goebbels began to pressure Hitler to introduce measures that would produce "total war", including closing businesses not essential to the war effort, conscripting women into the labour force, and enlisting men in previously exempt occupations into the Wehrmacht. Hitler finally appointed him as Reich Plenipotentiary for Total War on 23 July 1944, whereby Goebbels undertook largely unsuccessful measures to increase the number of people available for armaments manufacture and the Wehrmacht.
As the war drew to a close and Nazi Germany faced defeat, Magda Goebbels and the Goebbels children joined Hitler in Berlin. They moved into the underground Vorbunker, part of Hitler's underground bunker complex, on 22 April 1945. Hitler committed suicide on 30 April. In accordance with Hitler's will, Goebbels succeeded him as Chancellor of Germany; he served one day in this post. The following day, Goebbels and his wife Magda committed suicide, after having poisoned their six children with a cyanide compound.
Early life, education, and relationships
Paul Joseph Goebbels was born on 29 October 1897 in Rheydt, an industrial town south of Mönchengladbach near Düsseldorf, Germany. Both of his parents were Roman Catholics with modest family backgrounds. His father Fritz was a German factory clerk; his mother Katharina Maria (née Odenhausen) was born to Dutch and German parents in a Dutch village close to the border with Germany. Goebbels had five siblings: Konrad (1893–1949), Hans (1895–1947), Maria (1896–1896), Elisabeth (1901–1915), and Maria (1910–1949), who married the German filmmaker Max W. Kimmich in 1938. In 1932, Goebbels commissioned the publication of a pamphlet of his family tree to refute the rumours that his maternal grandmother was of Jewish ancestry.
During childhood, Goebbels experienced ill health, which included a long bout of inflammation of the lungs. He had a deformed right foot that turned inwards, due to a congenital disorder. It was thicker and shorter than his left foot. Just prior to starting grammar school, he underwent an operation that failed to correct the problem. Goebbels wore a metal brace and a special shoe because of his shortened leg and walked with a limp. He was rejected for military service in World War I because of this deformity.
Goebbels was educated at a Gymnasium, where he completed his Abitur (university entrance examination) in 1917. He was the top student of his class and was given the traditional honour to speak at the awards ceremony. His parents initially hoped that he would become a Catholic priest, which Goebbels seriously considered. He studied literature and history at the universities of Bonn, Würzburg, Freiburg, and Munich, aided by a scholarship from the Albertus Magnus Society. By this time Goebbels had begun to distance himself from the church.
Historians, including Richard J. Evans and Roger Manvell, speculate that Goebbels' lifelong pursuit of women may have been in compensation for his physical disability. At Freiburg, he met and fell in love with Anka Stalherm, who was three years his senior. She went on to Würzburg to continue school, as did Goebbels. By 1920, the relationship with Anka was over; the break-up filled Goebbels with thoughts of suicide. In 1921, he wrote a semi-autobiographical novel, Michael, a three-part work of which only Parts I and III have survived. Goebbels felt he was writing his "own story". Antisemitic content and material about a charismatic leader may have been added by Goebbels shortly before the book was published in 1929 by Eher-Verlag, the publishing house of the Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers' Party; NSDAP).
At the University of Heidelberg, Goebbels wrote his doctoral thesis on Wilhelm von Schütz, a minor 19th-century romantic dramatist. He had hoped to write his thesis under the supervision of Friedrich Gundolf, a literary historian. It did not seem to bother Goebbels that Gundolf was Jewish. Gundolf was no longer teaching, so directed Goebbels to associate professor Max Freiherr von Waldberg. Waldberg, who was also Jewish, recommended Goebbels write his thesis on Wilhelm von Schütz. After submitting the thesis and passing his oral examination, Goebbels received his PhD on 21 April 1922. By 1940, he had written 14 books.
Goebbels returned home and worked as a private tutor. He also found work as a journalist and was published in the local newspaper. His writing during that time reflected his growing antisemitism and dislike for modern culture. In the summer of 1922, he met and began a love affair with Else Janke, a schoolteacher. After she revealed to him that she was half-Jewish, Goebbels stated the "enchantment [was] ruined." Nevertheless, he continued to see her on and off until 1927.
He continued for several years to try to become a published author. His diaries, which he began in 1923 and continued for the rest of his life, provided an outlet for his desire to write. The lack of income from his literary works (he wrote two plays in 1923, neither of which sold) forced him to take employment as a caller on the stock exchange and as a bank clerk in Cologne, a job he detested. He was dismissed from the bank in August 1923 and returned to Rheydt. During this period, he read avidly and was influenced by the works of Oswald Spengler, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, and Houston Stewart Chamberlain, the British-born German writer whose book The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century (1899) was one of the standard works of the extreme right in Germany. He also began to study the "social question" and read the works of Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Rosa Luxemburg, August Bebel and Gustav Noske. According to German historian Peter Longerich, Goebbels's diary entries from late 1923 to early 1924 reflected the writings of a man who was isolated, preoccupied with "religious-philosophical" issues, and lacked a sense of direction. Diary entries of mid-December 1923 forward show Goebbels was moving towards the Völkisch nationalist movement.
Nazi activist
Goebbels first took an interest in Adolf Hitler and Nazism in 1924. In February 1924, Hitler's trial for treason began in the wake of his failed attempt to seize power in the Beer Hall Putsch of 8–9 November 1923. The trial attracted widespread press coverage and gave Hitler a platform for propaganda. Hitler was sentenced to five years in prison, but was released on 20 December 1924, after serving just over a year, including pre-trial detention. Goebbels was drawn to the Nazi Party mostly because of Hitler's charisma and commitment to his beliefs. He joined the Nazi Party around this time, becoming member number 8762. In late 1924, Goebbels offered his services to Karl Kaufmann, who was Gauleiter (Nazi Party district leader) for the Rhine-Ruhr District. Kaufmann put him in touch with Gregor Strasser, a leading Nazi organiser in northern Germany, who hired him to work on their weekly newspaper and undertake secretarial work for the regional party offices. He was also put to work as party speaker and representative for Rhineland-Westphalia. Strasser founded the National Socialist Working Association on 10 September 1925, a short-lived group of about a dozen northern and western German Gauleiter; Goebbels became its business manager and the editor of its biweekly journal, NS-Briefe. Members of Strasser's northern branch of the Nazi Party, including Goebbels, had a more socialist outlook than the rival Hitler group in Munich. Strasser disagreed with Hitler on many parts of the party platform, and in November 1926 began working on a revision.
Hitler viewed Strasser's actions as a threat to his authority, and summoned 60 Gauleiters and party leaders, including Goebbels, to a special conference in Bamberg, in Streicher's Gau of Franconia, where he gave a two-hour speech repudiating Strasser's new political programme. Hitler was opposed to the socialist leanings of the northern wing, stating it would mean "political bolshevization of Germany." Further, there would be "no princes, only Germans," and a legal system with no "Jewish system of exploitation ... for plundering of our people." The future would be secured by acquiring land, not through expropriation of the estates of the former nobility, but through colonising territories to the east. Goebbels was horrified by Hitler's characterisation of socialism as "a Jewish creation" and his assertion that a Nazi government would not expropriate private property. He wrote in his diary: "I no longer fully believe in Hitler. That's the terrible thing: my inner support has been taken away."
After reading Hitler's book Mein Kampf, Goebbels found himself agreeing with Hitler's assertion of a "Jewish doctrine of Marxism". In February 1926, Goebbels gave a speech titled "Bolshevism or National-socialism? Lenin or Hitler?" in which he asserted that communism or Marxism could not save the German people, but he believed it would cause a "socialist nationalist state" to arise in Russia. In 1926, Goebbels published a pamphlet titled Nazi-Sozi which attempted to explain how National Socialism differed from Marxism.
In hopes of winning over the opposition, Hitler arranged meetings in Munich with the three Greater Ruhr Gau leaders, including Goebbels. Goebbels was impressed when Hitler sent his own car to meet them at the railway station. That evening, Hitler and Goebbels both gave speeches at a beer hall rally. The following day, Hitler offered his hand in reconciliation to the three men, encouraging them to put their differences behind them. Goebbels capitulated completely, offering Hitler his total loyalty. He wrote in his diary: "I love him ... He has thought through everything," "Such a sparkling mind can be my leader. I bow to the greater one, the political genius." He later wrote: "Adolf Hitler, I love you because you are both great and simple at the same time. What one calls a genius." As a result of the Bamberg and Munich meetings, the National Socialist Working Association was disbanded. Strasser's new draft of the party programme was discarded, the original National Socialist Program of 1920 was retained unchanged, and Hitler's position as party leader was greatly strengthened.
Propagandist in Berlin
At Hitler's invitation, Goebbels spoke at party meetings in Munich and at the annual Party Congress, held in Weimar in 1926. For the following year's event, Goebbels was involved in the planning for the first time. He and Hitler arranged for the rally to be filmed. Receiving praise for doing well at these events led Goebbels to shape his political ideas to match Hitler's, and to admire and idolise him even more.
Gauleiter
Goebbels was first offered the position of party Gauleiter for the Berlin section in August 1926. He travelled to Berlin in mid-September and by the middle of October accepted the position. Thus Hitler's plan to divide and dissolve the northwestern Gauleiters group that Goebbels had served in under Strasser was successful. Hitler gave Goebbels great authority over the area, allowing him to determine the course for organisation and leadership for the Gau. Goebbels was given control over the local Sturmabteilung (SA) and Schutzstaffel (SS) and answered only to Hitler. The party membership numbered about 1,000 when Goebbels arrived, and he reduced it to a core of 600 of the most active and promising members. To raise money, he instituted membership fees and began charging admission to party meetings. Aware of the value of publicity (both positive and negative), he deliberately provoked beer-hall battles and street brawls, including violent attacks on the Communist Party of Germany (KPD). Goebbels adapted recent developments in commercial advertising to the political sphere, including the use of catchy slogans and subliminal cues. His new ideas for poster design included using large type, red ink, and cryptic headers that encouraged the reader to examine the fine print to determine the meaning.
Like Hitler, Goebbels practised his public speaking skills in front of a mirror. Meetings were preceded by ceremonial marches and singing, and the venues were decorated with party banners. His entrance (almost always late) was timed for maximum emotional impact. Goebbels usually meticulously planned his speeches ahead of time, using pre-planned and choreographed inflection and gestures, but he was also able to improvise and adapt his presentation to make a good connection with his audience. He used loudspeakers, decorative flames, uniforms, and marches to attract attention to speeches.
Goebbels' tactic of using provocation to bring attention to the Nazi Party, along with violence at the public party meetings and demonstrations, led the Berlin police to ban the Nazi Party from the city on 5 May 1927. Violent incidents continued, including young Nazis randomly attacking Jews in the streets. Goebbels was subjected to a public speaking ban until the end of October. During this period, he founded the newspaper Der Angriff (The Attack) as a propaganda vehicle for the Berlin area, where few supported the party. It was a modern-style newspaper with an aggressive tone; 126 libel suits were pending against Goebbels at one point. To his disappointment, circulation was initially only 2,000. Material in the paper was highly anti-communist and antisemitic. Among the paper's favourite targets was the Jewish Deputy Chief of the Berlin Police Bernhard Weiß. Goebbels gave him the derogatory nickname "Isidore" and subjected him to a relentless campaign of Jew-baiting in the hope of provoking a crackdown he could then exploit. Goebbels continued to try to break into the literary world, with a revised version of his book Michael finally being published, and the unsuccessful production of two of his plays (Der Wanderer and Die Saat (The Seed)). The latter was his final attempt at playwriting. During this period in Berlin he had relationships with many women, including his old flame Anka Stalherm, who was now married and had a small child. He was quick to fall in love, but easily tired of a relationship and moved on to someone new. He worried too about how a committed personal relationship might interfere with his career.
1928 election
The ban on the Nazi Party was lifted before the Reichstag elections on 20 May 1928. The Nazi Party lost nearly 100,000 voters and earned only 2.6 per cent of the vote nationwide. Results in Berlin were even worse, where they attained only 1.4 per cent of the vote. Goebbels was one of the first 12 Nazi Party members to gain election to the Reichstag. This gave him immunity from prosecution for a long list of outstanding charges, including a three-week jail sentence he received in April for insulting the deputy police chief Weiß. The Reichstag changed the immunity regulations in February 1931, and Goebbels was forced to pay fines for libellous material he had placed in Der Angriff over the course of the previous year. Goebbels continued to be elected to the Reichstag at every subsequent election during the Weimar and Nazi regimes.
In his newspaper Berliner Arbeiterzeitung (Berlin Workers Newspaper), Gregor Strasser was highly critical of Goebbels' failure to attract the urban vote. However, the party as a whole did much better in rural areas, attracting as much as 18 per cent of the vote in some regions. This was partly because Hitler had publicly stated just prior to the election that Point 17 of the party programme, which mandated the expropriation of land without compensation, would apply only to Jewish speculators and not private landholders. After the election, the party refocused their efforts to try to attract still more votes in the agricultural sector. In May, shortly after the election, Hitler considered appointing Goebbels as party propaganda chief. But he hesitated, as he worried that the removal of Gregor Strasser from the post would lead to a split in the party. Goebbels considered himself well suited to the position, and began to formulate ideas about how propaganda could be used in schools and the media.
By 1930 Berlin was the party's second-strongest base of support after Munich. That year the violence between the Nazis and communists led to local SA troop leader Horst Wessel being shot by two members of the KPD. He later died in hospital. Exploiting Wessel's death, Goebbels turned him into a martyr for the Nazi movement. He officially declared Wessel's march Die Fahne hoch (Raise the flag), renamed as the Horst-Wessel-Lied, to be the Nazi Party anthem.
Great Depression
The Great Depression greatly impacted Germany and by 1930 there was a dramatic increase in unemployment. During this time, the Strasser brothers started publishing a new daily newspaper in Berlin, the Nationaler Sozialist. Like their other publications, it conveyed the brothers' own brand of Nazism, including nationalism, anti-capitalism, social reform, and anti-Westernism. Goebbels complained vehemently about the rival Strasser newspapers to Hitler and admitted that their success was causing his own Berlin newspapers to be "pushed to the wall". In late April 1930, Hitler publicly and firmly announced his opposition to Gregor Strasser and appointed Goebbels to replace him as Reich leader of Nazi Party propaganda. One of Goebbels' first acts was to ban the evening edition of the Nationaler Sozialist. Goebbels was also given control of other Nazi papers across the country, including the party's national newspaper, the Völkischer Beobachter (People's Observer). He still had to wait until 3 July for Otto Strasser and his supporters to announce they were leaving the Nazi Party. Upon receiving the news, Goebbels was relieved the "crisis" with the Strassers was finally over and glad that Otto Strasser had lost all power.
The rapid deterioration of the economy led to the resignation on 27 March 1930 of the coalition government that had been elected in 1928. Paul von Hindenburg appointed Heinrich Brüning as chancellor. A new cabinet was formed, and Hindenburg used his power as president to govern via emergency decrees. Goebbels took charge of the Nazi Party's national campaign for Reichstag elections called for 14 September 1930. Campaigning was undertaken on a huge scale, with thousands of meetings and speeches held all over the country. Hitler's speeches focused on blaming the country's economic woes on the Weimar Republic, particularly its adherence to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which required war reparations that had proven devastating to the German economy. He proposed a new German society based on race and national unity. The resulting success took even Hitler and Goebbels by surprise: the party received 6.5 million votes nationwide and took 107 seats in the Reichstag, making it the second-largest party in the country.
In late 1930 Goebbels met Magda Quandt, a divorcée who had joined the party a few months earlier. She worked as a volunteer in the party offices in Berlin, helping Goebbels organise his private papers. Her flat on Reichskanzlerplatz soon became a favourite meeting place for Hitler and other Nazi Party officials. Goebbels and Quandt married on 19 December 1931 at a Protestant church. Hitler was his best man.
For two further elections held in 1932, Goebbels organised massive campaigns that included rallies, parades, speeches, and Hitler travelling around the country by aeroplane with the slogan "the Führer over Germany". Goebbels wrote in his diary that the Nazis must gain power and exterminate Marxism. He undertook numerous speaking tours during these election campaigns and had some of their speeches published on gramophone records and as pamphlets. Goebbels was also involved in the production of a small collection of silent films that could be shown at party meetings, though they did not yet have enough equipment to widely use this medium. Many of Goebbels' campaign posters used violent imagery such as a giant half-clad male destroying political opponents or other perceived enemies such as "International High Finance". His propaganda characterised the opposition as "November criminals", "Jewish wire-pullers", or a communist threat.
Role in Hitler's government
Support for the party continued to grow, but neither of these elections led to a majority government. In an effort to stabilise the country and improve economic conditions, Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Reich chancellor on 30 January 1933.
To celebrate Hitler's appointment as chancellor, Goebbels organised a torchlight parade in Berlin on the night of 30 January of an estimated 60,000 men, many in the uniforms of the SA and SS. The spectacle was covered by a live state radio broadcast, with commentary by longtime party member and future Minister of Aviation Hermann Göring. Goebbels was disappointed not to be given a post in Hitler's new cabinet. Bernhard Rust was appointed as Minister of Culture, the post that Goebbels was expecting to receive. Like other Nazi Party officials, Goebbels had to deal with Hitler's leadership style of giving contradictory orders to his subordinates, while placing them into positions where their duties and responsibilities overlapped. In this way, Hitler fostered distrust, competition, and infighting among his subordinates to consolidate and maximise his own power. The Nazi Party took advantage of the Reichstag fire of 27 February 1933, with Hindenburg passing the Reichstag Fire Decree the following day at Hitler's urging. This was the first of several pieces of legislation that dismantled democracy in Germany and put a totalitarian dictatorship—headed by Hitler—in its place. On 5 March, yet another Reichstag election took place, the last to be held before the defeat of the Nazis at the end of the Second World War. While the Nazi Party increased their number of seats and percentage of the vote, it was not the landslide expected by the party leadership. Goebbels finally received Hitler's appointment to the cabinet, officially becoming head of the newly created Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda on 14 March.
The role of the new ministry, which set up its offices in the 18th-century Ordenspalais across from the Reich Chancellery, was to centralise Nazi control of all aspects of German cultural and intellectual life. Goebbels hoped to increase popular support of the party from the 37 per cent achieved at the last free election held in Germany on 25 March 1933 to 100 per cent support. An unstated goal was to present to other nations the impression that the Nazi Party had the full and enthusiastic backing of the entire population. One of Goebbels' first productions was staging the Day of Potsdam, a ceremonial passing of power from Hindenburg to Hitler, held in Potsdam on 21 March. He composed the text of Hitler's decree authorising the Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses, held on 1 April. Later that month, Goebbels travelled back to Rheydt, where he was given a triumphal reception. The townsfolk lined the main street, which had been renamed in his honour. On the following day, Goebbels was declared a local hero.
Goebbels converted the 1 May holiday from a celebration of workers' rights (observed as such especially by the communists) into a day celebrating the Nazi Party. In place of the usual ad hoc labour celebrations, he organised a huge party rally held at Tempelhof Field in Berlin. The following day, all trade union offices in the country were forcibly disbanded by the SA and SS, and the Nazi-run German Labour Front was created to take their place. "We are the masters of Germany," he commented in his diary entry of 3 May. Less than two weeks later, he gave a speech at the Nazi book burning in Berlin on 10 May, a ceremony he suggested.
Meanwhile, the Nazi Party began passing laws to marginalise Jews and remove them from German society. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, passed on 7 April 1933, forced all non-Aryans to retire from the legal profession and civil service. Similar legislation soon deprived Jewish members of other professions of their right to practise. The first Nazi concentration camps (initially created to house political dissenters) were founded shortly after Hitler seized power. In a process termed Gleichschaltung (coordination), the Nazi Party proceeded to rapidly bring all aspects of life under control of the party. All civilian organisations, including agricultural groups, volunteer organisations, and sports clubs, had their leadership replaced with Nazi sympathisers or party members. By June 1933, virtually the only organisations not in the control of the Nazi Party were the army and the churches. On 2 June 1933, Hitler appointed Goebbels a Reichsleiter, the second highest political rank in the Nazi Party. On 3 October 1933, on the formation of the Academy for German Law, Goebbels was made a member and given a seat on its executive committee.
In a move to manipulate Germany's middle class and shape popular opinion, the regime passed on 4 October 1933 the Schriftleitergesetz (Editor's Law), which became the cornerstone of the Nazi Party's control of the popular press. Modelled to some extent on the system in Benito Mussolini's Fascist Italy, the law defined a Schriftleiter as anyone who wrote, edited, or selected texts and/or illustrated material for serial publication. Individuals selected for this position were chosen based on experiential, educational, and racial criteria. The law required journalists to "regulate their work in accordance with National Socialism as a philosophy of life and as a conception of government."
In 1934, Goebbels published Vom Kaiserhof zur Reichskanzlei ("From the Kaiserhof to the Reich Chancellery"), his account of Hitler's seizure of power, which he based on his diary from 1 January 1932 to 1 May 1933. The book sought to glorify both Hitler and the author. It sold around 660,000 copies, making it Goebbels's best-selling publication during his lifetime.
At the end of June 1934, top officials of the SA and opponents of the regime, including Gregor Strasser, were arrested and killed in a purge later called the Night of Long Knives. Goebbels was present at the arrest of SA leader Ernst Röhm in Munich. On 2 August 1934, President von Hindenburg died. In a radio broadcast, Goebbels announced that the offices of president and chancellor had been combined, and Hitler had been formally named as Führer und Reichskanzler (leader and chancellor).
Workings of the Ministry
The propaganda ministry was organised into seven departments: administration and legal; mass rallies, public health, youth, and race; radio; national and foreign press; films and film censorship; art, music, and theatre; and protection against counter-propaganda, both foreign and domestic. Goebbels's style of leadership was tempestuous and unpredictable. He would suddenly change direction and shift his support between senior associates; he was a difficult boss and liked to berate his staff in public. Goebbels was successful at his job, however; Life wrote in 1938 that "[p]ersonally he likes nobody, is liked by nobody, and runs the most efficient Nazi department." John Gunther wrote in 1940 that Goebbels "is the cleverest of all the Nazis", but could not succeed Hitler because "everybody hates him".
The Reich Film Chamber, which all members of the film industry were required to join, was created in June 1933. Goebbels promoted the development of films with a Nazi slant, and ones that contained subliminal or overt propaganda messages. Under the auspices of the Reichskulturkammer (Reich Chamber of Culture), created in September, Goebbels added additional sub-chambers for the fields of broadcasting, fine arts, literature, music, the press, and the theatre. As in the film industry, anyone wishing to pursue a career in these fields had to be a member of the corresponding chamber. In this way anyone whose views were contrary to the regime could be excluded from working in their chosen field and thus silenced. In addition, journalists (now considered employees of the state) were required to prove Aryan descent back to the year 1800, and if married, the same requirement applied to the spouse. Members of any chamber were not allowed to leave the country for their work without prior permission of their chamber. A committee was established to censor books, and works could not be re-published unless they were on the list of approved works. Similar regulations applied to other fine arts and entertainment; even cabaret performances were censored. Many German artists and intellectuals left Germany in the pre-war years rather than work under these restrictions.
Goebbels was particularly interested in controlling the radio, which was then still a fairly new mass medium. Sometimes under protest from individual states (particularly Prussia, headed by Göring), Goebbels gained control of radio stations nationwide, and placed them under the Reichs-Rundfunk-Gesellschaft (German National Broadcasting Corporation) in July 1934. Manufacturers were urged by Goebbels to produce inexpensive home receivers, called Volksempfänger (people's receiver), and by 1938 nearly ten million sets had been sold. Loudspeakers were placed in public areas, factories, and schools, so that important party broadcasts would be heard live by nearly all Germans. On 2 September 1939 (the day after the start of the war), Goebbels and the Council of Ministers proclaimed it illegal to listen to foreign radio stations. Disseminating news from foreign broadcasts could result in the death penalty. Albert Speer, Hitler's architect and later Minister for Armaments and War Production, later said the regime "made the complete use of all technical means for domination of its own country. Through technical devices like the radio and loudspeaker, 80 million people were deprived of independent thought."
A major focus of Nazi propaganda was Hitler himself, who was glorified as a heroic and infallible leader and became the focus of a cult of personality. Much of this was spontaneous, but some was stage-managed as part of Goebbels' propaganda work. Adulation of Hitler was the focus of the 1934 Nuremberg Rally, where his moves were carefully choreographed. The rally was the subject of the film Triumph of the Will, one of several Nazi propaganda films directed by Leni Riefenstahl. It won the gold medal at the 1935 Venice Film Festival. At the 1935 Nazi party congress rally at Nuremberg, Goebbels declared that "Bolshevism is the declaration of war by Jewish-led international subhumans against culture itself."
Goebbels was involved in planning the staging of the 1936 Summer Olympics, held in Berlin. It was around this time that he met and started having an affair with the actress Lída Baarová, whom he continued to see until 1938. A major project in 1937 was the Degenerate Art Exhibition, organised by Goebbels, which ran in Munich from July to November. The exhibition proved wildly popular, attracting over two million visitors. A degenerate music exhibition took place the following year. Meanwhile, Goebbels was disappointed by the lack of quality in the National Socialist artwork, films, and literature.
Church struggle
In 1933, Hitler signed the Reichskonkordat (Reich Concordat), a treaty with the Vatican that required the regime to honour the independence of Catholic institutions and prohibited clergy from involvement in politics. However, the regime continued to target the Christian churches to weaken their influence. Throughout 1935 and 1936, hundreds of clergy and nuns were arrested, often on trumped up charges of currency smuggling or sexual offences. Goebbels widely publicised the trials in his propaganda campaigns, showing the cases in the worst possible light. Restrictions were placed on public meetings, and Catholic publications faced censorship. Catholic schools were required to reduce religious instruction and crucifixes were removed from state buildings. Hitler often vacillated on whether or not the Kirchenkampf (church struggle) should be a priority, but his frequent inflammatory comments on the issue were enough to convince Goebbels to intensify his work on the issue; in February 1937 he stated he wanted to eliminate the Protestant church.
In response to the persecution, Pope Pius XI had the "Mit brennender Sorge" ("With Burning Concern") Encyclical smuggled into Germany for Passion Sunday 1937 and read from every pulpit. It denounced the systematic hostility of the regime toward the church. In response, Goebbels renewed the regime's crackdown and propaganda against Catholics. His speech of 28 May in Berlin in front of 20,000 party members, which was also broadcast on the radio, attacked the Catholic church as morally corrupt. As a result of the propaganda campaign, enrolment in denominational schools dropped sharply, and by 1939 all such schools were disbanded or converted to public facilities. Harassment and threats of imprisonment led the clergy to be much more cautious in their criticism of the regime. Partly out of foreign policy concerns, Hitler ordered a scaling back of the church struggle by the end of July 1937.
Antisemitism and the Holocaust
Goebbels was antisemitic from a young age. After joining the Nazi Party and meeting Hitler, his antisemitism grew and became more radical. He began to see the Jews as a destructive force with a negative impact on German society. In 1930, he criticised Italian Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini for his relative lack of hostility towards Jews, stating that "Mussolini appears to have not recognized the Jewish question." After the Nazis seized control, he repeatedly urged Hitler to take action against the Jews. Despite his extreme antisemitism, Goebbels spoke of the "rubbish of race-materialism" and of the unnecessity of biological racism for the Nazi ideology. He also described Himmler's ideology as "in many regards, mad" and thought Alfred Rosenberg's racial theories were ridiculous.
The Nazi Party's goal was to remove Jews from German cultural and economic life, and eventually to remove them from the country altogether. In addition to his propaganda efforts, Goebbels actively promoted the persecution of the Jews through pogroms, legislation, and other actions. Discriminatory measures he instituted in Berlin in the early years of the regime included bans against their using public transport and requiring that Jewish shops be marked as such.
In November 1938, the German diplomat Ernst vom Rath was killed in Paris by the young Jewish man Herschel Grynszpan. In response, Goebbels arranged for inflammatory antisemitic material to be released by the press, and the result was the start of a pogrom. Jews were attacked and synagogues destroyed all over Germany. The situation was further inflamed by a speech Goebbels gave at a party meeting on the night of 8 November, where he obliquely called for party members to incite further violence against Jews while making it appear to be a spontaneous series of acts by the German people. At least a hundred Jews were killed, several hundred synagogues were damaged or destroyed, and thousands of Jewish shops were vandalised in an event called Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass). Around 30,000 Jewish men were sent to concentration camps. The destruction stopped after a conference held on 12 November, where Göring pointed out that the destruction of Jewish property was in effect the destruction of German property since the intention was that it would all eventually be confiscated.
Goebbels continued his intensive antisemitic propaganda campaign that culminated in Hitler's 30 January 1939 Reichstag speech, which Goebbels helped to write:
While Goebbels had been pressing for expulsion of the Berlin Jews since 1935, there were still 62,000 living in the city in 1940. Part of the delay in their deportation was that they were needed as workers in the armaments industry. Deportations of German Jews began in October 1941, with the first transport from Berlin leaving on 18 October. Some Jews were shot immediately on arrival in destinations such as Riga and Kaunas. In preparation for the deportations, Goebbels ordered that all German Jews wear an identifying yellow badge as of 5 September 1941. On 6 March 1942, Goebbels received a copy of the minutes of the Wannsee Conference, which indicated indirectly that the Jewish population of Europe was to be sent to extermination camps in occupied areas of Poland and killed. His diary entries of the period show that he was well aware of the fate of the Jews. "In general, it can probably be established that 60 per cent of them will have to be liquidated, while only 40 per cent can be put to work. ... A judgment is being carried out on the Jews which is barbaric but thoroughly deserved," he wrote on 27 March 1942.
Goebbels had frequent discussions with Hitler about the fate of the Jews, a subject they discussed almost every time they met. He was aware throughout that the Jews were being exterminated, and completely supported this decision. He was one of the few top Nazi officials to do so publicly.
World War II
As early as February 1933, Hitler announced that rearmament must be undertaken, albeit clandestinely at first, as to do so was in violation of the Versailles Treaty. A year later he told his military leaders that 1942 was the target date for going to war in the east. Goebbels was one of the most enthusiastic supporters of Hitler aggressively pursuing Germany's expansionist policies sooner rather than later. At the time of the Reoccupation of the Rhineland in 1936, Goebbels summed up his general attitude in his diary: "[N]ow is the time for action. Fortune favors the brave! He who dares nothing wins nothing." In the lead-up to the Sudetenland crisis in 1938, Goebbels took the initiative time and again to use propaganda to whip up sympathy for the Sudeten Germans while campaigning against the Czech government. Still, Goebbels was well aware there was a growing "war panic" in Germany and so by July had the press conduct propaganda efforts at a lower level of intensity. After the western powers acceded to Hitler's demands concerning Czechoslovakia in 1938, Goebbels soon redirected his propaganda machine against Poland. From May onwards, he orchestrated a campaign against Poland, fabricating stories about atrocities against ethnic Germans in Danzig and other cities. Even so, he was unable to persuade the majority of Germans to welcome the prospect of war. He privately held doubts about the wisdom of risking a protracted war against Britain and France by attacking Poland.
After the Invasion of Poland in September 1939, Goebbels used his propaganda ministry and the Reich chambers to control access to information domestically. To his chagrin, his rival Joachim von Ribbentrop, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, continually challenged Goebbels' jurisdiction over the dissemination of international propaganda. Hitler declined to make a firm ruling on the subject, so the two men remained rivals for the remainder of the Nazi era. Goebbels did not participate in the military decision-making process, nor was he made privy to diplomatic negotiations until after the fact.
The Propaganda Ministry took over the broadcasting facilities of conquered countries immediately after surrender, and began broadcasting prepared material using the existing announcers as a way to gain the trust of the citizens. Most aspects of the media, both domestically and in the conquered countries, were controlled by Goebbels and his department. The German Home Service, the Armed Forces Programme, and the German European Service were all rigorously controlled in everything from the information they were permitted to disseminate to the music they were allowed to play. Party rallies, speeches, and demonstrations continued; speeches were broadcast on the radio and short propaganda films were exhibited using 1,500 mobile film vans. Hitler made fewer public appearances and broadcasts as the war progressed, so Goebbels increasingly became the voice of the Nazi regime for the German people. From May 1940 he wrote frequent editorials that were published in Das Reich which were later read aloud over the radio. He found films to be his most effective propaganda medium, after radio. At his insistence, initially half the films made in wartime Germany were propaganda films (particularly on antisemitism) and war propaganda films (recounting both historical wars and current exploits of the Wehrmacht).
Goebbels became preoccupied with morale and the efforts of the people on the home front. He believed that the more the people at home were involved in the war effort, the better their morale would be. For example, he initiated a programme for the collection of winter clothing and ski equipment for troops on the eastern front. At the same time, Goebbels implemented changes to have more "entertaining material" in radio and film produced for the public, decreeing in late 1942 that 20 per cent of the films should be propaganda and 80 per cent light entertainment. As Gauleiter of Berlin, Goebbels dealt with increasingly serious shortages of necessities such as food and clothing, as well as the need to ration beer and tobacco, which were important for morale. Hitler suggested watering the beer and degrading the quality of the cigarettes so that more could be produced, but Goebbels refused, saying the cigarettes were already of such low quality that it was impossible to make them any worse. Through his propaganda campaigns, he worked hard to maintain an appropriate level of morale among the public about the military situation, neither too optimistic nor too grim. The series of military setbacks the Germans suffered in this period – the thousand-bomber raid on Cologne (May 1942), the Allied victory at the Second Battle of El Alamein (November 1942), and especially the catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad (February 1943) – were difficult matters to present to the German public, who were increasingly weary of the war and sceptical that it could be won. On 16 November 1942 Goebbels, like all Gauleiters, was appointed the Reich Defense Commissioner for his Gau. This enabled him to issue direct instructions to authorities within his jurisdiction in matters concerning the civilian war effort. On 15 January 1943, Hitler appointed Goebbels as head of the newly created Air Raid Damage committee, which meant Goebbels was nominally in charge of nationwide civil air defences and shelters as well as the assessment and repair of damaged buildings. In actuality, the defence of areas other than Berlin remained in the hands of the local Gauleiters, and his main tasks were limited to providing immediate aid to the affected civilians and using propaganda to improve their morale.
By early 1943, the war produced a labour crisis for the regime. Hitler created a three-man committee with representatives of the State, the army, and the party in an attempt to centralise control of the war economy. The committee members were Hans Lammers (head of the Reich Chancellery), Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, chief of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (Armed Forces High Command; OKW), and Martin Bormann, who controlled the party. The committee was intended to independently propose measures regardless of the wishes of various ministries, with Hitler reserving most final decisions to himself. The committee, soon known as the Dreierausschuß (Committee of Three), met eleven times between January and August 1943. However, they ran up against resistance from Hitler's cabinet ministers, who headed deeply entrenched spheres of influence and were excluded from the committee. Seeing it as a threat to their power, Goebbels, Göring, and Speer worked together to bring it down. The result was that nothing changed, and the Committee of Three declined into irrelevance by September 1943.
Partly in response to being excluded from the Committee of Three, Goebbels pressured Hitler to introduce measures that would produce "total war", including closing businesses not essential to the war effort, conscripting women into the labour force, and enlisting men in previously exempt occupations into the Wehrmacht. Some of these measures were implemented in an edict of 13 January, but to Goebbels' dismay, Göring demanded that his favourite restaurants in Berlin should remain open, and Lammers successfully lobbied Hitler to have women with children exempted from conscription, even if they had child care available. After receiving an enthusiastic response to his speech of 30 January 1943 on the topic, Goebbels believed he had the support of the German people in his call for total war. His next speech, the Sportpalast speech of 18 February 1943, was a passionate demand for his audience to commit to total war, which he presented as the only way to stop the Bolshevik onslaught and save the German people from destruction. The speech also had a strong antisemitic element and hinted at the extermination of the Jewish people that was already underway. The speech was presented live on radio and was filmed as well. During the live version of the speech, Goebbels accidentally begins to mention the "extermination" of the Jews; this is omitted in the published text of the speech.
Goebbels' efforts had little impact for the time being, because Hitler, who in principle was in favour of total war, was not prepared to implement changes over the objections of his ministers. The discovery around this time of a mass grave of Polish officers that had been killed by the Red Army in the 1940 Katyn massacre was made use of by Goebbels in his propaganda in an attempt to drive a wedge between the Soviets and the other western allies.
Plenipotentiary for total war
After the Allied invasion of Sicily (July 1943) and the strategic Soviet victory in the Battle of Kursk (July–August 1943), Goebbels began to recognise that the war could no longer be won. Following the Allied invasion of Italy and the fall of Mussolini in September, he raised with Hitler the possibility of a separate peace, either with the Soviets or with Britain. Hitler rejected both of these proposals.
As Germany's military and economic situation grew steadily worse, on 25 August 1943 Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler took over the post of interior minister, replacing Wilhelm Frick. Intensive air raids on Berlin and other cities took the lives of thousands of people. In December 1943, Hitler asked Goebbels to take on the job of Stadtpräsident (City President) of Berlin, and Goebbels agreed to this as a means of obtaining more direct control over the municipal authorities, though Hitler delayed the formal appointment for several months. Goebbels took over direct administrative control of the city when he was formally named Stadtpräsident on 7 April 1944, thus uniting under his control the city's most powerful party and governmental offices. As air raids on Berlin continued, Göring's Luftwaffe attempted to retaliate with air raids on London in early 1944, but they no longer had sufficient aircraft to make much of an impact. While Goebbels' propaganda in this period indicated that a huge retaliation was in the offing, the V-1 flying bombs, launched on British targets beginning in mid-June 1944, had little effect, with only around 20 per cent reaching their intended targets. To boost morale, Goebbels continued to publish propaganda to the effect that further improvements to these weapons would have a decisive impact on the outcome of the war. Meanwhile, in the Normandy landings of 6 June 1944, the Allies successfully gained a foothold in France.
Throughout July 1944, Goebbels and Speer continued to press Hitler to bring the economy to a total war footing. The 20 July plot, where Hitler was almost killed by a bomb at his field headquarters in East Prussia, played into the hands of those who had been pushing for change: Bormann, Goebbels, Himmler, and Speer. Over the objections of Göring, Goebbels was appointed on 23 July as Reich Plenipotentiary for Total War, charged with maximising the manpower for the Wehrmacht and the armaments industry at the expense of sectors of the economy not critical to the war effort. Through these efforts, he was able to free up an additional half a million men for military service. However, as many of these new recruits came from the armaments industry, the move put him in conflict with armaments minister Speer. Untrained workers from elsewhere were not readily absorbed into the armaments industry, and likewise, the new Wehrmacht recruits waited in barracks for their turn to be trained.
Hitler ordered a nationwide militia of men previously considered unsuitable for military service — the Volkssturm (People's Storm) — to be formed on 25 September 1944; it was launched on 18 October. In his capacity as Gauleiter and Reich Defense Commissioner, Goebbels was named Führer des Deutschen Volkssturms im Gau Groß-Berlin on 25 September 1944, and he administered the oath of allegiance to the assembled Berlin Volkssturm troops on 12 November. Goebbels recorded in his diary that 100,000 recruits were sworn in from his Gau alone. However, the men, mostly age 45 to 60, received only rudimentary training and many were not properly armed. Goebbels' notion that these men could effectively serve on the front lines against Soviet tanks and artillery was unrealistic at best. The programme was deeply unpopular.
Goebbels realised that his influence would diminish in wartime. He suffered a series of setbacks as propaganda became less important compared to warfare, the war economy, and the Allied bombing of German cities. Historian Michael Balfour states that from 1942 onward, Goebbels, "lost control over Nazi policy toward the press and over the handling of news in general." Rival agencies expanded. The foreign ministry took charge of propaganda outside Germany. The military set up its own propaganda division, providing daily reports on the progress of the war and the conditions of the armed forces. The Nazi Party also generated and distributed its own propaganda during the war. Goebbels was still influential when he had the opportunity to meet with Hitler, who became less available as he moved his headquarters closer to the military front lines. They were together perhaps one day a month. Furthermore, Hitler rarely gave speeches or rallies of the sort that had dominated propaganda in the 1930s. After Hitler returned to Berlin in 1945, Goebbels' ministry was destroyed by an Allied air raid on 13 March, and Goebbels had great difficulty disseminating propaganda. In April 1945, he finally bested the rival agencies and took full charge of propaganda, but by then the Soviet Red Army had already entered Berlin. Goebbels was an astute observer of the war, and historians have exhaustively mined his diary for insights on how the Nazi leadership tried to maintain public morale.
Defeat and death
In the last months of the war, Goebbels' speeches and articles took on an increasingly apocalyptic tone. By the beginning of 1945, with the Soviets on the Oder River and the Western Allies preparing to cross the Rhine River, he could no longer disguise the inevitability of German defeat. Berlin had little in the way of fortifications or artillery, and even Volkssturm units were in short supply, as almost everything and everyone had been sent to the front. Goebbels noted in his diary on 21 January that millions of Germans were fleeing westward. He tentatively discussed with Hitler the issue of making peace overtures to the western allies, but Hitler again refused. Privately, Goebbels was conflicted at pushing the case with Hitler since he did not want to lose Hitler's confidence.
When other Nazi leaders urged Hitler to leave Berlin and establish a new centre of resistance in the National Redoubt in Bavaria, Goebbels opposed this, arguing for a heroic last stand in Berlin. His family (except for Magda's son Harald, who had served in the Luftwaffe and been captured by the Allies) moved into their house in Berlin to await the end. He and Magda may have discussed suicide and the fate of their young children in a long meeting on the night of 27 January. He knew how the outside world would view the criminal acts committed by the regime and had no desire to subject himself to the "debacle" of a trial. He burned his private papers on the night of 18 April.
Goebbels knew how to play on Hitler's fantasies, encouraging him to see the hand of providence in the death of United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt on 12 April. Whether Hitler really saw this event as a turning point as Goebbels proclaimed is not known. By this time, Goebbels had gained the position he had wanted so long—at Hitler's side. Göring was utterly discredited, although he was not stripped of his offices until 23 April. Himmler, whose appointment as commander of Army Group Vistula had led to disaster on the Oder, was also in disgrace with Hitler. Most of Hitler's inner circle, including Göring, Himmler, Ribbentrop, and Speer, prepared to leave Berlin immediately after Hitler's birthday celebration on 20 April. Even Bormann was "not anxious" to meet his end at Hitler's side. On 22 April, Hitler announced that he would stay in Berlin until the end and then shoot himself. Goebbels moved with his family into the Vorbunker, connected to the lower Führerbunker under the Reich Chancellery garden in central Berlin, that same day. He told Vice-Admiral Hans-Erich Voss that he would not entertain the idea of either surrender or escape. On 23 April, Goebbels made the following proclamation to the people of Berlin:
After midnight on 29 April, with the Soviets advancing ever closer to the bunker complex, Hitler married Eva Braun in a small civil ceremony in the Führerbunker. Afterward, he hosted a modest wedding breakfast. Hitler then took secretary Traudl Junge to another room and dictated his last will and testament. Goebbels and Bormann were two of the witnesses.
In his last will and testament, Hitler named no successor as Führer or leader of the Nazi Party. Instead, he appointed Goebbels as Reich Chancellor; Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, who was at Flensburg near the Danish border, as Reich President; and Bormann as Party Minister. Goebbels wrote a postscript to the will stating that he would "categorically refuse" to obey Hitler's order to leave Berlin—as he put it, "the first time in my life" that he had not complied with Hitler's orders. He felt compelled to remain with Hitler "for reasons of humanity and personal loyalty". His wife and children would stay as well. They would end their lives "side by side with the Führer".
In the mid-afternoon of 30 April, Adolf Hitler shot himself. Goebbels was depressed, and said he would walk around the Chancellery garden until he was killed by the Russian shelling. Voss later recounted Goebbels as saying: "It is a great pity that such a man [Hitler] is not with us any longer. But there is nothing to be done. For us, everything is lost now and the only way out left for us is the one Hitler chose. I shall follow his example."
On 1 May, Goebbels carried out his sole official act as Chancellor: he dictated a letter to General Vasily Chuikov and ordered German General Hans Krebs to deliver it under a white flag. Chuikov, as commander of the Soviet 8th Guards Army, commanded the Soviet forces in central Berlin. Goebbels' letter informed Chuikov of Hitler's death and requested a ceasefire. After this was rejected, Goebbels decided that further efforts were futile.
Later on 1 May, Voss saw Goebbels for the last time: "While saying goodbye I asked Goebbels to join us. But he replied: 'The captain must not leave his sinking ship. I have thought about it all and decided to stay here. I have nowhere to go because with little children I will not be able to make it, especially with a leg like mine'." On the evening of 1 May, Goebbels arranged for an SS dentist, Helmut Kunz, to inject his six children with morphine so that when they were unconscious, an ampule of a cyanide compound could be then crushed in each of their mouths. According to Kunz's later testimony, he gave the children morphine injections but Magda Goebbels and SS-Obersturmbannführer Ludwig Stumpfegger, Hitler's personal doctor, administered the cyanide.
At around 20:30, Goebbels and Magda left the bunker and walked up to the garden of the Chancellery, where they killed themselves. There are several different accounts of this event. One is that they each bit on a cyanide ampule near where Hitler had been buried and were given a coup de grâce immediately afterward. Goebbels' SS adjutant Günther Schwägermann testified in 1948 that they walked ahead of him up the stairs and out into the Chancellery garden. He waited in the stairwell and heard shots. Schwägermann then walked up the remaining stairs and, once outside, saw their lifeless bodies. Following Goebbels' prior order, Schwägermann had an SS soldier fire several shots into Goebbels' body, which did not move.
The corpses were then doused with petrol, but they were only partially burned and not buried. A few days later, the Soviets brought Voss back to the bunker to identify the Goebbels' partly burned bodies. The remains of the Goebbels family, Krebs, and Hitler's dogs were repeatedly buried and exhumed. The last burial was at the SMERSH facility in Magdeburg on 21 February 1946. In 1970, KGB director Yuri Andropov authorised an operation to destroy the remains. On 4 April 1970, a Soviet KGB team used detailed burial charts to exhume five wooden boxes at the Magdeburg SMERSH facility. They were burned, crushed, and scattered into the Biederitz river, a tributary of the nearby Elbe.
Family life
Hitler was very fond of Magda and the children. He enjoyed staying at the Goebbels' Berlin apartment, where he could relax. Magda had a close relationship with Hitler, and became a member of his small coterie of female friends. She also became an unofficial representative of the regime, receiving letters from all over Germany from women with questions about domestic matters or child custody issues.
In 1936, Goebbels met the Czech actress Lída Baarová and by the winter of 1937 began an intense affair with her. Magda had a long conversation with Hitler about it on 15 August 1938. Unwilling to put up with a scandal involving one of his top ministers, Hitler demanded that Goebbels break off the relationship. Thereafter, Joseph and Magda seemed to reach a truce until the end of September. The couple had another falling out at that point, and again Hitler became involved, insisting the couple stay together. He arranged for publicity photos to be taken of himself with the reconciled couple in October. Goebbels also had short-term affairs and relationships with numerous other women. Magda too had affairs, including a relationship with Kurt Lüdecke in 1933 and Karl Hanke in 1938.
The Goebbels family included Harald Quandt (Magda's son from her first marriage; b. 1921), plus Helga (b. 1932), Hilde (b. 1934), Helmut (b. 1935), Holde (b. 1937), Hedda (b. 1938), and Heide (b. 1940). Harald was the only member of the family to survive the war. He died in an aeroplane crash in 1967.
See also
Art in Nazi Germany
Big lie
Gottbegnadeten list
Goebbels Gap
Hate media
List of Nazi Party leaders and officials
Nazi propaganda
Reich Chamber of Culture
References
Informational notes
Citations
Bibliography
online
Further reading
online
External links
Online books, movies, images, and speeches at the Internet Archive
Joseph Goebbels | Holocaust Encyclopedia at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
Collection of speeches and essays by Joseph Goebbels at Calvin University
The Man Behind Hitler , documentary film and supplementary material from PBS
1897 births
1945 suicides
1945 deaths
20th-century chancellors of Germany
20th-century German diarists
20th-century philologists
Adolf Hitler
Antisemitism in Germany
Burials in Germany
Filicides in Germany
Gauleiters
German anti-capitalists
German anti-communists
German conspiracy theorists
German mass murderers
German murderers of children
German nationalists
German philologists
German politicians who died by suicide
German people of Dutch descent
German people of World War II
German propagandists
Joseph
Government ministers with disabilities
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Joint suicides by Nazis
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Volkssturm personnel
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobart%2C%20New%20York
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Hobart, New York
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Hobart, New York
Hobart is a village in Delaware County, New York, United States. The population was 441 at the 2010 census. The village is in the town of Stamford and is on New York Route 10 in the northeastern part of the county.
Since 2005, Hobart has had multiple book stores and has become known as the "Book Village of the Catskills."
History
18th century
Prior to 1763, Hobart and its surrounding region were used as hunting grounds by indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands, specifically the Lenape.
In the aftermath of the American Revolution, European-descended settlers moved to the present-day village around 1784, building farms, mills, and inns. Many of these settlers came from Connecticut and New England to seek cheaper farmland. This early group was largely Episcopalian, and constructed the village's first church in 1801, placing it so that it was at the center of the village.
The village was initially known most commonly as Waterville.
19th century
In 1828, the United States Postal Service requested that the village rename to avoid confusion with the more populated village of Waterville, New York. The name Hobart was selected to honor John Henry Hobart, then the Bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of New York.
Hobart grew in population through the 1800s. By the turn of the century, it was home to a variety of local industry, largely centered around agriculture. A railroad line first connected to the village in 1884 and helped support local agricultural businesses. Some of the most prominent were Sheffield Farms, which operated a local plant from 1888 to 1968, and the E.T. Van Buren lumber and hardware business, which operated from 1906 until 1965. The presence of the railroad helped create and maintain an active tourist trade in Hobart and the surrounding Catskills in the 1920s.
20th century
Along with its surrounding region, Hobart saw a decline in business and population during the second half of the 20th century. In 1965, the E.T. Van Buren business burned down and never recovered, and slowly a large number of small businesses closed down as revenues declined and owners retired.
Dean M. Graham established a pharmaceutical company in the village in 1966, and over the next few decades it grew into a successful business, providing employment for local residents and summer jobs for area students interested in the sciences. After "Doc" Graham sold the company in 1996, the company's factory was significantly expanded and is currently owned by Mallinckrodt.
21st century
In 2001, William Adams and his wife Diana were traveling near Hobart on vacation and decided to rent a building in the village for a future book business, opening Hobart's first book store the following June. A few years later, Don Dales, a local resident who owned several buildings in the village, helped spur local support for emulating the model of Hay-on-Wye and making Hobart into a book village. Since 2005 the village has been home to around six bookstores and has experienced a resurgence of tourism from book shoppers.
In 2014, Bollinger Motors was founded in Hobart and produced its initial B1 prototype in a garage on the western side of the village. In 2018, the company relocated to Detroit, Michigan.
Historic sites
The Hobart Masonic Hall and the St. Peter's Episcopal Church Complex are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Geography
Hobart is located in the north-central part of the town of Stamford at (42.371251, -74.668481), along the upper reaches of the West Branch Delaware River.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , of which , or 1.38%, is water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 390 people, 151 households, and 104 families residing in the village. The population density was . There were 200 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 94.36% White, 3.85% African American, 0.77% Native American, 0.51% Asian, and 0.51% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.51% of the population.
There were 151 households, out of which 32.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.6% were married couples living together, 13.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.5% were non-families. 21.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 2.78.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 22.8% under the age of 18, 6.4% from 18 to 24, 25.4% from 25 to 44, 25.4% from 45 to 64, and 20.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.0 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $39,375, and the median income for a family was $42,500. Males had a median income of $25,893 versus $20,313 for females. The per capita income for the village was $16,281. About 17.0% of families and 17.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25.6% of those under age 18 and 10.7% of those age 65 or over.
Notable people
Cheryl Clarke, American lesbian poet, essayist, educator and Black feminist community activist
Hector Cowan, American college football player and coach, member of first College Football All-America Team in 1889
James R. Cowan, farmer, banker, and member of New York State Assembly
Jay Gould, railroad magnate, attended school in Hobart during the 1850s.
Edwyn E. Mason, member of New York State Assembly from 1952 to 1972 and New York State Senate from 1972 to 1978
Frank Sandford, charismatic Christian religious leader and founder of "The Kingdom," convicted for manslaughter of multiple members of his cult in the early 20th century
Eleanor Clarke Slagle, social worker considered to be "the mother of occupational therapy"
References
External links
Village of Hobart official website
"Capture Nature in the Catskills", New York Magazine, February 2009
Villages in New York (state)
Villages in Delaware County, New York
Book towns
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda%20Lambert
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Miranda Lambert
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Miranda Lambert
Miranda Leigh Lambert (born November 10, 1983) is an American country singer, songwriter and guitarist. Born in Longview, Texas, she started out in early 2001 when she released her self-titled debut album independently. In 2003, she finished in third place on the television program Nashville Star, a singing competition which aired on the USA Network. Outside her solo career, she is a member of the Pistol Annies, a group she formed in 2011 alongside Ashley Monroe and Angaleena Presley. Lambert has been honored by the Grammy Awards, the Academy of Country Music Awards and the Country Music Association Awards. Lambert has been honored with more Academy of Country Music Awards than any artist in history and was named by the Chicago Tribune as the "greatest country music artist of all time" in 2019.
Lambert's second and major-label debut album Kerosene (2005) was certified Platinum in the United States and produced the singles "Me and Charlie Talking", "Bring Me Down", "Kerosene" and "New Strings". All four singles reached the top 40 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs. Her second album, Crazy Ex-Girlfriend, was released in early 2007. Three of its singles ("Famous in a Small Town", "Gunpowder & Lead" and "More Like Her") peaked within the top 20 on the country songs chart, with "Gunpowder & Lead" becoming her first top 10 entry in July 2008. Her third album, Revolution, was released in September 2009. Two of its songs – "The House That Built Me" and "Heart Like Mine" – topped the Hot Country Songs chart.
2011's Four the Record included the singles "Baggage Claim", "Over You", "Fastest Girl in Town", "Mama's Broken Heart" and "All Kinds of Kinds". Lambert released her fifth album, Platinum, in 2014. The record won the Grammy Award for Best Country Album, and the album's lead single "Automatic" reached the top five on the Country charts. Her sixth studio album, The Weight of These Wings, was released on November 18, 2016, and subsequently certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Her seventh studio album, Wildcard, was released on November 1, 2019, and went on to win the Grammy Award for Best Country Album in early 2021. Three singles from the album ("It All Comes out in the Wash", "Bluebird", "Settling Down") reached the top 20 of the country music charts, and the album's second official single "Bluebird" became Lambert's first song to top the Billboard Country Airplay Chart as a solo artist since 2012.
She later collaborated with singer-songwriters Jon Randall and Jack Ingram for the album The Marfa Tapes, departing from her usual sound and opting for an acoustic, stripped-back feel. It was released on May 7, 2021 to acclaim from critics. Lambert released her eighth solo album Palomino on April 29, 2022. The same year she was listed on 100 Most Influential People by Time.
Early life
Miranda Leigh Lambert was born November 10, 1983, to Rick and Bev (née Hughes) Lambert in Longview, Texas, and was raised in Lindale, Texas. She was named after her great-grandmother, Lucy Miranda. She has one younger brother.
Her parents met while Bev was attending camp at Southern Methodist University and Rick was an on-campus undercover narcotics officer, and they got together a few years later. Rick is a former Dallas police officer who played in a country-rock group called Contraband in the 1970s. Rick and Bev later became private detectives and even worked on the high-profile case of the impeachment of President Bill Clinton. After the oil crisis dampened the economy in Texas, her family lost everything.
After the downturn, things got better and her parents began a faith-based ministry and offered their home as a shelter for the victims of domestic violence and their children. Miranda has said that this experience fueled her music and that her song "Gunpowder & Lead" is a reflection of that.
While still in high school, Lambert made her professional singing debut with "The Texas Pride Band". She also fronted the house band at the Reo Palm Isle in Longview, Texas, a long-running venue that had presented legends such as Elvis Presley and Willie Nelson, and the place where Brooks & Dunn started out as the house band.
Music career
2000–2003: Career beginnings, self-titled debut album, and Nashville Star
At 16, Lambert appeared on the Johnnie High Country Music Revue in Arlington, Texas, the same talent show that had helped launch the career of LeAnn Rimes. Lambert then acquired a recording session in Nashville, Tennessee, but left the studio after she became frustrated with the "pop" type of music presented to her. She went back to Texas in 2000 and asked her father to teach her how to play guitar, so she could write her own songs. In 2001, she released her self-titled debut album which consisted of 10 tracks.
In 2002, Dusty Meador hired Lambert to perform at Tye Phelps' country music restaurant and venue Love and War in Texas. Lambert continued to perform around the Texas Music Scene opening for Cooder Graw, Kevin Fowler, and Jack Ingram. In 2003, she auditioned for the talent competition Nashville Star, where she earned a third-place finish behind Buddy Jewell and John Arthur Martinez. During her 9-week stay on Nashville Star, Lambert caught the attention of the show's judge and Sony Music executive, Tracy Gershon, who later convinced the label to sign her.
2004–2008: Kerosene and Crazy Ex- Girlfriend
On September 15, 2003, she signed with Epic Records. Her debut single, "Me and Charlie Talking", co-written by her father and Heather Little, was released in summer of 2004 as the lead single to her debut album, titled Kerosene. The album comprised 12 songs, 11 of which she wrote or co-wrote. The album debuted at number one on the Billboard Top Country Albums charts, and eventually gained a Platinum certification by the RIAA for shipments of over one million copies, selling more than 930,000 copies up to July 2008. Overall, the album produced four Top 40 singles on the Billboard country charts, including the title track which was a Top 20 hit. Lambert also toured with Keith Urban and George Strait in early 2006. In 2007, she toured with Dierks Bentley and Toby Keith.
Lambert's second album, Crazy Ex-Girlfriend, was released on May 1, 2007. She wrote eight of the album's 11 tracks, including its four singles. Much of the track "Gunpowder & Lead", the album's third single and her highest-charting single, was written while she was taking a concealed-carry handgun class in her home town. Fady Joudah of The New Yorker said the album proved "she has talent and charisma on a par with Dolly Parton, another blond beauty who was once underestimated."
In 2005, at the 40th Annual Academy of Country Music Awards in Las Vegas, Lambert won the CoverGirl "Fresh Face of Country Music Award". She was also nominated for the Country Music Association's Horizon Award in 2005; in 2007, Lambert also received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Female Country Vocal Performance for her single "Kerosene". She also won the Top New Female Vocalist award at the 2007 ACM (Academy of Country Music) Awards. At the 2008 ACM (Academy of Country Music) Awards, Crazy Ex-Girlfriend won Album of the Year.
2009–2011: Revolution
Lambert released her third album, Revolution, on September 29, 2009. She co-wrote 11 of the album's 15 tracks; the album also includes co-writes from Dave Haywood and Charles Kelley of Lady Antebellum and Blake Shelton.
Revolution received significant critical praise on its release. At Metacritic the album received an average score of 85, based on 11 reviews, which indicates "universal acclaim". The album also received positive reviews from Rolling Stone, Boston Globe and Slant Magazine. Entertainment Weekly called the release "the best mainstream-country album so far this year".
Lambert debuted her new single, "Dead Flowers", at the 44th annual Academy of Country Music Awards on April 5, 2009. It was released on May 4, 2009, and was a minor Top 40 hit on the charts. The album's second single, "White Liar", was released on August 17, 2009, and debuted at No. 50 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs chart. In February 2010, "White Liar" became Lambert's first Top Five hit, reaching a peak of No. 2 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs chart.
The House That Built Me, the album's third single, was released on March 8, 2010, and became a No. 1 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs chart. It stayed there for four weeks, and received platinum certification from the RIAA on July 8, 2010. "Only Prettier" followed as the album's fourth single in July 2010, and its accompanying music video went viral. The music video for "Only Prettier" featured cameo appearances by fellow country artists Kellie Pickler, Laura Bell Bundy, and Hillary Scott of Lady Antebellum. In December 2010, "Only Prettier" reached a peak of number 12 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs chart, giving Lambert her seventh Top 20 hit. "Heart Like Mine" was released in January 2011 as the fifth and final single from Revolution. It became Lambert's second Number One hit on the country charts for the chart dated May 28, 2011.
In promotion of Revolution, Lambert launched a headlining tour; Roadside Bars & Pink Guitars in March 2010, with stops in 22 cities and a performance at the Bonnaroo Music Festival.
On September 1, 2010, it was announced that Lambert had received a record-setting 9 CMA award nominations. She performed at the 44th Annual Country Music Association Awards on November 10, 2010. She won the CMA Award for Female Vocalist of the Year, and her Revolution won Album of the Year. Lambert and Sheryl Crow performed "Coal Miner's Daughter" as a tribute to country legend Loretta Lynn who also entered the stage to join them and finished the song with Crow and Lambert as backup. Later that night, Lynn presented the Female Vocalist of the Year CMA award to Lambert. On February 13, 2011, Lambert won a Grammy Award in the Best Female Country Vocal Performance category for "The House That Built Me".
2011–2013: Four the Record and the Pistol Annies
On April 4, 2011, during the taping of the Academy of Country Music's 'Girls' Night Out' television special in Las Vegas, Lambert debuted her new project, girl group Pistol Annies. The group consists of Lambert, Ashley Monroe, and Angaleena Presley. They released their single, "Hell on Heels", in May 2011, and released their debut album, Hell on Heels, on August 23, 2011, which debuted at No. 1 on Billboard's country chart. Sasha Frere-Jones of The New Yorker said the trio "is good enough to recall those transcendent moments of vocal harmony the Dixie Chicks used to hit every few months".
Lambert's fourth studio album, Four the Record, was released on November 1, 2011; her first album for RCA Nashville, after Sony Music Nashville announced a corporate restructuring. Four the Record produced five singles: "Baggage Claim", "Over You", "Fastest Girl in Town", "Mama's Broken Heart" and "All Kinds of Kinds". "Over You", which Lambert and Shelton co-wrote, reached number 1 in early 2012.
On February 8, 2012, Lambert made her acting debut on NBC's long-running legal drama, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit in an episode titled "Father's Shadow". Lambert later told CMT News she was a big fan of the show: "I never wanted to act. I still don't. I don't want to be an actress. I just wanted to be on that show mainly so I could be a groupie [for their autographs]."
Late in 2012, Lambert appeared on Shelton's Christmas album Cheers, It's Christmas, to which she contributed guest vocals on a version of "Jingle Bell Rock". The soundtrack was released on October 2, 2012. On October 23, 2012, Lambert and Dierks Bentley announced the co-headlined 33-show Locked & Reloaded Tour, which began on January 17, 2013.
On May 7, 2013, a second Pistol Annies album, Annie Up, was released. This album produced the group's first country chart entry with "Hush Hush". The Pistol Annies are also one of many acts featured on Blake Shelton's 2013 single "Boys 'Round Here", which went to number 1 on Country Airplay. They had previously accompanied Shelton on a rendition of "Blue Christmas" on Cheers, It's Christmas.
2014–2015: Platinum
"Automatic", the lead single from Lambert's fifth studio album, Platinum, was released on February 5, 2014, to praise from music critics. The album, containing 16 songs, was released on June 3, 2014. The album's second single, "Somethin' Bad", is a duet with Carrie Underwood and was debuted on the 2014 Billboard Music Awards on May 18. The album's third single, "Little Red Wagon", was released to country radio on January 12, 2015. The album's fourth single, "Smokin' and Drinkin'" released to country radio on June 22, 2015.
2016–2018: The Weight of These Wings and third Pistol Annies album
In March 2016, Lambert made her first ever performances outside the US and Canada as one of the headliners of C2C: Country to Country, Europe's biggest country music festival, which saw Lambert play in England, Scotland and Ireland alongside Dwight Yoakam, Thomas Rhett and Ashley Monroe. On July 18, 2016, Lambert released "Vice" to country radio and digital outlets. Written by Lambert, Shane McAnally and Josh Osborne, it was her first song released since Platinum. In September, Lambert announced her sixth studio album, The Weight of These Wings, which was released on November 18, 2016. She was selected as one of 30 artists to perform on "Forever Country", a mashup track of "Take Me Home, Country Roads", "On the Road Again" and "I Will Always Love You" which celebrated 50 years of the CMA Awards. Shortly after the release of The Weight of These Wings, the Highway Vagabond Tour was announced and began on January 24, 2017. These were Lambert's first live shows since she was put on mandatory vocal rest and was forced to cancel her Keeper of the Flame Tour in 2016. The tour visited the US, Canada and were her first solo shows in Europe, seeing her return to England, Ireland, Scotland and, for the first time, the Netherlands.
After promotion and touring for The Weight of These Wings ended, the Pistol Annies reformed and released their third studio album Interstate Gospel on November 2, 2018, which subsequently reached number 1 on the Billboard Country Albums Chart.
2019–2020: Wildcard
Lambert announced that the lead-off single from her seventh studio album would be "It All Comes Out in the Wash", which was released on July 18, 2019. The song was co-written by Lambert with Hillary Lindsey, Lori McKenna, and Liz Rose ("Love Junkies") and produced by Jay Joyce, marking the first time she had worked with the producer. The song was released alongside "Locomotive", another track intended for the upcoming album that she had previously debuted on the CMA Music Festival in June 2019. Two other tracks—"Mess with My Head" and "Bluebird"—were also previewed ahead of the album in August 2019.
Lambert's seventh studio album, Wildcard, was released on November 1, 2019. In promotion of the album, Lambert announced the 27-date Wildcard Tour, which was set to begin on January 16, 2020, and run through May 9, 2020, but which had to be cancelled due to the coronavirus pandemic. Several solo acoustic live performances of "Bluebird" premiered on her Instagram and YouTube channels during this time, and she performed the song at the belated and socially-distanced 2020 ACMs, at which she won an award for Music Event of the Year for her collaboration with other female country artists, "Fooled Around and Fell in Love".
On the chart dated August 1, 2020, "Bluebird" became Lambert's first number 1 single on the Billboard Country Airplay chart as a solo artist since 2012's "Over You", and her fifth career number 1 on the chart. "Bluebird" was also a critical success, nominated for three CMA awards, two Grammy Awards, and three ACM awards, winning the CMA Award for Best Music Video.
"Settling Down" was released as the third official single from Wildcard on September 21, 2020, and Lambert performed the song live at the 2020 CMAs with just two guitarists backing. As of May 10, 2021, the song had reached the top 10 of both the Billboard Hot Country Songs Chart and the Billboard Country Airplay Chart, making it her 14th career top 10 hit on the Country Airplay Chart and her 16th on the Hot Country Songs Chart.
The album Wildcard went on to be nominated for both ACM and CMA Album of the Year, and won the 2021 Grammy for the Best Country Album on 15 March. She performed "Bluebird" at the awards ceremony.
2021–2022: The Marfa Tapes and Pistol Annies Christmas Album
Lambert hinted at an upcoming project with longtime friends and collaborators Jon Randall and Jack Ingram via her social media accounts on March 2, 2021, before announcing their upcoming collaborative acoustic record The Marfa Tapes in the following days, to be released on May 7. The tracklist was announced, with Lambert's previously recorded songs "Tin Man" and "Tequila Does" both set to be featured on the album, and the first new song In His Arms was premiered with a video on March 5. The album was recorded in Marfa, Texas towards the end of 2020 with just two microphones and two acoustic guitars, and was said to have an unpolished feel, with one-take recordings retaining mistakes and snapshots of conversations between the three, and the sound of the campfire and the desert in the background. It would contain 15 songs the three singer-songwriters had written together over a period of six years, beginning in July 2015.
In His Arms was performed live by Lambert, Randall and Ingram at the 2021 ACM Awards, and at the awards show Lambert also performed "Drunk (And I Don't Wanna Go Home)" with Elle King, and she also stood in last-minute for Chris Stapleton's wife Morgane Stapleton to sing harmony on Stapleton's performance of Maggie's Song.
The new recording of "Tin Man", alongside previously unheard tracks "Am I Right or Amarillo" and "Geraldene" were also pre-released before the album's release on May 7, and the trio performed "Geraldene" live on The Ellen Show later in the month. Around this time, Miranda Lambert replied to a comment regarding her band the Pistol Annies in the comments section of her Instagram post, fuelling speculation that a new Pistol Annies project might be in the works for 2021. Lambert subsequently revealed that she "didn't do much in the beginning of 2020. [She] just sort of enjoyed the break... And then in the last six months or so [she] kind of worked overtime to make up for lost time", and that an upcoming solo record was therefore in the works. She commented in the same article that she was considering re-recording several tracks from The Marfa Tapes for this record, including "In His Arms" and "Geraldene", and potentially other personal favourites, such as "Waxahachie".
The trio announced that alongside the record, they would be released 'The Marfa Tapes' film on Lambert's Facebook page to be available for 24 hours from May 8, which would feature acoustic performances from the record alongside interviews and behind-the-scenes footage from the recording process of the album.
The Marfa Tapes album was released to critical acclaim on May 7, with critics applauding Lambert's musical risk-taking and the simple but effective songwriting. Pitchfork commented, "Somewhere between a demo collection, a live album with no audience, and a lo-fi left turn, this music is a joy to hear, like a vacation on record", and Variety questioned whether this might even be Lambert's best record so far, "And like her bigger, broader sounding albums, she gives as good as she gets, quietly, while sounding as grand as if she had a studio band's excess at work." The film premiered on Lambert's Facebook page on May 8, featuring original songs not previously seen and not included on The Marfa Tapes, the first of which was "Tornado" — co-written by Lambert, Randall and Ingram — and also a Lambert solo-written piece, "They've Closed Down the Honky-Tonks".
In the week following the album's release, the trio performed lead single "In His Arms" once more, on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert.
On October 15, she released the lead single from her upcoming studio album, "If I Was A Cowboy", on October 15. The song's first video was uploaded to YouTube on October 15, and a later official video was uploaded to YouTube on January 12, 2022. The single has been a moderate hit on the country singles charts, so far reaching the top 20 of both the Country Airplay Chart and the Hot Country Songs Chart.
The Pistol Annies announced the release of their first Christmas album, Hell of a Holiday, which was released October 22, 2021. It contains 10 original songs, a cover of Merle Haggard's "If We Make It Through December", popular Christmas classic "Sleigh Ride", and traditional New Year's song "Auld Lang Syne". The album was well-received for its original content, and Billboard praised their cover of "If We Make It Through December" as "One of the most striking moments on Hell of a Holiday". They performed many of the songs and discussed the album on December 15's "The Pistol Annies Hell of a Holiday Special", which was made available on Facebook.
On December 30, 2021, Lambert released "Y'all Means All" in support of the LGBTQ community. The song was used in the trailer for the sixth season of Queer Eye.
In March 2022 she won Entertainer of the Year at the American Country Music Awards.
2022–present: Palomino, and label change
Lambert and Elle King's 2021 collaboration "Drunk (And I Don't Wanna Go Home)" was certified platinum in February, and the two performed the song together at the Ryman Auditorium on Feb 28th to celebrate. The single has so far reached the top 10 of the country charts.
Lambert released a teaser for a new song titled "Strange" ahead of the ACM Awards, which were held on March 7 in Vegas. She was nominated for 5 awards, marking her record-breaking 16th nomination for Female Vocalist of the Year, and she won Video of the Year for "Drunk (And I Don't Wanna Go Home)", and as well as the top prize of the night, Entertainer of the Year, for the first time in her career. This brings her tally of total ACM Awards won to 37, the most of all time, and also meant that she is eligible for the ACM's rare and coveted Triple Crown Award.
On March 10, Lambert released "Strange" alongside a video on her YouTube channel, and announced her ninth solo studio album, Palomino, which was released on April 29. The album includes "If I Was a Cowboy" and "Strange", alongside three re-recorded tracks from her 2021 Marfa Tapes album with Jon Randall and Jack Ingram: "Geraldene", "In His Arms", and "Waxahachie".
Lambert headlined Europe's largest country music festival, C2C: Country 2 Country, from March 11–13, 2022, marking her first performances in the UK/Europe since her headlining tour there in 2017. She performed two songs from Palomino live for the first time ever at her London show on March 11, her single "If I Was a Cowboy" and "Actin' Up".
In March 2023, Lambert announced that she was leaving Sony Music Nashville after nineteen years.
In April 2024, Lambert announced that she had signed a joint deal with Republic Records and Big Loud, with the latter set to handle country radio promotion and marketing. She also announced the first single under the new contract, "Wranglers", which was released on May 3, 2024, followed by her tenth studio album which will be released later this year.
Endorsements and business ventures
In 2009, Lambert and two other singers became the new faces of Cotton Inc.'s revived "The Touch, The Feel of Cotton" campaign. She has appeared in ads to promote cotton, and the website features a free download of the full version of her song, "Fabric of My Life".
In December 2014, Lambert's line of shoes and boots were released at DSW. In November 2014, Lambert's partnership with Chrysler's Ram trucks was announced. Under the partnership, Ram gave Lambert a customized 1500 Laramie Longhorn which she auctioned off, with proceeds going to Lambert's Muttnation Foundation which betters the lives for shelter animals.
In May 2021, Lambert became the first female artist to open her own bar in the Lower Broadway entertainment district of downtown Nashville, Tennessee. Named Casa Rosa (Spanish for "Pink House") and opened in partnership with TC Restaurant Group, the 17,400-square-foot Tex-Mex-themed establishment features live music on three of its four stories, plus a rooftop bar, and is decked out in mostly pink decor and various memorabilia from Lambert's career (including the giant birdcage from the "Bluebird" music video). At the bar's opening night party on May 25, 2021, Lambert performed a duet of "Summer Nights" from Grease with her husband Brendan McLoughlin, amidst a star-studded lineup of performances from other country singers.
Lambert also has her own clothing line titled Idyllwind, a brand of wine with the Red 55 Winery imprint, and owns The Pink Pistol boutique in her hometown of Lindale, Texas.
MuttNation Foundation
In 2009, Lambert opened MuttNation Foundation, with her mother, Bev. The organization focuses on rescue animals and shelters, and Lambert has been vocal about the cause being very close to her heart. The core issues MuttNation works on are:
Adoption drives – held by Lambert at her concerts, CMA music awards, and the Grand Ole Opry
Fill the little red wagon – donation drives
Special circumstances – emergency disaster relief or instances of hoarding
Cause for the Paws – annual fundraising concerts
Mutts Across America – provides funds and support to shelters in all 50 US states.
Ran's Animal Care Express – pet transports
Mutt March – an annual 5k with proceeds going to MuttNation causes
In 2017, in the wake of Hurricane Harvey's devastation, MuttNation rescued dozens of animals as a part of its emergency/natural disasters objective.
In 2014, Lambert opened Redemption Ranch, a shelter in Tishomingo, Oklahoma, her adopted home town where she lived with Shelton.
To support the foundation, Lambert released a line of pet products in 2019 that are sold inside Tractor Supply Company stores.
In September 2022, MuttNation partnered with Greater Good Charities via the global nonprofit's GOODS Program to provide 2 million pet meals to help families going through economic challenges to stay with their beloved pets.
Personal life
In 2006, Lambert began dating singer Blake Shelton. They got engaged in May 2010 and were married on May 14, 2011, at the Don Strange Ranch in Boerne, Texas. On July 20, 2015, the couple announced that they were divorcing after four years of marriage.
In December 2015, it was confirmed that Lambert was dating R&B singer Anderson East; they met at Nashville's Live on the Green Music Festival in September of that year. In 2016, Lambert paid $3.4 million for a 400-plus acre farm, with three residences, near Primm Springs, Tennessee. In April 2018, it was confirmed that Lambert and East had broken up months earlier after two years of dating. Lambert started dating Turnpike Troubadours frontman Evan Felker in February 2018. His estranged wife, Staci, has alleged that he left her suddenly to be with Lambert. They broke up in August 2018.
On February 16, 2019, Lambert announced on social media that she married New York City Police Department Officer Brendan McLoughlin on January 26, 2019, in Davidson County, Tennessee.
Lambert has nine tattoos of various objects and symbols, and the word "tumbleweed." In October 2018, she added a queen of hearts tattoo on her forearm.
Discography
Studio albums
Kerosene (2005)
Crazy Ex-Girlfriend (2007)
Revolution (2009)
Four the Record (2011)
Platinum (2014)
The Weight of These Wings (2016)
Wildcard (2019)
Palomino (2022)
with Pistol Annies
Hell on Heels (2011)
Annie Up (2013)
Interstate Gospel (2018)
Hell of a Holiday (2021)
Collaborative albums
The Marfa Tapes (with Jack Ingram and Jon Randall) (2021)
Awards
In April 2018, Lambert won the ACM Award for Female Vocalist of the Year for the ninth consecutive year, surpassing Reba McEntire as the most awarded in the category in 2017. In November 2015 she became the first woman to have won the Country Music Association Awards' Album of the Year twice. She has won three Grammy Awards out of 27 nominations. and was the ninth female artist in the show's history to win Entertainer of the Year at the 2022 ACM Awards.
Tours and residencies
Tours
Headlining
Roadside Bars & Pink Guitars Tour (2010)
CMT on Tour: Miranda Lambert Revolution (2010)
Miranda Lambert: Revolution Tour (2011)
On Fire Tour (2012)
Platinum Tour (2014–2016)
Certified Platinum Tour (2015)
Roadside Bars & Pink Guitars Tour (2015)
Keeper of the Flame Tour (2016)
Highway Vagabond Tour (2017)
Livin' Like Hippies Tour (2018)
Roadside Bars & Pink Guitars Tour (2019)
Wildcard Tour (2020)
Co-headlining
Locked and Loaded Tour with Dierks Bentley (2007)
Miranda Lambert & Blake Shelton Co-Headlining Tour (2008)
Locked and Reloaded Tour with Dierks Bentley (2013)
The Bandwagon Tour with Little Big Town (2018, 2022)
Rock the Country Tour with Kid Rock and Jason Aldean (2024)
Opening
Free and Easy Summer Tour with Dierks Bentley (2006)
Hookin' Up and Hangin' Out Tour with Toby Keith (2007)
George Strait 2008 Arena Tour (2008)
Sun City Carnival Tour with Kenny Chesney (2009)
American Saturday Night Tour with Brad Paisley (2010)
Virtual Reality Tour with Brad Paisley at Wrigley Field June 9 (2012)
Night Train Tour with Jason Aldean at Fenway Park July 12 & 13 (2013)
Spread the Love Tour with Kenny Chesney (2016)
Residencies
Velvet Rodeo (2022–2023)
Filmography
References
External links
Official Website
[ Miranda Lambert] at Billboard.com
Official Music Videos
Miranda Lambert at Last.fm
Miranda Lambert lyrics
1983 births
Living people
American country singer-songwriters
American women guitarists
American women country singers
Arista Nashville artists
Big Loud artists
Columbia Records artists
Epic Records artists
Grammy Award winners
Nashville Star contestants
People from Lindale, Texas
People from Longview, Texas
Pistol Annies members
Country musicians from Texas
RCA Records Nashville artists
Republic Records artists
Singer-songwriters from Texas
Guitarists from Texas
21st-century American women singers
21st-century American singer-songwriters
American people of English descent
American people of Irish descent
American people who self-identify as being of Native American descent
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave-Gotik-Treffen
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Wave-Gotik-Treffen
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Wave-Gotik-Treffen
The (WGT; German for "Wave Gothic Meeting") is an annual world festival for "dark" music and "dark culture" in Leipzig, Germany. 150+ bands and artists from various backgrounds (gothic rock, EBM, industrial, noise, darkwave, neo-folk, neo-classical and medieval music being examples) play at several venues throughout the city over four days on Whitsuntide. The festival also features multiple all-night dance club parties, several fairs with medieval, gothic, and related merchandise, a variety of cultural exhibitions and performances, large themed picnics, and a number of unofficial fringe events.
With 18,000 to 20,000 regular attendants, the WGT is one of the largest events of the gothic, cybergoth, steampunk, and rivethead subcultures worldwide.
History
A first attempt at a Treffen was made in 1987 in Potsdam. However, as the laws of the German Democratic Republic made this kind of event illegal, only a few hundred visitors attended.
In 1992, after the re-unification of Germany, the first official Wave-Gotik-Treffen was held in the Eiskeller club (now Conne Island) in Leipzig. Since then, the number of visitors has increased greatly.
The largest installment of the WGT was the one in the year 2000 with over 300 acts and an estimated 25,000 visitors. However, that year's festival suffered financial collapse on the third day and had to be aborted. After all festival security guards, most bands and much of the technical staff had left, volunteer helpers and several bands who played for free staged a final concert. Contrary to police expectations, no rioting of any sort occurred.
Events
A major attraction of the Wave-Gotik-Treffen is the band performances. Generally, the number of musical acts is close to 200, spanning the breadth of "dark music" from acoustic folk to medieval-influenced to deathrock, to dark electro, EBM, symphonic metal, gothic metal, industrial. A limited number of free tickets are also available for those officially participating in the festival to attend opera performances, classical music concerts, theatre, and ballet.
There is a shopping market in the main event venue that runs the entire duration of the festival and is perhaps the largest for the goth and "dark culture" community anywhere in the world. Several permanent shops in Leipzig also specialize in gothic-style clothing, shoes, and accessories, and can feature promotions during the event.
Many museums in Leipzig such as the Egyptian Museum, the Museum of Fine Arts, and the Grassi Museums offer free admission or special guided tours for paid festival attendees.
In addition, there are Renaissance fairs, Viking and Pagan markets, themed picnics, Gothic Romance events, CD/DVD and film premieres, literary readings, lectures and discussions, artist signing events, brunches celebrating absinthe, and fetishistic events.
Later in the evenings there are many late-night danceclubs every night, with top-name dark music DJs, at venues such as Darkflower and Moritzbastei, as well as a dance area within the main venue itself.
Many fringe events with separate admission take place in Leipzig simultaneously with . There is an electronic music festival at NonTox, a "Gothic Pogo" festival, free events like Victorian and steampunk picnics and a "Victorian Village", and more.
Venues
The venues for the are spread out all over Leipzig.
The main venue is the massive 10,000-person capacity Agra fairground halls, 4.2 miles (6.75 km) south of central Leipzig. One of the two largest halls at the Agra is for the headline concerts, the other is for the main shopping market, and a third hall at the Agra houses a bistro area and a dance forum with many well-known DJs. In front of the Agra halls 1 and 2 is the "promenade" of the festival. The dozen-or-more additional venues for the WGT concerts and activities are as varied as the events, from the stately Schauspielhaus to the somber Krypta of the Völkerschlachtdenkmal to the Parkbühne under the trees.
Festival participants typically stay either in designated camping areas on the Agra grounds near the main venue or in the hotels and hostels in and around Leipzig. In order to stay at camping areas, participants must pay extra for an Obsorgekarte, which gives them a version of the wrist band that allows campground access.
Many food and drinks vendors set up stands in the "promenade" outside the Agra halls. Attendees with Obsorgekarte tickets/wristbands for camping may bring in their own food and drinks, which is otherwise restricted. Official drinks vendors use sturdy "Wave Gotik Treffen" branded plastic cups instead of disposable ones, for which a deposit (pfand) is required. Attendees may keep cups as souvenirs, or return them for a refund of the deposit. This arrangement greatly reduces the waste and needed cleanup of disposable containers around the venues.
Dates
The dates of the Wave-Gotik-Treffen vary from year to year. It is held on the German holiday weekend of , known in English as Pentecost or Whitsun. This is on the Sunday seven weeks after Easter and can range from as early as 10 May to as late as 13 June . Unofficial events start in Leipzig on the Thursday night preceding the date of , with activities such as a social gathering for English-speaking attendees and multiple dance club nights with DJs in the Agra's bistro area as well as at local venues like Darkflower, Moritzbastei, and others. The official festival starts on Friday, and as Monday is a public holiday in Germany the events run until the end of the all-night farewell club parties in the early morning on Tuesday.
Example recent and/or near future dates:
2019: 7 to 10 June
2020: 29 May to 1 June (Cancelled due to the global COVID-19 pandemic)
2021: 21 to 24 May (Cancelled due to the global COVID-19 pandemic)
2022: 3 to 6 June
2023: 26 to 29 May
2024: 17 to 20 May
2025: 6 to 9 June
Further reading
See also
List of gothic festivals
List of electronic music festivals
References
External links
Music festivals established in 1987
Goth festivals
Culture in Leipzig
Recurring events established in 1992
Tourist attractions in Leipzig
Electronic music festivals in Germany
Goth subculture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Rumble%20%282011%29
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Royal Rumble (2011)
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Royal Rumble (2011)
The 2011 Royal Rumble was the 24th annual Royal Rumble professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event took place on January 30, 2011, at the TD Garden in Boston, Massachusetts. As has been customary since 1993, the Royal Rumble match winner received a world championship match at that year's WrestleMania. For the 2011 event, the winner received their choice to challenge for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania XXVII. This was the last Royal Rumble held under the first brand extension, which ended in August, but was reinstated in July 2016.
Four matches were featured on the event's supercard, a scheduling of more than one main event. The main event was the 2011 Royal Rumble match, which featured 40 participants from both brands instead of the usual number of 30—it has thus far been the only Royal Rumble match to have 40 participants. It was won by SmackDown's Alberto Del Rio, who last eliminated Raw's Santino Marella. The primary match on the Raw brand was for the WWE Championship, between reigning champion The Miz and Randy Orton, which Miz won to retain the title. The primary match on the SmackDown brand was Edge versus Dolph Ziggler for the World Heavyweight Championship, which Edge won to retain the title. The other featured match on the card was a fatal four-way match for the WWE Divas Championship in which Natalya defended the title against Eve Torres, Layla, and Michelle McCool; Torres won to win the championship. This event was notable for the returns of Booker T who left the company in 2007 and Kevin Nash, in his first WWE appearance since 2003 who also appeared in his Diesel persona since the 1996 event.
Production
Background
The Royal Rumble is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) produced every January by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) since 1988. It is one of the promotion's original four pay-per-views, along with WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, dubbed the "Big Four". It is named after the Royal Rumble match, a modified battle royal in which the participants enter at timed intervals instead of all beginning in the ring at the same time. The 2011 event was the 24th event in the Royal Rumble chronology and was scheduled to be held on January 30, 2011, at the TD Garden in Boston, Massachusetts. It featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands.
The Royal Rumble match generally features 30 wrestlers, but for 2011, the match was instead scheduled to have 40 participants. Traditionally, the winner of the match earns a world championship match at that year's WrestleMania. For 2011, the winner could choose to challenge for either Raw's WWE Championship or SmackDown's World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania XXVII.
Storylines
The card included matches that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters to build tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's television shows, Raw and SmackDown.
In addition to the Royal Rumble match, the main rivalry from the Raw brand involved the WWE Champion The Miz defending his title against Randy Orton. The night after Survivor Series, The Miz cashed in his Money in the Bank contract and defeated Orton to become the WWE Champion before successfully defending it against Orton a month later at TLC: Tables, Ladders and Chairs. After defeating Wade Barrett and Sheamus in a Steel Cage match on an episode of Raw, Orton received another opportunity at the title in a match against The Miz.
The main rivalry from the SmackDown brand involved the World Heavyweight Champion Edge defending his title against Dolph Ziggler. After defeating "Dashing" Cody Rhodes, Drew McIntyre, and Big Show, Ziggler won a title opportunity for Edge's World Heavyweight Championship after Kane lost to Edge in his rematch. After winning his opportunity, Edge went on a campaign against Ziggler and his girlfriend, Edge's ex-wife, Vickie Guerrero. On the January 28 episode of SmackDown, Vickie Guerrero, who was the acting General Manager in place of the injured Theodore Long, banned the use of the spear and would strip him of his title if he was caught using it during his match against Ziggler.
The Divas rivalry entering the Royal Rumble was between Natalya and LayCool over the Divas Championship. Natalya defeated LayCool in a handicap match at Survivor Series to win the Divas Championship, and she would later team with Beth Phoenix in defeating LayCool in a Divas tag team Tables Match at TLC. On the December 20 episode of Raw, Melina turned heel after defeating Eve Torres and Alicia Fox in a #1 Contender's Triple Threat Match, when she slapped Natalya after the match. On the January 24 episode, Natalya successfully defended the title against Melina, and after the match ended, LayCool entered and announced that they would cash in their rematch clause at the Royal Rumble event.
Event
In a dark match prior to the pay-per-view broadcast, R-Truth defeated Curt Hawkins.
Preliminary matches
The actual pay-per-view opened with Edge defending the World Heavyweight Championship against Dolph Ziggler, with the stipulation that Edge would lose the World Heavyweight Championship should he use the Spear. Edge applied the Edgecator on Ziggler but Ziggler touched the ring ropes, forcing Edge to break the hold. Ziggler performed a Leg Drop Bulldog on Edge for a near-fall. Ziggler applied a Sleeper Hold on Edge but Edge escaped and performed an Edgecution on Ziggler. Edge pinned Ziggler, but Vickie Guerrero pulled the referee, voiding the pinfall at a two count. Whilst Kelly Kelly attacked Guerrero, Ziggler performed a Zig Zag on Edge for a near-fall. Ziggler applied another Sleeper Hold on Edge, but Edge collided with the referee, allowing Edge to perform a Spear on Ziggler. Edge performed Killswitch on Ziggler to retain the title.
Next, The Miz defended the WWE Championship against Randy Orton. During the match, Orton attempted an RKO, but Miz countered and attempted a Skull Crushing Finale but Orton countered and performed an Olympic Slam on The Miz. The Miz retrieved the WWE Championship belt and attempted to walk away, but Orton performed a Clothesline on Miz. Orton performed an Elevated DDT on Miz and The Nexus (CM Punk, Husky Harris, Michael McGillicutty, David Otunga, and Mason Ryan) appeared. Whilst the referee was distracted by The Nexus, Orton threw Alex Riley onto The Nexus and the referee. Orton performed an RKO on Miz but Punk performed a GTS on Orton. When the referee recovered, Miz pinned Orton to retain the title.
After that, Natalya defended the WWE Divas Championship against Layla, Michelle McCool, and Eve Torres in a fatal four-way match. Natalya applied a Double Sharpshooter on Eve and Layla but McCool performed a Big Boot on Natalya. McCool attempted another Big Boot on Natalya but Natalya avoided the move, resulting in McCool hitting Layla. Eve performed a Diving Moonsault on Layla to win the title.
Main event
The main event was the 40-man Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania XXVII. CM Punk entered at #1 and The Corre (Wade Barrett, Ezekiel Jackson, Justin Gabriel, and Heath Slater) then came out and attacked Punk. The Nexus came out and fought with The Corre before the Anonymous Raw General Manager stopped the attack and threatened to disqualify both The Corre and The Nexus from the Royal Rumble match. The members of both groups headed out backstage as United States Champion Daniel Bryan entered at #2 to begin the match with Punk. Gabriel entered at #3 but was quickly eliminated by Bryan. John Morrison (#7) was almost eliminated by William Regal (#5), but held onto the barricade, walked across it and jumped over to the steps to stay in the match. As the match progressed, members of The Nexus began to enter including Husky Harris (#9), Michael McGillicutty (#13) and David Otunga (#15). Punk, Harris, McGillicutty and Otunga cleared out all the other competitors in the ring (Bryan, Chris Masters (#14), Morrison and Mark Henry (#11)). Punk then went on a string of eliminations, eliminating all of the next three entries, Tyler Reks (#16), Tag Team Champion Vladimir Kozlov (#17) and R-Truth (#18). The Great Khali entered at #19 and eliminated Harris, but the final Nexus member, Mason Ryan, came out afterwards at #20 and eliminated Khali. Booker T entered as a surprise entrant at #21, his first WWE appearance since late 2007, executing a Scissors Kick on Otunga and a Book End on McGillicutty and then performed his signature taunt, the Spinaroonie, but was eliminated by Ryan immediately afterwards. John Cena entered next at #22 and eliminated Ryan, Otunga and McGillicutty, leaving Punk on his own. After Hornswoggle entered at #23, Cena eliminated Punk (who lasted over 35 minutes and scored seven eliminations). A double-team by Cena and Hornswoggle led to Tyson Kidd (#24) and Heath Slater (#25) being quickly eliminated after Hornswoggle imitated Cena's signature moves on them.
As the ring filled up with superstars, Diesel entered at #32 as a surprise entrant, his first appearance in WWE since SummerSlam 2003, but was eliminated by Wade Barrett (#30). Alex Riley entered at #34, the WWE Champion The Miz coming out with him to sit on commentary. Riley was mistakenly eliminated early by Cena and Intercontinental Champion Kofi Kingston (#26). The other half of the Tag Team Champions Santino Marella entered at #37, but was hit with a Brogue Kick on entry by Sheamus (#28), and rolled under the bottom rope out of the ring. Alberto Del Rio entered at #38, but slowly approached the ring. This led to the next entrant, Randy Orton, coming out and attacking Del Rio before throwing him into the ring. Orton executed an RKO on Sheamus and another one on Kingston before eliminating both. Kane entered as the final competitor at #40 and eliminated Ezekiel Jackson (#36). Kane was eliminated by Rey Mysterio (#29), but Mysterio was then eliminated himself by Barrett.
Cena, Barrett, Del Rio, and Orton were left as the assumed final four. Riley, who was eliminated earlier, came back out and distracted Cena, which allowed Miz, who had still been on commentary, to eliminate Cena from behind, and he rushed backstage with Riley. Orton fought with Barrett and Del Rio, gaining the upper hand and executing his signature moves. Orton eliminated Barrett, but Del Rio quickly eliminated Orton immediately afterwards and began celebrating. However, Marella, who had been laying outside the ring ever since he was struck by Sheamus' Brogue Kick, came back into the ring after the referees realised he was still in. Del Rio turned around confused and was hit by the Cobra and Marella began celebrating prematurely. Marella went for the elimination on Del Rio, but Del Rio managed to roll out of the way at the last moment, pulling down the top rope and eliminating Marella to finally win the match. This Royal Rumble match was the longest in its history until the 50-man Royal Rumble match at Greatest Royal Rumble in 2018.
Reception
Royal Rumble received positive reviews, most notably from Arda Ocal and Jim Korderas of Right After Wrestling on SIRIUS Radio 98, who called it one of the best Royal Rumble matches in recent memory.
SLAM! Wrestling writers Dale Plummer and Nick Tylwalk shared similar compliments to the event, praising the short, though crowd-pleasing appearances of Kevin Nash and Booker T. Overall, they also awarded the event a score of 8.5/10. The event received 476,000 buys, up from the previous year's 465,000.
Aftermath
In April 2011, the promotion ceased using its full name with the "WWE" abbreviation becoming an orphaned initialism. In August, the brand split was dissolved, thus the 2011 Royal Rumble was the last Royal Rumble held during the first brand extension. However, the brand split would be reinstated in July 2016. Additionally, the 2011 Royal Rumble has thus far been the only Royal Rumble to have a 40-man Royal Rumble match. Only one other Royal Rumble match has had more participants, which was the 50-man Greatest Royal Rumble match held at the Greatest Royal Rumble event in April 2018. Although similar and although the match had the same rules, it is not part of the Royal Rumble's PPV chronology.
Results
Royal Rumble entrances and eliminations
– Raw
– SmackDown
– Legend
– Winner
References
External links
Official website
2011
2011 in Boston
Professional wrestling shows in Boston
2011 WWE pay-per-view events
January 2011 events in the United States
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C%20%D0%86%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%96
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День Іллі
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День Іллі (Іллі — пророка, День пророка Іллі) — церковний день пам'яті пророка Іллі та традиційне народне свято у східних та південних слов'ян, греків, грузинів та деяких інших народів. Відзначається західними і східними християнами — 20 липня, зокрема Православною церквою України, а деякими східними християнами — . Свято поєднує дохристиянське вшанування бога Перуна та старозавітного пророка Іллі.
Ілля вшановується за його невідступність від своєї віри, завдяки якій до Бога було повернено цілий ізраїльський народ, що став раніше поклонятися язичницьким божествам; а також за помазання на пророкування Єлисея. У слов'ян пророк Ілля належить до найшанованіших святих, поряд із Миколаєм Чудотворцем.
Символізм свята
Біблійний символізм
За Книгою Царів, пророк Ілля дорікав цареві Ахаву, що той запровадив поклоніння Ваалу. Народ Ізраїлю підтримав царя, поклоняючись і своєму Богу і Ваалу одночасно. За це віровідступництво Бог покарав Ізраїль тривалою посухою.
Аби довести Ахаву, що Ваал — хибний бог, Ілля домовився з царем прийти на гору Кармел. Ілля прибув туди єдиний з Божих пророків, тоді як язичників прибуло 450 Ваалових і понад 400 Астартових. За угодою, правда мала бути на боці тих вірян, чий жертовник їхнє божество запалить саме. Щоб переконати язичників, що Ваал безсилий, Ілля не розпалював вогню, а на додаток ще й полив жертовник водою. Язичники в свою чергу стали молитися Ваалу аби той запалив жертовник, проте марно. Бог зіслав на жертовник Іллі вогонь такої сили, що він знищив і жертву, і жертовник, і висушив воду навколо.
Побачивши це диво, люди знову визнали Бога, а Ваалових пророків було страчено. Після цього на небі з'явилися хмари та пішов довгоочікуваний дощ.
Коли син Ахава, Охозія, під час хвороби став звертатися за передбаченнями до язичницького бога Вельзевула, Ілля пророкував, що за це Охозія буде покараний смертю. Охозія тричі посилав за Іллею воїнів, але ті гинули від вогню, що сходив із неба. Після третього разу Ілля особисто попередив його про скору смерть, що невдовзі і сталося. Пророк крім того застерігав інших родичів Ахава, що вони помруть через свій нечестивий спосіб життя, але ті не послухалися.
За свою ревність перед Богом Ілля був взятий на Небо живим. Згідно з біблійним переказом, його забрала вогненна колісниця. Пророк Єлисей, учень Іллі, був свідком підняття Іллі на небо та, згідно зі своїм бажанням, отримав від нього удвоє більший пророчий дар, ніж у вчителя.
Пророк Ілля також вшановується за утвердження ідеї, що діти не повинні відповідати за гріхи батьків. Це відображено в оповіді про те, як Бог воскресив на прохання Іллі померлого сина вдови.
Язичницький символізм
Оповідь про Іллю, що викликав молитвою небесний вогонь і дощ, наклалася на слов'янське вшанування Перуна — бога громів і блискавок, подателя дощу. В народних віруваннях Ілля, продовжуючи вірування про Перуна, править грозовими хмарами, забезпечує родючість полів, а блискавками проганяє демонів і богохульників. Ці вірування відображають уявлення про те, що Перун визволив хмари, викрадені змієм (можливо, Велесом у подобі змія), який ховався в різних предметах, тваринах, людях і врешті у воді. Подвійна природа Перуна (керування і вогнем і дощем) відбилася в розділенні Сухого та Мокрого Іллі.
Оповідь про вознесення Іллі на Небо в вогняній колісниці здобула паралель з уявленнями, що Перун їздить по небу також на колісниці.
Історія святкування
Культ Іллі найраніше зафіксований в V ст. Патріарх Єрусалимський Ілля в 465 році заснував два монастиря на честь пророка Іллі. В Зораві (тепер Ізра) в Сирії в 542 році було зведено церкву Іллі. Через юдейські легенди постав образ пророка Іллі як крилатої людини, що приходить на допомогу тим, хто його кличе. В Римській імперії культ бога Геліоса перейшов у культ Іллі. Найраніше в Європі культ Іллі відомий в місті Автиссіодур (тепер Осер, Франція) в VI ст. та на півдні Італії, що перебувала під владою Візантії.
Культ пророка Іллі існував у Київській Русі ще за довго до її офіційного хрещення. Так, у договорі князя Ігоря Рюриковича 945 р. з Візантією йдеться про русів, котрі клялися Перуном і про християн, які складали присягу у соборній церкві святого Іллі.
У деяких общинах Греції в IX ст. свято Іллі відбувалося 7 серпня. Тоді ж його святкувала православна община Хорезма в XI ст., наступного дня після Преображення Господнього. В Синайських канонаріях вказується на відмічання цього дня упродовж IX—XI ст. у вівторок другого тижня після Пасхи. У дохалкідонських східних церквах Іллю вшановували як 20 липня, так і в інші дні. У менологіях згадується 20 лютого, хоча й рідко, а частіше 3 (4) квітня (у сиро-яковітських менологіях IX—XVII ст.) чи на 6-й день місяця тобе (1 січня) — в коптсько-арабських менологіях XIII—XIV ст. У Сирийській яковитській церкві та в маронітів пізніше встановилася дата 20 липня. Вірменська апостольська церква святкує пам'ять Іллі в першу неділю після П'ятдесятниці. Асирійська церква Сходу вшановує Іллю в першу п'ятницю Входу та в 1 з 9 седмин.
Слов'янські звичаї
День Іллі традиційно вважається межовим: в південних слов'ян це середина літа, в східних — поворот до зими. У день Іллі дозволялося споживати плоди врожаю. Заборонялося купатись аби не втонути чи не захворіти. Заборонялася усяка домашня та сільськогосподарська робота, щоб не накликати гнів Іллі. Тих, хто все ж працює цього дня, належало карати: розпрягти коней, а збрую обміняти в шинку на спільне розпиття. За поширеним віруванням, цього дня Ілля вражає блискавками нечисту силу. За українським повір'ям, цього дня не можна випускати на випас худобу, бо всюди повзає гаддя, на яке перетворюються чорти. З цієї причини різних змій на свято Іллі убивали палицями. Не можна було їсти зловлену рибу, бо це могла бути нечисть. Також заборонялося голосно кричати, щоб чорти не вселилися в людину через рот. Південні слов'яни вірили, що Ілля бореться зі зміями халами.
Ілля перейняв у народних віруваннях деякі функції святого Георгія, такі як покровительство мисливству. На його свято відбувалася спільна трапеза жителів кількох сіл («братчина» або «мольба»), на яку заколювали бика чи барана, куплених на спільні гроші чи вирощених спільно. Кров'ю тварини потім мазали очі, лоб, а дітям щоки, щоб передати людині здоров'я й міць тварини. В Україні та Росії відомий звичай готувати на свято пророка хліб з нового збіжжя, «новую новину». В Олонецькій губернії Росії на день Іллі зарізали та смажили бика. Вважалося, що той, хто вхопить шматок м'яса з кісткою, матиме удачу в мисливстві та рибальстві. Водночас Ілля виступав і покровителем врожаю, зокрема сприяв зростанню жита.
Свято Іллі слугувало символічною межею, коли літо починає переходити в осінь, а буяння змінюється спокоєм. Після свята Іллі перестають купатися.
Народні традиції
Народна традиція день пророка Іллі вважає початком нового врожаю.
Приказки та прикмети
На Іллі новий хліб на столі.
До Іллі дощ ходить зі своїм вітром: за вітром і проти вітру, а після Іллі тільки за вітром.
До Іллі хмари ходять за вітром, а після Іллі — проти вітру.
Див. також
Ілля (пророк)
Перун
Вогнева Марія
Примітки
Література
Бурій В. М. Народно-православний календар / Валерій Бурій. — Черкаси: Вертикаль, 2009.
Посилання
Іллі день // Українська Релігієзнавча Енциклопедія
Іллі
Народний календар східних слов'ян
Літні свята
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D1%86%D1%96%D1%94%D0%B2%D1%96
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Стрелітцієві
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Стрелітцієві
Стреліцієві, стрелітцієві (Strelitziaceae) — родина однодольних рослин порядку імбироцвітих. Включає три роди, з яких два є монотипними, а третій налічує п'ять видів. Свою назву отримала від найчисельнішого роду стрелітція, названого на честь англійської королеви Шарлотти, уродженої принцеси Мекленбург-Стреліцької, — засновниці Королівських ботанічних садів в К'ю. Серед представників стрелітцієвих переважають високі трави, що утворюють несправжні стовбури, схожі на стебла близьких до них бананів. Представники родини належать до тепло- і вологолюбних тропічних і субтропічних рослин. Вони поширені в Африці, Південній Америці, на Мадагаскарі. Багато стрелітцієвих відносять до декоративних культур. Деякі види місцеве населення обмежено використовує у побуті.
Опис
Більшість представників родини належать до трав заввишки від 1 до 9 м, виняток становить Ravenala madagascariensis, що являє собою 15-метрове дерево зі справжнім стовбуром. В інших видів несправжні стовбури утворені піхвами величезних листків. Такі стебла не здатні до вторинного росту, властивого деревам. Відносно невисока Strelitzia juncea не утворює навіть несправжнього стовбура, її листки розходяться віялом від самої землі.
Коренева система у стрелітцієвих представлена короткими кореневищами, від яких відгалужуються соковиті ламкі корені. Через незначну довжину утворені кореневищами паростки, як правило, з'являються біля стебла материнської особини, лише у Phenakospermum guyannense горизонтальні симподіальні кореневища відходять далеко в сторони і нові пагони виростають подалі від материнської рослини. У Ravenala madagascariensis корені мають судини, однак стовбур позбавлений провідних пучків, інші представники родини як в коренях, так і в «стовбурах» мають судини з драбинчастою перфорацією.
Листки стрелітцієвих, завдовжки від одного до кількох метрів, вирізняються довгими, товстими і міцними черешками. У нижній частині черешки жолобчасті, а в Ravenala madagascariensis вони утворюють замкнені піхви, в яких накопичується вода. Листкові пластинки у всіх стрелітцієвих, за винятком Strelitzia juncea, овальної або видовжено-еліптичної форми. Їм притаманна дуже товста центральна жилка, що добре вирізняється на нижньому боці листка. Від неї відходять майже паралельні бічні жилки, які виконують роль опорних тканин. У природі під дією вітру великі листки завжди рвуться уздовж бічних жилок, внаслідок чого листки цих рослин здаються пірчасторозсіченими. Однак при вирощуванні в оранжереях вони зберігають свою цілісність. До того ж, молоді листки, формуючись у піхвах старих, знаходяться у скрученому стані. Під час розгортання вони зазнають тиску з боку піхви старого листка, тому їхня зовнішня половина (розташована з боку піхви) дещо вужча, ніж внутрішня. Внаслідок цього листки у повному розвої можуть виглядати ледь асиметричними.
Складні суцвіття у стрелітцієвих виходять з піхов листків за винятком Phenakospermum guyannense, у якого суцвіття верхівкове. При основі квіткової осі цих рослин у два ряди розташовані великі шкірясті покривні листки, між якими заховані парціальні суцвіття другого порядку. Ці дрібніші суцвіття являють собою завійки, в яких квітки звернені лише до верхнього боку. У Ravenala madagascariensis у суцвітті формується до 10—12 завійок, кожна з яких несе 10—15 квіток. У Phenakospermum guyannense завійок трохи менше (до десятка), але вони такі ж багатоквіткові. Завійки стрелітцій небагатоквіткові. Покривні листки у стрелітцієвих завжди складені човником.
Кожна квітка у суцвітті має приквіток. Квітки стрелітцієвих двостатеві, у представників родів Ravenala і Phenakospermum ледь помітно зигоморфні, у стрелітцій — виразно зигоморфні. Частки оцвітини розташовані по три в двох колах. У Ravenala madagascariensis і Phenakospermum guyannense усі листочки оцвітини білі, схожі на пелюстки. Вони майже однакового розміру за винятком одного внутрішнього листочка, зверненого до головної осі суцвіття, який трохи вужчий і коротший за інші. У стрелітцій форма і колір листочків оцвітини зовнішнього і внутрішнього кола значно відрізняються, що пов'язано з різними функціями, які вони виконують. Тичинки стрелітцієвих мають пружні, міцні тичинкові нитки і двогнізді лінійні пиляки. Лише в Ravenala madagascariensis тичинок шість, інші представники родини мають по п'ять тичинок: шоста, розташована біля медіанної пелюстки, зверненої до головної осі суцвіття, залишається не розвинутою. Тичинки стрелітцієвих протандричні, тобто розвиваються раніше за маточку. Їхні пилкові зерна великі, з безапертурною оболонкою, у пиляці вони оточені ниткоподібними утвореннями, завдяки яким злипаються в пластівці. Гінецей стрелітцієвих синкарпний, складений трьома плодолистками. Зав'язь тригнізда, нижня, з численними анатропними насіннєвими зачатками. Стовпчик маточки зазвичай з трилопатевою приймочкою. Ravenala madagascariensis має короткі лопаті приймочки, а стрелітції — довгі, трохи нерівні, з хвилястою приймаючою поверхнею, оберненою догори. Верхня частина зав'язі містить септальні залозки, що відкриваються при основі стовпчика. Нектар, який вони виділяють, заповнює внутрішню порожнину складеного покривного листка, часто витікає через його край. Попри відсутність вираженого запаху, квіти стрелітцієвих приваблюють запилювачів саме завдяки нектару і яскравому забарвленню.
Плоди стрелітцієвих являють собою локуліцидні коробочки з жорсткими дерев'янистими стінками. Насінини обов'язково мають великий яскравий принасінник, який відіграє певну роль в розкритті плоду, а також приваблює птахів. Колір принасінника залежить від родової приналежності: у Ravenala madagascariensis він блакитний, у Phenakospermum guyannense — червоний, у стрелітцій — помаранчевий. Зародок стрелітцієвих прямий (у Ravenala madagascariensis — зігнутий), лежить в периспермі в оточенні залишків ендосперму.
Поширення та екологія
Родині Стрелітцієвих властивий розірваний (диз'юнктивний) ареал, причому представники приналежних до неї родів, населяють віддалені один від одного регіони. Так, Ravenala madagascariensis — ендемік острова Мадагаскар. Phenakospermum guyannense зростає в Південній Америці, а стрелітції населяють різні частини Африки (переважно на південь від екватора). Найтеплолюбнішими є представники роду Ravenala і Phenakospermum, чиї ареали не виходять за межі тропічної зони. Стрелітції дещо витриваліші до невисоких температур і поширені в субтропічному поясі. Разом з тим, вони є порівняно посухостійкішими, хоча все одно тяжіють до місцин з насиченим вологою повітрям (берегів річок, наприклад). Ravenala madagascariensis полюбляє захищені узлісся і галявини, а на відкритих просторах під час літньої посухи може частково скидати листя. Найвологолюбніший Phenakospermum guyannense, що росте у лісах на болотистих берегах Амазонки. Це єдиний помірно тіньовитривалий представник стрелітцієвих, інші види полюбляють сонячні місцини.
Стрелітцієвим притаманні складні екологічні зв'язки з іншими організмами, зокрема, запилювачами. В цій ролі виступають переважно нектарниці, рідше інші пернаті чи комахи. Цупкі покривні листки представників означеної родини слугують птахам своєрідними сідалами, на яких ті зручно вмощуються, п'ючи нектар. Особливо добре виражена пристосованість до птахозапилення у стрелітцій. У них два чашолистки і одна пелюстка стирчать вертикально по відношенню до горизонтально спрямованого покривного листка. Вони привертають увагу птаха за рахунок контрастного забарвлення. Ще один чашолисток із двома зрослими пелюстками зростаються на кшталт стріли, залишаючись затиснутими усередині листка-човника. Коли птах сідає на покривний листок, під його вагою «стріла» вивільняється, і від різкого руху пилок вистрілює в груди птаха. Маточка ж залишається затиснутою усередині покривного листка до наступних відвідин запилювача. При повторному візиті птаха вивільняється і вона, при цьому на маточку потрапляє пилок, який птах приніс з іншої рослини. Для Ravenala madagascariensis основними запилювачами виступають лемури.
Значення
Стрелітцієві відомі своїми декоративними якостями, оскільки приваблюють погляд великим розміром, гарними листками, зібраними у своєрідне віяло, та показними химерними квітками. Африканські тубільці називали стрелітції «стрілами кохання» або «журавлиними квітками», маючи на увазі здатність випускати «стріли» в груди птаха і незвичну форму, що нагадувала чубчик вінценосного журавля. Європейці також захоплювались цими рослинами, про що свідчить назва, надана на честь високої особи. З Африки вони вивезли стрелітції в інші теплі країни, де стали використовувати їх в озелененні. В європейських країнах поширилась оранжерейна культура, що постачала квіти для букетів. Нарівні зі стрелітціями у тропічних країнах набула популярності Ravenala madagascariensis, чиї велетенські віяла можна побачити на вулицях і в парках.
Господарське значення стрелітцієвих невелике. Стовбури Ravenala madagascariensis мадагаскарці застосовують як паливо або для побудови жител. З черешків Strelitzia nicolai місцеві жителі виготовляють мотузки, листям різних стрелітцієвих вони час від часу вкривають стріхи своїх примітивних жител. Насіння Ravenala madagascariensis і Strelitzia nicolai їстівне. Крім того, Ravenala madagascariensis називають «деревом мандрівників» за те, що накопичену в її піхвах воду подорожні раніше використовували як питну.
Систематика
Рід Phenakospermum Endl.:
Phenakospermum guianense (Rich.) Endl. ex Miq. — єдиний представник роду;
Рід Ravenala Adans.:
Phenakospermum guianense (Rich.) Endl. ex Miq. — єдиний представник роду;
Рід Strelitzia Aiton — стрелітція:
Strelitzia alba (L. f.) Skeels — стрелітція велична;
Strelitzia caudata R.A.Dyer;
Strelitzia juncea Link;
Strelitzia nicolai Regel & Körn.;
Strelitzia reginae Aiton — стрелітція королівська.
Джерела
Родини квіткових
Імбироцвіті
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890416
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971%20Turkish%20military%20memorandum
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1971 Turkish military memorandum
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1971 Turkish military memorandum
The 1971 Turkish military memorandum, issued on 12 March that year, was the second military intervention to take place in the Republic of Turkey, coming 11 years after its 1960 predecessor. It is known as the "coup by memorandum", which the military delivered in lieu of sending out tanks, as it had done previously. The event came amid worsening domestic strife, but ultimately did little to halt this phenomenon.
Background
As the 1960s wore on, violence and instability plagued Turkey. An economic recession late in that decade sparked a wave of social unrest marked by street demonstrations, labour strikes and political assassinations. Left-wing workers' and students' movements were formed, countered on the right by Islamist and militant Turkish nationalist groups. The left carried out bombing attacks, robberies and kidnappings; from the end of 1968, and increasingly during 1969 and 1970, left-wing violence was matched and surpassed by far-right violence, notably from the Grey Wolves. On the political front, Prime Minister Süleyman Demirel's centre-right Justice Party government, re-elected in 1969, also experienced trouble. Various factions within his party defected to form splinter groups of their own, gradually reducing his parliamentary majority and bringing the legislative process to a halt.
By January 1971, Turkey appeared to be in a state of chaos. The universities had ceased to function. Students, emulating Latin American urban guerrillas, robbed banks and kidnapped US servicemen, also attacking American targets. The homes of university professors critical of the government were bombed by neo-fascist militants. Factories were on strike and more workdays were lost between 1 January and 12 March 1971 than during any prior year. The Islamist movement had become more aggressive and its party, the National Order Party, openly rejected Atatürk and Kemalism, infuriating the Turkish Armed Forces. Demirel's government, weakened by defections, seemed paralyzed in the face of the campus and street violence, and unable to pass any serious legislation on social and financial reform. The immediate spur for the coup appears to have been the discovery of another coup plot scheduled for 9 March. It involved retired general and 1960 plotter Cemal Madanoğlu, Devrim editor Doğan Avcıoğlu and a group of left-wing junior officers. The high command responded by retiring all officers below four-star general connected with the plot.
Memorandum
It was in this atmosphere that on 12 March, the Chief of the General Staff, Memduh Tağmaç, handed the prime minister a memorandum, really amounting to an ultimatum by the armed forces. It demanded "the formation, within the context of democratic principles, of a strong and credible government, which will neutralise the current anarchical situation and which, inspired by Atatürk's views, will implement the reformist laws envisaged by the constitution", putting an end to the "anarchy, fratricidal strife, and social and economic unrest". If the demands were not met, the army would "exercise its constitutional duty" and take over power itself. Demirel resigned after a three-hour meeting with his cabinet; veteran politician and opposition leader İsmet İnönü sharply denounced any military meddling in politics. While the precise reasons for the intervention remain disputed, there were three broad motivations behind the memorandum. First, senior commanders believed Demirel had lost his grip on power and was unable to deal with rising public disorder and political terrorism, so they wished to return order to Turkey. Second, many officers seem to have been unwilling to bear responsibility for the government's violent measures, such as the suppression of Istanbul workers' demonstrations the previous June; more radical members believed coercion alone could not stop popular unrest and Marxist revolutionary movements, and that the social and economic reformism behind the 1960 coup needed to be put into practice. Finally, a minority of senior officers concluded that progress within a liberal democratic system was impossible, and that authoritarianism would result in a more egalitarian, independent and "modern" Turkey; other officers felt they had to intervene, if only to forestall these radical elements.
The coup did not come as a surprise to most Turks, but the direction it would take was uncertain, as its collective nature made it difficult to discern which faction in the armed forces had seized the initiative. The liberal intelligentsia hoped it was the radical-reformist wing led by Air Force commander Muhsin Batur, who favoured implementing reforms envisaged by the 1961 constitution; they were thus encouraged by the memorandum. Their hopes were dashed when it turned out that the high command had taken power, animated by the spectre of a communist threat, and not a radical group of officers as in 1960. (There were rumours the high command had acted to pre-empt a similar move by junior officers; the notion was seemingly confirmed when a number of officers were retired soon afterwards.) The "restoration of law and order" was given priority; in practice this meant repressing any group viewed as leftist. On the day of the coup, the public prosecutor opened a case against the Workers' Party of Turkey for carrying out communist propaganda and supporting Kurdish separatism. He also sought to close all youth organisations affiliated with Dev-Genç, the Federation of the Revolutionary Youth of Turkey, blamed for the left-wing youth violence and university and urban agitation. Police searches in offices of the teachers' union and university clubs were carried out. Such actions encouraged vigilante action by the "Idealist Hearths", the youth branch of the Nationalist Action Party; provincial teachers and Workers' Party supporters became prime targets. The principal motive for the suppression of the left seems to have been to curb trade union militancy and the demands for higher wages and better working conditions.
The commanders who seized power were reluctant to exercise it directly, deterred by the problems that faced the Greek junta. They had little choice but to rule through an Assembly dominated by conservative, anti-reformist parties and an "above-party" government which was expected to carry out the reforms. The military chiefs would give directives from behind the scenes. To lead this government, on 19 March they chose Nihat Erim, acceptable to the Justice Party and the more conservative faction of the Republican People's Party. (This included İnönü, who embraced the generals once they picked his close associate, but the party's general secretary Bülent Ecevit was infuriated and resigned from his post. For his part, Demirel cautioned his party to remain calm.) Erim appointed a technocratic cabinet from outside the political establishment to carry out the commanders' socio-economic reform programme. The regime rested on an unstable balance of power between civilian politicians and the military; it was neither a normal elected government, nor an outright military dictatorship which could entirely ignore parliamentary opposition.
Aftermath
In April, politics was eclipsed (and the envisaged reform put off until after 1973) when a new wave of terror began, carried out by the Turkish People's Liberation Army, in the form of kidnappings with ransom demands and bank robberies. Intelligence sources confirmed rumours that dissident junior officers and military cadets were directing this force. On 27 April, martial law was declared in 11 of 67 provinces, including major urban areas and Kurdish regions. Soon, youth organisations were banned, union meetings prohibited, leftist (but not militant neo-fascist) publications proscribed and strikes declared illegal. After the Israeli consul was abducted on 17 May, hundreds of students, young academics, writers, trade unionists and Workers' Party activists—not just leftists but also people with liberal-progressive sympathies—were detained and tortured. The consul was shot four days later after a daytime curfew had been announced.
For the next two years, repression continued, with martial law renewed every two months. Constitutional reforms repealed some of the essential liberal fragments of the 1961 Constitution and allowed the government to withdraw fundamental rights in case of "abuse". The National Intelligence Organization (MİT) used the Ziverbey Villa as a torture center, employing physical and psychological coercion. The Counter-Guerrillas were active in the same building, with interrogations directed by their mainly Central Intelligence Agency-trained specialists, and resulting in hundreds of deaths or permanent injuries. Among their victims was journalist Uğur Mumcu, arrested shortly after the coup, who later wrote that his torturers informed him even the president could not touch them.
Ferit Melen, who made little impression, took over the premiership in April 1972, followed a year later by Naim Talu, whose main task was to lead the country to elections. (An important reassertion of civilian influence took place in March–April 1973, when Demirel and Ecevit, normally at odds, both rejected the generals' choice for president, instead having Fahri Korutürk elected to the post by the Assembly.) By summer 1973, the military-backed regime had achieved most of its political tasks. The constitution was amended so as to strengthen the state against civil society; special courts were in place to deal with all forms of dissent quickly and ruthlessly (these tried over 3,000 people before their abolition in 1976); the universities, their autonomy ended, had been made to curb the radicalism of students and faculty; radio, television, newspapers and the constitutional court were curtailed; the National Security Council was made more powerful; and, once the Workers' Party was dissolved in July 1971, the trade unions were pacified and left in an ideological vacuum. That May, Necmettin Erbakan's National Order Party had been shut down, which the government claimed showed its even-handedness in the anti-terror campaign, but he was not tried and allowed to resume his activities in October 1972; the National Action Party and the right-wing terrorists who worked under its aegis were left conspicuously alone.
In October 1973, Ecevit, who had won control of the Republican People's Party from İnönü, won an upset victory. Nevertheless, the very same problems highlighted in the memorandum re-emerged. A fragmented party system and unstable governments held hostage by small right-wing parties contributed to political polarization. The economy deteriorated, the Grey Wolves escalated and intensified political terrorism as the 1970s progressed, and left-wing groups too carried out acts aimed at causing chaos and demoralization. In 1980, seeking once again to restore order, the military carried out yet another coup.
In 2013, a monument was unveiled near the site of the Ziverbey Villa in Kadıköy. It commemorates the victims who were tortured inside the building following the coup.
Footnotes
References
External links
Military coups in Turkey
Turkish coup d'etat
Coup d'etat
14th parliament of Turkey
Anti-communism in Turkey
1970s coups d'état and coup attempts
March 1971 events in Asia
1971 documents
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6292923
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papasidero
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Papasidero
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Papasidero is a village and comune in the province of Cosenza in the Calabria region, southern Italy. It is part of Pollino National Park.
Geography
Papasidero is situated on a rocky spur 210 m above the sea level and is crossed by Lao and Santo Nocajo rivers. It is 18 km from SA-RC motorway and 23 km from the Tyrrhenian sea. Its territory covers an area of 54 square km and is entirely part of Pollino National Park.
History
The name Papasidero derives from the name of an abbot (in Greek Papas-Isidoros, father or priest Isidore) head of a monastery in the Mercuriense Region, home of Basilian Greek monasticism.
Humans have occupied the area since prehistoric times, as confirmed by an important archaeological site, LaGrotta Romito, discovered in 1961. The historical centre has a typically medieval urban style. It was built over the 12th and 13th centuries. From Lombard beginnings, it became a fortress castle in the Sveva Norman period (1190–1250) and was expanded under the Angevins in the 14th century, and under Aragon (from 1400 to 1500).
The church of Saint Constantine became a parish in 1510. The place was possessed by the descendants of the Norman Alitto of Sanseverino and Spinelli di Scalea until 1806. Since 1593 a Monte di Pietà has operated, set up by Owen Lewis (Ludovico Audoeno) who was Bishop of Cassano; and starting from the 17th century the Brotherhood of the Assumption. Carlo Paolino (1723–1803) humanist, Francesco Mastroti (1777–1847) teacher, and Maria Angelica Mastroti (1851–1891) mystic, were all born here.
Main sights
The abandoned village of Avena. The Mother Church has a Byzantine fresco from the early 11th century.
Grotto of the Romito, 13 km outside Papasidero, discovered in 1961 and housing pre-historic graffiti.
Sanctuary of Constantinople (17th-18th centuries)
Sanctuary of Constantinople
A Byzantine church dating from the year one thousand, the Mother Shrine of Constantinople XVII Century was built in the middle of 600 was extended to the end of 700 and in the first half of the 19th century. It has a T plan with three naves. A large fresco was painted between 700 and 800, depicting the Virgin and Child and a bishop kneeling before the high Archangel Michele who pierces Satan in flames.
Romito Cave
This important discovery, which occurred in 1961 in the territory of Papasidero, has shed a light on events in prehistoric northern Calabria, and showed that it was inhabited at least 20,000 years ago. The Romito man was a Cro-Magnon; he did not keep cattle or practise agriculture or make ceramics. The cave is divided into two distinct areas: the actual cave, about twenty metres deep, which goes into the limestone formation with a narrow dark tunnel, and the guard that extends for about 34 metres east–west.
Homo sapiens occupied the cave continuously leaving countless relics of bone and stone tools, wonderful graffiti and their skeletal remains. Carbon 14 dating proves occupation since 4470 BC (Neolithic). In the Upper Paleolithic layers, the oldest dating is around 16,800 BC.
The figure of a bull, about 1.2 metres long, is engraved on a boulder of about 2.3 metres in length at an angle of 45°. The design of perfect proportions, is made with stretch safely. The nostrils, mouth, eye and ear are represented with some care. Folds in the skin of the neck are clear and the cloven foot is very accurately shown.
Below the great figure of a bull, another bovine figure has been cut, much more subtly, showing only the chest, head and part of the back. In front of the rock with the cattle, there is another figure about 3.5 metres long, with a linear cut, whose meaning is incomprehensible. The occupation of the Neolithic cave of Romito (:it:Grotta del Romito) is documented by the discovery of fifty ceramic pieces that reveal trade in obsidian from the Aeolian Islands. The place of their discovery, and the facsimile of a tomb dated from 9200 years BC, can be visited. Two individuals have been arranged in a well-defined ritual.
One burial was found in the cave and another two couples in the shelter of the rock overhang just outside the cave, not far from the rock with the figure of the bull. Of these pairs of skeletons, the first is kept in the National Museum of Reggio Calabria, the second is in the Florentine Museum of Prehistory. The third is still being studied by the Institute of Prehistory of Florence. Recent excavations have unearthed the remains of a fourth burial, even more ancient, clear evidence of an intense occupation by prehistoric man. About 300 obsidian chips have been found in the different layers of the shelter and the cave.
The Archaeological Park contains a small museum, teaching all the essential information.
Lao River
The Lao river is a short perennial river on the Tyrrhenian side of Calabria. It takes its name from the town of Laos, a city of Magna Grecia.
Over 50 km long, it originates in Basilicata from Monte Serra del Prete on the Massif Pollino, 2000m in altitude. It is known in the territory of Viggianello (PZ), as the Mercure. Here the river runs from E-W to NE-SW. Where the tributaries meet the river is named the Lao. From this point there is abundant water throughout the year. It enters a spectacular gorge flowing for several kilometres.
Despite great variations in flow (especially in autumn when it can lead to massive flooding), the Lao is clearly distinguishable from other rivers of the region for its average flow (of about 10 m/s) and its minimum (in summer rarely dropping below 4 m/s), thanks to the remarkable permeability of a large part of its catchment, making it the most important watercourse of Tyrrhenian Calabria, by volume of water and the most important in summer. Because of these unique characteristics, and for the purity of its waters, and the beauty and length of the Ingoli stretch, the river is popular with fans of rafting and canoeing. The Lao also gives its name to the Riserva Statale Valle del Fiume Lao, established in 1987 within the National Park of Pollino.
References
Cities and towns in Calabria
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45311
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural%20Revolution
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Cultural Revolution
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Cultural Revolution
The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC). It was launched by Mao Zedong in 1966 and lasted until his death in 1976. Its stated goal was to preserve Chinese communism by purging remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society. Though it failed to achieve its main objectives, the Cultural Revolution marked the effective return of Mao to the center of power in China after his political sidelining, in the aftermath of the Great Leap Forward and the Great Chinese Famine.
In May 1966, with the help of the Cultural Revolution Group, Mao launched the Revolution and said that bourgeois elements had infiltrated the government and society with the aim of restoring capitalism. Mao called on young people to bombard the headquarters, and proclaimed that "to rebel is justified". Mass upheaval began in Beijing with Red August in 1966. Many young people, mainly students, responded by forming cadres of Red Guards throughout the country. A selection of Mao's sayings were compiled into the Little Red Book, which became revered within his cult of personality. In 1967, emboldened radicals began seizing power from local governments and party branches, establishing new revolutionary committees in their place. These committees often split into rival factions, precipitating armed clashes among the radicals. After the fall of Lin Biao in 1971, the Gang of Four became influential in 1972, and the Revolution continued until Mao's death in 1976, soon followed by the arrest of the Gang of Four.
The Cultural Revolution was characterized by violence and chaos across Chinese society, including a massacre in Guangxi that included acts of cannibalism, as well as massacres in Beijing, Inner Mongolia, Guangdong, Yunnan, and Hunan. Estimates of the death toll vary widely, typically ranging from 1–2 million. Red Guards sought to destroy the Four Olds (old ideas, old culture, old customs, and old habits), which often took the form of destroying historical artifacts, cultural and religious sites, and targeting others deemed to be representative of the Four Olds. Tens of millions were persecuted, including senior officials: most notably, president Liu Shaoqi, as well as Deng Xiaoping, Peng Dehuai, and He Long. Millions were persecuted for being members of the Five Black Categories. Intellectuals and scientists were considered to be the Stinking Old Ninth, and many were persecuted. The country's schools and universities were closed, and the National College Entrance Examination were cancelled. Over 10 million youth from urban areas were relocated under the Down to the Countryside Movement policy.
In December 1978, Deng Xiaoping became the new paramount leader of China, replacing Mao's successor Hua Guofeng. Deng and his allies introduced the Boluan Fanzheng program and initiated reforms and opening of China, which gradually dismantled the ideology of Cultural Revolution. In 1981, the Communist Party publicly acknowledged numerous failures of the Cultural Revolution, declaring it "responsible for the most severe setback and the heaviest losses suffered by the people, the country, and the party since the founding of the People's Republic." Given its broad scope and social impact, memories and perspectives of the Cultural Revolution are varied and complex in contemporary China. It is often referred to as the "ten years of chaos" or "ten years of havoc" (十年浩劫; shí nián hàojié).
Etymology
The terminology of cultural revolution appeared in communist party discourses and newspapers prior to the founding of the People's Republic of China. During this period, the term was used interchangeably with "cultural construction" and referred to eliminating illiteracy in order to widen public participation in civic matters. This usage of "cultural revolution" continued through the 1950s and into the 1960s, and often involved drawing parallels to the May Fourth Movement or the Soviet cultural revolution of 1928–1931.
Background
Creation of the People's Republic
On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong declared the People's Republic of China, symbolically bringing the decades-long Chinese Civil War to a close. Remaining Republican forces fled to Taiwan, and continued to resist the People's Republic in various ways. Many soldiers of the Chinese Republicans were left in mainland China, and Mao Zedong launched the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries to eliminate these left behind soldiers, as well as elements of Chinese society viewed as potentially dangerous to Mao's new government. This was one of the earliest examples of mass arrests, detainments, and killings across all of China that would later be mirrored in the Cultural Revolution.
Great Leap Forward
The Great Leap Forward, similar to the Five-year plans of the Soviet Union, was Mao Zedong's proposal to make the newly created People's Republic of China an industrial superpower. Beginning in 1958, the Great Leap Forward did produce, at least on the surface, incredible industrialization, but also caused some of the worst famines in modern history, while still falling short of projected goals. The Great Leap Forward soon came to be seen as one of Mao's greatest mistakes, eventually costing him some of his official status in the Communist Party.
Impact of international tensions and anti-revisionism
In the early 1950s, the PRC and the Soviet Union (USSR) were the world's two largest communist states. Although initially they were mutually supportive, disagreements arose after Nikita Khrushchev took power in the USSR. In 1956, Khrushchev denounced his predecessor Josef Stalin and his policies, and began implementing economic reforms. Mao and many other CCP members opposed these changes, believing that they would damage the worldwide communist movement.
Mao believed that Khrushchev was a revisionist, altering Marxist–Leninist concepts, which Mao claimed would give capitalists control of the USSR. Relations soured. The USSR refused to support China's case for joining the United Nations and reneged on its pledge to supply China with a nuclear weapon.
Mao publicly denounced revisionism in April 1960. Without pointing at the USSR, Mao criticized its Balkan ally, the League of Communists of Yugoslavia. In turn, the USSR criticized China's Balkan ally, the Party of Labour of Albania. In 1963, CCP began to denounce the USSR, publishing nine polemics. One was titled On Khrushchev's Phoney Communism and Historical Lessons for the World, in which Mao charged that Khrushchev was a revisionist and risked capitalist restoration. Khrushchev's defeat by an internal coup d'état in 1964 contributed to Mao's fears, mainly because of his declining prestige after the Great Leap Forward.
Other Soviet actions increased concerns about potential fifth columnists. As a result of the tensions following the Sino-Soviet split, Soviet leaders authorized radio broadcasts into China stating that the Soviet Union would assist "genuine communists" who overthrew Mao and his "erroneous course". Chinese leadership also feared the increasing military conflict between the United States and North Vietnam, concerned that China's support would lead to the United States to seek out potential Chinese assets.
Precursor
In 1963, Mao launched the Socialist Education Movement, the Cultural Revolution's precursor. Mao set the scene by "cleansing" powerful Beijing officials of questionable loyalty. His approach was not transparent, executed via newspaper articles, internal meetings, and by his network of political allies.
In late 1959, historian and deputy mayor of Beijing Wu Han published a historical drama entitled Hai Rui Dismissed from Office. In the play, an honest civil servant, Hai Rui, is dismissed by a corrupt emperor. While Mao initially praised the play, in February 1965, he secretly commissioned his wife Jiang Qing and Shanghai propagandist Yao Wenyuan to publish an article criticizing it. Yao described the play as an allegory attacking Mao; flagging Mao as the emperor, and Peng Dehuai, who had previously questioned Mao during the Lushan Conference, as the honest civil servant.
Yao's article put Beijing mayor Peng Zhen on the defensive. Peng, Wu Han's direct superior, was the head of the "Five Man Group", a committee commissioned by Mao to study the potential for a cultural revolution. Peng Zhen, aware that he would be implicated if Wu indeed wrote an "anti-Mao" play, wished to contain Yao's influence. Yao's article was initially published only in select local newspapers. Peng forbade its publication in the nationally distributed People's Daily and other major newspapers under his control, instructing them to write exclusively about "academic discussion", and not pay heed to Yao's petty politics. While the "literary battle" against Peng raged, Mao fired Yang Shangkun—director of the party's General Office, an organ that controlled internal communications—making unsubstantiated charges. He installed loyalist Wang Dongxing, head of Mao's security detail. Yang's dismissal likely emboldened Mao's allies to move against their factional rivals.
On 12 February 1966, the "Five Man Group" issued a report known as the February Outline. The Outline as sanctioned by the party center defined Hai Rui as a constructive academic discussion and aimed to distance Peng Zhen formally from any political implications. However, Jiang Qing and Yao Wenyuan continued their denunciations. Meanwhile, Mao sacked Propaganda Department director Lu Dingyi, a Peng ally.
Lu's removal gave Maoists unrestricted access to the press. Mao delivered his final blow to Peng at a high-profile Politburo meeting through loyalists Kang Sheng and Chen Boda. They accused Peng of opposing Mao, labeled the February Outline "evidence of Peng Zhen's revisionism", and grouped him with three other disgraced officials as part of the "Peng-Luo-Lu-Yang Anti-Party Clique". On 16 May, the Politburo formalized the decisions by releasing an official document condemning Peng and his "anti-party allies" in the strongest terms, disbanding his "Five Man Group", and replacing it with the Maoist Cultural Revolution Group (CRG).
1966: Outbreak
The Cultural Revolution can be divided into two main periods:
spring 1966 to summer 1968 (when most of the key events took place)
a tailing period that lasted until fall 1976
The early phase was characterized by mass movement and political pluralization. Virtually anyone could create a political organization, even without party approval. Known as Red Guards, these organizations originally arose in schools and universities and later in factories and other institutions. After 1968, most of these organizations ceased to exist, although their legacies were a topic of controversy later.
Notification
In May 1966, an expanded session of the Politburo was called in Beijing. The conference was laden with Maoist political rhetoric on class struggle and filled with meticulously prepared 'indictments' of recently ousted leaders such as Peng Zhen and Luo Ruiqing. One of these documents, distributed on 16 May, was prepared with Mao's personal supervision and was particularly damning:
Those representatives of the bourgeoisie who have sneaked into the Party, the government, the army, and various spheres of culture are a bunch of counter-revolutionary revisionists. Once conditions are ripe, they will seize political power and turn the dictatorship of the proletariat into a dictatorship of the bourgeoisie. Some of them we have already seen through; others we have not. Some are still trusted by us and are being trained as our successors, persons like Khrushchev for example, who are still nestling beside us.
Later known as the "16 May Notification", this document summarized Mao's ideological justification for CR. Initially kept secret, distributed only among high-ranking party members, it was later declassified and published in People's Daily on 17 May 1967. Effectively it implied that enemies of the Communist cause could be found within the Party: class enemies who "wave the red flag to oppose the red flag." The only way to identify these people was through "the telescope and microscope of Mao Zedong Thought." While the party leadership was relatively united in approving Mao's agenda, many Politburo members were not enthusiastic, or simply confused about the direction. The charges against party leaders such as Peng disturbed China's intellectual community and the eight non-Communist parties.
Mass rallies (May–June)
After the purge of Peng Zhen, the Beijing Party Committee effectively ceased to function, paving the way for disorder in the capital. On 25 May, under the guidance of —wife of Mao loyalist Kang Sheng—Nie Yuanzi, a philosophy lecturer at Peking University, authored a big-character poster along with other leftists and posted it to a public bulletin. Nie attacked the university's party administration and its leader Lu Ping. Nie insinuated that the university leadership, much like Peng, were trying to contain revolutionary fervor in a "sinister" attempt to oppose the party and advance revisionism.
Mao promptly endorsed Nie's poster as "the first Marxist big-character poster in China". Approved by Mao, the poster rippled across educational institutions. Students began to revolt against their school's party establishments. Classes were cancelled in Beijing primary and secondary schools, followed by a decision on 13 June to expand the class suspension nationwide. By early June, throngs of young demonstrators lined the capital's major thoroughfares holding giant portraits of Mao, beating drums, and shouting slogans.
When the dismissal of Peng and the municipal party leadership became public in early June, confusion was widespread. The public and foreign missions were kept in the dark on the reason for Peng's ousting. Top Party leadership was caught off guard by the sudden protest wave and struggled with how to respond. After seeking Mao's guidance in Hangzhou, Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping decided to send in 'work teams'—effectively 'ideological guidance' squads of cadres—to the city's schools and People's Daily to restore some semblance of order and re-establish party control.
The work teams had a poor understanding of student sentiment. Unlike the political movement of the 1950s that squarely targeted intellectuals, the new movement was focused on established party cadres, many of whom were part of the work teams. As a result, the work teams came under increasing suspicion as thwarting revolutionary fervor. Party leadership subsequently became divided over whether or not work teams should continue. Liu Shaoqi insisted on continuing work-team involvement and suppressing the movement's most radical elements, fearing that the movement would spin out of control.
Bombard the Headquarters (July)
In Beijing Mao criticized party leadership for its handling of the work-teams issue. Mao accused the work teams of undermining the student movement, calling for their full withdrawal on July 24. Several days later a rally was held at the Great Hall of the People to announce the decision and reveal the tone of the movement to teachers and students. At the rally, Party leaders encouraged the masses to 'not be afraid' and take charge of the movement, free of Party interference.
The work-teams issue marked a decisive defeat for Liu; it also signaled that disagreement over how to handle the CR's unfolding events would irreversibly split Mao from the party leadership. On 1 August, the Eleventh Plenum of the 8th Central Committee was convened to advance Mao's radical agenda. At the plenum, Mao showed outright disdain for Liu, repeatedly interrupting him as he delivered his opening day speech.
For several days, Mao repeatedly insinuated that the party's leadership had contravened his revolutionary vision. Mao's line of thinking received a lukewarm reception from conference attendees. Sensing that the largely obstructive party elite was unwilling to embrace his revolutionary ideology on a full scale, Mao went on the offensive.
On July 28, Red Guard representatives wrote to Mao, calling for rebellion and upheaval to safeguard the revolution. Mao then responded to the letters by writing his own big-character poster entitled Bombard the Headquarters, rallying people to target the "command centre (i.e., Headquarters) of counterrevolution." Mao wrote that despite having undergone a communist revolution, a "bourgeois" elite was still thriving in "positions of authority" in the government and Party.
Although no names were mentioned, this provocative statement has been interpreted as a direct indictment of the party establishment under Liu and Deng—the purported "bourgeois headquarters" of China. The personnel changes at the Plenum reflected a radical re-design of the party hierarchy. Liu and Deng kept their seats on the Politburo Standing Committee, but were sidelined from day-to-day party affairs. Lin Biao was elevated to become the CCP's number-two; Liu's rank went from second to eighth and was no longer Mao's heir apparent.
Along with the top leadership losing power the entire national Party bureaucracy was purged. The extensive Organization Department, in charge of party personnel, virtually ceased to exist. The Cultural Revolution Group (CRG), Mao's ideological 'Praetorian Guard', was catapulted to prominence. The top officials in the Propaganda Department were sacked, with many of its functions folded into the CRG.
Red August and the Sixteen Points
The Little Red Book was the mechanism that led the Red Guards to commit to their objective as China's future. Quotes directly from Mao led to actions by the Red Guards in the views of other Maoist leaders. By December 1967, 350 million copies had been printed. One of these was the famous line "Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun." The passage continues:
Revolutionary war is an antitoxin which not only eliminates the enemy's poison but also purges us of our filth. Every just, revolutionary war is endowed with tremendous power and can transform many things or clear the way for their transformation. The Sino-Japanese war will transform both China and Japan; Provided China perseveres in the War of Resistance and in the united front, the old Japan will surely be transformed into a new Japan and the old China into a new China, and people and everything else in both China and Japan will be transformed during and after the war.
The world is yours, as well as ours, but in the last analysis, it is yours. You young people, full of vigor and vitality, are in the bloom of life, like the sun at eight or nine in the morning. Our hope is placed on you ... The world belongs to you. China's future belongs to you.During the Red August of Beijing, on August 8, 1966, the party's General Committee passed its "Decision Concerning the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution," later to be known as the "Sixteen Points". This decision defined the Cultural Revolution as "a great revolution that touches people to their very souls and constitutes a new stage in the development of the socialist revolution in our country:"Although the bourgeoisie has been overthrown, it is still trying to use the old ideas, culture, customs and habits of the exploiting classes to corrupt the masses, capture their minds and endeavour to stage a comeback. The proletariat must do the exact opposite: it must meet head-on every challenge of the bourgeoisie ... to change the mental outlook of the whole of society. At present, our objective is to struggle against and overthrow those persons in authority who are taking the capitalist road, to criticize and repudiate the reactionary bourgeois academic "authorities" and the ideology of the bourgeoisie and all other exploiting classes and to transform education, literature and art and all other parts of the superstructure not in correspondence with the socialist economic base, so as to facilitate the consolidation and development of the socialist system.
The implications of the Sixteen Points were far-reaching. It elevated what was previously a student movement to a nationwide mass campaign that would galvanize workers, farmers, soldiers and lower-level party functionaries to rise, challenge authority, and re-shape the superstructure of society.
On 18 August in Beijing, over a million Red Guards from across the country gathered in and around Tiananmen Square for an audience with the chairman. Mao mingled with Red Guards and encouraged them, donning a Red Guard armband. Lin also took centre stage, denouncing perceived enemies in society that were impeding the "progress of the revolution". Subsequently, violence escalated in Beijing and quickly spread. The 18 August rally was filmed and shown to approximately 100 million people in its first month of release.
On 22 August, a central directive was issued to prevent police intervention in Red Guard activities, and those in the police force who defied this notice were labeled counter-revolutionaries. Central officials lifted restraints on violent behavior. Xie Fuzhi, the national police chief, often pardoned Red Guards for their "crimes".
The campaign included incidents of torture, murder, and public humiliation. Many people who were indicted as counter-revolutionaries died by suicide. During Red August 1,772 people were murdered in Beijing; many of the victims were teachers who were attacked or killed by their own students. Shanghai experienced 704 suicides and 534 deaths in September. In Wuhan, 62 suicides and 32 murders occurred during the same period. Peng Dehuai was brought to Beijing to be publicly ridiculed.
Destruction of the Four Olds (August–November)
Between August and November 1966, eight mass rallies were held, drawing in 12 million people, most of whom were Red Guards. The government bore the travel expenses of Red Guards.
At the rallies, Lin called for the destruction of the "Four Olds"; namely, old customs, culture, habits, and ideas. Some changes associated with the "Four Olds" campaign were mainly benign, such as assigning new names to city streets, places, and even people; millions of babies were born with "revolutionary" names.
Other aspects were more destructive, particularly in the realms of culture and religion. Historical sites throughout the country were destroyed. The damage was particularly pronounced in the capital, Beijing. Red Guards laid siege to the Temple of Confucius in Qufu, and other historically significant tombs and artifacts.
Libraries of historical and foreign texts were destroyed; books were burned. Temples, churches, mosques, monasteries, and cemeteries were closed and sometimes converted to other uses, or looted and destroyed. Marxist propaganda depicted Buddhism as superstition, and religion was looked upon as a means of hostile foreign infiltration, as well as an instrument of the ruling class. Clergy were arrested and sent to camps; many Tibetan Buddhists were forced to participate in the destruction of their monasteries at gunpoint.
Central Work Conference (October)
In October 1966, Mao convened a "Central Work Conference", mostly to enlist party leaders who had not yet adopted the latest ideology. Liu and Deng were prosecuted and begrudgingly offered self-criticism. After the conference, Liu, once a powerful moderate pundit, was placed under house arrest, then sent to a detention camp, where he was denied medical treatment and died in 1969. Deng was sent away for a period of re-education three times and was eventually sent to work in an engine factory in Jiangxi. Rebellion by party cadres accelerated after the conference.
End of the year
In Macau, rioting broke out during the 12-3 incident. The event was prompted by the colonial government's delays in approving a new wing for a CCP elementary school in Taipa. The school board illegally began construction, but the colonial government sent police to stop the workers. Several people were injured in the resulting melee. On December 3, 1966, two days of rioting occurred in which hundreds were injured and six to eight were killed, leading to a total climb down by the Portuguese government. The event set in motion Portugal's de facto abdication of control over Macau, putting Macau on the path to eventual absorption by China.
1967: Seizure of power
Mass organizations coalesced into two hostile factions, the radicals who backed Mao's purge of the Communist party, and the conservatives who backed the moderate party establishment. The "support the left" policy was established in January 1967. Mao's policy was to support the rebels in seizing power; it required the PLA to support "the broad masses of the revolutionary leftists in their struggle to seize power."
In March 1967, the policy was adapted into the "Three Supports and Two Militaries" initiative, in which PLA troops were sent to schools and work units across the country to stabilize political tumult and end factional warfare. The three "Supports" were to "support the left", "support the interior", "support industry". The "two Militaries" referred to "military management" and "military training". The policy of supporting the left failed to define "leftists" at a time when almost all mass organizations claimed to be "leftist" or "revolutionary". PLA commanders had developed close working relations with the party establishment, leading many military units to repress radicals.
Spurred by the events in Beijing, "power seizure groups" formed across the country and began expanding into factories and the countryside. In Shanghai, a young factory worker named Wang Hongwen organized a far-reaching revolutionary coalition, one that displaced existing Red Guard groups. On January 3, 1967, with support from CRG heavyweights Zhang Chunqiao and Yao Wenyuan, the group of firebrand activists overthrew the Shanghai municipal government under Chen Pixian in what became known as the "January Storm", and formed in its place the Shanghai People's Commune. Mao then expressed his approval.
Shanghai's was the first provincial level government overthrown. Provincial governments and many parts of the state and party bureaucracy were affected, with power seizures taking place. In the next three weeks, 24 more province-level governments were overthrown. "Revolutionary committees" were subsequently established, in place of local governments and branches of the Communist Party. For example, in Beijing, three separate revolutionary groups declared power seizures on the same day. In Heilongjiang, local party secretary Pan Fusheng seized power from the party organization under his own leadership. Some leaders even wrote the CRG asking to be overthrown.
In Beijing, Jiang Qing and Zhang Chunqiao targeted Vice-Premier Tao Zhu. The power-seizure movement was appearing in the military as well. In February, prominent generals Ye Jianying and Chen Yi, as well as Vice-Premier Tan Zhenlin, vocally asserted their opposition to the more extreme aspects of the movement, with some party elders insinuating that the CRG's real motives were to remove the revolutionary old guard. Mao, initially ambivalent, took to the Politburo floor on February 18 to denounce the opposition directly, endorsing the radicals' activities. This resistance was branded the "February Countercurrent"—effectively silencing critics within the party.
Although in early 1967 popular insurgencies were limited outside of the biggest cities, local governments began collapsing all across China. Revolutionaries dismantled ruling government and party organizations, because power seizures lacked centralized leadership, it was no longer clear who believed in Mao's revolutionary vision and who was exploiting the chaos for their own gain. The formation of rival revolutionary groups and manifestations of long-established local feuds, led to violent struggles between factions.
Tension grew between mass organizations and the military. In response, Lin Biao issued a directive for the army to aid the radicals. At the same time, the army took control of some provinces and locales that were deemed incapable of handling the power transition.
In Wuhan, as in many other cities, two major revolutionary organizations emerged, one supporting and one attacking the conservative establishment. Chen Zaidao, the Army general in charge of the area, forcibly repressed the anti-establishment demonstrators. Mao flew to Wuhan with a large entourage of central officials in an attempt to secure military loyalty in the area. On July 20, 1967, local agitators in response kidnapped Mao's emissary Wang Li, in what became known as the Wuhan Incident. Subsequently, Chen was sent to Beijing and tried by Jiang Qing and the rest of the CRG. Chen's resistance was the last major open display of opposition within the PLA.
The Gang of Four's Zhang Chunqiao admitted that the most crucial factor in the Cultural Revolution was not the Red Guards or the CRG or the "rebel worker" organisations, but the PLA. When the PLA local garrison supported Mao's radicals, they were able to take over the local government successfully, but if they were not cooperative, the takeovers were unsuccessful. Violent clashes occurred in virtually all major cities.
In response to the Wuhan Incident, Mao and Jiang began establishing a "workers' armed self-defense force", a "revolutionary armed force of mass character" to counter what he saw as rightism in "75% of the PLA officer corps." Chongqing city, a center of arms manufacturing, was the site of ferocious armed clashes, with one construction site in the city estimated to involve 10,000 combatants with tanks, mobile artillery, anti-aircraft guns and "virtually every kind of conventional weapon." Ten thousand artillery shells were fired in Chongqing during August 1967.
Nationwide, a total of 18.77 million firearms, 14,828 artillery pieces, 2,719,545 grenades ended up in civilian hands. They were used in the course of violent struggles, which mostly took place from 1967 to 1968. In Chongqing, Xiamen, and Changchun, tanks, armored vehicles and even warships were deployed in combat.
1968: Purges
In May 1968, Mao launched a massive political purge. Many people were sent to the countryside to work in reeducation camps. Generally, the campaign targeted rebels from the CR's earlier, more populist, phase.
On 27 July, the Red Guards' power over the PLA was officially ended, and the establishment sent in units to besiege areas that remained untouched by the Guards. A year later, the Red Guard factions were dismantled entirely; Mao predicted that the chaos might begin running its own agenda and be tempted to turn against revolutionary ideology. Their purpose had been largely fulfilled; Mao and his radical colleagues had largely overturned established power.
Liu was expelled from the CCP at the 12th Plenum of the 8th Central Committee in September, and labelled the "headquarters of the bourgeoisie".
Mao meets with Red Guard leaders (July)
As the Red Guard movement had waned over the preceding year, violence by the remaining Red Guards increased on some Beijing campuses. Violence was particularly pronounced at Qinghua University, where a few thousand hardliners of two factions continued to fight. At Mao's initiative, on 27 July 1968, tens of thousands of workers entered the Qinghua campus shouting slogans in opposition to the violence. Red Guards attacked the workers, who remained peaceful. Ultimately, the workers disarmed the students and occupied the campus.
On July 28, 1968, Mao and the Central Group met with the five most important remaining Beijing Red Guard leaders to address the movement's excessive violence and political exhaustion. It was the only time during the Cultural Revolution that Mao met and addressed the student leaders directly. In response to a Red Guard leader's telegram sent prior to the meeting, which claimed that some "Black Hand" had maneuvered the workers against the Red Guards, Mao told the student leaders, "The Black Hand is nobody else but me! ... I asked [the workers] how to solve the armed fighting in the universities, and told them to go there to have a look."
During the meeting, Mao and the Central Group for the Cultural Revolution stated, "[W]e want cultural struggle, we do not want armed struggle" and "The masses do not want civil war." Mao told the student leaders:
Mao's cult of personality and "mango fever" (August)
In the spring of 1968, a massive campaign aimed at enhancing Mao's reputation began. A notable example was the "mango fever". On 4 August, Mao was presented with mangoes by the Pakistani foreign minister Syed Sharifuddin Pirzada, in an apparent diplomatic gesture. Mao had his aide send the box of mangoes to his propaganda team at Tsinghua University on 5 August, who were stationed there to quiet strife among Red Guard factions. On 7 August, an article was published in People's Daily, saying:
In the afternoon of the fifth, when the great happy news of Chairman Mao giving mangoes to the Capital Worker and Peasant Mao Zedong Thought Propaganda Team reached the Tsinghua University campus, people immediately gathered around the gift given by the Great Leader Chairman Mao. They cried out enthusiastically and sang with wild abandonment. Tears swelled up in their eyes, and they again and again sincerely wished that our most beloved Great Leader lived ten thousand years without bounds ... They all made phone calls to their own work units to spread this happy news; and they also organised all kinds of celebratory activities all night long, and arrived at [the national leadership compound] Zhongnanhai despite the rain to report the good news, and to express their loyalty to the Great Leader Chairman Mao.
Subsequent articles also propagandized the mangoes, and another poem in the People's Daily said: "Seeing that golden mango/Was as if seeing the great leader Chairman Mao ... Again and again touching that golden mango/the golden mango was so warm." Few people at this time had ever seen a mango before, and a mango was seen as "a fruit of extreme rarity, like Mushrooms of Immortality."
One mango was sent to the Beijing Textile Factory, whose revolutionary committee organized a rally in its honor. Workers read quotations from Mao and celebrated the gift. Altars prominently displayed the fruit. When the mango began to rot after a few days, the fruit was peeled and boiled. Workers then filed by and each was given a spoonful of mango water. The revolutionary committee made a wax replica and displayed it in the factory.
Several months of "mango fever" followed as the fruit became a focus of a "boundless loyalty" campaign for Mao. More replica mangoes were created, and the replicas were sent on tour around Beijing and elsewhere. Many revolutionary committees visited the mangoes in Beijing from outlying provinces. Approximately half a million people greeted the replicas when they arrived in Chengdu. Badges and wall posters featuring the mangoes and Mao were produced in the millions.
The fruit was shared among all institutions that had been a part of the propaganda team, and large processions were organized in support of the "precious gift", as the mangoes were known. A dentist in a small town, Dr. Han, saw the mango and said it was nothing special and looked just like a sweet potato. He was put on trial for "malicious slander", found guilty, paraded publicly throughout the town, and then shot in the head.
It has been claimed that Mao used the mangoes to express support for the workers who would go to whatever lengths necessary to end the factional fighting among students, and a "prime example of Mao's strategy of symbolic support." Through early 1969, participants of Mao Zedong Thought study classes in Beijing returned with mass-produced mango facsimiles, gaining media attention in the provinces.
Down to the Countryside Movement (December)
In December 1968, Mao began the Down to the Countryside Movement. During this movement, which lasted for the following decade, young bourgeoisie living in cities were ordered to go to the countryside to experience working life. The term "young intellectuals" was used to refer to recent college graduates. In the late 1970s, these students returned to their home cities. Many students who were previously Red Guard supported the movement and Mao's vision. This movement was thus in part a means of moving Red Guards from the cities to the countryside, where they would cause less social disruption. It also served to spread revolutionary ideology geographically.
1969–71: Lin Biao
The 9th National Congress was held in April 1969. It served as a means to "revitalize" the party with fresh thinking—as well as new cadres, after much of the old guard had been destroyed in the struggles of the preceding years. The party framework established two decades earlier broke down almost entirely: rather than through an election by party members, delegates for this Congress were effectively selected by Revolutionary Committees. Representation of the military increased by a large margin from the previous Congress, reflected in the election of more PLA members to the new Central Committee—over 28%. Many officers now elevated to senior positions were loyal to PLA Marshal Lin Biao, which would open a new rift between the military and civilian leadership.
Reflecting this, Lin was officially elevated to become the Party's preeminent figure outside of Mao, with his name written into the party constitution as his "closest comrade-in-arms" and "universally recognized successor". At the time, no other Communist parties or governments anywhere in the world had adopted the practice of enshrining a successor to the current leader into their constitutions. Lin delivered the keynote address at the Congress: a document drafted by hardliner leftists Yao Wenyuan and Zhang Chunqiao under Mao's guidance.
The report was heavily critical of Liu Shaoqi and other "counter-revolutionaries" and drew extensively from quotations in the Little Red Book. The Congress solidified the central role of Maoism within the party, re-introducing Maoism as the official guiding ideology in the party constitution. The Congress elected a new Politburo with Mao, Lin, Chen, Zhou Enlai and Kang as the members of the new Politburo Standing Committee.
Lin, Chen, and Kang were all beneficiaries of the Cultural Revolution. Zhou, who was demoted in rank, voiced his unequivocal support for Lin at the Congress. Mao restored the function of some formal party institutions, such as the operations of the Politburo, which ceased functioning between 1966 and 1968 because the CCRG held de facto control.
In early 1970, the nationwide "One Strike-Three Anti Campaign" was launched by Mao and the Communist Party Central, aiming to consolidate the new organs of power by targeting counterrevolutionary thoughts and actions. A large number of "minor criminals" were executed or forced to commit suicide between 1970 and 1972. According to government statistics released after the Cultural Revolution, during the campaign 1.87 million people were persecuted as traitors, spies, and counterrevolutionaries, and over 284,800 were arrested or killed from February to November 1970 alone.
PLA encroachment
Mao's efforts at re-organizing party and state institutions generated mixed results. The situation in some of the provinces remained volatile, even as the political situation in Beijing stabilized. Factional struggles, many violent, continued at a local level despite the declaration that the 9th National Congress marked a temporary victory for the CR. Furthermore, despite Mao's efforts to put on a show of unity at the Congress, the factional divide between Lin's PLA camp and the Jiang-led radical camp was intensifying. Indeed, a personal dislike of Jiang drew many civilian leaders, including Chen, closer to Lin.
Between 1966 and 1968, China was isolated internationally, having declared its enmity towards both the USSR and the US. The friction with the USSR intensified after border clashes on the Ussuri River in March 1969 as Chinese leaders prepared for all-out war. In June 1969, the PLA's enforcement of political discipline and suppression of the factions that had emerged during the Cultural Revolution became intertwined with the central Party's efforts to accelerate Third Front work. Those who did not return to work would be viewed as engaging in 'schismatic activity' which risked undermining preparations to defend China from potential invasion.
In October 1969, the Party attempted to focus more on war preparedness and less on suppressing factions. That month, senior leaders were evacuated from Beijing. Amidst the tension, Lin issued what appeared to be an executive order to prepare for war to the PLA's eleven military regions on October 18 without going through Mao. This drew the ire of the chairman, who saw it as evidence that his declared successor was usurping his authority.
The prospect of war elevated the PLA to greater prominence in domestic politics, increasing Lin's stature at Mao's expense. Some evidence suggests that Mao was pushed to seek closer relations with the US as a means to avoid PLA dominance that would result from a military confrontation with the Soviet Union. During his later meeting with Richard Nixon in 1972, Mao hinted that Lin had opposed better relations with the U.S.
Restoration of State Chairman position
After Lin was confirmed as Mao's successor, his supporters focused on the restoration of the position of State Chairman, which had been abolished by Mao after Liu's purge. They hoped that by allowing Lin to ease into a constitutionally sanctioned role, whether Chairman or vice-chairman, Lin's succession would be institutionalized. The consensus within the Politburo was that Mao should assume the office with Lin as vice-chairman; but perhaps wary of Lin's ambitions or for other unknown reasons, Mao voiced his explicit opposition.
Factional rivalries intensified at the Second Plenum of the Ninth Congress in Lushan held in late August 1970. Chen, now aligned with the PLA faction loyal to Lin, galvanized support for the restoration of the office of President of China, despite Mao's wishes. Moreover, Chen launched an assault on Zhang, a staunch Maoist who embodied the chaos of the Cultural Revolution, over the evaluation of Mao's legacy.
The attacks on Zhang found favour with many Plenum attendees and may have been construed by Mao as an indirect attack on the CR. Mao confronted Chen openly, denouncing him as a "false Marxist", and removed him from the Politburo Standing Committee. In addition to the purge of Chen, Mao asked Lin's principal generals to write self-criticisms on their political positions as a warning to Lin. Mao also inducted several of his supporters to the Central Military Commission and placed loyalists in leadership roles of the Beijing Military Region.
Project 571
By 1971, the diverging interests of the civilian and military leaders was apparent. Mao was troubled by the PLA's newfound prominence, and the purge of Chen marked the beginning of a gradual scaling-down of the PLA's political involvement. According to official sources, sensing the reduction of Lin's power base and his declining health, Lin's supporters plotted to use the military power still at their disposal to oust Mao in a coup.
Lin's son Lin Liguo, along with other high-ranking military conspirators, formed a coup apparatus in Shanghai and dubbed the plan to oust Mao Outline for Project 571—in the original Mandarin, the phrase sounds similar to the term for 'military uprising'. It is disputed whether Lin Biao was directly involved in this process. While official sources maintain that Lin did plan and execute the coup attempt, scholars such as Jin Qiu portray Lin as passive, cajoled by elements among his family and supporters. Qiu contests that Lin Biao was ever personally involved in drafting the Outline, with evidence suggesting that Lin Liguo was directly responsible for the draft.
The Outline allegedly consisted mainly of plans for aerial bombardments through use of the Air Force. It initially targeted Zhang Chunqiao and Yao Wenyuan, but evolved to include Mao. If the plan succeeded, Lin would arrest his political rivals and assume power. Assassination attempts were alleged to have been made against Mao in Shanghai, from September 8 to 10, 1971. Perceived risks to Mao's safety were allegedly relayed to the chairman. One internal report alleged that Lin had planned to bomb a bridge that Mao was to cross to reach Beijing; Mao reportedly avoided this bridge after receiving intelligence reports.
Lin's flight and plane crash
According to the official narrative, on 13 September Lin Biao, his wife Ye Qun, Lin Liguo, and members of his staff attempted to flee to the USSR ostensibly to seek political asylum. En route, Lin's plane crashed in Mongolia, killing all on board. The plane apparently ran out of fuel. A Soviet investigative team was not able to determine the cause of the crash but hypothesized that the pilot was flying low to evade radar and misjudged the plane's altitude.
The official account was questioned by foreign scholars, who raised doubts over Lin's choice of the USSR as a destination, the plane's route, the identity of the passengers, and whether or not a coup was actually taking place.
On 13 September, the Politburo met in an emergency session to discuss Lin. His death was confirmed in Beijing only on 30 September, which led to the cancellation of the National Day celebration events the following day. The Central Committee did not release news of Lin's death to the public until two months later. Many Lin supporters sought refuge in Hong Kong. Those who remained on the mainland were purged.
The event caught the party leadership off guard: the concept that Lin could betray Mao de-legitimized a vast body of Cultural Revolution political rhetoric and by extension, Mao's absolute authority. For several months following the incident, the party information apparatus struggled to find a "correct way" to frame the incident for public consumption, but as the details came to light, the majority of the Chinese public felt disillusioned and realised they had been manipulated for political purposes.
1972–76: The Gang of Four
Mao became depressed and reclusive after the Lin incident. With Lin gone, Mao had no answer for who would succeed him. Sensing a sudden loss of direction, Mao reached out to old comrades whom he had denounced in the past. Meanwhile, in September 1972, Mao transferred a 38-year-old cadre from Shanghai, Wang Hongwen, to Beijing and made him Party vice-chairman. Wang, a former factory worker from a peasant background, was seemingly getting groomed for succession.
Jiang's position strengthened after Lin's flight. She held tremendous influence with the radical camp. With Mao's health on the decline, Jiang's political ambitions began to emerge. She allied herself with Wang and propaganda specialists Zhang Chunqiao and Yao Wenyuan, forming a political clique later pejoratively dubbed as the Gang of Four.
By 1973, round after round of political struggles had left many lower-level institutions, including local government, factories, and railways, short of competent staff to carry out basic functions. China's economy had fallen into disarray, which led to the rehabilitation of purged lower-level officials. The party's core became heavily dominated by Cultural Revolution beneficiaries and radicals, whose focus remained ideological purity over economic productivity. The economy remained mostly Zhou's domain, one of the few remaining moderates. Zhou attempted to restore the economy, but was resented by the Gang of Four, who identified him as their primary political succession threat.
In late 1973, to weaken Zhou's political position and to distance themselves from Lin's apparent betrayal, the "Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius" campaign began under Jiang's leadership. Its stated goals were to purge China of New Confucianist thinking and denounce Lin's actions as traitorous and regressive.
Deng Xiaoping's rehabilitation (1975)
With a fragile economy and Zhou falling ill to cancer, Deng Xiaoping returned to the political scene, assuming the post of Vice-Premier in March 1973, in the first of a series of Mao-approved promotions. After Zhou withdrew from active politics in January 1975, Deng was effectively put in charge of the government, party, and military, then adding the additional titles of PLA General Chief of Staff, Vice Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, and vice-chairman of the Central Military Commission.
The speed of Deng's rehabilitation took the radical camp by surprise. Mao wanted to use Deng as a counterweight to the military faction in government to suppress former Lin loyalists. In addition, Mao had also lost confidence in the Gang of Four and saw Deng as the alternative. Leaving the country in grinding poverty would damage the positive legacy of the CR, which Mao worked hard to protect. Deng's return set the scene for a protracted factional struggle between the radical Gang of Four and moderates led by Zhou and Deng.
At the time, Jiang and associates held effective control of mass media and the party's propaganda network, while Zhou and Deng held control of most government organs. On some decisions, Mao sought to mitigate the Gang's influence, but on others, he acquiesced to their demands. The Gang of Four's political and media control did not prevent Deng from enacting his economic policies. Deng emphatically opposed Party factionalism, and his policies aimed to promote unity to restore economic productivity.
Much like the post-Great Leap restructuring led by Liu Shaoqi, Deng streamlined the railway system, steel production, etc. By late 1975, however, Mao saw that Deng's economic restructuring might negate the CR's legacy and launched the Counterattack the Right-Deviationist Reversal-of-Verdicts Trend, a campaign to oppose "rehabilitating the case for the rightists," alluding to Deng as the country's foremost "rightist". Mao directed Deng to write self-criticisms in November 1975, a move lauded by the Gang of Four.
Death of Zhou Enlai
On 8 January 1976, Zhou Enlai died of bladder cancer. On 15 January, Deng delivered Zhou's eulogy in a funeral attended by all of China's most senior leaders with the notable absence of Mao, who had grown increasingly critical of Zhou. After Zhou's death, Mao selected the relatively unknown Hua Guofeng instead of a member of the Gang of Four or Deng to become Premier.
The Gang of Four grew apprehensive that spontaneous, large-scale popular support for Zhou could turn the political tide against them. They acted through the media to impose restrictions on public displays of mourning for Zhou. Years of resentment over the CR, the public persecution of Deng (seen as Zhou's ally), and the prohibition against public mourning led to a rise in popular discontent against Mao and the Gang of Four.
Official attempts to enforce the mourning restrictions included removing public memorials and tearing down posters commemorating Zhou's achievements. On March 25, 1976, Shanghai's Wen Hui Bao published an article calling Zhou "the capitalist roader inside the Party [who] wanted to help the unrepentant capitalist roader [Deng] regain his power." These propaganda efforts at smearing Zhou's image, however, only strengthened public attachment to Zhou's memory.
Tiananmen incident
On 4 April 1976, on the eve of China's annual Qingming Festival, a traditional day of mourning, thousands of people gathered around the Monument to the People's Heroes in Tiananmen Square to commemorate Zhou. They honored Zhou by laying wreaths, banners, poems, placards, and flowers at the foot of the Monument. The most apparent purpose of this memorial was to eulogize Zhou, but the Gang of Four were also attacked for their actions against the Premier. A small number of slogans left at Tiananmen even attacked Mao and his Cultural Revolution.
Up to two million people may have visited Tiananmen Square on 4 April. All levels of society, from the most impoverished peasants to high-ranking PLA officers and the children of high-ranking cadres, were represented in the activities. Those who participated were motivated by a mixture of anger over Zhou's treatment, revolt against the Cultural Revolution and apprehension for China's future. The event did not appear to have coordinated leadership.
The Central Committee, under the leadership of Jiang Qing, labelled the event 'counter-revolutionary' and cleared the square of memorial items shortly after midnight on April 6. Attempts to suppress the mourners led to a riot. Police cars were set on fire, and a crowd of over 100,000 people forced its way into several government buildings surrounding the square. Many of those arrested were later sentenced to prison. Similar incidents occurred in other major cities. Jiang and her allies attacked Deng as the incident's 'mastermind', and issued reports on official media to that effect. Deng was formally stripped of all positions inside and outside the Party on 7 April. This marked Deng's second purge.
Death of Mao Zedong and the Gang of Four's downfall
On 9 September 1976, Mao Zedong died. To Mao's supporters, his death symbolized the loss of China's revolutionary foundation. His death was announced on 9 September. The nation descended into grief and mourning, with people weeping in the streets and public institutions closing for over a week. Hua Guofeng chaired the Funeral Committee and delivered the memorial speech.
Shortly before dying, Mao had allegedly written the message "With you in charge, I'm at ease," to Hua. Hua used this message to substantiate his position as successor. Hua had been widely considered to be lacking in political skill and ambitions, and seemingly posed no serious threat to the Gang of Four in the race for succession. However, the Gang's radical ideas also clashed with influential elders and many Party reformers. With army backing and the support of Marshal Ye Jianying, Director of Central Office Wang Dongxing, Vice Premier Li Xiannian and party elder Chen Yun, on October 6, the Central Security Bureau's Special Unit 8341 had all members of the Gang of Four arrested in a bloodless coup.
After Mao's death, people characterized as 'beating-smashing-looting elements', who were seen as having disturbed the social order during the CR, were purged or punished. "Beating-smashing-looting elements" had typically been aligned with rebel factions.
Aftermath
Transitional period
Although Hua publicly denounced the Gang of Four in 1976, he continued to invoke Mao's name to justify Mao-era policies. Hua spearheaded what became known as the Two Whatevers, namely, "Whatever policy originated from Chairman Mao, we must continue to support," and "Whatever directions were given to us from Chairman Mao, we must continue to follow." Like Deng, Hua wanted to reverse the CR's damage; but unlike Deng, who wanted new economic models for China, Hua intended to move the Chinese economic and political system towards Soviet-style planning.
It became increasingly clear to Hua, that without Deng, it was difficult to continue daily affairs of state. On October 10, Deng wrote a letter to Hua asking to be transferred back to state and party affairs; party elders also called for Deng's return. With increasing pressure from all sides, Premier Hua named Deng Vice-Premier in July 1977, and later promoted him to various other positions, effectively elevating Deng to be China's second-most powerful figure. In August, the 11th National Congress was held in Beijing, officially naming (in ranking order) Hua Guofeng, Ye Jianying, Deng Xiaoping, Li Xiannian and Wang Dongxing as new members of the Politburo Standing Committee.
Repudiation and reform under Deng
Deng Xiaoping first proposed what he called Boluan Fanzheng in September 1977 in order to correct the mistakes of the Cultural Revolution. In May 1978, Deng seized the opportunity to elevate his protégé Hu Yaobang to power. Hu published an article in the Guangming Daily, making clever use of Mao's quotations, while lauding Deng's ideas. Following this article, Hua began to shift his tone in support of Deng. On 1 July, Deng publicized Mao's self-criticism report of 1962 regarding the failure of the Great Leap Forward. As his power base expanded, in September Deng began openly attacking Hua Guofeng's "Two Whatevers".
On 18 December 1978, Third Plenum of the 11th Central Committee was held. At the congress, Deng called for "a liberation of thoughts" and urged the party to "seek truth from facts" and abandon ideological dogma. The Plenum officially marked the beginning of the economic reform era, as Deng rose to become the #2 leader of China. Hua Guofeng engaged in self-criticism and called his "Two Whatevers" a mistake. Mao's trusted ally Wang Dongxing was also criticized. At the Plenum, the Party reversed its verdict on the Tiananmen Incident. Former Chinese president Liu Shaoqi was given a belated state funeral. Peng Dehuai, one of China's ten marshals and the first Minister of National Defense, who was persecuted to death during the Cultural Revolution was rehabilitated in 1978.
At the Fifth Plenum held in 1980, Peng Zhen, He Long and other leaders who had been purged during the Cultural Revolution were rehabilitated. Hu Yaobang became head of the party secretariat as its secretary-general. In September, Hua Guofeng resigned and Zhao Ziyang, another Deng ally, was named premier. Hua remained on the Central Military Commission, but formal power was transferred to a new generation of pragmatic reformers, who reversed Cultural Revolution policies to a large extent. Within a few years, Deng and Hu helped rehabilitate over 3 million "unjust, false, erroneous" cases. In particular, the trial of the Gang of Four took place in Beijing from 1980 to 1981, and the court stated that 729,511 people had been persecuted by the Gang, of whom 34,800 were said to have died.
In 1981, the Chinese Communist Party passed a resolution and declared that the Cultural Revolution was "responsible for the most severe setback and the heaviest losses suffered by the Party, the country, and the people since the founding of the People's Republic."
Atrocities
Death toll
Fatality estimates vary across different sources, ranging from hundreds of thousands to millions, or even tens of millions. In addition to various regimes of secrecy and obfuscation concerning the Revolution, both top-down as perpetuated by authorities, as well as laterally among the Chinese public in the decades since, the discrepancies are due in large part to the totalistic nature of the Revolution itself: it is a significant challenge for historians to discern whether and in what ways discrete events that took place during the Cultural Revolution should be ascribed to it. For example, the 1975 Banqiao Dam failure, considered by some to be the greatest technological catastrophe of the 20th century, itself resulted in between 26,600 and 240,000 deaths. The scope of the collapse, which occurred near the end of the CR, was covered up by authorities until at least 1989.
Most deaths occurred after the mass movements ended, when organized campaigns attempted to consolidate order in workplaces and communities. As Walder summarizes, "The cure for factional warfare was far worse than the disease."
Literature reviews of the overall death toll due to the Cultural Revolution usually include the following:
Massacres
Massacres took place across China, including in Guangxi, Inner Mongolia, Guangdong, Yunnan, Hunan, and Ruijin, as well as Red August in Beijing.
These massacres were mainly led and organized by local revolutionary committees, Communist Party branches, militia, and the military. Most victims were members of the Five Black Categories as well as their children, or members of "rebel groups". Chinese scholars have estimated that at least 300,000 people died in these massacres. Collective killings in Guangxi and Guangdong were among the most serious. In Guangxi, the official annals of at least 43 counties have records of massacres, with 15 of them reporting a death toll of over 1,000, while in Guangdong at least 28 county annals record massacres, with 6 of them reporting a death toll of over 1,000.
In 1975, the PLA led a massacre in Yunnan around the town of Shadian, targeting Hui people, resulting in the deaths of more than 1,600 civilians, including 300 children, and the destruction of 4,400 homes.
In Dao County, Hunan, a total of 7,696 people were killed from 13 August to 17 October 1967, in addition to 1,397 forced to commit suicide, and 2,146 becoming permanently disabled. During Red August, official sources in 1980 revealed that at least 1,772 people were killed by Red Guards, including teachers and principals of many schools. 33,695 homes were ransacked and 85,196 families were forced to flee. The Daxing Massacre caused the deaths of 325 people from August 27 to September 1, 1966; those killed ranged from 80 years old to a 38-day old baby, with 22 families being completely wiped out.
Cannibalism in Guangxi
In the Guangxi Massacre, the official record shows an estimated death toll from 100,000 to 150,000 between January and April 1968 in Guangxi, in one of the worst violent struggles of the Revolution, before Zhou sent the PLA to intervene. Zheng Yi's Scarlet Memorial: Tales of Cannibalism in Modern China alleged "systematic killing and cannibalization of individuals in the name of political revolution and 'class struggle' among the Zhuang people in Wuxuan County during that period. Zheng was criticized for reliance on unpublished interviews and for the negative portrayal of a Chinese ethnic minority, although senior party historians corroborated allegations of cannibalism.
Violent struggles, struggle sessions, and purges
Violent struggles were factional conflicts (mostly among Red Guards and "rebel groups") that began in Shanghai and then spread to other areas in 1967. They brought the country to a state of civil war. Weapons used included some 18.77 million guns, 2.72 million grenades, 14,828 cannons, millions of other ammunition and even armored cars and tanks. Notable violent struggles include the battles in Chongqing, in Sichuan, and in Xuzhou. Researchers claimed that the nationwide death toll in violent struggles ranged from 300,000 to 500,000.
The recorded rate of violence rose in 1967, reaching a peak that summer before dropping suddenly. During 1967, casualties were relatively low as the weapons used were primarily clubs, spears, and rocks until late July. Although firearms and heavier weapons began to spread during summer, most were neither trained nor committed fighters and therefore casualties remained relatively low. The peak of collective violence in summer 1967 dropped sharply after August, when Mao became concerned about rebel attacks on local army units and thereafter made clear that his prior calls to "drag out" army commanders was a mistake and he would instead support besieged army commands.
The greatest number of casualties occurred during the process of restoring order in 1968, although the overall number of violent conflicts was lower. Walder stated that while "rising casualties from a smaller number of insurgent conflicts surely reflected the increasing scale and organizational coherence of rebel factions, and their growing access to military weaponry[,]" another important factor was that "[t]he longer that local factional warfare continued without the prospect of an equitable political settlement, the greater the stakes for the participants and the more intense the collective violence as factions fought to avoid the consequence of losing."
In addition to violent struggles, millions of Chinese were violently persecuted, especially via struggle sessions. Those identified as spies, "running dogs", "revisionists", or coming from a suspect class (including those related to former landlords or rich peasants) were subject to beating, imprisonment, rape, torture, sustained and systematic harassment and abuse, seizure of property, denial of medical attention, and erasure of social identity. Intellectuals were also targeted. Many survivors and observers suggest that almost anyone with skills over that of the average person was made the target of political "struggle" in some way.
Some people were not able to stand the torture and committed suicide. Researchers claimed that at least 100,000 to 200,000 people committed suicide during the early CR. One of the most famous cases of apparent attempted suicide involved Deng Xiaoping's son Pufang, who was paralyzed when he fell out of a four-story building after he was interrogated by Red Guards. It is disputed whether he jumped or was pushed.
At the same time, many "unjust, false, and mistaken" cases appeared due to political purges. In addition to those who died in massacres, a large number of people died or became permanently disabled due to lynching or other forms of persecution. From 1968 to 1969, the Cleansing the Class Ranks purge caused the deaths of at least 500,000 people. Purges of similar nature such as the One Strike-Three Anti Campaign and the campaign towards the May Sixteenth elements were launched in the 1970s.
During the Inner Mongolia incident, official sources in 1980 stated that 346,000 people were wrongly arrested, over 16,000 were persecuted to death or executed, and over 81,000 were permanently disabled. However, academics instead estimated fatalities as between 20,000 and 100,000.
In Yunnan's Zhao Jianmin Spy Case, more than 1.387 million people were implicated and persecuted, which accounted for 6% of the province's population. From 1968 to 1969, more than 17,000 people died in massacres and 61,000 people were crippled for life; in Kunming alone, 1,473 people were killed and 9,661 people were permanently disabled.
In Hebei, Li Chuli, the former deputy director of Organization Department, was purged in 1968 and in turn reported around 80,000 people, 2,955 of whom were persecuted to death.
Repression of ethnic minorities
The Cultural Revolution wrought havoc on minority cultures and ethnicities. Languages and customs of ethnic minorities in China were labeled as part of the Four Olds, texts in ethnic languages were burned, and bilingual education was suppressed. In Inner Mongolia, some 790,000 people were persecuted during the Inner Mongolia incident. Of these, 22,900 were beaten to death, and 120,000 were maimed, during a witch hunt to find members of the alleged separatist New Inner Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party. In Xinjiang, copies of the Qur'an and other books of the Uyghur people were apparently burned. Muslim imams reportedly were paraded around with paint splashed on their bodies.
In the ethnic Korean areas of northeast China, language schools were destroyed. According to Julia Lovell, "[e]vents took a horrific turn in the frontier town of Yanbian, where freight trains trundled from China into the DPRK, draped with the corpses of Koreans killed in the pitched battles of the Cultural Revolution, and daubed with threatening graffiti: 'This will be your fate also, you tiny revisionists!'"
In Yunnan Province, the palace of the Dai people's king was torched, and a massacre of Muslim Hui people at the hands of the PLA in Yunnan, known as the Shadian incident, reportedly claimed over 1,600 lives in 1975. After the Cultural Revolution, the government gave reparations for the Shadian Incident, including the erection of a Martyr's Memorial in Shadian.
Concessions to minorities were abolished during the Cultural Revolution as part of the Red Guards' attack on the "Four Olds". People's communes, previously only established in parts of Tibet, were established throughout Tibetan Autonomous Region in 1966, removing Tibet's exemption from China's land reform, and reimposed in other minority areas. The effect on Tibet was particularly severe as it came following the repression after the 1959 Tibetan uprising. The destruction of nearly all of its over 6,000 monasteries, which began before the Cultural Revolution, were often conducted with the complicity of local ethnic Tibetan Red Guards. Only eight were intact by the end of the 1970s.
Many monks and nuns were killed, and the general population was subjected to physical and psychological torture. An estimated 600,000 monks and nuns lived in Tibet in 1950, but by 1979, most were dead, imprisoned or had disappeared. The Tibetan government in exile claimed that many Tibetans died from famines in 1961–1964 and 1968–1973 as a result of forced collectivization, however the number of Tibetan deaths or whether famines, in fact, took place in these periods is disputed. Despite persecution, some local leaders and minority ethnic practices survived in remote regions.
The overall failure of the Red Guards' and radical assimilationists' goals was mostly due to two factors. It was felt that pushing minority groups too hard would compromise China's border defenses. This was especially important as minorities make up a large percentage of the population that live in border regions. In the late 1960s, China experienced a period of strained relations with some of its neighbors, notably with the Soviet Union and India. Many of the Cultural Revolution's goals in minority areas were simply unreasonable. The return to pluralism, and therefore the end of the worst period, coincided with Lin Biao's removal from power.
Rape and sexual abuse
Suiming, Honig, and others documented that rape and sexual abuse of sent-down women were common during the CR's height. Branigan documented that women raped tended to be from educated urban backgrounds while their rapists were poor peasants or local officials.
Cultural impact and influence
Red Guards riot
The Cultural Revolution affected almost everyone in China, either directly or indirectly. Much economic activity was halted, with "revolution", regardless of interpretation, becoming the primary objective. Mao Zedong Thought became the central operative guide. The Red Guards' authority surpassed that of the PLA, local police authorities, and the law in general. Traditional arts and ideas were publicly attacked, replaced by praise for Mao. People were encouraged to criticize cultural institutions and to question their parents and teachers, which had been strictly forbidden in traditional Chinese culture.
The Cultural Revolution brought huge numbers of Red Guards to Beijing, with expenses paid by the government, and the railway system fell into turmoil.
The revolution aimed to destroy the Four Olds and establish the corresponding Four News, which ranged from changing of names and cutting of hair to ransacking homes, vandalizing cultural treasures, and desecrating temples. Countless ancient buildings, artifacts, antiques, books, and paintings were destroyed by Red Guards. The status of traditional Chinese culture and institutions within China was severely damaged, and many customs weakened.
The revolution aimed to eliminate "cow demons and snake spirits", that is, the class enemies who promoted bourgeois ideas, as well as those from an exploitative family background or who belonged to one of the Five Black Categories. Large numbers of people perceived to be "monsters and demons" regardless of guilt or innocence were publicly denounced, humiliated, and beaten. In their revolutionary fervor, students especially the Red Guards denounced their teachers, and children denounced their parents. Many died from ill-treatment or committed suicide. In 1968, youths were mobilized to go to the countryside in the Down to the Countryside Movement so they may learn from the peasantry, and the departure of millions from the cities helped end the most violent phase of the Cultural Revolution.
Academics and education
Academics and intellectuals were regarded as the "Stinking Old Ninth" and were widely persecuted. Many were sent to rural labor camps such as the May Seventh Cadre School. The prosecution of the Gang of Four revealed that 142,000 cadres and teachers in the education circles were persecuted. Academics, scientists, and educators who died included Xiong Qinglai, Jian Bozan, Wu Han, Rao Yutai, Wu Dingliang, Yao Tongbin and Zhao Jiuzhang. As of 1968, among the 171 senior members who worked at the headquarters of Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing, 131 were persecuted. Among the members of the academy, 229 died.
As of September 1971, more than 4,000 staff members of China's nuclear center in Qinghai had been persecuted. More than 310 were disabled, over 40 committed suicide, and 5 were executed. During the CR, scientists tested the first missile, created China's first hydrogen bomb and launched China's first satellite in the Two Bombs, One Satellite program. Significant achievements came in science and technology.
In the CR's early months, schools and universities were closed. Secondary school classes of 1966, 1967, and 1968 were unable to graduate on time later and became known as the Old Three cohort. Primary and middle schools gradually reopened, but colleges and universities were closed until 1970, and most universities did not reopen until 1972. University entrance exams were cancelled after 1966, replaced by a system whereby students were recommended by factories, villages and military units. Entrance exams were not restored until 1977 under Deng. Traditional values were abandoned.
During the Cultural Revolution, basic education was emphasized and expanded. While schooling years were reduced and education standard fell, the proportion of Chinese children who completed primary education increased from less than half to almost all, and the fraction who completed junior middle school rose from 15% to over two-thirds. Educational opportunities for rural children expanded, while education of the urban elite were restricted by anti-elitist policies.Industrial Universities were established in factories to supply technical and engineering programs for industrial workers. These study programs were inspired by Mao's July 1968 remarks advocating vocational education. Mao had given the instruction to emulate the model of the Shanghai Machine Tool Factory university. Factories around the country therefore established their own educational programs for technicians and engineers. By 1976, there were 15,000 such July 21 Universities.
In the Down to the Countryside Movement's initial stages, most of the youth who took part volunteered. Later on, the government forced them to move. Between 1968 and 1979, 17 million urban youth left for the countryside. Living in the rural areas deprived them of higher education. This generation is referred to as the 'lost generation'. In the post-Mao period, many of those forcibly moved attacked the policy as a violation of their human rights.
The Cultural Revolution's impact on accessible education varied across regions. Formal literacy measurements did not resume until the 1980s. Some counties in Zhanjiang had literacy rates as low as 59% 20 years after the revolution. China's leaders denied illiteracy problems. This was amplified by the elimination of qualified teachers—many districts were forced to rely on students to teach.
Though the Cultural Revolution was disastrous for millions, positive outcomes advanced some groups, such as those in rural areas. For example, the upheavals and the hostility to the intellectual elite is widely seen to have damaged education, especially at the upper end of the education system. Radical policies provided many in rural communities with middle school education for the first time, which is thought to have facilitated rural economic development. Rural infrastructure developed during CR, facilitated by the political changes that empowered ordinary rurals.
Many health personnel were deployed to the countryside as barefoot doctors. Some farmers were given informal medical training, and health-care centers were established in rural communities. This process led to a marked improvement in health and life expectancy.
Slogans and rhetoric
Huang claimed that the Cultural Revolution had massive effects on Chinese society because of the extensive use of political slogans. He claimed that slogans played a central role in rallying Party leadership and citizens. For example, the slogan "to rebel is justified" affected many views.
Huang asserted that slogans were ubiquitous in people's lives, printed onto everyday items such as bus tickets, cigarette packets, and mirror tables. Workers were supposed to "grasp revolution and promote productions", while peasants were supposed to raise more pigs because "more pigs means more manure, and more manure means more grain." Even a casual remark by Mao, "Sweet potato tastes good; I like it" became a slogan.
Political slogans had three sources: Mao, Party media such as People's Daily, and the Red Guards. Mao often offered vague, yet powerful directives that divided the Red Guards. These directives could be interpreted to suit personal interests, in turn aiding factions' goals in claiming loyalty to Mao. Red Guard slogans were violent, advancing themes such as "Strike the enemy down on the floor and step on him with a foot", "Long live the red terror!" and "Those who are against Chairman Mao will have their dog skulls smashed into pieces."
Dittmer and Ruoxi claim that the Chinese language had historically been defined by subtlety, delicacy, moderation, and honesty, as well as the cultivation of a "refined and elegant literary style". This changed during the CR. Mao wanted an army of bellicose people in his crusade, so rhetoric at the time was reduced to militant and violent vocabulary. These slogans were an effective method of "thought reform", mobilizing millions in a concerted attack upon the subjective world, "while at the same time reforming their objective world."
Dittmer and Chen argued that the emphasis on politics made language into effective propaganda, but "also transformed it into a jargon of stereotypes—pompous, repetitive, and boring." To distance itself from the era, Deng's government cut back on political slogans. During a eulogy for Deng's death, Jiang Zemin called the Cultural Revolution a "grave mistake".
Arts and literature
Drastic changes in art and culture took place. Before this period, few cultural productions reflected the lives of peasants and workers. The struggles of workers, peasants, and revolutionary soldiers became frequent artistic subjects, often created by peasants and workers themselves. The spread of peasant paintings in rural China, for example, became one of the "newborn things" celebrated in a socialist society. In poor and remote areas, movies and operas were shown for free. Mobile film units brought cinema to the countryside and were crucial to the standardization and popularization of culture, particularly including revolutionary model operas.
Jiang took control of the stage and introduced revolutionary operas under her direct supervision. Traditional operas were banned as they were considered feudalistic and bourgeois, but revolutionary opera, which modified Peking opera in both content and form, was promoted. Six operas and two ballets were produced in the first three years, most notably the opera The Legend of the Red Lantern. These operas were the only approved opera form. Other opera troupes were required to adopt or change their repertoire.
The model operas were broadcast on the radio, made into films, blared from public loudspeakers, taught to students in schools and workers in factories, and became ubiquitous as a form of popular entertainment and were the only theatrical entertainment for millions. Most model dramas featured women as their leads and promoted Chinese state feminism. Their narratives begin with them oppressed by misogyny, class position, and imperialism before liberating themselves through the discovery of internal strength and the CCP.
In 1966, Jiang advanced the Theory of the Dictatorship of the Black Line. Those perceived to be bourgeois, anti-socialist or anti-Mao (black line) should be cast aside, and called for the creation of new literature and arts. Disseminators of the "old culture" would be eradicated. The majority of writers and artists were seen as "black line figures" and "reactionary literati", and were persecuted, and subjected to "criticism and denunciation" where they could be humiliated and ravaged, and be imprisoned or sent to hard labour. For instance, Mei Zhi and her husband were sent to a tea farm in Lushan County, Sichuan. She did not resume writing until the 1980s.
Documents released in 1980 regarding the prosecution of the Gang of Four show that more than 2,600 people in the field of arts and literature were persecuted by the Ministry of Culture. Many died: the names of 200 writers and artists who were persecuted to death were commemorated in 1979. These include writers such as Lao She, Fu Lei, Deng Tuo, Baren, Li Guangtian, Yang Shuo and Zhao Shuli.
In 1970, the communist party came to view the Ministry of Culture as so disruptive that it decided to dissolve the Ministry and establish a Culture Group within the State Council in an effort to rein in cultural politics.
Only a few writers who gained permission or requalification under the new system, such as Hao Ran and some writers of worker or farmer background, could have their work published or reprinted. The principles for cultural production laid out by Mao in the 1942 "Talks at the Yan'an Forum on Art and Literature" became dogmatized. The literary situation eased after 1972, as more were allowed to write, and many provincial literary periodicals resumed publication, but the majority of writers still could not work.
The effect is similar in the film industry. The Four Hundred Films to be Criticized booklet was distributed, and film directors and actors/actresses were criticized with some tortured and imprisoned. These included many of Jiang's rivals and former friends. Those who died in the period included Cai Chusheng, Zheng Junli, Shangguan Yunzhu, Wang Ying, and Xu Lai. No feature films were produced in mainland China for seven years apart from a few approved "Model dramas" and highly ideological films. A notable example is Taking Tiger Mountain by Strategy.
Loyalty dances became common and were performed throughout the country by both professional cultural workers and ordinary people.
During the Cultural Revolution, composers of Yellow Music, which had already banned following the communist takeover, were persecuted, including Li Jinhui who was killed in 1967. Revolution-themed songs instead were promoted, and songs such as "Ode to the Motherland", "Sailing the Seas Depends on the Helmsman", "The East Is Red" and "Without the Communist Party, There Would Be No New China" were either written or became popular during this period. "The East Is Red", especially, became popular; it de facto supplanted "March of the Volunteers" as the national anthem of China, though the latter was later restored to its previous place.
Quotation songs, in which Mao's quotations were set to music, were particularly popular during the early years of the Cultural Revolution. Records of quotation songs were played over loudspeakers, their primary distribution, as the use of transistor radios lagged until 1976. "Rusticated youths" with an interest in broadcast technology frequently operated rural radio stations after 1968.
Visual arts
Some of the most enduring images come from poster arts. Propaganda in posters was used as a mass communication device and often served as the people's leading source of information. They were produced in large numbers and widely disseminated, and were used by the government and Red Guards to push ideology defined by the Party. The two main posters genres were the big-character poster (dazibao) and "commercial" propaganda poster (xuanchuanhua).
The dazibao presented slogans, poems, commentary and graphics often posted on walls in public spaces, factories and communes. Mao wrote his own dazibao at Beijing University on August 5, 1966, calling on the people to "Bombard the Headquarters".
Xuanchuanhua were artworks produced by the government and sold cheaply in stores to be displayed in homes or workplaces. The artists for these posters might be amateurs or uncredited professionals, and the posters were largely in a Socialist Realist visual style with specific conventions—for example, images of Mao were to be depicted as "red, smooth, and luminescent".
Traditional themes were sidelined and artists such as Feng Zikai, Shi Lu, and Pan Tianshou were persecuted. Many of the artists were assigned to manual labour, and artists were expected to depict subjects that glorified the Cultural Revolution related to their labour. In 1971, in part to alleviate their suffering, several leading artists were recalled from manual labour or freed from captivity under a Zhou initiative to decorate hotels and railway stations defaced by Red Guard slogans. Zhou said that the artworks were meant for foreigners, therefore were "outer" art and not under the obligations and restrictions placed on "inner" art meant for Chinese citizens. He claimed that landscape paintings should not be considered one of the "Four Olds". However, Zhou was weakened by cancer, and in 1974, the Jiang faction seized these and other paintings and mounted exhibitions in Beijing, Shanghai and other cities denouncing the artworks as "Black Paintings".
Film
Mobile film units brought Chinese cinema to the countryside and were crucial to the standardization and popularization of culture during this period, particularly including revolutionary model operas. During the Cultural Revolution's early years, mobile film teams traveled to rural areas with news reels of Mao meeting with Red Guards and Tiananmen Square parades, and welcomed ceremoniously in rural communities. These news reels became known as hong bao pian ("red treasure films"), analogous to how the Little Red Books were dubbed hong bao shu ("red treasure books"). The release of the filmed versions of the revolutionary model operas resulted in a re-organization and expansion of China's film exhibition network.
From 1965 to 1976, the number of film projection units in China quadrupled, total film audiences nearly tripled, and the national film attendance rate doubled. The Cultural Revolution Group drastically reduced ticket prices which, in its view, would allow film to better serve the needs of workers and of socialism.
China rejected Hollywood films and most foreign films. Albanian films and North Korean films developed mass audiences in China.
In 1972, Chinese officials invited Michelangelo Antonioni to China to film the achievements of the Cultural Revolution. Antonioni made the documentary Chung Kuo, Cina. When it was released in 1974, CCP leadership in China interpreted the film as reactionary and anti-Chinese. Viewing art through the principles of the Yan'an Talks, particularly the concept that there is no such thing as art-for-art's-sake, party leadership construed Antonioni's aesthetic choices as politically motivated and banned the film. Since its 2004 release in China, the film has been well-regarded by Chinese audiences, especially for its beautiful depictions of a more simple time.
Historical sites
China's historical sites, artifacts and archives suffered devastating damage, as they were thought to be at the root of "old ways of thinking". Artifacts were seized, museums and private homes ransacked, and any item found that was thought to represent bourgeois or feudal ideas was destroyed. Few records relate how much was destroyed—Western observers suggest that much of China's thousands of years of history was in effect destroyed, or, later, smuggled abroad for sale. Chinese historians compare the suppression to Qin Shihuang's great Confucian purge. Religious persecution intensified during this period, as religion was viewed in opposition to Marxist–Leninist and Maoist thinking.
The destruction of historical relics was never formally sanctioned by the Party, whose official policy was instead to protect such items. On May 14, 1967, the Central Committee issued Several suggestions for the protection of cultural relics and books during the Cultural Revolution. Despite this, enormous damage was inflicted on China's cultural heritage. For example, a survey in 1972 in Beijing of 18 cultural heritage sites, including the Temple of Heaven and Ming Tombs, showed extensive damage. Of the 80 cultural heritage sites in Beijing under municipal protection, 30 were destroyed, and of the 6,843 cultural sites under protection by Beijing government decision in 1958, 4,922 were damaged or destroyed. Numerous valuable old books, paintings, and other cultural relics were burnt.
Later archaeological excavation and preservation after the destructive period were protected, and several significant discoveries, such as the Terracotta Army and the Mawangdui, occurred after the peak of the Revolution. Nevertheless, the most prominent medium of academic research in archaeology, the journal Kaogu, did not publish. After the most violent phase, the attack on traditional culture continued in 1973 with the Anti-Lin Biao, Anti-Confucius Campaign as part of the struggle against moderate Party elements.
Foreign relations
China exported communist revolutions as well as communist ideologies to multiple countries in Southeast Asia, supporting parties in Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar and in particular, the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia (responsible for the Cambodian genocide). It is estimated that at least 90% of the Khmer Rouge's foreign aid came from China. In 1975 alone at least US$1 billion in interest-free economic and military aid and US$20 million came from China. China's economic malaise impacted China's ability to assist North Vietnam in its war against South Vietnam by the 1970s, which cooled relations between the once allied nations.
Among the over 40 countries that had established diplomatic or diplomatic half-relations with China at the time, around 30 countries went into diplomatic disputes with China—some countries terminated their diplomatic relations, including Central Africa, Ghana and Indonesia.
Red Guards broke into the British Legation in Beijing and assaulted three diplomats and a secretary, before setting it ablaze. PRC authorities refused to condemn the action. British officials in Shanghai were attacked in a separate incident, as authorities attempted to close the office there.
Red Guards also laid siege to the Soviet, French and Indonesian embassies and torched the Mongolian ambassador's car.
With the help of Chinese embassies and consulates overseas, the CCP launched various propaganda campaigns for Mao, such as sending the Little Red Book and the Chairman Mao badge to citizens.
Many Chinese ambassadors and consuls were recalled. Senior officials such as Chen Yi, the 2nd Foreign Minister of the People's Republic of China, were persecuted.
Several foreign guests were "mandated" to stand in front of the statue of Mao Zedong, holding the Little Red Book and "reporting" to Mao as Chinese citizens did.
Opinions and views
Communist Party opinions
To make sense of the chaos caused by Mao's leadership without undermining the CCP's authority and legitimacy, Mao's successors needed to provide a "proper" historical judgment. On June 27, 1981, the Central Committee adopted the Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People's Republic of China, an official assessment of major historical events since 1949. This document became the key official interpretation of the Cultural Revolution.
The Resolution frankly noted Mao's leadership role in the movement, stating that "chief responsibility for the grave 'Left' error of the 'Cultural Revolution,' an error comprehensive in magnitude and protracted in duration, does indeed lie with Comrade Mao Zedong." It diluted blame by asserting that the movement was "manipulated by the counterrevolutionary groups of Lin Biao and Jiang Qing," who caused its worst excesses. The Resolution affirmed that the Cultural Revolution "brought serious disaster and turmoil to the Communist Party and the Chinese people." These themes of "turmoil" and "disaster" underlie historical and popular understanding of the Cultural Revolution. The 1981 Resolution was followed by a three-year campaign to "totally negate" the Cultural Revolution. The communist party called on individuals and cooperatives to study the Resolution and engage in criticism and self-criticism. People were urged to root out followers of Lin Biao and the Gang of Four, those seriously impacted by factional ideas, and the "smashers and grabbers" of the Cultural Revolution.
The official view in the Resolution and elsewhere aimed to separate Mao's actions during the Cultural Revolution from his "heroic" revolutionary activities during the Chinese Civil War and the Second Sino-Japanese War. It also separated Mao's personal mistakes from the correctness of the theory that he created, going as far as to rationalize that the Cultural Revolution contravened the spirit of Mao Zedong Thought, which remains the official guiding ideology. Deng famously summed this up with the phrase "Mao was 70% good, 30% bad."
CCP historiography characterizes the Cultural Revolution as an aberration and a period of chaos. The official view is the dominant framework for historiography of the period; alternative are discouraged. A new genre of literature known as "scar literature" (Shanghen Wenxue) emerged, encouraged by the post-Mao government. Written mainly by educated youth such as Liu Xinhua, Zhang Xianliang, and Liu Xinwu, scar literature depicted the Revolution negatively, based on their own perspectives and experiences. Movies criticizing Cultural Revolution hardliners were prevalent from the late 1970s to the early 1980s, although they were later banned as historical nihilism.
After the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, both liberals and conservatives within the CCP accused each other of excesses that they claimed were reminiscent of the Cultural Revolution. Li Peng, who promoted the use of military force, claimed that the student movement had taken inspiration from the populism of the Cultural Revolution and that if left unchecked, would eventually lead to mass chaos. Zhao Ziyang, who was sympathetic to the protestors, later accused his political opponents of illegally removing him from office by using "Cultural Revolution-style" tactics, including "reversing black and white, exaggerating personal offenses, taking quotes out of context, issuing slander and lies ... inundating the newspapers with critical articles making me out to be an enemy, and casual disregard for my personal freedoms." Speaking during his 1992 Southern Tour, Deng Xiaoping characterized the Cultural Revolution as civil war and contrasting it with the contemporary situation: "Why was it that our country could remain stable after the June 4th Incident? It was precisely because we had carried out the reform and the open policy, which have promoted economic growth and raised living standards."
Alternative opinions
Although the Chinese Communist Party officially condemns the Cultural Revolution, many Chinese people hold more positive views, particularly amongst the working class, who benefited most from its policies. People in rural areas tend to view the Cultural Revolution more positively given the expansion of rural infrastructure and agricultural development that occurred. During Deng's ascendancy, the government arrested and imprisoned figures who took a strongly pro-Cultural Revolution stance. For instance, in 1985, a young shoe-factory worker put up a poster at a factory in Xianyang, Shaanxi, which declared that "The Cultural Revolution was Good" and led to achievements such as "the building of the Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge, the creation of hybrid rice crops and the rise of people's consciousness." The worker was eventually sentenced to ten years in prison, where he died soon after "without any apparent cause". Since the late 1980s, China has experienced "at first a fitful and then a nationwide revival in Mao Zedong", including aspects of the Cultural Revolution.
One of the student leaders of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, Shen Tong, author of Almost a Revolution, has a positive view of some aspects of the CR. According to Shen, the trigger for the Tiananmen hunger-strikes was a big-character poster, a form of public political discussion that gained prominence during the Cultural Revolution. Shen remarked that the travel of students from across the country to Beijing on trains and the hospitality they received from residents was reminiscent of the experiences of Red Guards.
Since the advent of the Internet, people inside and outside China have argued online that the Cultural Revolution had many benefits. Some hold that the Cultural Revolution 'cleansed' China from superstitions, religious dogma, and outdated traditions in a 'modernist transformation' that later made Deng's economic reforms possible. The popular revival of Mao in the late 1990s coincided with the government's increasing privatization and its dismantling of its iron rice bowl employment and welfare policies. These sentiments also increased following the US bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade in 1999 when a segment of the population began to associate anti-Mao viewpoints with the US.
Contemporary Maoists became more organized in the internet era, partially as a response to academic criticisms of Mao. One Maoist website collected thousands of signatures demanding punishment for those who publicly criticize Mao. Along with the call for legal action, this movement demanded the establishment of agencies similar to Cultural Revolution-era "neighborhood committees", in which "citizens" would report anti-Maoists to local public security bureaus. Maoist rhetoric and mass mobilization methods were resurgent in Chongqing during the 2000s.
In 2012, Chinese web portal and social media platform Tencent conducted an online survey focused on combatting "the unhealthy trend of Cultural Revolution nostalgia." Seventy-eight percent of survey participants expressed Cultural Revolution nostalgia.
Chinese New Left internet forum Utopia was suspended for one month in response to its advocacy of a new Cultural Revolution.
Contemporary China
Public discussion is still limited. The Chinese government continues to prohibit news organizations from mentioning details, and online discussions and books about the topic are subject to official scrutiny. Textbooks abide by the "official view" of the events. Many government documents from the 1960s onward remain classified. The Cultural Revolution is barely mentioned in historical exhibits at the National Museum of China in Beijing. Despite inroads by prominent sinologists, independent scholarly research is discouraged.
Mao Zedong's legacy
Mao Zedong's legacy remains in some dispute. During the anniversary of his birth, many people viewed Mao as a godlike figure and referred to him as "the people's great savior". Contemporary discussions in newspapers such as the Global Times continue to glorify Mao. Rather than focus on consequences, newspapers claim that revolutions typically have a brutal side and are unable to be viewed from the "humanitarian perspective".
Critics of Mao Zedong look at the actions that occurred under his leadership from the point of view that "he was better at conquering power than at ruling the country and developing a socialist economy". Mao went to extreme measures on his path to power, costing millions of lives then and during his rule.
Outside mainland China
In the world at large, Mao Zedong emerged as a symbol of anti-establishment, grassroots populism, and self-determination. His revolutionary philosophies found adherents in the Shining Path of Peru, the Naxalite insurgency in India, various political movements in Nepal, the U.S.-based Black Panther Party,
In Hong Kong, a pro-Communist, anti-colonial strike inspired by the Cultural Revolution was launched in 1967. Its excesses damaged the credibility of these activists in the eyes of Hong Kong residents. In Taiwan, Chiang Kai-shek initiated the Chinese Cultural Renaissance to counter what he regarded as the destruction of traditional Chinese values by mainland Communists.
In Albania, Communist leader and Chinese ally Enver Hoxha began a "Cultural and Ideological Revolution" organized along the same lines as the Cultural Revolution. Hoxha delivered a speech to a plenum of the CC of the Party of Labour titled Some Preliminary Ideas about the Cultural Revolution, criticizing it. He said that "the cult of Mao was raised to the skies in a sickening and artificial manner" and added that, in reading its purported objectives, "you have the impression that everything old in Chinese and world culture should be rejected without discrimination and a new culture, the culture they call proletarian, should be created." He further stated that, "It is difficult for us to call this revolution, as the 'Red Guards' are carrying it out, a Proletarian Cultural Revolution... the enemies could and should be captured by the organs of the dictatorship on the basis of the law, and if the enemies have wormed their way into the party committees, let them be purged through party channels. Or in the final analysis, arm the working class and attack the committees, but not with children."
In October 1966, Chiang Kai-Shek criticized the Cultural Revolution as a synonym for Mao Zedong's method in the name of proletarian revolution after failures of Proletarian Revolution General Route, Great Leap Forward, People's commune and the Three Red Flags. He claimed that Maoism lost its origins in Marxism–Leninism. And Mao himself dropped his Marxist–Leninist mask, revealing its roots in Huang Chao, Li Zicheng, and the Boxer Rebellion, destroying Chinese Culture, purging intellectuals, destroying modern civilization, and used his "people's war" to attempt to rule Asia and the world following Adolf Hitler's model.
In the 1970s, Nikita Khrushchev criticized the Cultural Revolution in his memoir. He saw Chinese people repeatedly recite Mao's quotations and felt sick after he saw human dignity trampled. He argued that Mao is not supernatural, but upended his country, and that the Cultural Revolution was actually counter-revolutionary.
In 2007 Hong Kong Chief Executive Donald Tsang remarked that the Cultural Revolution represented the 'dangers of democracy', remarking "People can go to the extreme like what we saw during the Cultural Revolution [...], when people take everything into their own hands, then you cannot govern the place." The remarks caused controversy in Hong Kong and were later retracted.
Academic debate
Scholars and academics debate the origin, the events, Mao's role, and its legacy. These debates evolved as researchers explored new sources.
In the 1960s, while many scholars dismissed Mao's initiatives as ideological and destructive, others sympathized with his goals. They saw Maoism as a populist insistence on mass participation, mass criticism and the right to rebel, and a determination to wipe out a new ruling class. By the 1980s, however, Harvard University sociologist Andrew Walder wrote that the "public opinion in the field had changed markedly". Most in the field now "seem convinced that the Cultural Revolution was a human disaster, even a historical crime, something on the order of Hitler's holocaust and Stalin's great terror."
Walder argued that the failures of the Cultural Revolution did not come from poor implementation, bureaucratic sabotage, disloyalty, or lingering class antagonisms. If things turned out differently than Mao expected, Walder concluded, this was "probably due to the fact that Mao did not know what he wanted, or that he did know what he was doing, or both ... the outcomes are what one should have expected, given the Maoist doctrine and aims."
The debate continues because the movement contains many contradictions: led by an all-powerful omnipresent leader, it was mainly driven by a series of grassroots popular uprisings. Many English-language books published since the 1980s paint a negative picture of the movement. Historian Anne F. Thurston wrote that it "led to loss of culture, and of spiritual values; loss of hope and ideals; loss of time, truth and of life". Barnouin and Yu summarized the Cultural Revolution as "a political movement that produced unprecedented social divisions, mass mobilization, hysteria, upheavals, arbitrary cruelty, torture, killings, and even civil war", calling Mao "one of the most tyrannical despots of the twentieth century". According to historian Chun Lin, despite these human tragedies, individual freedoms and political self-organization expanded rapidly.
Some scholars challenge the mainstream portrayals and conceive it in a more positive light. Mobo Gao, writing in The Battle for China's Past: Mao and the Cultural Revolution, argues that the movement benefited millions of Chinese citizens, particularly agricultural and industrial workers, and sees it as egalitarian and genuinely populist, citing continued Maoist nostalgia today as remnants of its positive legacy. Some draw a distinction between intention and performance. While Mao's leadership was pivotal at the beginning of the movement, Jin Qiu contends that as events progressed, it deviated significantly from Mao's utopian vision. In this sense, the Cultural Revolution was actually a decentralized and varied movement that gradually lost cohesion, spawning many 'local revolutions' that differed in their nature and goals.
Academic interest focused on the movement's relationship with Mao's personality. Mao envisioned himself as a wartime guerrilla leader, which made him wary of the bureaucratic nature of peacetime governance. With the Cultural Revolution Mao was simply "returning to form", once again acting as a guerrilla leader fighting an institutionalized bureaucracy. Roderick MacFarquhar and Michael Schoenhals, paint the movement as neither a bona fide war over ideological purity nor a mere power struggle to remove Mao's political rivals.
While Mao's personal motivations were undoubtedly pivotal, they reasoned that other factors contributed to the way events unfolded. These include China's relationship with the global Communist movement, geopolitical concerns, the ideological rift between China and the Soviet Union, Khrushchev's ouster, and Great Leap Forward catastrophe. They conclude that the movement was, at least in part, a legacy project to cement Mao's place in history, aimed to boost his prestige while he was alive and preserve his ideas after his death.
Varying academic focuses on power conflicts or clashes of personalities as underlying Mao's motivations, or alternatively on ideological reasons for launching the Cultural Revolution, are not necessarily conflicting. Mao's suspicions of those in power around him reflected his longstanding concerns with the decline of revolutionary spirit and the potential rise of a new class-stratified society arising as the popular revolutionary movement transformed into a socialist bureaucracy. Historian Rebecca Karl writes that for Mao, the pursuit of power was never an end in itself, but rather the seizure of state power was to be used in making the revolution.
Professor Yiching Wu argues that the typical historiography of the Cultural Revolution as an "era of madness" is simpleminded but writes that such narratives have a "remarkably tenacious ideological power:"
See also
Burning of books and burying of scholars, Qin dynasty
Chinese Cultural Renaissance
History of the Chinese Communist Party
History of the People's Republic of China
List of campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party
List of massacres in China
Maoism
Marxism–Leninism–Maoism
Mass killings under communist regimes
Morning Sun (film)
Neo-Stalinism
Stalinism
New Life Movement
Poor and lower-middle peasants
International:
Destruction of Japanese cultural heritage during the Meiji restoration, Empire of Japan
July Theses, Socialist Republic of Romania
Cultural and Ideological Revolution, People's Socialist Republic of Albania
Cultural Revolution in the Soviet Union
Cultural Revolution in Iran
Cultural Revolution in Libya
General:
Iconoclasm
List of destroyed heritage
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
"Li Peng, the 'Butcher of Tiananmen,' was 'Ready to Die' to Stop the Student Turmoil." AsiaNews. 2003. Retrieved August 21, 2011
Fong Tak-ho. May 19, 2006. "Cultural Revolution? What Revolution?" Asia Times Online. Retrieved on June 15, 2011
Further reading
General
Jack Chen, A Year In Upper Felicity: Life in a Chinese Village During the Cultural Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1973). Book chronicling a year in a rural Chinese village during the Cultural Revolution
Yuan Gao, with Judith Polumbaum, Born Red: A Chronicle of the Cultural Revolution (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987). An autobiography that includes experiences during the Cultural Revolution
Ji-li Jiang, Red Scarf Girl: A Memoir of the Cultural Revolution (New York: HarperCollins, 1997).
Richard Curt Kraus, The Cultural Revolution: A Very Short Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).
Morning Sun, "Bibliography," Morningsun.org Books and articles of General Readings and Selected Personal Narratives on the Cultural Revolution
Specific topics
Fox Butterfield. China: Alive in the Bitter Sea (New York: Crown, 1990). An oral history of some Chinese people's experience during the Cultural Revolution
Anit Chan, Children of Mao: Personality Development and Political Activism in the Red Guard Generation. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1985).
Lingchei Letty Chen, The Great Leap Backward: Forgetting and Representing the Mao Years (New York: Cambria Press, 2020). Scholarly studies on memory writings and documentaries of the Mao years, victimhood narratives, perpetrator studies, ethics of bearing witness to atrocities
Dongping Han, The Unknown Cultural Revolution: Life and Change in a Chinese Village (New York: Monthly Review Press, 2008).
Jie Li and Enhua Zhang, eds., Red Legacies in China: Cultural Afterlives of the Communist Revolution (Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, 2016). Scholarly studies on cultural legacies and continuities from the Maoist era in art, architecture, literature, performance, film, etc.
Ross Terrill, The White-Boned Demon: A Biography of Madame Mao Zedong (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984).
Yiching Wu, The Cultural Revolution at the Margins: Chinese Socialism in Crisis (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2014).
Xinran, The Good Women of China: Hidden Voices, translated by Esther Tyldesley. (London: Chatto & Windus, 2002).
Commentaries
Guokai Liu, A Brief Analysis of the Cultural Revolution edited by Anita Chan. (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1982).
Pierre Ryckmans, The Chairman's New Clothes: Mao and the Cultural Revolution (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1977).
—— Chinese Shadows (New York: Viking Press, 1977).
—— Broken Images: Essays on Chinese Culture and Politics (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980).
—— The Burning Forest: Essays on Chinese Culture and Politics (New York: Holt, 1985).
Fictional treatments
Ying Chang Compestine, Revolution Is Not a Dinner Party (New York: Holt, 2007). . Young adult novel
Dai Sijie, Balzac and the Little Chinese Seamstress, translated by Ina Rilke (New York: Knopf / Random House, 2001).
Gao Xingjian, One Man's Bible, translated by Mabel Lee (New York: HarperCollins, 2002).
Gu Hua, A Small Town Called Hibiscus, translated by Gladys Yang (Beijing: Chinese Literature / China Publications Centre, 1983).
Liu Cixin, The Three-Body Problem, translated by Ken Liu (New York: Tor Books, 2014).
Yu Hua, To Live, translated by Michael Berry (New York: Anchor Books, 2003).
Memoirs by Chinese participants
Guanlong Cao, The Attic: Memoir of a Chinese Landlord's Son (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).
Jung Chang, Wild Swans: Three Daughters of China (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991).
Nien Cheng, Life and Death in Shanghai (New York: Grove, 1987).
Liang Heng and Judith Shapiro, Son of the Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1983).
Wenguang Huang, The Little Red Guard: A Family Memoir (New York: Riverhead Books, 2012).
Ji Xianlin, The Cowshed: Memories of the Chinese Cultural Revolution, translated by Chenxin Jiang (New York: New York Review Books, 2016).
Kang Zhengguo, Confessions: An Innocent Life in Communist China, translated by Susan Wilf (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007).
Ken Ling, The Revenge of Heaven: Journal of a Young Chinese, English text prepared by Miriam London and Ta-Ling Lee. (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1972).
Liu Ping, My Chinese Dream: From Red Guard to CEO (San Francisco: China Books, 2012).
Ma Bo, Blood Red Sunset: A Memoir of the Chinese Cultural Revolution, translated by Howard Goldblatt. (New York: Viking, 1995).
Anchee Min, Red Azalea (New York: Pantheon Books, 1994).
Nanchu, Red Sorrow (New York: Arcade Publishing, 2012).
Emily Wu, Feather in the Storm (New York: Pantheon, 2006).
Yang Jiang, Six Chapters from My Life "Downunder", translated by Howard Goldblatt. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988).
Rae Yang, Spider Eaters (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
Ting-Xing Ye, A Leaf in the Bitter Wind (Toronto: Doubleday Canada, 1997).
Weili Ye and Xiaodong Ma, Growing up in the People's Republic: Conversations between Two Daughters of China's Revolution (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).
Lijia Zhang, Socialism Is Great!: A Worker's Memoir of the New China (New York: Atlas & Co, 2007).
Films set in the Cultural Revolution
Xie Jin, Hibiscus Town (1984)
Zhang Yimou, Red Sorghum (1987)
Chen Kaige, Farewell My Concubine (1992)
Zhang Yimou, Story of Qiu Ju (1992)
Tian Zhuangzhuang Blue Kite (1993)
Zhang Yimou, To Live (1993)
Jiang Wen, In the Heat of the Sun (1994)
External links
Encyclopædia Britannica. The Cultural Revolution
History of The Cultural Revolution
Chinese propaganda posters gallery (Cultural Revolution, Mao, and others)
Hua Guofeng's speech to the 11th Party Congress, 1977
Morning Sun – A Film and Website about Cultural Revolution and the photographs of the subject available from the film's site.
Memorial for Victims of the Chinese Cultural Revolution
"William Hinton on the Cultural Revolution" by Dave Pugh
"Student Attacks Against Teachers: The Revolution of 1966" by Youqin Wang
A Tale of Red Guards and Cannibals by Nicholas D. Kristof. The New York Times, January 6, 1993.
1960s in China
1966 establishments in China
1966 introductions
1970s in China
1976 disestablishments in China
20th-century revolutions
Campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party
Cold War history of China
Cultural genocide
Cultural history of China
Man-made disasters in China
Mao Zedong
Maoist terminology
Massacres in China
Politicides
Political and cultural purges
Political controversies in China
Revolutions in China
Vandalized works of art
Communist terrorism
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%AFla%20Slimani
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Leïla Slimani
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Leïla Slimani (born 3 October 1981) is a French-Moroccan writer and journalist. She is also a French diplomat in her capacity as the personal representative of the French president Emmanuel Macron to the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. In 2016, she was awarded the Prix Goncourt for her novel Chanson douce.
Life
Slimani's maternal grandmother Anne Dhobb (née Ruetsch; 1921–2016) grew up in Alsace. In 1944, she met her future husband Lakhdar Dhobb, a Moroccan colonel in the French Colonial Army, during the liberation of France. After the war she followed him back to Morocco, where they lived in Meknes. Anne Dobbs' autobiographical novel was published in 2003; she became the first writer in the family. Her daughter (Slimani's mother) is Béatrice-Najat Dhobb-Slimani, an otolaryngologist, who married the French-educated Moroccan economist Othman Slimani. The couple had three daughters; Leïla Slimani is the middle one.
Leïla was born in Rabat on 3 October 1981; she grew up in a liberal, French-speaking household and attended French schools. An important rupture in Slimani's childhood occurred in 1993 when her father was falsely implicated in a finance scandal and fired from his position as president of the CIH Bank (he was later officially exonerated.)
Slimani left Morocco at the age of 17 for Paris to study political science and media studies at the Sciences Po and ESCP Europe. After her graduation, she temporarily considered a career as an actress, completing an acting course and appearing in supporting roles in two films. She married her husband, a Parisian banker, Antoine d’Engremont, whom she first met in 2005, on 24 April 2008 and started to work as a journalist for the magazine Jeune Afrique in October of that year. The work required much travel. After her son was born in 2011 and she was arrested in Tunisia while reporting on the Arab Spring, she decided to quit her job at Jeune Afrique to pursue freelance work and write a novel instead. The novel, however, was rejected by publishers. In 2013, Slimani took a writing workshop by Jean-Marie Laclavetine, a novelist and editor at Gallimard. He took an interest in Slimani's writing and helped her improve her style; in 2014, Slimani published her first novel Dans le jardin de l’ogre ("In the Garden of the Ogre" - in English translation, "Adèle") with Gallimard. The novel fared well with French critics and received the La Mamounia literary award in Morocco. Two years later she followed up with the psychological thriller Chanson douce, which won the Prix Goncourt and turned her into a literary star in France, and made her known to international audiences as well. In 2017, her second child, a daughter, was born.
In addition to her native Moroccan citizenship, Slimani also holds French citizenship due to her Alsatian heritage. In 2017, she was made an Officier of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French government. Since 2021, she has been living in Lisbon, Portugal.
In August 2022, she was announced as the chair of judges for the International Booker Prize 2023.
Work
Politics
On 6 November 2017 the president of France, Emmanuel Macron, appointed Leila Slimani his personal representative to the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.
Fiction
Adèle
Slimani's first novel Dans le jardin de l’ogre, published in English as Adèle, tells the story of a woman who loses control of her life due to her sexual addiction. Slimani got the idea for her story after seeing the Dominique Strauss-Kahn unfolding news. The novel fared well with French critics; in Morocco it received the La Mamounia literary award.
Lullaby/The Perfect Nanny
Chanson douce (lit. "sweet song") is the story of a double murder of two young siblings by their nanny, inspired by the killing by a nanny of the Krim children in Manhattan in 2012. The novel starts off with the immediate aftermath of the murder, and then recounts the backstory of the parents, a liberal, upper middle class Parisian couple, as well as their nanny, who is economically and psychologically struggling. Slimani named the nanny Louise after Louise Woodward, a British au pair in the US who was convicted of involuntary manslaughter of the toddler in her care. The novel was well received by French critics. It quickly turned into a bestseller, with over 76,000 copies printed within three months even before the book was awarded the Prix Goncourt in 2016. It subsequently became the most read book in France that year with over 450,000 copies printed; by the end of 2017 around 600,000 copies had been sold in France. It has been translated into 18 languages, with 17 more to come; the English translation (by Sam Taylor) of her novel was published in 2018 as The Perfect Nanny in the US and as Lullaby in the UK. In 2019, Lullaby won a British Book Award in the "Début Book of the Year" category.
Le pays des autres
Le pays des autres, lit. "The country of the others" (at Gallimard, 2020), a first novel in a planned trilogy about the writer's own family, deals with the life of Slimani's maternal grandparents during Morocco's period of decolonisation in the 1950s. The second volume in the trilogy, Regardez-nous danser (lit. "Look at us dance"), was published in 2022.
Non-fiction
Slimani worked for several years as a journalist reporting on Northern Africa and the Maghreb, covering, among other things, the Arab Spring in 2011.
Her book Sexe et Mensonges: La Vie Sexuelle au Maroc ("Sex and Lies: Sex Life in Morocco") compiles the accounts of many women she had interviewed while on a book tour throughout Morocco.
La baie de Dakhla : itinérance enchantée entre mer et désert describes a region of Morocco on the Atlantic where people are going through a period of transition between traditional life and modernity.
Books
English edition: Adele: A Novel, translated by Sam Taylor, Penguin, 2019
US edition:
UK edition:
Sexe et mensonges : La vie sexuelle au Maroc. Les Arènes, Paris, 2017
UK edition:
Paroles d'honneur. Les Arènes, Paris, 2017, , illustrated by Laetitia Coryn
Le pays des autres. Gallimard, March 2020, , in French
UK edition: The country of others. Translated by Sam Taylor. Faber & Faber. 2022.
US edition: In the country of others. Penguin Books. 2022.
Regardez-nous danser. Gallimard, February 2022, , in French
References
External links
Leïla Slimani : rencontre avec la romancière de l’ultramoderne solitude des femmes - Interview with Slimani (French)
NPR stories about Leila Slimani
Leila Slimani - BBC interview (audio, 9 mins)
Call for a Crime - Opening Speech of the 21st international literature festival berlin
1981 births
Living people
21st-century French novelists
21st-century French women writers
21st-century Moroccan women writers
French women novelists
Moroccan women novelists
Moroccan novelists
Writers from Rabat
Prix Goncourt winners
Sciences Po alumni
Moroccan critics of religions
Moroccan feminists
Alumni of Lycée Descartes (Rabat)
ESCP Business School alumni
Cours Florent alumni
Officiers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Bank%20of%20Ethiopia
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National Bank of Ethiopia
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National Bank of Ethiopia
The National Bank of Ethiopia (NBE) is the central bank of Ethiopia. Its headquarters are in the capital city of Addis Ababa. Mamo Mihretu is the current governor of the bank.
The bank is active in promoting financial inclusion policy and is a member of the Alliance for Financial Inclusion (AFI).
History
On 15 February 1906, marked the beginning of banking in Ethiopia when the first Bank of Abyssinia was inaugurated by Emperor Menelik II. It was a private bank whose shares were sold in Addis Ababa, New York, Paris, London, and Vienna. The bank opened numerous branches including ones in Harar (1906), Dire Dawa (1908), Gore (1912), and Dese (1920). One of the first projects the bank financed was the Franco-Ethiopian Railway which reached Addis Ababa in 1917. The bank then opened a transit office in Djibouti in 1920.
In 1931, Emperor Haile Selassie introduced reforms into the banking system. The Bank of Abyssinia was liquidated the newly established Bank of Ethiopia, a fully government-owned bank, taking over management, staff and premises of the ceased bank. The Bank of Ethiopia provided central and commercial banking services to the country. However, the Italian invasion in 1935 brought the demise of one of the earliest initiatives in African banking. During the Italian occupation, Italian banks were active in Ethiopia.
On 15 April 1943, the State Bank of Ethiopia became the central bank and was active until 1963. By the time it ceased operations in 1963, the State Bank of Ethiopia had established 19 domestic branches, a branch in Khartoum, and a transit office in Djibouti.
The National Bank of Ethiopia was established in 1963 by Proclamation 206 of 1963 and began operation in January 1964. The establishment of the new organization was aided by U.S Department of State emissary, Earle O. Latham, who was the first Vice President of the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston.
Prior to this proclamation, the bank carried out dual activities i.e. commercial banking and central banking. The proclamation raised the bank's capital to 10 million Ethiopian Dollars and granted broad administrative autonomy and juridical personality. Following the proclamation the National Bank of Ethiopia was entrusted with the following responsibilities:
To regulate the supply, availability and cost of money and credit.
To manage and administer the country's international reserves.
To license and supervise banks and hold commercial banks reserves and lend money to them.
To supervise loans of commercial banks and regulate interest rates.
To issue paper money and coins.
To act as an agent of the Government.
To fix and control the foreign exchange rates.
However, monetary and banking proclamation No. 99 of 1976 came into force in September 1976 to shape the bank's role according to the socialist economic principle that the country adopted. Hence the bank was allowed to participate actively in national planning, specifically financial planning, in cooperation with the concerned state organs. The bank's supervisory area was also increased to include other financial institutions such as insurance institutions, credit cooperatives and investment-oriented banks. Moreover, the proclamation introduced the new 'Ethiopian birr' in place of the former Ethiopian Dollar that ceased to be legal tender.
The proclamation revised the bank's relationship with Government. It initially raised the legal limits of outstanding government domestic borrowing to 25% of the actual ordinary revenue of the government during the proceeding three budget years as against the proclamation 206/1963, which set it to be 15%.
This proclamation was in force till the new proclamation issued in 1994 to reorganize the bank according to the market-based economic policy so that it could foster monetary stability, a sound financial system and such other credit and exchange conditions as are conductive to the balanced growth of the economy of the country. Accordingly, the following are some of the powers and duties vested in the bank by proclamation 83/1994.
Regulate the supply and availability of money and credit and applicable interest and other changes.
Set limits on gold and foreign exchange assets which banks and other financial institutions authorized to deal in foreign exchange and hold in deposits.
Set limits on the net foreign exchange position and on the terms and amount of external indebtedness of banks and other financial institutions.
Make short and long-term refinancing facilities available to banks and other financial institutions.
Lastly, the proclamation has also raised the paid-up capital of the bank from Birr 30.0 million to Birr 50.0 million. On 14 October 2022, NBE issued foreign currency restriction to control local forex. 38 imported goods were prohibited such as liquors, automobiles, furniture, foods among others unless they register to national banks to approve accessing the foreign currency. The restriction includes Ethiopian birr more than 3,000 and US dollar, applied to foreign nationals living Ethiopia to any countries, except Djibouti.
Financial inclusion
The National Bank of Ethiopia is one of the original 17 regulatory institutions to make specific national commitments to financial inclusion under the Alliance for Financial Inclusion's (AFI) Maya Declaration.
Governors
Charles S. Collier, Briton, 1913-1936
George Blowers, American, 1942-1949
Jack Bennett, American, 1949-1953
Walter H. Rozell, Jr., American, 1953-1956
Neil Perry, American, 1956
George Rea, American, 1956-1959
1st: Menasse Lemma, 1959-1974
2nd: Taffara Deguefé, 1974-1976
3rd: Legesse Tickeher, 1976-1978
4th: Tadesse Gebrekidan, 1978-1988
5th: Bekele Tamirat, 1988-1991
6th: Leikun Berhanu, 1991-1995
7th: Dubale Jale, 1995-2006
8th: Teklewold Atnafu, 2006-2018
9th: Yinager Dessie, 2018-2023
10th: Mamo Mihretu, 2023-
See also
Central banks and currencies of Africa
Commercial Bank of Ethiopia
Economy of Ethiopia
List of central banks
References
Bibliography
See also a WP of the same author on this topic Origins and early development of banking in Ethiopia.
External links
1963 establishments in Ethiopia
Banks of Ethiopia
Buildings and structures in Addis Ababa
Economy of Addis Ababa
Egypt–Ethiopia relations
Ethiopia
Economy of Ethiopia
Banks established in 1963
20th-century architecture in Ethiopia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olga%20Bergholz
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Olga Bergholz
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Olga Bergholz
Olga Fyodorovna Bergholz (– November 13, 1975) was a Soviet and Russian poet, writer, playwright and journalist. She is most famous for her work on the Leningrad radio during the city's blockade, when she became the symbol of city's strength and determination.
Early life
Olga Bergholz was born in a working suburb of Saint Petersburg. Her father Fyodor Khristophorovich Bergholz (1885—1948) was a surgeon of half-Russian and half-Latvian descent, although in 1942 he was forcefully sent to the Krasnoyarsk Krai as "an ethnic German and a son of a principal shareholder" (his father was in fact a factory worker). He studied in the Imperial Military Medical Academy under Nikolay Burdenko and served as a military doctor during the World War I; after the October Revolution he was mobilized by the Red Army and continued working at the hospital train.
Olga's mother, Maria Timofeyevna Bergholz (née Grustilina) (1884—1957), was a native Russian. She also had a younger sister Maria (1912—2003) who would later become an actress of the Leningrad State Theatre of Musical Comedy. With the start of the Russian Civil War in 1918 Fyodor Bergholz sent his family to Uglich where they lived in the former Bogoyavlensky Monastery up until 1921. Upon return Olga entered a Petrograd labor school which she finished in 1926.
Career
Her verses dedicated to Vladimir Lenin were first published in 1924. In 1925, she joined a youth literature group 'The Shift' where she became acquainted with Boris Kornilov. In 1927, Boris and Olga entered the State Institute of Art History, and in 1928, they got married. Same year their daughter Irina was born. Soon the institute was shut down. Some of the students —including Olga, but not Boris— were moved to the Leningrad University.
In 1930, she graduated from the philological faculty and was sent to Kazakhstan to work as a journalist for the Soviet Steppe newspaper. During this period Olga divorced Kornilov and married her fellow student Nikolay Molchanov. She also published her first book for children Winter-Summer-Parrot (1930).
After returning to Leningrad in 1931, she started working as a journalist for the newspaper of the electric power plant (Electric Power). In 1932 she gave birth to her second daughter Maya who died in just a year. Her feelings and thoughts on this period were expressed in such books as The Out-of-the-way Place (1932), Night (1935), Journalists (1934), and Grains (1935). Such works by Bergholz as Poems (1934) and Uglich (1932) were approved of by Maxim Gorky. In 1934 she joined the Union of Soviet Writers.
During the late 1930s, Bergholz survived several personal tragedies. Her first daughter Irina died in 1936, aged seven, and in 1937, she lost her third child during the full-term pregnancy following the interrogation on the so-called "Averbakh Case" (she contacted Leopold Averbakh of the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers at the start of 1930). Soon, her former husband, Boris Kornilov, was arrested "for taking part in the anti-Soviet Trotskyist organization" and executed in February 1938. In December, Olga herself was arrested on the same account and imprisoned. She spent seven months in prison, but denied all accusations. All this caused a birth of her fourth stillborn child. During that time period, she wrote poems published as a Trial anthology during the 1960s. She was subsequently released and completely exonerated in 1939.
In 1940, she joined the Communist Party. After a long period of silence, her novel Dream and a book of stories Vitya Mamanin were published to a great acclaim, although she had to hide her prison poetry.
War years
With the start of the Great Patriotic War in June 1941, Bergholz was sent to work at the Leningrad Radio House. She spent almost every day of the blockade in Leningrad working at the radio, encouraging hungry and depressed citizens of the city by her speeches and poems. Her thoughts and impressions on this period, on problems of heroism, love, faithfulness can be found in February Diary (1942), Leningrad Poem (1942), Your Way (1945), and some others.
In January 1942, she survived another personal tragedy: her second husband Nikolay Molchanov died of hunger. Olga later dedicated a poem 29 January 1942 and her book The Knot (1965) to Nikolay. In March 1942, Olga, who suffered from a critical form of dystrophy, was forcefully sent by her friends to Moscow using the Road of Life, despite her protests. On 20 April, she returned to Leningrad and continued her work at the Radio House. On her return, she married Georgy Makogonenko, a literary critic, also a radio host during the siege. In 1943, she was awarded the Medal "For the Defence of Leningrad".
Together with her husband, she wrote a screenplay turned a play Born in Leningrad and a requiem In Memory of Defenders (1944) on the request of a woman whose brother was killed during the last days of the siege. On January 27, 1945, Bergholz, Makogonenko and their colleagues released a "radio film" entitled 900 days that included various fragments of reports, voices, sounds and music pieces recorded during the siege. She also published a book of memoirs Leningrad Is Talking and a play They Lived in Leningrad based on her war experience.
Late years
Bergholz also wrote many times about heroic and glorious events in the history of Russia, such as Pervorossiysk (1950), a poem about the Altay commune organized by the workers of Petrograd; Faithfulness (1954), a tragedy about the defence of Sevastopol in 1941–1942; and The Day Stars (1959), an autobiographical novel that was turned into a movie of the same name by Igor Talankin in 1968. Olga's voice could be also heard in another Talankin's movie Introduction to Life (1963) as she reads her poetry.
On May 9, 1960, Piskaryovskoye Memorial Cemetery was opened, dedicated to the victims of the Siege of Leningrad, with the words by Olga Bergholz engraved on the wall behind the Motherland monument. The last line "No one is forgotten, nothing is forgotten" became a catchphrase since, often mentioned in Russia during memorial days.
Olga Bergholz died on 13 November 1975, and was buried at Literatorskie Mostki of the Volkovo Cemetery.
Honours and legacy
Stalin Prize, third class (1951) – for the poem "Pervorossiysk" (1950)
Order of Lenin
Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Medal "For the Defence of Leningrad" (1943)
Medal "For Valiant Labour in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945"
Honorary citizen of St. Petersburg (1994)
A minor planet 3093 Bergholz discovered by Soviet astronomer Tamara Smirnova in 1971 is named after her. A street in the Nevsky District bears her name, as well as a central street in Uglich. A monument in her memory was opened in Saint Petersburg in May 2015. Also on June the complete collection of diaries by Olga Bergholz was published for the first time by the Russian State Archive of Literature and Art. A crater on Venus is named after her.
American playwright Ivan Fuller wrote a play about Bergholz in 2009 called Awake in Me.
References
External links
Some poems by Olga Bergholz
More poems by Olga Bergholz
Olga Fyodorovna Berggoltz. Verses and poems.
The Poems by Olga Bergholz (English)
1910 births
1975 deaths
Writers from Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg State University alumni
Recipients of the Stalin Prize
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Communist women writers
Russian women children's writers
Russian women dramatists and playwrights
Russian people of Latvian descent
Russian women journalists
Soviet novelists
Russian women novelists
Russian women poets
Russian women short story writers
Soviet children's writers
Soviet dramatists and playwrights
Soviet journalists
Soviet short story writers
Soviet war correspondents
Soviet women novelists
Soviet women poets
Soviet poets
Soviet diarists
Russian women diarists
20th-century Russian diarists
Siege of Leningrad
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnival%20Row
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Carnival Row
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Carnival Row is an American fantasy television series created by René Echevarria and Travis Beacham, based on Beacham's unproduced film spec script, A Killing on Carnival Row. The series stars Orlando Bloom, Cara Delevingne, Simon McBurney, Tamzin Merchant, David Gyasi, Andrew Gower, Karla Crome, Arty Froushan, Indira Varma, and Jared Harris. The series follows mythological beings who must survive as oppressed refugees in human society, as a detective works to solve murders connected with them.
Carnival Row first season was released in its entirety on Amazon Prime Video on August 30, 2019. In July 2019, Amazon renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on February 17, 2023, and served as the series's final season, concluding on March 17, 2023.
Premise
In Carnival Row, "mythical creatures... have fled their war-torn homeland and gathered in the city as tensions are simmering between citizens and the growing immigrant population". There is an investigation into a string of unsolved murders, questions of madness of power, unresolved love, and social adjustments eating away at whatever uneasy peace exists.
Cast and characters
Main
Orlando Bloom as Rycroft "Philo" Philostrate, an inspector of the Burgue Constabulary, investigating a dark conspiracy at the heart of the city. A half-fae passing as a human, and veteran of the war, he sympathizes with the fae to the disgust of many of his colleagues.
Cara Delevingne as Vignette Stonemoss, a faerie (also known by their derogatory name of "Pix") and Philo's former lover who believed him to be dead following the war. She falls in with a group of fae ruffians known as the Black Raven while dealing with her complicated feelings for Philo.
Simon McBurney as Runyan Millworthy, a human street performer and master of a troupe of kobolds.
Tamzin Merchant as Imogen Spurnrose, an heiress who becomes involved with Agreus to support her lifestyle.
David Gyasi as Agreus Astrayon, a wealthy faun (also known by their derogatory name of "Puck") shunned by Burgue high society for his appearance and origin.
Andrew Gower as Ezra Spurnrose, Imogen's brother whom she blames for mishandling the family finances and driving them into debt.
Karla Crome as Tourmaline Larou, Vignette's fae friend and former lover, Poet Laureate of Tirnanoc, and a courtesan at the Tetterby Hotel in Carnival Row.
Arty Froushan as Jonah Breakspear, Absalom's son who rebels against his controlling father.
Indira Varma as Piety Breakspear (season 1), Absalom's manipulative wife who seeks to enshrine her family's legacy.
Jared Harris as Absalom Breakspear (season 1), the chancellor of the Republic of the Burgue.
Caroline Ford as Sophie Longerbane, the power-seeking daughter of Ritter Longerbane who becomes sympathetic towards the Fae.
Jay Ali as Kaine (season 2), a fae allied with the Black Raven who goes to extreme measures to make life better for his people.
Joanne Whalley as Leonora (season 2), a faun with a broken horn and leader of the New Dawn revolutionary movement.
Jamie Harris as Sergeant Dombey (season 2; recurring season 1), a constable sergeant who is known to harbor racist beliefs against the fae and despises Philo for sympathizing with them.
Ariyon Bakare as Darius Sykes (season 2; recurring season 1), Philo's old friend and a former soldier of the Burgue now held in captive luxury at Bleakness Keep due to having been bitten by a Marrok (a type of werewolf created from a virus) during the war.
Recurring
Alice Krige as Aoife Tsigani, a Haruspex (or witch) in the service of Piety Breakspear.
Tracey Wilkinson as Afissa, the "Puck" housemaid and cook to the Spurnroses.
Ryan Hayes as Constable Thatch, a rookie constable with a strong hatred of the fae.
Waj Ali as Constable Berwick, Philo's timid partner who nevertheless remains loyal to him.
James Beaumont as Constable Cuppins, a constable who finds Philo's interest in the fae unnatural.
Jim High as Fergus, a human servant in Agreus' household.
Scott Reid as Quilliam "Quill", a "Puck" footman, unjustly dismissed by the Chancellor, who turns to radicalism.
Brian Caspe as Nigel Winetrout, a politician and close advisor for the Breakspear family.
Chloe Pirrie as Dahlia, the ruthless "Pix" leader of the Black Raven.
Anthony Kaye as Bolero, the loyal "Pix" second-in-command of the Black Raven.
Sinead Phelps as Jenila, Sophie's "Puck" lady's maid.
Season 1
Maeve Dermody as Portia Fyfe, Philo's landlady whose romantic advances he frequently rebuffs.
Leanne Best as Madame Moira, the proprietor of The Tetterby Hotel, which she uses as a brothel.
Anna Rust as Fleury, a "Pix" courtesan at Moira's brothel.
Ronan Vibert as Ritter Longerbane, Sophie's father, Absalom Breakspear's primary political opponent, and longtime advocate of fae subjugation.
Mark Lewis Jones as Magistrate Flute, the head constable in the Burgue who urges solidarity amongst his officers and frequently butts heads with Philo over his concern for the fae's welfare.
Erika Starkova as Aisling Querelle, Philo's mother and a once-famous "Pix" singer turned to the life of a scavenger.
Theo Barklem-Biggs as Cabal, a "Puck" malcontent seeking to bring his brethren together.
Season 2
Fraser James as Erasmus Fletcher, a politician and advisor for the Longerbane family.
Eve Ponsonby as Phaedra, a "Pix" vigilante and member of the Black Raven.
Stewart Scudamore as Boz Ghaidos, a well-connected cattle-horned "Puck" who manages an underground fighting ring.
Andrew Buchan as Mikulas Vir, a Major in The Pact army who travels to The Burgue to secure a weapons deal with a secret of his own.
Karel Dobrý as Ambassador Anrep, the ambassador for The Pact to The Burgue.
Jacqueline Boatswain as Mima Blodwen, a "Mima" fae, a spiritual leader, who guides Tourmaline.
George Georgiou as Kastor, a high-ranking member of the New Dawn in charge of overseeing Agreus and Imogen.
Episodes
Season 1 (2019)
Season 2 (2023)
Production
Development
On January 9, 2015, Amazon signed a development deal for the series which, at the time had Guillermo del Toro on board as a co-writer, executive producer, and director. The series, set to be co-written by del Toro, Travis Beacham, and Rene Echeverria, is based on a feature film spec script written by Beacham, entitled A Killing on Carnival Row. The company ordered three scripts with the expectation that if the series went into production del Toro would direct the first episode. On June 6, 2016, the production was given a pilot order with the previously announced creative team still set to be involved.
On May 10, 2017, the production was given a series order with Beacham and Echeverria still executive producing, and with Echeverria expected to act as showrunner. Filmmaker Paul McGuigan was set to direct the series. By this point, del Toro had stepped away from the project, as his feature film schedule did not permit him to stay on as an executive producer as the project moved forward. On November 10, 2017, filmmaker Jon Amiel replaced McGuigan as director.
In July 2019, Amazon renewed the series for a second season. In November 2022, Amazon announced that the second season would serve as the series's last.
Casting
In August 2017, Orlando Bloom and Cara Delevingne were cast in the series' two lead roles. On September 22, 2017, it was reported that David Gyasi, Karla Crome, Indira Varma, and Tamzin Merchant had joined the main cast. In October 2017, it was announced that Simon McBurney, Alice Krige, and Jared Harris had been cast in recurring roles. On November 3, 2017, it was reported Ariyon Bakare was joining the series in a recurring capacity. On December 15, 2017, it was announced that Andrew Gower and Jamie Harris had been cast in recurring roles. On January 30, 2018, it was reported that Scott Reid had joined the cast as a series regular. On October 8, 2018, it was reported that Anna Rust had joined the cast in a recurring capacity.
Filming
The series spent almost five months in pre-production before filming began. The series was shot entirely in the Czech Republic throughout 108 shooting days. Principal photography began in October 2017. Much of the work was done at the Barrandov Studios in Prague, while locations included the city of Liberec, the chateaux in Frýdlant and Krnsko, and at the Prachov Rocks (Prachovské skály) area. Filming for the first season concluded on March 14, 2018.
Production on the second season commenced in November 2019 but was halted in March 2020 due to the coronavirus pandemic. As of the first week of May, preparations for resumption of production were underway. However, by June 2020, Amazon had yet to resume production on the series. Upon production halting due to the pandemic, the production team were reportedly three weeks away from concluding filming for the season. Filming for the second season continued in August 2020 in the Czech Republic. In a February 2021 interview, Tamzin Merchant revealed that only five out of eight episodes were wrapped up. Filming for the second season officially wrapped in September 2021. Production for the second season resumed in May 2021 in the Czech Republic, mainly to film the remaining scenes which involved Orlando Bloom, who was not available in 2020 due to the birth of his child.
Release
On June 3, 2019, it was announced that the series would premiere on August 30, 2019. The second and final season premiered on February 17, 2023, with episodes releasing weekly in batches of two episodes.
Themes
The Chicago Tribune wrote that the show is about government oppression, sexism, and elitism. Travis Beacham, the original script writer and one of the executive producers, said that the show is also about class, race, and immigration. Despite the script being written 17 years before the show's production, the same issues were just as relevant by the time it aired. The show, based on a Victorian fantasy setting, served as a hypothetical space where political and social issues that reflected the real world could be safely discussed.
Reception
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season of Carnival Row holds a 57% approval rating based on 68 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Beautiful, but bloated, Carnival Row boasts meticulously crafted mythology and luscious world building—unfortunately its story of haves and have nots simply has too much going on to create anything cohesive." The second season holds a 44% approval rating based on 16 reviews. On Metacritic, the series has a weighted average score of 58 out of 100, based on 22 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".
Sam Brooks of the New Zealand-based The Spinoff noted that the premise of the show is "a mish-mash of influences and inspirations, from Neil Gaiman to Mortal Engines (the novels not the film)".
Accolades
Carnival Row was nominated for Best Genre Series at the 2020 Satellite Awards.
Other media
Carnival Row: Tangle in the Dark – An audiobook about the first meeting of Tourmaline and Vignette
Carnival Row: From the Dark – A comic starring Rycroft
Carnival Row: Sparrowhawk – A comic starring Vignette
Carnival Row – A roleplaying setting for the Cypher System by Monte Cook Games
Tales of Carnival Row – A graphic novel anthology set in the Burgue.
References
External links
2010s American drama television series
2010s American supernatural television series
2019 American television series debuts
2020s American drama television series
2020s American supernatural television series
2023 American television series endings
Dark fantasy television series
Amazon Prime Video original programming
American English-language television shows
Neo-noir television series
Race and ethnicity in television
Steampunk television series
High fantasy television series
LGBT speculative fiction television series
Television shows about magic
Television series about immigration
Television series by Amazon Studios
Television series by Legendary Television
Television series created by Travis Beacham
Television shows filmed in the Czech Republic
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%8C%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82%20%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%83%20%D1%82%D0%B0%20%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0
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Львівський університет бізнесу та права
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Львівський університет бізнесу та права — вищий навчальний заклад III—IV рівнів акредитації, який здійснює підготовку спеціалістів освітньо-кваліфікаційних рівнів «бакалавр» і «магістр». В Університеті здійснюється набір на юридичний факультет та факультети економіки і підприємництва; журналістики; інформації та медіакомунікацій; міжнародних відносин; метрології, вимірювальної техніки та інформаційно-вимірювальної технології, а також підготовка іноземних студентів до вступу у ВНЗ України.
Факультети
Факультети Львівського університету бізнесу та права:
Юридичний факультет
Юридичний факультет є навчально-організаційним та науковим структурним підрозділом університету, що здійснює фахову підготовку студентів у межах визначеної спеціальності (освітньо-кваліфікаційного рівня (бакалавр, магістр, перепідготовка — друга вища освіта). Випускники спеціалізуються на правовому забезпеченні фінансово-економічної діяльності господарюючих суб'єктів, різних галузей національної економіки та сфер суспільного життя. На факультеті здійснюється підготовка бакалавра напряму 0304 «Право» Спеціальність 6.030401 «Правознавство» та магістратури напрямку підготовки (спеціальності) 8.060101 «Правознавство».
Термін навчання бакалаврів на денному (заочному) відділенні становить 4 роки. Студенти, які після здобуття рівня «бакалавр» навчатимуться в магістратурі, можуть обрати спеціальності «Господарське право», «Земельне та екологічне право», «Конституційне та фінансове право», «Адміністративне право та процес, фінансове та інформаційне право», «Нотаріат», «Слідство», «Суд. Прокуратура. Адвокатура», «Цивільне право». Термін навчання в магістратурі — 1 рік.
До складу факультету входять чотири фахові кафедри:
Цивільно-правових дисциплін;
Адміністративного права та процесу, фінансового і інформаційного права;
Судоустрою, прокуратури та адвокатури;
Кримінально-правових дисциплін.
Навчальні курси дисциплін в основному забезпечені професорами, докторами та кандидатами наук, а також спеціалістами які мають великий досвід практичної роботи у сфері юриспруденції.
Випускники юридичного факультету (бакалавр, магістр права) за напрямом підготовки «Правознавство» користуються попитом в різних галузях та сферах суспільного життя, зокрема як юрисконсульти на підприємствах, установах, організаціях, а також у правоохоронних органах, митній та податковій службі, прокуратурі, адвокатурі, суді, можуть працювати на наступних посадах:
помічника голови суду;
державного виконавця;
консультанта нотаріуса;
інспектора відділу реєстрації актів цивільного стану;
інспектора відділу соціального захисту населення;
інспектора відділу працевлаштування; інспектора відділу кадрів;
інспектора митниць;
дізнавача правоохоронних органів та на інших посадах які вимагають наявності юридичної освіти.
Після закінчення навчання вони отримують диплом юриста державного зразка, а якісні знання, вміння та навички застосовують на практиці.
Юридичний факультет співпрацює з провідними вишами та науковими закладами України, підтримує досить плідні стосунки із Українською правничою фундацією та українськими правничими студіями, Асоціацією правників України. На факультеті інтенсивно вивчають іноземну мову, що дає студентам можливість стажуватися за кордоном в юридичних вищих закладах та міжнародних організаціях Польщі, Італії, Німеччини.
На факультеті діє Юридична клініка «Viribis Unitas», яка надає безкоштовну правову допомогу населенню. Студенти юридичного факультету беруть участь у регіональних, всеукраїнських та міжнародних конференціях, симпозіумах, конгресах, семінарах, де посідають призові місця. Встановлені досить міцні ділові зв'язки з ВНЗ не лише України, але й найближчого закордоння. Крім того, вже традиційним стало щорічне проведення Міжнародної науково-практичної конференції з прав людини, у якій беруть участь не тільки студенти, викладачі та студенти юридичного факультету, а й багато представників навчальних закладів СНД та інших країн.
На юридичному факультеті функціонують: комп'ютерні класи з виходом в Інтернет; спеціалізована аудиторія адміністративного та господарського права; спеціалізована аудиторія цивільного права; три лекційні аудиторії з проєкційними екранами; бібліотека спеціалізованої юридичної літератури та кабінет спеціалізованої літератури іноземними мовами, які постійно поповнюються новітніми надходженнями з видавництв України та закордонних країн, електронними варіантами нормативно-правових актів, кваліфікаційними науковими роботами, публіцистичним матеріалом та бібліотечними каталогами видань спеціалізованої літератури з окремих дисциплін.
Факультет економіки та підприємництва
Декан факультету: кандидат економічних наук, доцент Ж. В. Семчук
Економічний факультет — один з провідних факультетів, який засновано одночасно з університетом. Першим деканом факультету став кандидат економічних наук, доцент Є. К. Пирожак. На факультеті підготовано понад 1500 бакалаврів, магістрів.
Нині факультет очолює кандидат економічних наук, доцент Ж. В. Семчук. Тут працює низка високопрофесійних науково-педагогічних працівників. Високий рівень фахової підготовки забезпечують 6 докторів економічних наук, професорів і 16 кандидатів економічних наук, доцентів. Серед них — професори Л. А. Янковська, Ф. В. Горбонос, В. М. Юзевич, Р. М. Скриньковський, Н. Л. Іващук, О. В. Лопушанський, Л. Т. Шевчук, доценти і кандидати наук Ж. В. Семчук, Ю. В. Пинда, Є. К. Пирожак, В. В. Скупейко, В. Є. Титаренко, К. Б. Харук та інші висококваліфіковані працівники з великим досвідом роботи в науковій, практичній та виробничій сферах.
Підготовка фахівців високого рівня супроводжується постійною актуалізацією навчальних планів з урахуванням потреб життя і розвитку науки, а також вимог Болонського процесу, підготовкою підручників нового покоління, викладанням спеціальних дисциплін іноземними мовами, упровадженням інтерактивних технологій у навчальному процесі, а також інтеграцією освіти із практикою на підприємствах, в установах і організаціях. Використовуються сучасна модульно-рейтингова система оцінки знань студентів та ефективні технології, спрямовані на активізацію та підвищення якості самостійної роботи студентів. Економічний факультет успішно співпрацює з науковцями Міжнародної української асоціації (Німеччина) та ВНЗ Польщі, Словаччини та Швеції.
Науковці факультету є авторами відомих в Україні підручників, навчальних посібників та монографій. Лише за останні п'ять років їх видано понад 30.
Факультет журналістики та інформації
Факультет журналістики та інформації з 2007 року готує фахівців освітньо-кваліфікаційного рівня «бакалавр» і «магістр» за спеціальністю 6.030303 — «Видавнича справа та редагування» напряму «Журналістика та інформація»; освітньо-кваліфікаційного рівня «магістр» за спеціальністю 8.18010019 «Медіа-комунікації».
Термін навчання бакалаврів на денному відділенні — 4 роки, магістрів — 1,5 роки. Підготовка студентів проводиться за навчальним планом, затвердженим Міністерством освіти і науки, молоді та спорту України. На факультеті існує ефективна система пільг щодо сплати за навчання, на старших курсах розроблена програма навчання за індивідуальним графіком. Випусковою кафедрою факультету є кафедра видавничої справи та редагування, яка забезпечує викладання дисциплін фахової та загальноосвітньої підготовки, серед яких курси: «Загальне редагування», «Настільні редакційно-видавничі системи», «Практична стилістика», «Сучасна українська літературна мова», «Редакторський аналіз та підготовка видання», «Основи журналістики», «Засоби масової інформації», «Рекламознавство і підготовка рекламних видань» тощо.
За час навчання студенти проходять навчально-ознайомлювальні та виробничі практики у видавничих структурах Львова і редакціях регіональних та всеукраїнських друкованих ЗМІ, набуваючи досвіду організації редакційно-видавничого процесу, інформаційної та рекламної діяльності, творчої роботи. З метою розвитку творчих здібностей та удосконалення набутих навичок в ЛУБП за активної участі студентів виходить газета «Сходинки».
Факультет міжнародних відносин
На факультеті студенти мають змогу навчитися аналізувати процеси світової політики, давати оцінку діям зовнішньополітичних відомств, політиків, громадських діячів та обґрунтовувати свої висновки щодо наслідків їх дій, бачити проблеми та перспективи у зовнішній політиці України та інших країн світу. Випускники нашого факультету міжнародних відносин отримуючи глибокі фундаментальні знання, добре володіючи кількома іноземними мовами, розвинутим творчим мисленням, лідерськими якостями, системним баченням економічних, соціальних та політичних процесів у світі є надзвичайно конкурентоздатними на ринку праці. Вони мають більше шансів отримати хорошу, добре оплачувану, престижну роботу.
Професійна підготовка фахівця з міжнародних відносин в Університеті базується на опануванні низки дисциплін, таких як історія та теорія міжнародних відносин, основи світової політики, зовнішня політика України, міжнародні організації, міжнародна інформація, дипломатичний протокол та етикет, світова економіка, порівняльне конституційне право, європейське транскордонне співробітництво, міжнародне право, міжнародні економічні відносини, економіка і зовнішньоекономічні зв'язки України, менеджмент і маркетинг, конфліктологія та теорія переговорів, теорія і практика перекладу.
Навчальний процес забезпечує високопрофесійний викладацький склад ЛУБП. До проведення занять зі спецкурсів залучаються висококваліфіковані фахівці-практики. Професорсько-викладацький склад факультету активно працює над впровадженням основних елементів Болонського процесу в навчальний процес. По всім навчальним дисциплінам розроблений модульний контроль знань студентів. На I—IV курсах факультету всі викладачі оцінку знань студентів здійснюють згідно методики Болонського процесу.
Факультет метрології, стандартизації і сертифікації
Факультет здійснює підготовку бакалаврів і фахівців з напряму «Метрологія та вимірювальна техніка» в галузі формування й оптимізації показників якості продукції, що випускається, розробки стандартів і технічних умов на продукцію з урахуванням обґрунтованих показників якості, проведення їхньої експертизи, розробки рекомендацій з уніфікації виробів і технологічних процесів, розробки методик атестації і сертифікації продукції і послуг, визначення їхнього технічного рівня та якості.
Термін навчання бакалаврів на денному (заочному) відділенні — 4 роки.
Підготовка студентів-метрологів ведеться на десяти загальноосвітніх, фундаментальних та гуманітарних кафедрах університету. Спеціальну професійну підготовку здійснює профільна кафедра метрології, стандартизації та сертифікації, на якій працюють кваліфіковані викладачі: 2 професори і 4 доценти. Кафедра ще зовсім молода як за своїм віком, так і за віком своїх співробітників, тому схильна до всіляких новацій. Матеріально-технічна база кафедри постійно розширюється та поповнюється новою технікою для оснащення лекційних та лабораторних приміщень.
Для підготовки фахівців спеціальності з усіх дисциплін кафедри розроблені робочі плани, комплексні роботи, комплексні контрольні завдання, підручники та посібники. Вся методична література з дисциплін кафедри має електронні версії. В процесі проведення практик використовується матеріально-технічна база філіалу кафедри на Укрметртестстандарт, та підприємств м. Львова.
Кафедра співпрацює з низкою підприємств та організацій: ВАТ «Український науково-дослідний інститут авіаційної технології», 26 центрами стандартизації і метрології озброєння та військової техніки, Чернігівським державним інститутом економіки і управління, ЗАТ «Виробничо-торговельне об'єднання „Швейна фабрика Дана“», Українським державним науково-виробничим центром стандартизації, метрології та сертифікації, Укрметртестстандартом та іншими.
Факультет заочної форми навчання
Історія заочного навчання у Львівському університеті бізнесу та права (надалі ЛУБП) розпочалася у 2007 році. Про популярність цієї форми навчання свідчить той факт, що, як правило, до ста абітурієнтів щорічно ставали студентами першого курсу заочного факультету. Враховуючи велику популярність вузу серед працюючого населення регіону, випускників середніх спеціальних навчальних закладів, профтехучилищ і загальноосвітніх шкіл з 1 вересня 2009 року в ЛУБП було відкрито факультет заочного навчання.
В даний час факультет заочного навчання університету забезпечує організацію навчального процесу за трьома спеціальностями:
«Правознавство»;
«Фінанси і кредит»;
«Облік і аудит».
На факультеті навчається понад 350 студентів. Деканат факультету заочного навчання використовує аудиторний фонд університету у погодженні з деканатами факультетів денної форми навчання.
Заочна форма навчання розрахована насамперед на тих, хто працює за напрямком майбутньої спеціальності або вже отримав за обраним фахом освітньо-кваліфікаційний рівень «молодший спеціаліст». Навчання на факультеті створює перспективи для їх професійного росту та вдосконалення, дає можливість здобути вищу освіту. Характерним для сьогодення є збільшення числа молодих людей, які бажають навчатися одночасно за кількома спеціальностями, і саме заочна форма навчання дає їм таку змогу. Щорічно на факультеті зростає число студентів, які здобувають другу вищу освіту.
Після успішного завершення навчання випускникам факультету присвоюється відповідна кваліфікація і видається диплом загальнодержавного зразка освітньо-кваліфікаційного рівня «бакалавр», «магістр». Термін навчання у магістратурі — 1 рік.
Концепція підготовки фахівців за заочною формою базується на використанні досвідчених викладацьких кадрів, сформованих наукових шкіл, наявної матеріально — технічної бази і передбачає навчання як за традиційними аудиторними формами (лекції, лабораторні і семінарські заняття), так і використання специфічних форм заочного навчання (самостійна позааудиторна робота, виконання контрольних завдань).
Навчальний процес за заочною формою проходить під час сесій та у міжсесійний період. Міжсесійний період — це частина навчального року, протягом якого здійснюється позааудиторна самостійна робота студентів з засвоєння навчального матеріалу, студенти виконують індивідуальні контрольні завдання. Сесія для заочної форми навчання — це частина навчального року, протягом якого проходять аудиторні форми навчального процесу, передбачені навчальним планом (лекційні, практичні, семінарські заняття, консультації, виконання індивідуальних контрольних завдань), а також складання іспитів і заліків.
Для координації організаційної та навчально — методичної роботи кафедр з підготовки та видання методичних матеріалів на факультеті створено методичну комісію. На розгляд засідань методичної комісії виносяться питання організації та проведення Державних випускних іспитів, підготовки та затвердження робочих навчальних планів, графіків навчального процесу, підсумкового контролю, розкладу занять тощо.
Наукова діяльність
Науково-практичні заходи
У Львівському університеті бізнесу та права відбулася Міжнародна науково-практична конференція «Стратегії політики безпеки у XXI столітті», яка була організована під егідою Міжнародного Антикримінального та Антитерористичного підкомітету у Львівській області, Головного управління МВС України у Львівській області, Поліційної академії у Братиславі, Празької Поліційної академії, Київського університету права НАН України, Західного наукового центру НАН України, Академії дослідження проблем національної безпеки, Східноєвропейської агенції розвитку, Європейського інституту освіти (Словаччина), Університету Коменського в Братиславі; Ужгородського національного університету, Вищої школи публічної та індивідуальної безпеки «Апейрон», Вищої школи підприємництва і маркетингу (Польща), Української академії наук, Академії дослідження проблем національної безпеки.
Наукові записки
Редакція збірника «Наукові записки Львівського університету бізнесу та права» приймає статті з економічних і юридичних наук.
Статті, які подаються в редакцію збірника «Наукові записки Львівського університету бізнесу та права», повинні відповідати вимогам до фахових видань, внесених до переліків ВАК України.
Наукові статті, відповідно до постанови Президії ВАК України від 15.01.2003 р. № 7-05/1 «Про підвищення вимог до фахових видань, внесених до переліків ВАК України», повинні містити такі необхідні елементи: На конференції обговорювалися важливі питання щодо основних напрямів співробітництва України з Європейським Союзом, проблем політичної та економічної інтеграції, адаптації законодавства України до законодавства ЄС, економічного співробітництва, а також національної безпеки як захищеності життєво важливих інтересів людини і громадянина, суспільства і держави. Особливу увагу було приділено безпековим та охоронним стратегіям XXI століття, безпековим технологіям.
Посилання
Вебсайт Львівського Університету Бізнесу і Права
Вищі навчальні заклади Львова
Університети Львова
Університети України
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13049327
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men%20in%20Black%203
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Men in Black 3
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Men in Black 3 (stylized as MIB³) is a 2012 American science fiction action comedy film based on the Marvel Comics series of a similar name, in turn based on the conspiracy theory. Produced by Columbia Pictures and Amblin Entertainment in association with Parkes+MacDonald Image Nation and Hemisphere Media Capital, and distributed by Sony Pictures Releasing, it is the sequel to Men in Black II (2002) the third installment in the Men in Black franchise and the final installment in the original trilogy. Directed by Barry Sonnenfeld and written by Etan Cohen, the film stars Will Smith, Tommy Lee Jones and Josh Brolin, with Jemaine Clement, Michael Stuhlbarg, Bill Hader and Emma Thompson in supporting roles. In the film, James Darrell Edwards III / Agent J (Smith) is required to go back in time to prevent the assassination of his partner Kevin Brown / Agent K (Jones), the fallout of which threatens the safety of Earth.
Development of the sequel began during filming of its predecessor, with its premise suggested by Smith to Sonnenfeld. Despite rumors of a fallout between Smith and Sonnenfeld during the filming of Men in Black II, their returns were confirmed alongside Jones by May 2010, after being announced the previous year. David Koepp and Jeff Nathanson were later hired to perform uncredited rewrites to Cohen's original screenplay and principal photography began that November. Filming was split into two parts, first occurring between November and December 2010, and restarting between April and June 2011, taking place primarily in New York City. Composer Danny Elfman, who scored the previous two installments, returned to score the third. With an officially acknowledged production budget of $215 million, it is one of the most expensive films ever made.
Men in Black 3 first premiered at O2 World in Berlin on May 14, 2012, and was theatrically released in the United States on May 25. It received generally positive reviews from critics, with praise for the performances of the cast (particularly Brolin's), and was considered an improvement over its predecessor. The film grossed $654.2 million worldwide, becoming the tenth-highest grossing film of 2012 and the highest grossing film in the franchise, unadjusted for inflation. A standalone sequel Men in Black: International, was released in 2019, without most of the original cast.
Plot
In 2012, alien criminal Boris the Animal, the last Boglodite, escapes from a maximum-security prison on the Moon to take revenge on Agent K, who shot off his left arm and captured him in 1969. He confronts K and his partner Agent J, telling the former he is "already dead". K attempts to prevent J from pursuing Boris and refuses to give any exact details about the events of his arrest. Back at MiB Headquarters, J discovers K was responsible for not only capturing Boris but for deploying the "ArcNet", an interplanetary shield that prevented the now extinct Boglodites from invading Earth, but is denied any other details about the case.
Boris travels back in time to July 16, 1969, to kill K's younger self, altering history. With only J's memory somehow unaffected, no one else at the Agency understands his knowledge regarding K until Agent O, the Chief of MiB following Zed's death, eventually pieces together J's erratic actions (such as craving chocolate milk) as signs of a fracture in the space-time continuum. With K gone, the ArcNet was never deployed, and present-day Earth is defenseless from a Boglodite invasion.
Knowing from the Agency's records that Boris will commit murder on Coney Island on July 15, 1969, J time travels to kill young Boris. However, he is arrested by young K, who takes him to MiB Headquarters to neuralyze him, but decides at the last minute to investigate J's claims of traveling from the future to stop Boris. They follow clues, leading them to a bowling alley, and then to The Factory, an entertainment venue, where undercover MiB agent Andy Warhol directs them to Griffin, the last Archanan, who escaped to Earth after the Boglodites destroyed his planet.
Griffin, who can see all possible timelines and outcomes, senses Boris' coming attack on The Factory; before he flees, he hints to J and K where to meet him to give them the ArcNet. They find Griffin at Shea Stadium, but after he gives the ArcNet to them, he is captured by Boris. J and K pursue Boris and rescue Griffin. Young Boris escapes and meets old Boris on the early morning of July 16, where they decide to team up to prevent old Boris' future.
After figuring out they must attach the ArcNet onto the Apollo 11 rocket to activate it via deploying it into space, J reveals to K that Boris will kill him there, which he doesn't take well at first. After getting some encouragement from both J and Griffin, K decides to go with them. The agents and Griffin use jetpacks to fly to the launch in Cape Canaveral, but end up getting stopped by the military. Griffin tells the agents that they must tell the men the truth, which they do, but are arrested and taken to the colonel. Griffin again nudges the agents to tell the truth, but the colonel is skeptical and tells his men to take the three away. Griffin intervenes and shows the colonel the future, revealing to him the importance of their mission, and he assists them in getting to the launch site.
As the agents take an elevator up the rocket's launch tower, they are attacked by both Borises. J evades old Boris' attacks via time travel and knocks him off the launch tower. K shoots off young Boris' left arm, knocking him off of the tower while restoring the timeline, and attaches the ArcNet to the rocket. It is deployed successfully when the rocket launches, with old Boris incinerated by the exhaust.
To take cover, the colonel and K run back to the beach where they met, with K thinking J had already gone back home. Young Boris survives and attempts to attack K, but the colonel saves K by sacrificing himself. Boris tries to goad K into arresting him so history will repeat itself, but K refuses and kills him instead, breaking the loop. The colonel's young son, James, runs to the beach; when he inquires to K about his father, K neuralyzes him and tells him that his father is a hero. Observing this interaction from afar, J realizes that he is James, and his presence at the launch is the reason why the space-time fracture did not alter his memory.
With his mission complete, J returns to 2012, where K tells him the Boglodites have been extinct for forty years. J implies his new knowledge of the secret K had been hiding to protect him, and thanks K for watching over him all these years. The un-aged Griffin observes this and, breaking the fourth wall, says it is "his new favorite moment in human history."
Cast
Will Smith as James Darrell Edwards III / Agent J: An MIB agent and longtime friend and partner of K.
Cayen Martin portrays J as a child in 1969.
Tommy Lee Jones and Josh Brolin as Kevin Brown / Agent K: A veteran MIB agent and J's longtime partner. Jones portrays K in the present and Brolin portrays K in 1969.
Jemaine Clement as Boris the Animal: A ruthless alien with a vendetta against K, hates being called "the animal" and insists "it's just Boris."
Emma Thompson and Alice Eve as Agent O: The head of MIB, succeeding Zed. Thompson portrays O in the present and Eve portrays O in 1969.
Michael Stuhlbarg as Griffin: An alien with clairvoyant abilities.
Mike Colter as Colonel James Darrell Edwards II: A U.S. Army military officer and Agent J's father.
Nicole Scherzinger as Lilly Poison: Boris' girlfriend.
Michael Chernus as Jeffrey Price: An electronics store clerk in possession of time travel technology.
David Rasche as Agent X: The head of MIB in 1969.
Keone Young as Mr. Wu: An alien who owns a Chinese restaurant.
Bill Hader as Andy Warhol / Agent W: An artist who is secretly an MIB agent.
Lenny Venito as Bowling Ball Head: An unnamed alien with a detachable head who works at a bowling alley.
David Pittu as Roman the Fabulist: An alien posing as a fortune teller.
Lanny Flaherty as Obadiah Price: The inventor of the time travel technology and Jeffrey's father.
Justin Bieber, Lady Gaga, Yao Ming, and Tim Burton make uncredited cameo appearances as aliens on the TV monitors. Will Arnett plays Agent J's new partner Agent AA in an uncredited role. Make-up artist Rick Baker has a cameo as the Brain Alien. Chloe Sonnenfeld, the daughter of director Barry Sonnenfeld, plays the flower child who encounters Boris at the carnival.
Production
The film's premise was first proposed to director Barry Sonnenfeld by Will Smith during the filming of Men in Black II in 2002, with Smith suggesting that his character, Agent J, travel back in time to save his partner, Agent K, while at the same time exploring Agent K's backstory. Sonnenfeld said the idea "turned out to be a very long process of development, mainly because of the knotting issues of time travel." It was reported that Smith and executives were leery about bringing back Sonnenfeld because of conflicts on the set of Men in Black II. In a lawsuit filed against his former agents over commissions, Sonnenfeld alleged that Sony considered other directors for Men in Black 3. Sonnenfeld ultimately convinced all involved that he had a strong vision for the film.
The film was first announced on April 1, 2009, by Sony Pictures Entertainment president Rory Bruer during a Sony ShoWest presentation. By October 2009, Etan Cohen had been hired to write the screenplay. Sonnenfeld read the script and started working on it in January 2010. As of March 2010, Will Smith remained undecided whether to join the film or another, The City That Sailed. Sonnenfeld in May 2010 confirmed the return of Tommy Lee Jones and Smith. Both had expressed interest in 2008 in reprising their roles. The filmmakers also included Walter F. Parkes and Laurie MacDonald as producers, with Steven Spielberg as executive producer; all were producers of the two previous films.
In June 2010, writer David Koepp was hired to rewrite the Cohen script. A third writer, Jeff Nathanson, was hired in November 2010 to rewrite the segment of the script that takes place in 1969. Nathanson and Koepp, along with producer Spielberg, had previously worked together on the 2008 film Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, which Spielberg directed.
Special effects artist Rick Baker created the practical aliens and prosthetic makeup for the film, reprising his role from the previous two Men in Black films. In designing the look for the alien creatures, Baker used the time travel plot device as a reason to design "retro" looking aliens reminiscent of science fiction B movies of the era, saying, "In 2012 the aliens should look like Men in Black aliens and in 1969 they should be retro aliens. Fishbowl space helmets, guys with space suits with ribbed things on it, exposed brains, [and] bug eyes."
Principal photography began on November 16, 2010, even though, "We knew starting the movie that we didn't have a finished second or third act," director Sonnenfeld said in 2012. "Was it responsible? The answer is, if this movie does as well as I think it will, it was genius. If it's a total failure, then it was a really stupid idea." Filming was originally slated to commence on October 18, 2010, and continue until May 2011, in New York City, with shooting starting in 2010 partly in order to take advantage of a New York tax break in which the state rebates 30 percent of production costs incurred there. Filming was ultimately split into two parts, the first taking place from November until about Christmas 2010; the filmmakers announced shooting would begin again in mid-February, but it was delayed until April. Sonnenfeld initially stated he would be shooting in 3D, but later decided to film in 2D and convert to 3D during post-production.
Set photos for the film appeared online on November 17, 2010, showing Smith, Jones, Emma Thompson, and Nicole Scherzinger. Filming was done in April 2011 in the Morris Park section of The Bronx. Parts of Coney Island, in Brooklyn, had parking and filming permits posted for April 24 and May 2–4, 2011, production dates for what the permits titled MIB3. Shooting also took place in Manhattan's SoHo neighborhood, and was scheduled to wrap in June.
For the film, the Ford Taurus SHO was selected as the MIB's official car, replacing the Ford LTD Crown Victoria and Mercedes-Benz E-Class from the first two films. For the 1969 scenes, a 1964 Ford Galaxie was used as the MIB's official car.
This is the first time Frank the Pug was absent in a Men in Black movie, as well as Chief Zed, Jack Jeebs, and actor David Cross. Instead Zed is written in the story as having died and been immortalized at MIB Headquarters, and a portrait of Frank can be seen in J's apartment. An advertisement for 'The Incredible Speaking Pug' can be seen as Agent J enters Coney Island during his time in 1969.
Release
Video game
Activision released MIB: Alien Crisis on May 22, 2012, for Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Nintendo Wii, featuring a never-before-seen MIB agent rather than Agent J or Agent K. Gameloft also developed a mobile phone video game based on the film, released on May 17, 2012, for iOS and Android.
Theatrical
Under distribution by Sony's Columbia Pictures division, the film was theatrically released on May 25, 2012.
Home media
The film was released on DVD, Blu-ray, and Blu-ray 3D on November 30, 2012, and additionally as part of a Men in Black trilogy box set on Blu-ray. The trilogy was released on 4K UHD Blu-ray on December 5, 2017.
Music
The soundtrack for the film was composed by Danny Elfman and was released on May 29, 2012, four days after the film.
The song "Back in Time" by rapper Pitbull, which was not included on the film's soundtrack album but accompanies the end credits of the film, was released as a single on March 26, 2012. It is the first lead single released to accompany a Men in Black film not to be performed by Will Smith.
There were also many songs from the 1960s that feature, including "2000 Light Years from Home" by the Rolling Stones, "I'm Waiting for the Man" by the Velvet Underground, "Strange Brew" by Cream, and "Pictures of Matchstick Men" by Status Quo.
Reception
Box office
MIB 3 grossed $179 million in the US and Canada, and $475.2 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $654.2 million. It had a worldwide opening weekend of $189.9 million, and had the biggest worldwide IMAX Memorial-Day weekend ($12.7 million from 474 theaters), surpassing the previous year's record of Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides.
In North America, MIB 3 earned $1.55 million during its midnight run from 2,233 locations. On its opening day, the film debuted at the top of the box office, grossing $17.7 million (including midnight grosses). This was slightly lower than the opening days of its predecessors. During its three-day opening weekend, it topped the box office with $54.6 million, which was higher than the opening weekends of the two previous films. The movie then earned an additional $14.7 million on Memorial Day, bringing its four-day weekend total to $69.3 million. The opening weekend audience was 54 percent male and 56 percent over the age of 25. The film received a B+ at CinemaScore. It remained in first place at the North American box office for one week.
Outside North America, MIB 3 is the highest-grossing film of the Men in Black franchise and the tenth highest-grossing 2012 film. It made $135.3 million on its opening weekend from 85 territories. Its highest-grossing openings were recorded in China ($21.7 million), and Russia and the CIS ($16.9 million). It was in first place at the box office outside North America for two consecutive weekends.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 68% based on 251 reviews, with an average rating of 6.1/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "It isn't exactly a persuasive argument for the continuation of the franchisebut Men in Black III is better than its predecessor and manages to exceed expectations." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 58 out of 100, based on 38 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale, the same score earned by the first two films.
Roger Ebert gave the film 3 out of 4 stars, in particular praising Brolin's role as the young Agent K, which he cited as an excellent example of good casting. Ebert also praised the "ingenious plot, bizarre monsters, audacious cliff-hanging" and the "virtuoso final sequence." Richard Roeper gave the film 3.5 out of 5 stars while saying, "It's that rare threequel that doesn't suck. Great special effects, surprising amount of heart." A. O. Scott of The New York Times also gave it 3.5 out of 5 stars and commented, "Men in Black 3 arrives in the multiplexes of the world with no particular agenda. Which may be part of the reason that it turns out to be so much fun." Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly noted, "Sonnenfeld and Cohen move their baby along with an integrity and gait that ought to serve as a blueprint for other filmmakers faced with the particular challenges of reviving big-ticket and time-dated hunks of pop culture." Rafer Guzman of Newsday wrote, "the franchise is no longer the zenith of blockbusterism, and the gooey effects from Hollywood veteran Rick Baker look overly familiar, but Men in Black 3 remains an amiable comedy with some fondly familiar faces."
Director Paul Thomas Anderson praised the film, saying, "It was [expletive] great. ... The time-travel stuff [made me] cry my eyes out. I'm a sucker for that stuff."
Rene Rodriguez of The Miami Herald gave the film 1 out of 4 stars and stated, "Men in Black 3 is so dull and empty, it's the first movie that has ever made me think 'Thank God this is in 3D.'"
Sequel
Before its production with different leads, both Will Smith and Tommy Lee Jones said that they would "consider" appearing in a fourth film. Jones said it would be "easy to pick up where we left off. We know what we are doing, we know how to do it. It's just a hell of a lot of fun."
In July 2012, Columbia chief executive Doug Belgrad said: By early 2013, Oren Uziel had begun writing a Men in Black 4 screenplay for Sony Pictures.
In September 2015, series producers Walter Parkes and Laurie MacDonald stated the series would be rebooted as a trilogy, most likely without the involvement of Will Smith.
In December 2014, it was revealed that Sony was planning a crossover between Men in Black and Jump Street. The news was leaked after Sony's system was hacked and then confirmed by the directors of the Jump Street films, Chris Miller and Phil Lord, during an interview. James Bobin was announced as director in 2016. On April 13, 2016, the movie was officially announced and revealed to be titled MIB 23. In 2016, Hill expressed doubts and said the project was unlikely to happen, and that it was too complicated to make it work.
A standalone sequel titled Men in Black: International was released in June 2019, starring Chris Hemsworth and Tessa Thompson, with Emma Thompson reprising her role.
See also
Apollo 11 in popular culture
References
External links
2012 films
2012 3D films
2012 action comedy films
2012 science fiction action films
2010s science fiction comedy films
2010s monster movies
2010s buddy cop films
Films about alien invasions
Amblin Entertainment films
Imagenation Abu Dhabi films
American science fiction comedy films
American action comedy films
American buddy cop films
American sequel films
Columbia Pictures films
Cultural depictions of Andy Warhol
Films scored by Danny Elfman
Films about Apollo 11
American films about revenge
Films based on American comics
Films directed by Barry Sonnenfeld
Films set in 1969
Films set in 2012
Films set in Coney Island
Films set in Florida
Films set in New York City
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films shot in New York City
IMAX films
Men in Black (franchise)
Moon in film
Films about time travel
Secret histories
Films about extraterrestrial life
Films about intelligence agencies
Films with screenplays by Etan Cohen
American buddy comedy films
Films produced by Walter F. Parkes
Cultural depictions of Neil Armstrong
Cultural depictions of Buzz Aldrin
Cultural depictions of Michael Collins (astronaut)
2010s English-language films
2010s American films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelican
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Pelican
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Pelicans (genus Pelecanus) are a genus of large water birds that make up the family Pelecanidae. They are characterized by a long beak and a large throat pouch used for catching prey and draining water from the scooped-up contents before swallowing. They have predominantly pale plumage, except for the brown and Peruvian pelicans. The bills, pouches, and bare facial skin of all pelicans become brightly coloured before the breeding season.
The eight living pelican species have a patchy, seasonally-dependent yet global distribution, ranging latitudinally from the tropics to the temperate zone. Pelicans are absent from interior Amazonian South America, from polar regions and the open ocean; at least one species is known to migrate to the inland desert of Australia's Red Centre, after heavy rains create temporary lakes. White pelicans are also observed at the American state of Utah's Great Salt Lake, for example, some 600 miles (965 km) from the nearest coastline (the Pacific West Coast). They have also been seen hundreds of miles inland in North America, having flown northwards along the Mississippi River and other large waterways.
Long thought to be related to frigatebirds, cormorants, tropicbirds, and gannets and boobies, pelicans instead are most closely related to the shoebill and hamerkop storks (although these two birds are not actually true 'storks'), and are placed in the order Pelecaniformes. Ibises, spoonbills, herons, and bitterns have been classified in the same order. Fossil evidence of pelicans dates back at least 36 million years to the remains of a tibiotarsus recovered from late Eocene strata of Egypt that bears striking similarity to modern species of pelican. They are thought to have evolved in the Old World and spread into the Americas; this is reflected in the relationships within the genus as the eight species divide into Old World and New World lineages. This hypothesis is supported by fossil evidence from the oldest pelican taxa.
Pelicans will frequent inland waterways but are most known for residing along maritime and coastal zones, where they feed principally on fish in their large throat pouches, diving into the water and catching them at/near the water's surface. They can adapt to varying degrees of water salinity, from freshwater and brackish to—most commonly—seawater. They are gregarious birds, travelling in flocks, hunting cooperatively, and breeding colonially. Four white-plumaged species tend to nest on the ground, and four brown or grey-plumaged species nest mainly in trees. The relationship between pelicans and people has often been contentious. The birds have been persecuted because of their perceived competition with commercial and recreational fishing. Their populations have fallen through habitat destruction, disturbance, and environmental pollution, and three species are of conservation concern. They also have a long history of cultural significance in mythology, and in Christian and heraldic iconography.
Taxonomy and systematics
Etymology
The name comes from the Ancient Greek word pelekan (πελεκάν), which is itself derived from the word pelekys (πέλεκυς) meaning "axe". In classical times, the word was applied to both the pelican and the woodpecker.
The genus Pelecanus was first formally described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae. He described the distinguishing characteristics as a straight bill hooked at the tip, linear nostrils, a bare face, and fully webbed feet. This early definition included frigatebirds, cormorants, and sulids, as well as pelicans.
Taxonomy
The family Pelecanidae was introduced (as Pelicanea) by the French polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815. Pelicans give their name to the Pelecaniformes, an order which has a varied taxonomic history. Tropicbirds, darters, cormorants, gannets, boobies, and frigatebirds, all traditional members of the order, have since been reclassified: tropicbirds into their own order, Phaethontiformes, and the remainder into the Suliformes. In their place, herons, ibises, spoonbills, the hamerkop, and the shoebill have now been transferred into the Pelecaniformes. Molecular evidence suggests that the shoebill and the hamerkop form a sister group to the pelicans, though some doubt exists as to the exact relationships among the three lineages.
The oldest known record of Pelicans is a right tibiotarsus very similar to those of modern species from the Birket Qarun Formation in the Wadi El Hitan in Egypt, dating to the late Eocene (Priabonian), referred to the genus Eopelecanus.
Living species
The eight living pelican species were traditionally divided into two groups, one containing four ground-nesters with mainly white adult plumage (Australian, Dalmatian, great white, and American white pelicans), and one containing four grey- or brown-plumaged species which nest preferentially either in trees (pink-backed, spot-billed and brown pelicans), or on sea rocks (Peruvian pelican). The largely marine brown and Peruvian pelicans, formerly considered conspecific, are sometimes separated from the others by placement in the subgenus Leptopelecanus but in fact species with both sorts of appearance and nesting behavior are found in either.
DNA sequencing of both mitochondrial and nuclear genes yielded quite different relationships; the three New World pelicans formed one lineage, with the American white pelican sister to the two brown pelicans, and the five Old World species the other. The Dalmatian, pink-backed, and spot-billed were all closely related to one another, while the Australian white pelican was their next-closest relative. The great white pelican also belonged to this lineage, but was the first to diverge from the common ancestor of the other four species. This finding suggests that pelicans evolved in the Old World and spread into the Americas, and that preference for tree- or ground-nesting is more related to size than genetics.
Fossil record
The fossil record shows that the pelican lineage has existed for at least 36 million years; the oldest known pelican fossil was assigned to Eopelecanus aegyptiacus and was found in late Eocene (middle to late part of the early Priabonian stage/age) deposits of the Birket Qarun Formation within the Wadi Al-Hitan World Heritage Site in Egypt. A more complete fossil pelican of early Oligocene age is known from deposits at the Luberon in southeastern France, and is remarkably similar to modern forms. Its beak is almost complete and is morphologically identical to that of present-day pelicans, showing that this advanced feeding apparatus was already in existence at the time. An Early Miocene fossil has been named Miopelecanus gracilis on the basis of certain features originally considered unique, but later thought to lie within the range of interspecific variation in Pelecanus. The Late Eocene Protopelicanus may be a pelecaniform or suliform – or a similar aquatic bird such as a pseudotooth (Pelagornithidae), but is not generally considered a pelecanid. The supposed Miocene pelican Liptornis from Patagonia is a nomen dubium (of doubtful validity), being based on fragments providing insufficient evidence to support a valid description.
Fossil finds from North America have been meagre compared with Europe, which has a richer fossil record. Several Pelecanus species have been described from fossil material, including:
Pelecanus cadimurka, Rich & van Tets, 1981 (Late Pliocene, South Australia)
Pelecanus cautleyi, Davies, 1880 (Early Pliocene, Siwalik Hills, India)
Pelecanus fraasi, Lydekker, 1891 (Middle Miocene, Bavaria, Germany)
Pelecanus gracilis, Milne-Edwards, 1863 (Early Miocene, France) (see: Miopelecanus)
Pelecanus halieus, Wetmore, 1933 (Late Pliocene, Idaho, US)
Pelecanus intermedius, Fraas, 1870 (Middle Miocene, Bavaria, Germany) (transferred to Miopelecanus by Cheneval in 1984)
Pelecanus odessanus, Widhalm, 1886 (Late Miocene, near Odesa, Ukraine)
Pelecanus paranensis, Noriega et. al., 2023 (Late Miocene, Entre Ríos Province, Argentina)
Pelecanus schreiberi, Olson, 1999 (Early Pliocene, North Carolina, US)
Pelecanus sivalensis, Davies, 1880 (Early Pliocene, Siwalik Hills, India)
Pelecanus tirarensis, Miller, 1966 (Late Oligocene to Middle Miocene, South Australia)
Description
Pelicans are very large birds with very long bills characterised by a downcurved hook at the end of the upper mandible, and the attachment of a huge gular pouch to the lower. The slender rami of the lower bill and the flexible tongue muscles form the pouch into a basket for catching fish, and sometimes rainwater, though to not hinder the swallowing of large fish, the tongue itself is tiny. They have a long neck and short stout legs with large, fully webbed feet. Although they are among the heaviest of flying birds, they are relatively light for their apparent bulk because of air pockets in the skeleton and beneath the skin, enabling them to float high in the water. The tail is short and square. The wings are long and broad, suitably shaped for soaring and gliding flight, and have the unusually large number of 30 to 35 secondary flight feathers.
Males are generally larger than females and have longer bills. The smallest species is the brown pelican, small individuals of which can be no more than and long, with a wingspan of as little as . The largest is believed to be the Dalmatian, at up to and in length, with a maximum wingspan of . The Australian pelican's bill may grow up to long in large males, the longest of any bird.
Pelicans have mainly light-coloured plumage, the exceptions being the brown and Peruvian pelicans. The bills, pouches, and bare facial skin of all species become brighter before breeding season commences. The throat pouch of the Californian subspecies of the brown pelican turns bright red, and fades to yellow after the eggs are laid, while the throat pouch of the Peruvian pelican turns blue. The American white pelican grows a prominent knob on its bill that is shed once females have laid eggs. The plumage of immature pelicans is darker than that of adults. Newly hatched chicks are naked and pink, darkening to grey or black after 4 to 14 days, then developing a covering of white or grey down.
Air sacs
Anatomical dissections of two brown pelicans in 1939 showed that pelicans have a network of air sacs under their skin situated across the ventral surface including the throat, breast, and undersides of the wings, as well as having air sacs in their bones. The air sacs are connected to the airways of the respiratory system, and the pelican can keep its air sacs inflated by closing its glottis, but how air sacs are inflated is not clear. The air sacs serve to keep the pelican remarkably buoyant in the water and may also cushion the impact of the pelican's body on the water surface when they dive from flight into water to catch fish. Superficial air sacs may also help to round body contours (especially over the abdomen, where surface protuberances may be caused by viscera changing size and position) to enable the overlying feathers to form more effective heat insulation and also to enable feathers to be held in position for good aerodynamics.
Distribution and habitat
Modern pelicans are found on all continents except Antarctica. They primarily inhabit warm regions, although breeding ranges extend to latitudes of 45° South (Australian pelicans in Tasmania) and 60° North (American white pelicans in western Canada). Birds of inland and coastal waters, they are absent from polar regions, the deep ocean, oceanic islands (except the Galapagos), and inland South America, as well as from the eastern coast of South America from the mouth of the Amazon River southwards. Subfossil bones have been recovered from as far south as New Zealand's South Island, although their scarcity and isolated occurrence suggests that these remains may have merely been vagrants from Australia (much as is the case today).
Behaviour and ecology
Pelicans swim well with their strong legs and their webbed feet. They rub the backs of their heads on their preen glands to pick up an oily secretion, which they transfer to their plumage to waterproof it. Holding their wings only loosely against their bodies, pelicans float with relatively little of their bodies below the water surface. They dissipate excess heat by gular flutter – rippling the skin of the throat and pouch with the bill open to promote evaporative cooling. They roost and loaf communally on beaches, sandbanks, and in shallow water.
A fibrous layer deep in the breast muscles can hold the wings rigidly horizontal for gliding and soaring. Thus, they use thermals for soaring to heights of 3000 m (10,000 ft) or more, combined both with gliding and with flapping flight in V formation, to commute distances up to to feeding areas. Pelicans also fly low (or "skim") over stretches of water, using a phenomenon known as ground effect to reduce drag and increase lift. As the air flows between the wings and the water surface, it is compressed to a higher density and exerts a stronger upward force against the bird above. Hence, substantial energy is saved while flying.
Adult pelicans rely on visual displays and behaviour to communicate, particularly using their wings and bills. Agonistic behaviour consists of thrusting and snapping at opponents with their bills, or lifting and waving their wings in a threatening manner. Adult pelicans grunt when at the colony, but are generally silent elsewhere or outside breeding season. Conversely, colonies are noisy, as chicks vocalise extensively.
Breeding and lifespan
Pelicans are gregarious and nest colonially. Pairs are monogamous for a single season, but the pair bond extends only to the nesting area; mates are independent away from the nest. The ground-nesting (white) species have a complex communal courtship involving a group of males chasing a single female in the air, on land, or in the water while pointing, gaping, and thrusting their bills at each other. They can finish the process in a day. The tree-nesting species have a simpler process in which perched males advertise for females. The location of the breeding colony is constrained by the availability of an ample supply of fish to eat, although pelicans can use thermals to soar and commute for hundreds of kilometres daily to fetch food.
The Australian pelican has two reproductive strategies depending on the local degree of environmental predictability. Colonies of tens or hundreds, rarely thousands, of birds breed regularly on small coastal and subcoastal islands where food is seasonally or permanently available. In arid inland Australia, especially in the endorheic Lake Eyre basin, pelicans breed opportunistically in very large numbers of up to 50,000 pairs, when irregular major floods, which may be many years apart, fill ephemeral salt lakes and provide large amounts of food for several months before drying out again.
In all species, copulation takes place at the nest site; it begins shortly after pairing and continues for 3–10 days before egg-laying. The male brings the nesting material, in ground-nesting species (which may not build a nest) sometimes in the pouch, and in tree-nesting species crosswise in the bill. The female then heaps the material up to form a simple structure.
The eggs are oval, white, and coarsely textured. All species normally lay at least two eggs; the usual clutch size is one to three, rarely up to six. Both sexes incubate with the eggs on top of or below the feet; they may display when changing shifts. Incubation takes 30–36 days; hatching success for undisturbed pairs can be as high as 95%, but because of sibling competition or siblicide, in the wild, usually all but one nestling dies within the first few weeks (later in the pink-backed and spot-billed species). Both parents feed their young. Small chicks are fed by regurgitation; after about a week, they are able to put their heads into their parents' pouches and feed themselves. Sometimes before, but especially after being fed the pelican chick may seem to "throw a tantrum" by loudly vocalizing and dragging itself around in a circle by one wing and leg, striking its head on the ground or anything nearby and the tantrums sometimes end in what looks like a seizure that results in the chick falling briefly unconscious; the reason is not clearly known, but a common belief is that it is to draw attention to itself and away from any siblings who are waiting to be fed.
Parents of ground-nesting species sometimes drag older young around roughly by the head before feeding them. From about 25 days old, the young of these species gather in "pods" or "crèches" of up to 100 birds in which parents recognise and feed only their own offspring. By 6–8 weeks they wander around, occasionally swimming, and may practise communal feeding. Young of all species fledge 10–12 weeks after hatching. They may remain with their parents afterwards, but are now seldom or never fed. They are mature at three or four years old. Overall breeding success is highly variable. Pelicans live for 15 to 25 years in the wild, although one reached an age of 54 years in captivity.
Feeding
The diet of pelicans usually consists of fish, but occasionally amphibians, turtles, crustaceans, insects, birds, and mammals are also eaten. The size of the preferred prey fish varies depending on pelican species and location. For example, in Africa, the pink-backed pelican generally takes fish ranging in size from fry up to and the great white pelican prefers somewhat larger fish, up to , but in Europe, the latter species has been recorded taking fish up to . In deep water, white pelicans often fish alone. Nearer the shore, several encircle schools of small fish or form a line to drive them into the shallows, beating their wings on the water surface and then scooping up the prey. Although all pelican species may feed in groups or alone, the Dalmatian, pink-backed, and spot-billed pelicans are the only ones to prefer solitary feeding. When fishing in groups, all pelican species have been known to work together to catch their prey, and Dalmatian pelicans may even cooperate with great cormorants.
Large fish are caught with the bill-tip, then tossed up in the air to be caught and slid into the gullet head-first. A gull will sometimes stand on the pelican's head, peck it to distraction, and grab a fish from the open bill. Pelicans in their turn sometimes snatch prey from other waterbirds.
The brown pelican usually plunge-dives head-first for its prey, from a height as great as , especially for anchovies and menhaden. The only other pelican to feed using a similar technique is the Peruvian pelican, but its dives are typically from a lower height than the brown pelican. The Australian and American white pelicans may feed by low plunge-dives landing feet-first and then scooping up the prey with the beak, but they—as well as the remaining pelican species—primarily feed while swimming on the water. Aquatic prey is most commonly taken at or near the water surface. Although principally a fish eater, the Australian pelican is also an eclectic and opportunistic scavenger and carnivore that forages in landfill sites, as well as taking carrion and "anything from insects and small crustaceans to ducks and small dogs". Food is not stored in a pelican's throat pouch, contrary to popular folklore.
Pelicans may also eat birds. In southern Africa, eggs and chicks of the Cape cormorant are an important food source for great white pelicans. Several other bird species have been recorded in the diet of this pelican in South Africa, including Cape gannet chicks on Malgas Island as well as crowned cormorants, kelp gulls, greater crested terns, and African penguins on Dassen Island and elsewhere. The Australian pelican, which is particularly willing to take a wide range of prey items, has been recorded feeding on young Australian white ibis, and young and adult grey teals and silver gulls. Brown pelicans have been reported preying on young common murres in California and the eggs and nestlings of cattle egrets and nestling great egrets in Baja California, Mexico. Peruvian pelicans in Chile have been recorded feeding on nestlings of imperial shags, juvenile Peruvian diving petrels, and grey gulls. Cannibalism of chicks of their own species is known from the Australian, brown, and Peruvian pelicans. Non-native great white pelicans have been observed swallowing city pigeons in St. James's Park in London, England.
Status and conservation
Populations
Globally, pelican populations are adversely affected by these main factors: declining supplies of fish through overfishing or water pollution, destruction of habitat, direct effects of human activity such as disturbance at nesting colonies, hunting and culling, entanglement in fishing lines and hooks, and the presence of pollutants such as DDT and endrin. Most species' populations are more or less stable, although three are classified by the IUCN as being at risk. All species breed readily in zoos, which is potentially useful for conservation management.
The combined population of brown and Peruvian pelicans is estimated at 650,000 birds, with around 250,000 in the United States and Caribbean, and 400,000 in Peru. The National Audubon Society estimates the global population of the brown pelican at 300,000. Numbers of brown pelican plummeted in the 1950s and 1960s, largely as a consequence of environmental DDT pollution, and the species was listed as endangered in the US in 1970. With restrictions on DDT use in the US from 1972, its population has recovered, and it was delisted in 2009.
The Peruvian pelican is listed as near threatened because, although the population is estimated by BirdLife International to exceed 500,000 mature individuals, and is possibly increasing, it has been much higher in the past. It declined dramatically during the 1998 El Niño event and could experience similar declines in the future. Conservation needs include regular monitoring throughout the range to determine population trends, particularly after El Niño years, restricting human access to important breeding colonies, and assessing interactions with fisheries.
The spot-billed pelican has an estimated population between 13,000 and 18,000 and is considered to be near threatened in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Numbers declined substantially during the 20th century, one crucial factor being the eradication of the important Sittaung valley breeding colony in Burma through deforestation and the loss of feeding sites. The chief threats it faces are from habitat loss and human disturbance, but populations have mostly stabilised following increased protection in India and Cambodia.
The pink-backed pelican has a large population ranging over much of sub-Saharan Africa. In the absence of substantial threats or evidence of declines across its range, its conservation status is assessed as being of least concern. Regional threats include the drainage of wetlands and increasing disturbance in southern Africa. The species is susceptible to bioaccumulation of toxins and the destruction of nesting trees by logging.
The American white pelican has increased in numbers, with its population estimated at over 157,000 birds in 2005, becoming more numerous east of the continental divide, while declining in the west. However, whether its numbers have been affected by exposure to pesticides is unclear, as it has also lost habitat through wetland drainage and competition with recreational use of lakes and rivers.
Great white pelicans range over a large area of Africa and southern Asia. The overall trend in numbers is uncertain, with a mix of regional populations that are increasing, declining, stable, or unknown, but no evidence has been found of rapid overall decline, and the status of the species is assessed as being of least concern. Threats include the drainage of wetlands, persecution and sport hunting, disturbance at the breeding colonies, and contamination by pesticides and heavy metals.
The Dalmatian pelican has a population estimated at between 10,000 and 20,000 following massive declines in the 19th and 20th centuries. The main ongoing threats include hunting, especially in eastern Asia, disturbance, coastal development, collision with overhead power lines, and the over-exploitation of fish stocks. It is listed as near threatened by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as the population trend is downwards, especially in Mongolia, where it is nearly extinct. However, several European colonies are increasing in size and the largest colony for the species, at the Small Prespa Lake in Greece, has reached about 1,400 breeding pairs following conservation measures.
Widespread across Australia, the Australian pelican has a population generally estimated at between 300,000 and 500,000 individuals. Overall population numbers fluctuate widely and erratically depending on wetland conditions and breeding success across the continent. The species is assessed as being of least concern.
Culling and disturbance
Pelicans have been persecuted by humans for their perceived competition for fish, despite the fact that their diet overlaps little with fish caught by people. Starting in the 1880s, American white pelicans were clubbed and shot, their eggs and young were deliberately destroyed, and their feeding and nesting sites were degraded by water management schemes and wetland drainage. Even in the 21st century, an increase in the population of American white pelicans in southeastern Idaho in the US was seen to threaten the recreational cutthroat trout fishery there, leading to official attempts to reduce pelican numbers through systematic harassment and culling.
Great white pelicans on Dyer Island, in the Western Cape region of South Africa, were culled during the 19th century because their predation of the eggs and chicks of guano-producing seabirds was seen to threaten the livelihood of the guano collectors. More recently, such predation at South African seabird colonies has impacted on the conservation of threatened seabird populations, especially crowned cormorants, Cape cormorants, and bank cormorants. This has led to suggestions that pelican numbers should be controlled at vulnerable colonies.
Apart from habitat destruction and deliberate, targeted persecution, pelicans are vulnerable to disturbance at their breeding colonies by birdwatchers, photographers, and other curious visitors. Human presence alone can cause the birds to accidentally displace or destroy their eggs, leave hatchlings exposed to predators and adverse weather, or even abandon their colonies completely.
Poisoning and pollution
DDT pollution in the environment was a major cause of decline of brown pelican populations in North America in the 1950s and 1960s. It entered the oceanic food web, contaminating and accumulating in several species, including one of the pelican's primary food fish – the northern anchovy. Its metabolite DDE is a reproductive toxicant in pelicans and many other birds, causing eggshell thinning and weakening, and consequent breeding failure through the eggs being accidentally crushed by brooding birds. Since an effective ban on the use of DDT was implemented in the US in 1972, the eggshells of breeding brown pelicans there have thickened and their populations have largely recovered.
In the late 1960s, following the major decline in brown pelican numbers in Louisiana from DDT poisoning, 500 pelicans were imported from Florida to augment and re-establish the population; over 300 subsequently died in April and May 1975 from poisoning by the pesticide endrin. About 14,000 pelicans, including 7500 American white pelicans, perished from botulism after eating fish from the Salton Sea in 1990. In 1991, abnormal numbers of brown pelicans and Brandt's cormorants died at Santa Cruz, California, when their food fish (anchovies) were contaminated with neurotoxic domoic acid, produced by the diatom Pseudo-nitzschia.
As waterbirds that feed on fish, pelicans are highly susceptible to oil spills, both directly by being oiled and by the impact on their food resources. A 2007 report to the California Fish and Game Commission estimated that during the previous 20 years, some 500–1000 brown pelicans had been affected by oil spills in California. A 2011 report by the Center for Biological Diversity, a year after the April 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, said that 932 brown pelicans had been collected after being affected by oiling and estimated that 10 times that number had been harmed as a result of the spill.
Where pelicans interact with fishers, through either sharing the same waters or scavenging for fishing refuse, they are especially vulnerable to being hooked and entangled in both active and discarded fishing lines. Fish hooks are swallowed or catch in the skin of the pouch or webbed feet, and strong monofilament fishing line can become wound around bill, wings, or legs, resulting in crippling, starvation, and often death. Local rescue organisations have been established in North America and Australia by volunteers to treat and rehabilitate injured pelicans and other wildlife.
Parasites and disease
As with other bird families, pelicans are susceptible to a variety of parasites. Avian malaria is carried by the mosquito Culex pipens, and high densities of these biting insects may force pelican colonies to be abandoned. Leeches may attach to the vent or sometimes the inside of the pouch. A study of the parasites of the American white pelican found 75 different species, including tapeworms, flukes, flies, fleas, ticks, and nematodes.
The brown pelican has a similarly extensive range of parasites. The nematodes Contracaecum multipapillatum and C. mexicanum and the trematode Ribeiroia ondatrae have caused illness and mortality in the Puerto Rican population, possibly endangering the pelican on this island.
Many pelican parasites are found in other bird groups, but several lice are very host-specific. Healthy pelicans can usually cope with their lice, but sick birds may carry hundreds of individuals, which hastens a sick bird's demise. The pouch louse Piagetiella peralis occurs in the pouch and so it cannot be removed by preening. While this is usually not a serious problem even when present in such numbers that it covers the whole interior of the pouch, sometimes inflammation and bleeding may occur from it and harm the host.
In May 2012, hundreds of Peruvian pelicans were reported to have perished in Peru from a combination of starvation and roundworm infestation.
Religion, mythology, and popular culture
The pelican (henet in Egyptian) was associated in Ancient Egypt with death and the afterlife. It was depicted in art on the walls of tombs, and figured in funerary texts, as a protective symbol against snakes. Henet was also referred to in the Pyramid Texts as the "mother of the king" and thus seen as a goddess. References in nonroyal funerary papyri show that the pelican was believed to possess the ability to prophesy safe passage in the underworld for someone who had died.
In Jewish dietary law, pelican is not considered kosher (fit for consumption), as it is a type of seabird and therefore considered an unclean animal.
An origin myth from the Murri people of Queensland, cited by Andrew Lang, describes how the Australian pelican acquired its black and white plumage. The story tells that the pelican was once a black bird. During a flood, he made a canoe to save drowning people. He fell in love with a woman and decided to save her, but she and her friends tricked him and escaped. The pelican consequently began preparing to go to war against them by daubing himself with white clay as war paint. Before he had finished, another pelican, on seeing such a strange piebald creature, killed him with its beak, and all such pelicans have been black and white ever since.
The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped nature. They placed emphasis on animals and often depicted pelicans in their art.
Alcatraz Island was given its name by the Spanish because of the large numbers of brown pelicans nesting there. The word alcatraz is itself derived from the Arabic al-caduos, a term used for a water-carrying vessel and likened to the pouch of the pelican. The English name albatross is also derived by corruption of the Spanish word.
Christianity
The Physiologus, a didactic Christian text from the 3rd or 4th century, claims that pelicans kill their young when they grow and strike their parents in the face, but then the mother laments them for three days, after which she strikes her side and brings them back to life with her blood. The Physiologus explains this as mirroring the pain inflicted on God by people's idolatry, and the self-sacrifice of Jesus on the cross which redeems the sinful (see the blood and water gushing from the wound in his side). This text was widely copied, translated, and sometimes closely paraphrased during the Middle Ages, for instance by 13th-century authors Guillaume le Clerc and Bartholomaeus Anglicus.
In a newer, also medieval version of the European myth, the pelican was thought to be particularly attentive to her young, to the point of providing them with blood by wounding her own breast when no other food was available. As a result, the pelican came to symbolise the Passion of Jesus and the Eucharist, supplementing the image of the lamb and the flag. This mythical characteristic is referenced in the hymn "Adoro te devote" ("Humbly We Adore Thee"), where in the penultimate verse, Saint Thomas Aquinas describes Christ as the loving divine pelican, one drop of whose blood can save the world. Similarly, the 1678 Christian allegorical novel The Pilgrim’s Progress describes how “the pelican pierce[s] her own breast with her bill … to nourish her young ones with her blood, and thereby to show that Christ the blessed so loveth his young, his people, as to save them from death by his blood.”
Elizabeth I of England adopted the symbol, portraying herself as the "mother of the Church of England". A portrait of her called the Pelican Portrait was painted around 1573, probably by Nicholas Hilliard.
The pelican is featured in many Christian artworks, especially in Europe. For example, the first (1611) edition of the King James Bible contains a depiction of a pelican feeding her young in an oval panel at the bottom of the title page. The "pelican in her piety" appears in the 1686 reredos by Grinling Gibbons in the church of St Mary Abchurch in the City of London. Earlier medieval examples of the motif appear in painted murals, for example, the mural in the parish church of Belchamp Walter, Essex (c. 1350).
The self-sacrificial characterization of the pelican was reinforced by widely read medieval bestiaries. The device of "a pelican in her piety" or "a pelican vulning (from Latin vulnerō, "I wound, I injure, I hurt") herself" was used in religious iconography and heraldry.
Origin in nature
The legends of self-wounding and the provision of blood occur across cultures. For example, an Indian folktale depicts a pelican that killed her young by rough treatment, but was then so contrite that she resurrected them with her own blood. Such legends may have arisen because of the impression a pelican sometimes gives that it is stabbing itself with its bill. In reality, it often presses this onto its chest to fully empty the pouch. Another possible derivation is the tendency of the bird to rest with its bill on its breast; the Dalmatian pelican has a blood-red pouch in the early breeding season and this may have contributed to the myth.
Heraldry
Pelicans have featured extensively in heraldry, generally using the Christian symbolism of the pelican as a caring and self-sacrificing parent. Heraldic images featuring a "pelican vulning" refers to a pelican injuring herself, while a "pelican in her piety" refers to a female pelican feeding her young with her own blood. The King of Portugal John II adopted the pelican as is own personal sygil while he was Infante, evoking the christian symbology to equate the sacrifice of his blood to feed the nation. The pelican as a symbol also became synonymous with the increasing charity efforts of the Santas Casas da Misericórdia during his reign and the reconstruction of the Hospital das Caldas da Rainha and the Hospital Real de Todos-os-Santos, which were mainly patronaged by his wife D. Leonor.
The image became linked to the medieval religious feast of Corpus Christi. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge each have colleges named for the religious festival nearest the dates of their establishment, and both Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, and Corpus Christi College, Oxford, feature pelicans on their coats of arms.
The medical faculties of Charles University in Prague also have a pelican as their emblem. The symbol of the Irish Blood Transfusion Service is a pelican, and for most of its existence the headquarters of the service was located at Pelican House in Dublin, Ireland. The heraldic pelican also ended up as a pub name and image, though sometimes with the image of the ship Golden Hind. Sir Francis Drake's famous ship was initially called Pelican, and adorned the British halfpenny coin.
Modern usage
The great white pelican is the national bird of Romania. The brown pelican is the national bird of three Caribbean countries—Saint Kitts and Nevis, Barbados, and Sint Maarten—and features on their coats of arms. It is also the state bird of the US state of Louisiana, which is known colloquially as the Pelican State; the bird appears on the state flag and state seal. It adorns the seals of Louisiana State University, Tulane University, Louisiana Tech University, the University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Loyola University New Orleans, Southeastern Louisiana University, and Southern University, and is the mascot of the New Orleans Pelicans NBA team, the Lahti Pelicans ice hockey team, Tulane University, and the University of the West Indies. A white pelican logo is used by the Portuguese bank Montepio Geral, and a pelican is depicted on the reverse of the Albanian 1 lek coin, issued in 1996. The name and image were used for Pelican Books, an imprint of nonfiction books published by Penguin Books. The seal of the Packer Collegiate Institute, a pelican feeding her young, has been in use since 1885.
The pelican is the subject of a popular limerick originally composed by Dixon Lanier Merritt in 1910 with several variations by other authors. The original version ran:
Notes
References
Cited texts
External links
Pelican videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Articles containing video clips
Extant Chattian first appearances
National symbols of Barbados
Pelecanus
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AOL
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AOL
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AOL (stylized as Aol., formerly a company known as AOL Inc. and originally known as America Online) is an American web portal and online service provider based in New York City, and a brand marketed by Yahoo! Inc.
The service traces its history to an online service known as PlayNET. PlayNET licensed its software to Quantum Link (Q-Link), that went online in November 1985. A new IBM PC client was launched in 1988, and eventually renamed as America Online in 1989. AOL grew to become the largest online service, displacing established players like CompuServe and The Source. By 1995, AOL had about three million active users.
AOL was one of the early pioneers of the Internet in the 1990s and was (at one point) the most recognized brand on the web in the United States. AOL once provided a dial-up internet service to millions of Americans and pioneered instant messaging and chat rooms with AOL Instant Messenger (AIM). In 1998, AOL purchased Netscape for US$4.2 billion. By 2000, AOL was providing internet service to over 20 million consumers, dominating the market of internet service providers (ISPs). In 2001, at the height of its popularity, it purchased the media conglomerate Time Warner in the largest merger in US history. AOL rapidly shrank thereafter, partly due to the decline of dial-up and rise of broadband. AOL was eventually spun off from Time Warner in 2009, with Tim Armstrong appointed the new CEO. Under his leadership, the company invested in media brands and advertising technologies.
On June 23, 2015, AOL was acquired by Verizon Communications for $4.4 billion. On May 3, 2021, Verizon announced it would sell Yahoo and AOL to private equity firm Apollo Global Management for $5 billion. On September 1, 2021, AOL became part of the new Yahoo! Inc.
History
1983–1991: early years
AOL began in 1983, as a short-lived venture called Control Video Corporation (CVC), founded by William von Meister. Its sole product was an online service called GameLine for the Atari 2600 video game console, after von Meister's idea of buying music on demand was rejected by Warner Bros. Subscribers bought a modem from the company for $49.95 and paid a one-time $15 setup fee. GameLine permitted subscribers to temporarily download games and keep track of high scores, at a cost of $1 per game. The telephone disconnected and the downloaded game would remain in GameLine's Master Module and playable until the user turned off the console or downloaded another game.
In January 1983, Steve Case was hired as a marketing consultant for Control Video on the recommendation of his brother, investment banker Dan Case. In May 1983, Jim Kimsey became a manufacturing consultant for Control Video, which was near bankruptcy. Kimsey was brought in by his West Point friend Frank Caufield, an investor in the company. In early 1985, von Meister left the company.
On May 24, 1985, Quantum Computer Services, an online services company, was founded by Kimsey from the remnants of Control Video, with Kimsey as chief executive officer, and Marc Seriff as chief technology officer. The technical team consisted of Seriff, Tom Ralston, Ray Heinrich, Steve Trus, Ken Huntsman, Janet Hunter, Dave Brown, Craig Dykstra, Doug Coward, and Mike Ficco. In 1987, Case was promoted again to executive vice-president. Kimsey soon began to groom Case to take over the role of CEO, which he did when Kimsey retired in 1991.
Kimsey changed the company's strategy, and in 1985, launched a dedicated online service for Commodore 64 and 128 computers, originally called Quantum Link ("Q-Link" for short). The Quantum Link software was based on software licensed from PlayNet, Inc, (founded in 1983 by Howard Goldberg and Dave Panzl). The service was different from other online services as it used the computing power of the Commodore 64 and the Apple II rather than just a "dumb" terminal. It passed tokens back and forth and provided a fixed price service tailored for home users. In May 1988, Quantum and Apple launched AppleLink Personal Edition for Apple II and Macintosh computers. In August 1988, Quantum launched PC Link, a service for IBM-compatible PCs developed in a joint venture with the Tandy Corporation. After the company parted ways with Apple in October 1989, Quantum changed the service's name to America Online. Case promoted and sold AOL as the online service for people unfamiliar with computers, in contrast to CompuServe, which was well established in the technical community.
From the beginning, AOL included online games in its mix of products; many classic and casual games were included in the original PlayNet software system. The company introduced many innovative online interactive titles and games, including:
Graphical chat environments Habitat (1986–1988) from LucasArts.
The first online interactive fiction series QuantumLink Serial by Tracy Reed (1988).
Quantum Space, the first fully automated play-by-mail game (1989–1991).
1991–2006: Internet age, Time Warner merger
In February 1991, AOL for DOS was launched using a GeoWorks interface; it was followed a year later by AOL for Windows. This coincided with growth in pay-based online services, like Prodigy, CompuServe, and GEnie. 1991 also saw the introduction of an original Dungeons & Dragons title called Neverwinter Nights from Stormfront Studios; which was one of the first Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games to depict the adventure with graphics instead of text.
During the early 1990s, the average subscription lasted for about 25 months and accounted for $350 in total revenue. Advertisements invited modem owners to "Try America Online FREE", promising free software and trial membership. AOL discontinued Q-Link and PC Link in late 1994. In September 1993, AOL added Usenet access to its features. This is commonly referred to as the "Eternal September", as Usenet's cycle of new users was previously dominated by smaller numbers of college and university freshmen gaining access in September and taking a few weeks to acclimate. This also coincided with a new "carpet bombing" marketing campaign by CMO Jan Brandt to distribute as many free trial AOL trial disks as possible through nonconventional distribution partners. At one point, 50% of the CDs produced worldwide had an AOL logo. AOL quickly surpassed GEnie, and by the mid-1990s, it passed Prodigy (which for several years allowed AOL advertising) and CompuServe. In November 1994, AOL purchased Booklink for its web browser, to give its users web access. In 1996, AOL replaced Booklink with a browser based on Internet Explorer, allegedly in exchange for inclusion of AOL in Windows.
AOL launched services with the National Education Association, the American Federation of Teachers, National Geographic, the Smithsonian Institution, the Library of Congress, Pearson, Scholastic, ASCD, NSBA, NCTE, Discovery Networks, Turner Education Services (CNN Newsroom), NPR, The Princeton Review, Stanley Kaplan, Barron's, Highlights for Kids, the US Department of Education, and many other education providers. AOL offered the first real-time homework help service (the Teacher Pager—1990; prior to this, AOL provided homework help bulletin boards), the first service by children, for children (Kids Only Online, 1991), the first online service for parents (the Parents Information Network, 1991), the first online courses (1988), the first omnibus service for teachers (the Teachers' Information Network, 1990), the first online exhibit (Library of Congress, 1991), the first parental controls, and many other online education firsts.
AOL purchased search engine WebCrawler in 1995, but sold it to Excite the following year; the deal made Excite the sole search and directory service on AOL. After the deal closed in March 1997, AOL launched its own branded search engine, based on Excite, called NetFind. This was renamed to AOL Search in 1999.
AOL charged its users an hourly fee until December 1996, when the company changed to a flat monthly rate of $19.95. During this time, AOL connections were flooded with users trying to connect, and many canceled their accounts due to constant busy signals. A commercial was made featuring Steve Case telling people AOL was working day and night to fix the problem. Within three years, AOL's user base grew to 10 million people. In 1995, AOL was headquartered at 8619 Westwood Center Drive in the Tysons Corner CDP in unincorporated Fairfax County, Virginia, near the Town of Vienna.
AOL was quickly running out of room in October 1996 for its network at the Fairfax County campus. In mid-1996, AOL moved to 22000 AOL Way in Dulles, unincorporated Loudoun County, Virginia to provide room for future growth. In a five-year landmark agreement with the most popular operating system, AOL was bundled with Windows software.
On March 31, 1996, the short-lived eWorld was purchased by AOL. In 1997, about half of all US homes with Internet access had it through AOL. During this time, AOL's content channels, under Jason Seiken, including News, Sports, and Entertainment, experienced their greatest growth as AOL become the dominant online service internationally with more than 34 million subscribers.
In February 1998, AOL acquired Compuserve Interactive Services (CIS) via WorldCom (later Verizon) which kept Compuware‘s networking business.
In November 1998, AOL announced it would acquire Netscape, best known for their web browser, in a major $4.2 billion deal. The deal closed on March 17, 1999. Another large acquisition in December 1999 was that of MapQuest, for $1.1 billion.
In January 2000, as new broadband technologies were being rolled out around the New York City metropolitan area and elsewhere across the US, AOL and Time Warner Entertainment announced plans to merge, forming AOL Time Warner, Inc. The terms of the deal called for AOL shareholders to own 55% of the new, combined company. The deal closed on January 11, 2001. The new company was led by executives from AOL, SBI, and Time Warner. Gerald Levin, who had served as CEO of Time Warner, was CEO of the new company. Steve Case served as chairman, J. Michael Kelly (from AOL) was the chief financial officer, Robert W. Pittman (from AOL) and Dick Parsons (from Time Warner) served as co-chief operating officers. In 2002, Jonathan Miller became CEO of AOL. The following year, AOL Time Warner dropped the "AOL" from its name. It was the largest merger in history when completed with the combined value of the companies at $360 billion. This value fell sharply, to as low as $120 billion, as markets repriced AOL's valuation as a pure internet firm more modestly when combined with the traditional media and cable business. This status did not last long, and the company's value rose again within three months. By the end of that year, the tide had turned against "pure" internet companies, with many collapsing under falling stock prices, and even the strongest companies in the field losing up to 75% of their market value. The decline continued though 2001, but even with the losses, AOL was among the internet giants that continued to outperform brick and mortar companies.
In 2004, along with the launch of AOL 9.0 Optimized, AOL also made available the option of personalized greetings which would enable the user to hear his or her name while accessing basic functions and mail alerts, or while logging in or out. In 2005, AOL broadcast the Live 8 concert live over the Internet, and thousands of users downloaded clips of the concert over the following months. In late 2005, AOL released AOL Safety & Security Center, a bundle of McAfee Antivirus, CA anti-spyware, and proprietary firewall and phishing protection software. News reports in late 2005 identified companies such as Yahoo!, Microsoft, and Google as candidates for turning AOL into a joint venture. Those plans were abandoned when it was revealed on December 20, 2005, that Google would purchase a 5% share of AOL for $1 billion.
2006–2009: rebranding and decline
On April 3, 2006, AOL announced that it would retire the full name America Online. The official name of the service became AOL, and the full name of the Time Warner subdivision became AOL LLC. On June 8, 2006, AOL offered a new program called AOL Active Security Monitor, a diagnostic tool to monitor and rate PC security status, and recommended additional security software from AOL or Download.com. Two months later, AOL released AOL Active Virus Shield, a free product developed by Kaspersky Lab, that did not require an AOL account, only an internet email address. The ISP side of AOL UK was bought by Carphone Warehouse in October 2006 to take advantage of its 100,000 LLU customers, making Carphone Warehouse the largest LLU provider in the UK.
In August 2006, AOL announced that it would offer email accounts and software previously available only to its paying customers, provided that users accessed AOL or AOL.com through an access method not owned by AOL (otherwise known as "third party transit", "bring your own access" or "BYOA"). The move was designed to reduce costs associated with the "walled garden" business model by reducing usage of AOL-owned access points and shifting members with high-speed internet access from client-based usage to the more lucrative advertising provider AOL.com. The change from paid to free access was also designed to slow the rate at which members canceled their accounts and defected to Microsoft Hotmail, Yahoo! or other free email providers. The other free services included:
AIM (AOL Instant Messenger)
AOL Video, which featured professional content and allowed users to upload videos.
AOL Local, comprising its CityGuide, Yellow Pages and Local Search services to help users find local information like restaurants, local events, and directory listings.
AOL News
AOL My eAddress, a custom domain name for email addresses. These email accounts could be accessed in a manner similar to those of other AOL and AIM email accounts.
Xdrive, which allowed users to back up files over the Internet. It was acquired by AOL on August 4, 2005, and closed on December 31, 2008. It offered a free 5 GB account (free online file storage) to anyone with an AOL screenname. Xdrive also provided remote backup services and 50 GB of storage for $9.95 per month.
Also in August, AOL informed its US customers of an increase in the price of its dial-up access to $25.90. The increase was part of an effort to migrate the service's remaining dial-up users to broadband, as the increased price was the same as that of its monthly DSL access. However, AOL subsequently began offering unlimited dial-up access for $9.95 a month.
On November 16, 2006, Randy Falco succeeded Jonathan Miller as CEO. In December 2006, AOL closed its last remaining call center in the United States, "taking the America out of America Online," according to industry pundits. Service centers based in India and the Philippines continue to provide customer support and technical assistance to subscribers.
On September 17, 2007, AOL announced the relocation of one of its corporate headquarters from Dulles, Virginia to New York City and the combination of its advertising units into a new subsidiary called Platform A. This action followed several advertising acquisitions, most notably Advertising.com, and highlighted the company's new focus on advertising-driven business models. AOL management stressed that "significant operations" would remain in Dulles, which included the company's access services and modem banks.
In October 2007, AOL announced the relocation of its other headquarters from Loudoun County, Virginia to New York City, while continuing to operate its Virginia offices. As part of the move to New York and the restructuring of responsibilities at the Dulles headquarters complex after the Reston move, Falco announced on October 15, 2007, plans to lay off 2,000 employees worldwide by the end of 2007, beginning "immediately." The result was a layoff of approximately 40% of AOL's employees. Most compensation packages associated with the October 2007 layoffs included a minimum of 120 days of severance pay, 60 of which were offered in lieu of the 60-day advance notice requirement by provisions of the 1988 federal WARN Act.
By November 2007, AOL's customer base had been reduced to 10.1 million subscribers, slightly more than the number of subscribers of Comcast and AT&T Yahoo!. According to Falco, as of December 2007, the conversion rate of accounts from paid access to free access was more than 80%.
On January 3, 2008, AOL announced the closing of its Reston, Virginia data center, which was sold to CRG West. On February 6, Time Warner CEO Jeff Bewkes announced that Time Warner would divide AOL's internet-access and advertising businesses, with the possibility of later selling the internet-access division.
On March 13, 2008, AOL purchased the social networking site Bebo for $850 million (£417 million). On July 25, AOL announced that it was shuttering Xdrive, AOL Pictures and BlueString to save on costs and focus on its core advertising business. AOL Pictures was closed on December 31. On October 31, AOL Hometown (a web-hosting service for the websites of AOL customers) and the AOL Journal blog hosting service were eliminated.
2009–2015: As a digital media company
On March 12, 2009, Tim Armstrong, formerly with Google, was named chairman and CEO of AOL. On May 28, Time Warner announced that it would position AOL as an independent company after Google's shares ceased at the end of the fiscal year. On November 23, AOL unveiled a new brand identity with the wordmark "Aol." superimposed onto canvases created by commissioned artists. The new identity, designed by Wolff Olins, was integrated with all of AOL's services on December 10, the date upon which AOL traded independently for the first time since the Time Warner merger on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol AOL.
On April 6, 2010, AOL announced plans to shutter or sell Bebo. On June 16, the property was sold to Criterion Capital Partners for an undisclosed amount, believed to be approximately $10 million. In December, AIM eliminated access to AOL chat rooms, noting a marked decline in usage in recent months.
Under Armstrong's leadership, AOL followed a new business direction marked by a series of acquisitions. It announced the acquisition of Patch Media, a network of community-specific news and information sites focused on towns and communities. On September 28, 2010, at the San Francisco TechCrunch Disrupt Conference, AOL signed an agreement to acquire TechCrunch. On December 12, 2010, AOL acquired about.me, a personal profile and identity platform, four days after the platform's public launch.
On January 31, 2011, AOL announced the acquisition of European video distribution network goviral. In March 2011, AOL acquired HuffPost for $315 million. Shortly after the acquisition was announced, Huffington Post co-founder Arianna Huffington replaced AOL content chief David Eun, assuming the role of president and editor-in-chief of the AOL Huffington Post Media Group. On March 10, AOL announced that it would cut approximately 900 workers following the HuffPost acquisition.
On September 14, 2011, AOL formed a strategic ad-selling partnership with two of its largest competitors, Yahoo and Microsoft. The three companies would begin selling inventory on each others' sites. The strategy was designed to help the companies compete with Google and advertising networks.
On February 28, 2012, AOL partnered with PBS to launch MAKERS, a digital documentary series focusing on high-achieving women in industries perceived as male-dominated such as war, comedy, space, business, Hollywood and politics. Subjects for MAKERS episodes have included Oprah Winfrey, Hillary Clinton, Sheryl Sandberg, Martha Stewart, Indra Nooyi, Lena Dunham and Ellen DeGeneres.
On March 15, 2012, AOL announced the acquisition of Hipster, a mobile photo-sharing app, for an undisclosed amount. On April 9, 2012, AOL announced a deal to sell 800 patents to Microsoft for $1.056 billion. The deal included a perpetual license for AOL to use the patents.
In April, AOL took several steps to expand its ability to generate revenue through online video advertising. The company announced that it would offer gross rating point (GRP) guarantee for online video, mirroring the television-ratings system and guaranteeing audience delivery for online-video advertising campaigns bought across its properties. This announcement came just days before the Digital Content NewFront (DCNF) a two-week event held by AOL, Google, Hulu, Microsoft, Vevo and Yahoo to showcase the participating sites' digital video offerings. The DCNF was conducted in advance of the traditional television upfronts in the hope of diverting more advertising money into the digital space. On April 24, the company launched the AOL On network, a single website for its video output.
In February 2013, AOL reported its fourth quarter revenue of $599.5 million, its first growth in quarterly revenue in eight years.
In August 2013, Armstrong announced that Patch Media would scale back or sell hundreds of its local news sites. Not long afterward, layoffs began, with up to 500 out of 1,100 positions initially impacted. On January 15, 2014, Patch Media was spun off, and majority ownership was held by Hale Global. By the end of 2014, AOL controlled 0.74% of the global advertising market, well behind industry leader Google's 31.4%.
On January 23, 2014, AOL acquired Gravity, a software startup that tracked users' online behavior and tailored ads and content based on their interests, for $83 million. The deal, which included approximately 40 Gravity employees and the company's personalization technology, was Armstrong's fourth-largest deal since taking command in 2009. Later that year, AOL acquired Vidible, a company that developed technology to help websites run video content from other publishers, and help video publishers sell their content to these websites. The deal, which was announced December 1, 2014, was reportedly worth roughly $50 million.
On July 16, 2014, AOL earned an Emmy nomination for the AOL original series The Future Starts Here in the News and Documentary category. This came days after AOL earned its first Primetime Emmy Award nomination and win for Park Bench with Steve Buscemi in the Outstanding Short Form Variety Series. Created and hosted by Tiffany Shlain, the series focused on humans' relationship with technology and featured episodes such as "The Future of Our Species," "Why We Love Robots" and "A Case for Optimism."
2015–2021: division of Verizon
On May 12, 2015, Verizon announced plans to buy AOL for $50 per share in a deal valued at $4.4 billion. The transaction was completed on June 23. Armstrong, who continued to lead the firm following regulatory approval, called the deal the logical next step for AOL. "If you look forward five years, you're going to be in a space where there are going to be massive, global-scale networks, and there's no better partner for us to go forward with than Verizon." he said. "It's really not about selling the company today. It's about setting up for the next five to 10 years."
Analyst David Bank said he thought the deal made sense for Verizon. The deal will broaden Verizon's advertising sales platforms and increase its video production ability through websites such as HuffPost, TechCrunch, and Engadget. However, Craig Moffett said it was unlikely the deal would make a big difference to Verizon's bottom line. AOL had about two million dial-up subscribers at the time of the buyout. The announcement caused AOL's stock price to rise 17%, while Verizon's stock price dropped slightly.
Shortly before the Verizon purchase, on April 14, 2015, AOL launched ONE by AOL, a digital marketing programmatic platform that unifies buying channels and audience management platforms to track and optimize campaigns over multiple screens. Later that year, on September 15, AOL expanded the product with ONE by AOL: Creative, which is geared towards creative and media agencies to similarly connect marketing and ad distribution efforts.
On May 8, 2015, AOL reported its first-quarter revenue of $625.1 million, $483.5 million of which came from advertising and related operations, marking a 7% increase from Q1 2014. Over that year, the AOL Platforms division saw a 21% increase in revenue, but a drop in adjusted OIBDA due to increased investments in the company's video and programmatic platforms.
On June 29, 2015, AOL announced a deal with Microsoft to take over the majority of its digital advertising business. Under the pact, as many as 1,200 Microsoft employees involved with the business will be transferred to AOL, and the company will take over the sale of display, video, and mobile ads on various Microsoft platforms in nine countries, including Brazil, Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Additionally, Google Search will be replaced on AOL properties with Bing—which will display advertising sold by Microsoft. Both advertising deals are subject to affiliate marketing revenue sharing.
On July 22, 2015, AOL received two News and Documentary Emmy nominations, one for MAKERS in the Outstanding Historical Programming category, and the other for True Trans With Laura Jane Grace, which documented the story of Laura Jane Grace, a transgender musician best known as the founder, lead singer, songwriter and guitarist of the punk rock band Against Me!, and her decision to come out publicly and overall transition experience.
On September 3, 2015, AOL agreed to buy Millennial Media for $238 million. On October 23, 2015, AOL completed the acquisition.
On October 1, 2015, Go90, a free ad-supported mobile video service aimed at young adult and teen viewers that Verizon owns and AOL oversees and operates launched its content publicly after months of beta testing. The initial launch line-up included content from Comedy Central, HuffPost, Nerdist News, Univision News, Vice, ESPN and MTV.
On April 20, 2016, AOL acquired virtual reality studio RYOT to bring immersive 360 degree video and VR content to HuffPost's global audience across desktop, mobile, and apps.
In July 2016, Verizon Communications announced its intent to purchase the core internet business of Yahoo!. Verizon merged AOL with Yahoo into a new company called "Oath Inc.", which in January 2019 rebranded itself as Verizon Media.
In April 2018, Oath Inc. sold Moviefone to MoviePass Parent Helios and Matheson Analytics.
In November 2020 the Huffington Post was sold to BuzzFeed in a stock deal.
2021–present: Apollo Global Management
On May 3, 2021, Verizon announced it would sell 90 percent of its Verizon Media division to Apollo Global Management for $5 billion. The division became the second incarnation of Yahoo! Inc.
Products and services
Content
As of September 1, 2021, the following media brands became subsidiary of AOL's parent Yahoo Inc.
Engadget
Autoblog
TechCrunch
Built by Girls
AOL's content contributors consists of over 20,000 bloggers, including politicians, celebrities, academics, and policy experts, who contribute on a wide range of topics making news.
In addition to mobile-optimized web experiences, AOL produces mobile applications for existing AOL properties like Autoblog, Engadget, The Huffington Post, TechCrunch, and products such as Alto, Pip, and Vivv.
Advertising
AOL has a global portfolio of media brands and advertising services across mobile, desktop, and TV. Services include brand integration and sponsorships through its in-house branded content arm, Partner Studio by AOL, as well as data and programmatic offerings through ad technology stack, ONE by AOL.
AOL acquired a number of businesses and technologies help to form ONE by AOL. These acquisitions included AdapTV in 2013 and Convertro, Precision Demand, and Vidible in 2014. ONE by AOL is further broken down into ONE by AOL for Publishers (formerly Vidible, AOL On Network and Be On for Publishers) and ONE by AOL for Advertisers, each of which have several sub-platforms.
On September 10, 2018, AOL's parent company Oath consolidated BrightRoll, One by AOL and Yahoo Gemini to 'simplify' adtech service by launching a single advertising proposition dubbed Oath Ad Platforms, now Yahoo! Ad Tech.
Membership
AOL offers a range of integrated products and properties including communication tools, mobile apps and services and subscription packages.
In 2017, before the discontinuation of AIM, "billions of messages" were sent "daily" on it and AOL's other chat services.
Dial-up Internet access – While 2.1 million people still used AOL's dial-up service as recently as 2015, only a few thousand were still subscribed as of 2021.
AOL Mail – AOL Mail is AOL's proprietary email client. It is fully integrated with AIM and links to news headlines on AOL content sites.
AOL Instant Messenger (AIM) – was AOL's proprietary instant-messaging tool. It was released in 1997. It lost market share to competition in the instant messenger market such as Google Chat, Facebook Messenger, and Skype. It also included a video-chat service, AV by AIM. On December 15, 2017, AOL discontinued AIM.
AOL Plans – AOL Plans offers three online safety and assistance tools: ID protection, data security and a general online technical assistance service.
AOL Desktop
AOL Desktop is an internet suite produced by AOL from 2007 that integrates a web browser, a media player and an instant messenger client. Version 10.X was based on AOL OpenRide, it is an upgrade from such. The macOS version is based on WebKit.
AOL Desktop version 10.X was different from previous AOL browsers and AOL Desktop versions. Its features are focused on web browsing as well as email. For instance, one does not have to sign into AOL in order to use it as a regular browser. In addition, non-AOL email accounts can be accessed through it. Primary buttons include "MAIL", "IM", and several shortcuts to various web pages. The first two require users to sign in, but the shortcuts to web pages can be used without authentication. AOL Desktop version 10.X was later marked as unsupported in favor of supporting the AOL Desktop 9.X versions.
Version 9.8 was released, replacing the Internet Explorer components of the internet browser with CEF (Chromium Embedded Framework) to give users an improved web browsing experience closer to that of Chrome.
Version 11 of AOL Desktop was a total rewrite but maintained a similar user interface to the previous 9.8.X series of releases.
In 2017, a new paid version called AOL Desktop Gold was released, available for $4.99 per month after trial. It replaced the previous free version. After the shutdown of AIM in 2017, AOL's original chat rooms continued to be accessible through AOL Desktop Gold, and some rooms remained active during peak hours. That chat system was shut down on December 15, 2020.
In addition to AOL Desktop, the company also offered a browser toolbar Mozilla plug-in, AOL Toolbar, for several web browsers that provided quick access to AOL services. The toolbar was available from 2007 until 2018.
Criticism
In its earlier incarnation as a "walled garden" community and service provider, AOL received criticism for its community policies, terms of service, and customer service. Prior to 2006, AOL was known for its direct mailing of CD-ROMs and 3.5-inch floppy disks containing its software. The disks were distributed in large numbers; at one point, half of the CDs manufactured worldwide had AOL logos on them. The marketing tactic was criticized for its environmental cost, and AOL CDs were recognized as PC Worlds most annoying tech product.
Community leaders
AOL used a system of volunteers to moderate its chat rooms, forums and user communities. The program dated back to AOL's early days, when it charged by the hour for access and one of its highest billing services was chat. AOL provided free access to community leaders in exchange for moderating the chat rooms, and this effectively made chat very cheap to operate, and more lucrative than AOL's other services of the era. There were 33,000 community leaders in 1996. All community leaders received hours of training and underwent a probationary period. While most community leaders moderated chat rooms, some ran AOL communities and controlled their layout and design, with as much as 90% of AOL's content being created or overseen by community managers until 1996.
By 1996, ISPs were beginning to charge flat rates for unlimited access, which they could do at a profit because they only provided internet access. Even though AOL would lose money with such a pricing scheme, it was forced by market conditions to offer unlimited access in October 1996. In order to return to profitability, AOL rapidly shifted its focus from content creation to advertising, resulting in less of a need to carefully moderate every forum and chat room to keep users willing to pay by the minute to remain connected.
After unlimited access, AOL considered scrapping the program entirely, but continued it with a reduced number of community leaders, with scaled-back roles in creating content. Although community leaders continued to receive free access, after 1996 they were motivated more by the prestige of the position and the access to moderator tools and restricted areas within AOL. By 1999, there were over 15,000 volunteers in the program.
In May 1999, two former volunteers filed a class-action lawsuit alleging AOL violated the Fair Labor Standards Act by treating volunteers like employees. Volunteers had to apply for the position, commit to working for at least three to four hours a week, fill out timecards and sign a non-disclosure agreement. On July 22, AOL ended its youth corps, which consisted of 350 underage community leaders. At this time, the United States Department of Labor began an investigation into the program, but it came to no conclusions about AOL's practices.
AOL ended its community leader program on June 8, 2005. The class action lawsuit dragged on for years, even after AOL ended the program and AOL declined as a major internet company. In 2010, AOL finally agreed to settle the lawsuit for $15 million. The community leader program was found to be an example of co-production in a 2009 article in International Journal of Cultural Studies.
Billing disputes
AOL has faced a number of lawsuits over claims that it has been slow to stop billing customers after their accounts have been canceled, either by the company or the user. In addition, AOL changed its method of calculating used minutes in response to a class action lawsuit. Previously, AOL would add 15 seconds to the time a user was connected to the service and round up to the next whole minute (thus, a person who used the service for 12 minutes and 46 seconds would be charged for 14 minutes). AOL claimed this was to account for sign on/sign off time, but because this practice was not made known to its customers, the plaintiffs won (some also pointed out that signing on and off did not always take 15 seconds, especially when connecting via another ISP). AOL disclosed its connection-time calculation methods to all of its customers and credited them with extra free hours. In addition, the AOL software would notify the user of exactly how long they were connected and how many minutes they were being charged.
AOL was sued by the Ohio Attorney General in October 2003 for improper billing practices. The case was settled on June 8, 2005. AOL agreed to resolve any consumer complaints filed with the Ohio AG's office. In December 2006, AOL agreed to provide restitution to Florida consumers to settle the case filed against them by the Florida Attorney General.
Account cancellation
Many customers complained that AOL personnel ignored their demands to cancel service and stop billing. In response to approximately 300 consumer complaints, the New York Attorney General's office began an inquiry of AOL's customer service policies. The investigation revealed that the company had an elaborate scheme for rewarding employees who purported to retain or "save" subscribers who had called to cancel their Internet service. In many instances, such retention was done against subscribers' wishes, or without their consent. Under the scheme, customer service personnel received bonuses worth tens of thousands of dollars if they could successfully dissuade or "save" half of the people who called to cancel service. For several years, AOL had instituted minimum retention or "save" percentages, which consumer representatives were expected to meet. These bonuses, and the minimum "save" rates accompanying them, had the effect of employees not honoring cancellations, or otherwise making cancellation unduly difficult for consumers.
On August 24, 2005, America Online agreed to pay $1.25 million to the state of New York and reformed its customer service procedures. Under the agreement, AOL would no longer require its customer service representatives to meet a minimum quota for customer retention in order to receive a bonus. However the agreement only covered people in the state of New York.
On June 13, 2006, Vincent Ferrari documented his account cancellation phone call in a blog post, stating he had switched to broadband years earlier. In the recorded phone call, the AOL representative refused to cancel the account unless the 30-year-old Ferrari explained why AOL hours were still being recorded on it. Ferrari insisted that AOL software was not even installed on the computer. When Ferrari demanded that the account be canceled regardless, the AOL representative asked to speak with Ferrari's father, for whom the account had been set up. The conversation was aired on CNBC. When CNBC reporters tried to have an account on AOL cancelled, they were hung up on immediately and it ultimately took more than 45 minutes to cancel the account.
On July 19, 2006, AOL's entire retention manual was released on the Internet. On August 3, 2006, Time Warner announced that the company would be dissolving AOL's retention centers due to its profits hinging on $1 billion in cost cuts. The company estimated that it would lose more than six million subscribers over the following year.
Direct marketing of disks
Prior to 2006, AOL often sent unsolicited mass direct mail of 3" floppy disks and CD-ROMs containing their software. They were the most frequent user of this marketing tactic, and received criticism for the environmental cost of the campaign. According to PC World, in the 1990s "you couldn't open a magazine (PC World included) or your mailbox without an AOL disk falling out of it".
The mass distribution of these disks was seen as wasteful by the public and led to protest groups. One such was No More AOL CDs, a web-based effort by two IT workers to collect one million disks with the intent to return the disks to AOL. The website was started in August 2001, and an estimated 410,176 CDs were collected by August 2007 when the project was shut down.
Software
In 2000, AOL was served with an $8 billion lawsuit alleging that its AOL 5.0 software caused significant difficulties for users attempting to use third-party Internet service providers. The lawsuit sought damages of up to $1000 for each user that had downloaded the software cited at the time of the lawsuit. AOL later agreed to a settlement of $15 million, without admission of wrongdoing. The AOL software then was given a feature called AOL Dialer, or AOL Connect on . This feature allowed users to connect to the ISP without running the full interface. This allowed users to use only the applications they wish to use, especially if they do not favor the AOL Browser.
AOL 9.0 was once identified by Stopbadware as being under investigation for installing additional software without disclosure, and modifying browser preferences, toolbars, and icons. However, as of the release of AOL 9.0 VR (Vista Ready) on January 26, 2007, it was no longer considered badware due to changes AOL made in the software.
Usenet newsgroups
When AOL gave clients access to Usenet in 1993, they hid at least one newsgroup in standard list view: alt.aol-sucks. AOL did list the newsgroup in the alternative description view, but changed the description to "Flames and complaints about America Online". With AOL clients swarming Usenet newsgroups, the old, existing user base started to develop a strong distaste for both AOL and its clients, referring to the new state of affairs as Eternal September.
AOL discontinued access to Usenet on June 25, 2005. No official details were provided as to the cause of decommissioning Usenet access, except providing users the suggestion to access Usenet services from a third-party, Google Groups. AOL then provided community-based message boards in lieu of Usenet.
Terms of Service (TOS)
AOL has a detailed set of guidelines and expectations for users on their service, known as the Terms of Service (TOS, also known as Conditions of Service, or COS in the UK). It is separated into three different sections: Member Agreement, Community Guidelines and Privacy Policy. All three agreements are presented to users at time of registration and digital acceptance is achieved when they access the AOL service. During the period when volunteer chat room hosts and board monitors were used, chat room hosts were given a brief online training session and test on Terms of Service violations.
There have been many complaints over rules that govern an AOL user's conduct. Some users disagree with the TOS, citing the guidelines are too strict to follow coupled with the fact the TOS may change without users being made aware. A considerable cause for this was likely due to alleged censorship of user-generated content during the earlier years of growth for AOL.
Certified email
In early 2005, AOL stated its intention to implement a certified email system called Goodmail, which will allow companies to send email to users with whom they have pre-existing business relationships, with a visual indication that the email is from a trusted source and without the risk that the email messages might be blocked or stripped by spam filters.
This decision drew fire from MoveOn, which characterized the program as an "email tax", and the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF), which characterized it as a shakedown of non-profits. A website called Dearaol.com was launched, with an online petition and a blog that garnered hundreds of signatures from people and organizations expressing their opposition to AOL's use of Goodmail.
Esther Dyson defended the move in an editorial in The New York Times, saying "I hope Goodmail succeeds, and that it has lots of competition. I also think it and its competitors will eventually transform into services that more directly serve the interests of mail recipients. Instead of the fees going to Goodmail and AOL, they will also be shared with the individual recipients."
Tim Lee of the Technology Liberation Front posted an article that questioned the Electronic Frontier Foundation's adopting a confrontational posture when dealing with private companies. Lee's article cited a series of discussions on Declan McCullagh's Politechbot mailing list on this subject between the EFF's Danny O'Brien and antispammer Suresh Ramasubramanian, who has also compared the EFF's tactics in opposing Goodmail to tactics used by Republican political strategist Karl Rove. SpamAssassin developer Justin Mason posted some criticism of the EFF's and Moveon's "going overboard" in their opposition to the scheme.
The dearaol.com campaign lost momentum and disappeared, with the last post to the now defunct dearaol.com blog—"AOL starts the shakedown" being made on May 9, 2006.
Comcast, who also used the service, announced on its website that Goodmail had ceased operations and as of February 4, 2011, they no longer used the service.
Search data
On August 4, 2006, AOL released a compressed text file on one of its websites containing 20 million search keywords for over 650,000 users over a 3-month period between March 1, 2006 and May 31, intended for research purposes. AOL pulled the file from public access by August 7, but not before its wide distribution on the Internet by others. Derivative research, titled A Picture of Search was published by authors Pass, Chowdhury and Torgeson for The First International Conference on Scalable Information Systems.
The data were used by websites such as AOLstalker for entertainment purposes, where users of AOLstalker are encouraged to judge AOL clients based on the humorousness of personal details revealed by search behavior.
User list exposure
In 2003, Jason Smathers, an AOL employee, was convicted of stealing America Online's 92 million screen names and selling them to a known spammer. Smathers pled guilty to conspiracy charges in 2005. Smathers pled guilty to violations of the US CAN-SPAM Act of 2003. He was sentenced in August 2005 to 15 months in prison; the sentencing judge also recommended Smathers be forced to pay $84,000 in restitution, triple the $28,000 that he sold the addresses for.
AOL's Computer Checkup "scareware"
On February 27, 2012, a class action lawsuit was filed against Support.com, Inc. and partner AOL, Inc. The lawsuit alleged Support.com and AOL's Computer Checkup "scareware" (which uses software developed by Support.com) misrepresented that their software programs would identify and resolve a host of technical problems with computers, offered to perform a free "scan," which often found problems with users' computers. The companies then offered to sell software—for which AOL allegedly charged $4.99 a month and Support.com $29—to remedy those problems. Both AOL, Inc. and Support.com, Inc. settled on May 30, 2013, for $8.5 million. This included $25.00 to each valid class member and $100,000 each to Consumer Watchdog and the Electronic Frontier Foundation. Judge Jacqueline Scott Corley wrote: "Distributing a portion of the [funds] to Consumer Watchdog will meet the interests of the silent class members because the organization will use the funds to help protect consumers across the nation from being subject to the types of fraudulent and misleading conduct that is alleged here," and "EFF's mission includes a strong consumer protection component, especially in regards to online protection."
AOL continues to market Computer Checkup.
NSA PRISM program
Following media reports about PRISM, NSA's massive electronic surveillance program, in June 2013, several technology companies were identified as participants, including AOL. According to leaks of said program, AOL joined the PRISM program in 2011.
Hosting of user profiles changed, then discontinued
At one time, most AOL users had an online "profile" hosted by the AOL Hometown service. When AOL Hometown was discontinued, users had to create a new profile on Bebo. This was an unsuccessful attempt to create a social network that would compete with Facebook. When the value of Bebo decreased to a tiny fraction of the $850 million AOL paid for it, users were forced to recreate their profiles yet again, on a new service called AOL Lifestream.
AOL decided to shut down Lifestream on February 24, 2017, and gave users one month's notice to save photos and videos that had been uploaded to Lifestream. Following the shutdown, AOL no longer provides any option for hosting user profiles.
During the Hometown/Bebo/Lifestream era, another user's profile could be displayed by clicking the "Buddy Info" button in the AOL Desktop software. After the shutdown of Lifestream, this was no longer supported, but opened to the AIM home page (www.aim.com), which also became defunct, redirecting to AOL's home page.
See also
Adrian Lamo – Inside-AOL.com
AOHell
Comparison of webmail providers
David Shing
Dot-com bubble
List of acquisitions by AOL
List of S&P 400 companies
Live365
Truveo
References
External links
1983 establishments in the United States
2001 mergers and acquisitions
2015 mergers and acquisitions
Companies based in Dulles, Virginia
Companies based in New York City
Companies formerly listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Companies in the PRISM network
Former Time Warner subsidiaries
Internet properties established in 1983
Internet properties established in 2009
Internet service providers of the United States
Internet services supporting OpenID
Pre–World Wide Web online services
Telecommunications companies established in 1983
Telecommunications companies established in 2009
Yahoo!
Web portals
Web service providers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pages%20%28word%20processor%29
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Pages (word processor)
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Pages (word processor)
Pages is a word processor developed by Apple Inc. It is part of the iWork productivity suite and runs on the macOS, iPadOS and iOS operating systems. It is also available on iCloud on the web. The first version of Pages was released in February 2005. Pages is marketed by Apple as an easy-to-use application that allows users to quickly create documents on their devices. A number of Apple-designed templates comprising different themes (such as: letters, résumés, posters and outlines) are included with Pages.
History
On January 11, 2005, Apple announced the first version of Pages, as part of iWork '05. On January 6, 2009, Apple released the fourth version of Pages as a component of iWork '09. On January 27, 2010, Apple announced a new version of Pages for iPad with a touch interface. On May 31, 2011, Apple updated the iOS version of Pages to 1.4, bringing universal binaries, allowing the app to be run on iPad, iPhone and iPod Touch devices. On October 12, 2011, Apple updated the iOS app to version 1.5, adding the iCloud "Documents in the Cloud" feature. iOS Pages was updated to version 1.6 on March 7, 2012, and will only run on iOS 5.1 or later. Pages for OS X was updated to version 4.3 on December 4, 2012, to support Pages 1.7 for iOS, which was released on the same day. Pages for iOS 1.7.1 introduced better compatibility with Word and Pages for Mac and version 1.7.2, released on March 7, 2013, merely added stability improvements and bug fixes.
On October 23, 2013, Apple released a redesign with Pages 5.0 and made it free for anyone with an iOS device. In this release, many templates, as well as some advanced features that were available in version 4.3, were not included. Some of these missing features were put back over still lacks features from version 4.3, including the ability to select non-contiguous regions of text, advanced find/replace functions, and more.
Features
Pages is a word processor and page layout application. When Pages is first opened, users are presented with a template chooser which allows them to start with a blank document or with a predesigned template — including a basic, report, letter, résumé, envelope, business card, flyers & posters, cards, miscellaneous and a newsletter section of templates — that contains placeholder text and images which can be replaced by dragging and dropping photos from the Media Browser. The Media Browser provides quick access to media from iTunes, iMovie and Photos. Users can drag and drop music, movies, and photos directly into Pages documents from the Media Browser window.
Each document window contains a toolbar, which gives one-click access to commonly used functions such as inserting objects (text boxes, shapes, tables, charts, and comments), uploading the document to iWork.com, and adding additional pages. In addition, the document window contains a contextual format bar that allows one-click formatting of text and adjustments to images. When text is selected, the format bar enables users to choose fonts, text size, and color, and to adjust line spacing and alignment. When an image is selected, the format bar displays tools to adjust opacity, show and hide shadow and reflection effects and mask the image. A separate Inspector window provides almost all formatting options available for any element in the open document.
Beginning in iWork '08, word processing and page layout are two distinct modes. In word processing mode, Pages supports headers and footers, footnotes and outline, and list creation. Users can collaborate with others on a document. Pages tracks changes by users by displaying each person's edits in different colors. Users can also add comments alongside the document. In page layout mode, users have complete control over the position of objects on the page. Images and text can be placed anywhere on the canvas.
Pages used to feature several other advanced writing tools. Many of these have been stripped out of the current version. The "Full Screen" mode (introduced in Mac OS X Lion) and supported in Pages 4.1 hid the menubar and toolbars, allowing users to focus on a single document without being distracted by other windows on the screen; however, after Pages 5, full-screen mode requires the user to manually hide various panes for focused writing and the page thumbnails pane does not automatically open when the cursor is moved to the left screen edge. Earlier versions featured mail merge, which automatically populated custom fields with contact data from the Address Book or Numbers apps to create personalized documents. For example, if a user wanted to send one letter to three people, mail merge allowed the user to create a single document with placeholder fields that were populated when printing. The mail merge feature was completely removed in version 5 and it did not return until version 12.1. Tables and charts pasted from Numbers are automatically updated if the original spreadsheet is changed.
Compatibility
Pages can import some Microsoft Word documents (including Word 2007's Office Open XML format). Pages 4 and earlier could also import AppleWorks word processing documents, and export documents to rich text, but those features were removed in Pages 5.0 and not restored until Pages 6.1. Pages 5 can still export to PDF, EPUB and Microsoft Word DOC formats.
Simple and complex mathematical equations can be written for a Pages document with macOS's Grapher, offering similar capabilities to Microsoft Equation Editor (plus 2D and 3D rendering tools only Grapher can use).
As of January 2015, Pages does not support OpenDocument file format.
The only known software other than Pages which can open its files are Apple's iWork productivity suite through Apple's iCloud, LibreOffice and Jumpshare. Windows users can view and edit Pages files using iWork for iCloud via a web browser. The iCloud system can also read Microsoft Word files and convert Pages files to Microsoft Word format. Jumpshare can view Pages files.
Other than accessing iCloud through a browser, no program can officially view or edit a Pages file using Windows or Linux. Some content can be retrieved from a document created in Pages '09 because a .pages file is a bundle. A user can open a .pages file in an unpackaging program or by renaming files as .zip files in Windows (XP and onwards) and will find either a .jpg or .pdf preview in its entirety for viewing and printing, although this is only possible if the creator of the .pages files elected to include a preview. The user will also find a .xml file with unformatted text. This process can also be used for users of the 2008 version of Pages to open documents saved in the 2009 version of Pages, which are not backward compatible.
Pages can also export documents into several formats; formatting is generally retained during the export process.
Version history
See also
List of word processors
Comparison of word processors
Comparison of desktop publishing software
List of desktop publishing software
Apple iWork
References
External links
– official site
Pages free resources at iWork Community
Screenplay template
MacOS word processors
MacOS-only software made by Apple Inc.
IOS-based software made by Apple Inc.
2005 software
IOS software
Freeware
Word processors
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6100
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl
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Chernobyl
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Chernobyl or Chornobyl is a partially abandoned city in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, situated in the Vyshhorod Raion of northern Kyiv Oblast, Ukraine. Chernobyl is about north of Kyiv, and southwest of the Belarusian city of Gomel. Before its evacuation, the city had about 14,000 residents (considerably less than neighboring Pripyat). While living anywhere within the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone is technically illegal today, authorities tolerate those who choose to live within some of the less irradiated areas, and around 1,000 people live in Chernobyl today.
First mentioned as a ducal hunting lodge in 1193, the city has changed hands multiple times over the course of history. Jews moved into the city in the 16th century, and a now-defunct monastery was established in the area in 1626. By the end of the 18th century, Chernobyl was a major centre of Hasidic Judaism under the Twersky Dynasty, which left Chernobyl after the city was subjected to pogroms in the early 20th century. The Jewish community was later murdered during the Holocaust. Chernobyl was chosen as the site of Ukraine's first nuclear power plant in 1972, located north of the city, which opened in 1977. Chernobyl was evacuated on 5 May 1986, nine days after a catastrophic nuclear disaster at the plant, which was the largest nuclear disaster in history. Along with the residents of the nearby city of Pripyat, which was built as a home for the plant's workers, the population was relocated to the newly built city of Slavutych, and most have never returned.
The city was the administrative centre of Chernobyl Raion (district) from 1923. After the disaster, in 1988, the raion was dissolved and administration was transferred to the neighbouring Ivankiv Raion. The raion was abolished on 18 July 2020 as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Kyiv Oblast to seven. The area of Ivankiv Raion was merged into Vyshhorod Raion.
Although Chernobyl is primarily a ghost town today, a small number of people still live there, in houses marked with signs that read, "Owner of this house lives here", and a small number of animals live there as well. Workers on watch and administrative personnel of the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone are also stationed in the city. The city has two general stores and a hotel.
During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Chernobyl was temporarily captured and occupied by Russian forces between 24 February and 2 April. After its capture, it was reported that radiation levels temporarily rose, due to human activities, including earthworks, which disturbed the dust.
Etymology
The city's name is the same as one of the Ukrainian names for Artemisia vulgaris, mugwort or common wormwood: (or more commonly , 'common artemisia'). The name is inherited from or , a compound of + , the parts related to and , 'stalk', so named in distinction to the lighter-stemmed wormwood A. absinthium.
The name in languages used nearby is:
,
,
, .
The name in languages formerly used in the area is:
,
, .
In English, the Russian-derived spelling Chernobyl has been commonly used, but some style guides recommend the spelling Chornobyl, or the use of romanized Ukrainian names for Ukrainian places generally.
History
The Polish Geographical Dictionary of the Kingdom of Poland of 1880–1902 states that the time the city was founded is not known.
Identity of Ptolemy's "Azagarium"
Some older geographical dictionaries and descriptions of modern Eastern Europe mention "Czernobol" (Chernobyl) with reference to Ptolemy's world map (2nd century AD). Czernobol is identified as "oppidium Sarmatiae" (Lat., "a city in Sarmatia"), by the 1605 Lexicon geographicum of Filippo Ferrari and the 1677 Lexicon Universale of Johann Jakob Hofmann. According to the Dictionary of Ancient Geography of Alexander Macbean (London, 1773), Azagarium is "a town of Sarmatia Europaea, on the Borysthenes" (Dnieper), 36° East longitude and 50°40' latitude. The city is "now supposed to be Czernobol, a town of Poland, in Red Russia [Red Ruthenia], in the Palatinate of Kiow [Kiev Voivodeship], not far from the Borysthenes."
Whether Azagarium is indeed Czernobol is debatable. The question of Azagarium's correct location was raised in 1842 by Habsburg-Slovak historian, Pavel Jozef Šafárik, who published a book titled "Slavic Ancient History" ("Sławiańskie starożytności"), where he claimed Azagarium to be the hill of Zaguryna, which he found on an old Russian map "Bolzoj czertez" (Big drawing) near the city of Pereiaslav, now in central Ukraine.
In 2019, Ukrainian architect Boris Yerofalov-Pylypchak published a book, Roman Kyiv or Castrum Azagarium at Kyiv-Podil.
12th to 18th century
The archaeological excavations that were conducted in 2005–2008 found a cultural layer from the 10–12th centuries AD, which predates the first documentary mention of Chernobyl.
Around the 12th century Chernobyl was part of the land of Kievan Rus′. The first known mention of the settlement as Chernobyl is from an 1193 charter, which describes it as a hunting lodge of Knyaz Rurik Rostislavich. In 1362 it was a crown village of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Around that time the town had own castle which was ruined at least on two occasions in 1473 and 1482. The Chernobyl castle was rebuilt in the first quarter of the 16th century being located nearby the settlement in a hard to reach area. With revival of the castle, Chernobyl became a county seat. In 1552 it accounted for 196 buildings with 1,372 residents, out of which over 1,160 were considered city dwellers. In the city were developing various crafts professions such as blacksmith, cooper among others. Near Chernobyl has been excavated bog iron, out of which was produced iron. The village was granted to Filon Kmita, a captain of the royal cavalry, as a fiefdom in 1566. Following the Union of Lublin, the province where Chernobyl is located was transferred to the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland in 1569. Under the Polish Crown, Chernobyl became a seat of eldership (starostwo). During that period Chernobyl was inhabited by Ukrainian peasants, some Polish people and a relatively large number of Jews. Jews were brought to Chernobyl by Filon Kmita, during the Polish campaign of colonization. The first mentioning of Jewish community in Chernobyl is in the 17th century. In 1600 the first Roman Catholic church was built in the town. Local population was persecuted for holding Eastern Orthodox rite services. The traditionally Eastern Orthodox Ukrainian peasantry around the town were forcibly converted, by Poland, to the Ruthenian Uniate Church. In 1626, during the Counter-reformation, a Dominican church and monastery were founded by Lukasz Sapieha. A group of Old Catholics opposed the decrees of the Council of Trent. The Chernobyl residents actively supported the Khmelnytsky Uprising (1648–1657).
With the signing of the Truce of Andrusovo in 1667, Chernobyl was secured after the Sapieha family. Sometime in the 18th century, the place was passed on to the Chodkiewicz family. In the mid-18th century the area around Chernobyl was engulfed in a number of peasant riots, which caused Prince Riepnin to write from Warsaw to Major General Krechetnikov, requesting hussars to be sent from Kharkiv to deal with the uprising near Chernobyl in 1768. The 8th Lithuanian Infantry Regiment was stationed in the town in 1791. By the end of the 18th century, the town accounted for 2,865 residents and had 642 buildings.
18th century to Soviet times: demography and events
Following the Second Partition of Poland, in 1793 Chernobyl was annexed by the Russian Empire and became part of Radomyshl county (uezd) as a supernumerary town ("zashtatny gorod"). Many of the Uniate Church converts returned to Eastern Orthodoxy.
In 1832, following the failed Polish November Uprising, the Dominican monastery was sequestrated. The church of the Old Catholics was disbanded in 1852.
Until the end of the 19th century, Chernobyl was a privately owned city that belonged to the Chodkiewicz family. In 1896 they sold the city to the state, but until 1910 they owned a castle and a house in the city.
In the second half of the 18th century, Chernobyl became a major centre of Hasidic Judaism. The Chernobyl Hasidic dynasty had been founded by Rabbi Menachem Nachum Twersky. The Jewish population suffered greatly from pogroms in October 1905 and in March–April 1919; many Jews were killed or robbed at the instigation of the Russian nationalist Black Hundreds. When the Twersky Dynasty left Chernobyl in 1920, it ceased to exist as a center of Hasidism.
Chernobyl had a population of 10,800 in 1898, including 7,200 Jews. In the beginning of March 1918 Chernobyl was occupied in World War I by German forces in accordance with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Soviet times (1920–1991)
Ukrainians and Bolsheviks fought over the city in the ensuing Civil War. In the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–20, Chernobyl was taken first by the Polish Army and then by the cavalry of the Red Army. From 1921 onwards, it was officially incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR.
Between 1929 and 1933, Chernobyl suffered from killings during Stalin's collectivization campaign. It was also affected by the famine that resulted from Stalin's policies. The Polish and German community of Chernobyl was deported to Kazakhstan in 1936, during the Frontier Clearances.
During World War II, Chernobyl was occupied by the German Army from 25 August 1941 to 17 November 1943. When the Germans arrived, only 400 Jews remained in Chernobyl; they were murdered during the Holocaust.
In 1972, the Duga-1 radio receiver, part of the larger Duga over-the-horizon radar array, began construction west-northwest of Chernobyl. It was the origin of the Russian Woodpecker and was designed as part of an anti-ballistic missile early warning radar network.
On 15 August 1972, the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (officially the Vladimir Ilyich Lenin Nuclear Power Plant) began construction about northwest of Chernobyl. The plant was built alongside Pripyat, an "atomograd" city founded on 4 February 1970 that was intended to serve the nuclear power plant. The decision to build the power plant was adopted by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union on recommendations of the State Planning Committee that the Ukrainian SSR be its location. It was the first nuclear power plant to be built in Ukraine.
Independent Ukraine (1991–present)
With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Chernobyl remained part of Ukraine within the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone which Ukraine inherited from the Soviet Union.
Russian occupation (February–April 2022)
During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Russian forces captured the city on 24 February. After its capture, Ukrainian officials reported that the radiation levels started to rise due to recent military activity causing radioactive dust to ascend into the air. Hundreds of Russian soldiers were suffering from radiation poisoning after digging trenches in a contaminated area, and one died. On 31 March it was reported that Russian forces had left the exclusion zone. Ukrainian authorities reasserted control over the area on 2 April.
Geography
Chernobyl is located about north of Kyiv, and southwest of the Belarusian city of Gomel.
Climate
Chernobyl has a humid continental climate (Dfb) with very warm, wet summers with cool nights and long, cold, and snowy winters.
Chernobyl nuclear reactor disaster
On 26 April 1986, one of the reactors at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded after unsanctioned experiments on the reactor by plant operators were done improperly. The resulting loss of control was due to design flaws of the RBMK reactor, which made it unstable when operated at low power, and prone to thermal runaway where increases in temperature increase reactor power output.
Chernobyl city was evacuated nine days after the disaster. The level of contamination with caesium-137 was around 555 kBq/m2 (surface ground deposition in 1986).
Later analyses concluded that, even with very conservative estimates, relocation of the city (or of any area below 1500 kBq/m2) could not be justified on the grounds of radiological health.
This however does not account for the uncertainty in the first few days of the accident about further depositions and weather patterns.
Moreover, an earlier short-term evacuation could have averted more significant doses from short-lived isotope radiation (specifically iodine-131, which has a half-life of about eight days).
The long-term health effects of the Chernobyl disaster are a subject of some controversy.
In 1998, average caesium-137 doses from the accident (estimated at 1–2 mSv per year) did not exceed those from other sources of exposure. Current effective caesium-137 dose rates as of 2019 are 200–250 nSv/h, or roughly 1.7–2.2 mSv per year,
which is comparable to the worldwide average background radiation from natural sources.
The base of operations for the administration and monitoring of the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone was moved from Pripyat to Chernobyl. Chernobyl currently contains offices for the State Agency of Ukraine on the Exclusion Zone Management and accommodations for visitors. Apartment blocks have been repurposed as accommodations for employees of the State Agency. The length of time that workers may spend within the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone is restricted by regulations that have been implemented to limit radiation exposure. Today, visits are allowed to Chernobyl but limited by strict rules.
In 2003, the United Nations Development Programme launched a project, called the Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme (CRDP), for the recovery of the affected areas. The main goal of the CRDP's activities is supporting the efforts of the Government of Ukraine to mitigate the long-term social, economic, and ecological consequences of the Chernobyl disaster.
The city has become overgrown and many types of animals live there. According to census information collected over an extended period of time, it is estimated that more mammals live there now than before the disaster.
Notably, Mikhail Gorbachev, the final leader of the Soviet Union, stated in respect to the Chernobyl disaster that, "More than anything else, (Chernobyl) opened the possibility of much greater freedom of expression, to the point that the (Soviet) system as we knew it could no longer continue."
Notable people
Aaron Twersky of Chernobyl (1784–1871), rabbi
Aleksander Franciszek Chodkiewicz (1776–1838), Polish politician and lithographer
Alexander Krasnoshchyokov (1880–1937), politician
Andriy Smalko (1981–), football player
Arnold Lakhovsky (1880–1937), artist
Jan Mikołaj Chodkiewicz (1738–1781), Polish nobleman, father of Rozalia Lubomirska
Ekaterina Scherbachenko (1977–), opera singer
Grigory Irmovich Novak (1919–1980), Jewish Soviet weightlifter
Joshua ben Aaron Zeitlin (1823–1888), scholar and philanthropist
Markiyan Kamysh (1988–), novelist and son of a liquidator
Rozalia Lubomirska (1768–1794), Polish noblewoman guillotined during the French Revolution
Volodymyr Pravyk (1962–1986), firefighter and liquidator
See also
List of Chernobyl-related articles
References
External links
State Agency of Ukraine on Exclusion Zone Management – official information on public works, zone status, visits, etc.
Official radiation measurements – State Agency of Ukraine on Exclusion Zone Management. Online map.
Chernobyl – History of Jewish Communities in Ukraine JewUa.org
The Chernobyl Gallery
1193 establishments in Europe
12th-century establishments in Ukraine
Cities in Kyiv Oblast
Cities of district significance in Ukraine
Cossack Hetmanate
Environmental disaster ghost towns
Ghost towns in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone
Holocaust locations in Ukraine
Radomyslsky Uyezd
Kiev Voivodeship
Jewish Ukrainian history
Historic Jewish communities in Ukraine
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1370561
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C
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Остійність
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Остійність — здатність плавучого засобу протистояти зовнішнім силам, що порушують його рівновагу, і повертатися у вихідне положення рівноваги, коли дія цих сил припиняється. Є однією з основних морехідних якостей плавучого засобу, а також однойменним розділом теорії корабля.
Рівноважним вважається стан з допустимими величинами кутів нахилу (крену) і диференту (в окремому випадку, близькими до нуля). При відхиленні від нього плавзасіб прагне повернутися до рівноваги. Тобто остійність проявляється тільки тоді, коли відбувається виведення з рівноваги зовнішнім впливом (удар хвилі, порив вітру, зміна курсу тощо). Запасом остійності називається ступінь захищеності плавучого засобу від перекидання. Протилежну здатність — схильність до крену і повільного повертання в положення рівноваги (брак остійності) називають валкістю, а судна з недостатньою остійністю — валкими.
Стосовно до суден використовується уточнена характеристика, що має назву «остійність судна».
Види остійності
Розрізняють остійність:
поперечну (при нахилі судна у поперечній площині) і поздовжню;
динамічну (коли судно нахиляється із значною кутовою швидкістю) та статичну (при повільному нахилі судна).
Достатній рівень поперечної остійності, яка значно менша від поздовжньої (через подовженість форми корпусу судна) є важливою умовою безпеки плавання судна.
Початкова поперечна остійність
При крені остійність розглядається як початкова при кутах до 10…12 °. У цих межах відновлювальне зусилля є пропорційним до кута крену і може бути визначене за допомогою простих лінійних залежностей.
При цьому робиться припущення, що відхилення від положення рівноваги викликаються зовнішніми силами, які не змінюють ні ваги судна, ні положення його центра ваги у системі координат, прив'язаній до самого судна.. Інакше кажучи, допускають що немає зсуву вантажу, тобто занурений об'єм не змінюється за величиною, але змінюється за формою. Рівнооб'ємним нахилам відповідають рівнооб'ємні ватерлінії, що відтинають однакові за величиною занурені об'єми корпусу. Лінія перетину площин ватерлінії називається віссю нахилення, яка при рівнооб'ємних нахилах проходить через центр ваги площі ватерлінії. При поперечних нахилах вона лежить в діаметральній площині.
Центр ваги G при такому нахилі не змінює свого положення, а центр величини С як центр ваги зануреного об'єму переміщується вздовж деякої кривої СС1 в бік нахилу і займає нове положення C1. Переміщення центру величини стається через зміну форми зануреного об'єму: з лівого борту він зменшився, а з правого — збільшився. Сила плавучості γV, що прикладена в центрі величини, спрямована по нормалі до траєкторії його переміщення.
Метацентр
При малих нахилах у поперечній площині лінії дії сил плавучості перетинають вертикальну площину симетрії, що проходить через центр ваги у точці m, що носить назву метацентр (у цьому випадку — поперечний метацентр). Поперечний метацентр можна ще визначити як центр кривини кривої, уздовж якої переміщається центр величини при нахилах в поперечній площині. У загальному випадку нахилення (на великий кут і в будь-якій площині) центр величини описує деяку складну криву, і метацентр займає різні положення. При малих кутах нахилу в поперечній площині можна вважати, що центр величини переміщається по дузі кола, а поперечний метацентр займає постійне місце в діаметральній площині.
Радіус кривини траєкторії, по якій переміщується центр величини при поперечних нахилах називається поперечним метацентричним радіусом r. Тобто — це відстань r = mC між поперечним метацентром і центром величини.
Характеристики остійності
В результаті зміщення центру величини при нахиленні судна сила ваги і сила плавучості утворюють пару сил. Якщо центр ваги розташований нижче за метацентр то момент mв, що виникає, діє в бік відновлення рівноваги судна. Тоді кажуть, що судно є остійним. В іншому випадку момент може бути нульовим або таким, що сприяє перекиданню — тоді судно стає неостійним.
Перевищення поперечного метацентра (zm) над основною площиною, місце розташування центра величини (zc), а також величина поперечного метацентричного радіуса r у значній мірі визначають остійність судна та залежать від величини його водотоннажності, форми корпуса і посадки. Залежність величини поперечного метацентричного радіуса від форми корпуса (величини площі ватерлінії та її форми) і об'ємної водотоннажності має такий вигляд:
, (1)
де Ix — момент інерції площі дійсної ватерлінії відносно поздовжньої осі, що проходить через центр її ваги, м4; V — об'ємна водотоннажність (занурений об'єм), м³.
З розгляду трьох можливих варіантів дії сил Р і γV на судно при нахилах можна зробити висновок, що для забезпечення остійності положення рівноваги судна необхідно, щоб метацентр знаходився вище за центр ваги. Тому перевищення поперечного метацентра над центром ваги виділяється в особливу величину і носить назву поперечної метацентричної висоти h. Величина h може бути виражена як:
, (2)
де zm і zg висоти метацентра і центра ваги над основною площиною, відповідно.
Величина відновного моменту залежить від ваги судна і плеча поперечної остійності. З трикутника GmZ плече остійності може бути виражене через поперечну метацентричну висоту GZ = mG sinθ = h sinθ. Тоді відновний момент буде визначатись формулою:
, (3)
котра носить назву метацентричної формули поперечної остійності. При малих кутах крену, коли можна вважати, що sin θ = θ в радіанах, відновний момент визначається за лінійною метацентричною формулою: mθ = Ph θ.
Таким чином, величина відновного моменту, що визначає опірність судна відхиленням, визначається, в свою чергу, величиною поперечної метацентричної висоти.
Остійність форми і остійність ваги
Підставляючи в метацентричну формулу поперечної остійності h = r − а, та замінюючи r його значенням за формулою (1), а також Р = γV отримуємо:
mθ = P(r − a) sinθ = Pr sinθ − Pa sinθ
і остаточно
, (4)
Перший член у виразі (4) в основному визначається величиною і формою площі ватерлінії і тому називається моментом остійності форми: mф = γ Ix sin θ. Момент остійності форми завжди є додатною величиною і намагається повернути нахилене судно у вихідне положення.
Другий член у формулі (4) залежить від ваги P і перевищення центру ваги над центром величини a і називається моментом остійності ваги mв = − Pa sin θ. Момент остійності ваги для випадку високого розташування центру ваги (zg > zс) є величиною від'ємною, і діє в напрямку збільшення нахилу.
Фізична сутність моменту остійності форми і моменту остійності ваги розкривається за допомогою схеми, на якій показана система сил, що діють на нахилене судно. З нахиленого борту у воду входить додатковий об'єм v1, що утворює додаткову «виштовхувальну» силу плавучості. З протилежного боку з води виходить об'єм v2, що намагається занурити цей борт. Обидві сили працюють на випрямлення.
Занурений об'єм V1, що відповідає посадці по ватерлінію B1Л1, може бути поданий у вигляді алгебраїчної суми трьох об'ємів
Vl = V + v1 − v2,
де: V — занурений об'єм при початковій посадці по ватерлінію;
v1 — клиноподібний занурений об'єм, а v2 — клиноподібний об'єм, що виринув з води.
Відповідно до цього і силу плавучості γV1 можна замінити трьома складовими силами γV, γv1, γv2, прикладеними в центрах величини об'ємів V, v1, v2. Ці три сили разом із силою тяжіння Р утворюють дві пари Р − γV і γv1 − γv2, що еквівалентні парі Р − γV1. Відновний момент дорівнює сумі моментів цих двох пар
mθ = m (γv1, γv2) + m (γV, P).
Момент сил плавучості клинових об'ємів v1 та v2 є моментом остійності форми. Чим ширшим є корпус в районі ватерлінії, тим більшими є клинові об'єми та їхні плечі при нахилах у поперечній площині, тим більшим є момент остійності форми. Величина моменту остійності форми визначається в основному моментом інерції площі, охопленої ватерлінією відносно поздовжньої осі Ix. А момент інерції Ix є пропорційним квадрату ширини площі ватерлінії.
Момент пари сил Р та γV є моментом остійності ваги. Він обумовлений розбіжністю точок прикладання сил тяжіння і плавучості (G та С) у вихідному положенні рівноваги, внаслідок чого при нахилах лінії дії цих сил розходяться, і сили Р і γV утворюють пару.
Початкова поздовжня остійність
Поздовжня остійність визначається тими ж залежностями, що і поперечна.
Під дією зовнішнього диферентного моменту Mдиф судно, що плаває у положенні рівноваги на рівний кіль (ватерлінія ВЛ), нахиляється у поздовжній площині на кут Ψ, (ватерлінія B1Л1). Переміщення центра величини внаслідок зміни форми зануреного об'єму забезпечує появу поздовжнього відновного моменту
Mψ = P•GK,
де GK — плече поздовжньої остійності. Точка М є поздовжнім метацентром, перевищення поздовжнього метацентра над центром ваги — поздовжньою метацентричною висотою Н, а відстань між поздовжнім метацентром і центром величини — поздовжнім метацентричним радіусом R.
Поздовжній відновний момент при малих кутах диференту визначається за формулами: Mψ = PH•sin ψ, Mψ = РН•ψ, що носять назву метацентричних формул поздовжньої остійності. Ці залежності для поздовжнього відновного моменту є справедливими при кутах диференту до 0,5…1,0°, тому поздовжня остійність розглядається як початкова лише в цих межах.
Поздовжній метацентричний радіус визначається за формулою:
, (5)
де: Iyf — момент інерції площі дійсної ватерлінії відносно поперечної осі, що проходить через її центр ваги F, м4, а метацентрична формула поздовжньої остійності у розгорненому вигляді отримується аналогічно, як формула (4),
Мψ = γ Iyf•sin ψ − Pa sin•ψ , (6)
Таким чином, поздовжній момент остійності форми Мψ = γ Iyf• sin ψ,
а момент остійності ваги Мв = − Pa• sin ψ.
Порівнюючи моменти остійності форми і ваги при поперечних і поздовжніх нахилах за формулами (4) і (6), бачимо, що остійність ваги в обох випадках однакова (за умови θ = ψ), але остійність форми сильно різниться. Поздовжній момент остійності форми значно більший за поперечний, оскільки Iyf приблизно на два порядки більший від Ix.
Якщо величина поперечної метацентричної висоти складає десяті частки метра, то поздовжня метацентрична висота лежить в межах H = (0,8…1,5) L, де L — довжина судна по ватерлінії, м.
Частка моментів остійності форми і ваги в забезпеченні поперечної і поздовжньої остійності неоднакова. При поперечних нахилах, момент остійності ваги складає значну частку від моменту остійності форми. Тому поперечний момент відновлення становить ≈ 30 % від моменту остійності форми. При поздовжніх нахилах момент остійності ваги складає усього лише 0,5…1,0 % від моменту остійності форми, тобто поздовжній момент відновлення практично дорівнює моменту остійності форми.
Коефіцієнт поздовжньої остійності Кψ визначається за формулою:
При нахиленнях в будь-яких інших площинах, відмінних від поперечної та поздовжньої, величини метацентричних радіусів і метацентричних висот (а, отже, і остійність) набувають проміжних значень між максимальним і мінімальним, що відповідають поздовжнім і поперечним нахилам.
Діаграма остійності
Діаграмою остійності називається залежність відновлюючого зусилля від кута нахилу. Інколи називається діаграмою Ріда, на честь інженера, який увів її у вжиток. Для поперечної остійності (для неї спочатку і було побудовано Рідом діаграму) координатами будуть кут крену Θ у плече відновного моменту GZ. Можна замінити плече на сам момент M, від цього вигляд діаграми не зміниться.
Зазвичай на діаграмі зображується крен на один борт (правий), при якому кути і моменти вважаються додатніми. Якщо продовжити її на інший борт, крен і відновний (спрямляющий) момент змінять знак. Тобто діаграма симетрична відносно початкової точки.
Основні елементи діаграми остійності
Початкова точка O, вона ж зазвичай точка рівноваги. У момент, коли крен Θ = 0, спрямляючий момент відсутній GZ = 0. Якщо у силу якихось причин початкова остійність негативна, точка рівноваги може не збігатися з початком координат. Тоді GZ = 0 при Θ = Θ1.
Точка максимуму — це значення кута, при якому спрямляючий момент досягає максимуму GZmax. До цього кута подальший нахил викликає зростання моменту. Після досягнення максимуму нахил супровджується зменшенням моменту, до досягнення третьої характерної точки:
Точка закочення C — відповідає куту, при якому спрямляючий момент спадає до нуля GZ = 0. Відповідає умові перекидання судна, оскільки спрямляючі сили відсутні. Для звичайних водотоннажних суден кут закочування (статичний) знаходиться в межах 65…75°. Для кілевих яхт — в області 120…125°.
Кривина — характеризує інтенсивність наростання спрямляючого моменту. Дотична до кривої остійності у точці O характеризує початкову метацентричну висоту. Ордината дотичної для кута Θ = 1 рад дорівнює метацентричній висоті h (GM).
Площа під кривою для поточного кута B характеризує роботу A відновного моменту і є мірою динамічної остійності.
Види діаграм остійності
Нормальна. Характерна для більшості водотоннажних суден з нормальною метацентричною висотою, наприклад, для суховантажних суден.
S-подібна (з перегином). Характерна для суден із зменшеною метацентричною висотою, наприклад, для високобортних пасажирських суден.
З від'ємною початковою остійністю. Не є характерною для більшості суден. Виникає у випадку, коли початкова остійність негативна. Судно при цьому плаває в рівновазі не на рівний кіль, а з креном Θ1, що відповідає точці перетину кривої і осі Θ. Наприклад, така діаграма буває у лісовозів, що йдуть у перегруз або суден, які мають вільні поверхні в танках. Правилами всіх найбільших світових класифікаційних товариств (наприклад, Регістр Ллойда, Регістр судноплавства України, Російський Морський Регістр Судноплавства тощо) заборонена експлуатація суден, які мають метацентричну висоту меншу за 0,2 м (і, в тому числі, суден з негативною початковою остійністю). Початкова остійність судна може стати негативною або внаслідок аварії, або внаслідок посадового порушення правил експлуатації з боку капітана судна.
Фактори, що впливають на зміну остійності
Переміщення вантажів
Переміщення вантажу р у довільному напрямі з точки g1 (x1, y1, z1) у точку g2 (x2, y2, z2) можна замінити трьома послідовними переміщеннями паралельними до осей координатної системи oxyz на відстані x2 − x1, y2 − y1, z2 − z1. Ці переміщення називаються відповідно горизонтально-проздовжнім, горизонтально-поперечним і вертикальним.
При вертикальному переміщенні вантажу відбувається переміщення сили р вздовж лінії її дії. Рівновага судна при цьому не порушується, посадка не змінюється, тобто величина і форма зануреного об'єму залишаються сталими. Тому центр величини, поперечний і поздовжній метацентри не змінюють свого розташування. Центр ваги переміщується вгору з точки G в точку G1 на відстань δZg, прямо пропорційну до ваги переміщеного вантажу р і величині переміщення z2 − z1 та обернено пропорційну до ваги судна:
Проздовжня і поперечна метацентричні висоти змінюються на одну і ту ж величину:
δh = δH = − δZg.
Величина приросту поперечного і поздовжнього коефіцієнтів остійності також є однаковою:
δКθ = P•δh и δКψ = P•δH, або
δКθ = δКψ = − р (z2 − z1).
Метацентричні висоти і коефіцієнти остійності після переміщення вантажу набувають значень:
h1 = h + δh;
H1 = Н + δH; Кθ1 = Кθ + δКθ; Кψ1 = Кψ + δКψ ,
причому переміщення вниз відповідає позитивним приростам, а вгору — негативним. Тобто при переміщенні вантажу вгору остійність зменшується, а при переміщенні вниз — збільшується. Оскільки поперечні і поздовжні прирощення однакові, а метацентричні висоти різні, впливи вертикальних переміщень на поперечну і подовжню остійність сильно розрізняються. Для поздовжньої остійності δH становить лише малу частку від Н. Для поперечної можливі ситуації, коли h ≈ δh, тобто спостерігатиметься повна втрата (або відновлення) остійності.
При горизонтально-поперечному переміщенні вантажу з точки А в точку В судно крениться від прямого положення рівноваги (ватерлінія ВЛ) на кут θ (ватерлінія B1Л1). Таке переміщення вантажу можна подати так, як, нібито вантаж у точці В знято (сила р спрямована у протилежний бік — вгору), а у точці E прийнято.
Нахилу протидіє відновний момент mθ = Ph•sinθ. Судно перебуватиме у рівновазі тоді, коли нахиляючий і відновний моменти зрівняються:
mкр = mθ, тобто
Ph•sinθ = p ly cosθ,
де ly = BE. Звідси визначається кут крену рівноважного стану:
Переміщення вантажу викликає зсув центру ваги судна в бік переміщення вантажу на відстань GG1 = p ly / P. Центр величини при нахилення переміщується в бік нахилу до тих пір, доки не опиниться на одній вертикалі з центром ваги (друга умова рівноваги).
Поперечна метацентрична висота після перенесення вантажу визначається з трикутника GmG1:
При малих кутах нахилу cosθ ≈ 1; h1 ≈ h, тобто початкова поперечна остійність при горизонтально-поперечному переміщенні вантажу практично не змінюється.
Формули для визначення посадки і остійності у випадку горизонтально-поздовжнього переміщення вантажу виводяться аналогічно до попередніх. З рівняння залежності диферентуючого моменту від переміщення вантажу Мдиф = p (x1 − x2) cosψ і відновного моменту Мψ = PH sinψ визначається кут диференту, який отримає судно після переміщення вантажу:
Початкова поздовжня остійність від горизонтально-поздовжнього переміщення вантажу також практично не змінюється.
Прийняття і зняття вантажів
Прийняття або зняття вантажів змінює як навантаження судна (вагу і координати центра ваги), так і його занурений об'єм (його величину, форму, координати центра величини).
Прийняття вантажу у довільне місце можна подати як прийняття цього вантажу без зміни крену і диференту, а потім перенесення його у призначене місце. Умовою незмінності крену і диференту при прийнятті вантажу р є розташування його центру ваги на одній вертикалі з центром величини додатково зануреного у воду об'єму δV, що дорівнює p/γ, де γ — питома вага води. При прийнятті відносно малого вантажу можна вважати, що для уникнення крену і диференту він повинен бути поміщений на одну вертикаль з центром ваги F вихідної площини ватерлінії.
Вплив переміщень вантажу на остійність і посадку розглянуто вище. Для визначення метацентричних висот після прийняття вантажу потрібно знайти координати центра ваги zg1, і метацентрів zc1 + r1 та zc1 + R1. Нове розташування центра ваги знаходиться з умови рівності статичних моментів сил тяжіння відносно основної площини.
У загальному випадку прийому чи зняття декількох вантажів нове положення центру ваги визначається за формулою:
zg1 = (Pzg ± ∑pizpi) /P1,де: pi — вага прийнятого або знятого окремо вантажу, при цьому вантаж, що приймається береться зі знаком плюс, а, що знімається — зі знаком мінус; zpi — апліката центра ваги прийнятого чи знятого вантажу.
У випадку прийняття відносно невеликих вантажів (менше 10 % водотоннажності) на надводний корабель (судно) вважається, що форма і площа дійсної ватерлінії не змінюються, а занурений об'єм лінійно залежить від осадки — тобто приймається гіпотеза прямобортності. Тоді коефіцієнти остійності виражаються як:
δKθ = р (Т + δТ/2 − zp + dIx/dV) δKψ = р (Т + δТ/2 − zp + dIyf/dV)У складніших випадках використовується діаграма плавучості і початкової остійності, з якої знімають значення зануреного об'єму, метацентричного радіуса, координат центра ваги і центра величини в залежності від осадки. Її використання є характерним для визначення остійності апаратів занурення, наприклад підводних човнів.
Вільні поверхні
Усі розглянуті вище випадки припускають, що центр ваги судна є нерухомим, тобто немає вантажів, що переміщалися б при появі нахилу. Але коли такі вантажі є, їх вплив на остійність суттєво більший від решти видів вантажів.
Типовим випадком є рідкі вантажі (паливо, масло, баластова чи котельна вода) в цистернах, заповнених частково. Такі вантажі здатні переливатися при нахилах. Якщо рідкий вантаж заповнює цистерну повністю, він еквівалентний твердому закріпленому вантажу.
Якщо рідина заповнює цистерну не повністю, тобто має вільну поверхню, що займає завжди горизонтальне положення, то при нахилі судна на кут θ рідина переливається в бік нахилу. Вільна поверхня розміститься під таким же кутом відносно конструктивної ватерлінії.
Рівні рідкого вантажу відтинають однакові за величиною об'єми цистерн, тобто вони є подібним рівнооб'ємним ватерлініям. Тому момент, що називають переливанням рідкого вантажу при крені δmθ, можна виразити аналогічно до моменту остійності форми mф, тільки δmθ є протилежним до mф за знаком:
δmθ = − γр ixθ,де ix — момент інерції площі вільної поверхні рідкого вантажу відносно поздовжньої осі, що проходить через центр ваги цієї площі, γр — питома вага рідкого вантажу.
Тоді відновний момент при наявності рідкого вантажу з вільною поверхнею:
mθ1 = mθ + δmθ = Phθ − γр ixθ = P(h − γр ix /γV)θ = Ph1 θ,де h — поперечна метацентрична висота за відсутності переливання, h1 = h − γр ix /γV — фактична поперечна метацентрична висота.
Вплив вантажу, що переливається дає поправку на поперечну метацентричну висоту δ h = − γр ix /γV.
Густини води і рідкого вантажу відносно стабільні, тобто основний вплив на поправку надає форма вільної поверхні, точніше її момент інерції. А значить, на поперечну остійність в основному впливає ширина, а на поздовжню довжина вільної поверхні.
Фізичний зміст від'ємного значення поправки в тому, що наявність вільних поверхонь завжди зменшує остійність. Тому вживаються організаційні та конструктивні заходи для їх зменшення:
Повна запресовка цистерн, щоб не допускати вільних поверхонь.
Якщо це неможливо, робиться заповнення під горловину, або навпаки, тільки на дні. У цьому випадку будь-який нахил різко зменшує площу вільної поверхні.
Контроль числа цистерн, що мають вільні поверхні.
Розбивка цистерн внутрішніми непроникними перегородками, з метою зменшення моменту інерції вільної поверхні ix Динамічна остійність
На відміну від статичного, динамічний вплив сил і моментів надає судну значних кутових швидкостей і прискорень. Тому їх вплив розглядається в енергетичному плані, точніше у вигляді роботи сил і моментів, а не у самих зусиллях. При цьому використовується теорема кінетичної енергії, згідно з якою приріст кінетичної енергії руху нахилення судна дорівнює роботі діючих на нього сил.
Коли до судна прикладається момент крену mкр, сталий за величиною, воно отримує додатне прискорення, з яким починає кренитися. По мірі нахилу зростає відновний момент, але спочатку, до кута θст, при якому mкр = mθ, він буде меншим за момент крену. По досягненні кута статичної рівноваги θст, кінетична енергія обертального руху буде максимальною. Тому судно не залишиться в положенні рівноваги, а за рахунок кінетичної енергії буде кренитися далі, але сповільнено, оскільки відновний момент є більшим від моменту, що викликає крен. Накопичена раніше кінетична енергія погашається надлишковою роботою відновного моменту. Як тільки величина цієї роботи буде достатньою для повного погашення кінетичної енергії, кутова швидкість стане рівною нулю і судно перестане кренитися.
Найбільший кут нахилу, який отримає судно від динамічного моменту, називається динамічним кутом крену θдин. На відміну від нього кут крену, з яким судно буде плавати під дією того ж моменту (за умовою mкр = mθ), називається статичним кутом крену θст.
Якщо скористатись діаграмою статичної остійності, робота може бути виражена площею під кривою відновного моменту mв. Відповідно, динамічний кут крену θдин можна визначити з рівності площ OAB і BCD, що відповідають надлишковій роботі відновного моменту. Аналітично ця ж робота обчислюється як:
,
на інтервалі від 0 до θдин.
Досягнувши динамічного кута крену θдин, судно не набуває рівноваги, а під дією надлишкового відновного моменту починає прискорено випрямлятися. При відсутності опору води судно увійшло б в незатухаючі коливання навколо положення рівноваги при крені θст з амплітудою від 0 до θдин. Але практично, через опір води коливання швидко згасають і судно залишається плавати зі статичним кутом крену θстДинамічний вплив моменту, що викликає крен завжди є небезпечнішим за статичний, так як призводить до більших нахилів. У межах прямолінійної частини діаграми статичної остійності, динамічний кут крену приблизно у два рази більший від статичного: θдин θ ≈ 2 ст .
Див. також
Стійкість плавучих тіл
Примітки
Джерела
Справочник по теории корабля: В трёх томах. Том 2. Статика судов. Качка судов / под ред. Я. И. Войткунского. — Л.: Судостроение, 1985. — 440 с.
Семёнов-Тян-Шанский В. В. Статика и динамика корабля. — Л.: Судостроение, 1973.
Новиков А. И. Грузовая марка морских судов. — Севастополь: Кручинин Л. Ю., 2006. — 160 с. — ISBN 966-8389-17-4
Донцов C. B. Основы теории судна: учебное пособие/ С. В. Донцов.- Одесса: Феникс, 2007. — 142 с.
Сизов В. Г. Теория корабля: Учебник/ В. Г. Сизов. — Одесса: Феникс, М.:ТрансЛит. 2008. — 464 с.
И. Ф. Хурс Практические расчеты мореходных качеств судна. Измаил: Измаильский Морской Тренажерный Центр, 2001. — 28 с.
Світлий Ю. Г., Білецький В. С.. Гідравлічний транспорт (монографія). — Донецьк: Східний видавничий дім, Донецьке відділення НТШ, «Редакція гірничої енциклопедії», 2009. — 436 с. — ISBN 978-966-317-038-1
Посилання
Регістр судноплавства України
Перестюк І. Основи статики судна: плавучість та остійність у журналі «Шкіпер»
Перестюк І. Основи статики судна: остійність — значні нахили у журналі «Шкіпер»
Перестюк І.'' Основи статики судна: динамічна остійність у журналі «Шкіпер»
Теорія корабля
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Japanese%20Grand%20Prix
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2008 Japanese Grand Prix
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2008 Japanese Grand Prix
The 2008 Japanese Grand Prix (officially the 2008 Formula 1 Fuji Television Japanese Grand Prix) was a Formula One motor race held on 12 October 2008, at the Fuji Speedway, Oyama, Japan. It was the 16th race of the 2008 Formula One World Championship. Fernando Alonso for the Renault team won the 67-lap race from fourth position on the starting grid. Robert Kubica finished second for BMW Sauber, and Kimi Räikkönen third for Ferrari.
Lewis Hamilton, the eventual Drivers' Champion, led the Championship going into the race, and started from pole position alongside Räikkönen. Hamilton's McLaren teammate Heikki Kovalainen began from third, next to Alonso. At the first corner Hamilton braked late, forcing Räikkönen wide. Hamilton was later given a penalty, and was criticised by the British racing press for overaggressive driving. Ferrari driver Felipe Massa, Hamilton's principal Championship rival, was penalised after an incident on lap two in which he touched Hamilton's car, causing it to spin. The incident dropped Hamilton to the back of the field, from where he was unable to regain a points scoring position. Massa later collided with Sébastien Bourdais of Toro Rosso. Bourdais was penalised after the race, and demoted from sixth to tenth position. The penalty prompted widespread criticism from the racing media and ex-drivers.
The victory was Alonso's second consecutive win; he started from 15th on the grid to win the two weeks prior. Kubica held off a determined attack from Räikkönen in the closing laps to take second place. Massa's seventh place narrowed his gap to Hamilton in the Drivers' Championship to five points. Ferrari established a seven-point lead over the McLaren team in the Constructors' Championship, with two races of the season remaining.
Background
The 2008 Japanese Grand Prix was the 16th round in the 2008 Formula One World Championship and took place on 12 October 2008, at the Fuji Speedway, in Oyama, Japan. The Grand Prix was contested by 20 drivers, in ten teams of two. The teams, also known as "constructors", were Ferrari, McLaren-Mercedes, Renault, Honda, Force India, BMW Sauber, Toyota, Red Bull Racing, Williams and Toro Rosso.
Prior to the race, McLaren driver Lewis Hamilton led the Drivers' Championship with 84 points, and Ferrari driver Felipe Massa was second with 77 points. Behind them in the Drivers' Championship, Robert Kubica was third with 64 points in a BMW Sauber, and Massa's Ferrari teammate Kimi Räikkönen was fourth with 57 points. Kubica's teammate Nick Heidfeld was fifth with 56 points. In the Constructors' Championship, McLaren–Mercedes were leading with 135 points, one point ahead of their rivals Ferrari, whom they had overtaken at the previous race. BMW Sauber were third with 120 points. In the battle for fourth place, Renault had 51 points, five points ahead of Toyota.
A botched pit stop at the had demoted Massa from first position to the back of field. Ferrari decided to give up pitstop light system and revert to the commonly used lollipop man. With three races remaining in the Championship and a seven-point deficit, Massa remained confident about his title chances: "If you look at what happened to me in Singapore where my gap went from one point to seven so suddenly, then you have to consider it could easily go the other way as well." Hamilton emphasised the value that a conservative racing strategy could hold for his title chances:
Fernando Alonso's victory at the Singapore Grand Prix was his first Formula One win since rejoining the Renault team, after driving for McLaren in 2007. After qualifying in 15th and making an early pit stop, Alonso had managed to jump to the front of the race when his teammate Nelson Piquet Jr. crashed. Left with no opportunity to pit, the frontrunners had to delay their stops until the damage was cleared, allowing the heavily fuelled Alonso to move to the front once they did so. Though Alonso questioned whether his Renault team could match the pace of Ferrari and McLaren at Fuji, he said "We must remain focussed and try to repeat our level of performance from Singapore to fight at the front." Renault's technical director Bob Bell said that the team's improvement from the start of the season was encouraging, but "we recognise that we're not going to overhaul McLaren and Ferrari this season". Bell said that the objective for the last races was to win more Grands Prix and, importantly, secure fourth position in the Constructors' Championship from Toyota.
The Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), the sport's governing body, launched the Formula One component of their Make Cars Green campaign at the Japanese Grand Prix. For the weekend, the grooves in the tyres were painted green to promote environmentally friendly driving. FIA president Max Mosley said "The FIA is determined to ensure that future investment in motor sport will also help drive the development of technologies that will benefit the public at large." As is normal for a Formula One race, Bridgestone brought two different tyre compounds to the race; the softer of the two marked by a single white stripe down one of the grooves.
Practice
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race—two on Friday, and a third on Saturday. The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted 90 minutes. The third session was held on Saturday morning and lasted an hour. The Friday sessions were held in dry and sunny conditions. Hamilton was quickest in the first session, with a time of 1:18.910 that was less than two-tenths of a second faster than Massa. McLaren driver Heikki Kovalainen was just off Massa's pace; Räikkönen, Alonso and Piquet rounded out the top six, still within a second of Hamilton's time. In the second practice session, Timo Glock, of Toyota, was fastest with a time of 1:18.383, ahead of Alonso, Hamilton, Massa, Räikkönen and Red Bull driver Mark Webber. The top seventeen drivers set times within a second of Glock's fastest lap, indicating a competitive field. Honda tried the new traffic light system, to inform the driver when to pull away from their pitstop, for the first time. The Saturday morning session was held on a damp track, where grip was poor and many drivers were forced to use the run-off areas after sliding off the track. Kubica was quickest with his final lap of the session at 1:25.087; Glock, Piquet, Nick Heidfeld of BMW, Kazuki Nakajima of Williams, Red Bull driver David Coulthard, and Massa rounded out the top seven positions. Hamilton managed only eleventh, but was ahead of Kovalainen and Räikkönen, in 16th and 17th positions, respectively. Both Adrian Sutil and Giancarlo Fisichella of Force India spent most of the session in their garage, suffering numerous mechanical problems.
Qualifying
The qualifying session on Saturday afternoon was split into three parts. The first part ran for 20 minutes, and cars that finished the session 16th or lower were eliminated from qualifying. The second part of qualifying lasted 15 minutes and eliminated cars that finished in positions 11 to 15. The final part of qualifying determined the positions from first to tenth, and decided pole position. Cars which failed to make the final session could refuel before the race, so ran lighter in those sessions. Cars which competed in the final session of qualifying were not allowed to refuel before the race, and as such carried more fuel than in the previous sessions.
Hamilton clinched his sixth pole position of the season with a lap time of 1:18.404. He was joined on the front row by Räikkönen, who was fastest for most of the final session. Provisionally sitting in third as the session drew to a close, Massa was pushed back to fifth as Kovalainen and Alonso put in last-minute laps to fill the second row of the grid. Kubica took sixth place, ahead of both Toyota cars of Jarno Trulli and Glock and the Toro Rossos of Sebastian Vettel and Sébastien Bourdais. Coulthard bettered teammate Webber when he qualified 11th; Piquet split the Red Bull drivers in 12th. The only Japanese driver in the field, Nakajima, managed 14th ahead of his Williams teammate Nico Rosberg. Heidfeld could only achieve 16th place, ten places behind his BMW teammate Kubica. Heidfeld spent the majority of the first session struggling with the set-up of his car. The Honda cars of Rubens Barrichello and Jenson Button filled the ninth row in front of the constructor's home crowd. The Force Indias qualified last; Sutil comfortably outqualified his teammate Fisichella by 0.8 seconds, to sit in 19th place.
Qualifying classification
Race
The conditions on the grid were dry before the race. The air temperature was and the track temperature was ; conditions were expected to remain consistent throughout the race. Most of the frontrunners began the race on the harder compound tyre; only Massa was using the softer option. The attendance on the day of the Grand Prix was 105,000 people. Räikkönen accelerated faster than Hamilton off the line, getting ahead of him down the first straight, but the McLaren driver pulled into the Ferrari's slipstream, before swerving to overtake Räikkönen in the inside of the corner. Going into the first corner, Hamilton badly locked-up his front wheels while braking and ran wide; although there was no contact, Räikkönen was also forced wide in avoidance. This was then followed by contact with Kovalainen, which finally forced Räikkönen off the track. All three drivers dropped back down the field as a result of the incident. Kubica took the lead ahead of Alonso and Kovalainen after the corner, avoiding collisions as other cars locked their tyres on the cold track. Fisichella drove into the back of Barrichello, scattering carbon fibre over the track. Coulthard collided with Bourdais and then Piquet, sustaining suspension damage and sliding into the barriers after turn two. Nakajima left the track trying to avoid Coulthard, although he managed to rejoin after losing his front wing. The Japanese driver made a pit stop at the end of the lap for a new wing.
At the end of the first lap, Kubica led from Alonso, Kovalainen, Trulli, Massa, Hamilton and Räikkönen. On lap two, Massa braked late into the chicane at turn 10, briefly letting Hamilton past, before running over the kerbs on the exit from the corner and hitting the McLaren driver's car. Hamilton was spun round by the contact and made a pit stop at the end of the lap for new tyres and more fuel, which dropped him to 18th place. Massa continued in seventh place. On lap eight Räikkönen passed Trulli into turn 10 to take fourth position. In third place, more than a second ahead of the Ferrari driver, Kovalainen set a new fastest lap of 1:19.258 on lap 12 to which Räikkönen responded with a 1:19.193 four laps later. Two more drivers joined Coulthard in retirement before the first round of fuel stops: Glock made a pit stop on lap five and again on lap six, before retiring because of handling difficulties resulting from a broken seat fixing; Sutil retired on lap nine with a puncture caused by running over carbon fibre shards.
On lap 17, Massa and Hamilton were given drive-through penalties, Massa for colliding with Hamilton and Hamilton for forcing Räikkönen off the track into turn one. Hamilton took his penalty immediately. Massa made a pit stop for fuel and tyres on the next lap, before coming into the pit lane again on lap 20 to serve his penalty, which dropped him to 14th place, one place ahead of Hamilton. Meanwhile, Kubica and Räikkönen made pit stops on lap 17 for tyres and fuel. On the same lap, Kovalainen pulled over to the side of the track with engine problems and retired from the race. Alonso made a pit stop on lap 18, emerging ahead of Kubica to take the provisional lead, with cars in front still to pit. Trulli, Vettel and Bourdais made pit stops over the following six laps. Fisichella retired from the race with gearbox problems on lap 21. Piquet took his first pit stop on lap 28, emerging ahead of Bourdais as Alonso opened the gap on Kubica to 7.8 seconds. Massa overtook Button to take 12th position one lap later.
Alonso lapped consistently in the low 1:19 range, setting the new fastest lap of the race on lap 41, a 1:19.101, to extend his lead over Kubica to more than 12 seconds. Räikkönen was five seconds behind Kubica in third. Alonso made a pit stop for the second time on lap 43 and changed to the softer compound tyre. Kubica, complaining of understeer over the team radio, made his second stop on lap 46, two laps ahead of Räikkönen. Trulli, Bourdais, Vettel and Piquet made pit stops over the next five laps, their teams giving them sufficient fuel to finish the race. As Bourdais exited the pit-lane in seventh place on lap 51, Massa, who was eighth, but yet to make his final pit stop, attempted to pass him and the two cars collided at the first corner. Massa spun, but rejoined the race behind Bourdais. Three laps later, the stewards announced that they were investigating the incident, and would make their decision after the race. On lap 52, Räikkönen attempted to pass Kubica on the approach to turn one after drafting behind him up the straight, but Kubica drove right as a blocking manoeuvre, braked late, and defended his position. On the following lap Kubica attempted to replicate his block, but Räikkönen out-braked him into turn one, and the two drew alongside. Kubica held the inside line on the turn three left-hander, and drove the racing line as Räikkönen left the track at the run-off area. Räikkönen then rejoined behind the BMW driver. Kubica faced similar challenges from Räikkönen over the next two laps into turn one, but he successfully defended his position.
Massa made a pit stop on lap 53, and rejoined behind Heidfeld in tenth. He subsequently set the fastest lap of the race on lap 55, a 1:18.426. Meanwhile, Piquet was able to close the gap on Räikkönen to under a second, before losing time by running wide at turn five on lap 60. Massa passed Heidfeld for ninth on the same lap, and began closing in on Webber. On lap 65, Massa drafted down the straight and attempted to pass Webber, who defended his position by driving to the right. Crossing the track boundary into the end of the pit-lane, Massa managed to pass Webber, and out-braked him into turn one, to take eighth place. Alonso crossed the finish line on lap 67 to take his second win of the season, five seconds ahead of Kubica. Räikkönen was third, ahead of Piquet, Trulli, Bourdais, Vettel and Massa. Webber took ninth on the line, ahead of Heidfeld, who struggled with a heavy car and failed to improve on a poor qualifying performance. Rosberg finished in front of Hamilton, in 11th. Barrichello and Button took the next two positions; both drivers blamed their Honda cars for their uncompetitive performance at the Fuji circuit. Nakajima finished last, in 15th, unable to recover after his forced pit-stop early in the race.
Post-race
The top three finishers appeared in the subsequent press conference where Alonso said that the decision to run a shorter second stint than Kubica (between the first and second pit stops) was his decision: "Sometimes you can do it, sometimes you can't but today the car was perfect and I was able to do it." Alonso added that he had confidence in the car to perform at the remaining Grands Prix: "The feeling I have now is that we can do anything". Kubica said that his second-placed finish was better than his win at the earlier in the season. He added that to finish on the podium after BMW Sauber's failure to improve the car from the beginning of the season was a "great result for the team in, I think, a very difficult moment". Räikkönen said that he was "a bit disappointed because being in first place in the first corner but then being pushed out didn't help and being in the front could have given us a better result but anyhow, that's racing". He added that Kovalainen's impact with him at the first corner had caused handling difficulties in his car, which left him unable to improve on his third-placed finish.
Forty minutes after the race, Bourdais received a 25-second penalty from the stewards for his collision with Massa on lap 50. This demoted him from sixth to tenth, and promoted Massa to seventh, giving him one more Championship point. Bourdais blamed Massa for the incident:
Massa denied responsibility, and agreed with the stewards' decision: "I think there's little to say: I had already entered the turn and he hit me from behind, spinning me round." The penalty was largely criticized in the media. GrandPrix.com called the penalty "bizarre", saying that Bourdais "could not just disappear". James Allen of ITV said that in light of FIA race director Charlie Whiting's announcement prior to the race, which indicated that cars exiting the pit-lane would have right of way, the penalty was "ridiculous". French sporting newspaper L'Équipe criticized the stewards for their intervention, saying that both drivers held their lines and the collision was just a racing incident. Mark Blundell, who drove in Formula One for five years, called for former drivers to be part of the stewards meetings which award penalties: "You can examine pieces of paper, graphs, telemetry, but you don't know what's going on in a driver's brain until you've experienced it." Blundell's suggestion eventually became fact – the 2010 season introduced a system whereby a former Formula One driver acted as a steward during each Grand Prix.
Lewis Hamilton was criticized for his aggressive drive into the first corner by much of the British press. Edward Gorman of The Times described Hamilton's move as "impetuosity and untamed aggression", adding that Hamilton "gambled with a kamikaze attempt to get past Räikkönen". The BBC's Andrew Benson said that "Hamilton is still in a strong position but the Englishman will have to cut out the mistakes that have characterised his season if he is not to lose the championship for the second year in a row." In Italy, La Gazzetta dello Sport said that Hamilton's start suffered from "his usual excessive aggression". Hamilton said "I made a mistake and I paid for it."
Massa's touch on Hamilton's car on lap two was labelled by the McLaren driver "as deliberate as it could be". Massa rejected the allegation, saying "I had two wheels on the gravel. I could not stop the car and I was on the gravel because he pushed me into the gravel." Media coverage of the incident suggested that though the contact was Massa's fault, it was unintentional. Simon Arron, writing for The Daily Telegraph, said Hamilton's accusation of deliberate contact was "unworthy and unwise", adding that the contact was simply a racing incident. The gap between the drivers in the Drivers' Championship after the race stood at five points, in Hamilton's favour, with two races remaining. In the Constructors' Championship, McLaren's failure to score points, combined with Ferrari's third and seventh, moved Ferrari to a seven-point lead.
Race classification
– Sébastien Bourdais was given a 25-second penalty for colliding with Massa.
Championship standings after the race
Drivers' Championship standings
Constructors' Championship standings
Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.
Bold text and an asterisk indicates competitors who still had a theoretical chance of becoming World Champion.
References
External links
Official FIA results
Japanese Grand Prix
Japanese Grand Prix
Grand Prix
Japanese Grand Prix
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Wallace%20Campbell
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William Wallace Campbell
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William Wallace Campbell (April 11, 1862 – June 14, 1938) was an American astronomer, and director of Lick Observatory from 1901 to 1930. He specialized in spectroscopy. He was the tenth president of the University of California from 1923 to 1930.
Biography
He was born on a farm in Hancock County, Ohio, the son of Robert Wilson and Harriet Welsh Campbell. After a few years of local schooling he entered in 1882 the University of Michigan to study civil engineering, graduating Bachelor of Science in 1886. Whilst at university he developed his interest in astronomy when he read Simon Newcomb's Popular Astronomy.
After graduating he was appointed Professor of Mathematics at the University of Colorado but soon moved back to Michigan as an instructor in astronomy. In 1891 he was invited to work on spectroscopy at Lick Observatory in California. Campbell was a pioneer of astronomical spectroscopy and catalogued the radial velocities of stars. He was also recognized for his work in solar eclipse photography. In 1893 he discovered the Wolf–Rayet star HD 184738 (also known as Campbell's hydrogen envelope star). He was made a director of Lick Observatory from 1901 to 1930.
In August 1914, Campbell and Erwin Freundlich of the Berlin Observatory were in Russia to photograph a solar eclipse, in an early attempt to test the validity of Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity. The outbreak of World War I (and in particular Germany's declaration of war against Russia) led to the seizure of Freundlich and his equipment in the Crimea by Russian officers. Campbell, from neutral America, was permitted to continue with his plans, but cloud cover obscured the eclipse. Campbell undertook another attempt to photograph a solar eclipse on June 8, 1918, in Goldendale, in Washington state. But his precision photographic equipment had been retained in Russia four years earlier, and he had to improvise the needed apparatus from existing equipment at the Lick Observatory. The cameras he used were not adequate to provide the measurement accuracy needed to confirm the deflection of star light predicted by Einstein's theory. The equipment from Russia was finally shipped back on August 15, 1917, arriving August 21 the following year.
Confirmation of Einstein's theory came in 1919 in the wake of an expedition led by Arthur Eddington to photograph the eclipse of May 29, 1919. But some uncertainty remained, as well as scepticism fueled in part by anti-German sentiment in the wake of World War I. Final and uncontested confirmation is generally dated to Campbell's 1922 Lick Observatory expedition to Australia to photograph the solar eclipse. Campbell's report of the results state that the observations "furnish a value … which agrees exactly with Einstein's prediction."
He served as 10th President of the University of California from 1923 to 1930. He also served on the board of trustees for Science Service, now known as Society for Science & the Public, from 1923 to 1926. He served three terms as president of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific (in 1895, 1909 and 1918).
He committed suicide in California at the age of 76 by leaping to his death from a fourth-story window in San Francisco. He was mostly blind and suffering from bouts of aphasia. This was not only very frustrating to him, but he felt that it left him a burden to his family in terms of care and expense, according to notes he left behind at the time of his death. He married Elizabeth Ballard Thompson in 1892; they had three sons (one of them was WWI ace Douglas Campbell).
Honors and awards
Elected member of the United States National Academy of Sciences (1902)
Lalande Medal of the French Academy of Sciences (1903)
Elected Member of the American Philosophical Society (1903)
Henry Draper Medal from the National Academy of Sciences (1906)
Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1906)
Janssen Medal (1910)
Elected member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1911)
Bruce Medal (1915)
Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London (1918)
Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1920)
Trustee of the Carnegie Institution (1929–1938)
Crater Campbell on the Moon
Crater on Mars
Asteroid 2751 Campbell
Campbell Hall on the University of California, Berkeley campus
Crocker expeditions led by Campbell
Charles Frederick Crocker and William Henry Crocker financed numerous Lick-Crocker solar eclipse expeditions. Campbell led several of these expeditions.
Solar eclipse of January 22, 1898, Jeur, Maharashtra, India
Solar eclipse of May 28, 1900, Thomaston, Georgia
Solar eclipse of August 30, 1905, Alhama, Spain
Solar eclipse of January 3, 1908, Flint Island, Kiribati
Solar eclipse of August 21, 1914, Brovary, Ukraine
Solar eclipse of June 8, 1918, Goldendale, Washington
Solar eclipse of September 21, 1922, Wallal, Australia
Family
He married Elizabeth Ballard Thompson in 1892; they had three sons (one of them was WWI ace Douglas Campbell). Elizabeth contributed greatly to Campbell's work and played an important role in his success as a scientist. She adopted the role of hostess during his time as director of the Lick Observatory, also undertaking public relations work on behalf of the Observatory by writing letters to staff and potential donors and supporters of her husband's work. Elizabeth organised many of the expeditions that Campbell led, arranging the expedition members travel, food, supplies and living quarters. She contributed to the work of the expeditions by undertaking astronomical spectroscopy, developing plates and extensively documented the expeditions including writing two manuscripts.
References
External links
Bruce Medal page
National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
Portraits of William Wallace Campbell from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, UC Santa Cruz Library's Digital Collections
1862 births
1938 suicides
1938 deaths
People from Hancock County, Ohio
American astronomers
University of California regents
Recipients of the Bruce Medal
Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)
Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Recipients of the Lalande Prize
University of Michigan College of Engineering alumni
Leaders of the University of California, Berkeley
University of Colorado faculty
University of Michigan faculty
Presidents of the International Astronomical Union
Members of the American Philosophical Society
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629707
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolochenaz
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Tolochenaz
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Tolochenaz is a municipality in the Swiss canton of Vaud, located in the district of Morges.
Geography
Tolochenaz lies on the northern shore of Lake Geneva west of Lausanne.
Tolochenaz has an area, , of . Of this area, or 34.6% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 6.9% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 57.2% is settled (buildings or roads) and or 1.3% is unproductive land.
In the built up area, industrial buildings made up 11.3% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 25.8% and transportation infrastructure made up 15.7%. while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 3.8%. Out of the forested land, 3.8% of the total land area is heavily forested and 3.1% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 17.0% is used for growing crops and 3.1% is pastures, while 14.5% is used for orchards or vine crops.
The municipality was part of the Morges District until it was dissolved on 31 August 2006, when Tolochenaz became part of the new district of Morges.
Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Quartered Argent and Gules, overall Fasces topped with feathered hat all Or.
Notable residents
A notable resident was actress Audrey Hepburn, who lived there from 1963 until her death in 1993 and is buried there.
Other famous residents include the legendary tenor Nicolai Gedda, who lived in retirement there with his wife, and the dancer Zizi Jeanmaire.
Demographics
Tolochenaz has a population of . , 26.8% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1999–2009 ) the population has changed at a rate of 2%. It has changed at a rate of -6.9% due to migration and at a rate of 8.7% due to births and deaths.
Most of the population speaks French (1,386 or 84.2%), with German being second most common (85 or 5.2%) and Portuguese being third (42 or 2.6%). There are 39 people who speak Italian and 1 person who speaks Romansh.
Of the population in the municipality 237 or about 14.4% were born in Tolochenaz and lived there in 2000. There were 639 or 38.8% who were born in the same canton, while 299 or 18.2% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 430 or 26.1% were born outside of Switzerland.
In there were 9 live births to Swiss citizens and 6 births to non-Swiss citizens, and in same time span there were 5 deaths of Swiss citizens and 1 non-Swiss citizen death. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens increased by 4 while the foreign population increased by 5. There were 2 Swiss men who immigrated back to Switzerland and 2 Swiss women who emigrated from Switzerland. At the same time, there were 10 non-Swiss men and 14 non-Swiss women who immigrated from another country to Switzerland. The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was a decrease of 1 and the non-Swiss population increased by 17 people. This represents a population growth rate of 0.9%.
The age distribution, , in Tolochenaz is; 212 children or 12.4% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 188 teenagers or 11.0% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 201 people or 11.8% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 260 people or 15.3% are between 30 and 39, 293 people or 17.2% are between 40 and 49, and 224 people or 13.2% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 167 people or 9.8% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 109 people or 6.4% are between 70 and 79, there are 44 people or 2.6% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 5 people or 0.3% who are 90 and older.
, there were 686 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 806 married individuals, 45 widows or widowers and 109 individuals who are divorced.
, there were 698 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.3 persons per household. There were 219 households that consist of only one person and 41 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 706 households that answered this question, 31.0% were households made up of just one person. Of the rest of the households, there are 192 married couples without children, 230 married couples with children There were 53 single parents with a child or children. There were 4 households that were made up of unrelated people and 8 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.
there were 160 single family homes (or 62.5% of the total) out of a total of 256 inhabited buildings. There were 65 multi-family buildings (25.4%), along with 16 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (6.3%) and 15 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (5.9%). Of the single family homes 12 were built before 1919, while 17 were built between 1990 and 2000. The greatest number of single family homes (51) were built between 1981 and 1990. The most multi-family homes (19) were built between 1971 and 1980 and the next most (14) were built between 1981 and 1990. There were 4 multi-family houses built between 1996 and 2000.
there were 787 apartments in the municipality. The most common apartment size was 3 rooms of which there were 251. There were 53 single room apartments and 150 apartments with five or more rooms. Of these apartments, a total of 676 apartments (85.9% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 50 apartments (6.4%) were seasonally occupied and 61 apartments (7.8%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 0 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0.12%.
The historical population is given in the following chart:
Politics
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SP which received 21.29% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (20.93%), the Green Party (17.54%) and the FDP (12.43%). In the federal election, a total of 458 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 47.0%.
Economy
Medtronic has its Europe/Asia headquarters in Tolochenaz.
, Tolochenaz had an unemployment rate of 5.2%. , there were 4 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 1 business involved in this sector. 604 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 22 businesses in this sector. 1,110 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 59 businesses in this sector. There were 883 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 43.8% of the workforce.
the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 1,613. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 3, all of which were in agriculture. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 581 of which 502 or (86.4%) were in manufacturing and 59 (10.2%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 1,029. In the tertiary sector; 179 or 17.4% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 267 or 25.9% were in the movement and storage of goods, 20 or 1.9% were in a hotel or restaurant, 71 or 6.9% were the insurance or financial industry, 289 or 28.1% were technical professionals or scientists, 40 or 3.9% were in education and 1 was in health care.
, there were 1,119 workers who commuted into the municipality and 718 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 1.6 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving. About 2.8% of the workforce coming into Tolochenaz are coming from outside Switzerland. Of the working population, 19.7% used public transportation to get to work, and 63% used a private car.
Religion
From the , 626 or 38.0% were Roman Catholic, while 596 or 36.2% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 7 members of an Orthodox church (or about 0.43% of the population), there were 2 individuals (or about 0.12% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 100 individuals (or about 6.08% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There was 1 individual who was Jewish, and 27 (or about 1.64% of the population) who were Muslim. There were 7 individuals who were Buddhist and 4 individuals who belonged to another church. 233 (or about 14.16% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 93 individuals (or about 5.65% of the population) did not answer the question.
Education
In Tolochenaz about 627 or (38.1%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 285 or (17.3%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 285 who completed tertiary schooling, 53.7% were Swiss men, 26.7% were Swiss women, 12.3% were non-Swiss men and 7.4% were non-Swiss women.
In the 2009/2010 school year there were a total of 212 students in the Tolochenaz school district. In the Vaud cantonal school system, two years of non-obligatory pre-school are provided by the political districts. During the school year, the political district provided pre-school care for a total of 631 children of which 203 children (32.2%) received subsidized pre-school care. The canton's primary school program requires students to attend for four years. There were 123 students in the municipal primary school program. The obligatory lower secondary school program lasts for six years and there were 86 students in those schools. There were also 3 students who were home schooled or attended another non-traditional school.
, there were 15 students in Tolochenaz who came from another municipality, while 213 residents attended schools outside the municipality.
References
External links
Official website
Populated places on Lake Geneva
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236505
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%86%D1%8C
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Чортовець
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Чортовець (в радянські часи — Назаренкове — село в Україні, у Городенківській міській громаді Коломийського району Івано-Франківської області.
Відповідно до Розпорядження Кабінету Міністрів України від 12 червня 2020 року № 714-р «Про визначення адміністративних центрів та затвердження територій територіальних громад Івано-Франківської області» увійшло до складу Городенківської міської громади.
Опис
Село Чортовець розташоване на відстані 18 км від центру громади, за 6 км від залізничної станції Острівець. Через село проходить шосе. Населення села — 3030 осіб.
Географія
Селом протікає річка Сага.
Археологія
Давніми слідами проживання людини на місцевості, де утворилось село, є знаряддя праці скребки, придатні до різання і здирання шкіри тварин палеолітичного віку близько 40-20 тисяч років до н. е. Про пізньопалеолітичні контакти, що були між людьми, свідчать матеріали, знайдені недалеко між с. Чортовець і с. Незвисько (північно західна сторона).
З пам'яток матеріальної культури доби неоліту близько 5-2,5 тис. років до н. е. виявлено такі знахідки: в основному камінні сокири, глиняний посуд із зображенням спіралей, а також кістяні вироби.
Близько с. Чортовець на межі з с. Острівець, знайдено свідчення людської діяльності часів бронзової доби — це вироби з чистої міді, а пізніше з бронзи. Це серпи, ножі, наконечники списів тощо.
Історія
Перші свідчення проживання ранньослов'янських племен є знахідки глиняного посуду 6-9 століття. З 9 по 10 століття територію і околиці теперішнього села населяло слов'янське плем'я білих хорватів.
У князівську добу свідченням заселення села є виявлені неукріплені поселення сільського типу Городенківщини в тому числі с.Незвисько, неподалік від села Чортовець. До середини 14 ст. територія села Чортовець входила до складу Галицько-Волинського князівства з навколишніми селами.
Згадується 28 квітня 1462 року в книгах галицького суду.
Починаючи з 16 ст. населення піддавалось нападам татар.
Всередині 17 століття на Галичині розгорілося величезне на той час повстання під проводом Семена Височана, загін якого проходив через село. Восени 1648 року мешканці села приєдналися до повстанського загону.
Після надання м. Городенці (теперішньому райцентру) Магдебурзького права з середини 18 ст. в селі стали поселятися євреї. З 1772 р. після першого поділу Речі Посполитої вся Городенківщина, в тому числі і Чортовець увійшли до складу Австрійської імперії.
В 1856 р. в селі була заснована однокласна школа.
У 1870-х рр. відомий львівський краєзнавець Антоній Шнайдер опрацював для Чортівця (як колишнього містечка) проект герба: на червоному тлі зелений, обернений назад дракон, з пащі якого виходить полум'я (ЛНБ ім. В.Стефаника. — Відділ рукописів. — Ф. 144. — Оп. 5. — Спр. 5. — Арк. 276).
Під час Другої світової війни
22 червня 1941 року зазнали бомбардувань сусідні з Чортівцем населені пункти.
Більшість громадян єврейської нації зазнали репресій з боку нацистів. В селі було їх 36 родин. Їм дали наказ зібратись в Городенці. Відібрали в них всі цінні речі і дозволили решті повернутися, але житло було в них відібране. Шевці, кушніри, кравці, жили у людей в комірних і працювали. За нацистською термінологією «Єврейське питання» остаточно було вирішене зимою 1941—1943 рр. Євреїв села знову зігнали в гетто, декого з євреїв місцеві жителі переховували в своїх оселях. Це Ленцегер Гершко і його син Абрум, Е. Карлік Саля (22 р.) у громадянина Борисевича П. І., Срумшина Сара з дитиною у Водянчика М. І. Після визволення вони переїхали у м. Чернівці.
У зв'язку з тим, що фронт зупинився на довгий час, довелося евакувати прифронтові села, в тому числі і Чортовець. Евакуація жителів села відбулася 7 травня 1944 року. На підводах селяни прибули у села Снятинського району Красноставці, Підвисоке, Трофанівка, Балинці. І там проживали майже 2 місяці.
Радянський період
Внаслідок посухи 1946 р. до осені 1947 р. значна частина населення була охоплена голодом.
У 1948 р. відкрито сільський клуб з бібліотекою. У 1948 р. почалась організація колгоспів. У селі було створено 4 колгоспи. У 1950 році в селі було відкрито дільничу лікарню в приміщенні резиденції священика. В 1971 році збудовано новий Будинок культури (Народний Дім). При Народному домі є бібліотека на 15 тисяч книг, працюють різні гуртки художньої самодіяльності. В останні роки побудовано дитячий садок на 140 місць. З 1989 року розпочато газифікацію села і продовжується і зараз.
В 1976 р. село було перейменоване на Назаренкове, на честь полковника, Героя Радянського Союзу Назаренка П. Д., що загинув на Івано-Франківщині, у 1993 р. повернена історична назва.
Сьогодення
У селі діють початкова та середня школа, клуб, 2 бібліотеки; медичний пункт. Закладено парк і 2 сквери.
Село спеціалізується на вирощуванні капусти і здобуло славу «капустяної столиці Західної України».
Також село відоме унікальною гаївкою-танцем «Сербен», яку танцюють на Провідну неділю чоловіки села з давніх-давен.
Пам'ятки місцевого значення
Церква Пресвятої Трійці (мур.); 1790 р.; реєстраційний номер 410-іф (Коломийська єпархія УГКЦ ).
Церква святого Миколая (дер.); 1906 р.; реєстраційний номер 698. (Коломийська єпархія УПЦ КП).
Обертинська Долина — ботанічний заказник.
Відомі люди
Вихідці із Чортівця
д-р Борковський Іван — відомий археолог, вчений зі світовим ім'ям, дослідник Празького граду.Чомусь у вікіпедії записано с. Раковець, а не Чортовець, як місце народження.
д-р Іван Головацький — доктор біологічних наук, професор, голова Громадської ради «Музею визвольної боротьби України».
Гурак Ігор Федорович (* 1978) — український історик, кандидат історичних наук, доцент.
Ольга Плешкан — українська художниця.
Пов'язані з селом
Багато років працював у селі український поет Іван Дмитрович Плешкан (1866—1902).
Василь Стефаник
В червні-вересні 1900 року в селі перебував український письменник і громадський діяч Василь Стефаник. Тут він написав новели «Озимина», «Злодій», «Похорон», «Сон», «Такий панок», які згодом ввійшли до збірки «Кленові листки». Василь Стефаник гостював у свого товариша Івана Плешкана. Іван Дмитрович Плешкан (1866—1902) був родом з с. Тулова на Снятинщині.
Меморіальна дошка встановлена на фасаді Чортовецького Народного Дому.
Примітки
Джерела
Посилання
Історія села Чортовець Городенківського району
Села Івано-Франківської області
Населені пункти Коломийського району
Перейменовані населені пункти
1462 в Україні
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics%20of%20Barbados
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Demographics of Barbados
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Demographics of Barbados
This is a demography of Barbados including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
Population
At the 2010 census Barbados had an estimated population of 277,821. The tabulated population was only 226,193 due to a high undercount (estimated at 18%).
The estimated population of is .
Race
The population of Barbados is predominantly black (91%) or mixed (4%). 3.5% of the population is white and 1% South Asian. The remaining 0.5% of the population includes East Asians (0.1%).
Languages
English is the official language of Barbados, and is used for communications, administration, and public services all over the island. In its capacity as the official language of the country, the standard of English tends to conform to the vocabulary, pronunciations, spellings, and conventions akin to, but not exactly the same as, those of British English.
A regional variant of English referred to locally as Bajan is spoken by most Barbadians in everyday life especially in informal settings. In its full-fledged form, Bajan sounds markedly different from the Standard English heard on the island. The degree of intelligibility between Bajan and general English depends on the level of creolised vocabulary and idioms. A Bajan speaker may be completely unintelligible to an English speaker from another country. Bajan is influenced by other Caribbean English dialects.
Religion
According to the 2010 census, 75.6% of the population of Barbados are considered Christian, 2.6% have a non-Christian religion and 20.6% have no religion.
Anglicanism constitutes the largest religious group, with 23.9% of the population. It is represented by the Church in the Province of the West Indies, within which the island belongs to the Diocese of Barbados. Pentecostals are the second largest group (19.5%).
The next largest group are Seventh-day Adventists, 5.9% of the population, followed by Methodists (4.2%). 3.8% of the population are Roman Catholics. Other Christians include Wesleyans (3.4%), Nazarenes (3.2%), Church of God (2.4%), Jehovah's Witnesses (2.0%), Baptists (1.8), Moravians (1.2%), Brethren Christian (0.5%), the Salvationists (0.4%) and Latter-day Saints (0.1%).
The number of non-Christians is small. 0.7% of the population are Muslims, most of whom are immigrants or descendants of Indian immigrants from the Indian state of Gujarat. There are three mosques and an Islamic centre. Other religious groups include the Rastafarians (1.0% of the population), which was introduced to Barbados in 1975, Hindus (0.5%), Jews (0.05%), the Baháʼís (0.04%) and Buddhists.
Historical statistics
Structure of the population
Other demographics statistics
Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2019.
One birth every 180 minutes
One death every 206 minutes
One net migrant every Infinity minutes
Net gain of one person every 1440 minutes
Demographic statistics according to the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.
Nationality
noun: Barbadian(s) or Bajan (colloquial)
adjective: Barbadian or Bajan (colloquial)
Population
293,131 (July 2018 est.)
Ethnic groups
African descent 92.4%, mixed 3.1%, white 2.7%, East Indian 1.3%, other 0.2%, unspecified 0.3% (2010 est.)
Age structure
0-14 years: 17.8% (male 26,084 /female 26,090)
15-24 years: 12.53% (male 18,236 /female 18,479)
25-54 years: 43.69% (male 63,829 /female 64,249)
55-64 years: 13.62% (male 18,888 /female 21,043)
65 years and over: 12.36% (male 14,705 /female 21,528) (2018 est.)
Median age
total: 38.9 years. Country comparison to the world: 56th
male: 37.8 years
female: 40.1 years (2018 est.)
Birth rate
11.6 births/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 169th
Death rate
8.6 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 73rd
Total fertility rate
1.68 children born/woman (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 175th
Net migration rate
-0.3 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 114th
Population growth rate
0.26% (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 176th
Contraceptive prevalence rate
59.2% (2012)
Languages
English (official), Bajan (English-based creole language, widely spoken in informal settings)
Religions
Protestant 66.4% (includes Anglican 23.9%, other Pentecostal 19.5%, Adventist 5.9%, Methodist 4.2%, Wesleyan 3.4%, Nazarene 3.2%, Church of God 2.4%, Baptist 1.8%, Moravian 1.2%, other Protestant 0.9%), Roman Catholic 3.8%, other Christian 5.4% (includes Jehovah's Witness 2.0%, other 3.4%), Rastafarian 1%, other 1.5%, none 20.6%, unspecified 1.2% (2010 est.)
Population distribution
most densely populated country in the eastern Caribbean; approximately one-third live in urban areas
Life expectancy at birth
total population: 75.7 years
male: 73.3 years
female: 78.1 years (2018 est.)
Dependency ratios
total dependency ratio: 50.4 (2015 est.)
youth dependency ratio: 29.1 (2015 est.)
elderly dependency ratio: 21.3 (2015 est.)
potential support ratio: 4.7 (2015 est.)
Urbanization
urban population: 31.1% of total population (2018)
rate of urbanization: 0.2% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.)
Obesity - adult prevalence rate
23.1% (2016). Country comparison to the world: 67th
Literacy
definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2014 est.)
total population: 99.6%
male: 99%
female: 99.6% (2014)
School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)
total: 15 years
male: 14 years
female: 17 years (2011)
Unemployment, youth ages 15–24
total: 29.6%. Country comparison to the world: 32nd
male: 27.9%
female: 31.5% (2016 est.)
See also
Afro-Barbadian
Indians in Barbados
White Barbadian
List of supercentenarians by continent
References
External links
Barbados Statistical Service (BSS)
Barbados profile - The Commonwealth of Nations
Barbados Profile BGIS
CARICOM Stats
Society of Barbados
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arghun%20dynasty
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Arghun dynasty
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Arghun dynasty
The Arghun dynasty (Sindhi: ارغونن جي سلطنت) ruled over the area adjoining Southern Afghanistan and then the Sindh Sultanate from the late 15th century to the early 16th century. Arghun rule can be divided into two branches: the Arghun branch of Dhu'l-Nun Beg Arghun that ruled until 1554, and the Tarkhan branch of Muhammad Isa Tarkhan that ruled until 1593.
Ethnicity
The ethnicity of the Arghuns has been described as Turkish, Turco-Mongol, and Mongol.
Arghun governors of Kandahar
In the late 15th century, the Timurid sultan of Herat, Husayn Bayqarah, appointed Dhu'l-Nun Beg Arghun as governor of Kandahar. Dhu'l-Nun Beg soon began to ignore the authority of the central government in Herat and in around 1479 he began expanding in the direction of Baluchistan, taking over Pishin, Shal and Mastung. In 1485 his sons Shah Beg Arghun and Muhammad Mukim Khan also seized Sibi from the Samma dynasty of Sindh, although this gain was only temporary.
In 1497, Dhu'l-Nun Beg threw his support behind the revolt of Husayn Bayqarah's son Badi' al-Zaman against his father. Dhu'l-Nun Beg, who married off his daughter to Badi' al-Zaman, subsequently gained a prominent position in the latter's government when the Timurid succeeded Husayn Bayqarah in Herat in 1506. Unfortunately for them, the Uzbeks under Muhammad Shaybani invaded Khorasan shortly after Badi' al-Zaman's ascension. In 1507 Dhu'l-Nun Beg was killed in battle against the Uzbeks and succeeded by his sons Shah Beg and Mukim.
Wars with Babur
The Arghuns ultimately lost control of their portion of Afghanistan to the Timurid prince Babur, who had been expelled from Transoxiana by the Uzbeks and had made his way south to Husayn Bayqarah's kingdom. In 1501/1502 Mukim had peacefully gained the submission of Kabul, which was in chaos after the death of its ruler Ulugh Beg II. This was contested by Babur, who besieged and took the city in 1504; Mukim fell back to Kandahar.
After Dhu'l-Nun Beg's death Babur decided that as long as Shah Beg and Mukim remained in Kandahar they would remain a threat to them. In 1507 or 1508 he attacked them, but the brothers saved their position by agreeing to submit to the Uzbek Muhammad Shaybani. In the following years Babur spent his time fighting against the Uzbeks in an attempt to regain Samarkand, giving Shah Beg and Mukim a degree of respite.
Shah Beg Arghun, however, seems to have realized that in the long term it would be impossible to hold Kandahar against Babur. In 1520, in the hopes of establishing a new power base, he invaded Sindh, where the Samma dynasty was struggling under Jam Feroz. Shah Beg defeated Jam Feroz's army and proceeded to sack Thatta. The two sides agreed to a peace, where Shah Beg gained the upper half of Sindh (Thatta) while the Sammas retained the lower half (Bukkur). Jam Feroz almost immediately broke this agreement, but was defeated by Shah Beg and forced to flee to Gujarat. This marked the end of Samma rule in Sindh, as Shah Beg gained control of the whole region.
Arghun dynasty of Sindh
Arghun branch
In 1522 Babur took Kandahar after a drawn-out siege and annexed it. Following this, Shah Beg Arghun made Bukkur (Lower Sindh) his official capital. He died in 1524 and his son Shah Husayn succeeded him. Shah Husayn had the Khutba read in Babur's name and attacked Multan, capital of the Langah Sultanate, probably at Babur's insistence. Multan fell in 1528 after an extended siege and Shah Husayn appointed a governor of the city. Shortly after Shah Husayn departed Multan for Thatta, however, the governor was thrown out of the city. The rebels administered Multan for a time independently, but soon afterward submitted to the Mughal Empire, which had been founded by Babur after his capture of Delhi in 1526.
In 1540 Shah Husayn had to deal with the arrival of Babur's successor Humayun, who had been expelled from medieval India by Sher Shah Suri. Humayun implored Shah Husayn to provide assistance in fighting against Sher Shah Suri, but was unable to convince him to do so. Sometime after this Humayun later attempted to wrest Sindh from Shah Husayn, but the latter was able to force a stalemate. The Mughal Emperor eventually agreed to leave Sindh and made his way to Kandahar in 1543.
Shah Husayn became increasingly incapable of ruling as he approached the end of his life. Because of this, the nobles of Sindh decided to elect Mirza Muhammad 'Isa Tarkhan, who was a member of a senior branch of the Arghuns, as their ruler in 1554. Shah Husayn was set aside and died childless in 1556.
Tarkhan branch
During the civil war between Shah Husayn and Muhammad 'Isa Tarkhan, the latter had sent a request for the help to the Portuguese at Bassein. A 700-man force under the command of Pedro Barreto Rolim sailed up to Thatta in 1555, only to find that Muhammad 'Isa Tarkhan had already won the conflict and there was no need for their assistance. Furious at the governor of Thatta's refusal to pay them, the Portuguese sacked the defenseless city and killed several thousand people.
Muhammad 'Isa Tarkhan was soon forced to deal with a rival claimant, Sultan Mahmud Kokaltash reverently referred to as Sultan Mahmud Koka. He was eventually compelled to make peace with Sultan Mahmud; the two agreed that Muhammad 'Isa Tarkhan would keep lower Sindh, with his capital at Thatta, while Sultan Mahmud would rule upper Sindh from Bakhar. In 1567 Muhammad 'Isa Tarkhan died and was succeeded by his son Muhammad Baqi. During the latter's reign upper Sindh was annexed by the Mughal Emperor Akbar in 1573.
Mirza Muhammad Baqi committed suicide in 1585, and was succeeded by his son Mirza Jani Beg. In 1591 Akbar sent an army to conquer lower Sindh. Jani Beg put up a resistance but was defeated by the Mughal forces and his principality was annexed. In 1599 he died of delirium tremens.
See also
List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
List of Monarchs of Sindh
Notes
References
Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996.
Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. "Kabul." The Encyclopedia of Islam, Volume IV. New ed. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1978.
Davies, C. Collin. "Arghun." The Encyclopedia of Islam, Volume I. New ed. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1960.
Memoirs of Zehīr-ed-dīn Muhammed Bābur, Emperor of Hindustan. Trans. John Leyden & William Erskine. Annotated and edited by Lucas King. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, & Green, 1826.
Report of the Western Circle, 1898. 20 January 2005. Accessed 2 May 2008.
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Mongol dynasties
Dynasties of Afghanistan
Dynasties of Pakistan
Empires and kingdoms of Pakistan
History of Sindh
Sunni dynasties
1520 establishments in Asia
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168055
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%84-%D0%9B%D1%83%D1%97%20%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B6
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Жозеф-Луї Лагранж
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Жозеф-Луї Лагранж (народжений як Джузеппе Луїджі Лаґранджа, , або Джузеппе Людовіко Де ла Гранж Турньє, ; 25 січня 1736, Турин — 10 квітня 1813, Париж) — французький математик, фізик і астроном італійського походження. Член (1759), президент (1766—1787) Берлінської АН, іноземний почесний член Петербурзької АН (1776), член Бюро довгот у Парижі (1795).
Життєпис
Лагранж народився в Турині й перші роки життя працював у рідному місті. Уже в 19 років він запропонував у листі до Леонарда Ейлера метод невизначених множників, одразу ж завоювавши визнання в математичному світі.
Лагранж замінив Ейлера на посту президента Берлінської Академії, коли Ейлер від'їхав до Петербурга в 1767 р. На той час він уже мав славу першого математика Європи й прибув до Берліна на запрошення короля Прусії Фрідріха Великого. У Берліні Лагранж працював 20 років, і лише по смерті свого королівського покровителя прийняв запрошення французького короля Людовика XVI й переїхав до Парижу. Там одразу ж побачила світ головна книга вченого — «Аналітична механіка», але незабаром розпочалася Французька революція. Коли всіх іноземців виганяли з Парижа, для Лагранжа зробили виняток і навіть запросили його взяти участь в роботі Комітету Міри й Ваги, таким чином, він є одним з батьків метричної системи. Лагранж був один із фундаторів знаменитих шкіл: Нормальної й Політехнічної. Був нагороджений Наполеоном орденом Почесного легіону. Пізніше отримав також найвищу нагороду реставрованої монархії.
Похований у Пантеоні.
Внесок
Лагранж працював у багатьох галузях математики, розвинув нову галузь — варіаційне числення, зробив великий внесок у теорію диференційних рівнянь і методів апроксимації функцій.
Розроблений ним варіаційний метод знайшов застосування в механіці, яку Лагранж зумів сформулювати, виходячи із принципу найменшої дії.
Його заслугою в астрономії є завершення побудови разом з П. С. Лапласом стрункої системи класичної небесної механіки, розпочатої працями Ісаака Ньютона. На відміну від Лапласа його більше цікавила математична сторона досліджуваних проблем і він не завжди доводив розв'язання до практичного результату. Лагранж розвинув і довів до досконалості запропонований Леонардом Ейлером метод варіації сталих, один з найважливіших у небесній механіці (застосовується також, наприклад, при розв'язуванні лінійних диференціальних рівнянь). У 1763 році застосував цей метод до розв'язання задачі про взаємні збурення Юпітера і Сатурна і значно поліпшив ранні результати Ейлера. У 1776 році узагальнив теорему Лапласа про стійкість Сонячної системи, довівши її справедливість і для ексцентриситетів і нахилів орбіт. У 1782 році створив теорію вікових змін орбіт планет; показав, що ці зміни є насправді періодичними з дуже великими періодами. Першим дав рівняння руху чотирьох великих супутників Юпітера і спробував розв'язати цю важку задачу небесної механіки — розрахував у 1766-му велику кількість нерівностей, що залежать від ексцентриситетів і положення апоцентру, і основні нерівності в довготі.
У роботі 1772 року присвяченій розв'язанню часткових випадків задачі трьох тіл, знайшов, що існують, окрім трьох колінеарних точок рівноваги, ще дві трикутні точки (точки Лагранжа), в яких тіло малої маси може перебувати в рівновазі по відношенню до двох інших небесних тіл. Це виявилося чудовим передбаченням можливості існування відкритої на початку XX століття троянської групи малих планет, що перебуває поблизу точок Лагранжа системи Сонце — Юпітер. У 1778 році Лагранж отримав аналітичний розв'язок задачі про визначення елементів орбіти планети або комети за трьома спостереженнями. У 1764 справив перше математичне дослідження лібрації Місяця. Багато займався вивченням вікового прискорення середнього руху Місяця. Показав, що ні сплюснутість Землі, ні несферичність Місяця не можуть викликати це прискорення і, якщо вікові впливи планет справді існують, то ними можна знехтувати. Лагранж пояснив, чому Місяць завжди повернутий до Землі однією стороною. Ґрунтуючись на результатах Лагранжа, Лаплас пояснив причину цього явища припливним тертям вод земних океанів. Серед інших астрономічних робіт Лагранжа можна виділити вивчення збуджень орбіт комет великими планетами, розрахунок ефемериди проходження Венери по диску Сонця 3 червня 1769 року, розрахунок затемнень, а також розробку гіпотези про походження комет у результаті вибуху або виверження на планеті.
П'ять робіт Лагранжа були відзначені преміями Паризької АН: про лібрацію Місяця (1764), про рух супутників Юпітера (1766), про завдання трьох тіл (1772), про вікове прискорення Місяця (1774) і про збудження кометних орбіт (1778).
Довів теорему про обернення рядів, теорему про кількість елементів будь-якої підгрупи скінченної групи, теорема про значення многочленів, теорему про чотири квадрати, теорему (формулу) про скінченні прирости.
Твори
Лагранжу належать понад 100 математичних праць, багато з них були трактатами, і всі публікації відзначалися найвищою якістю. Але найвизначнішим твором Лагранжа стала «Аналітична механіка», надрукована в 1787 р. У цій роботі вчений узагальнив свої дослідження з класичної механіки й надав цій науці елегантної й довершеної форми.
Див. також
Метод невизначених множників
Інтерполяція
Аналітична геометрія
Бюро довгот
Список об'єктів, названих на честь Жозефа-Луї Лагранжа
Точки Лагранжа
Примітки
Посилання
Італійські математики
Італійські фізики
Італійські астрономи
Французькі математики
Французькі фізики
Французькі астрономи
Бюро довгот
Кавалери ордена Почесного легіону
Уродженці Турина
Список 72 імен на Ейфелевій вежі
Люди, на честь яких названо астероїд
Члени Шведської королівської академії наук
Члени Французької академії наук
Члени Прусської академії наук
Почесні члени Санкт-Петербурзької академії наук
Члени Баварської академії наук
Випускники Туринського університету
Французи Італії
Сенатори Франції
Поховані в паризькому Пантеоні
Французькі механіки
Люди, на честь яких названо кратер на Місяці
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List of religious populations
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List of religious populations
The list of religious populations article provides a comprehensive overview of the distribution and size of religious groups around the world. This article aims to present statistical information on the number of adherents to various religions, including major faiths such as Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and others, as well as smaller religious communities. It also includes the percentage of nonreligious and atheistic populations.
The data is primarily sourced from organizations like the Pew Research Center, global surveys, census reports, and research studies, offering insights into the demographic composition of religious affiliations across different regions and countries. The list also explores trends in religious growth, decline, and shifts, reflecting the dynamic nature of religious adherence in the global context.
Current world estimates
Pew Research Center made its "Population Growth Projections, 2010–2050" based on 2010 baseline estimates. Although 2020 is already in the past, new estimates for 2020 are still work in progress. Their methodology is published as an appendix.
Notes
Largest religion by country
By proportion
Christians
Countries and territories with the greatest proportion of Christians from Christianity by country, :
100% (100% Roman Catholic)
100% (100% Seventh-day Adventist)
~99% (mostly Protestant)
99.6% (mostly Roman Catholic)
98.5% (96% Oriental Orthodox)
98.3% (mostly Protestant; ARDA claim)
98.1% (mostly Roman Catholic)
98% (71% Roman Catholic)
98% (95% Eastern Orthodox)
97.2% (mostly Protestant)
97.2% (mostly Protestant)
97% (~97% Roman Catholic)
96.9% (mostly Roman Catholic)
96.4% (mostly Roman Catholic; ARDA claim)
96% (mostly Protestant)
~96% (mostly Protestant)
95.1% (mostly Protestant)
94.8% (mostly Protestant; ARDA claim)
94.6% (mostly Roman Catholic)
94.51% (mostly Roman Catholic)
93% (mostly Eastern Orthodox)
92.9% (mostly Roman Catholic)
91.1% (mostly Roman Catholic)
90% (mostly Roman Catholic)
Muslims
Countries and territories with a considerable proportion of Muslims from Islam by country , excluding foreign workers in brackets:
Data is based on the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life
100%
99.9%
Gaza Strip 99.9%
99.9%
99.8% (65% Sunni 33.5% Zaydi 1.5% Ismaili)
99.7%
99.7% (90% Sunni 10% Shi'a)
99.6% (95% Shi'a, 5% Sunni)
99.5%
99.2% (Shi'a)
99% (67% Shi'a, 33% Sunni)
99% (mostly Sunni)
98.6% (85% Sunni, 15% Shi’a)
98.3%
98%
97.2% (90% Sunni, 10% Shi'a)
97%
96.9%
96.6%
96.4% (85% Sunni 12% Shi'a 3% Other)
90.4%
89.3%
86.7%
61.3%
53.5%
41%
Irreligious and atheists
Countries with the greatest proportion of people without religion, including agnostics and atheists, from Irreligion by country:
(78.4%)
(71.3%)
(60.2%)
(54.7%)
(51.8%)
(46.6%)
(45.3%)
(44.3%)
(41.5%)
(48.2%)
(36.5%)
(35.5%)
(31.9%)
(31.2%)
(31%)
(29.9%)
(29%)
(28.6%)
(28.6%)
(28%)
(26.7%)
(26.3%)
(23.9%)
(23.2%)
(22.8%)
(20.8%)
(20%)
(18.8%)
Data is ranked by mean estimate in parentheses. Irreligious includes agnostic, atheist, secular people, and those having no formal religious adherence. It does not necessarily mean that those of this group don't belong to any religion. Some religions have harmonized with local cultures and can be seen as a cultural background rather than a formal religion. Additionally, the practice of officially associating a family or household with a religion, while not formally practicing the affiliated religion, is common in many countries. Thus, over half of this group is theistic and/or influenced by religious principles, but nonreligious/non-practicing and not true atheists or agnostics. See Spiritual but not religious.
Hindus
Countries with the greatest proportion of Hindus from Hinduism by country :
81.3%
79.8%
48.54%
27.9%
25%
24.8%
22.3%
18.2%
15%
12.6%
12%
9.6%
8.1%
6.7%
6.3%
5.1%
3%
2.1%
2.6%
2.2%
1.7%
1.7%
1.5%
0.7%
Buddhists
Countries with the greatest proportion of Buddhists from Buddhism by country :
96.9%
93.2%
80.1%
74.70%
69.3%
66.0%
55.1%
36.2% - 66.7%
35.1%
33.2%
22.9%
19.8%
18.2%
17.3%
16.4%
13.2%
10.3%
Taoists/Confucians/Chinese traditional religionists
As a spiritual practice, Taoism has made fewer inroads in the West than Buddhism and Hinduism. Despite the popularity of its great classics the I Ching and the Tao Te Ching, the practice of Taoism has not been promulgated in America with much success; these religions are not ubiquitous worldwide in the way that adherents of bigger world religions are, and they remain primarily an ethnic religion. Nonetheless, Taoist ideas and symbols such as taijitu have become popular throughout the world through tai chi, qigong, and various martial arts.
33–80%
30%
28%
13.9%
8.5%
2.6%
0.2–1%
0.01–0.05%
0.05%
The Chinese traditional religion has 184,000 believers in Latin America, 250,000 believers in Europe, and 839,000 believers in North America .
Ethnic and indigenous religionists
Indigenous statistics come from the U.S. Department of State's International Religious Freedom Act (2009), based on the highest estimate of people identified as indigenous or followers of indigenous religions that have been well-defined. Due to the syncretic nature of these religions, the numbers may not reflect the actual number of practitioners.
32.9%
30.9%
29.5%
35.6%
25%
25%
17.9%
20%
15%
15%
12%
10%
10%
10%
10%
10%
9%
9%
8.5%
5%
Sikhs
Countries with the greatest proportion of Sikhs:
2.12%
1.72%
1.1%
0.88%
0.88%
0.83%
0.75%
0.56%
0.37%
0.35%
The Sikh homeland is the Punjab state, in India, where Sikhs make up approximately 58% of the population. This is the only place where Sikhs are in the majority. Sikhs have emigrated to countries all over the world – especially to English-speaking and East Asian nations. In doing so they have retained, to an unusually high degree, their distinctive cultural and religious identity.
Sikhs are not ubiquitous worldwide in the way that adherents of larger world religions are, and they remain primarily an ethnic religion. But they can be found in many international cities and have become an especially strong religious presence in the United Kingdom and Canada. Sikhism is also the fastest growing religion in New Zealand and Australia.
Spiritists
10.3%
10.2%
4.8%
3.6%
2.7%
2.2%
1.9%
1.5%
1.4%
1.3%
1.1%
1.0%
1.0%
0.9%
0.7%
0.5%
0.5%
0.4%
0.2%
0.2%
(ARDA claim)
Spiritist estimates come from a single source, which gives a relative indication of the size of the Spiritist communities within each country.
Jews
Countries with the greatest proportion of Jews:
73.6%
2.0%
1.76%
1.07%
0.7%
0.485%
0.483%
0.47%
0.44%
0.41%
0.36%
0.259%
0.250%
0.24%
0.22%
0.17%
0.11%
0.154%
0.154%
0.152%
0.14%
0.124%
0.124%
0.122%
0.112%
Jains
0.3%
0.3%
0.2%
0.2%
0.1%
By population
Christians
Largest Christian populations:
229,157,250 (details)
169,213,130
114,198,444
106,204,560
80,510,000
78,790,000
67,070,000
63,150,000
55,832,000
51,477,950
50,752,580
44,502,000
41,973,000
40,243,000
39,560,000
38,568,000
36,526,000
33,625,790
33,497,100
33,200,417
29,943,000
28.571.606
28,436,000
28,340,790
27,365,100
Muslims
Largest Muslim populations (as of 2017):
229,000,000 (details)
215,000,000
209,000,000
153,000,000
117,000,000
87,500,000
82,000,000
79,850,000
48,000,000
44,000,000
41,000,000
39,000,000
38,000,000
37,000,000
33,000,000
33,648,090
30,000,000
28,000,000
25,000,000
22,000,000
22,000,000
Hindus
Largest Hindu populations (as of 2020):
1,120,000,000
28,600,000
14,274,430
4,640,000
4,400,000
3,090,000
2,510,000
1,940,000
1,239,610
1,030,000
749,870
665,820
890,000
610,000
540,000
440,000
410,000
403,570
380,000
360,000
330,000
310,000
270,000
200,000
200,000
190,000
120,785
120,000
Buddhists
Largest Buddhist populations
244,130,000
64,420,000
45,820,000
38,410,000
14,450,000
14,380,000
13,690,000
11,050,000
9,250,000
5,010,000
3,800,023
2,062,000
Sikhs
Largest Sikh population (as of 2023)
23,786,000
771,790
524,000
~280,000
210,400
210,000
100,000
70,000
52,000
50,000
40,908
35,540
35,000
30,000
26,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
15,000
15,000
Jews
Largest Jewish populations:
6,451,000
5,700,000
456,000
390,000
289,500
180,500
176,000
116,500
113,200
93,800
69,300
53,000
47,500
40,000
29,800
29,300
27,300
18,700
18,300
16,900
15,300
15,000
11,800
10,000
10,000
Baháʼís
Largest Baháʼí populations in countries with a national population ≥200,000:
1,897,651
512,864
422,782
388,802
282,916
275,069
251,127
241,112
238,532
215,359
190,419
169,811
95,098
94,499
87,259
78,915
70,504
67,549
65,096
59,898
Jains
, per ARDA:
5,146,697
79,459
68,848
35,000
12,101
9,002
6,800
2,663
2,398
2,052
1,918
1,573
1,535
1,500
1,449
1,217
1,000
981
500 families
229
See also
Major religious groups
World religions
Importance of religion by country
Religious demographics
Religions:
Religions by country
History of the Baháʼí Faith
Buddhism by country
Christianity by country
Catholic Church by country
Protestantism by country
Eastern Orthodoxy by country
Oriental Orthodoxy by country
Hinduism by country
Islam by country
Ahmadiyya by country
Judaism by country
Sikhism by country
Notes
References
External links
Asian-Nation: Religious Affiliation among Asian Americans
International Religious Freedom Report 2007 of U.S. Department of State
Background Notes of U.S. Department of State
The World Factbook of CIA
Religious Freedom page
Religious Intelligence
BBC News – Muslims in Europe: Country guide
Vipassana Foundation – Buddhists around the world
Populations
Religion by country
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Міністерство у справах ветеранів США
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Міністерство у справах ветеранів США — державний орган виконавчої влади США, який спільно з Міністерством оборони та Міністерством охорони здоров'я та соціального забезпечення США здійснює діяльність у сфері соціального забезпечення та захисту ветеранів військової служби, членів їх родин та осіб, що перебувають на їх утриманні (у тому числі загиблих військовослужбовців). Міністерство є правонаступником Адміністрації з питань ветеранів США, яке було утворено 21 липня 1930 року, як окремий державний орган на виконання Виконавчого наказу Президента США № 5398.
Історія
Сполучені Штати мають одну з найбільш комплексних систем допомоги для ветеранів з-поміж інших країн світу. Ще у 1636 році, коли пілігрими з колонії Плімут були у війні з плем'ям Пекотів, колоністи ухвалили закон, за яким, солдати-інваліди будуть підтримуватися колонією.
Пізніше, під час Американської революції та Війни за незалежність США Континентальним Конгресом 1776 року, забезпечувалася пенсія для інвалідів війни. У перші дні республіки, окремі штати та громади США забезпечували пряму медичну та лікарняну допомогу для ветеранів.
Після закінчення Громадянської війни, було створено багато державних будинків ветеранів. Усі ветерани війн, та постійні члени Збройних сил США, почали отримувати допомогу в цих будинках.
У 1917 році, Конгрес США систему пільг для ветеранів, що включала програми компенсації за інвалідність, страхування військовослужбовців і ветеранів, професійну реабілітації для інвалідів. У 1920-х роках різні пільги надавалися трьома різними федеральними відомствами: Бюро ветеранів, Пенсійним бюро Міністерства внутрішніх справ, і Національним Будинком для інвалідів. У 1930 Конгрес доручив президенту консолідувати зусилля уряду в галузі допомоги ветеранам війни, і на базі цих трьох організацій була створена Адміністрація з питань ветеранів. Першим її керівником був призначений бригадний генерал Френк Хайнс, який раніше керував Бюро ветеранів протягом семи років, він очолював Адміністрацію до 1945 року.
Після Другої світової війни число ветеранів в США значно зросло, крім того, були значно розширені їхні права та пільги. Деякі експерти вважають, що закон про ветеранів від 22 червня 1944 мав більше впливу на американський спосіб життя, ніж закон про гомстеди в XIX столітті. Крім того, були прийняті додаткові заходи допомоги ветеранам Корейської війни, В'єтнамської війни, добровольцям 1970-х (після скасування призову в армію США в 1973 році), учасникам війни в Перській затоці, і тим, хто служив під час терактів 11 вересня 2001.
У 1973 у підпорядкування Міністерства у справах ветеранів, з підпорядкування Міністерства армії США було передано Національну систему кладовищ (за винятком Арлінгтонського національного кладовища). Міністерству було доручено взаємодію з Національною системою кладовищ, зокрема, організація маркування могил ветеранів на національних кладовищах і кладовищах штатів (а за вимогами — і могил ветеранів на приватних кладовищах), а також управління грантовими програмами штатів з облаштування кладовищ.
Міністерство у справах ветеранів було введено до складу Кабінету США 15 березня 1989 року президентом Джорджем Бушем-старшим, відповідно до поправок чинного законодавства.
Склад міністерства
До складу Міністерства входять такі основні департаменти/адміністрації:
Адміністрація з питань медичного забезпечення.
Адміністрація з питань пільг та привілеїв.
Адміністрація у похоронних справах та з питань утримання місць поховання ветеранів військової служби (має статус «Національної»).
У структурі Міністерства діють також апарати заступників та помічників міністра з питань: фінансів і планування, інформаційних ресурсів та менеджменту, кадрової політики та адміністративних питань, зв'язків з ветеранами, координації соціальних програм, закупівель та споруджень, зв'язків з Конгресом та громадськістю, а також низка інших адміністративних підрозділів (офісів), які сприяють рішенню питань забезпечення ветеранів військової служби, у тому числі: генеральної інспекції, бюджетно-фінансової служби, матеріально-технічні та логістичні, по зв'язкам з бізнесовими структурами, юридичних питань, розгляду скарг та заяв, безпеки та захисту тощо.
Міністерство є другим у системі федерального уряду США за чисельністю персоналу, кількість якого, станом на 2013 рік, становила 312 841 тис. державних службовців та працівників.
Міністерству належить 153 госпітальних установи, 895 поліклініки й амбулаторії, 125 цвинтарів, а також інші федеральні земельні ділянки та об'єкти нерухомості.
Пільги ветеранів
Американська система пенсійного забезпечення військовослужбовців є комплексною і включає три основні канали надходження: військову пенсію, пенсію за програмою федерального соціального страхування, та особисті відрахування військовослужбовців на персоналізовані пенсійні рахунки. За оцінками експертів міністерства праці США, завдяки такій схемі пенсійного забезпечення військовослужбовці в даний час являють собою найбільш соціально захищену професійну групу населення в країні.
Список пільг
Виплата допомоги за інвалідністю;
Реалізація програми професійної реабілітації;
Надання допомоги в одержанні освіти;
Психотерапевтична допомога ветеранам війни у В'єтнамі;
Надання допомоги при працевлаштуванні;
Виплата допомоги з безробіття;
Здійснення на пільгових умовах медичного обслуговування;
Здійснення на пільгових умовах страхування життя;
Менші відсотки при наданні позик на будівництво житла, придбання будинку або машини;
Організація поховань;
Інші послуги.
Пенсія ветеранів
Виплати військовим пенсіонерам здійснюються із коштів фонду через лічильно-фінансове управління Міністерства оборони США за місцем їх проживання по одному з трьох можливих пенсійних планів: Final Pay для тих, що поступили на військову службу до 8 вересня 1980 року, High-3 — для тих, що підписали контракт в період з 9 вересня 1980-го до 1 серпня 1986-го, CSB/REDUX — для тих, що поступили на військову службу після 1 серпня 1986 року.
Final Pay — береться за основу 50 % останнього посадового окладу; за кожний додатковий рік вислуги понад 20 років пенсія збільшується на 2,5 % посадового окладу;
High-3 — береться за основу 50 % середнього посадового окладу за будь-які три роки безперервної військової служби; за кожний додатковий рік вислуги понад 20 років пенсія збільшується на 2,5 % середнього посадового окладу.
CSB/REDUX — береться за основу 40 % середнього посадового окладу за будь-які три роки військової служби. За кожний рік понад 20 років пенсія збільшується на 3,5 % середнього посадового окладу. Крім цього, даним планом вводиться виплата одноразової допомоги у розмірі 30 тис. доларів після 15 років військової служби в тому випадку, якщо військовослужбовець підписує контракт ще на п'ять років.
Максимальний розмір пенсії за умовами усіх планів не може перевищувати 75 % використовуваного для його розрахунку посадового окладу.
Розмір пенсії військовослужбовцям, звільненим з інвалідності, визначається шляхом множення основного окладу військовослужбовця на відсоток втрати ним працездатності, або з розрахунку 2,5 % основного окладу за кожен рік служби (за вибором того, що звільняється). У випадку тимчасової втрати працездатності, військовослужбовець заноситься в спеціальний реєстр тимчасово непрацездатних осіб, та один раз на півтора року проходить медичний переогляд. Через п'ять років вирішується питання про повернення до служби, про відставку за станом здоров'я або про скорочення. Військовослужбовці які знаходяться з в реєстрі, отримують допомогу в розмірі не нижче 50 % свого посадового окладу.
Основний оклад солдата (станом на 2014 рік):
* Платня для рангу E1 дещо менша протягом перших чотирьох місяців служби.
Основний оклад офіцера (станом на 2014 рік):
Примітки
Посилання
Офіційний вебсайт Міністерства у справах ветеранів США
Українська Спілка ветеранів Афганістану (воїнів-інтернаціоналістів) — Щодо Міністерства у справах ветеранів військової служби США
Пенсійне забезпечення військовослужбовців США
Міністерства у справах ветеранів
Збройні сили США
Засновані в США 1989
ветеранів
Організації Вашингтона
Органи влади, засновані 1982
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B7%D0%B0%20%28%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%80%D1%82%29
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Кобза (гурт)
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Кобза (гурт)
«Кобза» — один з найвідоміших вокально-інструментальних ансамблів України 1970-1980-х років. ВІА «Кобза» був першим з колективів колишнього Радянського Союзу, який перебував з комерційними гастролями на американському континенті (1982).
Історія
1971—1985
Вокально-інструментальний ансамбль «Кобза» розпочав свою професійну творчу діяльність у 1971 році у складі «Укрконцерту».
У 1971 ансамблю було запропоновано взяти участь, як акомпануючому складу, у запису платівки співачки Валентини Купріної на київській студії Всесоюзної фірми грамзапису «Мелодія». Разом з тим власний матеріал «Кобзи» сподобався керівництву студії, і було ухвалено рішення про запис сольної платівки ансамблю. Спеціально для цього був запрошений вокаліст Валерій Вітер, студент Київського художнього інституту, колишній соліст самодіяльного ансамблю «Березень».
Основу платівки склали обробки українських народних пісень і композиції керівника ансамблю Олександра Зуєва. Замість звичних гітар ансамбль використав і традиційні народні інструменти — бандури в їх електронному виготовленні та звучанні на зразок електрогітар. На цій платівці вперше було записано всесвітньо відому пісню Володимира Івасюка «Водограй» у виконанні ВІА «Кобза» та співачки Валентини Купріної («Мелодія»). У запису взяли участь: Олександр Зуєв (клавішні), Костянтин Новицький, Володимир Кушпет (бандуристи), Олександр Рогоза (бас-гітара), Георгій Гарбар (флейта, сопілка), Валерій Вітер (вокал) і Анатолій Лютюк (ударні).
У 1973-му «Кобза» розділяє третє лауреатське місце з ансамблем «Москвичі» на Всесоюзному конкурсі вокально-інструментальних ансамблів у Мінську. Перше здобули «Пісняри», друге не присуджено нікому. Відтоді «Кобза» стала одним з найбільших концертуючих гуртів Радянського Союзу.
У 1974 році Олександр Зуєв покинув ансамбль і незабаром очолив ВІА Черкаської філармонії «Калина».
Потім «Кобзу» очолювали по черзі музиканти ансамблю — бас-гітарист і співак Олег Ледньов і бандурист Костянтин Новицький. З 1977 місце спочатку музичного, а згодом і художнього керівника зайняв Євген Коваленко, випускник Ростовської консерваторії, клавішник і вокаліст, який і до цього писав для ансамблю аранжування та обробки народних пісень.
У 1978 році вийшов другий диск-гігант «Кобзи», у запису якого взяли участь К. Новицький, В. Вітер, В.Кушпет, Г.Гарбар, а також музиканти, що прийшли на зміну першому складу — Олег Ледньов (бас-гітара, вокал), Євген Коваленко (клавішні, вокал), Микола Береговий (скрипка, вокал) Геннадій Татарченко (гітара, вокал) і Василь Колекціонов (ударні, вокал). Програму склали обробки українських народних пісень та пісні українських композиторів.
Відтоді колектив мав від 200 до 300 концертів в усіх куточках СРСР. Ансамбль також гастролює за кордоном: Чехословаччина (1977, 1979, 1983), Італія (1977), Монголія (1979), Куба (1980), Фінляндія (1981), Німеччина (1981, 1984), Канада (1982), Ємен (1983), Польща (1985), Японія (1985).
У 1980 ансамблю була присуджена Республіканська комсомольська премія імені Миколи Островського.
У 1982 ВІА «Кобза» підготував концертну програму «Київські фрески» до 1500-річчя м. Києва з виконанням оригінальної музики та поезії за участю балету і використанням спеціальних сценічних костюмів (композитор Віталій Філіпенко, режисер Ірина Молостова, балетмейстер Борис Каменькович, аранжування Євгена Коваленка).
У 1982 під час гастролей у Канаді силами приймаючої сторони — «Нейшенл концерт едженсі» — був виданий вініловий диск-гігант «КОБЗА».
Склад «Кобзи» періодично змінювався. Так, через свою «невиїзність» покинув її К. Новицький. О. Ледньов пішов з ансамблю, щоб створити зі співачкою Людмилою Гримальською (першою виконавицею популярного шлягеру Вадима Ільїна «Уроки музики») сімейний дует «Два кольори». Закінчив навчання в консерваторії і став професійним композитором Г. Татарченко. Сімейні турботи затягнули додому барабанщика В. Колекціонова. Трохи раніше ансамбль залишив бандурист В. Кушпет, який згодом створив «Школу кобзарського мистецтва» на Київщині. У ансамбль прийшли троє яскравих музикантів: бас-гітарист В. Солдатенко, барабанщик Є. Тринько, а трохи згодом — гітарист П. Коваленко.
У 1982 художній керівник ВІА «Кобза» Євген Коваленко, одним із перших українських естрадних артистів, удостоєний звання «Заслуженого артиста УРСР».
1985—2011
Одними з перших артистів Укрконцерту в Чорнобильській зоні були ВІА «Кобза» та квартет «Явір». ВІА «Кобза» закінчив свої поїздки у «зону» в 1992 році, коли медики заборонили їм туди їздити за станом здоров'я. Нині артисти ВІА «Кобза» мають посвідчення ліквідаторів аварії на Чорнобильській АЕС та нагороди від держави.
У 1987-му колектив покинув Валерій Вітер, який був одним з найкращих і найуспішніших художників-плакатистів. Колектив також покинули й інші музиканти.
Художній керівник Євген Коваленко зібрав музикантів, що певний час грали в «Кобзі» вже після 1980 року, і знаходить притулок в «Укрконцерті», пізніше — і в «Київконцерті».
Колектив продовжував гастролювати: НДР (1986), Данія (1989), Нідерланди (1990), ФРН (1992, 1998), Франція (1993, 1994, 1997), Польща (1993, 1994, 1996), Єгипет (1994), Велика Британія (1995). В той час в ансамблі грали: бандурист (вокал) — С. Жовнірович, скрипаль (вокал) І. Ткачук. духовик-віртуоз, виконавець на 30 музичних інструментах — М. Блощичак. гітарист-кобзар (вокал) — П. Коваленко, бас-гітара, козобас (вокал) — В. Солдатенко, барабанщик, перкусіоніст (вокал) — К. Курко, бухало та головний соліст-вокаліст — М. Правдивий, клавіші, акордеон, вокал — керівник колективу — Євген Коваленко.
У 1997 художній керівник ВІА «Кобза» Євген Коваленко удостоєний звання «Народний артист України».
1998 — артисти-солісти ВІА «Кобза» Петро Коваленко та Микола Правдивий удостоєні звання «Заслужений артист України».
2002 — артист ВІА «Кобза» Володимир Солдатенко удостоєний звання «Заслужений артист України».
ВІА «Кобза» на чолі з художнім керівником народним артистом України Є. Коваленком, у складі музикантів — заслужених артистів України: М. Правдивого, В. Солдатенка, П. Коваленка та О. Муренка проводить активну творчу й гастрольно-концертну діяльність і є одним з авторитетних ансамблів на творчих теренах України та всього колишнього Радянського Союзу.
Нагороди
Лауреат міжнародного фестивалю «Юрмала-85» (Латвія) м. Юрмала, 1985 р.
Лауреат міжнародного фестивалю «Palanga-85» (Литва) м. Паланга 1985 р.
Лауреат фестивалю «Вогні магістралі» — м. Хабаровськ −1988 р.
Лауреат міжнародного фестивалю «Midtfynns Festival» — (Данія) — 1989 р. м. Оденсе
Лауреат міжнародного фестивалю «Art Parade» — (Японія) 2002 р. м. Осака
Лауреат фестивалю «Шлягер року» — 2002—2006 р. м. Київ
Лауреат фестивалю «Наша пісня» — 2003—2005 р. м. Київ
Лауреат телевізійного фестивалю «Прем'єра пісні — 2010» р. м. Буча
Примітки
Посилання
Вебсайт ВІА «Кобза» на чолі з Євгеном Коваленком
Віталій Бардецький про вусатий фанк 70-х і шоубіз 90-х
Рудаков Микола.Чарівний голос «Кобзи».//Урядовий кур'єр: газета.1998,6 серпня.с.16
Музичні колективи, що з'явились 1971
Українські музичні гурти
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580167
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link%20grammar
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Link grammar
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Link grammar (LG) is a theory of syntax by Davy Temperley and Daniel Sleator which builds relations between pairs of words, rather than constructing constituents in a phrase structure hierarchy. Link grammar is similar to dependency grammar, but dependency grammar includes a head-dependent relationship, whereas link grammar makes the head-dependent relationship optional (links need not indicate direction). Colored Multiplanar Link Grammar (CMLG) is an extension of LG allowing crossing relations between pairs of words. The relationship between words is indicated with link types, thus making the Link grammar closely related to certain categorial grammars.
For example, in a subject–verb–object language like English, the verb would look left to form a subject link, and right to form an object link. Nouns would look right to complete the subject link, or left to complete the object link.
In a subject–object–verb language like Persian, the verb would look left to form an object link, and a more distant left to form a subject link. Nouns would look to the right for both subject and object links.
Overview
Link grammar connects the words in a sentence with links, similar in form to a catena. Unlike the catena or a traditional dependency grammar, the marking of the head-dependent relationship is optional for most languages, becoming mandatory only in free-word-order languages (such as Turkish, Finnish, Hungarian). That is, in English, the subject-verb relationship is "obvious", in that the subject is almost always to the left of the verb, and thus no specific indication of dependency needs to be made. In the case of subject-verb inversion, a distinct link type is employed. For free word-order languages, this can no longer hold, and a link between the subject and verb must contain an explicit directional arrow to indicate which of the two words is which.
Link grammar also differs from traditional dependency grammars by allowing cyclic relations between words. Thus, for example, there can be links indicating both the head verb of a sentence, the head subject of the sentence, as well as a link between the subject and the verb. These three links thus form a cycle (a triangle, in this case). Cycles are useful in constraining what might otherwise be ambiguous parses; cycles help "tighten up" the set of allowable parses of a sentence.
For example, in the parse
+---->WV--->+
+--Wd--+-Ss-+--Pa--+
| | | |
LEFT-WALL he runs fast
the LEFT-WALL indicates the start of the sentence, or the root node. The directional WV link (with arrows) points at the head verb of the sentence; it is the Wall-Verb link. The Wd link (drawn here without arrows) indicates the head noun (the subject) of the sentence. The link type Wd indicates both that it connects to the wall (W) and that the sentence is a declarative sentence (the lower-case "d" subtype). The Ss link indicates the subject-verb relationship; the lower-case "s" indicating that the subject is singular. Note that the WV, Wd and Ss links for a cycle. The Pa link connects the verb to a complement; the lower-case "a" indicating that it is a predicative adjective in this case.
Parsing algorithm
Parsing is performed in analogy to assembling a jigsaw puzzle (representing the parsed sentence) from puzzle pieces (representing individual words). A language is represented by means of a dictionary or lexis, which consists of words and the set of allowed "jigsaw puzzle shapes" that each word can have. The shape is indicated by a "connector", which is a link-type, and a direction indicator + or - indicating right or left. Thus for example, a transitive verb may have the connectors S- & O+ indicating that the verb may form a Subject ("S") connection to its left ("-") and an object connection ("O") to its right ("+"). Similarly, a common noun may have the connectors D- & S+ indicating that it may connect to a determiner on the left ("D-") and act as a subject, when connecting to a verb on the right ("S+"). The act of parsing is then to identify that the S+ connector can attach to the S- connector, forming an "S" link between the two words. Parsing completes when all connectors have been connected.
A given word may have dozens or even hundreds of allowed puzzle-shapes (termed "disjuncts"): for example, many verbs may be optionally transitive, thus making the O+ connector optional; such verbs might also take adverbial modifiers (E connectors) which are inherently optional. More complex verbs may have additional connectors for indirect objects, or for particles or prepositions. Thus, a part of parsing also involves picking one single unique disjunct for a word; the final parse must satisfy (connect) all connectors for that disjunct.
Dependency
Connectors may also include head-dependent indicators h and d. In this case, a connector containing a head indicator is only allowed to connect to a connector containing the dependent indicator (or to a connector without any h-d indicators on it). When these indicators are used, the link is decorated with arrows to indicate the link direction.
A recent extension simplifies the specification of connectors for languages that have little or no restrictions on word-order, such as Lithuanian. There are also extensions to make it easier to support languages with concatenative morphologies.
Planarity
The parsing algorithm also requires that the final graph is a planar graph, i.e. that no links cross. This constraint is based on empirical psycho-linguistic evidence that, indeed, for most languages, in nearly all situations, dependency links really do not cross. There are rare exceptions, e.g. in Finnish, and even in English; they can be parsed by link-grammar only by introducing more complex and selective connector types to capture these situations.
Costs and selection
Connectors can have an optional floating-point cost markup, so that some are "cheaper" to use than others, thus giving preference to certain parses over others. That is, the total cost of parse is the sum of the individual costs of the connectors that were used; the cheapest parse indicates the most likely parse. This is used for parse-ranking multiple ambiguous parses. The fact that the costs are local to the connectors, and are not a global property of the algorithm makes them essentially Markovian in nature.
The assignment of a log-likelihood to linkages allows link grammar to implement the semantic selection of predicate-argument relationships. That is, certain constructions, although syntactically valid, are extremely unlikely. In this way, link grammar embodies some of the ideas present in operator grammar.
Because the costs are additive, they behave like the logarithm of the probability (since log-likelihoods are additive), or equivalently, somewhat like the entropy (since entropies are additive). This makes link grammar compatible with machine learning techniques such as hidden Markov models and the Viterbi algorithm, because the link costs correspond to the link weights in Markov networks or Bayesian networks.
Type theory
The link grammar link types can be understood to be the types in the sense of type theory. In effect, the link grammar can be used to model the internal language of certain (non-symmetric) compact closed categories, such as pregroup grammars. In this sense, link grammar appears to be isomorphic or homomorphic to some categorial grammars. Thus, for example, in a categorial grammar the noun phrase "the bad boy" may be written as
whereas the corresponding disjuncts in link grammar would be
the: D+;
bad: A+;
boy: D- & A-;
The contraction rules (inference rules) of the Lambek calculus can be mapped to the connecting of connectors in link grammar. The + and - directional indicators correspond the forward and backward-slashes of the categorical grammar. Finally, the single-letter names A and D can be understood as labels or "easy-to-read" mnemonic names for the rather more verbose types NP/N, etc.
The primary distinction here is then that the categorical grammars have two type constructors, the forward and backward slashes, that can be used to create new types (such as NP/N) from base types (such as NP and N). Link-grammar omits the use of type constructors, opting instead to define a much larger set of base types having compact, easy-to-remember mnemonics.
Examples
Example 1
A basic rule file for an SVO language might look like:
<determiner> D+;
<noun-subject> {D−} & S+;
<noun-object> {D−} & O−;
<verb> S− & {O+};
Thus the English sentence, "The boy painted a picture" would appear as:
+-----O-----+
+-D-+--S--+ +--D--+
| | | | |
The boy painted a picture
Similar parses apply for Chinese.
Example 2
Conversely, a rule file for a null subject SOV language might consist of the following links:
<noun-subject> S+;
<noun-object> O+;
<verb> {O−} & {S−};
And a simple Persian sentence, man nAn xordam (من نان خوردم) 'I ate bread' would look like:
+-----S-----+
| +--O--+
| | |
man nAn xordam
VSO order can be likewise accommodated, such as for Arabic.
Example 3 (morphology)
In many languages with a concatenative morphology, the stem plays no grammatical role; the grammar is determined by the suffixes. Thus, in Russian, the sentence 'вверху плыли редкие облачка' might have the parse:
+------------Wd-----------+---------------SIp---------------+
| +-------EI------+ +--------Api-------+
| | +--LLCZD-+ +-LLAQZ+ +--LLCAO-+
| | | | | | | |
LEFT-WALL вверху.e плы.= =ли.vnndpp ре.= =дкие.api облачк.= =а.ndnpi
The subscripts, such as '.vnndpp', are used to indicate the grammatical category. The primary links: Wd, EI, SIp and Api connect together the suffixes, as, in principle, other stems could appear here, without altering the structure of the sentence. The Api link indicates the adjective; SIp denotes subject-verb inversion; EI is a modifier. The Wd link is used to indicate the head noun; the head verb is not indicated in this sentence. The LLXXX links serve only to attach stems to suffixes.
Example 4 (phonology)
The link-grammar can also indicate phonological agreement between neighboring words. For example:
+---------Ost--------+
+------>WV------>+ +------Ds**x-----+
+----Wd---+-Ss*b-+ +--PHv-+----A----+
| | | | | |
LEFT-WALL that.j-p is.v an abstract.a concept.n
Here, the connector 'PH' is used to constrain the determiners that can appear before the word 'abstract'. It effectively blocks (makes it costly) to use the determiner 'a' in this sentence, while the link to 'an' becomes cheap. The other links are roughly as in previous examples: S denoting subject, O denoting object, D denoting determiner. The 'WV' link indicates the head verb, and the 'W' link indicates the head noun. The lower-case letters following the upper-case link types serve to refine the type; so for example, Ds can only connect to a singular noun; Ss only to a singular subject, Os to a singular object. The lower-case v in PHv denotes 'vowel'; the lower-case d in Wd denotes a declarative sentence.
Example 5 (Vietnamese)
The Vietnamese language sentence "Bữa tiệc hôm qua là một thành công lớn" - "The party yesterday was a great success" may be parsed as follows:
Implementations
The link grammar syntax parser is a library for natural language processing written in C. It is available under the LGPL license. The parser is an ongoing project. Recent versions include improved sentence coverage, Russian, Persian and Arabic language support, prototypes for German, Hebrew, Lithuanian, Vietnamese and Turkish, and programming API's for Python, Java, Common LISP, AutoIt and OCaml, with 3rd-party bindings for Perl, Ruby and JavaScript node.js.
A current major undertaking is a project to learn the grammar and morphology of new languages, using unsupervised learning algorithms.
The link-parser program along with rules and word lists for English may be found in standard Linux distributions, e.g., as a Debian package, although many of these are years out of date.
Applications
AbiWord, a free word processor, uses link grammar for on-the-fly grammar checking. Words that cannot be linked anywhere are underlined in green.
The semantic relationship extractor RelEx, layered on top of the link grammar library, generates a dependency grammar output by making explicit the semantic relationships between words in a sentence. Its output can be classified as being at a level between that of SSyntR and DSyntR of Meaning-Text Theory. It also provides framing/grounding, anaphora resolution, head-word identification, lexical chunking, part-of-speech identification, and tagging, including entity, date, money, gender, etc. tagging. It includes a compatibility mode to generate dependency output compatible with the Stanford parser, and Penn Treebank-compatible POS tagging.
Link grammar has also been employed for information extraction of
biomedical texts and
events described in news articles, as well as experimental machine translation systems from English to German, Turkish, Indonesian. and Persian.
The link grammar link dictionary is used to generate and verify the syntactic correctness of three different natural language generation systems: NLGen, NLGen2 and microplanner/surreal. It is also used as a part of the NLP pipeline in the OpenCog AI project.
Notes
External links
The original Link Grammar homepage (which has been replaced by the current project.)
Online English demonstration (for an older, out-of-date version; many bugs have been fixed since this version.)
BioLG, a modification of the Link Grammar Parser adapted for the biomedical domain (many, but not all, BioLG enhancements have been folded back into the main link-grammar distribution).
Parsing sentences with Link Grammar and Python by Jeff Elmore at PyCon 2012
Language extensions
Arabic Link Grammar extension (Source package)
Persian Link Grammar extension
Online Persian demonstration
Russian Link Grammar demonstration
Dependency grammar
Natural language parsing
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249529
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/TGA
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TGA
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TGA
Truevision TGA (TGA) — растровий графічний формат. Початково був розробкою компанії Truevision Inc для графічних адаптерів власного виробництва ще в 1984 році, але надалі набув популярности та був використаний у різних платформах, особливо в галузі обробки відео та анімації.
Зазвичай файли цього формату мають розширення .tga у системах DOS-типу, або .tpic на комп'ютерах Macintosh. Формат підтримує глибину кольору 1—32 біти на піксель. Є також підтримка альфа-каналів, стискання RLE.
Огляд структури файлу
Файл зображення TGA складається з п'яти зон, кожна з яких містить одне або більше полів фіксованої або змінної довжини:
(1) Заголовок файлу
(2) Зображення/мапа кольорів
(3) Зона розробника
(4) Зона розширення
(5) Підвал
Останні три зони додано в специфікацію формату у вересні 1989 р. З цієї причини файли, створені за допомогою ПЗ, написаного до цієї дати, можуть не містити цих зон.
Щоб визначити, чи належить файл до оригінальної версії або до нової, слід переглянути останні 26 байт файлу. Для нової версії ці байти міститимуть підвал файлу, байти 8-23 якого містять набір ASCII символів «TRUEVISION-XFILE». Наявність цього рядка означає, що файл може містити зони (3) і (4).
Сам підвал має наступну будову(байт — призначення):
0-3 — Зсув зони розширення
4-7 — Зсув списку зон розробника
8-23 — Підпис файлу нового формату
24 — ASCII символ '.'
25 — Нульовий байт
Докладніший опис наприкінці статті.
Заголовок файлу
Довжина ідентифікатора (1 байт)
Вказує кількість байт, що містяться в полі Ідентифікатора. Максимальна кількість символів — 255. Нульове значення вказує, що файл не містить поле Ідентифікатор.
Тип мапи кольорів (1 байт)
Вказує тип мапи кольорів, включеної у файл. На 1991 рік визначено два значення — 0 (файл не містить карти кольорів) і 1 (файл містить мапу кольорів). Перші 128 значень цього поля зарезервовано для використання Truevision, останні можуть бути використані розробниками ПЗ.
True-Color зображення зазвичай не використовують мапу кольорів, але деякі додатки зберігають інформацію про палітру або інші дані в цьому полі. Рекомендується перевіряти значення поля тип зображення (описано в наступному пункті), щоб переконатися що файл може використовувати ці дані. Інакше це поле можна ігнорувати.
При записі або збереженні файлу в цілях сумісності потрібно заповнювати це поле нульовими значеннями. У новому форматі файлу для збереження даних розробника існує окрема зона.
Тип Зображення (1 байт)
TGA файл може бути використаний для збереження зображень з різною глибиною кольору. Визначено сім типів зображень:
Перші 128 значень зарезервовано для використання Truevision, останні можуть бути використані розробниками.
Опис мапи кольорів (5 байт)
Це поле і його пункти описують мапу кольорів (якщо вона використовується). Якщо поле Color Map Type (описано вище) містить нуль, ці п'ять байт також повинні містити нулі.
індекс першого елемента — 2 байти
Вказує на початковий елемент палітри.
довжина мапи кольорів — 2 байти
Вказує кількість елементів палітри.
розмір елементу мапи кольорів — 1 байт
Зазвичай використовуються значення 15, 16, 24 або 32.
Опис зображення (10 байт)
Це поле описує розміри, положення на екрані і глибину пікселя зображення.
Положення зображення по осі X — 2 байта
Визначає абсолютну координату лівого нижнього кута зображення по горизонталі.
Положення зображення по осі Y — 2 байта
Визначає абсолютну координату лівого нижнього кута зображення по вертикалі.
Ширина зображення — 2 байти
Ширина зображення в пікселях.
Висота изображения — 2 байти
Висота зображення в пікселях.
Глибина кольору — 1 байт
Визначає кількість біт на піксель.
Описувач зображення — 1 байт
Біти 3-0 цього поля визначають кількість атрибутивних бітів на піксель.
Біти 5 і 4 визначають порядок передачі піксельних даних з файлу на екран. Біт 4 встановлюється для порядку «зліва направо», біт 5 — для порядку «зверху вниз».
Біти 7 і 6 в цілях сумісності мають бути встановлені в 0.
Зображення/мапа кольорів
Ідентифікатор (змінна довжина)
Це поле є ідентифікатором файлу і може мати довжину від 0 до 255 байт.
Дані мапи кольору (змінна довжина)
Якщо Тип мапи Кольорів (описано више) містить нуль, це поле буде відсутнє.
Поля Розмір елементу мапи кольорів і Довжина мапи кольорів дозволяють визначити розмір цього поля.
Кожен елемент мапи кольорів займає ціле число байт; кожен колірний канал займає MIN (Розмір елементу мапи кольорів/3 , 8) біт, тобто для розміру елементу в 24 кожен з трьох каналів кольору займе 8 байт, так само, як і для елементів розміром 32 біта.
Дані зображення (змінна довжина)
Це поле містить дані про ширину та висоту пікселів. Кожен піксель вказує дані зображення в одному з наступних форматів: самостійний індекс елементу мапи кольорів, окремі значення для кожного каналу кольору або окремі індекси інтенсивності для формату Direct Color.
Зона розробника (змінна довжина)
Ця зона може мати будь-який розмір і містити будь-який тип інформації на розсуд розробника ПЗ, хоча рекомендується використовувати її виключно для зберігання специфічної інформації, не призначеної для іншого ПЗ і не описаної в специфікації формату.
Оскільки файл може містити більше ніж одну зону розробника, існує список зон, «мапа» полів, включених в ці зони. У байтах 4-7 підвалу файлу міститься зсув від початку файлу на початок списку зон розробника. Якщо ці байти містять нульове значення, списку зон і самих зон у файлі немає.
Список зон розробника
Кількість тегів (2 байти)
Вказує кількість тегів, що містяться в списку.
Решта частини списку після цього значення містить послідовності тег-зсув-розмір.
Тег (2 байти)
Кожен тег може містити значення від 0-65535. Значення 0-32767 можуть бути використані розробниками, останні зарезервовані для використання Truevision.
Зсув (4 байта)
Містить значення, вказуюче зсув від початку файлу на початок поля, на яке посилається тег.
Розмір (4 байти)
Вказує розмір поля, на яке посилається тег.
Зона розширення
Зсув до Зони розширення зберігається в підвалі файлу. Якщо зсув дорівнює нулю — файл не містить зони розширення.
Розмір зони розширення (2 байти)
Містить довжину зони в байтах. Для версії 2.0 формату, це значення має бути рівним 495.
Ім'я автора (41 байт)
Місце для ASCII рядка завдовжки до 40 символів і одного нульового байта. Якщо поле не використовується, воно заповнюється нулями або пропусками. Останній символ завжди має дорівнювати нулю.
Коментар автора (324 байти)
Місце для чотирьох рядків, кожна з яких може вміщати нульовий байт і до 80 значущих символів. Невикористане місце заповнюється нулями або пропусками, 81-й байт кожного рядка має дорівнювати нулю.
Дата/Час (12 байт)
Це поле містить послідовність з шести 2-х байтових значень для дати і часу збереження зображення (місяць-день-рік-час-хвилина-секунда). Якщо це поле не використовується, воно заповнюється нулями.
Ім'я/ID завдання (41 байт)
Місце для 40 ASCII символів і одного нульового байта.
Job time (6 байт)
Аналогічно полю дата/час, місце для зберігання трьох значень (час-хвилина-секунда).
ID ПЗ (41 байт)
Місце для рядка-ідентифікатора ПЗ, за допомогою якого був створений файл.
Версія ПЗ (3 байти)
Поле містить дві складові частини — 2-х байтне число і ASCII символ. Місце для збереження версії ПЗ, за допомогою якого був створений файл.
Ключовий колір (4 байти)
4-х байтне значення, що визначає ключовий колір альфа каналу у форматі ARGB. Якщо зображення не містить альфа-каналу, значення першого байта встановлюється в нуль.
Ключовий колір визначає колір фону або «прозорий колір». Якщо поле не використовується, воно заповнюється нулями.
Співвідношення сторін пікселя (aspect ratio) (4 байти)
Містить два 2-х байтних значення, визначальну ширину і висоту пікселя відповідно. Однакові ненульові значення визначають квадратний піксель, нуль в другому значенні означає, що співвідношення не вказане.
Гамма (4 байти)
Містить два 2-х байтних значення, використовуваних як чисельник і знаменник при обчисленні дробового значення гамми. Результат ділення повинен знаходитися в діапазоні від 0 до 10.0 і мати тільки один знак в дробовій частині. Коли це поле не використовується, обидва значення мають дорівнювати один одному (щоб отримати 1.0 після ділення), або друге значення має дорівнювати нулю.
Зсув Корекція Кольору (4 байти)
Містить зсув в байтах від початку файлу до таблиці корекції. Таблиця може бути поміщена в будь-якому місці після поля Даних Зображення і перед Підвалом файлу. Якщо зображення не вимагає корекції, це значення дорівнює нулю.
Зсув Postage Stamp (4 байти)
Містить зсув до зменшеної копії зображення, що міститься у файлі. Зображення записується між Таблицею Скан Ліній (описано нижче) і Підвалом файлу.
Зсув Скан Ліній (4 байти)
Зсув до початку таблиці Скан Ліній.
Тип Аттрибутів (1 байт)
Це значення визначає тип даних альфа-каналу, збережених із зображенням.
0 — немає альфа-каналу
1 — невизначені дані в альфа-каналі, можуть бути проігноровані
2 — невизначені дані в альфа-каналі, мають бути збережені
3 — повноцінний альфа-канал в наявності
4 — передпомножений альфа-канал(значення кольорів вже помножені на значення в альфа-каналі)
Pre-multiplied Alpha Example: Suppose the Alpha channel data is being used to specify the opacity of each pixel (for use when the image is overlayed on another image), where 0 indicates that the pixel is completely transparent and a value of 1 indicates that the pixel is completely opaque (assume all component values have been normalized). A quadruple (a, r, g, b) of (0.5, 1, 0, 0) would indicate that the pixel is pure red with a transparency of one-half. For numerous reasons (including image compositing) is is better to pre-multiply the individual color components with the value in the Alpha channel. A pre-multiplication of the above would produce a quadruple (0.5, 0.5, 0, 0).
A value of 3 in the Attributes Type Field (field 23) would indicate that the color components of the pixel have already been scaled by the value in the Alpha channel. For more information concerning pre-multiplied values, refer to the 1984 SIGGRAPH Conference Proceedings.
Таблиця Скан Ліній
Таблиця повинна містити набір зсувів в байтах від початку файлу до початків скан ліній, у відповідному порядку (наприклад зверху вниз/знизу вгору).
Зображення Postage Stamp
Зменшена копія зображення, що міститься у файлі. Зберігається в тому ж форматі, що і повнорозмірне, але без застосування методів стискання. Перший байт містить ширину копії в пікселях, другої, — висоту. Truevision не рекомендовано використовувати зображення розміром більш ніж 64х64 пікселя.
Таблиця Корекції Кольору (2 КБ)
Таблиця містить 256х4 2-х байтних значень, кожна послідовність з чотирьох таких значень відповідає каналам ARGB.
Підвал
Зсув в байтах від початку файлу до зони розширення (4 байти).
Зсув до списку зон розробника (4 байти).
Сигнатура нової версії файлу (ASCII рядок «TRUEVISION-XFILE.\0»).
Передостанній символ сигнатури повинен бути символом «.»(period), інакше файл не буде розпізнаний як правильний файл TGA.
Розробник не зобов'язаний читати, записувати або використовувати зони розширення або розробника, але, навіть коли вони не використовуються, рекомендується включати у файл Підвал і вказувати як зсуви до невживаних зон нулі.
Растрові формати файлів
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anagram
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Anagram
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Anagram
An anagram is a word or phrase formed by rearranging the letters of a different word or phrase, typically using all the original letters exactly once. For example, the word anagram itself can be rearranged into the nonsense phrase "nag a ram"; which is an Easter egg suggestion in Google after searching for the word "anagram".
The original word or phrase is known as the subject of the anagram. Any word or phrase that exactly reproduces the letters in another order is an anagram. Someone who creates anagrams may be called an "anagrammatist", and the goal of a serious or skilled anagrammatist is to produce anagrams that reflect or comment on their subject.
Examples
Anagrams may be created as a commentary on the subject. They may be a parody, a criticism or satire. For example:
"New York Times" = "monkeys write"
"Church of Scientology" = "rich-chosen goofy cult"
"McDonald's restaurants" = "Uncle Sam's standard rot"
"coronavirus" = "carnivorous"
"She Sells Sanctuary" = "Santa; shy, less cruel" or "Satan; cruel, less shy"
An anagram may also be a synonym of the original word. For example:
"evil" = "vile"
"a gentleman" = "elegant man"
"silent" = "listen"
An anagram that has a meaning opposed to that of the original word or phrase is called an "antigram". For example:
"restful" = "fluster"
"cheater" = "teacher"
"funeral" = "real fun"
"adultery" = "true lady"
"forty five" = "over fifty"
"Santa" = "Satan"
They can sometimes change from a proper noun or personal name into an appropriate sentence:
"William Shakespeare" = "I am a weakish speller"
"Madam Curie" = "Radium came"
"George Bush" = "He bugs Gore"
"Tom Marvolo Riddle" = "I am Lord Voldemort"
They can change part of speech, such as the adjective "silent" to the verb "listen".
"Anagrams" itself can be anagrammatized as "Ars magna" (Latin, 'the great art').
History
Anagrams can be traced back to the time of the ancient Greeks, and were used to find the hidden and mystical meaning in names.
They were popular throughout Europe during the Middle Ages, for example with the poet and composer Guillaume de Machaut. They are said to date back at least to the Greek poet Lycophron, in the third century BCE; but this relies on an account of Lycophron given by John Tzetzes in the 12th century.
In the Talmudic and Midrashic literature, anagrams were used to interpret the Hebrew Bible, notably by Eleazar of Modi'im. Later, Kabbalists took this up with enthusiasm, calling anagrams temurah.
Anagrams in Latin were considered witty over many centuries. Est vir qui adest, explained below, was cited as the example in Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language. They became hugely popular in the early modern period, especially in Germany.
Any historical material on anagrams must always be interpreted in terms of the assumptions and spellings that were current for the language in question. In particular, spelling in English only slowly became fixed. There were attempts to regulate anagram formation, an important one in English being that of George Puttenham's Of the Anagram or Posy Transposed in The Art of English Poesie (1589).
Influence of Latin
As a literary game when Latin was the common property of the literate, Latin anagrams were prominent. Two examples are the change of Ave Maria, gratia plena, Dominus tecum (Latin: Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord [is] with you) into Virgo serena, pia, munda et immaculata (Latin: Serene virgin, pious, clean and spotless), and the anagrammatic answer to Pilate's question, Quid est veritas? (Latin: What is truth?), namely, Est vir qui adest (Latin: It is the man who is here). The origins of these are not documented.
Latin continued to influence letter values (such as I = J, U = V and W = VV). There was an ongoing tradition of allowing anagrams to be "perfect" if the letters were all used once, but allowing for these interchanges. This can be seen in a popular Latin anagram against the Jesuits: Societas Jesu turned into Vitiosa seces (Latin: Cut off the wicked things). Puttenham, in the time of Elizabeth I, wished to start from Elissabet Anglorum Regina (Latin: Elizabeth Queen of the English), to obtain Multa regnabis ense gloria (Latin: By thy sword shalt thou reign in great renown); he explains carefully that H is "a note of aspiration only and no letter", and that Z in Greek or Hebrew is a mere SS. The rules were not completely fixed in the 17th century. William Camden in his Remains commented, singling out some letters—Æ, K, W, and Z—not found in the classical Roman alphabet:
Early modern period
When it comes to the 17th century and anagrams in English or other languages, there is a great deal of documented evidence of learned interest. The lawyer Thomas Egerton was praised through the anagram gestat honorem ('he carries honor'); the physician George Ent took the anagrammatic motto genio surget ('he rises through spirit/genius'), which requires his first name as Georgius. James I's courtiers discovered in "James Stuart" "a just master", and converted "Charles James Stuart" into "Claims Arthur's seat" (even at that point in time, the letters I and J were more-or-less interchangeable). Walter Quin, tutor to the future Charles I, worked hard on multilingual anagrams on the name of father James. A notorious murder scandal, the Overbury case, threw up two imperfect anagrams that were aided by typically loose spelling and were recorded by Simonds D'Ewes: "Francis Howard" (for Frances Carr, Countess of Somerset, her maiden name spelled in a variant) became "Car findes a whore", with the letters E hardly counted, and the victim Thomas Overbury, as "Thomas Overburie", was written as "O! O! a busie murther" (an old form of "murder"), with a V counted as U.
William Drummond of Hawthornden, in an essay On the Character of a Perfect Anagram, tried to lay down rules for permissible substitutions (such as S standing for Z) and letter omissions. William Camden provided a definition of "Anagrammatisme" as "a dissolution of a name truly written into his letters, as his elements, and a new connection of it by artificial transposition, without addition, subtraction or change of any letter, into different words, making some perfect sense appliable (i.e., applicable) to the person named." Dryden in MacFlecknoe disdainfully called the pastime the "torturing of one poor word ten thousand ways".
"Eleanor Audeley", wife of Sir John Davies, is said to have been brought before the High Commission in 1634 for extravagances, stimulated by the discovery that her name could be transposed to "Reveale, O Daniel", and to have been laughed out of court by another anagram submitted by Sir John Lambe, the dean of the Arches, "Dame Eleanor Davies", "Never soe mad a ladie".
An example from France was a flattering anagram for Cardinal Richelieu, comparing him to Hercules or at least one of his hands (Hercules being a kingly symbol), where Armand de Richelieu became Ardue main d'Hercule ("difficult hand of Hercules").
Modern period
Examples from the 19th century are the transposition of "Horatio Nelson" into Honor est a Nilo (Latin: Honor is from the Nile); and of "Florence Nightingale" into "Flit on, cheering angel". The Victorian love of anagramming as recreation is alluded to by the mathematician Augustus De Morgan using his own name as an example; "Great Gun, do us a sum!" is attributed to his son William De Morgan, but a family friend John Thomas Graves was prolific, and a manuscript with over 2,800 has been preserved.
With the advent of surrealism as a poetic movement, anagrams regained the artistic respect they had had in the Baroque period. The German poet Unica Zürn, who made extensive use of anagram techniques, came to regard obsession with anagrams as a "dangerous fever", because it created isolation of the author. The surrealist leader André Breton coined the anagram Avida Dollars for Salvador Dalí, to tarnish his reputation by the implication of commercialism.
Applications
While anagramming is certainly a recreation first, there are ways in which anagrams are put to use, and these can be more serious, or at least not quite frivolous and formless. For example, psychologists use anagram-oriented tests, often called "anagram solution tasks", to assess the implicit memory of young adults and adults alike.
Establishment of priority
Natural philosophers (astronomers and others) of the 17th century transposed their discoveries into Latin anagrams, to establish their priority. In this way they laid claim to new discoveries before their results were ready for publication.
Galileo used for (Latin: I have observed the most distant planet to have a triple form) for discovering the rings of Saturn in 1610. Galileo announced his discovery that Venus had phases like the Moon in the form (Latin: These immature ones have already been read in vain by me -oy), that is, when rearranged, (Latin: The Mother of Loves [= Venus] imitates the figures of Cynthia [= the moon]). In both cases, Johannes Kepler had solved the anagrams incorrectly, assuming they were talking about the Moons of Mars and a red spot on Jupiter, respectively. By coincidence, he turned out to be right about the actual objects existing.
In 1656, Christiaan Huygens, using a better telescope than those available to Galileo, figured that Galileo's earlier observations of Saturn actually meant it had a ring (Galileo's tools were only sufficient to see it as bumps) and, like Galileo, had published an anagram, . Upon confirming his observations, three years later he revealed it to mean (Latin: It [Saturn] is surrounded by a thin, flat, ring, nowhere touching, inclined to the ecliptic).
When Robert Hooke discovered Hooke's law in 1660, he first published it in anagram form, , for (Latin: as the extension, so the force).
Pseudonyms
Anagrams are connected to pseudonyms, by the fact that they may conceal or reveal, or operate somewhere in between like a mask that can establish identity. For example, Jim Morrison used an anagram of his name in the Doors song "L.A. Woman", calling himself "Mr. Mojo Risin'". The use of anagrams and fabricated personal names may be to circumvent restrictions on the use of real names, as happened in the 18th century when Edward Cave wanted to get around restrictions imposed on the reporting of the House of Commons. In a genre such as farce or parody, anagrams as names may be used for pointed and satiric effect.
Pseudonyms adopted by authors are sometimes transposed forms of their names; thus "Calvinus" becomes "Alcuinus" (here V = U) or "François Rabelais" = "Alcofribas Nasier". The name "Voltaire" of François Marie Arouet fits this pattern, and is allowed to be an anagram of "Arouet, l[e] j[eune]" (U = V, J = I) that is, "Arouet the younger". Other examples include:
"Damon Albarn" = "Dan Abnormal"
"Dave Barry" = "Ray Adverb"
"Arrigo Boito" = "Tobia Gorrio"
"Buckethead" = "Death Cube K"
"Daniel Clowes" = "Enid Coleslaw"
"Siobhán Donaghy" = "Shanghai Nobody"
"Glen Duncan" = "Declan Gunn"
"(Theodor) Geisel" = "(Theo) Le Sieg"
"Edward Gorey" = "Ogdred Weary", = "Regera Dowdy" or = "E. G. Deadworry" (and others)
"Anna Madrigal" = "A man and a girl"
"Ted Morgan" = "(Sanche) de Gramont"
"Lorin Morgan-Richards" = "Marcil d'Hirson Garron"
"Vladimir Nabokov" = "Vivian Darkbloom", = "Vivian Bloodmark", = "Blavdak Vinomori", or = "Dorian Vivalkomb"
Several of these are "imperfect anagrams", letters having been left out in some cases for the sake of easy pronunciation.
Titles
Anagrams used for titles afford scope for some types of wit. Examples:
Homer Hickam's book Rocket Boys was adapted into the 1999 film October Sky.
The tapes for the revival of the BBC show Doctor Who were labeled with the anagram Torchwood, which later went on to be used as the name for a spin-off show. In multi-episode shows, the program occasionally substitutes the anagram of an actor's name for the actual name to prevent revealing the true identity of the role (for instance, The Master) being played by the actor.
The New Wave band Missing Persons' best-selling album was called Spring Session M.
Hip-hop artist MF Doom recorded a 2004 album called Mm..Food.
Brian Eno's album Before and After Science includes a song entitled "King's Lead Hat", an anagram of "Talking Heads", a band Eno has worked with.
Juan Maria Solare's piano ballad "Jura ser anomalía" (literally "he/she swears to be an anomaly") is an anagram of the composer's full name. His composition for English horn titled "A Dot in Time" is an anagram of "Meditation", which describes the piece. The title of his piano piece that is a homage to Claude Debussy is "Seduce Us Badly".
Bill Evans's overdubbed piano elegy for fellow jazz pianist Sonny Clark is titled "N.Y.C.'s No Lark", and another composition, "Re: Person I Knew" is a tribute to his producer, Orrin Keepnews.
The title of Imogen Heap's album iMegaphone is an anagram of her name.
Progressive rock group Rush published a song on their 1989 album Presto titled "Anagram (for Mongo)" that makes use of anagrams in every line of the song.
The title of the fifth album by American rock band Interpol, El Pintor, is an anagram of the band's name and also Spanish for "the painter".
Many of the song titles on Aphex Twin's ...I Care Because You Do are anagrams of either "Aphex Twin", "The Aphex Twin", or "Richard D. James".
In Disney's 1964 film Mary Poppins, Dick Van Dyke played Mr. Dawes Sr. as the anagram of his name, Navckid Keyd. In the credits, the words unscrambled themselves to reveal his name.
The title of King Crimson's 1982 song Thela Hun Ginjeet is an anagram of "heat in the jungle".
Two albums released in 2022 by Australian rock band King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard titled "Made in Timeland" and "Laminated Denim".
Coincidences
In Hebrew, the name "Gernot Zippe" (גרנוט ציפה), the inventor of the Zippe-type centrifuge, is an anagram of the word "centrifuge" (צנטריפוגה).
The sentence "Name is Anu Garg", referring to anagrammer and founder of wordsmith.org Anu Garg, can be rearranged to spell "Anagram genius".
Games and puzzles
Anagrams are in themselves a recreational activity, but they also make up part of many other games, puzzles and game shows. The Jumble is a puzzle found in many newspapers in the United States requiring the unscrambling of letters to find the solution. Cryptic crossword puzzles frequently use anagrammatic clues, usually indicating that they are anagrams by the inclusion of a descriptive term like "confused" or "in disarray". An example would be Businessman burst into tears (9 letters). The solution, stationer, is an anagram of into tears, the letters of which have burst out of their original arrangement to form the name of a type of businessman.
Numerous other games and contests involve some element of anagram formation as a basic skill. Some examples:
In Anagrams, players flip tiles over one at a time and race to take words. They can "steal" each other's words by rearranging the letters and extending the words.
In a version of Scrabble called Clabbers, the name itself is an anagram of Scrabble. Tiles may be placed in any order on the board as long as they anagram to a valid word.
On the British game show Countdown, contestants are given 30 seconds to make the longest word from nine random letters.
In Boggle, players make constrained words from a grid of sixteen random letters, by joining adjacent cubes.
On the British game show BrainTeaser, contestants are shown a word broken into randomly arranged segments and must announce the whole word. At the end of the game there is a "Pyramid" which starts with a three-letter word. A letter appears in the line below to which the player must add the existing letters to find a solution. The pattern continues until the player reaches the final eight-letter anagram. The player wins the game by solving all the anagrams within the allotted time.
In Bananagrams, players place tiles from a pool into crossword-style word arrangements in a race to see who can finish the pool of tiles first.
Ciphers
Multiple anagramming is a technique used to solve some kinds of cryptograms, such as a permutation cipher, a transposition cipher, and the Jefferson disk. Solutions may be computationally found using a Jumble algorithm.
Methods of construction
Sometimes, it is possible to "see" anagrams in words, unaided by tools, though the more letters involved the more difficult this becomes. The difficulty is that for a word of different letters, there are (factorial of ) different permutations and so different anagrams of the word. Anagram dictionaries can also be used. Computer programs, known as "anagram search", "anagram servers", "anagram solvers", offer a much faster route to creating anagrams, and a large number of these programs are available on the Internet. Some programs use the Anatree algorithm to compute anagrams efficiently.
The program or server carries out an exhaustive search of a database of words, to produce a list containing every possible combination of words or phrases from the input word or phrase using a jumble algorithm. Some programs (such as Lexpert) restrict to one-word answers. Many anagram servers (for example, The Words Oracle) can control the search results, by excluding or including certain words, limiting the number or length of words in each anagram, or limiting the number of results. Anagram solvers are often banned from online anagram games. The disadvantage of computer anagram solvers, especially when applied to multi-word anagrams, is their poor understanding of the meaning of the words they are manipulating. They usually cannot filter out meaningful or appropriate anagrams from large numbers of nonsensical word combinations. Some servers attempt to improve on this using statistical techniques that try to combine only words that appear together often. This approach provides only limited success since it fails to recognize ironic and humorous combinations.
Some anagrammatists indicate the method they used. Anagrams constructed without the aid of a computer are noted as having been done "manually" or "by hand"; those made by utilizing a computer may be noted "by machine" or "by computer", or may indicate the name of the computer program (using Anagram Genius).
There are also a few "natural" instances: English words unconsciously created by switching letters around. The French chaise longue ("long chair") became the American "chaise lounge" by metathesis (transposition of letters and/or sounds). It has also been speculated that the English "curd" comes from the Latin crudus ("raw"). Similarly, the ancient English word for bird was "brid".
Notable anagrammatists
The French king Louis XIII had a man named Thomas Billon appointed as his Royal Anagrammatist with an annual salary of 1,200 livres. Among contemporary anagrammers, Anu Garg, created an Internet Anagram Server in 1994 together with the satirical anagram-based newspaper The Anagram Times. Mike Keith has anagrammed the complete text of Moby Dick. He, along with Richard Brodie, has published The Anagrammed Bible that includes anagrammed version of many books of the Bible. Popular television personality Dick Cavett is known for his anagrams of famous celebrities such as Alec Guinness and Spiro Agnew.
Anagram animation
An animated anagram displays the letters of a word or phrase moving into their new positions.
See also
Acronym
Ambigram
Anagrammatic poem
Anagrams, a board game
Ananym
Blanagram
Constrained writing
Isogram
Letter bank
Lipogram
List of geographic anagrams and ananyms
List of taxa named by anagrams
London Underground anagram map
Palindrome
Pangram
Rebus
Sator Square
Spoonerism
Tautonym
Word play
References
Further reading
Henry Benjamin Wheatley. Of Anagrams: A Monograph Treating of Their History from the Earliest Ages to the Present Time. Williams & Norgate, 1862.
Word Ways: The Journal of Recreational Linguistics. Greenwood Periodicals et al., 1968–. .
Howard W. Bergerson. Palindromes and Anagrams. Dover Publications, 1973. .
External links
AnagramThis - An ad-free online anagram creator
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogelio%20Funes%20Mori
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Rogelio Funes Mori
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Rogelio Funes Mori
Rogelio Gabriel Funes Mori (born 5 March 1991) is a professional footballer who plays as a forward for Liga MX club UNAM. Born in Argentina, he represented the Mexico national team.
He began his career at River Plate before transferring to Benfica, after a brief stint in Turkey he signed with Liga MX club Monterrey in the summer of 2015 and quickly established himself as one of the league's best strikers, winning the league, two domestic cups and two CONCACAF Champions League titles and surpassing Humberto Suazo to become the club's all-time top scorer in all competitions.
His identical twin brother José Ramiro is also a footballer who played as a defender for Premier League club Everton and La Liga outfit Villarreal and for the Argentina national team.
Early life
Funes Mori was born in Mendoza, Argentina. In 2001, he moved to Arlington, Texas, US, and attended Workman Junior High and Arlington High School where he was coached by Jeff Waldrop playing football with his twin brother, Ramiro. The twins' father, Miguel, played professional football in Argentina with clubs such as Independiente Rivadavia and Club Atlético Argentino in the 1980s. Funes Mori scored 40 goals in the 2008 season leading his team to District Champions and Area Finalist with a record of 24–2–1. Rogelio and Ramiro, who are identical twins, also played several seasons for the Associated Soccer Group (ASG) 91' team. His coach with ASG was Uche Okafor.
After that, Chelsea scout Jorge Alvial scouted Rogelio and Ramiro on the first day of the reality show Sueño MLS, and spoke to his parents about a future tryout at Chelsea. He participated in Sueño MLS and won the contest, therefore becoming part of FC Dallas.
Club career
River Plate
Funes Mori began his professional career with River Plate in the Argentine Primera División on 6 December 2009, on a 1–3 defeat against Vélez Sársfield. He played the last two games of that year at home against Racing Club and away to Tigre, scoring his first goal with the club in their visit to the latter.
In the traditional pre-season encounters for the big clubs in Argentina, the Torneos de Verano, he scored for River in a 3–1 victory over their rivals Boca Juniors in Mar del Plata's Copa Desafío.
On 9 May, during the 2010 Clausura tournament, he scored his first hat-trick for River Plate in a game against Racing Club. He achieved the three goals in only 24 minutes, breaking a personal 11-match streak without scoring a goal. In the last game of the tournament, the forward scored River's only goal in a 1–5 loss to Tigre at home.
In the first game of the 2010 Apertura, he scored a 90th-minute goal following an assist from Ariel Ortega to secure a 1–0 victory over Tigre. This was his third goal in three games against that team. In the third fixture, against Independiente, he scored two goals in the first half as River went on to win 3–2. The forward scored his fourth goal of the season in the 1–0 victory over Arsenal de Sarandí.
Benfica
On 10 August 2013, Funes Mori joined Benfica on a five-year contract. River Plate received €2 million from an investment group who kept a share of its economic right's, with Benfica receiving half, plus the sports rights.
On 15 September, he made his debut for Benfica B, scoring his first goal in a Benfica shirt. On 15 March, he scored four goals for the B side against Sporting Covilhã in a 4–0 win. On 9 July 2014, he was loaned to Eskişehirspor in Turkey for one year, with the option to make the move permanent for a €3.5 million fee.
Monterrey
On 12 June 2015, Funes Mori moved to Liga MX club Monterrey. He made his debut in a 3–2 friendly win over Morelia, scoring in the 91st minute. In his debut tournament he finished fourth-joint top scorer of the league with 11 goals.
On 6 August 2016, he scored his first hat-trick against León.
In December 2017, he won the Copa MX after defeating Pachuca 1–0 in a home win.
He scored his 100th goal for the club on 18 December 2019 in the Club World Cup semi-final against Premiere League club Liverpool, making it 1–1 partial at the 14th minute but culminating in a 2–1 loss. After their participation at the Club World Cup, Monterrey disputed the Apertura championship finals against América. In the second leg, he scored the tying aggregate goal in order to take the match into overtime; where the winner was determined via a penalty shootout and Monterrey ultimately won 4–2. He was included in the tournament's Best XI.
On 7 January 2024, Monterrey bid farewell to Funes Mori.
UNAM
On 9 January 2024, Funes Mori joined UNAM.
International career
Argentina
Funes Mori was called up by Walter Perazzo to be part of the Argentina under-20 squad that participated in the 2011 South American Youth Championship, scoring twice.
In 2012, Funes Mori made his senior debut for Argentina during a friendly match in the Superclásico de las Américas.
Mexico
Early in 2019, Funes Mori inquired FIFA about the possibility to play for Mexico, but was deemed ineligible. In 2020, following a change of rules regarding naturalized players by FIFA, he was deemed eligible to play for Mexico and restated his interest. On 14 June 2021, Funes Mori was granted his Mexican citizenship making him eligible to play for Mexico.
On 3 July 2021, he earned his first cap with the senior national team under manager Gerardo Martino in a friendly match against Nigeria, scoring on his debut in the team's 4–0 victory.
Funes Mori participated at the 2021 Gold Cup, scoring a total of 3 times. Mexico finished runner-up after losing the final to the United States 0–1.
In October 2022, Funes Mori was named in Mexico's preliminary 31-man squad for the 2022 FIFA World Cup, and in November, he was ultimately included in the final 26-man roster.
Personal life
Funes Mori is married to Jorgelina who is the sister of former FC Dallas midfielder Mauro Díaz. His twin brother, Ramiro, is also a footballer and represented the Argentina national team at two Copa América tournaments.
Career statistics
Club
International
Scores and results list Mexico's goal tally first.
Honours
River Plate
Primera B Nacional: 2011–12
Benfica
Primeira Liga: 2013–14
Taça de Portugal: 2013–14
Taça da Liga: 2013–14
Monterrey
Liga MX: Apertura 2019
Copa MX: Apertura 2017, 2019–20
CONCACAF Champions League: 2019, 2021
Individual
Liga MX Goal of the Tournament: 2015–16, 2018–19
Copa MX Top Scorer: Clausura 2017
Liga MX Player of the Month: January 2019
Liga MX Best XI: Apertura 2019
Liga MX All-Star: 2021
CONCACAF Gold Cup Best XI: 2021
CONCACAF Champions League Golden Ball: 2021
CONCACAF Champions League Team of the Tournament: 2021
C.F. Monterrey All Time Leading Goalscorer
References
External links
1991 births
Living people
Argentine twins
Mexican people of Argentine descent
Sportspeople of Argentine descent
Footballers from Mendoza, Argentina
Argentine men's footballers
Mexican men's footballers
Men's association football forwards
Club Atlético River Plate footballers
S.L. Benfica B players
S.L. Benfica footballers
Eskişehirspor footballers
C.F. Monterrey players
Argentine Primera División players
Primera Nacional players
Liga Portugal 2 players
Primeira Liga players
Süper Lig players
Liga MX players
Argentina men's youth international footballers
Argentina men's under-20 international footballers
Argentina men's international footballers
Mexico men's international footballers
Dual internationalists (men's football)
2021 CONCACAF Gold Cup players
Argentine expatriate men's footballers
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in Mexico
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in Portugal
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in Turkey
Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States
Expatriate men's footballers in Portugal
Expatriate men's footballers in Turkey
Expatriate men's footballers in Mexico
Argentine emigrants to Mexico
Identical twins
2022 FIFA World Cup players
CONCACAF Champions Cup-winning players
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandrillus
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Mandrillus
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Mandrillus is a genus of large Old World monkeys distributed throughout central and southern Africa, consisting of two species: M. sphinx and M. leucophaeus, the mandrill and drill, respectively. Mandrillus, originally placed under the genus Papio as a type of baboon, is closely related to the genus Cercocebus. They are characterised by their large builds, elongated snouts with furrows on each side, and stub tails. Both species occupy the west central region of Africa and live primarily on the ground. They are frugivores, consuming both meat and plants, with a preference for plants. M. sphinx is classified as vulnerable and M. leucophaeus as endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Taxonomy
Mandrillus is a genus within the tribe Papionini, which in turn is under the subfamily Cercopithecinae. This subfamily is classified under the family of Old World monkeys (Cercopithecidae) within the infraorder Simiiformes. The Papionini tribe contains six other genera: baboons (Papio), macaques (Macaca), crested mangabeys (Lophocebus), white-eyelid mangabeys (Cercocebus), the highland mangabey (Rungwecebus) and Theropithecus.
Originally, both species were considered part of the Papio genus, as forest baboons, due to superficial similarities such as size and appearance, particularly in facial features. However, studies conducted analysing anatomical and genetic differences between the current Mandrillus and Papio genera showed more differences than similarities resulting in the current taxonomic ranking. Furthermore, the studies showed Mandrillus are more closely related to the white eyed mangabeys, and diverged relatively recently (4 million years ago) from this genus.
Species
Anatomy
Both species of Mandrillus develop extremely large muzzles, prominent nasal ridges and paranasal swelling (swelling in the area adjacent to the nostrils). The size and colour of the paranasal swellings correlate to male dominance and rank, while the size of nasal ridges is a way of attracting mates. Mandrillus teeth consist of two incisors, two premolars, one canine and three molars in each half of the upper and lower jaw, totalling 32 teeth. Furthermore Mandrillus display larger premolars and extended canines; these dental traits are better adapted to crushing hard objects. This is due to a large part of their diet consisting of hard, dry nuts and seeds that require greater crushing power and the use of their teeth in ripping apart rotting wood to search for insects and other invertebrates.
Within the shoulder and upper arm structures of the Mandrillus monkeys a deep scapular, broad deltoid plane, narrow stable elbow region and other skeletal features indicate the use of the forelimbs for climbing and foraging. This is used by the monkeys to climb trees when searching for ripe fruit and in the aggressive foraging of the forest floor in search of food. Mandrillus monkeys have developed an extremely broad and robust ilium, and a rounded tibial shaft. The development of these features can be attributed to the climbing of trees and quadrupedal locomotion. The largest toe is separated from the remaining toes for increased grasping power when climbing trees.
Sexual dimorphism
Both species of Mandrillus demonstrate a great degree of sexual dimorphism in weight, anatomy and physical appearance. The mandrill displays the most extreme sexual dimorphism for weight among all primates, with a male-female weight ratio of 3.2 – 3.4 at eight to ten years of age. Similarly, drills are one of the most sexually dimorphic primates for body weight, with a male growing up to 32 kg while a female grows to 12 kg. Sexual dimorphism is also displayed in the growth of the craniofacial bones of both species. The males of each species have longer muzzles, much larger paranasal swellings and longer canines than their female counterparts. In a study of wild drills, female muzzles only grew up to 70% the length of the male muzzles. Furthermore, males have brightly coloured, saturated rumps unlike their female counterparts. Both species also display the greatest visual sexual dimorphism within monkeys. On a scale based on rating the differences in physical features between genders, the mandrill obtained 32 whilst the drill obtained 24.5. These ratings are based on features such as the saturation and colour of the rump (and face for mandrills), the paranasal swelling, the fatted rump and fur colouring.
Distribution and habitat
Mandrillus monkeys have a very localised biographical region located in West central Africa. The two species are often considered allopatric, they occupy non-overlapping regions, and their regions are divided by a physical barrier, the Sanaga river in Cameroon. Mandrillus leucophaeus occupy the area above the river in North western Cameroon and southwestern Nigeria up until the Cross River, and Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea) which lies off the coast. The mandrill occupies the area below the river line in Cameroon, Río Muni, Gabon and Congo. The Mandrillus species occupy multiple sections of the Guinean forests of West Africa, including Cross–Sanaga–Bioko coastal forests and Cameroonian Highlands forests. The forests the monkeys occupy have a humid, tropical climate and rugged terrain. Deforestation has reduced the habitat of both Mandrillus species, reducing the distribution of each species, especially the drill.
Behaviour
Diet
Both Mandrillus species are frugivores, consuming both plants and insects with a preference for fruits and nuts. Mandrillus species spend a large amount of their time foraging through the forest in search of food. In a study conducted in Cameroon, approximately 84% of the faecal matter of mandrills consisted of fruit. Similarly, a study done on drills in southwest Cameroon showed that the mean weight of fruit and seed in faecal matter was equal to or greater than 80%. Seasonal changes can be seen within Mandrillus diet, during peak fruit season (September to March) their diet consisted mostly of fruit, pulp and seeds whilst during the fruit scarce season (June to August) there was a great increase in the consumption of insects, woody tissue and especially nuts. There was also an increase in the variation of the diet during the fruit-scarce season. Important fruit include but are not limited to, the fruit of the bush mango (Irvingia gabonensis), African Corkwood tree (Musanga cecropioides), Grewia coriacea, Sacoglottis gabonensis and Xylopia aethiopica. Invertebrates consumed include crickets, ants, caterpillars and termites. Rarely, Mandrillus monkeys will eat larger animals, such as rats and gazelles when presented with the opportunity.
Social systems
The species of the genus exhibit great similarities in their social systems. Both generally form smaller groups, however the size of these groups is unclear. A study done on drills in southwest Cameroon found a mean group size of 52.3 while another more recent report stated a figure of 25–40 on these smaller groups. A study of mandrills done at Campo reserve in Cameroon found small groups contain 14 - 95 individuals. These smaller groups, with stable social structures, often join to form larger "supergroups" of hundreds of individuals. Some of the largest mandrill "supergroups" reported contained up to 845 individuals whilst some of the largest drill "supergroups" reported contained 400 individuals. There has been reports of solitary male Mandrillus monkeys, however this occurs very rarely.
The social structures and social hierarchy of Mandrillus "supergroups" and groups is highly contentious. There are multiple older (1970s-1990s) sources referencing single male units, which contained a male and multiple female monkeys, as the smallest and most common stable social structure. However this has been disproved with the discovery of less colourful male Mandrillus and further observations of behaviour. Mandrillus leucophaeus social structures are unknown, due to low populations, and secluded habitats with dense forestry. On the other hand, Mandrillus sphinx has had a variety of studies on social structure done in largely captive and semi-free ranging settings, with few studies on wild mandrills. The current studies on mandrills are inconclusive, and present different results. Various semi-free ranging studies conducted report a matrilineal social structure with a stable infant and female mandrill "supergroup". Male Mandrillus monkeys would disperse from this group when old enough and join other groups only during mating season. Further studies, also done in semi-free ranging settings, conclude that dominant females are central to group cohesion and connectivity (how close they remained). Conversely, a study on wild mandrills published in 2015 reported that a stable adult, male mandrill population of 5 - 6 was present year round in "supergroups". This aligned with the social structures reported in other research papers done on wild mandrills, where stable multi-male and multi-female groups were found. This difference in social structures between Mandrillus groups has been attributed to limitations in observing wild mandrills, differing habitats, and differing sample sizes.
Male dominance and rank have been linked to the colouration and colour extension of the rumps, greater saturation and colour extension correlated to higher-ranking males. Males of higher ranking are more likely to associate with females, especially those with sexual skin swelling, and more likely to successfully mount females. Dominant, adult males practice mate guarding on adult females during times of maximal skin swelling; with their high competitive ability they are more likely to successfully reproduce. Due to the tropical habitat, mating season coincides with the dry season (May to October) and birth season coincides with the wet season (November to April).
Communication
The Mandrillus genus uses both visual and vocal forms of communication, which are extremely similar or identical across both species. Both species have three identical long-range vocal communications: two-phase grunts, roars and "crowling". The two-phased grunt is a low, two-syllable continuous sound used exclusively by adult males during calm group progression and mate guarding. Roars are single low, single syllable sounds used exclusively by males in the same context as two-phase grunts. Crowling is used by infants and females during group movement or foraging to call together the dispersed group.
They also use numerous short-range vocal sounds for various purposes. The "yak" and grinding of teeth are used during tense situations. The grunt is used in aggressive situations and screams are used to escape or while experiencing fear. The growl is used to convey mild alarm, the K-alarm is used to convey intense alarm and the "girney" is used for appeasement. Both species use various facial expressions to communicate with each other. The silent baring of teeth is a positive visual signal conveying peaceful intentions, and it is often combined with a shaking head. Staring open-mouthed is a display of aggression, frowning with bare teeth is used to encourage submission, staring with bare teeth can communicate aggression or fear, pouting signals submission and a relaxed open mouth encourages playing.
Conservation status
The current conservation status of Mandrillus sphinx is vulnerable and that for Mandrillus leucophaeus is endangered. The greatest threats to the conservation of this genus are the severe loss and degradation of their habitat, and hunting. The loss of habitat is an ongoing threat that can be attributed to the expansion of human settlements as well as the clearing of forests for chipping factories and agriculture. Hunting and poaching of Mandrillus monkeys for meat or to protect crops is also major, ongoing threat to the population despite the implementation of hunting restrictions and sanctuaries. The drill population in Cameroon, which encompasses 80% of the drill's original habitat, has been fragmented into smaller, isolated populations with largest residing in Korup national park. The mandrill population in south Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea are at great risk due to extensive forest loss. The majority of the mandrill population remains in Gabon and faces major threats from railroad construction and logging companies. As of 2020, the mandrill population is in decline while the drill population is not able to be accurately determined.
References
Sources
External links
Primate Info Net Mandrillus Factsheets
Papionini
Primate genera
Primates of Africa
Taxa named by Ferdinand August Maria Franz von Ritgen
Taxa described in 1824
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993%20Stanley%20Cup%20Finals
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1993 Stanley Cup Finals
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1993 Stanley Cup Finals
The 1993 Stanley Cup Finals was the championship series of the National Hockey League's (NHL) 1992–93 season, and the culmination of the 1993 Stanley Cup playoffs. It was contested between the Los Angeles Kings and the Montreal Canadiens. It was the first appearance in the Final for the Kings and the first appearance since the 1920 Stanley Cup Finals for a team based on the west coast of the United States. It was also the 34th appearance for Montreal, their first since the 1989 Stanley Cup Finals. The Canadiens won the series four games to one to win the team's 24th Stanley Cup. The year 1993 was the 100th anniversary of the first awarding of the Stanley Cup in 1893, and the first Finals to start in the month of June. To date, the 1993 Canadiens are the last Stanley Cup championship team to be composed solely of North American-born players, and the last Canadian team to win the Stanley Cup.
The series is remembered for Kings defenceman Marty McSorley's penalty late in the third period of game two for using an illegal stick, in what proved to be the turning point in the 1993 Cup Finals. When McSorley entered the penalty box, Los Angeles held a 1–0 series lead, and a 2–1 score in the contest. The Canadiens then went on to score the equalizer on the ensuing power play, won game two in overtime, and then defeated the Kings in the next three games to win the Cup.
From the moment that McSorley was called for the penalty, the Kings failed to win another postseason game for the remainder of the 20th century, losing all the remaining games of the Finals, failing to qualify for the playoffs in five of the next seven seasons, and being swept out in the first round the other two times. Their next postseason win did not come until 2001, against the Detroit Red Wings. Meanwhile, the Canadiens did not appear in the Stanley Cup Finals again until 2021.
This was the first of two consecutive Finals series to have former captains of the Edmonton Oilers' 1980s dynasty attempting to win a Stanley Cup with their new teams; while Wayne Gretzky (who was the Oilers' captain on the first four out of five championship teams) ended up on the losing end of the 1993 series, Mark Messier (the Oilers' captain when they last won the Cup in ) got his chance with the New York Rangers in , and that time, he succeeded in helping them end a 54-year championship drought.
Paths to the Finals
Los Angeles had started the season well but faltered from December to February, though they managed to rebound and clinch a playoff spot. Superstar Wayne Gretzky sat out from October to January due to injury. Los Angeles did not have home ice advantage for all four playoff rounds, and was the only club to face Canadian teams in every round. To reach the final, Los Angeles defeated the Calgary Flames in the Smythe Division Semifinals 4–2, the Vancouver Canucks in the Smythe Division Finals 4–2, and the Toronto Maple Leafs in the Campbell Conference Finals 4–3.
Montreal defeated the Quebec Nordiques (their provincial rivals) in the Adams Division Semifinals 4–2, the Buffalo Sabres in the Adams Division Finals 4–0, and the New York Islanders in the Wales Conference Finals 4–1. The Canadiens initially lost their first two games against the Nordiques, due in part to a couple of weak goals let in by star Montreal goaltender (and Quebec City native) Patrick Roy. Afterwards, a newspaper in Roy's hometown district suggested that he be traded, while Nordiques goaltending coach Dan Bouchard proclaimed that his team had solved Roy. The Canadiens then responded by winning the next four games to eliminate the Nordiques, then swept the Sabres and took the first three games against the Islanders, tying a record of 11 consecutive playoff wins set by the Chicago Blackhawks and Pittsburgh Penguins the year before.
The playoffs in both conferences saw numerous upsets, with the top teams in each conference – the Blackhawks and Penguins – being eliminated before the Conference Finals. The Campbell Conference saw the Blackhawks swept in the Norris Division Semifinals by the rival St. Louis Blues. Montreal's path to their first Cup Finals since became much easier after the Sabres swept the Canadiens' bitter rivals, the Boston Bruins, in the Adams Division Semifinals and the Islanders eliminated the two-time defending Stanley Cup champions (and the league's top regular-season team), the Pittsburgh Penguins, in the Patrick Division Finals. The Bruins had eliminated the Canadiens in the playoffs for three straight years, mainly due to Boston goaltender Andy Moog, who was often referred to as the "greatest Hab killer" the Bruins ever had. The Kings' path through the 1993 playoffs was similarly made easier as their nemesis, the Edmonton Oilers, who had eliminated the Kings from the playoffs in 1990, 1991, and 1992, failed to qualify for the playoffs for the first time since they joined the NHL in 1979.
Game summaries
This was the last Stanley Cup Finals series played in the Montreal Forum, and the last time Wayne Gretzky competed in the Finals. The Kings were appearing in the Finals for the first time in their 26-year history. They did not appear in the Finals again until 2012, where they faced the New Jersey Devils and won their first Stanley Cup. Montreal's victory is the most recent championship won by a Canadian team. They did not appear in the Finals again until 2021, where they lost to the Tampa Bay Lightning.
Game one
In game one at the Montreal Forum, the Kings jumped out to a 1–0 lead on Luc Robitaille's power-play goal at 3:03 of the first period. The Canadiens tied the game late in the first on Ed Ronan's goal at 18:09 (although it was merely a pass that Gretzky accidentally deflected into his own net). Robitaille would break the 1–1 deadlock with his second power-play goal of the game at 17:41 of the second period. Jari Kurri added an insurance marker off a Patrice Brisebois turnover at 1:51 of the third, and Gretzky sealed the 4–1 win for the Kings with an empty net goal at 18:02.
Game two
The turning point of the series for the Canadiens came late in the third period of game two. With the Kings leading by a score of 2–1, Canadiens head coach Jacques Demers called for a measurement of the curve of Kings defenceman Marty McSorley's stick. The stick was deemed illegal and McSorley was given a two-minute minor penalty for unsportsmanlike conduct. As it was late in the game and Montreal was facing the prospect of going to Los Angeles down two games to none, Demers pulled goalie Patrick Roy, producing a 6-on-4 advantage for the Canadiens. Montreal's Eric Desjardins scored from the point to tie the game at two and force overtime. Desjardins then scored his third goal of the game 51 seconds into overtime to give Montreal the win and the momentum heading toward games three and four at the Great Western Forum. Desjardins is the first and only defenceman to score a hat trick in the Cup Finals; before this game he had scored just two playoff goals.
Reports suggested Canadiens head coach Jacques Demers knew which of the Kings' hockey sticks to challenge, thanks to a Montreal Forum employee assigned to the Kings' locker room who temporarily moved the Kings' portable stick rack to the Montreal's locker room. Demers has denied this and credited captain Guy Carbonneau with spotting McSorley's illegal stick.
Game three
In game three in Los Angeles, the Canadiens jumped out to a 1–0 first period lead on a tip-in goal by Brian Bellows at 10:26, and Gilbert Dionne and Mathieu Schneider increased that lead to 3–0 at 2:41 and 3:02 of the second period. After a memorable check by long-time Kings defenceman Mark Hardy on Montreal's Mike Keane, the Kings fired back to tie the game in the second period on goals by Robitaille, Tony Granato and Gretzky. With time running out in the third period, Montreal captain Guy Carbonneau appeared to cover the puck in the goal crease, which with such little time remaining (12 seconds) would have resulted in a penalty shot for Los Angeles. But the referee ruled that the puck had been shot by a Kings player into Carbonneau's equipment, and so the period remained scoreless. After the series, the referee admitted that he had made a mistake on the call. The game went into overtime and Montreal's John LeClair scored the winner just 34 seconds into the extra period, giving the Canadiens their ninth consecutive overtime playoff victory.
Game four
Game four was a carbon copy of the previous game. Montreal bolted out to an early 2–0 lead, but the Kings fought back in the second period with goals by Mike Donnelly at 6:33 and McSorley on a power play at 19:56. As was the case in game three, the third period in game four ended up scoreless. Once again, it was John LeClair who was the hero for Montreal as he netted the overtime winner 14:37 into the extra period, banking the puck off the leg of sliding Los Angeles defenceman Darryl Sydor. In doing so, he became the first player since Montreal legend Maurice "Rocket" Richard in 1951 to score playoff overtime goals in consecutive games, and giving Montreal an NHL-record ten consecutive overtime wins in the 1993 playoffs.
Game five
Leading the series three games to one, the Canadiens headed back home for game five. After Paul DiPietro gave Montreal a 1–0 lead with a goal at 15:10 of the first period, McSorley tied the game for the Kings at 2:40 of the second period. The Canadiens' response was swift as Kirk Muller scored just 71 seconds later, and then Stephane Lebeau scored a power-play goal at 11:31 to give the Canadiens a 3–1 lead after two periods. DiPietro scored again at 12:06 to give Montreal a 4–1 lead. That ended up being the final score, with Muller's goal turning out to be the game winner. Gretzky did not manage a shot on net during the entire game.
With the win, the Canadiens won the series four games to one and clinched their 24th Stanley Cup championship. Montreal goaltender Patrick Roy won the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player of the Stanley Cup Playoffs for the second time (he won it for the first time in ).
Team rosters
Years indicated in boldface under the "Finals appearance" column signify that the player won the Stanley Cup in the given year.
Los Angeles Kings
Montreal Canadiens
Stanley Cup engraving
The 1993 Stanley Cup was presented to Canadiens captain Guy Carbonneau by NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman following the Canadiens 4–1 win over the Kings in game five.
The following Canadiens players and staff had their names engraved on the Stanley Cup
1992–93 Montreal Canadiens
Riot
The 1993 Montreal Stanley Cup riot occurred in Montreal after the Montreal Canadiens won their 24th Stanley Cup. People poured into the streets of the city and some began to commit acts of vandalism and violence while the Canadiens were celebrating inside the Montreal Forum. In the epicentre of the riot on Saint Catherine Street, stores were looted and police cruisers were set ablaze. The riot caused million in damage.
At the high point of the riot 980 officers were dispatched and they made 115 arrests. The police reported 47 police cars damaged, 8 of those 47 cars were completely destroyed. Rioters were arrested after they broke windows, looted stores and set fires. Some of the rioters were suspected of planning to loot stores using the Canadiens' victory celebration as a decoy. 168 were injured, including 49 police officers.
Due to the Kings being the Canadiens' opponents, most of the Los Angeles news media, including the Los Angeles Times and the Daily News, also covered the riot; Times sports writer Helene Elliott was pressed into service as a news reporter minutes after the riot began.
Television
In Canada, the series was televised in English on the CBC and in French on SRC. In the United States, the series was broadcast on ESPN. This was the ESPN's first Cup Finals coverage since 1988. However, ESPN was blacked out in the Los Angeles market because of Prime Ticket's local rights to the Kings games.
References
Inline citations
Bibliography
Los Angeles Kings games
Montreal Canadiens games
Stanley Cup Finals
Stanley Cup
Stanley Cup Finals
Stanley Cup Finals
1990s in Los Angeles County, California
Ice hockey competitions in Montreal
Sports competitions in Inglewood, California
1993 in Montreal
Stanley Cup Finals
Ice hockey competitions in California
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1546486
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WindowBlinds
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WindowBlinds
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WindowBlinds is a computer program that allows users to skin the Windows graphical user interface. It has been developed by Stardock since 1998, and is the most popular component of their flagship software suite, Object Desktop. It is also available separately, and as an ActiveX/COM component called DirectSkin. Introduced in its sixth version, it supports alpha blending effects similar to the compositing of Windows Vista, but on Windows XP.
WindowBlinds has been downloaded over 10 million times and was voted "Best Vertical Market Program or Utility" in the 2006 Shareware Industry Awards Foundation People's Choice Awards. As of November 2009 there were 4448 WindowBlinds skins available at WinCustomize, with an average of nine being added per week; another popular repository is deviantART.
Skin formats
WindowBlinds skins come in two formats: "Basic" (or "UIS1+") and "Advanced" (or "UIS2").
Basic (UIS1+)
Despite its name, the "Basic" skin format can be used to create fully featured skins, and it is still used today. The main limitation is that skin borders may only be "standard" sizes (four pixels wide for most of the side borders). This restriction was significantly relaxed when skin metrics—adjustments to using the standard Windows methods—were introduced, allowing changes to (among other things) the standard height of the titlebar. It is also only possible to put buttons on the titlebar, and scripting and titlebar background animation are not supported.
The advantages of UIS1+ are performance (Stardock has claimed that a UIS1+ version of the Windows XP "Luna" visual style is twice as fast as the original in repaint and resizing) and compatibility. Most msstyles can be converted to a UIS1+ skin.
Advanced (UIS2)
The Advanced skin format is provided for when a skin design cannot fit into the above restrictions. Typically these skins may have wider borders in some places, or none at all. They may also feature titlebar background animation, or the use of scripting features.
This format offers maximum flexibility at the cost of slightly reduced performance (as compared to UIS1+), and potentially more chance of incompatibility with applications. Some UIS2 skins include a UIS1+ subskin; if problems occur, this subskin may be substituted as a "per-app" skin.
History
WindowBlinds started in 1998 when lead developer Neil Banfield teamed up with Stardock. Stardock was looking for a developer to create a window skinning application, and Banfield had already created an application that he called "Window Blinds" in 1997. Previous attempts by Stardock had included "Object Look", a minimal skinning application, and "WindowFX", an application written in Delphi. That name would later be reused for WindowFX, also created by Banfield. For a short time there was also a scaled-back version of the original Window Blinds called "WBLiteFX", a name which was still present in WindowBlinds registry settings as of May 2006.
WindowBlinds (now re-branded as one word) quickly made its way to a 1.0 release, driven by the requests of users to add "freeform skinning" (customizable window border shapes), sounds, and animation. Scrollbars, the task bar, the start button, menu items, the menu itself, and other GUI elements were added later.
WindowBlinds 2 was a major redesign in C++ that added the following features:
The "Basic" (UIS1+) format, which offered greater program compatibility in exchange for a restricted feature set.
Compound skins (later known as "subskins") which made it easier to provide alternative versions of a skin. For example, a Macintosh skin could now have two subskins to offer control buttons at the left or right of the window.
User skin recoloring.
Scripting, though this was not widely used.
Font and color sections for specific controls and states.
Support for additional controls.
At this time, "BuilderBlinds"—re-branded as SkinStudio in February 2001—became a popular tool, as it enabled artists to create skins without spending a deal of time learning the intricacies of the UIS format. It also allowed experienced users to avoid trivial errors.
WindowBlinds 3 accompanied the release of Windows XP, which contained its own skinning system called "visual styles". It was thought that visual styles might deal a blow to commercial skinning systems. This proved not to be the case; in fact, sales of WindowBlinds rose, buoyed by a new set of users who had seen the changes offered by visual styles and wanted more. Even after modifications known as "uxtheme hacks" (named after the file they modified, uxtheme.dll) became available, WindowBlinds remained popular, since it had additional features that visual styles did not.
However, the program still contained flaws. WindowBlinds 3 had many new features, but with new features came new bugs, including compatibility problems. Additionally, performance was suboptimal. Interim releases addressed these issues and provided for those areas of the Windows XP user interface that could not initially be skinned.
By the time WindowBlinds 4 arrived, there were fewer problems, due in part to an increased focus on stability for DirectSkin clients. In addition, SkinStudio now provided a method to import the Microsoft msstyles format.
WindowBlinds 4.6 was released in August 2005, with the addition of mouseover "translucent glow" effects for the titlebar buttons, push buttons and other controls. Windowblinds 4.6 has now been renamed "WindowBlinds Classic", and is meant for non-XP Windows versions, which cannot run the new Windowblinds 5.
WindowBlinds 5, released in November 2005, extends translucency through per pixel alpha blending to the entire window frame, including the borders and taskbar.
WindowBlinds 6, released end 2007, adds Windows Vista-like blur effects on XP (although Microsoft said that such per-pixel alpha blending with blur is impossible to work on XP ), later also Windows Sidebar skinning and more additional features. The configuration GUI was redesigned to a completely horizontal look.
WindowBlinds 7, released in late 2009, added native support for Windows 7. Amongst its new features is the ability to "skin Aero" by using colors and textures. Other new features include a new user interface, and various tweaks.
WindowBlinds 8, released in June 2013, added native support for Windows 8 while officially dropping support for Windows XP and Vista. The most prominent change was to its user interface, streamlining its layout while portraying a more minimalistic, Metro-like feel. In addition, version 8 updated the bundled themes and refined the corresponding preview mode.
WindowBlinds 10, released in March 2016, added native support for Windows 10 and some minor new features.
Windowblinds 11, released in November 2022, updated the UI to fit the design language of Windows 11, added a Windows 9x styled theme to the collection of default themes and improved support for dark mode and HDR.
Competitors
WindowBlinds has had many competitors over the years. Initially, it was not clear which skinning program would be the most popular, and there was active competition between the programs from 1999 to early 2001. Most are still around, but they have generally faded in popularity, since WindowBlinds can alter more GUI elements. Examples of these competitors are eFX, Illumination, Chroma and CustomEyes and ShellWM.
Skin design
The popularity of various designs has changed along with the skinning community. Initially, remakes (or "ports") of older operating systems like BeOS and AmigaOS were very popular. Users then began to explore the potential of such features as freeform skinning, titlebar animation, and scripting, resulting in a number of unique skins.
SkinStudio is a popular software tool by Stardock used to create skins for WindowBlinds, as well as programs such as ObjectBar, WebBlinds, PocketBlinds, Koala Player and Windows Media Player. It is a component of Object Desktop, but is also sold separately, and a version is available as a free download. SkinStudio uses a Universal Skin Format (USF) that can be used to create one skin and export it to multiple skin formats. In practice, skins often need further editing after being created from this template, but it can be of use when developing a suite of skins. msstyle files are imported into USF before being converted to one of the WindowBlinds skin formats.
Performance issues
Stardock WindowBlinds generally has had a bad reputation within the Windows modification community due to various parts of the software being poorly optimized. For example, when titlebar transparency is enabled, window titlebars become very laggy when several windows are opened, regardless of whether they're shown on the screen or not. This is due to the software constantly refreshing the blurred areas, creating a needlessly heavy load on both the CPU and the GPU. Even when titlebar transparency is not enabled, performance still significantly suffers, with programs often taking up to one to two seconds longer to open due to the way the software hooks running processes. Users have also reported font preferences being ignored, and a small version of the Segoe UI font being forcibly used in Windows Explorer.
Legal actions
When Mac OS X was announced, its Aqua visual style was the subject of numerous ports, some of a high quality. This undermined Apple's marketing and they felt it infringed on their look and feel. Several skins were taken down at the company's request. Notably the skin "WinAqua" by Dangeruss. Similarly, the run-up to the release of Windows XP resulted in many Luna skins. Skins with "XP" in the title were very popular that year. Prior to the release of Windows Vista, numerous skins were created that replicated Vista's GUI. Microsoft has sent a cease and desist letter to the creator of at least one of these themes.
References
External links
WindowBlinds Official Website
Windowing systems
Windows-only trialware
Stardock software
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7220652
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agus%20Salim
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Agus Salim
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Agus Salim
Haji Agus Salim (8 October 1884 – 4 November 1954) was an Indonesian journalist, diplomat, and statesman. He served as Indonesia's Minister of Foreign Affairs between 1947 and 1949.
Early life
Agus Salim was born Masjhoedoelhaq Salim on 8 October 1884, in the village of Koto Gadang, a suburb of Fort de Kock. His father, Sultan Mohammad Salim, was a colonial prosecutor and judge whose highest rank was chief judge for the indigenous court in Tanjung Pinang. His birth name, which translates into "defender of truth", was changed to Agus Salim early in his childhood.
Salim received his elementary education at Europeesche Lagere School; at that time, it was considered a privilege for a non-European child to attend an all-European school. He continued his studies at the Hogere Burgerschool in Batavia and graduated with the highest score in the whole Dutch East Indies. Salim's father had applied (and was granted) for his two sons, Agus and Jacob, to be granted equal status with the Europeans. However, his efforts to secure a government scholarship to study medicine in the Netherlands fell short. Kartini, another European-educated student whose writings on women's rights and emancipation became famous later, offered to defer her scholarship for Salim; this, too, was rejected.
C.S. Hurgronje, a prominent colonial administrator best known for his study of native affairs, took Salim under his wing and arranged for him to leave the Indies in 1905 to work as an interpreter and secretary at the Dutch consulate in Jeddah, where he handled hajj affairs; in some way, it was to distance him from the radical teachings of a close relative, the well-known Shafi'i imam of Masjid al-Haram Ahmad Khatib al-Minangkabawi.
Salim returned to the Indies in 1911 and pursued a career in journalism, contributing pieces for magazines and publications like Hindia Baroe, Fadjar Asia, and Moestika. He would later serve as an editor in Neratja, a newspaper aligned with the Sarekat Islam, where he was also an active member. While in that, he founded a private Hollandsche Indische School in his hometown of Koto Gadang, but left after three years to return to Java.
Political activism
Salim became one of the most vocal advocates of the growing Indonesian nationalist movement, in the period known as the National Awakening. He became a prominent leader in Sarekat Islam and was considered the right-hand man of its leader, Oemar Said Tjokroaminoto. The SI contained many political strains, including communists, business leaders, and Islamically-minded reformers. Having spent time in the Hejaz, Salim was considered to be on the reformist side of the SI and was at odds with the increasingly leftist faction of SI led by Semaun, Tan Malaka, and Darsono; who would eventually break with SI to found the Communist Union of the Indies.
Salim was occasionally accused by those leftists of being too close to the Dutch colonial government. First, his newspaper Neratja had been funded in 1917 with government money (under the direction of Governor-General Johan Paul van Limburg Stirum) who wanted a Malay-language forum for perspectives sympathetic to the Dutch Ethical Policy, However, by 1918 Neratja became a harsh critic of the colonial government, regularly printing reports of mistreatment of Muslims in remote regions of the Indies. Nonetheless, allegations continued to surface from the left. The Dutch communist Henk Sneevliet accused Neratja editor Abdul Muis of having advocated for his expulsion from the Indies in 1917. And when Salim's Neratja was the only Malay language newspaper to applaud his expulsion in 1918, its editors were condemned by other newspapers and forced to apologize. Even in the late 1920s, as many communists in the Indies were being sent to concentration camps in Boven Digoel, disputes were still arising over Salim's behavior in 1917. In 1927 Bintang Timoer published allegations that Agus Salim had joined Sarekat Islam and other meetings in the 1910s delivered reports to government officials and then used government money to criticize communists in Neratja. Salim responded that he needed money to continue his activities and that everyone profited from the government in some way or other.
Later, after the breakup of the Sarekat Islam, Salim (along with Tjokroaminoto) co-founded the Islamic Union Party (Partai Serikat Islam, PSI), which later became the PSII. After Tjokro died in 1934, Salim became the party's intellectual leader.
In 1921, Salim was appointed to the Volksraad, the Indies' mainly symbolic and advisory quasi-legislature, representing Sarekat Islam. Despite being a proficient speaker of the Dutch language, he insisted on delivering his speeches in Malay, the first member of the council to do so despite hostile reception from other European members. He left the chamber in 1924, frustrated by the chamber's powerlessness (its main function was solely to advise the Governor-General), and derided it as a mere komedi omong (talking comedy).
Being an outspoken advocate of social change within the Indonesian Islamic community, Salim was widely known for his unorthodoxy on social issues. At the 1927 convention of the national Islamic organization Jong Islamieten Bond (JIB) in Surakarta, Salim ripped apart the curtained divider between men's and women's seating area and proceeded to deliver his speech titled ("On Veiling and Separation of Women").
Another area of activism that Salim was active in was workers' welfare. At the request of the prominent Dutch trade union Nederlands Verbond van Vakverenigingen (NVV), he served as an advisor for its delegation to the 1929 and 1930 International Labour Conventions, both held in Geneva, Switzerland.
It was alleged that throughout his early years returning from Jeddah, Salim had been in contact with or possibly working for the Politieke Inlichtingen Dienst (PID), the Dutch East Indies's principal state security and intelligence service. Allan Akbar, a historian, conceded that Salim had been asked for a favour by Datuak Tumangguang, a prominent Minangkabau advisor to the colonial government, to covertly enter Sarekat Islam, especially to investigate the relationship between Tjokroaminoto and the Germans. For six weeks, Salim investigated the Sarekat from within, but in a strange twist of history, decided to join the organization of his own will.
Japanese occupation
During the waning years of Dutch rule and early years of Japanese occupation, Salim retired from active politics and was involved in several trades. Unlike most of the future Republican leaders, Salim was never arrested nor exiled, probably owing to his vast connections with the colonial bureaucracy or his rumored services for the colonial intelligence services.
In 1943, the Japanese military government asked Salim, a renowned polyglot who spoke nine languages, to compile a military dictionary for the use of Pembela Tanah Air, the newly formed volunteer militia prepared for an impending invasion of the Allied forces. Salim found his way back to politics, being appointed to advise the Indonesian leaders (Sukarno, Mohammad Hatta, Ki Hajar Dewantara, and Mas Mansyur) who are in charge of the Pusat Tenaga Rakyat ("Center for People's Power", Putera), an intellectual body set up by Japanese government to mobilize popular support for war efforts.
Indonesian independence
Salim was appointed to the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (Badan Penyelidik Usaha-usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia, BPUPK) in March 1945.
On 1 June, Salim was appointed to a Committee of Nine (Panitia Sembilan) tasked to draft the basis of the state. In the committee chaired by Sukarno, Salim was one of the prominent Muslim leaders alongside Wahid Hasyim and Abdul Kahar Muzakir. One of the issues that must be tackled by the committee was to find a compromise between the secular nationalist bloc, which demanded a secular state; with the Islamist bloc, which argued that being a Muslim-majority nation, an independent Indonesia should be based on Islamic principles.
The committee would end up with the Jakarta Charter, which includes Sukarno's proposed Pancasila as official state philosophy and an explicit call for Muslim Indonesians to oblige to the sharia (ketuhanan dengan kewajiban menjalankan syariat Islam bagi pemeluk-pemeluknya). BPUPK as a whole ratified it on 10 July. On 11 July, Salim was appointed to sit in the Subcommittee for Constitutional Drafting (Panitia Kecil Perancang Undang-Undang Dasar), again chaired by Sukarno. He was highly influential in the early drafting of the Constitution and was seen as a respected mediator during heated confrontations.
On 7 August, the BPUPK was dissolved and replaced with the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence (Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia, PPKI). For unclear reasons, however, Salim did not sit on the committee; he was also not recorded as being present during the independence proclamation at Sukarno's residence on 17 August.
Government and diplomatic services
Salim did not join the first Indonesian cabinet; Sukarno, now President of the Republic, appointed him to the newly-created Supreme Advisory Council (Dewan Pertimbangan Agung, DPA). He remained in that position until March 1946, when he was appointed Deputy Foreign Minister (Menteri Muda Luar Negeri) under Foreign Minister and Prime Minister Sutan Sjahrir of the Socialist Party. He reprised that role in the third Sjahrir Cabinet before being promoted to Foreign Minister in the first Amir Sjarifuddin Cabinet in July 1947; Amir, like Sjahrir, is a Socialist.
As Deputy Foreign Minister, Salim led numerous Indonesian diplomatic missions abroad. He led the Indonesian delegation at the Asian Relations Conference in New Delhi from March to April 1947. The same month, he led a small party consisting of Abdurrahman Baswedan, Rasjidi, and Nazir Sutan Pamuncak to seek diplomatic recognition from Arab states. A fluent speaker of classical (fusha) Arabic, Salim met with Mahmoud El Nokrashy Pasha, the Egyptian prime minister, and Abdul Rahman Hassan Azzam, the secretary-general of the Arab League. For the next three months, Salim and his delegation successfully gained diplomatic recognition from almost all members of the League.
In August 1947, Salim with Sjahrir traveled to the United States to participate in a United Nations Security Council session in Lake Success, New York. With the help of banker Margono Djojohadikusumo (grandfather of Prabowo Subianto), the two breached the Dutch naval blockade with a plane carrying contraband vanilla to Singapore. Returning home, Salim was part of the Indonesian delegation throughout negotiations aboard USS Renville, which led to an agreement that temporarily reduced tensions after the breaking down of the previous Linggadjati Agreement. During the negotiations, Salim's friendship with the Dutch chief negotiator Abdulkadir Widjojoatmodjo (a KNIL high-ranking officer whom he had worked with in the Dutch consulate in Jeddah) helped to smoothen the process.
Salim remained in charge of foreign affairs in the first Hatta Cabinet, while officially serving ad interim. When Dutch started a military offensive called Operatie Kraai, in December 1948, he was one of the Republican leaders exiled from the capital, Yogyakarta. Alongside Sjahrir and Sukarno, Salim was first exiled to Berastagi in North Sumatera before being transferred to Parapat. With the rest of the leaders, Salim returned to Yogya and reclaimed his duties as foreign minister in the second Hatta Cabinet, having been briefly exercised by Sjafruddin Prawiranegara ex officio with his duties as Chairman of the Emergency Government of the Republic in its only cabinet from December 1948 to July 1949.
One of Salim's final diplomatic services was as part of the Indonesian delegation in the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference in The Hague in late 1949. Hatta's second cabinet was dissolved in December 1949 and the United States of Indonesia was formed. Hatta, the United States' inaugural (and only) premier and foreign minister, appointed Salim to be a special advisor on foreign affairs. The United States itself was dissolved in September 1950.
Later life and death
After leaving government service, Salim returned to writing and journalism. In 1952, he was appointed to the honorary board of the Association of Indonesian Journalists (Persatuan Wartawan Indonesia, PWI). In 1953, he wrote a religious book titled Bagaimana Takdir, Tawakal, dan Tauchid Harus Dipahamkan? ("How Should Tawakkul, Taqdir, and Tawhid Be Understood?"); later editions saw it updated as Keterangan Filsafat Tentang Takdir, Tawakal, dan Tauchid ("Philosophical Addresses on Tawakkul, Taqdir, and Tawhid").
In the spring of 1953, Salim and his wife lived for six months in Ithaca, New York, where he delivered guest lectures at Cornell University. His lectures were later compiled and published as Pesan-Pesan Islam: Rangkaian Kuliah Musim Semi 1953 di Cornell University, Amerika Serikat.
Salim died on 4 November 1954, in Jakarta. He was interred at the Kalibata Heroes Cemetery.
Personal life and legacy
Salim married Zaenatun Nahar, a cousin, in 1912. The marriage produced eight children: Theodora Atia (Dolly); Jusuf Taufik (Totok); Violet Hanifah (Yoyet); Maria Zenobia; Achmad Sjewket; Islam Basjari; Abdul Hadi; Siti Asia; Zuchra Adiba; and Abdurrachman Ciddiq. Hadi and Adiba died as babies, while Sjewket was killed in action during the Indonesian revolution. Chalid Salim, Salim's younger brother, was a communist who became a Catholic pastor during his years of exile in Boven Digoel. Emil Salim, a prominent economist and minister in the Suharto administration, is a nephew.
Dolly, the eldest, was known for being the first person to sing the lyrics of Indonesia Raya, later adopted as the republic's national anthem, during the Second Youth Congress (Kongres Pemuda II) in 1928. Violet married Djohan Sjahroezah, a prominent socialist and underground anti-Japanese activist and a nephew of Sjahrir, Salim's revolutionary protege.
Salim was known for his frugality and simple lifestyle. Mohammad Roem, in a piece for Prisma magazine, described the lifestyle of the man whom he succeeded as Foreign Minister as a manifestation of leiden is lijden ("leading is suffering"), an old Dutch proverb. He and his wife agreed not to send their children to Dutch colonial schools, despite being a product of the institutions; instead, they mostly homeschooled them.
Informally bestowed the honorific title of the "Grand Old Man" (Kamitua yang Mulia), Salim was reported to be fluent in at least nine languages. Minangkabau and Malay would have been his native languages, followed by English, Dutch, French, Japanese, German, Latin, and Turkish. He raised his children in a multilingual household. In an anecdote told by Cornell professor George McTurnan Kahin to historian Asvi Warman Adam, Salim, and South Vietnamese leader (and future president) Ngo Dinh Diem sat together in a faculty dining room at the Cornell campus. Salim stroke a conversation he soon dominated over French-educated Diem.
Salim was best remembered for his sharp wit and debating skills. In a version of the story (as told by Jef Last), several Sarekat Islam members tried to mock Salim, who is in the middle of a speech, with goat sounds; alluring to Salim's white beard and in a way, his devout Islamic faith. Salim calmly responded by asking the chair "whether Sarekat has invited a herd of goats to its meeting"; and if yes, "as a polyglot I would honour their right to listen to a speech by speaking in hircine language." In another instance, Salim was mocked by Bergmeyer, a Dutch member of the Volksraad for delivering a speech in Malay. At one point Salim had said ekonomi, the Malayized word for economy, and Bergmeyer challenged him to state the original Malay for the word. Salim quickly retorted: "if you can say what 'economy' is in the original Dutch, I'll state the Malay version for you." Both Malay and Dutch absorbed 'economy' from the Ancient Greek word of οἰκονομία, so there would be no original word in both languages.
He was also popular for his lighthearted humour. A lifelong smoker of cigar (he would sometimes lit one while teaching at Cornell) a common lore was that when Salim, on behalf of the Indonesian government, met Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (some claimed, however, it's the other British royalties) during a dinner at the coronation of Elizabeth II in June 1953. A British diplomat assigned to him had asked him not to smoke his kretek in the Westminster Abbey and in the palace. During the dinner, however, Salim found the young Duke was still awkward and unsettled while greeting his guests as a new consort to the Queen. He lit his kretek and asked if the Duke knew of it. When the Duke inquired what was Salim smoking, he answered: "That, Your Highness, is the reason for which the West conquered the world!"
Salim was posthumously declared a National Hero in 1960. Padang's main football stadium was named in his honor, alongside numerous roads in major Indonesian cities.
References
Bibliography
1884 births
1954 deaths
BPUPK
Foreign ministers of Indonesia
Government ministers of Indonesia
Indonesian collaborators with Imperial Japan
Indonesian diplomats
Indonesian Muslims
Indonesian newspaper editors
Members of the Central Advisory Council
Minangkabau people
Muslim socialists
National Heroes of Indonesia
Newspaper editors from the Dutch East Indies
People from Agam Regency
Sarekat Islam politicians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genu%20valgum
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Genu valgum
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Genu valgum, commonly called "knock-knee", is a condition in which the knees angle in and touch each other when the legs are straightened. Individuals with severe valgus deformities are typically unable to touch their feet together while simultaneously straightening the legs. The term originates from the Latin genu, 'knee', and valgus which means "bent outwards", but is also used to describe the distal portion of the knee joint which bends outwards and thus the proximal portion seems to be bent inwards.
Mild genu valgum is diagnosed when a person standing upright with the feet touching also shows the knees touching. It can be seen in children from ages 2 to 5, and is often corrected naturally as children grow. The condition may continue or worsen with age, particularly when it is the result of a disease, such as rickets. Idiopathic genu valgum is a form that is either congenital or has no known cause.
Other systemic conditions may be associated, such as Schnyder crystalline corneal dystrophy, an autosomal dominant condition frequently reported with hyperlipidemia.
Causes
Genu valgum can arise from a variety of causes including nutritional, genetic, traumatic, idiopathic or physiologic and infectious.
Rickets
Nutritional rickets is an important cause of childhood genu valgum or knock knees in some parts of the world. Nutritional rickets arises from unhealthy life style habits as insufficient exposure to sun light which is the main source of vitamin D. Insufficient dietary intake of calcium is another contributing factor. Genu valgum may arise from rickets caused by genetic abnormalities, called vitamin D-resistant rickets or X-linked hypophosphatemia.
Osteochondrodysplasia
Osteochondrodysplasia are a variable group of genetic bone diseases or genetic skeletal dysplasias that present with generalized bone deformities involving all extremities and the spine. Genu valgum or knock knees is one of the known skeletal manifestations of Osteochondrodysplasias. A complete bone X-ray survey is mandatory to reach a definitive diagnosis.
Diagnosis
The degree of genu valgum can clinically be estimated by the , which is the angle formed by a line drawn from the anterior superior iliac spine through the center of the patella and a line drawn from the center of the patella to the center of the tibial tubercle. In women, the Q angle should be less than 22 degrees with the knee in extension and less than 9 degrees with the knee in 90 degrees of flexion. In men, the Q angle should be less than 18 degrees with the knee in extension and less than 8 degrees with the knee in 90 degrees of flexion. A typical Q angle is 12 degrees for men and 17 degrees for women.
Radiography
On projectional radiography, the degree of varus or valgus deformity can be quantified by the hip-knee-ankle angle, which is an angle between the femoral mechanical axis and the center of the ankle joint. It is normally between 1.0° and 1.5° of varus in adults. Normal ranges are different in children.
Treatment
The treatment of genu valgum in children depends on the underlying cause. Developmental also known as idiopathic genu valgum is usually self-limiting and resolves during childhood. Genu valgum secondary to nutritional rickets is typically treated with lifestyle modifications in the form of adequate sun exposure to ensure receiving the daily requirements of vitamin D and nutrition with a rich calcium diet. Additionally, calcium and vitamin D supplementations may be used. If the deformity does not resolve despite the above conservative treatment and the deformity is severe and causing gait impairment, then surgery can be an option. Typically, guided growth surgery is used to straighten the deformed bone. Genu valgum arising from osteochondrodysplasia usually needs repeated guided growth surgical interventions. Genu valgum secondary to trauma depends on the degree of physical damage. Usually, limb reconstruction procedures are needed, especially if trauma occurs in the early years of life where the anticipated remaining longitudinal bone growth is great.
The treatment of genu valgum in adults depends on the underlying cause and the degree of joint involvement namely arthritis. Bone corrective osteotomies and prosthetic joint replacement may be used depending upon the patient's age and symptomatology in terms of pain and functional impairment. Weight loss and substitution of high-impact for low-impact exercise can help slow progression of the condition. With every step, the patient's weight places a distortion on the knee toward a knocked knee position, and the effect is increased with increased angle or increased weight. Even in the normal knee position, the femurs function at an angle because they connect to the hip girdle at points much further apart than they connect at the knees.
Working with a physical medicine specialist such as a physiatrist, or a physiotherapist may assist a patient in learning how to improve outcomes and use the leg muscles properly to support the bone structures. Alternative or complementary treatments may include certain procedures from Iyengar Yoga or the Feldenkrais Method.
See also
Genu varum (bow-legs)
Genu recurvatum (back knee)
Knee pain
Knee osteoarthritis
References
External links
Treating knock knee - UK NHS
Medical conditions related to obesity
Congenital disorders of musculoskeletal system
Knee injuries and disorders
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liechtenstein
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Liechtenstein
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Liechtenstein, officially the Principality of Liechtenstein, is a doubly landlocked German-speaking microstate in the Alps, between Austria and Switzerland. Liechtenstein is a semi-constitutional monarchy headed by the prince of Liechtenstein of the House of Liechtenstein, currently led by Hans-Adam II. Liechtenstein is bordered by Switzerland to the west and south and Austria to the east and north. It is Europe's fourth-smallest country, with an area of just over and a population of 39,790. It is the world's smallest country to border two countries.
Liechtenstein is divided into 11 municipalities. Its capital is Vaduz, and its largest municipality is Schaan. It is a member of the United Nations, the European Free Trade Association, and the Council of Europe. It is not a member state of the European Union, but it participates in both the Schengen Area and the European Economic Area. It has a customs union and a monetary union with Switzerland, with its usage of the Swiss franc. Politically, a constitutional referendum in 2003 granted the monarch greater powers, including being able to dismiss the government, nominate judges and veto legislation.
Economically, Liechtenstein has one of the highest gross domestic products per person in the world when adjusted for purchasing power parity. The country has a strong financial sector centred in Vaduz. It was once known as a billionaire tax haven, culminating in a tax affair in 2008, but the principality has since made vast efforts to shed this reputation. An Alpine country, Liechtenstein is mountainous, making it a winter sport destination.
History
Early history
The oldest traces of human existence in the area of present-day Liechtenstein date back to the Middle Paleolithic era. Neolithic farming settlements appeared in the valleys around 5300 BCE.
The Hallstatt and La Tène cultures flourished during the late Iron Age, from around 450 BCE—possibly under some influence of both the Greek and Etruscan civilisations. One of the most important tribal groups in the Alpine region were the Helvetii. In 58 BCE, at the Battle of Bibracte, Julius Caesar defeated the Alpine tribes, thereby bringing the region under Roman subjugation. By 15 BCE, Tiberius—later the second Roman emperor—with his brother, Drusus, conquered the entire Alpine area.
Liechtenstein then became integrated into the Roman province of Raetia. The area was garrisoned by the Roman army, which maintained large legionary camps at Brigantium (Austria), near Lake Constance, and at Magia (Switzerland). The Romans built and maintained a road which ran through the territory. Around 260 CE Brigantium was destroyed by the Alemanni, a Germanic people who later settled in the area around 450.
In the Early Middle Ages, the Alemanni settled the eastern Swiss plateau by the 5th century and the valleys of the Alps by the end of the 8th century, with Liechtenstein located at the eastern edge of Alamannia. In the 6th century the entire region became part of the Frankish Empire following Clovis I's victory over the Alemanni at Tolbiac in 504.
The area that later became Liechtenstein remained under Frankish hegemony (Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties) until the Treaty of Verdun divided the Carolingian empire in 843, following the death of Charlemagne in 814. The territory of present-day Liechtenstein formed part of East Francia. It would later be reunified with Middle Francia under the Holy Roman Empire, around 1000. Until about 1100, the predominant language of the area was Romansch, but thereafter German began to gain ground in the territory. In 1300, another Alemannic population—the Walsers, who originated in Valais—entered the region and settled; the mountain village of Triesenberg today preserves features of the Walser dialect.
Foundation of a dynasty
By 1200, dominions across the Alpine plateau were controlled by the Houses of Savoy, Zähringer, Habsburg, and Kyburg. Other regions were accorded the Imperial immediacy that granted the empire direct control over the mountain passes. When the Kyburg dynasty fell in 1264, the Habsburgs under King Rudolph I, the Holy Roman Emperor in 1273, extended their territory to the eastern Alpine plateau that included the territory of Liechtenstein. This region was enfeoffed to the Counts of Hohenems until the sale to the Liechtenstein dynasty in 1699.
In 1396, Vaduz, the southern region of Liechtenstein, gained imperial immediacy, i.e. it became subject to the Holy Roman Emperor alone.
The family from which the principality takes its name originally came from Liechtenstein Castle in Lower Austria, which they had possessed since at least 1140 until the 13th century, and again from 1807 onwards. The Liechtensteins acquired land, predominantly in Moravia, Lower Austria, Silesia, and Styria. As these territories were all held in feudal tenure from more senior feudal lords, particularly various branches of the Habsburgs, the Liechtenstein dynasty was unable to meet a primary requirement to qualify for a seat in the Imperial diet (parliament), the . Even though several Liechtenstein princes served several Habsburg rulers as close advisers, without any territory held directly from the Imperial throne, they held little power in the Holy Roman Empire.
For this reason, the family sought to acquire lands that would be classed as , or held without any intermediate feudal tenure, directly from the Holy Roman Emperor. During the early 17th century, Karl I of Liechtenstein was made a (prince) by the Holy Roman Emperor Matthias after siding with him in a political battle. Hans-Adam I was allowed to purchase the minuscule ('Lordship') of Schellenberg and the county of Vaduz (in 1699 and 1712, respectively) from the Hohenems. Tiny Schellenberg and Vaduz had exactly the political status required: no feudal lord other than their comital sovereign and the suzerain Emperor.
Principality
On 23 January 1719, after the lands had been purchased, Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, decreed that Vaduz and Schellenberg were united and elevated the newly formed territory to the dignity of (imperial principality) with the name "Liechtenstein" in honour of "[his] true servant, Anton Florian of Liechtenstein". On this date, Liechtenstein became a mostly-sovereign immediate member state of the Holy Roman Empire.
By the early 19th century, as a result of the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, the Holy Roman Empire came under the effective control of France, following the crushing defeat at Austerlitz by Napoleon in 1805. In 1806, Emperor Francis II abdicated and dissolved the Holy Roman Empire, ending more than 960 years of feudal government. Napoleon reorganized much of the Empire into the Confederation of the Rhine. This political restructuring had broad consequences for Liechtenstein: the historical imperial, legal, and political institutions had been dissolved. The state ceased to owe an obligation to any feudal lord beyond its borders.
Modern publications generally attribute Liechtenstein's sovereignty to these events. Its prince ceased to owe an obligation to any suzerain. From 25 July 1806, when the Confederation of the Rhine was founded, the Prince of Liechtenstein was a member, in fact a vassal, of its hegemon, styled protector, the French Emperor Napoleon I, until the dissolution of the confederation on 19 October 1813.
Soon afterward, Liechtenstein joined the German Confederation (20 June 181523 August 1866), which was presided over by the Emperor of Austria.
In 1818, Prince Johann I granted the territory a limited constitution. In that same year Prince Aloys became the first member of the House of Liechtenstein to set foot in the principality that bore their name. The next visit would not occur until 1842.
Developments during the 19th century included:
1842: the first factory for making ceramics was opened.
1861: the Savings and Loans Bank was founded along with the first cotton-weaving mill.
1866: the German Confederation was dissolved.
1868: the Liechtenstein Army was disbanded for financial reasons.
1872: a railway line between Switzerland and the Austro-Hungarian Empire was constructed through Liechtenstein.
1886: two bridges over the Rhine to Switzerland were built.
20th century
Until the end of World War I, Liechtenstein was closely tied first to the Austrian Empire and later to Austria-Hungary; the ruling princes continued to derive much of their wealth from estates in the Habsburg territories, and spent much of their time at their two palaces in Vienna. Johann II appointed Carl von In der Maur, an Austrian aristocrat, to serve as the Governor of Liechtenstein. The economic devastation caused by World War I forced the country to conclude a customs and monetary union with its other neighbour Switzerland. In addition, popular unrest caused from economic devastation in the war directly led to the November 1918 Liechtenstein putsch, which created the process of a new constitution based on constitutional monarchy being introduced in 1921.
In 1929, 75-year-old Prince Franz I succeeded to the throne. He had just married Elisabeth von Gutmann, a wealthy woman from Vienna whose father was a Jewish businessman from Moravia. Although Liechtenstein had no official Nazi party, a Nazi sympathy movement arose within its National Union party. Local Liechtenstein Nazis identified Elisabeth as their Jewish "problem". Pro-Nazi agitation remained in Liechtenstein throughout the 1930s, with an attempted coup in March 1939 while Franz Joseph II was on a state visit to Berlin.
In March 1938, just after the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany, Franz named as regent his 31-year-old grandnephew and heir-presumptive, Prince Franz Joseph. After making his grandnephew regent he moved to Feldberg, Czechoslovakia and on 25 July, he died while at one of his family's castles, Castle Feldberg, and Franz Joseph formally succeeded him as the Prince of Liechtenstein.
During World War II, Liechtenstein remained officially neutral, looking to neighbouring Switzerland for assistance and guidance, while family treasures from dynastic lands and possessions in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia were taken to Liechtenstein for safekeeping. Operation Tannenbaum, the Nazi plan for conquest of Switzerland, included also Liechtenstein, and the Nazi "Pan German" dream of uniting all German-speakers in the Reich would have also included the population of Liechtenstein. However, the Nazis eventually gave up implementing this plan, and Liechtenstein was spared from enduring a Nazi occupation.
At the close of the conflict, Czechoslovakia and Poland, acting to seize what they considered German possessions, expropriated all of the Liechtenstein dynasty's properties in those three regions. The expropriations (subject to modern legal dispute at the International Court of Justice) included over of agricultural and forest land (most notably the UNESCO listed Lednice–Valtice Cultural Landscape), and several family castles and palaces.
In 2005, a government-commissioned investigation revealed that Jewish slave labourers from the Strasshof concentration camp, provided by the SS, had worked on estates in Austria owned by Liechtenstein's Princely House. The report indicated that though no evidence was found of the House's knowledge of the slave labour, the House bore responsibility.
Citizens of Liechtenstein were forbidden to enter Czechoslovakia during the Cold War. The diplomatic conflict revolving around the controversial postwar Beneš decrees resulted in Liechtenstein not having international relations with the Czech Republic or Slovakia. Diplomatic relations were established between Liechtenstein and the Czech Republic on 13 July 2009, and with Slovakia on 9 December 2009.
On 20 September 1990, Liechtenstein was admitted into the United Nations as 160th member state. As a member of the United Nations General Assembly, the microstate is one of the few not to play a prominent role in UN-specialized agencies.
Financial centre
Liechtenstein was in dire financial straits following the end of World War II. The Liechtenstein dynasty often resorted to selling family artistic treasures, including the portrait Ginevra de' Benci by Leonardo da Vinci, which was purchased by the National Gallery of Art of the United States in 1967 for 5 million ($ million in dollars), then a record price for a painting.
By the late 1970s, Liechtenstein used its low corporate tax rates to draw many companies and became one of the wealthiest countries in the world.
Liechtenstein is one of the few countries in Europe (along with Monaco and San Marino) not to have a tax treaty with the United States, and efforts towards one seem to have stalled.
the Prince of Liechtenstein is the world's sixth wealthiest monarch, with an estimated wealth of 3.5 billion. The country's population enjoys one of the world's highest standards of living.
Government
Politics
Liechtenstein has a somewhat enigmatic political system, which combines elements of absolute monarchy, representative democracy, and direct democracy. The monarch retains extensive executive and legislative powers, and plays a strong active role in the day to day politics of the country, and over all three branches of governmentthe only European monarch to have retained such a role. Representative democracy and direct democracy coexist in that an elected parliament enacts legislation, and voters can propose and enact laws and constitutional amendments independently of the legislature. However, as with laws passed by the legislature, these can be vetoed by the monarch.
The reigning Prince is the head of state and represents Liechtenstein in its international relations (although Switzerland has taken responsibility for much of Liechtenstein's diplomatic relations).
The current Constitution of Liechtenstein was adopted in March 2003, amending the 1921 constitution, giving the prince extensive veto powers, and the ability to dismiss the government and rule by emergency decree, and maintaining the prince's active role in the legislative process. The BBC characterizes Liechtenstein post-2003 as "in effect" an "absolute monarchy". Just prior to the referendum, the Venice commission of the Council of Europe published a comprehensive report analysing the amendments, opining that they were not compatible with the European standard of democracy.
Legislative authority is vested in the unicameral Landtag, made up of 25 members elected for maximum four-year terms according to a proportional representation formula. Fifteen members are elected from the Oberland (Upper Country or region) and ten from the Unterland (Lower Country or region). Parties must receive at least 8% of the national vote to win seats in parliament, i.e., enough for two seats in the 25-seat legislature. Parliament proposes and approves a government, which the Prince formally appoints. Parliament may also pass votes of no confidence in the entire government or individual members.
The government comprises the head of government (prime minister) and four government councillors (ministers), who are appointed by the Prince upon the proposal of parliament and with its concurrence, and reflect the balance of parties in parliament. The constitution stipulates that at least two government members be chosen from each of the two regions. The members of the government are collectively and individually responsible to parliament; parliament may ask the Prince to remove an individual minister or the entire government, or the Prince may do so unilaterally.
Parliament elects from among its members a "Landesausschuss" (National Committee) made up of the president of the parliament and four additional members. The National Committee is charged with performing functions of parliamentary supervision. Parliament shares the authority to propose new legislation with the Prince, and with the citizenry, as both parliament and the citizenry may initiate referendums.
Judicial authority is vested in the Regional Court at Vaduz, the Princely High Court of Appeal at Vaduz, the Princely Supreme Court, the Administrative Court, and the State Court. The State Court rules on the conformity of laws with the constitution and has five members elected by parliament.
Human rights
The principality is largely conservative. On 1 July 1984, Liechtenstein became the last country in Europe to grant women the right to vote, following three previous referendums which rejected it in 1968, 1971 and 1973. The referendum on women's suffrage that year, in which only men were allowed to participate, narrowly passed with 51.3% in favour.
In 2024, Liechtenstein passed same-sex marriage legislation, which would be legalised in 2025. Abortion remains criminalised within Liechtenstein.
Foreign relations
In the absence of political or military power, Liechtenstein has sought to preserve its sovereignty over the past 300 years through membership in legal communities. International cooperation and European integration are therefore constants of Liechtenstein's foreign policy, aimed at continuing to safeguard the country's sovereignty as recognized under international law. Decisive for the domestic legitimacy and sustainability of this foreign policy were and are strong direct-democratic and citizen-oriented decision-making mechanisms, which are anchored in Liechtenstein in the Constitution of 1921.
Important historical stages in Liechtenstein's integration and cooperation policy were its accession to the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, to the German Confederation in 1815, the conclusion of bilateral customs and currency agreements with the Habsburg monarchy in 1852, and finally the Customs Treaty with Switzerland in 1923, which was followed by a range of other important bilateral treaties.
Post-war economic reconstruction was followed by accession to the Statute of the International Court of Justice in 1950, Liechtenstein signed the CSCE Helsinki Final Act (today's OSCE) together with 34 other states in 1975, Liechtenstein joined the Council of Europe in 1978, and Liechtenstein was admitted to the United Nations (UN) on September 18, 1990. In 1991, Liechtenstein joined the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) as a full member, and since 1995 Liechtenstein has been a member of the European Economic Area (EEA) and the World Trade Organization (WTO).
In 2008, Liechtenstein joined the Schengen/Dublin Agreement together with Switzerland. From an economic and integration policy perspective, relations within the framework of the EEA and the EU occupy a special position in Liechtenstein's foreign policy. The Hereditary Prince of Liechtenstein also participates in the annual meetings of the heads of state of the German-speaking countries (consisting of EU and non-EU members).
Relations with Switzerland are particularly extensive because of the close cooperation in many areas; Switzerland performs tasks in some places that would be difficult for the Principality to handle on its own because of its small size. Since 2000, Switzerland has appointed an ambassador to Liechtenstein, but he resides in Bern. Liechtenstein's consular representation has been mostly handled by Switzerland since the Customs Treaty with Switzerland of 1923.
Liechtenstein maintains direct diplomatic missions in Vienna, Bern, Berlin, Brussels, Strasbourg, and Washington, D.C., as well as Permanent Missions in New York and Geneva to the United Nations. Currently, diplomatic missions from 78 countries are accredited to Liechtenstein, but mostly reside in Bern. The Embassy in Brussels coordinates contacts with the European Union, Belgium, and also the Holy See.
For a long time, diplomatic relations with Germany were maintained through a non-resident ambassador; that is, a contact person who was not permanently resident in Germany. Since 2002, however, Liechtenstein has had a permanent ambassador in Berlin, while the German embassy in Switzerland is also responsible for the Principality. Liechtenstein's Ministry of Foreign Affairs considers the contacts to be extremely fruitful and important for the country's development, especially on the economic level.
Conflicts over the handling of banking and tax data have repeatedly strained relations with Germany. On 2 September 2009, Liechtenstein and Germany signed an agreement on cooperation and the exchange of information in tax matters. The text of the agreement followed the OECD model agreement and provides for an exchange of information on tax matters upon request as of the 2010 tax year. In addition, Liechtenstein regards Germany as an important partner in safeguarding its interests in European integration. At the cultural level, project sponsorship plays a particularly important role. For example, the Hilti Foundation financed the exhibition "Egypt's Sunken Treasures" in Berlin, and the state donated 20,000 euros following the fire at the Duchess Anna Amalia Library in Weimar.
Geography
Liechtenstein is situated in the Upper Rhine valley of the European Alps and is bordered to the east by the Austrian state of Vorarlberg, to the south by the canton of Grisons (Switzerland) and to the west by the canton of St. Gallen (Switzerland). The Rhine forms the entire western border of Liechtenstein. Measured south to north the country is about long. In 1943, an inland canal was built in the country connecting to the Rhine.
Its highest point, Grauspitz, is . Despite its Alpine location, prevailing southerly winds make the climate comparatively mild. In winter, the mountain slopes are well suited to winter sports. New surveys using more accurate measurements of the country's borders in 2006 have set its area at , with borders of . Liechtenstein's borders are longer than previously thought.
Liechtenstein is one of the world's two doubly landlocked countries – countries wholly surrounded by other landlocked countries (the other is Uzbekistan). Liechtenstein is the sixth-smallest sovereign state in the world by area.
The principality of Liechtenstein is divided into 11 communes called (singular ). The mostly consist of only a single town or village. Five of them (Eschen, Gamprin, Mauren, Ruggell, and Schellenberg) fall within the electoral district Unterland (the lower county), and the remainder (Balzers, Planken, Schaan, Triesen, Triesenberg, and Vaduz) within Oberland (the upper county).
Climate
Despite its alpine location, the prevailing southerly winds temper Liechtenstein's climate. Its climate is continental, with cloudy and cold winters, with frequent rain and snowfall. Summers are cool to slightly warm, cloudy, and humid.
The country's climate is relatively mild despite its mountainous location. It is strongly influenced by the action of foehn (warm and dry autumn wind), so the vegetation period is prolonged in spring and autumn and temperatures around due to the strong foehn are not uncommon even in winter. The mountain ranges of Switzerland and the Vorarlberg upstream protect from the cold polar and Atlantic air, creating a typical alpine inland protective layer. The principality has orchards with leafy meadows and a long tradition of viticulture. Liechtenstein's small land area hardly plays a role in climatic differences, but the vertical division into different altitudes is of great importance, so that significant climatic differences arise.
In winter the temperature rarely drops below , while in summer the average temperatures range between . Annual precipitation measurements amount to an average of about , in the direct alpine region, however, precipitation is often up to . The average duration of sunshine is about 1600 hours per year.
Rivers and lakes
The Rhine is the longest and largest body of water in Liechtenstein. With a length of approximately , it represents the natural border with Switzerland and is of great importance for Liechtenstein's water supply. Furthermore, the Rhine is an important recreational area for the population. At , the Samina is the second longest river in the Principality. The troubled river begins at Triesenberg and flows into the Ill in Austria (near Feldkirch).
The only naturally formed lake in Liechtenstein is the Gampriner Seelein, which was not formed until 1927 by a flooding of the Rhine with enormous erosion. In addition, there are other artificially created lakes, which are mainly used to generate electricity. One of them is the Steg Reservoir, the largest lake in Liechtenstein.
Mountains
About half of Liechtenstein's territory is mountainous. Liechtenstein lies entirely in the Rhaetikon and is thus – depending on the classification of the Alps – assigned either to the Eastern Alps (two-part division of the Alps) or to the Central Alps (three-part division of the Alps).
The highest point of Liechtenstein is the Vordere Grauspitz (Vordergrauspitz) with an altitude of above sea level, while the lowest point is the Ruggeller Riet with an altitude of above sea level.
In total, there are 32 mountains in Liechtenstein with an altitude of at least . The Falknishorn, at above sea level, is the fifth highest mountain in Liechtenstein and represents the southernmost point of the country. The Liechtenstein-Graubünden-Vorarlberg border triangle is the Naafkopf (above sea level).
In addition to the peaks of the Alpine chain, which belong to the Limestone Alps, two inselbergs, Fläscherberg (above sea level) in the south and Eschnerberg in the north, rise from the Rhine Valley and belong to the Helvetic cover or flysch zone of the Alps. Eschnerberg represents an important settlement area in the Liechtenstein Unterland.
Economy
Despite its limited natural resources, Liechtenstein is one of the few countries in the world with more registered companies than citizens; it has developed a prosperous, highly industrialized free-enterprise economy and a financial service sector as well as a living standard that compares favourably with those of the urban areas of Liechtenstein's much larger European neighbours.
Liechtenstein participates in a customs union with Switzerland and employs the Swiss franc as the national currency. The country imports about 85% of its energy. Liechtenstein has been a member of the European Economic Area (an organization serving as a bridge between the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and the European Union) since May 1995.
The government is working to harmonize its economic policies with those of an integrated Europe. In 2008, the unemployment rate was 1.5%. Liechtenstein has only one hospital, the Liechtensteinisches Landesspital in Vaduz. As of 2014 the CIA World Factbook estimated the gross domestic product (GDP) on a purchasing power parity basis to be $4.978 billion. As of 2021 the estimate per capita was $184,083.
Industries include electronics, textiles, precision instruments, metal manufacturing, power tools, anchor bolts, calculators, pharmaceuticals and food products. Its most recognizable international company and largest employer is Hilti, a manufacturer of direct fastening systems and other high-end power tools. Many cultivated fields and small farms are found both in the Oberland and Unterland. Liechtenstein produces wheat, barley, corn, potatoes, dairy products, livestock and wine.
Taxation
The government of Liechtenstein taxes personal income, business income and principal (wealth). The basic rate of personal income tax is 1.2%. When combined with the additional income tax imposed by the communes, the combined income tax rate is 17.82%. An additional income tax of 4.3% is levied on all employees under the country's social security programme. This rate is higher for the self-employed, up to a maximum of 11%, making the maximum income tax rate about 29% in total. The basic tax rate on wealth is 0.06% per annum, and the combined total rate is 0.89%. The tax rate on corporate profits is 12.5%.
Liechtenstein's gift and estate taxes vary depending on the relationship the recipient has to the giver and the amount of the inheritance. The tax ranges between 0.5% and 0.75% for spouses and children and 18% to 27% for non-related recipients. The estate tax is progressive.
Liechtenstein has previously received significant revenues from Stiftungen ("foundations"), financial entities created to hide the true owner of nonresident foreigners' financial holdings. The foundation is registered in the name of a Liechtensteiner, often a lawyer. This set of laws used to make Liechtenstein a popular tax haven for extremely wealthy individuals and businesses attempting to avoid or evade taxes in their home countries.
In recent years, Liechtenstein has displayed stronger determination to prosecute international money launderers and worked to promote an image as a legitimate finance centre. In February 2008, the country's LGT Bank was implicated in a tax-fraud scandal in Germany, which strained the ruling family's relationship with the German government. Crown Prince Alois has accused the German government of trafficking in stolen goods, referring to its $7.3 million purchase of private banking information offered by a former employee of LGT Group. The United States Senate's subcommittee on tax haven banks said that the LGT bank, owned by the princely family, and on whose board they serve, "is a willing partner, and an aider and abettor to clients trying to evade taxes, dodge creditors or defy court orders".
The 2008 Liechtenstein tax affair is a series of tax investigations in numerous countries whose governments suspect that some of their citizens have evaded tax obligations by using banks and trusts in Liechtenstein; the affair broke open with the biggest complex of investigations ever initiated for tax evasion in Germany. It was also seen as an attempt to put pressure on Liechtenstein, then one of the remaining uncooperative tax havens—along with Andorra and Monaco—as identified by the Paris-based Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 2007. On 27 May 2009 the OECD removed Liechtenstein from the blacklist of uncooperative countries.
In August 2009, the British government department HM Revenue & Customs agreed with Liechtenstein to start exchanging information. It is believed that up to 5,000 British investors have roughly £3 billion deposited in accounts and trusts in the country.
In October 2015, the European Union and Liechtenstein signed a tax agreement to ensure the automatic exchange of financial information in case of tax disputes. The collection of data started in 2016. It is another step to bring the principality in line with other European countries regarding its taxation of private individuals and corporate assets.
Tourism
Tourism accounts for a large portion of Liechtenstein's economy.
Demographics
With a population of 39,315 as of 31 December 2021, Liechtenstein is Europe's fourth-smallest country; Vatican City, San Marino and Monaco have fewer residents. Its population is primarily Alemannic-speaking, although one third is foreign-born, primarily German speakers from Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, along with other Swiss, Italians, and Turks. Foreign-born people make up two-thirds of the country's workforce.
Liechtensteiners have an average life expectancy at birth of 82.0 years, subdividing as male: 79.8 years, female: 84.8 years (2018 est.). The infant mortality rate is 4.2 per 1,000 live births, according to 2018 estimates.
Languages
The official language is German, spoken by 92% of the population as their main language in 2020. 73% of Liechtenstein's population speak an Alemannic dialect of German at home that is highly divergent from Standard German but closely related to dialects spoken in neighbouring regions such as Switzerland and Vorarlberg, Austria. In Triesenberg, a Walser German dialect promoted by the municipality is spoken. Swiss Standard German is also understood and spoken by most Liechtensteiners.
Religion
According to the Constitution of Liechtenstein, Catholicism is its official state religion:
Liechtenstein offers protection to adherents of all religions, and considers the "religious interests of the people" a priority of the government. In Liechtenstein's schools, although exceptions are allowed, religious education in Catholicism or Protestantism (either Lutheran or Calvinist, or both) is legally required. Tax exemption is granted by the government to religious organizations. According to the Pew Research Center, social conflict caused by religious hostilities is low in Liechtenstein, and so is government restriction on the practice of religion.
According to the 2010 census, 85.8% of the total population were Christian, of whom 75.9% adhered to the Catholic faith, constituted in the Catholic Archdiocese of Vaduz, while 9.6% were either Protestant, mainly organized in the Evangelical Church in Liechtenstein (a United church, Lutheran & Reformed) and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Liechtenstein, or Orthodox, mainly organized in the Christian-Orthodox Church. The largest minority religion is Islam (5.4% of the total population).
Education
The literacy rate of Liechtenstein is 100%. In 2006 Programme for International Student Assessment report, coordinated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, ranked Liechtenstein's education as the 10th-best in the world. In 2012, Liechtenstein had the highest PISA scores of any European country.
Within Liechtenstein, there are four main centres for higher education:
University of Liechtenstein
Private University in the Principality of Liechtenstein
Liechtenstein Institute
International Academy of Philosophy, Liechtenstein
There are nine public high schools in the country. These include:
Liechtensteinisches Gymnasium in Vaduz.
Realschule Vaduz and Oberschule Vaduz, in the Schulzentrum Mühleholz II in Vaduz
Realschule Schaan and Sportschule Liechtenstein in Schaan
Transport
There are about of paved roadway within Liechtenstein, with of marked bicycle paths.
A railway connects Austria and Switzerland through Liechtenstein. The country's railways are administered by the Austrian Federal Railways as part of the route between Feldkirch, Austria, and Buchs, Switzerland. Liechtenstein is nominally within the Austrian Verkehrsverbund Vorarlberg tariff region.
There are four railway stations in Liechtenstein, namely Schaan-Vaduz, Forst Hilti, Nendeln and Schaanwald, served by an irregularly stopping train service between Feldkirch and Buchs provided by Austrian Federal Railways.
Liechtenstein Bus is a subsidiary of the Swiss Postbus system, but separately run, and connects to the Swiss bus network at Buchs and at Sargans. Holders of a Swiss Travel Pass can travel for free on Liechtenstein’s buses.
Liechtenstein is one of only a few countries without an airport. The nearest large airport is Zurich Airport near Zürich, Switzerland (by road). The nearest small airport is St. Gallen Airport. Friedrichshafen Airport also provides access to Liechtenstein, as it is away. Balzers Heliport is available for chartered helicopter flights.
Culture
As a result of its small size, Liechtenstein has been strongly affected by external cultural influences, most notably those originating in the southern regions of German-speaking Europe, including Austria, Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Switzerland, and specifically Tirol and Vorarlberg.
The largest museum is the Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein, an international museum of modern and contemporary art with an international art collection. The building by the Swiss architects Morger, Degelo, and Kerez is a landmark in Vaduz. It was completed in November 2000 and forms a "black box" of tinted concrete and black basalt stone. The museum collection is also the national art collection of Liechtenstein.
The Historical Society of the Principality of Liechtenstein and the Liechtenstein National Museum (Liechtensteinisches Landesmuseum) also play a role in preserving the culture and history of the country. The National Museum shows permanent exhibitions on the cultural and natural history of Liechtenstein as well as special exhibitions. There is also a stamp museum, ski museum, and a 500-year-old Rural Lifestyle Museum.
The Liechtenstein State Library is the library that has legal deposit for all books published in the country. Poet Ida Ospelt-Amann published her works exclusively in the Alemannic dialect of Vaduz.
The famous historical sites include Vaduz Castle, Gutenberg Castle, and Vaduz Cathedral.
The Private Art Collection of the Prince of Liechtenstein, one of the world's leading private art collections, is shown at the Liechtenstein Museum in Vienna.
On the country's national holiday, all subjects are invited to the castle of the head of state. A significant portion of the population attends the national celebration at the castle where speeches are made and complimentary beer is served.
Music and theatre are important parts of the culture. There are numerous music organizations such as the Liechtenstein Musical Company, the annual Guitar Days, and the International Josef Gabriel Rheinberger Society, which play in two main theatres.
Media
The primary internet service provider and mobile network operator of Liechtenstein is Telecom Liechtenstein, located in Schaan.
There are two conventional television channels in the country. The private channel 1FLTV was created in 2008 with a goal of joining the European Broadcasting Union, which it did not accomplish and has since abandoned. The Landeskanal ("National Channel") is operated by the government's Unit for Information and Communication and carries government proceedings, public affairs programming, and cultural events. Both are seen on local cable providers, along with all major channels from the other German-speaking countries. Since Switzerland shut off its digital terrestrial television network in 2019, the only free television signals available are German and Austrian channels from the Sender Pfänder in Bregenz.
Radio Liechtenstein, which was established in 2004 along with the public-service broadcaster Liechtensteinischer Rundfunk (LRF) that operates it, is the country's only domestic radio station based in Triesen. Radio Liechtenstein and several programs of SRF are broadcast from the Sender Erbi overlooking Vaduz. Liechtenstein also has one major newspapers: Liechtensteiner Vaterland.
Amateur radio is a hobby of some nationals and visitors. However, unlike virtually every other sovereign nation, Liechtenstein does not have its own ITU prefix. Conventionally, amateurs are issued call signs with the Swiss prefix "HB", followed by "0" or "L".
Sports
Liechtenstein football teams play in the Swiss football leagues. The Liechtenstein Football Cup allows access for one Liechtenstein team each year to the UEFA Europa Conference League; FC Vaduz, a team playing in the Swiss Challenge League, the second division in Swiss football, is the most successful team in the Cup, and scored their greatest success in the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1996 when they drew with and defeated the Latvian team FC Universitate Riga by 1–1 and 4–2, to go on to a lucrative fixture against Paris Saint-Germain F.C., which they lost 0–3 and 0–4.
The Liechtenstein national football team is regarded as an easy target for any team drawn against them; this was the basis for a book about Liechtenstein's unsuccessful qualifying campaign for the 2002 World Cup by British author Charlie Connelly. In one surprising week during autumn 2004, however, the team managed a 2–2 draw with Portugal, who only a few months earlier had been the losing finalists in the European Championships. Four days later, the Liechtenstein team traveled to Luxembourg, where they defeated the home team 4–0 in a 2006 World Cup qualifying match.
In the qualification stage of the European Championship 2008, Liechtenstein beat Latvia 1–0, which prompted the Latvian coach's resignation. They went on to beat Iceland 3–0 on 17 October 2007, which is considered one of the most dramatic losses of the Icelandic national football team. On 7 September 2010, they came within seconds of a 1–1 draw against Scotland in Glasgow, having led 1–0 earlier in the second half, but Liechtenstein lost 2–1 thanks to a goal by Stephen McManus in the 97th minute. On 3 June 2011, Liechtenstein defeated Lithuania 2–0. On 15 November 2014, Liechtenstein defeated Moldova 0–1 with Franz Burgmeier's late free kick goal in Chișinău.
As an alpine country, the main sporting opportunity for Liechtensteiners to excel is in winter sports such as downhill skiing: the country's single ski area is Malbun. Hanni Wenzel won two gold medals and one silver medal in the 1980 Winter Olympics (she won bronze in 1976), her brother Andreas won one silver medal in 1980 and one bronze medal in 1984 in the giant slalom event, and her daughter Tina Weirather won a bronze medal in 2018 in the Super-G. With ten medals overall (all in alpine skiing), Liechtenstein has won more Olympic medals per capita than any other nation. It is the smallest country to win a medal in any Olympics, Winter or Summer, and currently the only country to win a medal in the Winter Games but not in the Summer Games. Other notable skiers from Liechtenstein are Marco Büchel, Willi Frommelt, Paul Frommelt and Ursula Konzett.
Another discipline unusually popular with Liechtensteiners is motorsport; American-born German-Colombian Rikky von Opel raced under the flag of Liechtenstein in Formula One in 1973 and 1974, and Manfred Schurti competed in 9 editions of the 24 Hours of Le Mans as a Porsche factory driver with a best finish of 4th overall in 1976. The country is currently represented internationally by Fabienne Wohlwend and Matthias Kaiser in endurance racing.
Other sports Liechtenstein athletes have had success in include tennis, with Stephanie Vogt and Kathinka von Deichmann both having varying degrees of success on the women's tour, as well as swimming; both Julia Hassler and Christoph Meier represented the country at the 2016 Summer Olympics with the former the nations' flag bearer.
In March 2020, the distance world record for electric motorcycles was set in Liechtenstein. Artist Michel von Tell drove over 1,000 miles within 24 hours on the first electric Harley-Davidson. The Record is still current in 2023 and ended in Ruggell. The Event became global media attention.
Youth
Liechtenstein competes in the Switzerland U16 Cup Tournament, which offers young players an opportunity to play against top football clubs.
Security and defence
The Liechtenstein National Police is responsible for keeping order within the country. It consists of 87 field officers and 38 civilian staff, totaling 125 employees. All officers are equipped with small arms. The country has one of the world's lowest crime rates. Liechtenstein's prison holds few, if any, inmates, and those with sentences over two years are transferred to Austrian jurisdiction. The Liechtenstein National Police maintains a trilateral treaty with Austria and Switzerland that enables close cross-border cooperation among the police forces of the three countries.
Liechtenstein follows a policy of neutrality and is one of the few countries in the world that maintain no military although its police force maintains a paramilitary force, the Princely Liechtenstein Security Corps, within the organisation that might act as its de facto army if an invasion of Liechtenstein ever occurred. The corps provides heavy backup for the National Police as well as Honor Guards at the Royal Palace and official functions. However, Liechtenstein can reinstate its military if deemed necessary.
The army was abolished for financial reasons soon after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, in which Liechtenstein fielded an army of 80 men, although they were not involved in any fighting. No casualties were incurred; in fact, the unit numbered 81 upon return due to an Italian military liaison who accompanied the army back home. The demise of the German Confederation in that war freed Liechtenstein from its international obligation to maintain an army, and parliament seized this opportunity and refused to provide funding for one. The Prince objected, as such a move would leave the country defenceless, but relented on 12 February 1868 and disbanded the force. The last soldier to serve under the colours of Liechtenstein, Andreas Kieber, died in 1939 at age 95.
In 1985, the Swiss Army fired off shells during an exercise and mistakenly burned a patch of forest inside Liechtenstein. The incident was said to have been resolved "over a case of white wine".
In March 2007, a 170-man Swiss infantry unit got lost during a training exercise and inadvertently crossed into Liechtenstein. The accidental invasion ended when the unit realized their mistake and turned back. The Swiss Army later informed Liechtenstein of the incursion and offered official apologies, to which an internal ministry spokesperson responded, "No problem, these things happen."
On 20 September 2017, Liechtenstein signed the United Nations Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.
See also
Outline of Liechtenstein
References
External links
(in German and English)
Princely House of Liechtenstein
Parliament of Liechtenstein
Government of Liechtenstein
Official tourism of Liechtenstein
Statistics Office of Liechtenstein
Liechtenstein. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Liechtenstein from UCB Libraries GovPubs (archived 2 October 2012)
Liechtenstein profile from BBC News
1719 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
Christian states
Countries in Europe
Countries and territories where German is an official language
Landlocked countries
Member states of the Council of Europe
Member states of the European Free Trade Association
Member states of the United Nations
NUTS 1 statistical regions of the European Union
NUTS 2 statistical regions of the European Union
NUTS 3 statistical regions of the European Union
Principalities of the Holy Roman Empire
Principalities
States and territories established in 1866
States of the Confederation of the Rhine
States of the German Confederation
Tax avoidance
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1786905
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodine%20value
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Iodine value
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Iodine value
In chemistry, the iodine value (IV; also iodine absorption value, iodine number or iodine index) is the mass of iodine in grams that is consumed by 100 grams of a chemical substance. Iodine numbers are often used to determine the degree of unsaturation in fats, oils and waxes. In fatty acids, unsaturation occurs mainly as double bonds which are very reactive towards halogens, the iodine in this case. Thus, the higher the iodine value, the more unsaturations are present in the fat. It can be seen from the table that coconut oil is very saturated, which means it is good for making soap. On the other hand, linseed oil is highly unsaturated, which makes it a drying oil, well suited for making oil paints.
Principle
The determination of iodine value is a particular example of iodometry. A solution of iodine is yellow/brown in color. When this is added to a solution to be tested, however, any chemical group (usually in this test double bonds) that react with iodine effectively reduce the strength, or magnitude of the color (by taking out of solution). Thus the amount of iodine required to make a solution retain the characteristic yellow/brown color can effectively be used to determine the amount of iodine sensitive groups present in the solution.
The chemical reaction associated with this method of analysis involves formation of the diiodo alkane (R and R' symbolize alkyl or other organic groups):
R-CH=CH-R' + I2 -> R-CH(I)-CH(I)-R'
The precursor alkene is colorless and so is the organoiodine product.
In a typical procedure, the fatty acid is treated with an excess of the Hanuš or Wijs solution, which are, respectively, solutions of iodine monobromide (IBr) and iodine monochloride (ICl) in glacial acetic acid. Unreacted iodine monobromide (or monochloride) is then allowed to react with potassium iodide, converting it to iodine , whose concentration can be determined by back-titration with sodium thiosulfate standard solution.
Methods for the determination of iodine value
Hübl method
The basic principle of iodine value was originally introduced in 1884 by A. V. Hübl as “Jodzahl”. He used iodine alcoholic solution in presence of mercuric chloride and carbon tetrachloride as fat solubilizer. The residual iodine is titrated against sodium thiosulfate solution with starch used as endpoint indicator. This method is now considered as obsolete.
Wijs/Hanuš method
J. J. A. Wijs modified the Hübl method by using iodine monochloride (ICl) in glacial acetic acid, which became known as Wijs's solution, dropping the reagent. Alternatively, J. Hanuš used iodine monobromide (IBr), which is more stable than ICl when protected from light. Typically, fat is dissolved in chloroform and treated with excess ICl/IBr. Some of the halogen reacts with the double bonds in the unsaturated fat while the rest remains.
R-CH=CH-R' + \underset{(excess)}{ICl} -> R-CH(I)-CH(Cl)-R' + \underset{(remaining)}{ICl}
Then, saturated solution of potassium iodide (KI) is added to this mixture, which reacts with remaining free ICl/IBr to form potassium chloride (KCl) and diiodide.
ICl + 2 KI -> KCl + KI + I2
Afterward, the liberated is titrated against sodium thiosulfate, in presence of starch, to indirectly determine the concentration of the reacted iodine.
I2{} + \underset{(blue)}{starch}{} + 2 Na2S2O3 -> 2 NaI{} + \underset{(colorless)}{starch}{} + Na2S4O6
is calculated from the formula :
Where:
is the difference between the volumes, in mL, of sodium thiosulfate required for the blank and for the sample, respectively;
is the normality of sodium thiosulfate solution in Eq/ L;
12.69 is the conversion factor from mEq sodium thiosulfate to grams of iodine (the molecular weight of iodine is );
is the weight of the sample in grams.
The determination of IV according to Wijs is the official method currently accepted by international standards such as DIN 53241-1:1995-05, AOCS Method Cd 1-25, EN 14111 and ISO 3961:2018. One of the major limitations of is that halogens does not react stoichiometrically with conjugated double bonds (particularly abundant in some drying oils). Therefore, Rosenmund-Kuhnhenn method makes more accurate measurement in this situation.
Kaufmann method
Proposed by H. P. Kaufmann in 1935, it consists in the bromination of the double bonds using an excess of bromine and anhydrous sodium bromide dissolved in methanol. The reaction involves the formation of a bromonium intermediate as follows:
Then the unused bromine is reduced to bromide with iodide.
Br2 + 2 I- -> 2 Br- + I2
Now, the amount of iodine formed is determined by back-titration with sodium thiosulfate solution.
The reactions must be carried out in the dark, since the formation of bromine radicals is stimulated by light. This would lead to undesirable side reactions, and thus falsifying a result consumption of bromine.
For educational purposes, Simurdiak et al. (2016) suggested the use of pyridinium tribromide as bromination reagent which is more safer in chemistry class and reduces drastically the reaction time.
Rosenmund-Kuhnhenn method
This method is suitable for the determination of iodine value in conjugated systems (ASTM D1541). It has been observed that Wijs/ Hanuš method gives erratic values of IV for some sterols (i.e. cholesterol) and other unsaturated components of insaponifible fraction. The original method uses pyridine dibromide sulfate solution as halogenating agent and an incubation time of 5 min.
Other methods
Measurement of iodine value with the official method is time-consuming (incubation time of 30 min with Wijs solution) and uses hazardous reagents and solvents. Several non-wet methods have been proposed for determining the iodine value. For example, IV of pure fatty acids and acylglycerols can be theoretically calculated as follows:
Accordingly, the IVs of oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids are respectively 90, 181, and 273. Therefore, the IV of the mixture can be approximated by the following equation :
in which and are, respectively, the amount (%) and the iodine value of each individual fatty acid in the mixture.
For fats and oils, the IV of the mixture can be calculated from the fatty acid composition profile as determined by gas chromatography (AOAC Cd 1c-85; ISO 3961:2018). However this formula does not take into consideration the olefinic substances in the unsaponifiable fraction. Therefore, this method is not applicable for fish oils as they may contain appreciable amounts of squalene.
IV can be also predicted from near-infrared, FTIR and Raman spectroscopy data using the ratio between the intensities of and bands. High resolution proton-NMR provides also fast and reasonably accurate estimation of this parameter.
Significance and limitations
Although modern analytical methods (such as GC) provides more detailed molecular information including unsaturation degree, the iodine value still widely considered as an important quality parameter for oils and fats. Moreover, IV generally indicates oxidative stability of the fats which directly depend on unsaturation amount. Such a parameter have a direct impact on the processing, the shelf-life and the suitable applications for fat-based products. It is also of a crucial interest for lubricants and fuel industries. In biodiesel specifications, the required limit for IV is 120 g I2/100 g, according to standard EN 14214.
IV is extensively used to monitor the industrial processes of hydrogenation and frying. However it must be completed by additional analyses as it does not differentiate cis/trans isomers.
G. Knothe (2002) criticized the use of IV as oxidative stability specification for fats esterification products. He noticed that not only the number but the position of double bonds is involved in oxidation susceptibility. For instance, linolenic acid with two bis-allylic positions (at the carbons no. 11 and 14 between the double bonds Δ9, Δ12 and Δ15) is more prone to autoxidation than linoleic acid exhibiting one bis-allylic position (at C-11 between Δ9 and Δ12). Therefore, Knothe introduced alternative indices termed allylic position and bis-allylic position equivalents (APE and BAPE), which can be calculated directly from the integration resultas of chromatographic analysis.
Iodine values of various oils and fats
Iodine value helps to classify oils according to the degree of unsaturation into drying oils, having IV > 150 (i.e. linseed, tung), semi-drying oils IV : 125 – 150 (soybean, sunflower) and non-drying oils with IV < 125 (canola, olive, coconut). The IV ranges of several common oils and fats is provided by the table below.
Related methods of analysis
Acid number
Amine value
Argentation chromatography
Bromine number
Epoxy value
Hydroxyl value
Peroxide value
Saponification value
Notes
The interaction between mercuric chloride and iodine chloride is supposed to produce the active agent of halogenation, the ICl as follows : HgCl2 + I2 → HgClI + ICl
Chloroform is replaced in modern protocols by less hazardous and more available solvents such as cyclohexane and 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (ASTM D5768).
References
Analytical chemistry
Dimensionless numbers of chemistry
Number
Food analysis
Edible oil chemistry
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69994509
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alina%20Pash
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Alina Pash
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Alina Pash
Alina Ivanivna Pash (born 6 May 1993) is a Ukrainian singer, rapper and songwriter.
In 2016, Pash participated in the sixth season of the Ukrainian edition of The X Factor, placing 3rd. In 2018, she released the single "Bitanga", thanks to which she became popular in Ukraine. In 2019, Alina was included in the Ukrainian Forbes "30 to 30" list as a young opinion leader and win Ukrainian Elle Style Award as one of the most stylish and successful Ukrainian women. Also in 2019, Pash performed at the grand show celebrating Ukrainian Independence Day, where she rapped a variation on the national anthem of Ukraine in front of President Volodymyr Zelensky and thousands of others. She also participated in Ukrainian national selection for Eurovision 2022 and won the selection beating eventual Eurovision winners Kalush Orchestra.
Early life
Alina was born on May 6, 1993 in the village of Bushtyno, Zakarpattia region. Raised in the family of a music teacher and a policeman, Pash started singing in early childhood and performed in front of an audience for the first time when she was six. At the age of 13, every weekend she had to travel alone to Uzhgorod, a western Ukrainian city some 120 kilometers from her home, for vocal classes. As a child, she first dreamed of becoming an archeologist and later wanted to be a police officer, like her father did.
Alina moved to Kyiv in 2011 and entered the Academy of Circus and Variety Arts. At the time, Pash had a number of jobs connected to the music industry: she worked with DJs, Ukrainian bands and was a backing vocalist for the singer Iryna Bilyk and the band Skai.
Career
2018-2019
On April 15, 2018, Alina Pash presented her debut single "Bitanga" and a video clip for it. The song combines hip-hop, pop elements and ethnic motifs. The video was recorded with the participation of French rapper Jaw from the group "dOP", whose voice sounds at the end. Pash says her phone died 30 minutes after she posted the video, as there were so many calls from people congratulating her. “Bitanga” was praised by Ukraine’s music-focused media.
In August, Pash became the face of the clothing collection of designer Lilia Litkovska.
On September 18, Alina Pash released her second single called "Oinagori" with a music video. The music video was shot in Marseille (France) with a local team, directed by Lou Escobar and Nathan Daisy.
In January 2019, Alina Pash performed at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland.
On May 24, 2019, a new album "Pintea: Gory" was released, recorded in an ethnic style. On June 14, the world saw the second part of the album called "Pintea: Misto", recorded in electronic and hip-hop style. As the singer herself noted, she dedicated the first part of the album to her native Carpathian village, and the second — to Kyiv.
In July, Alina performed at the Atlas Weekend festival.
On Independence Day of Ukraine, August 24, 2019, at the "Walk of Dignity" on Maidan Nezalezhnosti in Kyiv, Alina Pash rapped a variation on the national anthem of Ukraine.
2020-2022
In the summer of 2020, Alina Pash was supposed to perform at the Sónar electronic music festival in Barcelona, but the festival was canceled due to the coronavirus pandemic.
On September 11, 2020, an ironic and sharply social EP called "Amerikraine Dream" is released. The song "Accent" was recorded with French producer and musician Brodinski.
In 2020, Alina took part in the social project "Rizni.Rivni" (what is translated from Ukrainian as "Different. Equal"), in which a manifesto song was recorded in support of tolerance in Ukrainian society.
In March 2021, Alina Pash signed a contract with UTA.
In the spring of 2021, an album "розМова" (translates as "Conversation") is released that was created during field expeditions to the Hutsul region in the Carpathian Mountains, which Alina Pash and her team went to in 2020. The album includes the song "Ballad" and "Water" recorded live from one take, which was recorded in the church where Sergei Parajanov once shot "Shadows of forgotten ancestors". Later in 2022, Electronic Arts chose the song "Voin" from this album as one of the soundtracks for the game Need For Speed Unbounded.
In October 2021, Alina Pash presented a joint song "Witch" with Canadian musician Apashe. The video for the song was shot in Ukraine and Canada.
In December 2021, EP "Norov" was released, where ethnicity is woven into the beats and atmosphere of R&B. EP was recorded with DJ and sound producer Pahatam (Evgeny Yaremenko). "Norov" included 4 songs, among them the previously presented "Motanka", which was included in the advertising of PUMA sneakers.
In January 2022, Alina Pash won MME Awards 2022. Later in 2023, Alina will host the MME Awards 2023.
2022: Eurovision
Pash entered Vidbir 2022 with the song "Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors". She won the competition, thus gaining the right to represent Ukraine at the Eurovision Song Contest 2022. However, after the competition, the Ukrainian broadcaster UA:PBC began investigating a trip Pash had taken to Crimea in 2015, under the suspicion that Pash had broken the law by not travelling there through Ukraine. To that, Pash says she has never had a concert in Russia but had had to travel there for personal matters before she became a public figure in Ukraine. Following this investigation, it was decided via a mutual agreement between the broadcaster, Vidbir's organising committee and Pash that her participation in the contest would not go ahead. Kalush Orchestra, who placed second in Vidbir 2022, were later selected to represent Ukraine at Eurovision with the song "Stefania".
2022 - present
After the start of Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine, Alina Pash actively participates in public activities and gives charity concerts both in Ukraine and in Europe. On July 8, the single "Heaven" was released with a video clip dedicated to children who died during the war. The song was written immediately after the bombing of a maternity hospital in Mariupol in early March. Displaced persons from Ukraine, in particular a family who escaped from the occupation in the Kherson region, took part in the filming of the video clip.
On August 15, Alina Pash gave a political audio-visual performance at one of the largest European festivals Sziget. The entire performance was focused around the war in Ukraine.
In the summer of 2022, Alina Pash performed at Burning Man, which takes place in Nevada, USA.
In the spring of 2023 Alina Pash releases maxi single "Gorgany", which is dedicated to the secrets and riddles of the Carpathians. The collection consists of three songs: "Karpatska", "Chukutykha" and "Goira". After this, Alina Pash went on the European charity tour "Listen". Concerts were held in Germany, Belgium, Austria, Hungary and the Czech Republic.
In the summer of 2023, Alina Pash performed at a series of European festivals, including Lollapalooza in Berlin, Pohoda Festival in Slovakia, Orange festival in Poland and others.
On February 16, 2024, a witch's EP called "Esbat" was released. The songs "Sabbath" (the song was created and produced by Alina and French music producer Nardey and Polish music producer Leon Krześniak) and "Wonder" (created with French artists Past Life Romeo and FELOWER) were recorded during the musical camp CNM in Paris.
On May 10, common EP by Alina Pash and musician Zbaraski was released under the title "Nikoly. S4e raz" (in English "Never. Again"), which was mostly recorded in 2020.
Discography
Albums:
Pintea: Gory (2019)
Pintea: Misto (2019)
rozMova (2021)
EPs:
Amerikraine Dream (2020)
Norov (2021)
Esbat (2024)
Collaborative album:
Nikoly. S4e raz (2024)
Singles:
Bitanga (2018)
Oinagori (2018)
Oboloka (2019)
N.U.M. (2020)
Molytva (2021)
Motanka (2021)
Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors (2022)
Heaven (2022)
Karpatska (2023)
Chukutykha (2023)
Goira (2023)
Ne_novenka (2024)
Sklo (2024)
Music videos
Collaborations
Awards and Nominations
2022
Music Moves Europe Award
2022 MME Award
2020
YUNA
Best Duet (with alyona alyona for "Падло")
Best Hip-Hop Hit
2019
YUNA
Best Hip-Hop Hit
Elle Style Award (Ukraine)
Singer of the Year
Jäger Music Awards
Hip-Hop Artist of the Year
2018
Jäger Music Awards
Single of the Year
Video of the Year
References
External links
Official website
Instagram
TikTok
Spotify
YouTube
Apple Music
Living people
1993 births
English-language singers from Ukraine
People from Zakarpattia Oblast
Ukrainian pop singers
Ukrainian singer-songwriters
Ukrainian women singer-songwriters
21st-century Ukrainian women singers
Ukrainian LGBT rights activists
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1623328
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jump%20ball
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Jump ball
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Jump ball
A jump ball is a method used to begin or resume play in basketball. It is similar to a face-off in ice hockey and field lacrosse and a ball-up in Australian rules football. Two opposing players attempt to gain control of the ball after an official tosses it into the air between them.
Originally, jump balls were used to restart play at the beginning of every quarter and after each basket scored. The NBA and NCAA dropped jump balls after baskets in the mid-20th century. The NBA stopped using jump balls for 2nd-4th quarter possession in 1975, and the NCAA implemented alternating possession rules in 1981 that award possession sequentially for all jump ball situations after the opening tip at the beginning of the game. The WNBA and Euroleague Basketball have adopted the NBA's jump ball rules, while other leagues have implemented alternating possession. 3x3 basketball does not use jump balls at all.
The rules for jump balls are relatively relaxed, with penalties rarely called on players touching the ball before it has reached the peak of its throw. Jump ball throw styles vary, and may feature misdirection to catch players off guard.
Usage
In the NBA, WNBA, and competitions operated by Euroleague Basketball, a jump ball occurs at the start of the game (called the opening tip or opening tip-off), the start of any extra period (tip-off), to settle special situations where penalties cancel out and neither team is previously entitled to the ball, and to settle any held balls. Held balls occur when two opposing players both lay equal claim to the ball, and after trying to wrestle it from each other, end up in a stalemate. A jump ball may also be called if there are different calls by two or more referees. Although rare, a jump ball occurs when the ball becomes wedged between the goal and backboard.
However, most competitions other than the NBA, WNBA, and Euroleague Basketball use the alternating possession rule to settle all jump ball situations after the opening tip. This uses a possession arrow on the scorekeeper's table. Whenever such a jump ball situation occurs, possession of the ball is awarded to the team that is moving in the direction of the possession arrow on offense. The arrow then swaps to point to the other team. At the start of the game, the arrow points to the team that lost the opening tip.
History
James Naismith's original rules for basketball included a jump ball to begin every quarter, and after every basket scored. The NCAA first changed these rules in 1937, awarding possession after baskets to the scored-upon team. The NBA mirrored the NCAA's jump ball rules in 1949, and add a further change in 1975, removing jump balls to begin the second, third and fourth quarters, automatically granting possession in the second and third quarters to the team losing the opening tip, and possession in the fourth to the team that won the first tip.
The alternating possession arrow rule went into effect in college basketball in 1981. League executives adopted the rule based on the belief that referees were not able to consistently ensure fair tosses, citing examples of games whose outcomes were effectively sealed by an inadequate toss. The decision has been controversial. Advocates of alternating possession argue that it is more fair, but this is disputed by its opponents, who also argue that jump balls are a vital part of the sport.
FIBA, with recommendation by NCAA Men's Supervisor of Officials Hank Nichols, on the FIBA World Technical Commission at the time, adopted the alternating possession rule in 2003, with a major difference. In overtime periods, play begins with the arrow. In other organizations, another jump ball is conducted.
FIBA mandated that ULEB, which operated the EuroLeague and Eurocup before handing responsibility to the Euroleague Company, adopt the FIBA rule in 2005, as part of FIBA's rules being used by the EuroLeague, effective the 2005-06 season. Previously, the EuroLeague used the NBA jump ball rules. However, the Euroleague Company reinstated the jump ball rule in 2013.
Uniquely, 3x3, a formalized version of halfcourt three-on-three basketball overseen by FIBA, does not use a jump ball at any time in a game. Under current (2016) rules, the first possession is based on the result of a pregame coin toss; the winner can choose to have the first possession either at the start of the game or at the start of a potential overtime. During the game, held balls are automatically awarded to the defensive team.
Technique
Jump balls are a relatively unregulated part of basketball. In the NBA, players are technically supposed to touch the ball only after it has reached the top of its flight arc, but slight breaking of this rule––known as "stealing the toss"––is commonplace, tolerated, and arguably expected of players. There are no league-wide standards regulating how referees are to throw the ball beyond the stipulation that the ball should reach its top altitude squarely between the two players competing for it. In order to curb stealing, referees incorporate misdirection into their throwing styles to catch players off guard and unable to preempt the toss. Consequently, while height is obviously helpful for players competing for jump balls, top jump ball scorers are primarily credited for their agility and ability to time both the throw and their opponent.
The leniency in penalizing jump ball stealing is in part due to its position in the game: referees are reluctant to stop play immediately after it starts, and quarter-opening jump balls lend minimal advantage because the losing team will be granted possession in the following quarter. An NBA study on jump balls found that in the 2022-2023 season, only 0.3% of jump balls had violations called.
Jump ball throwing styles are varied, including one-handed, two-handed, underhanded, and overhanded styles. While the ball's trajectory is typically delivered at a near vertical angle, this is not required. Ken Mauer is particularly noted for his unusual, off-center throwing style, described as "[taking] multiple steps back, then toss[ing the ball] at an angle with a surprise motion that almost made him look like a volleyball player setting the ball for a teammate". More generally, throw styles that incorporate stepping away from the ball's destination, known as "pulling", are employed by referees as a way to mitigate the risk of being injured by players competing for the toss.
See also
Rules of basketball
References
External links
Basketball terminology
Rules of basketball
Jumping sports
pl:Rzut sędziowski (koszykówka)
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698315
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascones
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Vascones
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Vascones
The Vascones were a pre-Roman tribe who, on the arrival of the Romans in the 1st century, inhabited a territory that spanned between the upper course of the Ebro river and the southern basin of the western Pyrenees, a region that coincides with present-day Navarre, western Aragon and northeastern La Rioja, in the Iberian Peninsula. The Vascones are often considered ancestors of the present-day Basques to whom they left their name.
Territory
Roman period
The description of the territory which the Vascones inhabited during ancient times appears in texts of classical authors, between the 1st century BC and the 2nd century AD, such as Livy, Strabo, Pliny the Elder and Ptolemy. Although these texts have been studied as sources of reference, some authors have pointed out the apparent lack of uniformity and also the existence of contradictions within the texts, in particular with Strabo.
The oldest document corresponds to Livy (59 BC – AD 17), who in a brief passage of his work about the 76 BC Sertorian War relates how after crossing the Ebro and the city of Calagurris Nasica, they crossed the flatlands of the Vascones, or Vasconum agrum until reaching the border of their immediate neighbors, the Berones. Comparing other sections of this same document, it is deduced that this border was located to the west, while the southern neighbors of the Vascones were the Celtiberians, with their city, Contrebia Leucade.
Pliny the Elder, on his work Natural History, mentioned a text prior to 50 BC that located the Vascones at the western end of the Pyrenees, neighbors of the Varduli and extended to the mountains of Oiarso and into the coasts of the Bay of Biscay, in an area he called Vasconum saltus. The Greek geographer Strabo, in the times of Augustus (63 BC – AD 14) refers to the Vascones (in Ancient Greek: Ούασκώνων) placing their main city, or polis, in Pompaelo and as well Callagurris.
This information is found again in the works of Ptolemy, who lived during the 1st and 2nd Century AD. In his book, Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis, chapter 6, he relates the names of 15 cities inside the territory of the Vascones, besides Oiarso: Iturissa, Pompaelo, Bituris, Andelos, Nemanturissa, Curnonium, Iacca, Graccurris, Calagurris, Cascantum, Ercavica, Tarraga, Muscaria, Seguia and Alavona.
The territory of the Vascones during the Roman republic and Roman empire corresponded with present-day Navarre, the northeast extreme of Gipuzkoa, and parts of La Rioja, Zaragoza and Huesca, including the city of Calagurris.
3rd and 4th centuries
Late Basquisation
During this period, after the time of Ptolemy and contemporary to the times of instability caused by the Germanic invasions, the documents about the Vascones and other tribes of the northern Iberian Peninsula are scarce, and as a result there is little information about the Vascones during this time.
The chronicler John of Biclaro (c. 540 – after 621) mentions the Vascones in a story about the foundation of the city of Victoriacum by the Visigoth king Liuvigild and Gregory of Tours (538–594) mentions the incursions of Wascones in Aquitaine during the year 587. From these extracts and being the neighboring tribes absent in the historiography, Adolf Schulten (1870–1960) proposed the theory according to which, at some point between the mid-2nd century and late 4th century, an enlargement of the territory of the Vascones took place, first in the west, occupying the lands of the Caristii, Varduli and Autrigones, and later in the north in Aquitaine. Schulten considers this to be the reason for the adoption of the name Gascony, which derives from Gascon, which comes from Vascon, and used to denominate a region that includes the present-day Northern Basque Country.
Claudio Sánchez Albornoz, Spanish historian (1893–1984), on his work "Los vascones vasconizan la depresión vasca" (The Vascones "basquize" the Basque depression) published in 1972 expanded upon this hypothesis, relying on linguistic analysis: when invading the territories of what today is Biscay, Gipuzkoa and Álava displaced to Castile part of the Caristii, Varduli and Autrigones, who took refuge in the mountains; the ones who had not been displaced were "Basquized", while perhaps the Caristii, Varduli and Autrigones already spoke languages similar or related to the Basque language.
However, research during last decades has called into question the possibility of an expansion northwards (J. J. Larrea). The inroad of the Vascones onto the plains of Aquitaine in 587 seems to be short-lived—they make their way back to the mountains—and archaeological findings in Eauze or Auch do not reveal instability or destruction during the alleged expanding period up to the mid-7th century. Another theory suggests a contemporary identification made by the Goths and the Franks of the Vascones (the most dynamic tribe) with all Basque speaking, Basque-related, or non-Romanized tribes.
7th century
Starting in the 7th century, historians differentiate between Spagnovasconia, located southwestern of the Pyrenees, inside the Iberian Peninsula and Guasconia, northwestern of the Pyrenees, in Aquitaine. Schulten interprets that by this time the Vascones had already retreated from their territories in Roman times and started occupying lands in the north, what in the future would make the Southern Basque Country and northern Navarre. Schulten also quotes the chronicle from Einhard, Vita Karoli Magni, dated in 810, where for the first time is used the term navarrese to define the people living in the former territories of the Vascones near the Ebro.
History
Roman period
Unlike the Aquitanians or Cantabrians, the Vascones seemed to have negotiated their status in the Roman Empire. In the Sertorian War, Pompey established his headquarters in their territory, founding Pompaelo. Romanization was rather intense in the area known as Ager Vasconum (the Ebro valley) but limited in the mountainous Saltus, where evidence of Roman civilization appears only in mining places, harbours, roads, and milestones, e.g. Oiasso. The territory was also important for Romans as a communication knot between northern Hispania and southwestern Gallia, who took good care to station detachments in different spots of the main communication lines.
The Vasconian area presents indications of upheaval (burnt villas, an abundance of mints to pay the garrisons) during the 4th and 5th centuries that have been linked by many historians to the Bagaudae rebellions against feudalization, but also to the depredations of migrating Germanic and Asian tribes—Vandals, Alans, Sueves, Visigoths, possibly Heruls—into Hispania.
Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages
In AD 407 Vascon troops fought on the orders of Roman commanders Didimus and Verinianus, repelling an attack by Vandals, Alans and Suebi. In 409, the passage of the Germanic peoples and Sarmatians toward Hispania went unhindered. The Roman reaction to this invasion and unrest related to the Bagaudae was to give Gallia Aquitania and Hispania Tarraconensis to the Visigoths in return for their services as allies by treaty (foederati). The Visigoths soon managed to expel the Vandals to Africa.
After chronicler Hydatius´s death in 469, no contemporary source exists reporting on the social and political situation in the Vasconias, as put by himself. At the beginning of the fourth century, Calagurris is still cited as a Vascon town. During the fifth and sixth centuries, the gap between town and the rural milieu widened, with the former falling much in decay. Between 581-7, chronicles start to mention the Vascones again, this time hailing from the wilderness, as opposed to the towns, which remained attached to Roman culture or were under Germanic influence. By the seventh to eighth centuries, Vascones were not confined to their ancient boundaries, but covered a much larger territory, from Álava in the west to the Loire in the north. The island of Oléron, along with the Île de Ré, formed the Vacetae Insulae "Vacetian Islands" according to the Cosmographia, where Vaceti are Vascones by another name. The concept underlying the medieval name points to a much wider reality than Strabo's former tribal definition, this time encompassing all Basque-speaking tribes.
The independent Vascones stabilised their first polity under the Merovingian Franks: the Duchy of Vasconia, whose borders to the south remained unclear. This duchy would eventually become Gascony. During the reincorporation of Vasconia into Francia after 769, Charlemagne destroyed the walls of Pamplona after a failed attempt to conquer Zaragoza, the Vascones annihilated his rearguard in the Battle of Roncevaux Pass in 778—referred as "wasconicam perfidiam" by Frankish chroniclers. Pamplona was later captured by the Cordovan emir 'Abd al-Rahman I (781), but taken over by the Franks in 806, who assigned its government to a pro-Frankish local Belasko ("al-Galashki"), probably a Basque hailing from present-day Gascony. Some decades later, in 824, a second battle of Roncevaux took place that led to the establishment of the Kingdom of Pamplona, founded with Eneko Arista as head of the new polity, presented by Arab sources as leader of the Vascones (al-Baskunisi). However, the 824 Carolingian expedition itself included two different columns made up of Frankish and Vascones (Gascons).
After the 9th century, the Vascones (Wascones, Guascones) come to be more closely identified in the records with the current territory of Gascony, at the time still a Basque-speaking territory but progressively being replaced by the new rising Romance language, Gascon.
Culture
Language and writing
Several authors point out that prior to the Roman arrival and alike other peoples that inhabited the near region, the Vascones spoke a language that linguists identify as the precursor of the modern Basque language, sometimes referred to as Proto-Basque language or Aquitanian language.
However, as pointed out by Henrike Knörr (1947-2008) the origin and kinship of the Basque language is still a mystery and an object of research. There are several theories about its origin; the Basque linguistic Koldo Mitxelena argues that an "in-situ" origin is the most likely, and thus explains the current dialectical classification while other theories advocate for a proposed kinship between the Basque language and other language families, like the languages of the Caucasus or a relation between Basque and the extinct Iberian language. So far, possible connections between Basque and other languages have remained unproven.
Another problem that arises in the study of the language of the Vascones is the lack of direct classic records regarding the language spoken by this people, with the exception of a vague description by Strabo and Pomponius Mela, or the description made by Julius Caesar on the language of the Aquitanians in his work Commentarii de Bello Gallico.
The study of epigraphic documents has been of greater interest, as some of them date the introduction of writing among the Vascones in the 2nd century. Among them, the oldest are the numismatic evidence coming from both Vasconic mints and others located nearby. A great importance is given to a funerary stele found in the Hermitage of Santa Bárbara in Lerga, which was considered to be the oldest known written testimony of the Proto-Basque language until an inscription from the 1st century BC was found in 2022. It is also believed that the Iberian language has left some traces on the Basque language, as with the Iberian term ili, adopted in Basque as hiri with the meaning of town or city, and present in the Vasconic name for the city of Pompaelo: "Iruña", as well as in other names of cities and towns.
Religion
The epigraphic and archaeological testimonies have allowed experts to determine some of the religious practices that were present among the Vascones since the Roman arrival and the introduction of writing. According to research done on this topic, religious syncretism lasted until the 1st Century; from that moment onwards and until the adoption of Christianity between the 4th and 5th centuries, Roman mythology was predominant.
Vasconic theonyms have been found on tombstones and altars, which further proves the syncretism between the pre-Christian Roman systems of beliefs and the Vasconic religions. Two altars have been found in Ujué, one dedicated to Lacubegi, identified as the God of the lower world and another one dedicated to Jupiter, although it has not been possible to date them. In Lerate and Barbarin two tombstones have been found, both dedicated to Stelaitse and dated in the 1st century.
See also
Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula
Notes
References
Ángel Montenegro et alii, Historia de España 2 - colonizaciones y formación de los pueblos prerromanos (1200-218 a.C), Editorial Gredos, Madrid (1989)
Collins, Roger. "The Vaccaei, the Vaceti, and the rise of Vasconia." Studia Historica VI. Salamanca, 1988. Reprinted in Roger Collins, Law, Culture and Regionalism in Early Medieval Spain. Variorum, 1992. .
Sorauren, Mikel. Historia de Navarra, el Estado Vasco. Pamiela Ed., 1998. .
External links
Vascones in the Auñamendi Encyclopedia, by Bernardo Estornés Lasa.
Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula
Ancient history of the Basque Country
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerd%20M%C3%BCller
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Gerd Müller
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Gerd Müller
Gerhard "Gerd" Müller (3 November 1945 – 15 August 2021) was a German professional footballer. A prolific striker, especially in and around the six-yard box, he is widely regarded as one of the greatest goalscorers in the history of the sport. With success at club and international level, he is one of nine players to have won the FIFA World Cup, the UEFA Champions League and the Ballon d'Or.
At international level with West Germany, he scored 68 goals in 62 appearances, and at club level, in 15 years with Bayern Munich, in which he scored 365 goals in 427 Bundesliga matches, he became—and still is—record holder of that league. In 74 European club games he scored 65 goals. Averaging over a goal a game with West Germany, Müller was, as of 11 July 2021, 21st on the list of all time international goalscorers, despite having played fewer matches than every other player in the top 48. Among the top scorers, he has the third-highest goal-to-game ratio. He also had the highest ratio of 0.97 goals per game in the European Cup, scoring 34 goals in 35 matches.
Nicknamed "Bomber der Nation" ("the nation's Bomber") or simply "Der Bomber", Müller was named European Footballer of the Year in 1970. After a successful season at Bayern Munich, he scored ten goals at the 1970 FIFA World Cup for West Germany where he received the Golden Boot as top goalscorer, before winning the 1970 Ballon d'Or. In 1972, he won the UEFA European Championship and was the top goalscorer, scoring two goals in the final. Two years later, he scored 4 goals in the 1974 FIFA World Cup, including the winning goal in the final.
Müller held the all-time goal-scoring record in the World Cup with 14 goals for 32 years. In 1999, Müller was ranked ninth in the European Player of the Century election held by the International Federation of Football History & Statistics (IFFHS), and he was voted 13th in the IFFHS' World Player of the Century election. In 2004, Pelé named Müller in the FIFA 100 list of the world's greatest living players.
Club career
Bayern Munich
Born 3 November 1945, in Nördlingen, Germany, Müller began his football career at his hometown club TSV 1861 Nördlingen youth ranks in 1958. Aged 18, Müller joined Bayern Munich in 1964, where he teamed up with future stars Franz Beckenbauer and Sepp Maier. The club, which would go on to become the most successful German club in history, was then still in the Regionalliga Süd (Regional League South), which was one level below the Bundesliga at the time.
After one season, Bayern Munich advanced to the Bundesliga and started a long string of successes. With his club, Müller amassed titles during the 1960s and 1970s: he won the German Championship four times, the DFB-Pokal four times, the European Cup three consecutive years (the first West German team to win it; Müller scored in the 1974 final replay and the 1975 final), the Intercontinental Cup once, and the European Cup Winners' Cup once.
An opportunistic goal-scorer, Müller also became German top scorer seven times and European top scorer twice. Müller scored 365 goals in 427 Bundesliga matches for Bayern Munich, 53 goals over the second-most successful Bundesliga scorer, Robert Lewandowski. He held the single-season Bundesliga record with 40 goals in season 1971–72, a record that would be held until Lewandowski scored 41 goals during the 2020–21 season. Müller averaged a goal per game or better in seven of his 14 seasons. He scored 68 goals in 62 German international games. He held the record for most goals scored in a calendar year, striking 85 goals in 1972, until his total was surpassed 40 years later in 2012 by Lionel Messi. He also held the record for most club goals scored in all competitions in Europe, with 67 until being surpassed by Messi in 2012.
Fort Lauderdale Strikers
After his career in the Bundesliga, Müller went to the United States, where he joined the Fort Lauderdale Strikers (based in the Miami area) of the North American Soccer League (NASL) in 1979. He played three seasons with this team, scoring 38 goals, and reaching, but losing, the league final in 1980.
International career
Müller scored 68 goals in 62 games for West Germany. He was Germany's all-time leading scorer for almost 40 years until surpassed by Miroslav Klose in 2014, though Klose required over double the number of caps to do so, scoring his 69th goal in his 132nd appearance. Müller's international career started in 1966 and ended on 7 July 1974 with victory at the 1974 FIFA World Cup at his home stadium in Munich. He scored the winning goal for the 2–1 victory over Johan Cruyff's Netherlands in the final. His four goals in that tournament and his ten goals at the 1970 FIFA World Cup combined made him the all-time highest FIFA World Cup goalscorer at the time with 14 goals. His record stood until the 2006 tournament, coincidentally held in Germany, when it was broken by Brazilian striker Ronaldo, who also required more matches than Müller to achieve his tally. Müller also participated in the 1972 European Championship, becoming top scorer with four goals (including two in the final) and winning the Championship with the West German team.
Müller quit playing for West Germany after the 1974 FIFA World Cup triumph following an argument with the German Football Association (DFB) at the post-tournament celebration, when officials' wives were allowed to attend but players' wives were not.
Life after football
After Müller ended his career in 1981, he fell into a slump and suffered from alcoholism. However, his former companions at Bayern Munich convinced him to go through alcohol rehabilitation. When he emerged, they gave him a job as a coach at Bayern Munich II.
He held the position from 1992 until he retired in 2014 due to health problems. There is also a collection of apparel released by sporting giants Adidas under the Gerd Müller name. It is part of the Adidas originals series. In July 2008, the Rieser Sportpark, in Nördlingen, where Müller had begun his career, was renamed the Gerd-Müller-Stadion in his honour.
On 6 October 2015, it was announced that Müller was suffering from Alzheimer's disease. He died on 15 August 2021 in a nursing home in Wolfratshausen, aged 75.
Player profile
Style of play
In his book, Brilliant Orange: The Neurotic Genius of Dutch Football, author David Winner writes, "Müller was short, squat, awkward-looking and not notably fast; he never fitted the conventional idea of a great footballer, but he had lethal acceleration over short distances, a remarkable aerial game, and uncanny goalscoring instincts. His short legs gave him a low center of gravity, so he could turn quickly and with perfect balance in spaces and at speeds that would cause other players to fall over. He also had a knack of scoring in unlikely situations."
Müller used extreme acceleration and deceptive changes of pace to get to loose balls first, and bypass defenders. His teammate Franz Beckenbauer has emphasized Müller's unusual speed: "His pace was incredible. In training I have played against him and I never had a chance."
Legacy
He is widely considered to be one of the greatest goalscorers in the history of football. He is seen as the greatest "goal poacher" in history, with Gary Lineker calling him "the ultimate goal poacher". He is one of only two players, alongside Lionel Messi, to have won the FIFA World Cup, the UEFA Champions League, the Ballon d'Or and the European Golden Shoe. After his death in 2021, FC Bayern Munich president Herbert Hainer declared that Müller was "the greatest striker there's ever been", while Franz Beckenbauer stated that Müller was "the most important player in the history of Bayern Munich".
Career statistics
Club
International
Müller scored 68 goals in 62 games for West Germany. His 14 goals in FIFA World Cup tournaments were a record between 1974 and 2006. This score was bettered in 2006 by Brazil's Ronaldo, and eight years later by German Miroslav Klose, who also broke Müller's record for goals for Germany. However, Müller managed to score eight hat-tricks in his international career.
Honours
Bayern Munich
Regionalliga Süd: 1964–65
Bundesliga: 1968–69, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1973–74
DFB-Pokal: 1965–66, 1966–67, 1968–69, 1970–71
European Cup: 1973–74, 1974–75, 1975–76
European Cup Winners' Cup: 1966–67
Intercontinental Cup: 1976
West Germany
FIFA World Cup: 1974
UEFA European Championship: 1972
Individual
Ballon d'Or: 1970; runner-up: 1972; third place: 1969, 1973
Footballer of the Year (Germany): 1967, 1969
Voted best Player 40 Years Bundesliga 1963–2003
kicker Bundesliga Team of the Season: 1968–69, 1969–70, 1971–72, 1972–73
Eric Batty's World XI: 1969, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1976, 1977, 1978
FUWO European Team of the Season: 1970, 1972
Sport Ideal European XI: 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974
Bundesliga Top Scorer (Kicker-Torjägerkanone): 1967, 1969, 1970, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1978
European Golden Shoe: 1969–70, 1971–72
FIFA World Cup Golden Boot: 1970
FIFA World Cup All-Star Team: 1970
FIFA Selects World XI: 1971, 1972, 1973
Worldwide Topscorer: 1970, 1972
UEFA European Championship Top Scorer: 1972
UEFA European Championship Team of the Tournament: 1972
European Cup Top Scorer: 1973, 1974, 1975, 1977
Onze de Onze: 1976
FIFA Order of Merit: 1998
France Football's Football Player of the Century: 10th (1999)
World Soccer The Greatest Players of the 20th century: 15th (1999)
FIFA 100: 2004
Golden Foot: 2007, as football legend
Bravo Otto: Gold award: 1973, 1974; Silver award: 1975; Bronze award: 1972, 1976
IFFHS Legends
Bayern Munich All-time XI
IFFHS All-time Men's B Dream Team: 2021
IFFHS All-time Europe Men's Dream Team: 2021
See also
List of men's footballers with 500 or more goals
Notes
References
External links
Gerd Müller – Player profile at FIFA.com
Portrait of Gerd Müller at FIFA.com
Statistics on Müller's matches and goals at RSSSF
1945 births
2021 deaths
1970 FIFA World Cup players
1974 FIFA World Cup players
FIFA World Cup-winning players
Men's association football forwards
Ballon d'Or winners
Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States
FC Bayern Munich footballers
FC Bayern Munich non-playing staff
FIFA 100
Fort Lauderdale Strikers (1977–1983) players
Bundesliga players
West German expatriate sportspeople in the United States
German men's footballers
Germany men's international footballers
Germany men's under-21 international footballers
Kicker-Torjägerkanone Award winners
North American Soccer League (1968–1984) players
People from Nördlingen
Footballers from Swabia (Bavaria)
Recipients of the Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
UEFA Euro 1972 players
UEFA European Championship-winning players
UEFA Champions League top scorers
Deaths from dementia in Germany
Deaths from Alzheimer's disease in Germany
West German expatriate men's footballers
West German men's footballers
TSV 1861 Nördlingen players
UEFA Champions League winning players
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triarchy%20of%20Negroponte
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Triarchy of Negroponte
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Triarchy of Negroponte
The Triarchy of Negroponte was a crusader state established on the island of Euboea after the partition of the Byzantine Empire following the Fourth Crusade. Partitioned into three baronies (terzieri, "thirds") (Chalkis, Karystos and Oreos) run by a few interrelated Lombard families, the island soon fell under the influence of the Republic of Venice. From circa 1390, the island became a regular Venetian colony as the Realm of Negroponte.
History
Establishment
According to the division of Byzantine territory (the Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae), Euboea was awarded to Boniface of Montferrat, King of Thessalonica. Boniface in turn ceded the island as a fief to the Flemish noble Jacques II of Avesnes, who fortified the capital Chalkis.
After his death in mid-1205 however, the island was ceded to three Veronese barons: Ravano dalle Carceri, Giberto dalle Carceri and Pecoraro da Mercanuovo. They divided the island into three triarchies (terzieri, "thirds"): the northern, based at Oreos, the southern, ruled from Karystos and the central portion, ruled from Chalkis. The city of Chalkis or Negroponte (città de' Lombardi, "city of the Lombards") however was not under the latter's control, but served as overall capital of the island and joint residence of the Lombard rulers and their families. By 1209 however, Ravano had established himself as sole master of Euboea, styling himself as dominus insulae Nigropontis.
Having allied himself with an unsuccessful Lombard rebellion against the Latin Emperor, Henry of Flanders, Ravano was eager to find a powerful protector. Thus, in March 1209, he signed an alliance with Venice, which recognized Venetian overlordship and gave the Venetians significant commercial privileges. In May, however, in an act of political balancing, Ravano also acknowledged his vassalage to the Latin Empire.
Succession disputes
However, already after the death of Ravano in 1216, his heirs disagreed over the succession, allowing the Venetian bailo to intervene as a mediator. He partitioned the three baronies in two, creating thus six hexarchies (sestieri). The northern triarchy of Oreos was divided between Ravano's nephews, Marino I and Rizzardo; the southern triarchy of Karystos was divided between his widow, Isabella, and his daughter, Bertha; and the central triarchy was divided between Giberto's heirs, Guglielmo I and Alberto. Provisions were also made that in the case someone among the sestieri died, his inheritor would be the other sestiere of the respective triarchy, and not his children. In fact, most sestieri were succeeded by their brothers, sons or nephews, keeping the baronies within the tight circle of the original Lombard families.
In 1255 however, the death of Carintana dalle Carceri, hexarch of Oreos, led to the so-called "War of the Euboeote Succession", which involved the Principality of Achaea and Venice. William II of Villehardouin, Prince of Achaea and nominal overlord of Negroponte, asserted his authority as overlord, while the Lombard barons were unwilling to concede it. On 14 June 1256, Guglielmo of Verona and Narzotto dalle Carceri, the other two triarchs, repudiated their allegiance to William and pledged themselves to Venice. William responded by capturing Chalkis, which the Venetians retook in early 1258. The war ended in the battle of Karydi in May/June 1258, where William defeated the Duke of Athens, Guy I de la Roche, who had allied himself with the rebellious triarchs. Finally, in 1259, Doge Reniero Zeno negotiated a peace, followed by a treaty in 1262, which recognized William's suzerainty over the island.
Byzantine interlude
By that time, however, the Empire of Nicaea had established itself as the foremost power in the area of the former Byzantine Empire, reconquering several territories from the Latins. Its successes culminated in the recapture of Constantinople in 1261 and the reestablishment of the Byzantine Empire, whose energetic ruler, Michael VIII Palaeologus, sought to reconquer the remaining Latin principalities in southern Greece. To this end, he accepted the services of Licario, an Italian renegade, who had his base near Karystos. Under Licario's command, Byzantine troops soon conquered most of Euboea, except Chalkis.
After the departure of Licario sometime after 1280 however, with Venetian aid, the island gradually returned to Latin control. By 1296, Boniface of Verona had completely expelled the Byzantines from Euboea.
Later history
In 1317 however, Karystos fell to the Catalan Company of Don Alfonso Fadrique, royal vicar-general (governor) of the duchy of Athens and illegitimate son of Frederick III of Sicily. In 1319, a peace treaty was signed between Venice and Don Alfonso, whereby he retained Karystos, which the Venetians acquired in 1365.
When the last triarchs, Niccolò III dalle Carceri and Giorgio III Ghisi, died in 1383 and 1390 respectively, they left their territories to Venice, which thus established complete predominance over the island. Nevertheless, the triarchic system was maintained, with Venetian families appointed to the positions of terzieri, while the Venetian podestà (magistrate) resided at Chalkis.
Venice's rule lasted until 1470, when, during the Ottoman–Venetian War of 1463–1479, Sultan Mehmed II campaigned against Chalkis. With the fall of the city on 12 July, the whole island came under Ottoman control. The city's fall is the subject of the Rossini opera Maometto II.
List of rulers of Negroponte
Note: The sequence of rulers during the 13th century, as well as the familial relations between them, are not very clear, as information about Euboea's internal history is scarce to non-existent, especially for the period 1216–1255. According to the rules of succession laid down on the island's division into thirds and sixths in 1216, on the death of a hexarch, he was succeeded in his domain by his fellow hexarch within their third, and not by the former's heirs.
Notes
References
Sources and bibliography
States of Frankish and Latin Greece
Kingdom of Thessalonica
Former countries in the Balkans
1204 establishments in Europe
States and territories established in 1204
1470 disestablishments in Europe
Former monarchies
States and territories disestablished in 1470
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/HACCP
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HACCP
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HACCP — система аналізу ризиків, небезпечних чинників і контролю критичних точок. Система НАССР є науково обґрунтованою, що дозволяє гарантувати виробництво безпечної продукції шляхом ідентифікації й контролю небезпечних чинників.
Історія створення НАССР
60-ті роки ХХ ст. — розробка концепції НАССР. Основні розробники: компанія Пілсбурі, Лабораторія збройних сил США і Національне управління з аеронавтики і космонавтики (NASA). Ідея створення такої концепції виникла при роботі над Американською Космічною Програмою. Під час роботи над американською космічною програмою NASA поставила за мету виключити утворення токсинів у харчовій продукції, яку споживають астронавти у космосі і, як наслідок, попередити захворювання, зумовлені недоброякісними продуктами харчування. НАССР передбачає заходи, що забезпечують необхідний рівень показників безпеки продукції в процесі її виробництва, причому саме в тих критичних точках технологічного процесу, де може виникнути загроза появи небезпечних чинників. Система дозволяє виділити всі потенційно небезпечні чинники у харчовому продукті та запобігти їх виникненню.
1971 р. — компанія Пілсбурі представила повністю розроблену концепцію НАССР на Першій Американській Національній Конференції з питань безпеки харчових продуктів.
У середині 80-х років Національна академія наук США запропонувала поставити цю систему на службу харчовій індустрії.
Комісія Codex Alimentarius відіграла активну роль у формулюванні та підтримці системи НАССР як міжнародного способу забезпечення виробництва безпечних харчових продуктів.
На 25 засіданні Комітету з питань гігієни харчових продуктів (1991 р.) було прийнято документ «Загальні визначення НАССР та процедури використання Кодексу». Комітет погодився, що система НАССР повинна бути внесена до Кодексу з врахуванням загальних принципів виробництва харчових продуктів.
Найбільш важливим законодавчим актом ЄС, що регламентує сферу застосування НАССР, — є Директива 93/43/ЄЕС «Про гігієну харчових продуктів». Вона застосовується на всіх підприємствах, які працюють з харчовими продуктами.
Застосування директиви стало обов'язковим для країн-членів ЄС з 14 грудня 1995 року. З цією директивою в європейське законодавство було інтегровано принципи НАССР та основні принципи гігієни харчових продуктів.
Міжнародна організація зі стандартизації підготувала проєкт міжнародного стандарту «Системи управління безпечністю харчових продуктів. Вимоги» (ISO 22.000). Застосування систем НАССР в окремих країнах світу регламентується національними законодавчими та нормативно-правовими актами.
Міжнародним стандартом, що встановлює єдині вимоги до систем HACCP, гармонізованого до стандартів менеджменту якості, екологічного менеджменту і пристосованого до сертифікації став ISO 22000:2005 «Food safety management systems — Requirements for any organization in the food chain» (Системи управління безпечністю харчових продуктів. Вимоги до будь-яких організацій харчового ланцюга), який був опублікований у 2005 році.
7 принципів HACCP
Принципи HACCP — це фокусування на ідентифікації, моніторингу та контролі небезпек в критичних контрольних точках визначених скрізь виробничий ланцюг.
1) Проведення аналізу небезпечних факторів.
2) Визначення критичних контрольних точок.
3) Встановлення граничних значень.
4) Введення системи контролю за ККТ.
5) Встановлення коригувальних дій, що їх необхідно вжити, коли спостереження свідчать, що певна ККТ виходить з-під контролю.
6) Встановлення процедури перевірки для підтвердження того, що система HACCP працює ефективно.
7) Розроблення методів документування всіх процедур і ведення записів, пов'язаних із застосуванням цих принципів.
Стандарти по системі HACCP
Основні засади впровадження НАССР, а також принципи НАССР відображено в таких міжнародних стандартах, як ISO 22000, IFS (International Food Standard), BRC. Також дана інформація відображена в Рекомендованому міжнародному Кодексі загальних принципів гігієни харчових продуктів.
НАССР та ISO 22000
ДСТУ ISO 22000:2007 (ISO 22000:2005, IDT) Національний стандарт України.
Цей стандарт установлює вимоги до системи управління безпечністю харчових продуктів, яка поєднує ключові елементи:
— взаємодійове (інтерактивне) інформування;
— системне керування;
— програми-передумови;
— принципи НАССР.
Інформування в усьому харчовому ланцюгу є суттєвим для забезпечення ідентифікації та адекватного керування всіма відповідними небезпечними чинниками харчового продукту на кожній ланці в межах харчового ланцюга.
Стандарт можуть застосовувати всі організації, незалежно від розміру, які залучені до будь-якого аспекту харчового ланцюга та бажають запровадити системи, які гарантують безпечні продукти на постійній основі. Вимоги.до системи управління безпечністю харчових продуктів
Нічого принципово нового у вимогах НАССР немає, — НАССР лише зручно систематизує численні санітарні та технологічні норми і правила виробництва, полегшує поточний контроль. ISO 22000 виводить все це на міжнародний рівень стандартизації для експортно-імпортних відносин. Підприємствам з новим сучасним обладнанням легко застосувати це у виробництві, але стандарт побудовано так, щоб врахувати можливості до розвитку всіх підприємств.
Хто в системі?
Механізм НАССР відзначається широкою популярністю в різноманітних галузях, таких як ресторанне господарство, кейтеринг, харчові виробництва готової продукцію та напівфабрикатів, виробництво харчових упаковок, заготівельні підприємства, доготівельнихі підприємства харчової промисловості, постачальники для великих торгових мереж та навіть виробники корму для тварин. Важливо відзначити, що всі виробничі потужності повинні бути розроблені та спроєктовані відповідно до вимог НАССР кваліфікованими фахівцями. Це забезпечує ефективне функціонування та відповідність стандартам безпеки й якості.
Загалом НАССР зорієнтована на такі великі харчові сектори:
підприємства ресторанного господарства (громадського харчування);
виробники харчової продукції;
торгові заклади;
сільгоспвиробники сировини: агрохолдинги, агрофірми, фермерські господарства
виробники кормів, добрив, пестицидів;
виготовлювачі очищувальних, захисних засобів та обладнання;
ті, хто займається зберіганням, упаковкою, фасуванням готової продукції.
У країнах світу
Система НАССР схвалена в усьому світі, зокрема, Комісією харчового кодексу (Комісія ООН — Codex Alimentarius) та Європейським Союзом, а також прийнята рядом країн, у тому числі Канадою, Австралією, Новою Зеландією та Японією як обов'язкова до застосування.
Для європейських компаній дуже важливою є стаття 3:
«Виробники харчових продуктів повинні ідентифікувати будь-який етап у своїй діяльності, який є критичним для забезпечення безпеки і гарантувати, що відповідні процедури ідентифіковані, впроваджені, підтримуються та переглядаються на основі наступних принципів, що використовуються для розробки системи НАССР…».
HACCP в Україні
В Україні вимоги щодо розробки та впровадження систем управління безпечністю харчової продукції за принципами НАССР задекларовані ДСТУ 4161-2003 «Система управління безпечністю харчових продуктів. Вимоги» та ДСТУ ISO 22000:2007 «Системи управління безпечністю харчових продуктів. Вимоги до будь-яких організацій харчового ланцюга».
На підставі пункту 2 частини 2 ст. 20 Закону України «Про основні принципи та вимоги до безпечності та якості харчових продуктів» (N 771/97-ВР від 23.12.1997 року, зі змінами та доповненнями), особи, які займаються виробництвом або введенням в обіг харчових продуктів, повинні застосовувати системи НАССР та/або інші системи забезпечення безпечності та якості під час виробництва та обігу харчових продуктів. Першою компанією, що розробила, впровадила та сертифікувала HACCP стала «Кока-кола».
23 липня 2014 р. Верховна Рада України проголосувала за законопроєкт № 4179 а, який стосується гармонізації законодавства України та Європейського Союзу у сфері безпеки та якості харчових продуктів. Зазначений документ передбачає введення в Україні європейської моделі системи гарантування безпеки і якості продуктів харчування, що базується на процедурах HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points — аналіз небезпечних чинників і критичні контрольні точки). У законі також передбачено створення єдиного контролюючого органу в сфері безпеки харчових продуктів, скасування дозвільних документів і процедур, які відсутні в ЄС, впровадження європейських принципів регулювання ГМО, зокрема в частині реєстрації ГМО-джерел, а не продуктів, вироблених з них.
Держпродспоживслужба України здійснює контроль за впровадження систем управління безпечністю харчової продукції керуючись Наказом Міністерства аграрної політики та продовольства (від 01.10.2012 № 590 зі змінами та доповненнями) «Про затвердження Вимог щодо розробки, впровадження та застосування постійно діючих процедур, заснованих на принципах Системи управління безпечністю харчових продуктів (НАССР)»
У новій редакції закону N 771/97-ВР «Про основні принципи та вимоги до безпечності та якості харчових продуктів», який набув чинності у 2015 році, містяться положення, у яких виділяється проміжок часу на перехідний період, за який усі оператори ринку харчових продуктів переходять від застарілих норм та правил на сучасні системи менеджменту контролю якості продукції. Так, згідно із Законом розробити та запровадити систему НАССР необхідно:
- з 20.09.17 р. — на потужностях, на яких провадять діяльність із харчовими продуктами, у складі яких є необроблені інгредієнти тваринного походження (крім малих потужностей), наприклад, сільгосппідприємства, які займаються переробкою й реалізацією м'яса, ковбас, сирів, йогуртів тощо;
- з 20.09.18 р. — на потужностях, на яких провадять діяльність із харчовими продуктами, у складі яких відсутні необроблені інгредієнти тваринного походження (крім малих потужностей), наприклад, сільгоспвиробник готової овочевої продукції;
- з 20.09.19 р. — НАССР стає обов'язковим для всіх, зокрема для малих потужностей. Сюди належить сегмент HoReCa . Отже, запровадження системи НАССР передбачалося в кілька етапів протягом трьох років. Станом на сьогодні всі підприємства, які займаються виробництвом та реалізацією харчових продуктів — операторів ринку харчових продуктів, повинні дотримуватись нових вимог і законодавства.
За невиконання вимог по впровадженню HACCP оператори ринку України можуть отримати наступні штрафи:
● юридичні особи: у розмірі 30 мінімальних заробітних плат;
● фізичні особи: у розмірі 15 мінімальних заробітних плат.
Законодавством передбачені штрафні санкції, деякі підприємства не можуть виконати або ж навіть і не намагаються виконати висунуті їм вимоги. Маючи певний суб'єктивний досвід спілкування з підприємствами сфери обслуговування, можна дати відповідну оцінку тій ситуації, котра наразі склалася на ринку і розглянути низку питань пов'язаних з новим фітосанітарним законодавством України. Дехто з операторі ринку помилково вважає, що запровадження системи HACCP необхідно тільки новим підприємствам і не стосуються діючих підприємств малої та середньої потужності, які працюють в сегменті HoReCa. Багато досить великих харчових підприємств почали впроваджувати систему, схожу на HACCP, близько 10 років тому. Це було зроблено ними завдяки наявності певної «фінансової подушки». Саме тому наразі такі об'єкти мають досить непогано працюючу систему, навчений персонал і відповідну інфраструктуру. У даних підприємств не виникає проблем при необхідності виконання нових вимог законодавства, пов'язаних з HACCP.
Для прискорення темпів запровадження систем HACCP в Україні розроблена комп'ютерна програма HACCP-TRADING, яка дозволяє застосовувати постійно діючі процедури Системи у цифровому вигляді без використання паперових носіїв інформації.
Див. також
IEC/ISO 31010:2009 Керування ризиком. Методи загального оцінювання ризику
НАССР в Україні
Примітки
Посилання
Закон України «Про безпечність та якість харчових продуктів»
12 кроків впровадження HACCP на підприємстві
ВПРОВАДЖЕННЯ СИСТЕМИ УПРАВЛІННЯ БЕЗПЕЧНІСТЮ ХАРЧОВИХ ПРОДУКТІВ НА ОСНОВІ ПРИНЦИПІВ НАССР
Бочарова О. В. HACCP і системи управління безпечністю харчової продукції. Підручник
https://profbook.com.ua/index.php?route=blog/article&article_id=26
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Be%20Kind%20Rewind
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Be Kind Rewind
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Be Kind Rewind is a 2008 buddy comedy film written and directed by Michel Gondry and starring Jack Black, Mos Def, Danny Glover, Mia Farrow, and Melonie Diaz with supporting roles done by Chandler Parker, Irv Gooch, Arjay Smith, Marcus Carl Franklin, Blake Hightower, and Amir Ali Said. It tells the story of an employee at the titular VHS rental store and his conspiracy theorist friend who work to recreate the rental store's film inventory after they were accidentally erased when the latter got himself magnetized while the proprietor was away. The film first appeared on January 20, 2008 at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival. It was later shown at the Berlin International Film Festival. The film opened on February 22, 2008 in the United Kingdom and in North America.
The title is inspired by a phrase that was commonly displayed on video rental cassettes in America during the medium's heyday.
The film was met with mixed reviews.
Plot
In Passaic, New Jersey, Elroy Fletcher owns the declining "Be Kind Rewind" VHS rental store. Despite Fletcher's claims that jazz pianist Fats Waller was born there, the building is condemned as a slum and the officials led by Mr. Baker give him 60 days to upgrade it to the required standards or they will demolish it to make way for high-end development.
Fletcher leaves on a trip with friends to memorialize Waller and visit rental store chains to research efficient and modernized ways of running one, leaving his only employee Mike to work alone. Before leaving, Fletcher cautions Mike to keep his conspiracy theorist friend Jerry away from the store. However, Mike misinterprets his warnings on the train window and is left confused.
After attempting to sabotage an electrical substation, believing its energy to be melting his brain, Jerry receives a shock which leaves him magnetized. When entering the store the next day, he inadvertently erases all its VHS tapes. Mike discovers the disaster and is further pressed when Fletcher's acquaintance Miss Falewicz wants to rent Ghostbusters. To prevent her from reporting a problem to Fletcher, Mike comes up with an idea: as Miss Falewicz has never seen the movie, he proposes to recreate the film with cheap special effects, using himself and Jerry as the actors and hoping to fool her. They complete the movie just in time when a customer named Jack arrives asking for Rush Hour 2. Mike and Jerry repeat their filming, enlisting the help of a local girl named Alma for some of the parts. She later makes Jerry a remedy that demagnetizes him at the cost of him vomiting and emitting magnetic urine.
Word of mouth spreads through Miss Falewicz's nephew Craig and his gang of the inadvertently hilarious results of Mike and Jerry's filming of Ghostbusters and soon the store is seeing more requests for such movies. Mike, Jerry, and Alma pretend the films came from Sweden to demand long wait times and higher costs for the rental ($20 instead of $1). To meet demand, they enlist the locals to help out in making the movies, using them as actors in their films. When Fletcher returns intent on converting the store to a DVD rental outlet, he recognizes that they are making more money from the "sweded" films than from normal rentals after learning about what happened and joins in with the process.
However, the success is put to a halt when government attorney Ms. Lawson arrives with two federal agents. Ms. Lawson insists the "sweded" films are copyright violations. They seize the store's tapes which they destroy with help from a steamroller operator much to the dismay of the locals and seize the assets to pay off the respective studios. As a result, Fletcher gives up hope and reveals to Mike that he made up the connection of Fats Waller to the building. Fletcher is given a week to evacuate it before its demolition.
With the help of the locals, Jerry and Alma convince Fletcher and Mike to give one last hurrah and put together a documentary dedicated to the alternate history of Fats Waller. They create Fats Waller Was Born Here.
On the day the building is scheduled for demolition, Fletcher invites all the locals to watch the final film and quietly reveals to Miss Falewicz that he gave Mr. Baker permission to go ahead with the demolition plans after the film ends. When Jerry accidentally breaks the store's TV screen trying to raise it for all to see, a nearby DVD store owner loans them his video projector, allowing them to show the movie on a cloth placed in the store's window. As their film ends, Fletcher, Mike and Jerry exit the store to find a larger crowd has gathered in the street to watch the film through the window including the wrecking crew as Mr. Baker has an inaudible dialogue with Fletcher. They are applauded by the gathered crowd.
Cast
Mos Def as Mike Coolwell, a worker at "Be Kind Rewind".
Jack Black as Jerry McLean, a conspiracy theorist and friend of Mike who lives in a trailer in the junkyard that he works in.
Danny Glover as Elroy Fletcher, the proprietor of "Be Kind Rewind".
Mia Farrow as Miss Falewicz, a friend of Elroy.
Melonie Diaz as Alma Sykes, an intelligent laundromat worker who assists Mike and Jerry with their "sweded" videos.
Irv Gooch as Wilson, a mechanic who is friends with Jerry.
Chandler Parker as Craig, the nephew of Miss Falewicz.
Arjay Smith as Manny, one of Craig's friends.
Quinton Aaron as Q, a towering man who is one of Craig's friends.
Gio Perez as Randy
Basia Rosas as Andrea
Tomasz Soltys as Carl
Marcus Carl Franklin as Kid #1
Blake Hightower as Kid #2
Amir Ali Said as Kid #3
David Slotkoff as Jack, a local resident who wanted to rent Rush Hour 2.
Frank Heins as Patrick
Heather Lawless as Sherry
Karolina Wydra as Gabrielle Bochenski
Allie Woods Jr. as Dr. Bent, a local doctor who examines Jerry after he was magnetized.
McKinley Page as Brother McDuff, a local priest.
Kishu Chand as Alma's sister who runs the local laundromat
Ann Longo as Miss Falewicz's friend
Parrie Hodges as Miss Falewicz's friend who was later cast as Fats' birth mother in the Fats Waller movie
August Darnell as a Passaic West Coast Video Employee
Jon Glaser as an NYC West Coast Video Store Employee
P. J. Byrne as Mr. Baker, a city official
Marceline Hugot as a city hall employee
John Tormey as a demolition chief who was enlisted to level "Be Kind Rewind"
Frank Girardeau as Officer Gary, a police officer who patrols the neighborhood that "Be Kind Rewind" is in.
Matt Walsh as Officer Julian, a police officer and Officer Gary's partner who patrol's the neighborhood that "Be Kind Rewind" is in.
Paul Dinello as Mr. Rooney, a Federal agent who posed as a "Be Kind Rewind" customer who came all the way from New York City to see the "sweded" videos.
Sigourney Weaver as Ms. Lawson, a government attorney who was dispatched to deal with the "sweded" videos.
Booker T. Jones, Steve Cropper, Donald "Duck" Dunn, Jimmy Scott and McCoy Tyner appear as Fats Waller fans in a scene cut from the theatrical release, but restored for the DVD.
"Sweded"
Films that were erased and recreated are referred to as having been sweded. These remakes are unedited with only a single take per scene. The tapes are described as having come from Sweden as an excuse for higher rental fees and longer wait times. Jerry fabricates the word "sweded" while arguing with Craig (Chandler Parker) and his gang.
In light of the theme of sweding, director Michel Gondry sweded a version of the trailer of the film, starring himself. On the official website, users could engage in sweding, which puts their faces on the VHS cover of a movie. The Be Kind Rewind YouTube channel also encourages filmmakers to create sweded versions of popular movies. A Sweded Film Festival launched in 2016 to showcase fanmade sweded films.
The theme of sweding also relates to film history, in that the collectively made remakes represent social memories of films, and memories that arise through films.
A disclaimer during the credits stated that Mike and Jerry's Sweded films can be seen at www.bekindrewind-themovie.com. The official website is no longer in operation and now links to viruses.
Reception
Box office
In its opening weekend, the film earned $4 million in 808 theaters in the United States and Canada, ranking No. 9 at the box office, and averaging $5,013 per theater. As of September 21, 2008, the film had grossed $30.4 million worldwide—an estimated $11 million in the United States and Canada and $19 million in other territories.
Reception
Be Kind Rewind has received mixed reviews, with review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reporting that 65% of critics gave the film positive reviews, based on 128 reviews, with an average rating of 6.3/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Slighter and less disciplined than Gondry's previous mind-benders." Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 52 out of 100, based on 35 reviews.
Writing in The New York Times, reviewer A. O. Scott called the film "inviting, undemanding and altogether wonderful" and added that "you'll want to see it again, or at least Swede it yourself."
References
External links
2008 films
American comedy films
British comedy films
American independent films
2000s English-language films
2008 comedy films
Films about films
Films directed by Michel Gondry
Films set in New Jersey
Films shot in New Jersey
French comedy films
English-language French films
New Line Cinema films
Focus Features films
2000s American films
2000s French films
English-language comedy films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubawa
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Lubawa
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Lubawa (Old Prussian: Lūbawa) is a town in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, Poland. It is located in Iława County on the Sandela River, some southeast of Iława.
Geographical location
Lubawa is located in Chełmno Land, approximately north-east of the town of Nowe Miasto Lubawskie, south-west of the town of Olsztyn and south-east of the regional centre of Gdańsk, at an altitude of above sea level.
History
In 1214 the local Prussian landlord Surwabuno was christened by Christian of Oliva, the first Catholic bishop of Prussia. The latter is nowadays featured on the coat of arms of Lubawa. The town was first mentioned in a papal bull of January 18, 1216, issued by Pope Innocent III. Soon afterwards a wooden castle was built. Within the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights, the Bishopric of Culm was created in 1243 by William of Modena. In 1257 the town became a property of the church and the seat of the bishops of Culm (Chełmno). In 1268 the castle was destroyed. Between 1301 and 1326 a new castle was built of stone by the local bishop named Arnold. In 1330 it was destroyed by an invasion of Lithuanian forces of Gediminas, but was rebuilt. The town of Löbau was captured by the Kingdom of Poland after the Battle of Grunwald in 1410 but returned to the Teutonic Order once the Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War ended. However the surrounding Land of Lubawa had gone partially to Masovia in the south.
In 1440 the town joined the anti-Teutonic Prussian Confederation, at the request of which King Casimir IV Jagiellon signed the act of incorporation of the region and town to Poland in 1454. In the beginning of the Thirteen Years' War in 1454, the pro-Polish troops took over the local castle. The incorporation of the town to Poland was confirmed in the Second Peace of Toruń in 1466. It was part of the Chełmno Voivodeship and soon afterwards became a centre of local trade and commerce. As such it became one of the seats of the bishops of Chełmno. In 1533 it was razed to the ground by a great fire mentioned by Erasmus of Rotterdam, but it was soon rebuilt and between 1535 and 1539 Nicolaus Copernicus visited the bishop's castle in Lubawa several times. At that time, the castle also housed an astronomical observatory. It was in Lubawa that the decision was made to publish Copernicus' groundbreaking work De revolutionibus orbium coelestium. In 1545 the town and the castle were yet again destroyed by a fire.
The town gained significant profits from the trade. In 1627 the castle was refurbished and became a Baroque style palace of Bishop Jakub Zadzik. By 1640 construction of water works and sewers had been completed. The town was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1772 through the First Partition of Poland. Part of the Duchy of Warsaw (1807–13) during the Napoleonic Wars, the town was again annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia after the dissolution of the duchy. In 1815 the palace was destroyed by a fire and in 1826 its walls were demolished. In 1820 the convent of the Benedictine Confederation was suppressed. The population was subjected to Germanisation policies. In 1831, several Polish infantry and artillery units, engineer corps, sappers and general staff of the November Uprising stopped in the town on the way to their internment places. In 1871 it became a part of the Prussian-led German Empire. During the Partitions of Poland, and until 1920, Löbau belonged to Kreis Löbau in Regierungsbezirk Marienwerder in the Province of West Prussia. According to the German census of 1890, the town had a population of 4,593, of which 2,300 (50.1%) were Poles.
As a consequence of the Treaty of Versailles following the rebirth of sovereign Poland the town was re-incorporated into Poland.
Following the 1939 invasion of Poland, which started World War II, the region was occupied by Nazi Germany, and from 26 October 1939 to 1945 as Löbau was administered as part of Regierungsbezirk Marienwerder in the new province of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia. The Polish population was subjected to various repressions and atrocities. The Einsatzgruppe V carried out mass searches of houses, offices etc. in September 1939. On 7 December 1939, the Selbstschutz carried out a public execution of 10 Polish inhabitants. The German Nazi regime housed a secret camp in the town for Polish children and teenagers aged 10–17, mostly boys. The children were subjected to forced labour, beatings, malnutrition and even executions. Children reaching the age of majority were deported to the Stutthof concentration camp and its subcamps. With the approaching Eastern Front, the camp was dissolved in January 1945 and the remaining children were deported to Germany. After the end of war, Lubawa was again part of Poland where it remained since then.
Economy
Lubawa is an important centre of furniture industry. Also, a "Lubawa S.A." company is located there, which is the biggest Polish producer of military equipment such as bulletproof vests, currently used by the Polish Army and the Polish press.
Tourism
Lubawa is a centre of local tourism. The "Wzgórza Lubawskie" forest reserve is located only some ten kilometres westwards and the picturesque Drwęca River flows some five kilometres to the west. Also, the nearby battlefield of the Battle of Grunwald attracts many tourists, both from Poland and from abroad, mostly from Germany.
Notable heritage sights and landmarks:
Monument to Polish child prisoners of Nazi Germany
Two 15th-century towers
Parts of city walls from the 14th century
Ruins of a Gothic castle
Gothic St. Anne's Church from 1330
St. John's Church from 1496–1507, rebuilt in 1603–10 in Renaissance style.
Wooden Church of St. Barbara from 1770–1779, built in Baroque style.
19th-century houses
Łazienki Miejskie park
Church of the Visitation in Lubawa Lipy
Remnants of wooden sewer system, designed by Nicolaus Copernicus according to urban legend
Sports
Local sports clubs include football club Motor Lubawa, which competes in the lower leagues, and athletics club LKS Lubawa.
Notable residents
Harris Newmark (1834–1916), German-American businessman in Los Angeles
Leopold Harris (1836–1910), founder of the Harris & Frank department stores in Los Angeles, and Benno Jastrowitz, his business partner and Minna Jastrowitz, his wife
The Jacoby brothers, founders of another major department store in Los Angeles from 1879 through 1938.
Gerhard Wilck (1898–1985), Wehrmacht officer
Antoni Mężydło (1954–), Polish politician
Jacek Fafiński (1970–), Polish wrestler
Grzegorz Gwiazdowski (1974–), Polish cyclist
References
External links
Municipal website
Lubawa commune
Lubawa portal
Catholic Decanate in Lubawa
Lubawa area on a detailed map of Poland
Cities and towns in Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship
Iława County
Chełmno Voivodeship
Pomeranian Voivodeship (1919–1939)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Fall%20Guy%20%282024%20film%29
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The Fall Guy (2024 film)
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The Fall Guy (2024 film)
The Fall Guy is a 2024 American action comedy film directed by David Leitch and written by Drew Pearce, loosely based on the 1980s TV series. The plot follows a stuntman (Ryan Gosling) working on his ex-girlfriend's (Emily Blunt) directorial debut action film, only to find himself involved in a conspiracy surrounding the film's lead actor (Aaron Taylor-Johnson). The cast also features Hannah Waddingham, Teresa Palmer, Stephanie Hsu, and Winston Duke.
The Fall Guy premiered at SXSW on March 12, 2024, and was released in the United States on May 3 by Universal Pictures. The film received generally positive reviews from critics but grossed $171 million worldwide against a $125–150 million production budget, becoming a box-office bomb.
Plot
Working as the stunt double for action star Tom Ryder, Hollywood stunt performer Colt Seavers breaks his back during a stunt gone wrong and abandons his career and his girlfriend, camerawoman Jody Moreno.
Eighteen months later, Colt, now a valet for a small Mexican restaurant, is contacted by Gail Meyer, Tom's film producer. She tells him that Jody is directing her first film, a space opera film titled Metalstorm starring Tom, and wants Colt to join the production in Sydney. After arriving on set, Colt learns that Jody never asked for him and is still angry about their breakup, with the film being a less-than-subtle attempt at airing her grievances at Colt.
Gail reveals that Tom has disappeared after getting into trouble with drug dealers, and she wants Colt to find him before his absence causes the already overbudget film's cancelation. Not wanting Jody's directorial debut ruined, Colt starts to track down Tom. He first goes to Tom's apartment where he meets Tom's girlfriend and co-star Iggy. She gives him a lead, so he visits a nightclub, where he meets drug dealer Doone, who tricks Colt into drinking a cocktail laced with hallucinogenic drugs. After getting into a fight with the drug dealer's goons, Colt visits Tom's hotel room where he finds a dead body in a bathtub full of ice. When Colt returns with the police, the body has disappeared.
As the production of Metalstorm continues, Colt and Jody begin to rekindle their relationship until Gail abruptly informs him that he must return to the United States. Instead, he continues looking for Tom by tracking down his personal assistant Alma Milan. She hands him Tom’s phone that Tom and Gail had been searching for, before they are both attacked by Tom's head of security, Dressler, and his team who are looking for the phone. Colt and Alma defeat them after an extended chase through Sydney involving a rubbish truck. He and his long-time friend Dan Tucker, the stunt coordinator on Metalstorm, unlock the phone and discover a video of an intoxicated Tom killing his most-recent stunt double Henry Herrera (the man in the bathtub) while sparring at a party. The henchmen attack Colt and Dan, destroying the phone with shotgun pellets.
Dan escapes, but Colt is captured and brought face-to-face with Tom, who has been hiding out on a yacht on Gail's instructions. He reveals that Gail is framing Colt for the crime using deepfake technology to replace Tom's face with Colt's on the incriminating video and that he orchestrated Colt's accident because he felt that Colt was stealing the spotlight from him. Henry's body is discovered and the doctored video is released on news media, while Gail tries to convince Jody that Colt is guilty. Colt escapes and is presumed dead after a boat chase, though he swims to safety.
The next day, Tom arrives at the Metalstorm set with his goons and production continues. Colt secretly returns to the set and convinces Jody of his innocence. Together, they trick Tom into participating in a stunt sequence and confessing while he is wired with a lav mike. The rest of the crew, led by Dan, hold off his goons. Gail steals the recording at gunpoint and tries to escape in a helicopter with Tom, but Jody helps Colt leap onto the helicopter in mid-air. He retrieves the recording and falls onto a crash mat prepared by Dan, while the helicopter crashes with Gail and Tom in it.
Metalstorm trailer premieres at San Diego Comic-Con, with Jason Momoa being made the new lead and Alma the film’s new producer; the film eventually becomes a box-office hit. Colt gets exonerated, and he and Jody get back together.
The credits play over a montage of behind-the-scenes footage of the real stunt work involved in making the film, followed by a mid-credits scene in which Tom and Gail are shown surviving the helicopter crash but are apprehended by undercover bounty hunters (two of them played by Lee Majors and Heather Thomas, who starred as Colt Seavers and Jody Banks in the original television series). In trying to escape, Tom accidentally triggers the pyrotechnics and blows himself up. Alma calls Jason Momoa's agent.
Cast
Ryan Gosling as Colt Seavers, a seasoned action stuntman
Emily Blunt as Jody Moreno, Colt's ex-girlfriend and a first-time director
Aaron Taylor-Johnson as Tom Ryder, a famous action film star
Hannah Waddingham as Gail Meyer, the producer of Jody's film
Teresa Palmer as Iggy Starr, Tom's girlfriend and co-star
Stephanie Hsu as Alma Milan, Tom's personal assistant
Winston Duke as Dan Tucker, Colt's long-time friend and stunt coordinator
Ben Knight as Dressler, Tom's bodyguard
Additionally, Lee Majors and Heather Thomas, who starred as Colt Seavers and Jody Banks respectively in the original television series, reprise their roles in a mid-credits scene with Majors credited as "The Fall Guy", while Jason Momoa has an uncredited appearance as himself.
Production
Development
In July 2010, the Los Angeles Times reported that a film based on the 1980s series The Fall Guy was in development. DreamWorks Pictures had teamed up with producers Walter F. Parkes and Laurie MacDonald on the project, and Martin Campbell was in talks to direct the film. DreamWorks, through the Walt Disney Studios' Touchstone Pictures distribution label, was to release the film in North America, Latin America, Russia, Australia, and Asia, while Mister Smith Entertainment would have handled sales in the remaining territories. In September 2013, Dwayne Johnson was in negotiations to play the title role and McG was in talks to direct.
In September 2020, Ryan Gosling, director David Leitch, and writer Drew Pearce were said to be working on an "unnamed stuntman film" that had been picked up by Universal Pictures. In May 2022, it was confirmed this project was a film adaptation of The Fall Guy. Loosely based on the TV series, the film is produced by Universal with Leitch's 87North Productions and Gosling's Entertainment 360, with Leitch and Kelly McCormick producing alongside Gosling and Guymon Casady. Pearce is also an executive producer, as is Geoff Shaevitz. Variety reported that the Australian Government and the New South Wales state authorities added funds to the production up to A$30 million and A$14.5 million respectively, with Paul Fletcher, Australia's Federal Minister for Communications, Urban Infrastructure, Cities and the Arts, estimating a boom to the local economy, over 1,000 Australian cast and crew, and more than 3,015 Australian film extras.
Emily Blunt was cast in August 2022. Aaron Taylor-Johnson and Stephanie Hsu joined in October, and Winston Duke, Hannah Waddingham and Teresa Palmer were cast the following month.
Gosling and Blunt said that they took inspiration from Leitch and his producer wife, Kelly McCormick, for the romantic relationship between their characters. Blunt's role was originally a makeup artist, but it was rewritten to be a first-time director before she received a draft of the script. Blunt had some input on the character, stating that "We all kind of built her together, because I think, maybe in the original script, she was quite severe, and that sort of tough director"; she thought it was more interesting to see someone who is "in a situation where they're way over their head". For the character, Blunt took some inspiration from director Greta Gerwig and several other people she had met.
Filming
Principal photography began in October 2022 in Sydney, Australia, at the Disney Studios Australia in Moore Park, Sydney. Filming also took place at Sydney Harbour, Sydney Opera House and the Sydney Harbour Bridge; which was closed for several daytime hours for filming scenes involving Gosling in January 2023. Variety and The Hollywood Reporter reported that the film had a production budget of $130 million. Deadline Hollywood also stated its $130 million production cost after Australian tax credits, though added that "some have heard the production cost was even higher at $150 [million]".
The film used practical stunts, with highly choreographed action sequences. Leitch stated, "It was a love letter to stunts. We knew we had to be authentic in that world." It broke a Guinness World Record for the most cannon rolls in a car, with eight and a half rolls performed by stunt driver Logan Holladay. Cannon rolls are performed by firing a cannon-like device into the ground from a moving vehicle.
Music
The Fall Guy score was composed by Dominic Lewis. The film incorporates songs by AC/DC, Taylor Swift, Kiss, the Darkness, Phil Collins, and Blake Shelton's cover of "Unknown Stuntman", the theme song of the series originally performed by Lee Majors. Yungblud covered the Kiss song I Was Made for Lovin' You.
Post-production
Editor Elísabet Ronaldsdóttir was on set during production, returning to Los Angeles for post-production. The sound was conducted by Frankie Montano, Jon Taylor, and the team at Universal StudioPost. Visual effects studios Rising Sun Pictures, Framestore, Cinesite, Crafty Apes, Opsis and Day for Nite were involved. The bulk of VFX work was in the creation of Metalstorm, wire, and safety removal and cleanup. The digital intermediate process was led by colorist Dave Hussey at Company 3.
Release
Theatrical
The Fall Guy had its world premiere at SXSW on March 12, 2024. It was released in Australia and New Zealand on April 24, in the United Kingdom on May 2, and in the United States the following day. Universal screened The Fall Guy at its CinemaCon panel on April 8.
Home media
The film was released digitally on May 21, alongside an extended cut version with 20 minutes of additional footage.
Reception
Box office
, The Fall Guy has grossed $89 million in the United States and Canada, and $82.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $171.1 million. Variety estimated the film would need to gross $275–300 million in order to break even, and reported it would end up losing the studio $50–60 million.
In the United States and Canada, The Fall Guy was released alongside Tarot, and was projected to gross $30–35 million from
4,002 theaters in its opening weekend, with some rival studios estimating it could reach $40 million. The film made $10.5 million on its first day, including $3.15 million from preview screenings. It went on to underperform, but top the box office, debuting at $27.7 million. In its second weekend the film made $13.7 million (a drop of 51%), finishing second behind newcomer Kingdom of the Planet of the Apes. Vulture reported: "The Fall Guy posted an admirable box-office hold. It dropped 50 percent in its second weekend, which is pretty great in our current, opening-weekend-focused era, especially considering that the film lost almost all its pricier premium screens to Kingdom of the Planet of the Apes." It then made $8.9 million in its third weekend, finishing in fourth.
Critical response
The Fall Guy received generally positive reviews after its SXSW premiere. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale, while those polled at PostTrak gave it a 90% overall positive score.
Writing for RogerEbert.com, Brian Tallerico said that The Fall Guy "feels like a pushback against all the CGI-heavy, character-less, humorless blockbusters that have been coming off the content production line" and provides audiences "with what too often feels like a secondary concern in big movies lately: fun". IGN called the film a "self-reflexive love letter to Hollywood stunt work", and praised Gosling and Blunt's performances and chemistry. In the Observer, Oliver Jones opined that "rather than indict Hollywood's worst instincts, the film instead echoes them ... If The Fall Guy reflects how Hollywood views women directors, it's little surprise there are so few of them."
See also
List of films featuring fictional films
Notes
References
External links
2024 action comedy films
2024 action thriller films
2020s American films
2020s English-language films
4DX films
American action comedy films
American action thriller films
English-language action comedy films
English-language action thriller films
Films about actors
Films about film directors and producers
Films about missing people
Films about stunt performers
Films based on television series
Films directed by David Leitch
Films scored by Dominic Lewis
Films set in studio lots
Films set in Sydney
Films shot in Sydney
Films with screenplays by Drew Pearce
IMAX films
Self-reflexive films
Universal Pictures films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia%20Heaton
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Patricia Heaton
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Patricia Heaton
Patricia Helen Heaton (born March 4, 1958) is an American actress, producer and comedienne. She began her career appearing in a recurring role in the ABC drama series, Thirtysomething (1989–1991), and later appearing in the comedy films Memoirs of an Invisible Man and Beethoven (both 1992). Heaton went on to star in the short-lived sitcoms Room for Two (1992–93), Someone Like Me (1994) and Women of the House (1995) before landing the role of Debra Barone in the CBS sitcom Everybody Loves Raymond (1996–2005).
For her role in Everybody Loves Raymond, Heaton received seven nominations for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series, winning the award in 2000 and 2001. She received five nominations for an Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series as well and won Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series in 2003. She also played the leading roles in the made-for-television movies A Town Without Christmas (2001), The Goodbye Girl (2004) for which she received Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie, and Front of the Class (2008).
From 2009 to 2018, Heaton starred as Frances "Frankie" Heck in the ABC comedy series, The Middle for which she received Critics' Choice Television Award nomination for Best Actress in a Comedy Series. She hosted and produced Food Network cooking series Patricia Heaton Parties (2015–16) winning Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Culinary Program.
Early life
Patricia Heaton was born in Bay Village, Ohio, the daughter of Patricia (née Hurd) and Chuck Heaton, who was a sportswriter for The Plain Dealer. When she was 12, her mother died of an aneurysm. The fourth of five children, Heaton was raised as a devout Catholic.
Heaton has three sisters, Sharon (now a Dominican nun, and presently assistant registrar at Aquinas College in Nashville), Alice, and Frances, and one brother, Michael, who died in September 2022 at the age of 66 and was the "Minister of Culture" columnist for The Plain Dealer and a writer for the paper's Friday Magazine.
Career
1987—1995
While attending Ohio State University, she became a sister of Delta Gamma sorority. She later graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in drama. In 1980, Heaton moved to New York City to study with drama teacher William Esper. Heaton made her first Broadway appearance in the chorus of Don't Get God Started (1987), after which fellow students and she created Stage Three, an off-Broadway acting troupe.
Heaton auditioned for the role of Elaine Benes on Seinfeld in 1989. When Stage Three brought one of its productions to Los Angeles, Heaton caught the eye of a casting director for the ABC drama series Thirtysomething. She was cast as an oncologist, leading to six appearances on the series from 1989 to 1991. Other guest appearances include Alien Nation (1989) and Matlock (1990) and supporting role in the made-for-television movie Shattered Dreams (1990).
In 1992, Heaton made her big screen debut appearing in a supporting role in the comedy-drama film Memoirs of an Invisible Man directed by John Carpenter. Later that year, she appeared in the box-office hit family comedy film Beethoven. From 1992 to 1993, Heaton starred as a lead character in the ABC sitcom Room for Two. The series was canceled after two seasons. In 1994, she starred in another short-lived sitcom, Someone Like Me, it lasted on NBC only six episodes. Later that year, Heaton appeared in the comedy-drama film, The New Age. In 1995, she starred opposite Delta Burke in the CBS sitcom Women of the House, a spin-off of Designing Women. The series also was canceled after one season.
1996—2018: Everybody Loves Raymond and The Middle
In 1996, Heaton landed the role of Debra Barone in the CBS sitcom Everybody Loves Raymond opposite Ray Romano. The series received positive reviews and has been on top ten television rankings and won Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series two times. She was nominated in each of the series' last seven seasons for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series, winning in 2000 and 2001. With her win in 2000, she became the first of the cast members on the show to win an Emmy. She has also collected two Viewers for Quality Television Awards for Best Actress in a Quality Comedy Series and a Screen Actors Guild trophy for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series and five Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series nominations for her work on the series. The series ended in 2005 after nine seasons.
While starring on Everybody Loves Raymond, Heaton played the leading roles in a number of made-for-television movies. In 1997 she starred alongside Meredith Baxter and Della Reese in the drama film Miracle in the Woods. In 2001, she starred in the Christmas drama A Town Without Christmas. In 2004, she starred in the comedy-drama The Goodbye Girl, a remake of the 1977 film of the same name. For her performance, Heaton received Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie. In 2005, she starred and produced the romantic comedy-drama film, The Engagement Ring.
In 2003, Heaton appeared in a series of television and radio commercials as spokesperson for the various incarnations of the grocery chain Albertsons, such as Acme, Jewel and Shaw's. Heaton also was featured on the cover of the company's 2003 and 2004 annual reports. In 2007, Albertsons created the Crazy About Food slogan/campaign and Heaton's association with the company ended. She has also appeared in advertisements for Pantene hair-care products. Heaton was the producer for the 2005 documentary The Bituminous Coal Queens of Pennsylvania, which was directed by her husband, David Hunt. She was also one of the producers of the William Wilberforce drama Amazing Grace (2006).
In 2006, Heaton played United States Ambassador Barbara Bodine in the controversial miniseries The Path to 9/11 about the 1993 World Trade Center bombing in New York City and the events leading up to the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. Also that year, she starred and produced the untitled ABC comedy pilot about a widowed mother who joins the P.T.A. where she befriends two women she initially dislikes. In January 2007, Heaton returned to the stage to co-star with Tony Shalhoub in the off-Broadway play The Scene at Second Stage Theatre in New York City. For this performance, Heaton was nominated in the Outstanding Lead Actress category for the 22nd Lucille Lortel Awards. From 2007 to 2008, she starred with Kelsey Grammer in the Fox comedy series, Back to You. The show about a squabbling anchors of a news program was canceled in May 2008. For her performance, she was nominated for the Satellite Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy at the 10th Satellite Awards. In 2008, she starred in the Hallmark Hall of Fame movie Front of the Class, based on the real story of a mother, Ellen Cohen, raising a son, Brad Cohen, who has Tourette syndrome.
In 2009, Heaton began starring as Frankie Heck in the ABC comedy series, The Middle. The series received positive reviews from critics and lasted nine seasons with 215 produced episodes. She received Critics' Choice Television Award nomination for Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actress in a Comedy Series in 2011. In 2011, Heaton was ranked at number 24 on the TV Guide Network special, Funniest Women on TV. She received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on May 22, 2012. Her production company is FourBoys Entertainment. She starred and produced the 2014 comedy film, Moms' Night Out. The film was released by Sony Pictures Releasing on May 9, 2014 receiving mostly negative reviews from critics.
In October 2015, Heaton began hosting Patricia Heaton Parties, a cooking show on Food Network. The program showcases party-friendly foods and home-entertaining tips. The series won a Daytime Emmy Award in 2016 for Outstanding Culinary Program. The show ended after two seasons. She also did voice over work in the animated films The Star (2017) and Smallfoot (2018).
2019—present
In 2019, Heaton returned to television with starring and producing the CBS comedy series, Carol's Second Act. The series received average reviews from critics, but her performance was praised. Carol's Second Act was canceled after single season in 2020. Heaton wrote a book called Your Second Act: Inspiring Stories of Transformation with a release date of July 21, 2020. The following year, it was announced that Heaton began producing her new sitcom for Fox. Two years later it was announced that Heaton will star as the host of an upscale lifestyle show, sent to prison for embezzlement and tax evasion. She gets out after two years, forgotten and broke, and moves to Tennessee to live with her estranged sister.
In 2022, Heaton starred opposite Brian Cox in a drama film, Mending the Line directed by Joshua Caldwell. It received positive reviews from film critics. It received limited release on June 9, 2023. She starred in the drama film The Unbreakable Boy for Lionsgate. In 2023, she was cast in the leading role in the psychological horror-thriller film, The Beldham.
Personal life
Heaton has been married to English actor and director David Hunt since 1990. They have four sons and as of 2002, they divide their time between Los Angeles and Cambridge. Her memoir, Motherhood and Hollywood: How to Get a Job Like Mine, was published by Villard Books in 2002.
After her divorce from her first husband, Constantine Yankoglu, she went through a self-described "Protestant wilderness". As of June 2017, Heaton's first marriage had been annulled by the Catholic Church and she had returned to being a practicing Catholic.
Heaton has been open about having plastic surgery; citing having a tummy-tuck and a breast reduction after undergoing four Caesarean sections.
In a 2020 interview for Parade, Heaton revealed that she had quit drinking two years prior.
Politics
Heaton's political views have been described as conservative, and until 2021, she was a registered Republican. In 2016, she voiced her disapproval of her party's then-presidential nominee Donald Trump. She later stated that she had "given up politics" following the election, but continued to express her admiration for Mitt Romney. After the January 6 United States Capitol attack, Heaton announced that she would leave the Republican Party and become an independent voter.
Abortion and birth control
Heaton is a committed pro-life activist and is vocally supportive of groups and causes opposing abortion, euthanasia, and the death penalty. Heaton's advocacy became particularly visible during the debate regarding the Terri Schiavo case. In addition, Heaton is honorary chair of Feminists for Life, an organization which opposes abortion and embryonic stem cell research and supports other pro-life causes on the basis of feminism.
On February 29, 2012, Heaton criticized Georgetown University law student Sandra Fluke, who advocated in favor of a contraceptive mandate for health insurance plans; Heaton said on Twitter, "I don't care if anyone uses birth control – just don't charge me for it", and wrote a series of tweets mocking Fluke's activism, as well as retweeting similar remarks from her followers. After incurring criticism, Heaton apologized and deleted most of the posts.
Other views
In August 2006, Heaton's name was in an advertisement in the Los Angeles Times that condemned Hamas and Hezbollah and supported Israel in the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict. In October 2023, Heaton was a vocal supporter of Israel during the 2023 Israel–Hamas war, releasing a video in which she compared the conflict to the Holocaust during World War II, and encouraged her followers to donate through the Beth Jacob Congregation.
In October 2006, Heaton appeared in a commercial opposing a Missouri state constitutional amendment concerning embryonic stem cell research, which subsequently passed. The advertisement was a response to the election of Democratic Senate hopeful Claire McCaskill and aired at the same time as Michael J. Fox's advertisement supporting the amendment. Appearing with Heaton were actor Jim Caviezel, St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Jeff Suppan, Seattle Mariner Mike Sweeney, and St. Louis Rams/Arizona Cardinals quarterback Kurt Warner. Following a public outcry, Heaton later said she regretted doing the ad and sent an apology to Fox, saying she was unaware of his ad. Fox accepted her apology and later stated, "If we can have a healthy dialogue about issues that people see differently, that's marvelous."
Filmography
Film
Television
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1958 births
20th-century American actresses
20th-century Roman Catholics
21st-century American actresses
21st-century Roman Catholics
Activists from Ohio
Actresses from Cleveland
American LGBT rights activists
American anti-abortion activists
American expatriate actresses
American expatriates in England
American feminists
American film actresses
American television actresses
American voice actresses
American women comedians
California Independents
California Republicans
Catholics from Ohio
Comedians from Ohio
Living people
Ohio Republicans
Ohio State University College of Arts and Sciences alumni
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award winners
People from Bay Village, Ohio
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0%20%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%83%20%D0%95%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5
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Залізнична катастрофа поблизу Ешеде
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Залізнична катастрофа поблизу Ешеде
Залізнична катастрофа під Ешеде — найбільша у світі аварія швидкісного поїзда. Катастрофа сталася у Німеччині 3 червня 1998 року на лінії «Ганновер — Гамбург» поблизу общини Ешеде (район Целле, Нижня Саксонія). Електропотяг ICE 1 № 884 через руйнування бандажа на швидкості 200 км/год зійшов з рейок і врізався у міст. В результаті трагедії загинула 101 людина, 88 були поранені. За кількістю жертв це найбільша залізнична катастрофа в історії післявоєнної Німеччини.
Хронологія
Аварія поїзда
У середу 3 червня 1998 року високошвидкісний потяг ICE № 884 «Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen» (2 головних моторних і 12 проміжних причіпних вагонів, 287 пасажирів, поїзд 151) на швидкості 200 км/год прямував з Мюнхена в Гамбург. Близько 10:55 у приблизно шести кілометрах від Ешеде на 55-му кілометрі магістралі у першого причіпного вагона на 3-й колісній парі на правому, по ходу руху, колесі через втому матеріалу відбувається розрив бандажа, який, розігнувшись від доцентрової сили, пронизує підлогу кузова і застряє між кріслами одного з рядів у салоні першого вагона.
Пасажири чують гуркіт і бачать шматок металу, який стирчить між сидіннями з підлоги, а один з них навіть побіг шукати кондуктора, який знаходився в третьому вагоні. Поки кондуктор йде з третього вагона в перший, поїзд продовжує слідувати не зменшуючи швидкості і багато хто з пасажирів заспокоюються. Між тим застряглий шматок обода бандажа починає пошкоджувати елементи рейкового шляху (пізніше був виявлений ряд ушкоджень рейкових скріплень і залізобетонних шпал). Поїзд прямує від місця пошкодження бандажа ще близько шести кілометрів, і менш ніж через 3 хвилини досягає залізничного з'їзду. Цей з'їзд складався з двох стрілочних переводів. Крім цього, в 200 метрах за з'їздом над залізницею проходив залізобетонний автомобільний міст. Приблизно в 10:58 уламок бандажа підчіплює і видирає контррейку першої стрілки, яка протикає підлогу та стелю другого тамбура першого вагону. Від удару колеса другого візка вагона сходять з рейок, але розриву гальмівної магістралі, а, отже, і спрацювання гальм від цього не відбувається.
Досягнувши другої стрілки, одне з коліс що зійшли з рейок, б'є по гостряку і переводить стрілку на бокову колію. Другий причіпний вагон встигає проскочити стрілку до повного її переводу, але другий візок третього причіпного вагона потрапляє вже на бокову колію, хоча перший продовжує ще слідувати по головному. В результаті цього, третій вагон виносить поперек шляху і менше секунди потому, на швидкості 198 км/год він боком врізався в залізобетонну опору автомобільного моста (розташованого в двох метрах від бокової колії) і, підпираємий масою іншої частини рухомого складу потяга, зносить цю опору. Також з'являються перші жертви — вагоном були вбиті на місці двоє шляхових робітників, що знаходилися в цей час близько бокової колії. Від поздовжньої хвилі відбувається розрив автозчеплення, що з'єднує передній моторний вагон з причіпними вагонами. Крім цього, роз'єднується гальмівна магістраль, що призводить до спрацьовування екстрених гальм. Моторний вагон слідує ще 2 кілометри, поки нарешті не зупиняється.
Тим часом перші три причіпних вагони відокремлюються від решти рухомого складу і продовжують за інерцією котитися частково по коліях, частково по щебеню ще кілька сотень метрів. Завдяки щасливому випадку, жоден з пасажирів, які їхали в цих вагонах (у тому числі і в третьому) не загинув. Четвертий вагон встигає проскочити під мостом, який падає, але злітає з укосу і перекинувшись врізається в дерева. Уламки моста падають на задню половину п'ятого вагона, проте накопичена кінетична енергія вириває цей вагон з-під шматків бетону і тягне за шляхами ще кілька десятків метрів. Всі інші вагони починають складатися один в одного зигзагоподібно, причому 6-й (вагон-ресторан), 7-й, 8-й і 9-й вагони виявляється при цьому ще й під уламками 200-тонного моста (вагон-ресторан при цьому був роздавлений до товщини 15 сантиметрів). 10-й, 11-й і 12-й вагони також були серйозно пошкоджені. Нарешті, хвостовий моторний вагон був відірваний і знаходився біля цієї купи уламків відносно неушкодженим.
Від того моменту, як поїзд під'їхав до першої стрілки, до повного знищення вагонів пройшло всього кілька секунд.
Рятувальна операція
Аварія сталася на межі Ешеде, а один з будинків розташований всього в декількох десятках метрів від мосту, тому сильний шум було добре чути в місті. Також допомогу викликав і машиніст поїзда. У результаті вже об 11:00 до місця аварії приїхали перші поліцейські, але вони відразу не могли зрозуміти, що сталося. Лише між 11:02 і 11:03 начальник патруля доповів про те що поблизу Ешеде сталася аварія потяга. В цей же час пожежна частина та медпункти міста були завалені екстреними викликами від схвильованих гуркотом жителів.
У 11:03 до місця катастрофи стали прибувати перші машини швидкої допомоги, а також німецького відділення Червоного Хреста. В 11:06 лікарі почали надавати першу допомогу потерпілим. Також були викликані в терміновому порядку додаткові бригади медиків з ряду сусідніх міст.
У 11:07 до місця аварії прибули перші пожежні машини, але вже о 11:08 начальник пожежної частини доповів, що ніяких ознак пожежі не спостерігається. У зв'язку з цим пожежники стали використовувати наявне обладнання для розбору уламків. Крім цього, ще до прибуття пожежників на місце, про подію були оповіщені всі пожежні частини округу, два центри медичних вертольотів (в Целле і Ганновері), а також вертолітна ескадрилья в Фассберзі.
У 11:18 Deutsche Bahn офіційно підтвердив зняття напруги з контактного проводу, а о 11:25 рух потягів по магістралі було припинено, що повинно було допомогти в розборі завалів і евакуації поранених. На той час бригади рятувальників вже виявили 40 загиблих і стільки ж поранених. У результаті радіообміну, в 11:42 в Целле було оголошено про початок набору бригади добровольців. О 11:45 створюється оперативний штаб з надання допомоги постраждалим, а у 11:56 був направлений запит про допомогу в пожежне управління Ганновера. Біля місця аварії були швидко споруджені намети, а частина поранених переміщали в розташовану в 270 метрах гімназію. На той час число жертв вже зросло до 87 осіб. На 12 годину на місці працювало вже близько півсотні лікарів, а о 12:05 вертольоти стали відвозити перших тяжкопоранених.
Подальший розбір уламків
Наслідки
Див. також
Список катастроф поїздів
«Секунди до катастрофи»
Посилання
Фотографии с места крушения
Chronologie der ersten Tage bis zur Einweihung der Gedenkstätte
Seiten der Gemeinde Eschede zum Unglück (unter anderem Rede des Bundespräsidenten Roman Herzog)
Nach dem Unglück von Eschede — «Neue Sicherheit» für die Bahn
Die Ultraschallfachzeitschrift (NDT.net) berichtet über die Mängel bei der Prüfung
Zerstörungsfreie Überwachung an Radsätzen der Deutschen Bahn AG
ICE
Залізничні катастрофи в Німеччині
1998 у Німеччині
Червень 1998
Події 3 червня
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15289
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrupt
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Interrupt
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Interrupt
In digital computers, an interrupt (sometimes referred to as a trap) is a request for the processor to interrupt currently executing code (when permitted), so that the event can be processed in a timely manner. If the request is accepted, the processor will suspend its current activities, save its state, and execute a function called an interrupt handler (or an interrupt service routine, ISR) to deal with the event. This interruption is often temporary, allowing the software to resume normal activities after the interrupt handler finishes, although the interrupt could instead indicate a fatal error.
Interrupts are commonly used by hardware devices to indicate electronic or physical state changes that require time-sensitive attention. Interrupts are also commonly used to implement computer multitasking and system calls, especially in real-time computing. Systems that use interrupts in these ways are said to be interrupt-driven.
History
Hardware interrupts were introduced as an optimization, eliminating unproductive waiting time in polling loops, waiting for external events. The first system to use this approach was the DYSEAC, completed in 1954, although earlier systems provided error trap functions.
The UNIVAC 1103A computer is generally credited with the earliest use of interrupts in 1953. Earlier, on the UNIVAC I (1951) "Arithmetic overflow either triggered the execution of a two-instruction fix-up routine at address 0, or, at the programmer's option, caused the computer to stop." The IBM 650 (1954) incorporated the first occurrence of interrupt masking. The National Bureau of Standards DYSEAC (1954) was the first to use interrupts for I/O. The IBM 704 was the first to use interrupts for debugging, with a "transfer trap", which could invoke a special routine when a branch instruction was encountered. The MIT Lincoln Laboratory TX-2 system (1957) was the first to provide multiple levels of priority interrupts.
Types
Interrupt signals may be issued in response to hardware or software events. These are classified as hardware interrupts or software interrupts, respectively. For any particular processor, the number of interrupt types is limited by the architecture.
Hardware interrupts
A hardware interrupt is a condition related to the state of the hardware that may be signaled by an external hardware device, e.g., an interrupt request (IRQ) line on a PC, or detected by devices embedded in processor logic (e.g., the CPU timer in IBM System/370), to communicate that the device needs attention from the operating system (OS) or, if there is no OS, from the bare metal program running on the CPU. Such external devices may be part of the computer (e.g., disk controller) or they may be external peripherals. For example, pressing a keyboard key or moving a mouse plugged into a PS/2 port triggers hardware interrupts that cause the processor to read the keystroke or mouse position.
Hardware interrupts can arrive asynchronously with respect to the processor clock, and at any time during instruction execution. Consequently, all incoming hardware interrupt signals are conditioned by synchronizing them to the processor clock, and acted upon only at instruction execution boundaries.
In many systems, each device is associated with a particular IRQ signal. This makes it possible to quickly determine which hardware device is requesting service, and to expedite servicing of that device.
On some older systems, such as the 1964 CDC 3600, all interrupts went to the same location, and the OS used a specialized instruction to determine the highest-priority outstanding unmasked interrupt. On contemporary systems, there is generally a distinct interrupt routine for each type of interrupt (or for each interrupt source), often implemented as one or more interrupt vector tables.
Masking
To mask an interrupt is to disable it, so it is deferred or ignored by the processor, while to unmask an interrupt is to enable it.
Processors typically have an internal interrupt mask register, which allows selective enabling (and disabling) of hardware interrupts. Each interrupt signal is associated with a bit in the mask register. On some systems, the interrupt is enabled when the bit is set, and disabled when the bit is clear. On others, the reverse is true, and a set bit disables the interrupt. When the interrupt is disabled, the associated interrupt signal may be ignored by the processor, or it may remain pending. Signals which are affected by the mask are called maskable interrupts.
Some interrupt signals are not affected by the interrupt mask and therefore cannot be disabled; these are called non-maskable interrupts (NMIs). These indicate high-priority events which cannot be ignored under any circumstances, such as the timeout signal from a watchdog timer. With regard to SPARC, the Non-Maskable Interrupt (NMI), despite having the highest priority among interrupts, can be prevented from occurring through the use of an interrupt mask.
Missing interrupts
One failure mode is when the hardware does not generate the expected interrupt for a change in state, causing the operating system to wait indefinitely. Depending on the details, the failure might affect only a single process or might have global impact. Some operating systems have code specifically to deal with this.
As an example, IBM Operating System/360 (OS/360) relies on a not-ready to ready device-end interrupt when a tape has been mounted on a tape drive, and will not read the tape label until that interrupt occurs or is simulated. IBM added code in OS/360 so that the VARY ONLINE command will simulate a device end interrupt on the target device.
Spurious interrupts
A spurious interrupt is a hardware interrupt for which no source can be found. The term "phantom interrupt" or "ghost interrupt" may also be used to describe this phenomenon. Spurious interrupts tend to be a problem with a wired-OR interrupt circuit attached to a level-sensitive processor input. Such interrupts may be difficult to identify when a system misbehaves.
In a wired-OR circuit, parasitic capacitance charging/discharging through the interrupt line's bias resistor will cause a small delay before the processor recognizes that the interrupt source has been cleared. If the interrupting device is cleared too late in the interrupt service routine (ISR), there will not be enough time for the interrupt circuit to return to the quiescent state before the current instance of the ISR terminates. The result is the processor will think another interrupt is pending, since the voltage at its interrupt request input will be not high or low enough to establish an unambiguous internal logic 1 or logic 0. The apparent interrupt will have no identifiable source, hence the "spurious" moniker.
A spurious interrupt may also be the result of electrical anomalies due to faulty circuit design, high noise levels, crosstalk, timing issues, or more rarely, device errata.
A spurious interrupt may result in system deadlock or other undefined operation if the ISR does not account for the possibility of such an interrupt occurring. As spurious interrupts are mostly a problem with wired-OR interrupt circuits, good programming practice in such systems is for the ISR to check all interrupt sources for activity and take no action (other than possibly logging the event) if none of the sources is interrupting. They may even lead to crashing of the computer in adverse scenarios.
Software interrupts
A software interrupt is requested by the processor itself upon executing particular instructions or when certain conditions are met. Every software interrupt signal is associated with a particular interrupt handler.
A software interrupt may be intentionally caused by executing a special instruction which, by design, invokes an interrupt when executed. Such instructions function similarly to subroutine calls and are used for a variety of purposes, such as requesting operating system services and interacting with device drivers (e.g., to read or write storage media). Software interrupts may also be triggered by program execution errors or by the virtual memory system.
Typically, the operating system kernel will catch and handle such interrupts. Some interrupts are handled transparently to the program - for example, the normal resolution of a page fault is to make the required page accessible in physical memory. But in other cases such as a segmentation fault the operating system executes a process callback. On Unix-like operating systems this involves sending a signal such as SIGSEGV, SIGBUS, SIGILL or SIGFPE, which may either call a signal handler or execute a default action (terminating the program). On Windows the callback is made using Structured Exception Handling with an exception code such as STATUS_ACCESS_VIOLATION or STATUS_INTEGER_DIVIDE_BY_ZERO.
In a kernel process, it is often the case that some types of software interrupts are not supposed to happen. If they occur nonetheless, an operating system crash may result.
Terminology
The terms interrupt, trap, exception, fault, and abort are used to distinguish types of interrupts, although "there is no clear consensus as to the exact meaning of these terms". The term trap may refer to any interrupt, to any software interrupt, to any synchronous software interrupt, or only to interrupts caused by instructions with trap in their names. In some usages, the term trap refers specifically to a breakpoint intended to initiate a context switch to a monitor program or debugger. It may also refer to a synchronous interrupt caused by an exceptional condition (e.g., division by zero, invalid memory access, illegal opcode), although the term exception is more common for this.
x86 divides interrupts into (hardware) interrupts and software exceptions, and identifies three types of exceptions: faults, traps, and aborts. (Hardware) interrupts are interrupts triggered asynchronously by an I/O device, and allow the program to be restarted with no loss of continuity. A fault is restartable as well but is tied to the synchronous execution of an instruction - the return address points to the faulting instruction. A trap is similar to a fault except that the return address points to the instruction to be executed after the trapping instruction; one prominent use is to implement system calls. An abort is used for severe errors, such as hardware errors and illegal values in system tables, and often does not allow a restart of the program.
Arm uses the term exception to refer to all types of interrupts, and divides exceptions into (hardware) interrupts, aborts, reset, and exception-generating instructions. Aborts correspond to x86 exceptions and may be prefetch aborts (failed instruction fetches) or data aborts (failed data accesses), and may be synchronous or asynchronous. Asynchronous aborts may be precise or imprecise. MMU aborts (page faults) are synchronous.
RISC-V uses interrupt as the overall term as well as for the external subset; internal interrupts are called exceptions.
Triggering methods
Each interrupt signal input is designed to be triggered by either a logic signal level or a particular signal edge (level transition). Level-sensitive inputs continuously request processor service so long as a particular (high or low) logic level is applied to the input. Edge-sensitive inputs react to signal edges: a particular (rising or falling) edge will cause a service request to be latched; the processor resets the latch when the interrupt handler executes.
Level-triggered
A level-triggered interrupt is requested by holding the interrupt signal at its particular (high or low) active logic level. A device invokes a level-triggered interrupt by driving the signal to and holding it at the active level. It negates the signal when the processor commands it to do so, typically after the device has been serviced.
The processor samples the interrupt input signal during each instruction cycle. The processor will recognize the interrupt request if the signal is asserted when sampling occurs.
Level-triggered inputs allow multiple devices to share a common interrupt signal via wired-OR connections. The processor polls to determine which devices are requesting service. After servicing a device, the processor may again poll and, if necessary, service other devices before exiting the ISR.
Edge-triggered
An edge-triggered interrupt is an interrupt signaled by a level transition on the interrupt line, either a falling edge (high to low) or a rising edge (low to high). A device wishing to signal an interrupt drives a pulse onto the line and then releases the line to its inactive state. If the pulse is too short to be detected by polled I/O then special hardware may be required to detect it. The important part of edge triggering is that the signal must transition to trigger the interrupt; for example, if the signal was high-low-low, there would only be one falling edge interrupt triggered, and the continued low level would not trigger a further interrupt. The signal must return to the high level and fall again in order to trigger a further interrupt. This contrasts with a level trigger where the low level would continue to create interrupts (if they are enabled) until the signal returns to its high level.
Computers with edge-triggered interrupts may include an interrupt register that retains the status of pending interrupts. Systems with interrupt registers generally have interrupt mask registers as well.
Processor response
The processor samples the interrupt trigger signals or interrupt register during each instruction cycle, and will process the highest priority enabled interrupt found.
Regardless of the triggering method, the processor will begin interrupt processing at the next instruction boundary following a detected trigger, thus ensuring:
The processor status is saved in a known manner. Typically the status is stored in a known location, but on some systems it is stored on a stack.
All instructions before the one pointed to by the PC have fully executed.
No instruction beyond the one pointed to by the PC has been executed, or any such instructions are undone before handling the interrupt.
The execution state of the instruction pointed to by the PC is known.
There are several different architectures for handling interrupts. In some, there is a single interrupt handler that must scan for the highest priority enabled interrupt. In others, there are separate interrupt handlers for separate interrupt types, separate I/O channels or devices, or both. Several interrupt causes may have the same interrupt type and thus the same interrupt handler, requiring the interrupt handler to determine the cause.
System implementation
Interrupts may be fully handled in hardware by the CPU, or may be handled by both the CPU and another component such as a programmable interrupt controller or a southbridge.
If an additional component is used, that component would be connected between the interrupting device and the processor's interrupt pin to multiplex several sources of interrupt onto the one or two CPU lines typically available. If implemented as part of the memory controller, interrupts are mapped into the system's memory address space.
In systems on a chip (SoC) implementations, interrupts come from different blocks of the chip and are usually aggregated in an interrupt controller attached to one or several processors (in a multi-core system).
Shared IRQs
Multiple devices may share an edge-triggered interrupt line if they are designed to. The interrupt line must have a pull-down or pull-up resistor so that when not actively driven it settles to its inactive state, which is the default state of it. Devices signal an interrupt by briefly driving the line to its non-default state, and let the line float (do not actively drive it) when not signaling an interrupt. This type of connection is also referred to as open collector. The line then carries all the pulses generated by all the devices. (This is analogous to the pull cord on some buses and trolleys that any passenger can pull to signal the driver that they are requesting a stop.) However, interrupt pulses from different devices may merge if they occur close in time. To avoid losing interrupts the CPU must trigger on the trailing edge of the pulse (e.g. the rising edge if the line is pulled up and driven low). After detecting an interrupt the CPU must check all the devices for service requirements.
Edge-triggered interrupts do not suffer the problems that level-triggered interrupts have with sharing. Service of a low-priority device can be postponed arbitrarily, while interrupts from high-priority devices continue to be received and get serviced. If there is a device that the CPU does not know how to service, which may raise spurious interrupts, it will not interfere with interrupt signaling of other devices. However, it is easy for an edge-triggered interrupt to be missed - for example, when interrupts are masked for a period - and unless there is some type of hardware latch that records the event it is impossible to recover. This problem caused many "lockups" in early computer hardware because the processor did not know it was expected to do something. More modern hardware often has one or more interrupt status registers that latch interrupts requests; well-written edge-driven interrupt handling code can check these registers to ensure no events are missed.
The elderly Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus uses edge-triggered interrupts, without mandating that devices be able to share IRQ lines, but all mainstream ISA motherboards include pull-up resistors on their IRQ lines, so well-behaved ISA devices sharing IRQ lines should just work fine. The parallel port also uses edge-triggered interrupts. Many older devices assume that they have exclusive use of IRQ lines, making it electrically unsafe to share them.
There are 3 ways multiple devices "sharing the same line" can be raised. First is by exclusive conduction (switching) or exclusive connection (to pins). Next is by bus (all connected to the same line listening): cards on a bus must know when they are to talk and not talk (i.e., the ISA bus). Talking can be triggered in two ways: by accumulation latch or by logic gates. Logic gates expect a continual data flow that is monitored for key signals. Accumulators only trigger when the remote side excites the gate beyond a threshold, thus no negotiated speed is required. Each has its speed versus distance advantages. A trigger, generally, is the method in which excitation is detected: rising edge, falling edge, threshold (oscilloscope can trigger a wide variety of shapes and conditions).
Triggering for software interrupts must be built into the software (both in OS and app). A 'C' app has a trigger table (a table of functions) in its header, which both the app and OS know of and use appropriately that is not related to hardware. However do not confuse this with hardware interrupts which signal the CPU (the CPU enacts software from a table of functions, similarly to software interrupts).
Difficulty with sharing interrupt lines
Multiple devices sharing an interrupt line (of any triggering style) all act as spurious interrupt sources with respect to each other. With many devices on one line, the workload in servicing interrupts grows in proportion to the square of the number of devices. It is therefore preferred to spread devices evenly across the available interrupt lines. Shortage of interrupt lines is a problem in older system designs where the interrupt lines are distinct physical conductors. Message-signaled interrupts, where the interrupt line is virtual, are favored in new system architectures (such as PCI Express) and relieve this problem to a considerable extent.
Some devices with a poorly designed programming interface provide no way to determine whether they have requested service. They may lock up or otherwise misbehave if serviced when they do not want it. Such devices cannot tolerate spurious interrupts, and so also cannot tolerate sharing an interrupt line. ISA cards, due to often cheap design and construction, are notorious for this problem. Such devices are becoming much rarer, as hardware logic becomes cheaper and new system architectures mandate shareable interrupts.
Hybrid
Some systems use a hybrid of level-triggered and edge-triggered signaling. The hardware not only looks for an edge, but it also verifies that the interrupt signal stays active for a certain period of time.
A common use of a hybrid interrupt is for the NMI (non-maskable interrupt) input. Because NMIs generally signal major – or even catastrophic – system events, a good implementation of this signal tries to ensure that the interrupt is valid by verifying that it remains active for a period of time. This 2-step approach helps to eliminate false interrupts from affecting the system.
Message-signaled
A message-signaled interrupt does not use a physical interrupt line. Instead, a device signals its request for service by sending a short message over some communications medium, typically a computer bus. The message might be of a type reserved for interrupts, or it might be of some pre-existing type such as a memory write.
Message-signalled interrupts behave very much like edge-triggered interrupts, in that the interrupt is a momentary signal rather than a continuous condition. Interrupt-handling software treats the two in much the same manner. Typically, multiple pending message-signaled interrupts with the same message (the same virtual interrupt line) are allowed to merge, just as closely spaced edge-triggered interrupts can merge.
Message-signalled interrupt vectors can be shared, to the extent that the underlying communication medium can be shared. No additional effort is required.
Because the identity of the interrupt is indicated by a pattern of data bits, not requiring a separate physical conductor, many more distinct interrupts can be efficiently handled. This reduces the need for sharing. Interrupt messages can also be passed over a serial bus, not requiring any additional lines.
PCI Express, a serial computer bus, uses message-signaled interrupts exclusively.
Doorbell
In a push button analogy applied to computer systems, the term doorbell or doorbell interrupt is often used to describe a mechanism whereby a software system can signal or notify a computer hardware device that there is some work to be done. Typically, the software system will place data in some well-known and mutually agreed upon memory locations, and "ring the doorbell" by writing to a different memory location. This different memory location is often called the doorbell region, and there may even be multiple doorbells serving different purposes in this region. It is this act of writing to the doorbell region of memory that "rings the bell" and notifies the hardware device that the data are ready and waiting. The hardware device would now know that the data are valid and can be acted upon. It would typically write the data to a hard disk drive, or send them over a network, or encrypt them, etc.
The term doorbell interrupt is usually a misnomer. It is similar to an interrupt, because it causes some work to be done by the device; however, the doorbell region is sometimes implemented as a polled region, sometimes the doorbell region writes through to physical device registers, and sometimes the doorbell region is hardwired directly to physical device registers. When either writing through or directly to physical device registers, this may cause a real interrupt to occur at the device's central processor unit (CPU), if it has one.
Doorbell interrupts can be compared to Message Signaled Interrupts, as they have some similarities.
Multiprocessor IPI
In multiprocessor systems, a processor may send an interrupt request to another processor via inter-processor interrupts (IPI).
Performance
Interrupts provide low overhead and good latency at low load, but degrade significantly at high interrupt rate unless care is taken to prevent several pathologies. The phenomenon where the overall system performance is severely hindered by excessive amounts of processing time spent handling interrupts is called an interrupt storm.
There are various forms of livelocks, when the system spends all of its time processing interrupts to the exclusion of other required tasks.
Under extreme conditions, a large number of interrupts (like very high network traffic) may completely stall the system. To avoid such problems, an operating system must schedule network interrupt handling as carefully as it schedules process execution.
With multi-core processors, additional performance improvements in interrupt handling can be achieved through receive-side scaling (RSS) when multiqueue NICs are used. Such NICs provide multiple receive queues associated to separate interrupts; by routing each of those interrupts to different cores, processing of the interrupt requests triggered by the network traffic received by a single NIC can be distributed among multiple cores. Distribution of the interrupts among cores can be performed automatically by the operating system, or the routing of interrupts (usually referred to as IRQ affinity) can be manually configured.
A purely software-based implementation of the receiving traffic distribution, known as receive packet steering (RPS), distributes received traffic among cores later in the data path, as part of the interrupt handler functionality. Advantages of RPS over RSS include no requirements for specific hardware, more advanced traffic distribution filters, and reduced rate of interrupts produced by a NIC. As a downside, RPS increases the rate of inter-processor interrupts (IPIs). Receive flow steering (RFS) takes the software-based approach further by accounting for application locality; further performance improvements are achieved by processing interrupt requests by the same cores on which particular network packets will be consumed by the targeted application.
Typical uses
Interrupts are commonly used to service hardware timers, transfer data to and from storage (e.g., disk I/O) and communication interfaces (e.g., UART, Ethernet), handle keyboard and mouse events, and to respond to any other time-sensitive events as required by the application system. Non-maskable interrupts are typically used to respond to high-priority requests such as watchdog timer timeouts, power-down signals and traps.
Hardware timers are often used to generate periodic interrupts. In some applications, such interrupts are counted by the interrupt handler to keep track of absolute or elapsed time, or used by the OS task scheduler to manage execution of running processes, or both. Periodic interrupts are also commonly used to invoke sampling from input devices such as analog-to-digital converters, incremental encoder interfaces, and GPIO inputs, and to program output devices such as digital-to-analog converters, motor controllers, and GPIO outputs.
A disk interrupt signals the completion of a data transfer from or to the disk peripheral; this may cause a process to run which is waiting to read or write. A power-off interrupt predicts imminent loss of power, allowing the computer to perform an orderly shut-down while there still remains enough power to do so. Keyboard interrupts typically cause keystrokes to be buffered so as to implement typeahead.
Interrupts are sometimes used to emulate instructions which are unimplemented on some computers in a product family. For example floating point instructions may be implemented in hardware on some systems and emulated on lower-cost systems. In the latter case, execution of an unimplemented floating point instruction will cause an "illegal instruction" exception interrupt. The interrupt handler will implement the floating point function in software and then return to the interrupted program as if the hardware-implemented instruction had been executed. This provides application software portability across the entire line.
Interrupts are similar to signals, the difference being that signals are used for inter-process communication (IPC), mediated by the kernel (possibly via system calls) and handled by processes, while interrupts are mediated by the processor and handled by the kernel. The kernel may pass an interrupt as a signal to the process that caused it (typical examples are SIGSEGV, SIGBUS, SIGILL and SIGFPE).
See also
Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller (APIC)
BIOS interrupt call
Event-driven programming
Exception handling
INT (x86 instruction)
Interrupt coalescing
Interrupt handler
Interrupt latency
Interrupts in 65xx processors
Ralf Brown's Interrupt List
Interrupts on IBM System/360 architecture
Time-triggered system
Autonomous peripheral operation
Notes
References
External links
Interrupts Made Easy
Interrupts for Microchip PIC Microcontroller
IBM PC Interrupt Table
University of Alberta CMPUT 296 Concrete Computing Notes on Interrupts, archived from the original on March 13, 2012
Arduino Pin change Interrupts - Article by Adityapratap Singh
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plymouth%20Barracuda
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Plymouth Barracuda
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Plymouth Barracuda
The Plymouth Barracuda is a two-door pony car that was manufactured by Chrysler Corporation from 1964 through 1974 model years.
The first-generation Barracuda was based on the Chrysler A-body and was offered from 1964 until 1966. A two-door hardtop (no B-pillar) fastback design, it shared a great majority of parts and bodywork with the Plymouth Valiant, except for the distinctive wraparound rear glass.
The second-generation Barracuda, though still Valiant-based, was heavily redesigned. Built from 1967 through 1969, it was available as a two-door in fastback, notchback, and convertible versions.
The third generation, offered from 1970 until 1974, was based on the Chrysler E-body, exclusive to it, and the slightly larger Dodge Challenger. A completely new design, the two-door Barracuda was available in hardtop and convertible body styles.
First generation (1964–1966)
1964
During the development of the Barracuda, one of the worst-kept secrets was Ford's plan to introduce a new sporty compact car based on the inexpensive Falcon chassis and running gear (which was eventually released as the Mustang in mid-model year 1964); the extent of the other changes was not known. Chrysler stylist Irv Ritchie sketched a fastback version of the compact Valiant. Budgets were limited due to research and development of the Chrysler Turbine Car, but the company's executives wanted to have an entry in this emerging and potentially lucrative sporty-compact car market segment, beginning by siphoning off some of the Chevrolet's Corvair Monza's sales. Plymouth's executives had wanted to name the new model Panda, an idea unpopular with its designers. In the end, John Samsen's suggestion of Barracuda prevailed.
Based on Chrysler's A-body, the Barracuda debuted in fastback form on April 1, 1964. The new model used the Valiant's wheelbase and the Valiant hood, headlamp bezels, windshield, vent windows, quarter panels, doors, A-pillar, and bumpers; the trunk and some of the glass was new. Using the same hybrid design approach as Ford did turning its Falcon into the Mustang significantly reduced Plymouth's development and tooling cost and time for the new model. The greatest effort was put into creating its distinguishing rear window, a collaboration between Pittsburgh Plate Glass (PPG) and Chrysler designers that created the largest ever installed on a standard production car to that time.
Powertrains were identical to the Valiant's, including two versions of Chrysler's slant-6 six-cylinder engine. The standard-equipment engine had a displacement of and an output of ; the option raised the power output to .
The highest-power option for 1964 was Chrysler's all-new LA V8. A compact and relatively light engine equipped with a two-barrel carburetor, it produced . The Barracuda sold for a base price of US$2,512 ($ today).
The 1964 model year was the first for the Barracuda and also the last year for push-button control of the optional Torqueflite automatic transmission. This year also marked the first use of the smaller "TorqueFlite 6" (A904) transmission behind a V8.
In the marketplace, the Barracuda was obviously a fastback version of the Valiant that had a frugal family transportation image. The sales brochure for the first Barracudas pitched it as a car "for people of all ages and interests." The more sporty Mustang was marketed with abundant advertising to young professionals and with its youthful image proved widely successful following its mid-1964 introduction. This became known as the "pony car" niche of modestly appointed compact-sized sedans and convertibles, which came with standard 6-cylinder engines and basic interiors, but could be outfitted with powerful V8s and "custom" appointments and luxury features. The success of the Mustang has long obscured the fact that the Barracuda actually predated Ford's introduction by two weeks. The abbreviated sales season for the 1964 Barracuda totaled 23,443 units compared to the 126,538 Mustangs sold during the same time.
1965
In 1965, the 225 slant-6 became the base engine for the U.S. market, though the remained the base engine in Canada.
New options were introduced for the Barracuda as the competition among pony cars intensified. The 273 engine was made available as an upgraded Commando version with a four-barrel carburetor, 10.5:1 compression, and a more aggressive camshaft, still with solid tappets. These and other upgrades increased the engine's output to .
A new Formula 'S' package included the Commando V8 engine, suspension upgrades, larger wheels and tires, special emblems, and a tachometer. Disc brakes and factory-installed air conditioning became available after the start of the 1965 model year.
1966
For the 1966 model year the Barracuda received new taillamps, new front sheet metal, and a new instrument panel. The latter had room for oil pressure and tachometer gauges on models so equipped. The 1966 front sheet metal which, except for the grille, was shared with the Valiant, gave a more rectilinear contour to the fenders. Deluxe models featured fender-top turn signal indicators with a stylized fin motif. The bumpers were larger, and the grille featured a strong grid theme. A center console was optional for the first time.
Although the first Barracudas were heavily based on the contemporary Valiants, Plymouth wanted them perceived as distinct models. Consequently, the "Valiant" chrome script that appeared on the model's trunk lid was phased out at the end of the 1965 model year in the U.S. market, and the large stylized "V" trim above the deck lid was changed to a unique Barracuda fish logo for 1966, though in markets such as Canada and South Africa, where Valiant was a marque in its own right, the car remained badged as Valiant Barracuda until the A-body Barracuda was discontinued.
Second generation (1967–1969)
1967
The second-generation Barracuda was redesigned with model-specific sheet metal, yet still shared many components with the Valiant. It rode on a wheelbase A-body and was available as a convertible,and a notchback coupe, in addition to the fastback design.
The new Barracuda was chiefly the work of John E. Herlitz and John Samsen, with Coke-bottle side contours and heavily revised front and rear ends. Design changes included wider wheel openings, curved side glass, and S-curved roof pillars on the hardtop.
The roofline on the fastback coupe was more streamlined, more steeply raked, and with a much smaller flush rear window in place of the distinctive massive wraparound in the original model. Also, the overall use of chrome trim was more restrained.
During this time the first U.S. Federal auto safety standards were phased in, and Chrysler's response a requirement for side-marker lights distinguishes each model year of the second-generation Barracuda:
1967: no sidemarker lamps or reflectors, and backup lights on the rear valance by the license plate.
1968: round side marker lamps without reflectors, mostly white tail lamps with backup lights in the tail lamp housing.
1969: little changes on the front grille, rectangular side marker reflectors without lamps, and the backup lamps were moved back to the rear valance by the license plate.
As the pony-car class became established and competition increased, Plymouth began to revise the Barracuda's engine options.
In 1967, while the slant-6 was still the base engine, the V8 options ranged from the two- and four-barrel versions of the to a seldom-ordered "B" big-block, rated at , the latter available only with the Formula S package.
1968
In 1968, the 273 was replaced by the LA engine as the smallest V8 available, and the new LA four-barrel was released. The 383 Super Commando engine was upgraded with the intake manifold, camshaft, and cylinder heads from the Road Runner and Super Bee, but the more restrictive exhaust manifolds specific to the A-body cars limited its output to .
Also in 1968, Chrysler made approximately fifty fastback Barracudas equipped with the Hemi for Super Stock drag racing. These cars were assembled by Hurst Performance and featured items such as lightweight Chemcor side glass, fiberglass front fenders, hood scoop, lightweight seats, sound deadener, and other street features such as rear seats omitted. An included sticker indicated that the car was not for use on public roads; it could run the quarter-mile in the mid-tens in 1968.
For the South African export market, a high-performance version of the 225 slant-6 called Charger Power was offered with 9.3:1 compression, two-barrel carburetor, more aggressive camshaft, and low-restriction exhaust system. A handful of Savage GTs were also built from the second-generation Barracuda.
1969
In 1969, Plymouth placed an increased emphasis on performance. A new option was the Mod Top, a vinyl roof covering with a floral motif, available in 1969 and 1970. Plymouth sold it as a package with seat and door panel inserts done in the same pattern.
The 1969 version of the 383 engine was upgraded to increase power output to , and a new trim package called 'Cuda was released. The 'Cuda, based on the Formula S option, was available with either the 340, 383 and, new for 1969, the 440 Super Commando V8.
Third generation (1970–1974)
1970–1971
The redesign for the 1970 Barracuda removed all its previous commonality with the Valiant. The original fastback design was deleted from the line and the Barracuda now consisted of coupe and convertible models. The all-new model, styled by John E. Herlitz, was built on a shorter, wider version of Chrysler's existing B platform, called the E-body. Though sharing its platform with the newly launched Dodge Challenger, no exterior sheet-metal interchanged between the sibling cars. The Challenger, at , had a wheelbase that was longer, and a body longer than the Barracuda's.
The E-body Barracuda was now "able to shake the stigma of 'economy car'." Three versions were offered for 1970 and 1971: the base Barracuda (BH), the luxury oriented Gran Coupe (BP), and the sport model 'Cuda (BS).
Beginning mid-year 1970, and ending with the 1971 model, there also was the Barracuda Coupe (A93), a low-end model with the Slant Six as a base engine, lower-grade interior, and (like other Coupe series Chrysler offered that year) had fixed quarter glass instead of roll-down rear passenger windows. The high-performance models were marketed as 'Cuda deriving from the 1969 option. The E-body's engine bay was larger than that of the previous A-body, facilitating the release of Chrysler's Hemi for the regular retail market.
For 1970 and 1971, the Barracuda and Barracuda Gran Coupe had two slant I6 engines available — a new version and the previous 225 — as well as four different V8s: the 318 CID, the , the 383 with a two-barrel carburetor and single exhaust, and the 383 with a four-barrel carburetor and dual exhaust SAE gross.
The Cuda had the 383 SAE gross (same as Dodge's 383 Magnum) as the standard engine. Options included the , AAR "Six Barrel", with triple 2-barrel carburetors, a four-barrel Super Commando, the 440 Six Barrel with triple 2-barrel carburetors with a gross rating of , and the Hemi. The 440- and Hemi-equipped cars received upgraded suspension components and structural reinforcements to help transfer the power to the road.
Other Barracuda options included decal sets, hood modifications, and some unusual "high impact" colors such as "Lime Light", "Bahama Yellow", "Tor Red", "Lemon Twist", "Curious Yellow", "Vitamin C", "In-Violet", "Sassy Grass" and "Moulin Rouge".
Swede Savage and Dan Gurney raced identical factory-sponsored AAR (All American Racers) 'Cudas in the 1970 Trans-Am Series. The cars qualified for three pole positions but did not win any Trans-Am races; the highest finish was second at Road America. Four 1970 Hemi 'Cudas were also successfully raced by Chrysler France, from 1970 until 1973. The works team director Henrí Chemin piloted the first car, and then sold it on to friend and privateer J. F. Mas who went on to race it for another two years. This Hemi 'Cuda won four French Group 1 class championships, three on track and one in hill climbing.
The Barracuda was changed slightly for 1971, with a new grille and taillights, seat, and trim differences. This would be the only year that the Barracuda would have four headlights (which the Challenger had for all five years of their concurrent run), and also the only year of the fender "gills" on the 'Cuda model. Only 1970 'Cuda models received a "hockey stick" stripe with an engine call out within it, where as 1971 'Cudas were the only year that had the full side "Billboard" decal with the engine call out inside of the billboard decal.
The 1971 Barracuda engine options would remain the same as that of the 1970 model, except that the 340 6-Bbl was gone, and the four-barrel carbureted 440 V8 engine was no longer on the options list, but could be had via special order and perhaps a dozen cars were built with it installed; otherwise, the 440-powered Barracudas had a six-barrel carburetor setup instead.
In 1971 the big-block power options offered to the customer were:
SAE Gross in the 383-2V
SAE Gross in the 383-4V
SAE Gross in the 440-6V
SAE Gross in the 426-8V
In 1970 and 1971 only, the shaker hood (option code N96), elastomeric (rubber) colored bumpers, and the Spicer-built Dana 60 rear axle were available. The shaker hood was available with 340, 383, 440 four-barrel, 440 six-barrel, and 426 Hemi engines. The elastomeric (rubber) colored bumpers were available either as a front-only option, option code A21, or as a front and rear combination, option code A22. The heavy-duty (and heavy) Dana 60, with a ring gear, was standard equipment with manual transmissions and 440 six-barrel and 426 Hemi engines, and was optional on those with the automatic transmission. 1971 Barracudas with floor shifted transmissions received a new column key release, where as 1970 models had a backdrive linkage for key removal.
1972–1974
With a new grille and single headlights (very similar to the 1970 model) and four circular taillights for 1972, the Barracuda would remain basically unchanged through 1974, with new bodyside stripes, and minor changes to the bumpers to conform with federal impact standards being the only significant variations. In 1973 the shape of the pedals was changed from a trapezoid shape with a fine horizontal pattern that was original to the shape of the 1970, where as 1973 and later had larger rectangle shaped clutch and brake pedals with thicker horizontal grooves that would remain similar to most all Chrysler products through the 1980s. There was also a corresponding gas pedal that matched the aforemtioned brake and clutch style variations. With this change of pedal shape the brake and clutch supporting members were forged differently, and the pads were not interchangeable. 1972 was also the last year for the basket-weave pattern in the seats, where as the next two years, seats had a different cost saving coachman grain pattern vinyl with different bucket seat backs. Big block engines (383, 440, & 426 Hemi), , heavy-duty suspensions, Dana 60 rear axle, large/wide tires mounted on wheels were no longer offered. Additionally; the convertible model was dropped; though a few late build 1971 convertibles were built with 1972 grills and back end panels and provided to Paramount Studios for TV and movie work; being seen on Mannix, The Brady Bunch and other shows. Convenience and comfort items such as power seats, power windows, and upgraded interior (leather seats and plush carpeting) options were dropped, though heavy-duty air conditioning and a sunroof could still be ordered. For 1972 only, three engine choices were offered: a 225 six, the 318 (base engine for both 'Cuda and Barracuda), and a revised 340 detuned to meet emission standards. In addition, all three were tuned to run on low/no-lead gas and were power rated on the NET (installed) method. Three transmissions were offered: a 3-speed manual, the Torqueflite automatic, and the Hurst shifter equipped four-speed. For 1973 federally mandated safety bumpers were added front and rear, and the 225 six was dropped, with the 318 and 340 V8s being the only engine choices. For late production 1973 cars, and for 1974 a slightly more powerful 360 V8 (245 E bodyhp) replaced the 340. Since 1970; optional was a four-speed manual transmission (equipped with a Hurst shifter) mated to a performance ratio (3.55 to 1) rear axle for the 340 and 360 engines, though as many as three cars (in both 1973 and 1974) were built with the 318 engine and Hurst 4-speed thru special orders or factory errors.
As with other American vehicles of the time, there was a progressive decrease in the Barracuda's performance. To meet increasingly stringent safety and exhaust emission regulations, big-block engine options were discontinued. The remaining engines were detuned year by year to reduce exhaust emissions, which also reduced their power output. There was also an increase in weight as bumpers became larger and, starting in 1970, E-body doors were equipped with heavy steel side-impact protection beams. Higher fuel prices following the 1973 oil crisis and performance-car insurance surcharges deterred many buyers as the interest in high-performance cars waned. Sales of pony cars were on the decline. Sales had dropped dramatically after 1970, and while 1973 showed a sales uptick, Barracuda production ended April 1, 1974, ten years to the day after it had begun.
Engines
Engine choices by Chrysler for the 1970-73 Barracuda included the following:
B: Slant 6 I6: 1970–71 SAE gross, 1972 SAE net
C: Slant 6 I6: 1970–71 SAE gross, 1971-72 SAE net
G: LA V8 (2-barrel carburetor, single exhaust): 1970-71 SAE gross, 1971 SAE net, 1972-74 SAE net
H: LA V8 (4-barrel carburetor, dual exhaust): 1970-71 SAE gross, 1971 SAE net, 1972-73 SAE net
J: LA V8 (3×2-barrel carburetor): 1970 SAE gross, used in AAR Cuda
L: LA V8 (4-barrel carburetor, dual exhaust): 1974 SAE net
L: B V8 (2-barrel carburetor, single exhaust): 1970 SAE gross, 1971 SAE gross, 1971 SAE net
N: B V8 (4-barrel carburetor, dual exhaust): 1970 SAE gross
N: B V8 Magnum (4-barrel carburetor, dual exhaust): 1970 at 5,000 rpm SAE gross and at 3,200 rpm of torque, 1971 SAE gross, 1971 SAE net
U: RB V8 Magnum 4-barrel Holley AVS-4737S carburetor: 1970 at 4,600 rpm and at 3,200 rpm of torque SAE gross, (1971 SAE gross, SAE net only in Satellite GTX and Plymouth Sport Fury GT)
V: RB V8 Six-Pack 3X2-barrel Holley R-4382A/R-4375A/R-4383A carburetors: 1970 at 4,700 rpm and at 3,200 rpm of torque SAE gross, 1971 SAE gross, 1971 SAE net
R: Hemi V8 2X4-barrel Carter AFB 4742S/AFB4745S carburetors: 1970-71 SAE gross at 5,000 rpm and at 4,000 rpm of torque, 1971 Costing an extra US$1,228 ($ today) with very few sold.
SAE gross hp ratings were tested with no accessories, no air cleaner, or open headers. In 1971, compression ratios were reduced in performance engines, except the 426 cu in and the high-performance 440 cu in, to accommodate regular gasoline. 1971 was the last year for the 426 Hemi.
Chrysler had plans to continue the 1970 Dodge Challenger T/A for 1971, even publishing advertisements for a 1971 Dodge Challenger T/A. However, no 1971 Dodge Challenger T/A was made. Similarly, no 1971 Plymouth AAR Cuda was made.
Discontinuation
The Barracuda was discontinued after 1974, a victim of the 1973 energy crisis.
A 1975 Barracuda had been planned before the end of the 1970-74 model cycle. Plymouth engineers sculpted two separate concepts out of clay, both featuring a Superbird-inspired aerodynamic body, and eventually reached a consensus upon which an operational concept car could be built. Due to a rapidly changing automotive market due to the energy crisis, the concepts were scrapped and the Barracuda was not put into production for 1975.
Revival attempts
In 2007, Motor Trend magazine reported a rumor that Chrysler was considering reviving the Barracuda in 2009. A new Barracuda would've been badged as a Chrysler, due to the Plymouth brand having been phased out in 2001. However, the Barracuda has not been reintroduced alongside the third generation Dodge Challenger. Rumors of the Barracuda making a comeback were brought up again by Motor Trend in 2012 when reports leaked that the Barracuda would come back in 2014 under the SRT Marque, replacing the Challenger instead of being built alongside it. It was also stated the car would not be of a retro design. Ultimately, the SRT division was re-consolidated under the Dodge banner and the Challenger remained in production without a Barracuda replacement.
After years of silence, an all-new Barracuda, now under the Dodge brand, was shown to FCA dealers along with other future vehicles on August 25, 2015. Based on stretched underpinnings of the rear-drive Alfa Romeo Giulia, it was rumored to be powered by a turbocharged V6 and arrive within the 2019 model year. As of 2024, a new Barracuda model has not materialized.
Collectibility
The Barracuda (particularly the 1970–1974 E-Body cars) is a collectible car today, with high-performance versions and convertibles commanding the highest prices. The small number of Barracudas remaining in existence is the result of low buyer interest (and low production/sales) when the vehicles were new. The remaining cars of any condition are rare, and the outstanding examples fetch high appraisal values today. Original Hemi super stock Barracudas (and similarly configured Dodge Darts) are now prized collector vehicles, with factory (unaltered) cars commanding high prices.
The 1971 Hemi 'Cuda convertible is now considered one of the most valuable collectible muscle cars. Only thirteen were built, seven of which were sold domestically. The most recent public sale was at the June 2014 Mecum auction in Seattle, where a blue-on-blue 4-speed sold for US$3.5 million (plus buyers premium). Several replica cars were created to look like Hemi 'Cudas and driven by the title character in the late-1990s police procedural Nash Bridges. None of these replica cars had a Hemi V8 under the hood.
References
External links
Plymouth Barracuda at Muscle Car Club
Barracuda
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Muscle cars
Convertibles
Coupés
Pony cars
1970s cars
Cars introduced in 1964
Cars discontinued in 1974
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8%20%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%20%D0%9A%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%96
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Малюнки Джакомо Кваренгі
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Малюнки Джакомо Кваренгі — самостійна галузь творчості відомого російського архітектора, італійця за походженням, котра охопила декілька десятиліть його творчості і майже не перетиналась з його креслениками.
Джакомо Кваренгі, особливості обдарування
Життя і діяльність Джакомо Кваренгі (1744—1817) збіглися зі зміною стилістики пізнього італійського бароко на класицизм та його різновид — палладіанство. Як архітектор-практик, Кваренгі представник того покоління, котре безумовно обрало класицизм і залишалось його прибічником впродовж всього творчого шляху.
На художні смаки митця-початківця значно вплинули трактати Андреа Палладіо (1508—1580). Сам Кварнгі так описував власний захват від рекомендацій свого уславленого попередника —
Юнак перетворився на молодика і в 24 роки був налаштований досить радикально, бо записав .
Палладіо радить вивчати твори Вітрувія — і той стає авторитетом і для Кваренгі. Палладіо вважав античну архітектуру Стародавнього Рима зразковою, бо за його уявою давньоримські архітектори ніколи не відхилялись від деяких базових настанов і законів у власній архітектурній практиці. Тепер Кваренгі кидається вивчати античні руїни і залишки давньоримських споруд, аби усвідомити ці вже вироблені базові закони, засвоїти і дотримуватись їх у власній практиці.
Навіть в цьому проглянув перший недосконалий принцип нової хвилі європейського класицизму, який ідеалізували його прибічники 18 століття. До недоліків стилю класицизм і його нащадка академізму належить приреченість до постійних повторів вироблених зразків, швидке падіння в стеріотипні рішення, консервація вироблених рішень. Доходило до механічного, некритичного переносу вже створених проектів із однієї кліматичної зони до іншої. Серед таких прикладів — копії італійської вілли Ротонда — в Британії, Палладіїв міст в парку Царського Села тощо. Міст був скопійований з проекту Андреа Палладіо архітекторм В. Неєловим і вибудований в 1772—1774 роках. Реакцією на помірковану, малоемоційну архітектуру класицизму стають романтичні течії — псевдоготика, шинуазрі, туркоманія, єгиптоманія, що охопили практично всі країни Західної Європи. Це і дозволяло досягти різноманітності і відійти від нудного, монотонного використання одноманітних колонад, трикутних фронтонів, портиків, однакових що в Британії, що в Росії, що в Бразилії тощо.
Тому недоліком проектних рішень Кваренгі будуть і монотонність, і малоемоційність його архітектури, і некритичний перенос вже створених проектів із однієї кліматичної зони до іншої. Пласкі і невисокі дахи зі спекотної Італії — не пристосовані до умов північних країн. Так, в Швеції і Росії з їх суворими зимами і снігопадами, такі дахи погано відводять воду і довго утримують сніг. Довгі анфілади сприяють протягам і логічно сприяють хворобам мешканців. Нарешті, давньоримська архітектура — чужорідне явище на землях, не охоплених давньоримською цивілізацією і не підтримане національною традицією. Палладіанство — штучне в Російській імперії — не спиралось на національну архітектурну традицію і обслуговувало лише привілейовані стани суспільства в їх гонитві за модними європейськими зразками. В Італії важко формувалась традиція ансамблю. Тому в містах мало ансамблів і є безліч окремо вибудованих цікавих споруд, мало пов'язаних з архітектурним оточенням. Джакомо Кваренгі так і не опанував майстерність побудови ансамблю і в Російській імперії, в практиці залишився архітектором цікавих, але окремо побудованих споруд. Особливо цей прорахунок освіти Кваренгі висвітлило будівництво петербурзької Біржі на Василівському острові. Вибудована Біржа ніяк не була пов'язана з оточенням, ігнорувала важливі аспекти сприйняття з берегів Неви, не була вписана ні в який ансамбль. Біржа Кваренгі не використовувалась, пізніше була вщент зруйнована. А саме будівництво було марною витратою державних коштів. І лише прихильність імператриці позбавила його судового позову і покарання. Помилки і прорахунки Кваренгі виправив француз-архітектор Тома де Томон, котрий і вибудував нову, вдалу Біржу, бо був майстром ансамблів і монументальних архітектурних образів непалладіанського напрямку.
Невдалий учень художника Менгса
Як всі юнаки, Кваренгі мав власний період пошуків себе в цьому світі. І первісно обрав кар'єру художника, для чого прибув в Рим. Художню освіту він почав опановувати в майстерні відомого римського художника Антона Рафаеля Менгса (1728—1779), мандрівного майстра, німця за походженням. Бажаючи зробити кар'єру надвірного художника, Менгс прийняв запрошення від короля Іспанії Карла III Бурбона і відбув у Мадрид. Фактично Кваренгі був покинутий напризволяще. Аби продовжити обране навчання, Кваренгі перейшов в майстерню другорядного художника, земляка. Ним був Стефано Поцци (1707—1768) В майстерні Поцци Кваренгі практикував три роки і залишився прихильником малювання на все життя. До Поцци в майстерню приходило чимало архітекторів. Спілкування з ними перейшло в приязнь і до архітектури. Це вплинуло на зміну планів Кваренгі, котрий покинув живопис і почав завзято опановувати будівельні технології та архітектуру. Його вчителі на цьому етапі — П'єр Паоло Санезе (1708—1776), а потім француз Антуан Дерізе (1697—1768), другорядні і малоцікаві. Постійні переходи з однієї майстерні до іншої, а, головне, відсутність дійсно значущого педагога, не сприяли отриманню Джакомо Кваренгі систематичних навичок ні в живопису, ні в архітектурі. Досить строгу оцінку освіти Кваренгі дав мистецтвознавець І. Е. Грабарь
Але ательє художників і архітектурні майстерні Рима були цілком пристосовані для малювання, котре охоче і розвинув митець-початківець. Архітектурні споруди в пейзажному оточенні і стануть головними мотивами практично всіх малюнків Кваренгі — від точних краєвидів до архітектурних фантазій чи швидких замальовок.
Малюнки на продаж і для себе
Минав час, майстер змужнів, але так і не виборов сталої кар'єри та сталих джерел прибутків. У нагоді стало малювання. Кваренгі малював постійно і часто, а в періоди безгрошів'я працював платним гідом і робив малюнки на продаж. Їх охоче купували іноземні багатії-візитери, особливо британці, котрі таким чином прикрашали власні кабінети і мистецькі збірки.
В малюнках Кваренгі ніяк не відбивались драматичні сцени побуту бідноти, якими рясніло життя в Італії. Вони штучно очищені від повсякденних турбот і негараздів, яких мав чимало і сам митець. Три речі в малюнках Кваренгі не цікавлять завжди —
люди (в більшості з них це схематичний стаффаж, аби приборкати безлюдь малюнкових краєвидів)
небо (воно або безхмарне, або хмари схематичні, що робило малюнки монотонними)
дерева (у нього це схематичні рослини, ботанічну приналежність яких неможливо розпізнати, ніби тополі, ніби кипариси, пінії в проекті для Швеції, де вони ніколи не росли та ін.) Це якась штучна країна, де відсутні буревії, погана погода і рабство. На спорудах, правда, збережені сліди руйнацій і недбалості людей, але все прибране і руїни подано ідеалізовано і приємно для ока.
Джакомо Кваренгі підходив до власних малюнків як архітектор. Саме архітектурні споруди і головують в його малюнках, як в краєвидах Італії, так і замальовках Лазурного берега, в замальовках Бахчисарая, в краєвидах Петербурга та його околиць.
Малюнки Петербурга та його околиць
Значна кількість малюнків Кварегі — малюнки подорожні. Він багато малював в подорожах по Італії, супроводжуючи британських візитерів. Низка малюнків виконана в Бергамо, на батьківщині. Власними малюнками Кваренгі зафіксував і власний маршрут в Росію, звідси краєвиди турецьких на той час міст в східному Середземномор'ї та в Бахчисараї.
Малюнки надовго стануть засобом архітектора вжитися в нову для нього ситуацію в Росії. Він охоче фіксував незвичні для нього російські храми, важливі державні споруди в Петербурзі та його околицях. Ретельно придивлявся новоприбулець і до споруд, побудованих тут до нього, не оминаючи споруд Антоніо Рінальді (Великий Гатчинський палац), архітектора Миколи Львова («Троїцька ц-ва на околиці Петербурга»), Павловськ і його павільйони, де працював Чарльз Камерон, Баболовський палац в Царському Селі, пишну садибу Гостилиці Розумовського неподалік Петергофа і сам Петергоф. Візити в Москву відбились з замальовках споруд і храмів Кремля, славетної церкви Успіння на Покровці 17 століття, споруд занедбаного на той час села Коломенське, монастиря в містечку Істра.
Декор інтер'єрів
Доля архітектора склалась в Петербурзі напричуд вдало через приязнь до італійця Катерини ІІ. Він отримав посаду припалацового архітектора і був завалений новими замовами, від проектів державних установ для столиці (Ассігнаційний банк, Олександрівський палац, Ермітажний театр, споруда Академії наук) до проектів нових садиб чи гостиного двору в місті Іркутськ, куди відіслали його проект. Єдина вибудована споруда в Москві — Старий гостиний двір.
Але італійця залучили і до створення інтер'єрів в новомодному класичному стилі. Інтер'єри 18 століття — це декор стін, скульптура і рельєфи, ліплення, фрески, грізайль і живопис олійними фарбами, люстри з бронзи чи кришталю, паркети. Імператриця прихильно надала Кваренгі право визвати з Італії яких потрібно майстрів-декораторів та ремісників. Як дизайнер інтер'єрів Джакомо Кваренгі попрацював ще в Італії. Серед його грандіозних творів цього періоду — врівноважений інтер'єр в церкві Св. Схоластики в Субіако для братів-бенедиктинців. Ті заборонили чіпати і перебудовувати старі, ще середньовічні мури храму. Тому новий інтер'єр в стилі дуже стриманого палладіанства він вибудував в середньовічній коробці. Всі засоби пишного декорування були зосереджені лише в архітектурному вівтарі, вирішеному як напівротонда з колонами, скульптурами та рельєфами в нішах, з кессонами давньоримського зразка в склепінні.
В Зимовому палаці Петербурга він працюватиме в тих же умовах — Катерина II заборонили йому чіпати і перебудовувати старі стіни споруди Вартоломея Растреллі. Але з новою бригадою італійських декораторів Кваренгі створив нову анфіладу зал, котра починалась відразу від пишних Іорданських сходів. Архітектор запроектував і забезпечив реалізацію анфілади з Малим аванзалом, Великим аванзалом та Концертною залою невського фасаду. В Малому аванзалі використано симетричний, врівноважений декор класицизму з ліпленням та кольоровими панелями. Але архітектор не забув про палацове призначення анфілади і використав золоте тло за алегоріями та в рамі барокового ще плафона.
Декоративні елементи нарощували поступово і найбільш пишно оздобили Концертну залу. Тут мало пласких деталей, зате використані колони і кругла скульптура, котрі надзвичайно підсилили урочистість і велич палацової зали. Анфілада з трьох залів була знищена під час пожежі в Зимовому палаці 1837 року і частково відтворена архітектором В. Стасовим. Серед інших вдалих зразків дизайну інтер'єрів слід назвати декор Георгієвської зали Зимового палацу, глядацької зали Ермітажного театру, Східну галерею і Кабінет Малого Ермітажу, декор Мальтийської каплиці Воронцовського палацу в Петербурзі.
Дизайн надгробків
Вивченню творчого спадку Джакомо Кваренгі сприяють його спогади в листах, листи його сучасників і прижиттєві біографи (серед останніх — Рафаеле Парето, Джованні Петріні). Свідоцтва про працю митця і його замови залишили також мандрівники-іноземці, серед яких англійський священик Джонс Торп. У Кваренгі взагалі склалися досить тісні зв'язки з мандрівниками-багатіями, візитерами з Британії. Мав Кварегі і росіянина-біографа Н. П. Петрова в 19 ст., котрий 1872 р. надрукував довідку про архітектора. Більш конкретну статтю про архітектора дав І. Е. Грабарь на початку 20 ст.
Кваренгі досяг зрілості, але не мав сталих джерел прибутку і бідував. Тому Кваренгі охоче показував власні малюнки всім охочим, що сприяло його саморекламі і приваблювало замовників, що прагнули дешево розмістити замови на архітектурні споруди чи декоративно-ужиткові речі. Джакомо Кваренгі був вимушений братись за будь-які проекти.
Рим наприкінці 1760-х відвідав ірландський скульптор Кристофер Юкстон. Через нього Кварегні отримав замови на споруди для двох англійських панів. Він робив ескізи камінів і навіть складських приміщень. Не дивно, що Кваренгі звернувся і до створення надгробків. Приятелювання з римським сенатором Абондіо Реццоніко сприяло замові на проект надгробка папи римського Климента XIII, котрий доводився дідом сенаторові Реццоніко. Так, через шведського скульптора Т. Сергеля, що перебував в Римі, він отримав замову на проект надгробка померлого Фрідріха ІІ, батька короля Швеції Густава III. Саркофаг виконували каменярі в Римі, після чого відправили до Стокгольма. В десятиліття перебування в Росії Кваренгі був причетний до створення саркофага Самуеля Грейга, встановленого в Талліні (1790 р.) Головний фасад надгробка Грейга нагадував невеликий античний храм, прикрашений трикутним фронтоном та рельєфами.
Кваренгі і театральні споруди
Вісімнадцяте століття в Європі — це століття захоплення театром.
Приятелювання з римським сенатором Абондіо Реццоніко сприяло також цікавій замові на проект театра для провінційного містечка Бассано. І не провина молодого архітектора в тому, що замову не реалізували. Італія стрімко котилася до політичної та економічної кризи, тому будівництво повсякчасно скорочувалось чи припинялось взагалі. Але Кваренгі зацікавився ідеєю. Про пошуки в цьому напрямку свідчить кресленик «Ідея королівського театра», котрий зберігає музей міста Бассано.
Припалацовий театр передбачав Кваренгі і в власному проекті царської резиденції для Катерини II в містечку Пела. Нечасто, але іноді архітектор наважувався відступити навіть від обов'язкової в класицизмі симетрії побудови. Джакомо Кваренгі наважився 1785 р. в проекті для Пели перевершити самого себе і створив абсолютно асиметричне розпланування палацу з окремим кухонним корпусом по діагоналі (кресленик зберігає бібліотека імені Маї, Бергамо). Але імператриця надала перевагу дійсно величному проектові Івана Старова.
Але доля сприятиме реалізації театрального проекту Кваренгі в Петербурзі. Ним став Ермітажний театр.
Натуралізація в Російській імперії
Джакомо Кваренгі обрав російське громадянство, коли північну Італію захопили вояки Наполеона і був виданий наказ повернути всіх італійців-заробітчан на батьківщину. Кваренгі проігнорував наказ Наполеона і обрав другою батьківщиною Російську імперію. Помер в Петербурзі і був похований на Волковому іноверчеському цвинтарі в російській столиці.
Доля творчого спадку в малюнках
Доля творчого спадку Джакомо Кваренгі в малюнках була більш вдалою, ніж доля його реалізованих споруд. Особливо драматичною стала доля його садибних палаців. Садиба Завадовского Ляличи (нині — Брянська область) з парком пейзажного типу і вибудованими оранжереями, павільйонами та копаним ставком. Оригінали креслеників Кваренги зберігають в Бергамо (Італія) та в Швеції. Але садиби давно нема. Дивна садиба Хотень Камбурлея М. І. (нині Харківська область) Кресленики садибних споруд зберігає Ермітаж. Г. Г. Грімм вважав садибу в Хотені — серед цікавіших в Російській імперії. Але вона знищена вщент. Англійський палац в Петергофі для імператриці Катерини ІІ. Мав парк пейзажного типу, створений садівником із Британії Джеймсом Медерсом. Побудова за проектом Кваренгі 1779 р., добудови в 1787 р. Генплан садиби імператриці зберігають в Бергамо (Італія), кресленики в Швеції (Стокгольм) та в Петербурзі… Не існує з війни 1941-1945 рр. і не відновлена на початок 21 століття.
Малюнки Кваренгі давно розійшлися світом. Їх зберігають як в приватних колекціях, так і в державних музеях. Значна частина малюнків потрапила в Італію — в музеї замку Сфорцеско (Мілан, більше ста), в Академії Каррара (Бергамо), в містах Рим, Венеція, Саббіонета, Бассано. Серед європейських музеїв малюнки Кваренгі утримують Королівський інститут британських архітекторів (Лондон), галерея Альбертіна (Відень), Національний музей (Варшава), Державний архів Мюнхена, бібліотека королівської Академії мистецтв в Стокгольмі тощо.
В Росії малюнки зосереджені в Ермітажі, їх має Музей архітектури імені Олександра Щусєва, Державна Третьяковська галерея, музей історії Петербурга, музей-садиба Архангельське тощо.
Джерела
Всеобщая история искусств, т 4, М, «Искусство», 1963, (рос)
Талепоровский В. Н. «Кваренги. Материалы к изучению творчества», М,-Л, 1954
Богословский В. А. «Кваренги, мастер архитектуры русского классицизма», Л-М, 1955, (рос)
Пилявский В. И. «Джакомо Кваренги. Архитектор. Художник.», Л, Стройиздат, 1981 (рос)
Примітки
Див. також
Малюнок
Палладіанство
Інтер'єр
Фреска
Грізайль
Садиба
Малюнки Босха
Малюнки Михайла Врубеля
Малюнки Валентина Сєрова
Зимовий палац
Ермітажний театр
Воронцовський палац (Санкт-Петербург)
Ермітаж (відділ малюнків)
Малюнки Пітера Пауля Рубенса
Малюнки Іллі Рєпіна
Графіка
Малюнки
Графіка за алфавітом
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positions%20%28%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BC%29
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Positions (альбом)
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Positions (альбом)
Positions — шостий студійний альбом американської співачки Аріани Ґранде. Він був випущений лейблом Republic Records 30 жовтня 2020 року. Ґранде працювала з багатьма продюсерами над альбомом, у тому числі з постійним співавтором Томмі Брауном, а також з Вікторією Моне й Тайлі Паркс. У музичному плані Positions — це R&B і поп альбом з елементами трепу, хіп-хопу, нео-соулу, диско, фанку та електрохаусу. Doja Cat, Megan Thee Stallion, The Weeknd і Ty Dolla Sign з'являються в альбомі як гості. Positions отримав загалом схвальні відгуки музичних критиків; вокальне виконання Ґранде часто хвалили, проте текст пісень викликав критику.
Заголовний трек був випущений як провідний сингл й дебютував на вершині Billboard Hot 100. Усі 14 треків із Positions одночасно потрапили до Hot 100, а другий сингл, «34+35» досяг другого місця після випуску його реміксу з Doja Cat і Megan Thee Stallion.
Цей альбом став п'ятим альбомом Аріани номер один у Сполучених Штатах. Він провів два тижні поспіль на першому місці в країні і був сертифікований платиновим Асоціацією звукозаписної індустрії Америки. Крім цього, різні видання включили Positions у різні списки найкращих альбомів 2020 року.
Альбом посів перше місце в Аргентині, Канаді, Хорватії, Ірландії, Литві, Новій Зеландії, Норвегії та Великобританії. На 64-й щорічній церемонії вручення премії «Греммі» (2022) Positions був номінований на найкращий вокальний поп-альбом, а головний сингл «Positions» змагався за найкраще сольне поп-виконання.
Передісторія
19 квітня 2020 року вперше стало відомо, що Аріана Ґранде працює над новою музикою. У травні 2020 року вона заявила, що записала пісню з Doja Cat, однак у тому ж інтерв'ю розповіла, що не випустить альбом під час карантину через пандемію COVID-19. Вже 14 жовтня 2020 року Ґранде оголосила в соціальних мережах, що її майбутній шостий студійний альбом буде випущений вже цього місяця. 23 жовтня 2020 року вона підтвердила через свій акаунт у Twitter, що альбом вийде 30 жовтня, і опублікувала офіційну обкладинку. Трек-лист був оприлюднений наступного дня. Крім цього, Ґранде випустила ще три різні обкладинки альбому Positions у своїх соціальних мережах. Кожна з них — це чорно-білі фотографії співачки з різноманітним позуванням із зеленим фільтром, що надає альбому естетики 60-х. Фото були зроблені Дейвом Мейерсом, який також був режисером кліпу на заголовний трек.
На альбом в основному вплинуло любовне життя Аріани та її стосунки з Далтоном Гомесом, чоловіком, з яким вона почала зустрічатися в січні 2020 року.
Реліз і просування
27 жовтня Ґранде оголосила, що обмежене видання компакт-дисків Positions з двома альтернативними обкладинками з її автографом з'явиться разом з альбомом, і вони були доступні для попереднього замовлення на офіційному веб-сайті співачки. 19 лютого 2021 року вийшло делюкс видання Positions, яке включає в себе чотири додаткових пісні («Someone Like U (Interlude)», «Test Drive», «Worst Behavior», «Main Thing») і ремікс на трек «34+35». 9 лютого 2021 року співачка розповіла, що ця версія альбому вийде 19 лютого. Реліз на CD відбувся 26 березня 2021 року, а 9 квітня 2020 року було випущено вінілову версію стандартного видання альбому, разом з варіантом, що світиться в темряві, доступним ексклюзивно в Target.
У липні 2021 року альбом просували серією живих виконань деяких треків, представлених на Vevo.
Сингли
Сингл «Positions» був випущений 23 жовтня 2020 року як лід-сингл й дебютував з першого рядка чарту Billboard Hot 100, зробивши Ґранде другим артистом, після Дрейка, чиї три сингли («Stuck With U», «Rain On Me» і «Positions») зайняли найвищі позиції в даному чарті. Музичне відео на пісню, зняте Дейвом Мейерсом, зображує Ґранде в ролі президента США. На 64-й церемонії «Греммі» пісня отримала номінацію «Краще поп-виконання».
Наступним синглом альбому стала пісня «34+35». Ґранде почала працювати над нею у 2019 році та закінчила роботу у вересні 2020 року, після того як вирішила, що вона увійде до альбому. У січні 2021 року Аріана випустила ремікс цієї пісні, записаний разом з Doja Cat і Megan Thee Stallion. Ремікс увійшов до делюкс-версії Positions, випущеної 19 лютого 2021 року.
Третім синглом стала пісня «Pov». Після випуску альбому, сингл дебютував під номером 40 в американському Billboard Hot 100, пізніше досягнувши 27-го місця. Танцювальне ліричне відео на пісню, зняте режисером X, було випущене 30 квітня 2021 року й було присвячене шестимісячній річниці Positions. Музичний відео з живим виконанням було випущено 21 червня 2021 року.
Критичний прийом
Альбом отримав загалом схвальні відгуки від музичних критиків, більшість з яких погодилися, що Ґранде «цього разу не відкривала нічого нового». На Metacritic, альбом має середню оцінку 72 на основі 24 рецензій. Кілька видань назвали деякі треки з альбому одними з найкращих у 2020: «Positions», «34+35», «POV», «Just like Magic», «Nasty», «My Hair», «Motive», «Love Language», «Six Thirty», і «Off the Table».
Трек-лист
Примітки
Альбоми Republic Records
Альбоми Аріани Гранде
Музичні альбоми 2020
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Артюшенко Яків Федорович
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Артюшенко Яків Федорович
Яків Федорович Артюшенко (8 лютого 1901, село Макарів Яр, нині Краснодонського району Луганської області — 14 жовтня 1967, місто Луганськ) — радянський громадський діяч, голова Ворошиловградського і Тернопільського облвиконкомів.
Життєпис
Народився 8 лютого 1901 року в селі Макарів Яр Ново-Світлівського району, Бахмутського повіту, Катеринославської губернії в родині селянина. Через те, що родина була бідна, а Яків був наймолодшим серед дітей, його віддали на виховання до дядька Козлова С. Ф.
У 1912 році закінчив початкову школу. З 1913 по 1916 рік навчався та працював у шевській майстерні.
З 1916 по 1917 рік працював робітником Луганського паровозобудівного заводу.
З 1918 по 1920 рік хворів гострим гнійним плевритом в області серця. З 1921 по вересень 1922 року працював у рідному селі на ділянці батьків.
У вересні 1922 року Яків Артюшенко був призваний на службу до Червоної армії у прикордонні війська, де після навчання був призначений начальником прикордонної застави.
У квітні 1925 року демобілізувався, і на початку травня 1925 року був обраний головою Макаров-Ярівської селищної ради. У 1925 році організував машинно-тракторне товариство в селищі.
У лютому 1926 року на районному з'їзді Рад Яків Артюшенко обраний заступником голови райвиконокому і затверджений завідувачем Ново-Світлівського районного земельного відділу. На цій посаді працював до липня 1929 року.
У липні 1929 року Луганським окружним комітетом КП(б)У затверджений на посаді директора Бірюковської машинно-тракторної станції. Це була перша МТС на Донбасі.
У січні 1931 року Артюшенка переведено на посаду завідувача Ровеньківського районного земельного відділу.
У січні 1934 року Донецьким обкомом КП(б)У його було призначено директором Д'яковської машинно-тракторної станції, яка на тай час була найгіршою в області. За 4 роки Яків Артюшенко перетворив її на найкращу Машинно-тракторноу станцію по Донецькій області.
У другій половині 1937 року Донецьким обкомом КП(б)У Якова Артюшенка призначено в Донецький обласний земельний відділ на посаду першого заступника начальника Облземвідділу.
Після поділу Донецької області на Сталінську і Ворошиловградську області Яків Артюшенко повернувся до Ворошиловграда.
У квітні 1940 року Ворошиловградським обкомом КП(б)У призначений заступником начальника Ворошиловградського обласного земельного відділу, а у травні 1940 затверджений на посаді уповноваженого Народного комісаріату заготівель СРСР у Ворошиловградській області.
У період тимчасової окупації Ворошиловграда у липні 1942 року Народним комісаріатом заготівель СРСР Якова Артюшенка було призначено уповноваженим Народного комісаріату заготівель СРСР 1-ї гвардійської армії Південно-Західного фронту.
У лютому 1943 року, після зайняття радянськими військами Ворошиловграда, Яків Артюшенко був відкликаний з армії та призначений уповноваженим Народного комісаріату заготівель СРСР по Ворошиловградській області, де працював до червня 1944 року. Деякий час в 1943 році виконував обов'язки голови виконавчого комітету Ворошиловградської обласної ради депутатів трудящих.
Від червня 1944 до 23 травня 1946 року — голова виконавчого комітету Тернопільської обласної ради.
У травні 1946 — серпні 1947 року — заступник Уповноваженого Народного комісаріату заготівель СРСР по Українській РСР.
Наприкінці 1947 і до 1949 року — Радою Міністрів СРСР був затверджений на посаді представника Ради Міністрів СРСР у Кіровоградській області з питань сільського господарства при Уряді СРСР.
Пізніше був переведений на цю ж посаду у Ворошиловградську, а згодом у Кам'янець-Подільську область.
У травні 1953 року Рада з питань колгоспів була ліквідована, та з дозволу Кам'янець-Подільського обкому партії Яків Артюшенко повернувся до Ворошиловграда і почав працювати у тресті «Ворошиловградвуглезбагачення» на посаді заступника керівника тресту. Після ліквідації тресту перейшов на посаду заступника обласного уповноваженого міністерства заготівель у Ворошиловградській області. Пізніше і цю систему було ліквідовано, а Якова Артюшенка переведено на посаду заступника голови Ворошиловградського обласного управління сільським господарством.
У 1957 році в Якова Артюшенка виявили тяжку хворобу серця. Через це йому було призначено 3-тю групу інвалідності, з рекомендацією не працювати у роз'їздах. Проте, за спогадами Якова Федоровича Артюшенко, він не міг сидіти на місці більш ніж годину, тому що це викликало у нього сильні болі у серці.
Через вкрай поганий стан здоров'я у 1958 році Яків Артюшенко був вимушений вийти на пенсію. За великі досягнення у справі будування комунізму, розбудові сільського господарства та відновлення країни після війни Якова Федоровича Артюшенко було виділено як пенсіонера республіканського значення, та призначено республіканську пенсію.
Яків Федорович Артюшенко раптово помер 14 жовтня 1967 року. Як з'ясувалося пізніше в нього був рак простати.
За згадками сина (Івана Яковича Артюшенко) Яків Федорович усе життя вірив у те, що сам зможе побудувати комунізм в країні; він завжди намагався навчатись, не дивлячись на те, що йому так і не вдалося отримати вищу освіту за нестачею часу на це. Також родичі згадують, що під кінець життя Яків Федорович, побачивши нове покоління комуністів, розчарувався у системі, проте у голос цього ніколи не говорив.
Нагороди
орден Вітчизняної війни 1-го ст.
орден Трудового Червоного Прапора
медаль «За бойові заслуги»
медаль «За відзнаку в охороні державного кордону СРСР»
медалі
Джерела
Халупа Н. Артюшенко Яків Федорович //
Громадські діячі
Уродженці Бахмутського повіту
Персоналії:Луганськ
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