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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huey%2C%20Illinois
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Huey, Illinois
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Huey, Illinois
Huey is a village in Clinton County, Illinois, in the United States. As of the 2020 census, the village population was 160.
Geography
Huey is located in eastern Clinton County and U.S. Route 50 passes north of the village, leading west to Carlyle, the county seat, and east to Sandoval.
According to the 2021 census gazetteer files, Huey has a total area of , all land.
Demographics
As of the 2020 census there were 160 people, 64 households, and 37 families residing in the village. The population density was . There were 69 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 95.00% White, 1.88% African American, 0.63% from other races, and 2.50% from two or more races. No residents identified as Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 64 households, out of which 18.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.00% were married couples living together, 6.25% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.19% were non-families. 9.38% of all households were made up of individuals, and 3.13% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 2.13.
The village's age distribution consisted of 16.2% under the age of 18, 2.2% from 18 to 24, 31.7% from 25 to 44, 30.1% from 45 to 64, and 19.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 45.0 years. For every 100 females, there were 86.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.0 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $31,500, and the median income for a family was $31,458. Males had a median income of $27,500 versus $26,429 for females. The per capita income for the village was $24,390. About 2.7% of families and 8.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under age 18 and 11.1% of those age 65 or over.
References
Villages in Clinton County, Illinois
Villages in Illinois
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133018
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear%20Creek%20Village%2C%20Pennsylvania
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Bear Creek Village, Pennsylvania
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Bear Creek Village, Pennsylvania
Bear Creek Village is a borough in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 290 at the 2020 census.
History
Bear Creek was first settled in the 1770s. On August 25, 1993, the village broke away from Bear Creek Township and became a borough. The Bear Creek Village Historic District was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1999.
Geography
Bear Creek Village is located at (41.181794, -75.752985).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has a total area of , of which is land and , or 4.84%, is water.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 284 people, 122 households, and 81 families living in the borough. The population density was . There were 134 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the borough was 99.65% White and 0.35% Asian. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.70% of the population.
There were 122 households, out of which 23.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.1% were married couples living together, 2.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.8% were non-families. 28.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.90.
In the borough the population was spread out, with 20.4% under the age of 18, 4.2% from 18 to 24, 20.8% from 25 to 44, 34.2% from 45 to 64, and 20.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 47 years. For every 100 females there were 97.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.2 males.
The median income for a household in the borough was $60,000, and the median income for a family was $71,250. Males had a median income of $53,750 versus $38,125 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $33,324. None of the families and 2.2% of the population were living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and 2.9% of those over 64.
References
External links
Populated places established in 1779
Boroughs in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania
1993 establishments in Pennsylvania
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4626513
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%20%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%89%D1%96%20%D0%B7%20%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%20%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%20%D0%B6%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA%3A%20%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B3%D0%B0
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Чемпіонат Польщі з гандболу серед жінок: Суперліга
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Чемпіонат Польщі з гандболу серед жінок: Суперліга
Чемпіонат Польщі з гандболу серед жінок — найвища жіноча гандбольна ліга Польщі. Змагання відбуваються циклічно (щосезону, який триває близько дев'яти місяців), за коловою системою. Переможець стає чемпіоном Польщі, а найслабші команди вилітають до 1-ї польської ліги. Команди, які лідирують у фінальному етапі кожного сезону, отримують право виступати в Єврокубках наступного сезону: Лізі чемпіонів, Кубку володарів кубків, Кубку ЄГФ, Кубку Виклику ЄГФ.
Історія
Рішення про проведення чемпіонату Польщі з гандболу 7 на 7 серед жіночих команд за роз’їздною системою було прийнято в 1956 році, і в 1956—1957 рр. було проведення перший сезон, переможцем якого став клуб «Краковія» (Краків). До сезону 2018/2019 включно іграми керувала Федерація гандболу Польщі. Станом на кінець сезону 2021/2022 Найбільша кількість титулів в активі «MKS FunFloor Perła» з міста Любін — 22 рази вони ставали чемпіонками Польщі. Протягом історії кілька разів змінювались як назва турніру: спочатку 1-ша ліга, потім Екстракласа, з 2010 року — Суперліга. Формат також зазнавав змін: проведення чемпіонату в один етап, розподіл на групу чемпіонства та групу вильоту, кількаетаппний чемпіонат з плей-оф. Кількість команд, які брали участь у змаганнях, також змінювалася від 6 до 12.
У сезонах 2010/2011—2022/2023 титульним спонсором чемпіонатів була PGNiG (Polskie Górnictwo Naftowe i Gazownictwo, з ), що було відображено в офіційній назві турніру PGNiG Superliga Kobiet.
У сезоні 2016/2017 етап плей-оф замінили поділом на дві групи по 6 команд. Перша група змагалась за призові місця, а команди, які за підсумками попередньго етапу зайняли з 7 по 12 місце боролись за перебуваннія в Екстракласі в наступному сезоні.
У 2019 році PGNiG спільно з ТзОВ «Superliga» було прийнято рішення про створення професійної ліги. Згодом Гандбольна асоціація Польщі довірила управління лігою ТзОВ «Superliga». З сезону 2019/2020 матчі проводяться за участю 8-и команд за чотириколовою системою, без етапу плей-оф — кожна пара команд проводить по два матчі, вдома та на виїзді. Команда, яка за підсумком сезону посіла останнє місце потрапляє до 1-ї ліги.
У сезоні 2022/2023 формат чемпіонату розширено з 8 до 10 команд-учасниць, додаткові ліцензії на участь у PGNiG жіночій Суперлізі було надано львівському гандбольному клубу «Галичанка» та клубу «KPR Ruch Chorzow» з міста Хожув. Домашні матчі львів'янки проводили в спортивно-відпочинковому комплексі в місті Маркі Варшавської агломерації.
З сезону 2023/2024 титульним спонсором чемпіонатів стало акціонерне товариство «Orlen», що займається нафтопереробкою та дистрибуцією паливно-мастильних матеріалів.
Особливості
На відміну від актуальних регламентів більшості національних чемпіонатів з гандболу, чинний регламент проведення польської жіночої Суперліги передбачає наступне нарахування очок в турнірних таблицях:
за перемогу в основний час гри — 3 очки;
за перемогу після серії післяматчевих штрафних кидків — 2 очки;
за поразку, якщо гра завершилась в основний час — нуль балів;
за поразку внаслідок серії післяматчевих штрафних кидків — 1 очко;
технічна перемога — 3 очки у турнірній таблиці та рахунок у матчі 10:0 на користь команди-переможниці.
Призери
Примітки
Змагання з гандболу
Спортивні змагання в Польщі
засновані в Польщі 1956
1956 у польському спорті
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25275972
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McQueen%20%28surname%29
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McQueen (surname)
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McQueen (surname)
McQueen, Mcqueen, and MacQueen, Macqueen are English-language surnames derived from Scottish Gaelic. There have been several differing etymologies given for the surnames; as well as several differing ways to represent the surname in modern Scottish Gaelic. The surnames are not among the most common surnames in the United Kingdom, Australia, nor the United States.
Etymology
There have been several differing etymologies given for the surname. One view is that it is an anglicised form of the Gaelic , which means 'son of Suibhne'. The Gaelic name is a byname, which means 'pleasant'. This Gaelic name was also used as a Gaelic equivalent of the Old Norse byname , which means 'boy'. Another view is that the anglicised surname is derived from the Gaelic , meaning 'son of Conn'. The Gaelic personal name is derived from an Old Irish word meaning 'chief, head'. Another suggested origin of the anglicised surname is from the Gaelic .
A similarly spelt surname, Macquien, is considered to be often confused with, and wrongly represented by, Macqueen. This name is considered to be derived from the Gaelic personal name which means 'little Aodh'. The Gaelic personal name is a modern form of , which means 'fire'. Macquien can be presented in Scottish Gaelic as ; and in the north of Scotland as .
Historical forms of the name
The surname has undergone changes over the years. Mackquean (1502); M'Queyn (1543); M'Queen (1609).
Representation in modern Scottish Gaelic
The Anglicised surnames can be represented in Scottish Gaelic in several different ways. is the form for the surname of Galloway. is the form for the surname in the north of Scotland; is a name found in Argyll around the islands of Easdale, Luing, and Seil; and is the form in the south of Scotland..
Similar surnames
Similar surnames are McKeen (from Ian); McQuinn (from Conn); McSwain, McSween (from Suibhne, or possibly Sveinn); McSweeney, McQueeney (from Suibhne); Macquien (from Aoidhean); Queen (a reduced form of the surname McQueen, also from Quena).
Statistics
Neither surname ranked within the top 300 recorded in Scotland, within the United Kingdom Census 1901.
McQueen, Mcqueen
In the United Kingdom, the surname was ranked in the United Kingdom Census 1881 as the 17,664th most common surname; with 125 recorded, equalling less than 0.001% of the population. Currently, the surname is ranked as the 1,950th most common; with 3,204 recorded, equalling 0.007% of the population. This census shows that the county where the surname occurred the most was Lancashire (in England); with 22 of the name recorded, equalling 0.0006% of the population there. The town where the surname occurred the most, and was most frequent, was Newcastle upon Tyne All Sts (in Northumberland, England); with 11 of the name recorded, equalling 0.0424% of the population there.
In Australia, the surname is ranked 1,531st most common name; with 1,078 recorded equalling 0.007% of the total population.
The surname was ranked as the 1,322nd most common surname in the 1990 United States Census; accounting for 0.009% of the population. It was ranked 1,757th most common surname in the 2000 United States Census; with 18,701 recorded. Of these this number, 60.16% were recorded as being (non-Hispanic) white; 36.12% (non-Hispanic) black; 0.29% (non-Hispanic) Asian and Pacific Islander; 0.44% (non-Hispanic) American Indian and Native Alaskan; 1.59% (non-Hispanic) of two or more races; 1.4% Hispanic origin.
Currently worldwide, the surname is most frequently found in Australia, with a frequency of 117.79 per million people (fpm); New Zealand with 113.22 fpm; the United Kingdom with 75.78 fpm; the United States with 57.84 fpm; Canada with 55.47 fpm. The top region where it is located is Rangitikei District (in New Zealand); with 550.36 fpm. The top city is Glasgow (in Scotland). The top forenames with the surname are James, John, David, Robert, and William.
MacQueen, Macqueen
In the United Kingdom, the surname was ranked in the United Kingdom Census 1881 as the 8,913th most common surname; with 347 recorded, equalling 0.001% of the population. Currently, the surname is ranked as the 6,817th most common; with 714 recorded, equalling 0.002% of the population. This census shows that the county where the surname occurred the most, and was most frequent, was Inverness-shire (in Scotland); with 86 of the name recorded, equalling 0.0986% of the population there. The town where the surname occurred the most, and was most frequent, was Kilmuir (in Inverness-shire, Scotland); with 26 of the name recorded, equalling 1.0136% of the population there.
In Australia, the surname is ranked 4,770th most common name; with 331 recorded equalling 0.002% of the total population.
The surname was ranked as the 27,425th most common surname in the 1990 United States Census; accounting for less than 0.001% of the population. It was ranked 24,115th most common surname in the 2000 United States Census; with 976 recorded. Of this number, 96.21% were recorded as being (non-Hispanic) white; 1.02% (non-Hispanic) black; 0.92% (non-Hispanic) of two or more races; 1.43% Hispanic origin.
Currently worldwide, the surname is most frequently found in Australia, with a frequency of 33.91 per million people (fpm); Canada with 18.11 fpm; the United Kingdom with 16.89 fpm; New Zealand with 8.46 fpm; the United States with 4.54 fpm. The top region where it is located is the Marlborough district (in New Zealand); with 550.36 fpm. The top city is Glasgow (in Scotland). The top forenames with the surname are John, Donald, David, Andrew, and James.
Distribution maps
The following maps show the distribution of families with the surname McQueen and MacQueen.
Persons with the surname
McQueen or Mcqueen
Alexander McQueen (1969–2010), British fashion designer
Armelia McQueen (1952–2020), American actress
Butterfly McQueen (1911–1995), American actress
Chad McQueen (born 1960), American actor
Chris McQueen (born 1987), Australian rugby league footballer
Cilla McQueen (born 1949), English poet
Delroy McQueen, British weightlifter
Diana McQueen (born 1961), Canadian politician
Ewen McQueen, religious leader
Geoff McQueen (1947–1994), television screenwriter
George McQueen (1895–1951), Scottish football player
Glenn McQueen (1960–2002), computer character animator at Pixar Animation Studios
Gordon McQueen (1952–2023), Scottish football player
Harold McQueen Jr. (1952–1997), American who was the first criminal executed by the State of Kentucky
Hayley McQueen (born 1979), British TV presenter and reporter, daughter of Gordon
Jim McQueen, American freelance sports illustrator
Joe McQueen (1919–2019), American musician
John McQueen (1804–1867), American member of the Confederate States Congress during the American Civil War
Lee McQueen, participant on the UK television show The Apprentice
Mark McQueen (born 1980), British BAFTA-nominated film and TV director
Matt McQueen (1863–1944), Scottish football player
Natalie McQueen (born 1989), English musical theatre actress
Peter McQueen (c. 1780 – 1820), American Indian leader
Ronald McQueen, musician
Sam McQueen (born 1995), English football player
Steve McQueen (1930–1980), American actor
Steve McQueen (director) (born 1969) English artist and film director
Steven R. McQueen (born 1988), American actor
Tanya McQueen (born 1972), American television personality
Wini McQueen (born 1943), American quilter
MacQueen or Macqueen
MacQueen of Pall à Chrocain, Highland deer stalker
Alex MacQueen (born 1974), English actor
Edith MacQueen (1900–1977), Scottish historian
Eilidh Macqueen (born 1986), Scottish actress
Hector MacQueen (born 1956), Scottish academic
John Macqueen Ward (born 1940), Scottish businessman
Kenneth Macqueen (1897–1960), Australian farmer and watercolorist
Mary Macqueen (1912–1994), Australian artist
Robert Macqueen, Lord Braxfield (1722–1799), Scottish lawyer and judge
Rod MacQueen (born 1949), Scottish rugby coach
Thomas MacQueen (1792–1840), British army officer
W. J. MacQueen-Pope (1888–1960), English theatre historian and publicist
Fictional characters
Esther McQueen, in the Honorverse science fiction novel series
McQueen family, in the television soap opera Hollyoaks
Lightning McQueen, the main character of the Cars franchise
Hector McQueen, in Agatha Christie's Murder on the Orient Express
See also
Clan Macqueen, Scottish clan
McQueen (disambiguation)
References
Anglicised Scottish Gaelic-language surnames
de:McQueen
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5008411
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final%20Doom
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Final Doom
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Final Doom — відеогра-шутер від першої особи, розроблена TeamTNT та Даріо і Майло Казалі, випущена id Software і розповсюджена GT Interactive у 1996 році. Вона була випущена для комп'ютерів MS-DOS і Macintosh, а також для PlayStation, хоча остання містила добірку рівнів з Final Doom і з Master Levels для Doom II.
Третя частина франшизи Doom, Final Doom складається з двох 32-рівневих епізодів (або мегавад), TNT: Evilution і The Plutonia Experiment. На відміну від TNT: Evilution, яка була офіційно ліцензована, The Plutonia Experiment була зроблена на замовлення команди id Software. Події в обох епізодах відбуваються після подій Doom II. У TNT: Evilution звучить переважно новий саундтрек з вкрапленнями треків з Doom II, тоді як саундтрек до The Plutonia Experiment повністю складається з треків з Doom і Doom II.
Геймплей
Final Doom грає ідентично до Doom II: Hell on Earth, і навіть має ту саму зброю, предмети та монстрів. Оригінальна гра вважається значно складнішою, ніж її попередники Doom і Doom II.
Ігровий процес у комп'ютерній версії Final Doom майже ідентичний тому, що був у версії Doom для PlayStation, і, крім того, він був сумісний з PlayStation Mouse. Порівняно з оригіналом для MS-DOS, загальна складність версії для PlayStation була значно знижена. Багато складних рівнів було видалено, а з тих, що залишилися, часто прибрали ворогів (найпомітніше — кібердемона з рівня «Лігво барона»). Як і в оригінальній версії Doom для PlayStation, багато великих рівнів з оригінальних MS-DOS-версій Final Doom і Master Levels для Doom II було вилучено, а монстрів Arch-vile і Spider Mastermind було вилучено через технічні обмеження. Це обмежило версію для PlayStation до 30 рівнів загалом. Більш традиційні рок-треки Final Doom були замінені на моторошний саундтрек в стилі ембієнт Обрі Ходжеса, який згодом написав музику для Doom 64 у 1997 році.
У презентації Final Doom у версії для PlayStation є кілька помітних змін порівняно з комп'ютерною версією. Спрощені титульні екрани комп'ютерних версій замінено на складніші титульні екрани з анімованою текстурою заповненого полум'ям неба з оригінальної версії Doom для PlayStation. Багато текстур неба на рівнях замінено на інші; на деяких рівнях небо замінено на текстури неба з попередніх ігор Doom, тоді як на інших з'явилася нова текстура зоряного неба. Нарешті, більшість макетів рівнів спрощено, подібно до попередніх консольних портів Doom, а частота кадрів у грі часто нижча, ніж у першій грі Doom для PlayStation.
Сюжет
TNT: Evilution
У TNT: Evilution UAC знову має намір розробляти та експериментувати з технологією розмірного шлюзу. Вони створили базу на одному із супутників Юпітера, з міцним загоном космічних морських піхотинців для захисту. Морські піхотинці добре виконують свою роботу; коли відкривається перший експериментальний шлюз, вони знищують сили Пекла. Дослідження тривають з більшою впевненістю, і всі заходи безпеки повернулися до шлюзу.
Через кілька місяців річний корабель постачання виходить з випередженням графіка і виглядає дивно і незвично великим на радарах. Слабкі оператори радарів вирішують, що турбуватися нема про що. Персонал бази виходить споглядати страшну правду: це космічний корабель з пекла, побудований зі сталі, каменю, плоті, кісток і тління. Величезні ворота корабля відкриваються, щоб випустити дощ демонів на базу. Швидко весь об'єкт переповнюється, і всіх вбивають або зомбують.
Головний герой, безіменний космічний морський піхотинець (який, як виявилося, був командиром морської піхоти на Місяці) в цей час був далеко на прогулянці і таким чином уникає смерті або зомбіфікації. Після нападу чортеня він кидається назад на базу, де бачить демонічний космічний корабель, все ще ширяє над ним, і розуміє, що сталося. Потім він клянеться, що помститься за свої вбиті війська і збирається вбити якомога більше демонів.
Зрештою, морський піхотинець перемагає Ікону гріха і в грі описується "щось гуркоче вдалині. Синє світло світиться в зруйнованому черепі демона-плювальника.
The Plutonia Experiment
В експерименті «Плутонія» після катастрофічного вторгнення пекла на Землю світові уряди вирішують вжити заходів проти будь-якого можливого майбутнього вторгнення, знаючи, що сили Пекла все ще залишаються сильними. UAC перезаснована під абсолютно новим керівництвом (старі опікуни та акціонери все одно були мертві) і має на меті розробити інструменти, які запобігали б демонічним вторгненням.
Вчені починають працювати над пристроєм, відомим як квантовий прискорювач, який призначений для закриття вторгнення в Гейтс і зупинки можливих вторгнень. Досліди проводяться в секретному науково-дослідному комплексі, з дислокованим загоном морських піхотинців. Робота, здається, йде добре, але істоти ззовні привертають свою увагу до нових досліджень. У самому серці комплексу відкриваються Ворота і виливаються неприродні жахи. Квантовий прискорювач працює чудово: ворота швидко закриваються і вторгнення зупиняється. Дослідження тривають сміливіше.
На наступний день відкривається кільце з 7 воріт і починається ще більше вторгнення. За одну годину квантовим прискорювачам вдається закрити 6 воріт, але пекельна армія стала занадто численною і занадто сильною. Комплекс переповнений. Всі вбиті або зомбовані. Останні Ворота Пекла залишаються відкритими, їх охороняє Воротар: могутній, величезний і древній демон, який має силу відкривати Просторові Ворота і контролювати або захищати їх.
Уряд, в нестямі від того, що Квантовий прискорювач буде знищений або використаний проти людства, наказує всім морським піхотинцям прибути на місце відразу. Гравець, безіменний космічний морський піхотинець, був у відпустці на пляжі. Він також був найближче до місця і потрапляє туди першим. Там він виявляє, що в комплексі багато демонічної активності (виття, спів, звуки машини); Воротар, очевидно, над чимось працює, і його робота незабаром досягне якоїсь жахливої кульмінації. Він також розуміє, що коли морські піхотинці прибудуть, вони не зможуть проникнути в сильно заражений комплекс, попри вогневу міць і підтримку, яку вони матимуть. Морський піхотинець вирішує увійти в комплекс і зупинити Воротаря на самоті.
Розробка
Роботу над TNT: Evilution розпочала TeamTNT, група любителів WAD, які брали активну участь у розширеному списку розсилки для редагування Doom. Всього за кілька днів до того, як він повинен був бути випущений для безкоштовного завантаження в Інтернеті, проєкт був придбаний id Software і завершений в листопаді 1995 року.
Брати Даріо і Майло Казалі, які внесли чотири рівні в TNT: Evilution, отримали завдання створити те, що стало експериментом Плутонії після того, як відправили восьмирівневий WAD, який вони створили, американцю Макгі та зуміли справити на нього враження разом з рештою команди id Software. Вони створили по 16 рівнів для експерименту Плутонії за чотири місяці та представили їх у січні 1996 року. На відміну від їх внесків в TNT: Evilution, які були відредаговані після подання (чотири також були відхилені через те, що вони були занадто великими для запуску на комп'ютерах того часу), це були остаточні версії рівнів, і Даріо Казалі пізніше прокоментував той факт, що ніяких змін не було запитано: "Слава Богу, тому що я був готовий викинути свій комп'ютер у вікно в той час.
Даріо Казалі визнав рівень складності експерименту Плутонії в інтерв'ю на Doomworld, заявивши: "Плутонія завжди була призначена для людей, які закінчили Doom 2 важко і шукали новий виклик. Я завжди грав на тому рівні, який досяг на важкому рівні, і якщо я міг перемогти його занадто легко, я робив це важче, тому це було викликом для мене.
Рецепція
Reception
Оглядаючи версію для ПК в GameSpot, Джим Варнер стверджував, що Final Doom — це марна трата грошей, оскільки це, по суті, просто новий набір карт рівнів для Doom, і в Інтернеті вже були тисячі таких карт, доступних для безкоштовного завантаження.
Хоча GamePro критикував те, що в Final Doom немає нових ворогів чи зброї, а також те, що версія для PlayStation містить лише 30 рівнів порівняно з 64 у версії для ПК, вони були задоволені «величезними, заплутаними, а іноді й садистськими рівнями» та новими декораціями, і вважали Doom достатньо привабливою грою, яку можна було б задовольнити просто більшою кількістю тих самих рівнів. Журнал PlayStation Magazine поставив їй оцінку 9/10, назвавши її «важливою». Рецензент журналу Next Generation був менш вражений, зазначивши, що порівняння з версією оригінального Doom для PlayStation показує, що Final Doom має значно нижчу частоту кадрів, менш точне управління і більш помітні шви на текстурах. Троє з чотирьох рецензентів журналу Electronic Gaming Monthly сказали, що їм набридло бачити порти Doom, і що Final Doom — це просто ще один такий порт з новими картами рівнів. Вони також сказали, що рушій гри застарів за роки, що минули з моменту першого виходу Doom. Кріспін Бойєр був єдиним, хто висловив окрему думку, висловивши ентузіазм щодо нового дизайну рівнів.
Нотатки
Примітки
Посилання
Interview with Dario Casali (1998) by Doomworld
Final Doom page at PlanetDOOM
Final Doom at TeamTNT's official website
Dario Casali's The Plutonia Experiment page
id Software's official Final Doom page
Comparison of PC and Playstation Final Doom at ClassicDOOM
Final Doom at MobyGames
Багатоосібні та одноосібні відеоігри
Ігри Bethesda Softworks
Спінофи відеоігор
Ігри для Windows
Відеоігри Williams
Відеоігри, дія яких відбувається в пеклі
Відеоігри з 2,5D-графікою
Відеоігри, розроблені в США
Ігри для PlayStation Network
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Ігри для PlayStation
Класичні ігри для OS X
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Відеоігри про демонів
Кооперативні відеоігри
Відеоігри 1996
Серія відеоігор Doom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland%20national%20football%20team
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Poland national football team
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Poland national football team
The Poland national football team represents Poland in men's international football competitions since their first match in 1921. They are known by the nicknames "The White-Reds" and "The Eagles", symbolized by their coat of arms featuring a white eagle on a red background.
Poland has competed in nine FIFA World Cups, with their first appearance being in 1938, where they were eliminated by Brazil. The country's best result was third place, which Poland achieved in 1974 and 1982; this era is regarded as the golden era of Polish international football. At the UEFA European Championship, Poland's best result was a quarter-final appearance at the 2016 tournament before losing to eventual champions Portugal. Overall, they have competed in five European Championships since their debut in 2008. They were co-hosts of the 2012 edition, along with Ukraine.
Overall, Poland's best ever result at an international football tournament was gold won at the 1972 Munich Olympics, along with the silver medal at the 1976 Montreal Olympics and at the 1992 Barcelona Olympics.
History
Before independence
The first Polish football clubs were Lechia Lwów (1903), Czarni Lwów (1903), Pogoń Lwów (1904), KS Cracovia (1906) and Wisła Kraków (1906). The Polish national federation, called the Polish Football Union (Polski Związek Piłki Nożnej, PZPN), was founded on 20 December 1919, in Kraków when 31 delegates elected Edward Cetnarowski as the first president. The PZPN joined FIFA in 1923 and UEFA in 1955.
In a similar fashion to other European states, football appeared in Poland in the late 19th century. In 1888 Prof. Henryk Jordan, a court physician of the Habsburgs and the pioneer of sports in Poland, opened a sports park in Kraków's Błonia, a large open space surrounding the demolished city walls of that town. The park, along with the Sokół society founded in 1867, became the main centres to promote sports and healthy living in Poland. It was Jordan who began promoting football as a healthy sport in the open air; some sources also credit him with bringing the first football to Poland from his travels to Brunswick in 1890. Other sources mention Dr. Edmund Cenar as the one to bring the first ball and the one to translate The Cambridge Rules and parts of the International Football Association Board regulations to Polish language.
On 14 July 1894 during the Second Sokół Jamboree in Lwów at the General National Exhibition a short football match was played between the Sokół members of Lwów and those from Kraków. It lasted only six minutes and was seen as a curiosity rather than a potentially popular sport. Nevertheless, it was the first recorded football match in Polish history. The Lwów team won after Włodzimierz Chomicki scored the only goal - the first known goal in Polish history.
This match precipitated the popularity of the new sport in Poland. Initially the rules and regulations were very simplified, with the size of the field and the ball varying greatly. Despite being discouraged by many educational societies and the state authorities, the new sport gained extreme popularity among pupils of various gymnasiums in Galicia. The first football teams were formed and in 1903–1904, four Lwów-based gymnasiums formed their own sport clubs: the IV Gymnasium for Boys formed a club later renamed to Pogoń Lwów, while the pupils of the I and II State Schools formed the Sława Lwów club, later renamed to Czarni Lwów. In the same season the Lechia Lwów was also formed. It is uncertain which of the clubs was created first as they were initially poorly organised; however, the Czarni Lwów are usually credited as being the first Polish professional football team. The following year, the popularity of the sport spread to nearby Rzeszów where Resovia Rzeszów was formed, while in the German-held part of Poland, the 1. FC Katowice and Warta Poznań were formed.
On 6 June 1906 a representation of Lwów youth came to Kraków for a repeat match, this time composed of two already organised teams, the Czarni and the team of the IV Gymnasium. Kraków's representation was beaten in both meetings, 4–0 and 2–0 respectively. That summer the Buffalo Bill Wild West Show set up camp at Kraków's Błonia, right outside of the traditional playground area and Jordan's garden. On 5 August 1906 the team of the Kraków-based Jan Sobieski Gymnasium played a match against the British and American members of Buffalo Bill's troupe, winning 1–0. The only goal scored by Stanisław Szeligowski was also the first goal scored by a Polish team in an international meeting. The success led to the popularisation of football in Kraków and to creation of the first Kraków-based professional football team, KS Cracovia initially composed primarily of students of the Jan Sobieski Gymnasium. By the autumn of that year there were already 16 teams in Kraków, including Wisła Kraków. In 1911, a Kraków-based Union of Polish Football for Galicia was formed and entered the Austrian Football Association. The union inspired the creation of a number of teams.
After the outbreak of World War I, most of the Galician football players, many of them members of either Strzelec or Sokół, joined Piłsudski's Polish Legions. The unit, fighting alongside the Austro-Hungarian Army, fought mostly in various parts of Russian-held Poland, which led to popularisation of the new sport in other parts of partitioned Poland. Eventually, Poland regained its independence in 1918.
1919–1939
The first football federation was established on 25 June 1911 in Lwów as the Polish Football Union (Związek Polski Piłki Nożnej). After World War I, members of PFU established the Polish Football Federation (Polski Związek Piłki Nożnej) in Warsaw on 20 December 1919. Two years later, they appointed Hungarian-born Jesza Poszony as the first coach of the Polish national team.
Poland played its first official international match on 18 December 1921 in Budapest, losing to Hungary 1–0. Their first international victory came on 28 May 1922 when they took on Sweden in Stockholm and beat them 2–1. Józef Klotz scored the first-ever goal for the national football team in that game. Poland qualified for their first World Cup in 1937 when they beat Yugoslavia 4–0 and lost 1–0 in the two qualifying matches and ensured their place in the 1938 World Cup in France.
During their World Cup debut, Poland played Brazil and sent them to extra time, only to lose 6–5. Ernest Wilimowski, who played for Ruch Chorzów at the time, scored four of Poland's five goals.
Poland played what would be their last international match before the outbreak of World War II against Hungary, the runners-up in the 1938 World Cup. Poland defeated Hungary 4–2.
1939–1945
When the Wehrmacht invaded Poland in September 1939, all Polish institutions and associations were dissolved, including the Polish Football Association PZPN. The German occupying forces forbade Poles to organise football matches. Consequently, there was no national team.
Nine former national players were murdered by the German occupying forces. Three of them were killed in Auschwitz: Marian Einbacher, Adam Knioła (both Warta Poznań) and Antoni Łyko (Wisła Kraków). Stefan Fryc (Cracovia) and Bronisław Makowski (Wisła Kraków), who were both active in the resistance, were killed in mass shootings. Four Jewish players were murdered in Jewish ghettos: Józef Klotz, Zygmunt Krumholz (both Jutrzenka Kraków), Leon Sperling (Cracovia) and Zygmunt Steuermann (Hasmonea Lwów), brother of actress and Hollywood screenwriter Salka Viertel.
1946–1974
On 11 June 1946, following the aftermath of World War II, Poland played their first international friendly match, a 3–1 defeat against Norway in Oslo. Poland's biggest success in the early years after the war was their victory against one of Europe's best at the time, Czechoslovakia. Poland defeated their southern neighbors 3–1.
Poland suffered the worst defeat in the team's history on 26 April 1948 with a 0–8 loss to Denmark in Copenhagen. 15 years later, they posted their second highest-ever victory in Szczecin when they defeated Norway 9–0 on 4 September 1963. The game marked the debut for Włodzimierz Lubański, who scored one goal in the game. Lubański became the all-time top scorer for Poland while playing from 1963 to 1980, scoring 48 goals in 75 appearances. The game remained their highest victory until the score was surpassed on 1 April 2009, when Poland defeated San Marino 10–0.
1974–1986
For 1974 World Cup qualification, Poland qualified and eliminated England, who missed out on the World Cup for the first time since 1946.
In their opening match of the 1974 World Cup, Poland met Argentina. Within eight minutes Poland were up 2–0 as Grzegorz Lato opened the scoring in the seventh minute and just a minute later Andrzej Szarmach doubled the lead. In the 60th minute, Argentina cut the lead in half when Ramon Heredia scored. Two minutes later, however, Lato scored his second, which turned out to be the winning goal as Carlos Babington gave Argentina their second in the 66th. Poland won 3–2.
Poland thrashed Haiti 7–0 in their second game, with a hat-trick from Szarmach and two goals from Lato. In their final match of the group stage, Poland met Italy. Poland were already through to the second round but needed at least a draw to win the group. Poland defeated Italy 2–1, finishing at the top of the group. In the second round, Poland won 1–0 against Sweden, who had not conceded any goals in their first three matches. Lato scored the only goal of the game. In the next game, Yugoslavia conceded a penalty from Poland in the 24th minute, and Stanislav Karasi tied it up for Yugoslavia in the 43rd. Lato scored the winning goal.
Poland faced hosts West Germany in the rain; Gerd Müller scored the winning goal in the 76th minute for West Germany. The Poles eventually defeated Brazil in the third place match.
In 1978 World Cup qualifying, Poland denied Portugal their second World Cup appearance and their first in 12 years. In the World Cup, Grzegorz Lato scored the only goal against African side Tunisia in the second match. In the final first-round match Poland met Mexico, with a 3–1 win.
In the second round, Poland met three South American teams. In 1974, Poland had played and won against both Argentina and Brazil; both teams would get their revenge this time around. First, Argentina beat the Poles 2–0 with two goals from tournament top scorer Mario Kempes. Poland then defeated Peru 1–0 with a goal from Andrzej Szarmach. In Poland's last match of this World Cup, Brazil opened the scoring in the 12th minute on a goal from Nelinho. Even though Lato equalized one minute before half-time, it was not to be for Poland: two goals from Roberto in the 57th and 62nd minutes wrapped up a 3–1 win for Brazil.
On 29 November 1980, a dispute between players and technical staff began at a hotel in Warsaw, ending in the Okęcie Airport. Following the incident, several players of the Poland national team were banned from international duty, and Ryszard Kulesza resigned as head coach of the team. At the 1982 FIFA World Cup, Poland were drawn in a group with Italy, Cameroon and Peru. The first two games were consecutive 0–0 draws with Italy and Cameroon, but the final group game of the first round ended in a 5–1 win for Poland, meaning they would advance to the second round as group winners.
In the first game of the second round, Poland beat Belgium 3–0 with a hat-trick from Boniek securing a classic performance in the match, though the player would receive a yellow card in the following game. Nevertheless, Poland advanced as group winners to the knockout stage. However, Poland would eventually be stopped in the semi-finals, losing 0–2 to Italy; however, they also secured a place in the third place play-off, where Poland beat France 3–2, with the game also being regarded as "the end of the golden era of Polish football".
In 1986 FIFA World Cup qualifying, Poland finished top of their qualifying group, with 3 wins, 2 draws and 1 defeat. Poland's biggest win of the qualifying phase was a 4–1 win over Greece, while Poland's biggest defeat was a 0–2 defeat to Belgium.
At the 1986 World Cup, Poland were drawn into a group with England, Morocco and Portugal. The first match was a 0–0 draw against Morocco; in the second match, Poland beat Portugal 1–0. In the final group game, they lost 0–3 to England, but Poland still advanced into the knockout stage as a result of Morocco winning 3–1 over Portugal. In the round of sixteen, Poland were eliminated after suffering a 4–0 defeat to Brazil.
1986–2001
After the "Golden Era" from the 1970s and 1980s, Poland suffered a severe drought in international football; they did not qualify for three consecutive editions of the FIFA World Cup, from 1990 to 1998.
In 1990 World Cup qualifying, Poland finished third in the qualifying group, behind Sweden and England. They finished on 5 points with two wins, one draw and three defeats. They began qualifying for the 1990 edition with a 1–0 win over Albania, before losing to Sweden (2–1) and England (3–0). Poland then drew 0–0 with England, lost to Sweden 2–0 and beat Albania 2–1 in their final game, but were 4 points behind England, thus failing to qualify.
In 1994 World Cup qualifying, Poland finished fourth in the qualifying group, behind Norway, the Netherlands and England. Poland began qualifying with a 1–0 win over Turkey, followed by a 2–2 draw with the Netherlands, a 1–0 win over San Marino, and a 3–0 win in the reverse fixture. Afterwards, Poland drew 1–1 with England, before falling to a 0–3 defeat in the reverse fixture. Poland would then go on to suffer consecutive defeats, losing 1–0 and 3–0 to Norway, followed by a 2–1 defeat to Turkey and a 1–3 defeat to the Netherlands in the final fixture.
In Euro 1996 qualifying, Poland drew a qualifying group with Romania, France, Slovakia, Israel and Azerbaijan. Poland lost 2–1 to Israel in the first game, and then recorded a 1–0 win over Azerbaijan and a 0–0 draw with France. Later, Poland lost 2–1 to Romania and beat Israel 4–3 and Slovakia 5–0 before consecutive draws with France (1–1) and Romania (0–0). Poland lost 4–1 to Slovakia in the penultimate qualifying game, and drew 0–0 with Azerbaijan in the final group game.
In 1998 World Cup qualifying, Poland finished third behind England and Italy. They began qualifying with a 2–1 loss to England before beating Moldova (2–1) and drawing 0–0 with Italy. Afterwards, they suffered successive defeats to Italy (3–0) and England (0–2). They won the next two games with scores of 4–1 over Georgia and 3–0 over Moldova, with Andrzej Juskowiak scoring a hat-trick against the latter. The final game was against Georgia, with Poland losing 0–3.
During UEFA Euro 2000 qualifying, Poland was drawn in a group with England, Sweden, Bulgaria and Luxembourg. Poland finished third, tied with England in points earned, but failed to qualify due to goal difference.
2001–2006
Poland qualified for the 2002 World Cup, their first appearance at the World Cup since 1986. Poland's biggest win overall in the qualifying phase was a 4–0 win over Armenia, while their biggest defeat was a 4–1 defeat to Belarus.
The Polish drew a group featuring hosts South Korea, the United States and Portugal. The first match was played against the hosts on 4 June, with Poland losing 2–0. The second game was against Portugal on 10 June, which Poland lost 4–0, confirming their early elimination. Poland then played the United States in the final group game on 14 June, winning 3–1; however, the U.S. advanced to the quarter-finals after defeating Mexico in the round of 16. Despite the win, Poland finished last in the group, with a goal difference of –4 and 3 points.
Poland's qualifying for the 2006 FIFA World Cup saw eight wins and two defeats. They finished behind England in the qualifying group; but as a result of being the second best second-placed team in the play-offs, they qualified automatically for the finals in Germany. The biggest win of the qualifying phase for Poland was an 8–0 victory over Azerbaijan, in which Tomasz Frankowski scored a hat-trick. The biggest defeat of the qualifying phase for Poland were two defeats against England, losing both home and away games by a scoreline of 1–2.
At the 2006 World Cup, Poland drew Germany, Ecuador and Costa Rica in Group A. Despite high hopes from the Polish press, media and fans, Poland's campaign at the World Cup was seen as an underachievement; as Poland lost two and won one game, finishing third in the group. Poland's first match was a 2–0 defeat to Ecuador, followed by a 1–0 defeat to Germany, with Oliver Neuville scoring a stoppage time winning goal; the defeat to Germany, following Ecuador's 3–0 win over Costa Rica, officially ended Poland's chances of advancing further than the group stage. The third and final group game saw Poland defeat Costa Rica 2–1, with Bartosz Bosacki getting on the scoresheet twice.
2008
In Euro 2008 qualifying, Poland were drawn into a group with Portugal, Serbia, Finland, Belgium, Kazakhstan, Armenia and Azerbaijan. Poland's campaign began in uncomfortable fashion, suffering a 1–3 defeat to Finland on 2 September 2006 and then drawing 1–1 with Serbia on 6 September. In the third match, on 7 October, Poland won 1–0 over Kazakhstan, with Ebi Smolarek scoring the goal. On 11 October, Poland beat Portugal 2–1, with Smolarek scoring the two goals. Poland beat Belgium 1–0 on 15 November. On 24 March 2007, Poland beat Azerbaijan 5–0, and on 28 March beat Armenia 1–0. On 2 June, they beat Azerbaijan 3–1, with Smolarek and Krzynówek (2) scoring. On 6 June, Poland lost 1–0 to Armenia, on 8 September drew 2–2 with Portugal, and on 12 September drew 0–0 with Finland. On 13 October, Poland beat Kazakhstan 3–1 with a hat-trick from Smolarek. They beat Belgium 2–0 with two goals from Smolarek on 17 November and drew 2–2 with Serbia in the final qualifying game on the 21st, thus qualifying for the tournament as the 1st place team in the qualifying group following Portugal's 0–0 draw with Finland. This was Poland's first ever Euro appearance.
At UEFA Euro 2008, they were drawn in Group B, with Germany, Austria and Croatia. Germany and Poland played on 8 June at the Hypo-Arena in Klagenfurt, Austria, with Poland losing 2–0 with two goals from Lukas Podolski. In the second game, Poland drew 1–1 with Austria, taking the lead through Brazil-born Roger Guerreiro, before conceding in the third minute of stoppage time following a controversial penalty. Poland lost 1–0 in the final group game was against Croatia and finished bottom of the group.
2010
In 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifying, Poland were drawn in a group with Slovakia, Slovenia, the Czech Republic, Northern Ireland and San Marino. Poland finished fifth in the group, just above San Marino, with 11 points. Poland began the campaign with a 1–1 draw against Slovenia on 6 September 2008. On 10 October, Poland beat San Marino 2–0. On 11 October, they won 2–1 against the Czech Republic. After these wins, Poland lost consecutive matches against Slovakia (2–1) and Northern Ireland (3–2). Poland then recorded their biggest ever win with a scoreline of 10–0 against San Marino. Six different players scored in the win on 1 April 2009. In the last rounds of qualifying, Poland drew 1–1 with Northern Ireland and lost to Slovenia. Poland then ended the campaign with consecutive losses to the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
2012
On 18 April 2007, in Cardiff, Poland and Ukraine were selected to host UEFA Euro 2012 by the UEFA Executive Committee. The bid defeated others from Italy, Greece, Turkey, and a joint bid by Croatia and Hungary. Poland and Ukraine's bid became the third successful joint-bid made to host the UEFA European Championship, after the Netherlands and Belgium in 2000, and Austria and Switzerland in 2008.
Poland were drawn into Group A, with Greece, Russia and the Czech Republic. On 8 June, the opening match played between Poland and Greece at the National Stadium in Warsaw ended 1–1, with Poland taking the lead in the 17th minute through Robert Lewandowski before Greece equalized in the second half through Dimitris Salpingidis in the 51st minute. Both teams went down to 10 men during the game. Poland's next game was on 12 June, again played at the National Stadium in Warsaw, with the game against Russia finishing 1–1. Russia took the lead through Alan Dzagoev in the 37th minute before Poland equalized through Błaszczykowski in the 57th minute. Poland's final game was played against the Czech Republic on 16 June at the Municipal Stadium, in Wrocław, where Poland lost 1–0 following a goal from Petr Jiráček. Poland finished bottom of the group with two points, prompting coach Franciszek Smuda to resign following the elimination.
2014–2021
Poland was drawn in Group H of 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifying, with England, Ukraine, Montenegro, Moldova and San Marino.
On 7 September, Poland's first qualifying match ended in a 2–2 draw with Montenegro, with goals from Błaszczykowski and Mierzejewski. On 11 September, they beat Moldova 2–0 with goals from Błaszczykowski and Wawrzyniak. On 17 October, Poland drew 1–1 with England, with Glik scoring the equalizing goal. On 22 March 2013, Poland lost 3–1 to Ukraine, conceding two goals in the first seven minutes alone, with Piszczek scoring Poland's only goal. On 26 March, Poland beat San Marino 5–0, with a brace from Lewandowski, and goals from Piszczek, Teodorczyk and Kosecki. On 6 September, Poland drew 1–1 with Montenegro, with Lewandowski scoring the equalizing goal only five minutes after Poland initially conceded. On 10 September, they beat San Marino 5–1, with a brace from Zieliński, and goals from Błaszczykowski, Sobota and Mierzejewski. However, Poland lost the last two games against Ukraine and England, 1–0 and 2–0, respectively.
In UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying, Poland were drawn in Group D, with Germany, Scotland, the Republic of Ireland, Georgia and Gibraltar.
On 11 October 2014, Poland beat 2014 World Cup champions Germany 2–0. Three days later, Poland drew 2–2 with Scotland. They drew 1–1 with the Republic of Ireland in March 2015 after conceding a goal from Shane Long in stoppage time. By October, they beat the Republic of Ireland to score enough points for securing automatic qualification for the Euros.
At UEFA Euro 2016, Poland were drawn in Group C, with Germany, Northern Ireland and Ukraine.
Poland's first match was with Northern Ireland on 12 June at the Stade de Nice in Nice; they won the game 1–0 with a goal from Arkadiusz Milik in the 51st minute. The next match was with Germany at the Stade de France in Saint-Denis on 16 June; with the finishing 0–0. Poland's final group game was with Ukraine on 21 June, at the Stade Vélodrome in Marseille, a game they won 1–0 with a goal from Jakub Błaszczykowski. In the round of sixteen, Poland were drawn to play Switzerland on 25 June at the Stade Geoffroy-Guichard in Saint-Étienne. Poland took the lead through a goal from Błaszczykowski, but conceded a bicycle kick from Xherdan Shaqiri in the 82nd minute, finishing the game 1–1 in regular time. Poland then beat Switzerland in a penalty shootout, 5–4. Poland then faced Portugal in the quarter-finals; another penalty shootout occurred after a 1–1 draw. Poland lost the shootout 5–3.
In 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifying, Poland were drawn in Group E, with Denmark, Montenegro, Romania, Armenia and Kazakhstan.
Despite drawing with Kazakhstan on 4 September 2016 opening match, Lewandowski scored 16 goals during qualifying, breaking the European qualifying scoring record, as well as becoming the all-time top goalscorer of Poland.
Poland played at the 2018 FIFA World Cup, their first World Cup since 2006, in Group H, against Senegal, Colombia and Japan. Despite the group being considered close, Poland were tipped as favorites to advance.
Poland's tournament was disappointing overall; they lost to Senegal in the opening match, 2–1 on 19 June in Moscow. Five days later, on 24 June, they lost to Colombia in Kazan 3–0, mathematically eliminating them from the round of 16. They did beat Japan 1–0 in their final group game in Volgograd. Poland finished at the bottom of their group.
Qualifying for UEFA Euro 2020 was based on performance in the inaugural 2018–19 UEFA Nations League. In 2018, Poland was drawn into Group 3 in the 2018–19 UEFA Nations League A, along with Portugal and Italy. Poland was relegated to League B with two home defeats and two away draws, only to be allowed to remain on League A following UEFA rule changes.
Poland opened their UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying by a single-margin 1–0 win against Austria in Vienna. Three days later, Poland followed up their suit by beating Latvia 2–0 at home.
On 7 June 2019, Poland defeated North Macedonia 1–0 by a lone goal from Piątek. They then beat Israel 4–0 in Warsaw. Poland then lost 2–0 to Slovenia in Ljubljana. A following 0–0 home draw to Austria meant that Poland's top spot was under bank, with Slovenia approaching very quickly.
In October, Poland embattled two opponents, Latvia and North Macedonia, for its UEFA Euro 2020 quest. Poland managed a convincing 3–0 away win over Latvia, eliminating them from the competition. Slovenia's shock away defeat to North Macedonia relieved pressure for Poland, with Slovenia falling from second to fourth place. Eventually, Poland beat North Macedonia 2–0 at home, and with Slovenia falling at home to Austria, Poland qualified for the Euros for the fourth consecutive time.
Being allowed to remain in League A, Poland was drawn against Italy, the Netherlands, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The performance of this tournament doubled as part of the upcoming 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification as playoff campaigns.
Poland started their League games without Lewandowski. In their first match, an away game against the Netherlands, the Poles lost 1–0. Later, Poland made a trip to Bosnia; the Bosnian team, including Edin Džeko, had held Italy 1–1 draw away before. However, Poland managed a comeback from a goal down, with Kamil Glik and Kamil Grosicki scoring to beat Bosnia 2–1. In October, Poland hosted Italy and Bosnia at home; a goalless draw with Italy combined with a 3–0 win over Bosnia made them temporarily occupy the top spot of the group. However, in November, Poland suffered a 2–0 defeat despite Italy being depleted by COVID-19. Poland lost to the Netherlands 2–1 at home, ending in third place.
Poland participated in UEFA Euro 2020, postponed to 2021 due to COVID-19. A 2–1 loss to Slovakia, followed by a 1–1 draw to Spain, preceded a 3–2 defeat to Sweden to eliminate the Poles.
2022–present
Poland advanced to the second round (play-offs) of World Cup qualification to determine the final three European teams that would join the group winners at the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar. Poland was scheduled to face Russia in Moscow on 24 March 2022 in the semi-final of a four-team playoff bracket that also included Sweden and the Czech Republic. However, following the Russian invasion of Ukraine, FIFA indefinitely suspended Russia from all international competition. Poland advanced automatically to the play-off finals, where they defeated Sweden to qualify.
At the 2022 World Cup, Poland was drawn into Group C, where they were scheduled to play against Argentina, Saudi Arabia, and Mexico. The first match ended with a goalless draw against Mexico. Goals from Piotr Zieliński and Robert Lewandowski gave Poland a 2–0 win against Saudi Arabia in the second match. Following their loss to Argentina, Poland advanced to the knockout stage ahead of Mexico on goal difference, their first knockout stage appearance since 1986. During the match, Wojciech Szczęsny denied Lionel Messi on a penalty kick opportunity. Szczęsny became the third keeper ever to stop two penalties in a single World Cup, with the others being Brad Friedel in 2002 for the United States and Jan Tomaszewski in 1974, also for Poland. In the round of 16, Poland lost 3–1 to France, in which Robert Lewandowski scored a penalty in stoppage time.
Czesław Michniewicz did not renew his contract as manager and his place was taken by award-winning coach Fernando Santos to take on the mission of qualifying for Euro 2024. Defeats to the Czech Republic, Moldova and Albania brought his dismissal. In September 2023, Fernando Santos was replaced by Michał Probierz, who started with a win against the Faroe Islands in Euro 2024 qualifying, but then drew with Moldova. Poland later ended qualification for Euro 2024 with a 1–1 draw to the Czech Republic, ending all hopes for Poland to clinch automatic qualification. However, because of Poland's Nations League performance, the Poles were able to salvage a place in the play-offs, where Poland defeated Estonia 5–1. After a goalless draw against Wales, the Poles won on penalties to secure a spot at the Euros.
Team image
Names
The official FIFA country code for Poland is POL. This abbreviation is used to identify the team in FIFA, UEFA, and other matches. The same abbreviation is also used under the International Organization for Standardization. "Polish national football team" can be translated into Polish as "Reprezentacja Polski w piłce nożnej". The team's most common nicknames include "Biało-czerwoni", which means "The white-reds", and "Orły", which translates into "The Eagles". In English, the team is also widely known as "The White Eagles", based on Poland's national coat of arms.
Supporters
The Polish team enjoys widespread support in Poland and among Polish diaspora worldwide. A notable chant among Polish fans is "Polska, biało-czerwoni" ("Poland, the White-Reds").
National kits
The national kits of Poland reflect the colours of the national flag, which are white and red. Apart from minor details (in the 1920s the socks in the home kit were striped), the design remains unchanged since 1921. The home kit consists of a white shirt, red shorts, and white socks; the away kit is all red (though sometimes worn with white shorts). On the rare occasions when both home and away kits clash with the opponent's, a colours third kit is available, usually in either black or blue (currently navy blue with white-red sleeves).
The kit has traditionally been adorned with the coat of arms of Poland, i.e. the crowned white eagle. Until 2006, the coat of arms featured only the inscription "POLSKA" in capital letters above the eagle, and not, as with many other national teams, the national football federation logo. The Euro 2012 kits were the first to feature the logo of the PZPN. When the kit was first launched it did not include the coat of arms, but it was restored shortly thereafter. Since 2009, the kits have been provided by Nike.
Stadiums
Main stadiums
Silesian Stadium in Chorzów was built in 1956; the stadium has a seating capacity of 47,246. The stadium was renovated to expand its seating capacity to 55,211 and was reopened in October 2017. In 1993, the stadium was designated as the official home stadium of the Poland national team. In 2011, the National Stadium in Warsaw was completed with a capacity of 58,580 and since then, it has become a major stadium of Polish team and hosts most of Euro and World Cup qualifications matches.
Other stadiums
Poland has also played at the following stadiums:
Results and fixtures
The list below includes match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.
2023
2024
Non-playing staff
Coaching history
Caretaker manager are listed in italics.
Prior to 1966 the Polish team was chosen by a selection committee.
Michał Matyas (1966–1967)
Ryszard Koncewicz (1968–1970)
Kazimierz Górski (1971–1976)
Jacek Gmoch (1976–1978)
Ryszard Kulesza (1978–1980)
Antoni Piechniczek (1981–1986, 1996–1997)
Wojciech Łazarek (1986–1989)
Andrzej Strejlau (1989–1993)
Lesław Ćmikiewicz (1993)
Henryk Apostel (1994–1995)
Władysław Stachurski (1996)
Krzysztof Pawlak (1997)
Janusz Wójcik (1997–1999)
Jerzy Engel (2000–2002)
Zbigniew Boniek (2002)
Paweł Janas (2003–2006)
Leo Beenhakker (2006–2009)
Stefan Majewski (2009)
Franciszek Smuda (2009–2012)
Waldemar Fornalik (2012–2013)
Adam Nawałka (2013–2018)
Jerzy Brzęczek (2018–2021)
Paulo Sousa (2021)
Czesław Michniewicz (2022)
Fernando Santos (2023)
Michał Probierz (2023–present)
Players
Current squad
The following players were called up for UEFA Euro 2024.
Caps and goals updated as of 16 June 2024, after the match against Netherlands, as recognized by the PZPN.
Recent call-ups
The following players have been called up for the national team in the last twelve months.
INJ Withdrew from the squad due to an injury.
WD Player withdrew from the squad
RET Retired from the national team.
U21 Joined Poland national under-21 football team.
Player records
Players in bold are still active with Poland.
Most appearances
Top goalscorers
Most clean sheets
Competitive record
Champions Runners-up Third place Tournament played fully or partially on home soil
FIFA World Cup
Olympic Games
UEFA European Championship
UEFA Nations League
FIFA rankings history
Head-to-head record
Statistics updated as of 16 June 2024. List including all matches officially recognized by the Polish Football Association (also those not recognized by FIFA).
Honours
Major
FIFA World Cup
Third place (2): 1974, 1982
Olympic Games
Gold medal (1): 1972
Silver medal (2): 1976, 1992
Minor
King's Cup
Runners-up (1): 2010
Nehru Cup
Champions (1): 1984
Notes
References
External links
Poland at UEFA
Poland at FIFA
90minut.pl – Polish national team at 90minut.pl
Polish national team news at PolishFootballOnline.com (archived 31 August 2010)
Poland – Record International Players; most capped players & top goalscorers on RSSSF
RSSSF – Poland men's national football team international matches
All matches of Poland national football team
The Making of the Polish National Football Team at Culture.pl
Poland national football team
European national association football teams
1921 establishments in Poland
Football in Poland
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Ернст Толлер
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Ернст Толлер (1 грудня 1893 — 22 травня 1939) — німецький поет, драматург, революціонер, антифашист, голова Баварської Радянської Республіки, одна з найяскравіших постатей експресіонізму.
Біографія
Ернст Толлер народився в прусському містечку Шамоцин в провінції Позен (нині Польща) в купецькій єврейській родині. Після школи він вступив у Гренобльський університет у Франції, де його і застала Перша світова війна.
Перша світова
Повернувшись у Німеччину, Толлер добровольцем пішов на фронт, тринадцять місяців він провів на передовій, де його ура-патріотизм змінився жахом перед безглуздим вбивством; додому він повернувся пацифістом. На фронті Толлер почав писати свою першу п'єсу — «Преображення».
Демобілізований через хворобу, він попрямував до Берліну, де зблизився з радикально миследумниv Максом Вебером. Однак і погляди Вебера не задовольняють Толлера, вважає, що недостатньо повалити кайзера і змінити виборчу систему — треба, щоб змінилась людина.
Намагаючись продовжити навчання, Толлер вирушив до Гайдельберга. Там разом з іншими студентами він незабаром створює антивоєнну організацію — «Культурно-політичний союз німецької молоді». На Союз відразу ж обрушуються звинувачення в зраді батьківщині, військова влада Німеччини забороняє його, членів відправляють на фронт, а Толлера садять у військову в'язницю. Пізніше стараннями матері, яка не вірила, що її син зрадник, Ернста переводять в психіатричну лікарню, де він довго не витримує і домагається зворотного переведення у в'язницю.
Вийшовши на свободу, Толлер вирушив до Мюнхена, де спалахнув антивоєнний страйк. Він знайомиться з лідером незалежних соціал-демократів Куртом Айснером, допомагає робітникам складати декларації, читає на мітингах свою першу п'єсу. Незважаючи на молодість, Толлер виявляє потужну харизму, здатність переконувати людей, обирається членом страйкового комітету мюнхенських робітників і мимоволі стає одним з лідерів страйку. Стайк викликає великий відгук на фронті, солдатські бунти і братання. Толлера знову саджають у в'язницю — нібито за дезертирство. У переповненій дезертирами в'язниці панує атмосфера божевілля і відчаю:
«Осколками скла вони розкривають собі вени, розривають простирадла і звивають з полотнищ мотузки, кидаються в кам'яні прольоти сходів. Я ніколи не забуду пронизливого тваринного крику, який увірвався одного разу вранці в мій сон; я схопився і теж закричав і, чужий сам собі, кричав і кричав, не перестаючи...»
У цій атмосфері Толлер починає писати вірші (майбутня книга «Пісні ув'язнених». Вийшовши з в'язниці, він у 1919 році закінчив експрісіоністську антивоєнну п'єсу «Преображення», одну з головних п'єс німецького експресіонізму. «Переображення» відразу стає дуже популярним, його багато разів ставлять у Берліні, а потім і в інших країнах, зокрема, в Радянській Росії.
Баварська Радянська Республіка
Тим часом війна закінчилася поразкою, в листопаді 1918 року в Німеччині сталася Листопадова революція, кайзер біжить в Голландію. У Баварії до влади приходять ліві соціалісти на чолі з Куртом Айснером, проголошується Баварська соціалістична республіка. Толлер їде в Мюнхен, допомагати Айснеру, але незабаром вбиває офіцер-монархіст Антон фон Арко ауф Валлей. Починаються заворушення, в результаті яких на початку квітня 1919 року владу беруть робочі Ради — і Толлер в 25 років стає одним з лідерів республіки (разом з поетом Еріхом Мюзамом, філософом-анархістом Густавом Ландауером і революціонером російського походження Євгеном Левіне).
До цього часу в Берліні вже були вбиті лідери «Союзу Спартака» Карл Лібкнехт і Роза Люксембург, в країні почалася хвиля репресій. Берлін не визнав Радянську республіку і направив в Баварію війська. Генералітет, бажаючи відігратися за програну війну, кидає на Мюнхен величезні сили з артилерією і бронепоїздами. Починається громадянська війна, і переконаний пацифіст Толлер стає керівником оборони.
Ставши командиром Червоної армії, в першому ж бою Толлер здобув перемогу: червоноармійці змусили фрайкори відступити і полонили 50 офіцерів, яких він розпорядився звільнити. Він також заборонив вести артилерійський вогонь по місту, зайнятій супротивником, — адже там були і мирні жителі. Прихильник безкровної революції, Толлер щосили намагається обійтися без зайвих жертв, веде переговори, виступає проти введення смертної кари, нікого не розстрілює, відпускає полонених солдатів і офіцерів додому і т. д. Втім, протилежна сторона в переговорах не зацікавлена і продовжує наступ.
В результаті такої політики, внутрішніх чвар і нерівності сил (кілька тисяч робітників проти 60-тисячної армії) республіка Рад тримається менш як місяць. Коли стає ясно, що становище безнадійне, Толлер пропонує уряду піти на переговори про капітуляцію. Проте комуністи відмовляють йому. Толлер йде з посади командувача і стає рядовим червоноармійцем.
1 травня 1919 р. німецькі війська та загони фрайкору взяли Мюнхен і влаштовують масовий терор. Багато сотень невинних людей і майже всі керівники республіки розстріляні. Однак Толлер кілька місяців переховується (серед інших йому допомагає Райнер Марія Рільке). Його знайшли вже після закінчення розправ і в червні 1919 року засудили на п'ять років тюрми.
Тюрма і розквіт творчості
В тюрмі для політв'язнів у Нідершененфельді Толлер написав свої кращі експресіоністські драми — «Людина-Маса» (Masse-Mensch) і «Німецький каліка» (Der deutsche Hinkemann) (а також п'єси «Руйнівники машин», «Звільнений Вотан», «Помста осміяних коханців») У розпал роботи над «Німецьким калікою» Толлеру пропонують бігти. Шанси на успіх великі — але Толлер так захоплений п'єсою, що, помучившись, відмовляється і залишається у в'язниці ще на три роки. Тут же він створює кілька збірок віршів. Ромен Роллан писав про ці вірші:
«Оголені нерви, болісно, судомно реагують на найменше зіткнення із зовнішнім світом. Сутінкові тіні і відблиски заходу оживляють тюремну камеру п'янкими танцями; все наповнюється життям і рухом; цілий всесвіт вирує у вузькому просторі камери. Він здобув чудову здатність втілюватися у все, що його оточує. Він почуває себе братом ось цієї дівчини — майбутньої матері, що проходить по тюремному подвір'ї, братом навіть своїх вартою. Більш того, він брат всього сущого, бо все життя — дощ, каміння, зів'яла квітка, весняна зелень, пробивається крізь бруд тюремного двору...»
Толлер стає найзнаменитішим німецьким драматургом та політв'язнем. Його п'єси безупинно йдуть в Німеччині, вистави перетворюються на стихійні мітинги. Драми переводять на багато мов, ставлять кращі режисери авангардного театру, такі як Ервін Піскатор і Всеволод Мейєрхольд. У 1919 році в Берліні виставою «Преображення» відкривається спеціальний экспрессионистский театр «Трибуна». Толлер і його товариші революціонізують театр, який бачиться їм духовним братством глядачів і акторів, будинком містерії, що змінює людину. Велику роль у постановках починають грати світлові ефекти, гротескні сцени, виплеск емоцій. Від акторів потрібно не характерність, а навпаки, вираження глибинної суті людини в момент найвищої напруги духовних сил.
Антифашизм
У 1925 році Толлер виходить на свободу. Незважаючи на славу, його чекає розчарування. За п'ять років Німеччина змінилася, часи катарсису, відкритості і пошуку пройшли, всі змирилися з тим, що є. Революція, будівництво нового світу вже нікого навсправжки не цікавлять. Про це Толлер пише останню зі своїх найкращих п'єс — «Ура, ми живі!» (Hoppla, wir leben!). Далі Толлер пише мало — все більше віддаючись політиці. Він пише ще кілька п'єс — «Сліпа богиня» (Die blinde Göttin), «Гаси котли!» (Feuer aus den Kesseln!), «Диво в Америці» (Wunder in America), «Світу не буде!» (Nie wieder Friede!), «Пастор Халь» (Pastor Hall) — але вони здебільшого публіцистично-антифашистські і виходять нудніше, ніж ранні речі. Для експресіонізму потрібен новий катарсис, а його немає. Головною справою Толлера стає боротьба з фашизмом. Глибоко відчуваючи колективну свідомість, він раніше за інших розуміє, що таке фашизм — загнане вглиб розчарування, сліпа дія людини, що втратила зв'язок з собою.
Ще у в'язниці Толлер написав п'єсу «Звільнений Вотан» з божевільним перукарем, виглядає як сатира на Гітлера. Те, що письменник говорить у 1930 році, здається пророцтвом: «Європу чекає царство фашизму, яке скінчиться жахливою війною». Він каже, що Гітлер, отримавши владу, ніколи її не віддасть, що опозиція буде безсила перед державою.
Цікавлячись усіма спробами будівництва нового життя, Толлер багато їздить — і в 1930 випускає книгу «Вздовж і впоперек» (Quer durch) про подорожі в СРСР, Америку, Індію і Палестину. В СРСР Толлер приїжджав двічі — в 1926 і 1934 роках. Радянська Росія, до якої Толлер ставився дуже доброзичливо, досить його розчарувала. Віктор Серж згадував про це:
«Що я не можу передати, так це атмосферу гнітючої нудотної дурниці на письменницьких зборах, зведених до ревного служіння владі. Між нами сидів Ернст Толлер, який нещодавно вийшов з баварської в'язниці. Йому уривками переводили промову і його великі чорні очі на обличчі, повному сили і спокою, висловлювали розгубленість. Звичайно, бунтівний поет уявляв собі радянську літературу трохи інакше».
28 лютого 1933 року, у ніч підпалу рейхстагу, в квартиру Толлера увірвалося гестапо — арешту і вбивства він уникнув тільки тому, що напередодні поїхав виступати до Швейцарії. У нацистів залишився весь архів письменника.
Америка, війна в Іспанії
З Швейцарії Толлер переїжджає до Франції, Лондон, а потім в США. У 1933 році, в еміграції він випускає одну з найкращих своїх книг — спогади «Юність в Німеччині» (Eine Jugend in Deutschland). В Америці Толлер стає лідером німецьких антифашистів. Він веде агітацію, намагається об'єднати біженців, всіляко допомагає їм, вибиває візи, види на проживання і дозволи на роботу. Сам він, сподіваючись донести свої ідеї через кіно, влаштовується сценаристом в «Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer» — тому не бідує. Але пише Толлер мало — він занадто темпераментний, щоб у відриві від своєї публіки витрачати час на мистецтво. З початком війни в Іспанії Толлер розгортає потужну кампанію допомоги республіці і біженцям, збирає гроші (і сам віддає всі свої заощадження). Він зустрічається з конгресменами і президентом Франкліном Рузвельтом, намагаючись переконати їх, що Іспанія для фашистів лише репетиція великої війни.
Однак з 1937 року Толлер все сильніше страждає від депресії. Зібрана ним для республіки величезна сума грошей потрапляє в руки франкістів. Його брат і сестра перебувають у нацистському концтаборі. Перемога Франко приводить у відчай — 22 травня 1939, в день переможного маршу націоналістів в Мадриді, Толлер повісився у ванній свого номера в нью-йоркському готелі «Мейфлауер». Некрологи про нього написали Уїст Оден, Вільям Батлер Єйтс, Ліон Фейхтвангер, Томас Манн, Зигмунд Фрейд та багато інших.
Спадщина
2009 рік в Баварії неофіційно став роком пам'яті Ернста Толлера. Товариство Ернста Толлера нагородило своєю почесною премією баварського актора, кабаретиста, телеведучого і письменника
П'єси:
«Преображення» (Die Wandlung; 1919)
«Людина-маса» (Masse-Mensch; 1921)
«Руйнівники машин» (1922)
«Німецький каліка» (Der deutsche Hinkemann; 1923)
«Звільнений Вотан» (1923)
«Помста осміяних коханців»
«Гоп-ля, ми живемо!» (Hoppla, wir leben! 1927)
«Сліпа богиня»
«Гасити котли» (1930)
«Диво в Америці»
«Світу не буде»
«Пастор Халь»
Спогади:
«Юність в Німеччині» (Eine Jugend in Deutschland), публікувалася по-русски
«Вздовж і впоперек» (Quer durch)
«Правосуддя. Пережите» (Justiz. Erlebnis)
Вірші:
«Пісні ув'язнених» (Gedichte der Gefangenen)
«Книга ластівок» (Das Schwalbenbuch)
«Verbruderung»
Фільм:
«Пастор Халь», (Pastor Hall, США, 1940)
Примітки
Німецькі драматурги
Політики Німеччини
Учасники Листопадової революції
Баварська Радянська Республіка
Поети-самогубці
Самогубці, які повісилися
Президенти єврейського походження
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobalt
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Cobalt
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Cobalt is a chemical element; it has symbol Co and atomic number 27. As with nickel, cobalt is found in the Earth's crust only in a chemically combined form, save for small deposits found in alloys of natural meteoric iron. The free element, produced by reductive smelting, is a hard, lustrous, somewhat brittle, gray metal.
Cobalt-based blue pigments (cobalt blue) have been used since antiquity for jewelry and paints, and to impart a distinctive blue tint to glass. The color was long thought to be due to the metal bismuth. Miners had long used the name kobold ore (German for goblin ore) for some of the blue pigment-producing minerals. They were so named because they were poor in known metals and gave off poisonous arsenic-containing fumes when smelted. In 1735, such ores were found to be reducible to a new metal (the first discovered since ancient times), which was ultimately named for the kobold.
Today, some cobalt is produced specifically from one of a number of metallic-lustered ores, such as cobaltite (CoAsS). The element is more usually produced as a by-product of copper and nickel mining. The Copperbelt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Zambia yields most of the global cobalt production. World production in 2016 was (according to Natural Resources Canada), and the DRC alone accounted for more than 50%.
Cobalt is primarily used in lithium-ion batteries, and in the manufacture of magnetic, wear-resistant and high-strength alloys. The compounds cobalt silicate and cobalt(II) aluminate (CoAl2O4, cobalt blue) give a distinctive deep blue color to glass, ceramics, inks, paints and varnishes. Cobalt occurs naturally as only one stable isotope, cobalt-59. Cobalt-60 is a commercially important radioisotope, used as a radioactive tracer and for the production of high-energy gamma rays. Cobalt is also used in the petroleum industry as a catalyst when refining crude oil. This is to purge it of sulfur, which is very polluting when burned and causes acid rain.
Cobalt is the active center of a group of coenzymes called cobalamins. Vitamin B, the best-known example of the type, is an essential vitamin for all animals. Cobalt in inorganic form is also a micronutrient for bacteria, algae, and fungi.
Characteristics
Cobalt is a ferromagnetic metal with a specific gravity of 8.9. The Curie temperature is and the magnetic moment is 1.6–1.7 Bohr magnetons per atom. Cobalt has a relative permeability two-thirds that of iron. Metallic cobalt occurs as two crystallographic structures: hcp and fcc. The ideal transition temperature between the hcp and fcc structures is , but in practice the energy difference between them is so small that random intergrowth of the two is common.
Cobalt is a weakly reducing metal that is protected from oxidation by a passivating oxide film. It is attacked by halogens and sulfur. Heating in oxygen produces Co3O4 which loses oxygen at to give the monoxide CoO. The metal reacts with fluorine (F2) at 520 K to give CoF3; with chlorine (Cl2), bromine (Br2) and iodine (I2), producing equivalent binary halides. It does not react with hydrogen gas (H2) or nitrogen gas (N2) even when heated, but it does react with boron, carbon, phosphorus, arsenic and sulfur. At ordinary temperatures, it reacts slowly with mineral acids, and very slowly with moist, but not dry, air.
Compounds
Common oxidation states of cobalt include +2 and +3, although compounds with oxidation states ranging from −3 to +5 are also known. A common oxidation state for simple compounds is +2 (cobalt(II)). These salts form the pink-colored metal aquo complex in water. Addition of chloride gives the intensely blue . In a borax bead flame test, cobalt shows deep blue in both oxidizing and reducing flames.
Oxygen and chalcogen compounds
Several oxides of cobalt are known. Green cobalt(II) oxide (CoO) has rocksalt structure. It is readily oxidized with water and oxygen to brown cobalt(III) hydroxide (Co(OH)3). At temperatures of 600–700 °C, CoO oxidizes to the blue cobalt(II,III) oxide (Co3O4), which has a spinel structure. Black cobalt(III) oxide (Co2O3) is also known. Cobalt oxides are antiferromagnetic at low temperature: CoO (Néel temperature 291 K) and Co3O4 (Néel temperature: 40 K), which is analogous to magnetite (Fe3O4), with a mixture of +2 and +3 oxidation states.
The principal chalcogenides of cobalt are the black cobalt(II) sulfides, CoS2 (pyrite structure), (spinel structure), and CoS (nickel arsenide structure).
Halides
Four dihalides of cobalt(II) are known: cobalt(II) fluoride (CoF2, pink), cobalt(II) chloride (CoCl2, blue), cobalt(II) bromide (CoBr2, green), cobalt(II) iodide (CoI2, blue-black). These halides exist in anhydrous and hydrated forms. Whereas the anhydrous dichloride is blue, the hydrate is red.
The reduction potential for the reaction + e− → is +1.92 V, beyond that for chlorine to chloride, +1.36 V. Consequently, cobalt(III) chloride would spontaneously reduce to cobalt(II) chloride and chlorine. Because the reduction potential for fluorine to fluoride is so high, +2.87 V, cobalt(III) fluoride is one of the few simple stable cobalt(III) compounds. Cobalt(III) fluoride, which is used in some fluorination reactions, reacts vigorously with water.
Coordination compounds
The inventory of complexes is very large. Starting with higher oxidation states, complexes of Co(IV) and Co(V) are rare. Examples are found in caesium hexafluorocobaltate(IV) (Cs2CoF6) and potassium percobaltate (K3CoO4).
Cobalt(III) forms a wide variety of coordination complexes with ammonia and amines, which are called ammine complexes. Examples include , (chloropentamminecobalt(III)), and cis- and trans-. The corresponding ethylenediamine complexes are also well known. Analogues are known where the halides are replaced by nitrite, hydroxide, carbonate, etc. Alfred Werner worked extensively on these complexes in his Nobel-prize winning work. The robustness of these complexes is demonstrated by the optical resolution of tris(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III).
Cobalt(II) forms a wide variety complexes, but mainly with weakly basic ligands. The pink-colored cation hexaaquocobalt(II) is found in several routine cobalt salts such as the nitrate and sulfate. Upon addition of excess chloride, solutions of the hexaaquo complex converts to the deep blue , which is tetrahedral.
Softer ligands like triphenylphosphine form complexes with Co(II) and Co(I), examples being bis- and tris(triphenylphosphine)cobalt(I) chloride, and . These Co(I) and Co(II) complexes represent a link to the organometallic complexes described below.
Organometallic compounds
Cobaltocene is a structural analog to ferrocene, with cobalt in place of iron. Cobaltocene is much more sensitive to oxidation than ferrocene. Cobalt carbonyl (Co2(CO)8) is a catalyst in carbonylation and hydrosilylation reactions. Vitamin B12 (see below) is an organometallic compound found in nature and is the only vitamin that contains a metal atom. An example of an alkylcobalt complex in the otherwise uncommon +4 oxidation state of cobalt is the homoleptic complex tetrakis(1-norbornyl)cobalt(IV) (Co(1-norb)4), a transition metal-alkyl complex that is notable for its resistance to β-hydrogen elimination, in accord with Bredt's rule. The cobalt(III) and cobalt(V) complexes and are also known.
Isotopes
59Co is the only stable cobalt isotope and the only isotope that exists naturally on Earth. Twenty-two radioisotopes have been characterized: the most stable, 60Co, has a half-life of 5.2714 years; 57Co has a half-life of 271.8 days; 56Co has a half-life of 77.27 days; and 58Co has a half-life of 70.86 days. All the other radioactive isotopes of cobalt have half-lives shorter than 18 hours, and in most cases shorter than 1 second. This element also has 4 meta states, all of which have half-lives shorter than 15 minutes.
The isotopes of cobalt range in atomic weight from 50 u (50Co) to 73 u (73Co). The primary decay mode for isotopes with atomic mass unit values less than that of the only stable isotope, 59Co, is electron capture and the primary mode of decay in isotopes with atomic mass greater than 59 atomic mass units is beta decay. The primary decay products below 59Co are element 26 (iron) isotopes; above that the decay products are element 28 (nickel) isotopes.
History
Cobalt compounds have been used for centuries to impart a rich blue color to glass, glazes, and ceramics. Cobalt has been detected in Egyptian sculpture, Persian jewelry from the third millennium BC, in the ruins of Pompeii, destroyed in 79 AD, and in China, dating from the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) and the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD).
Cobalt has been used to color glass since the Bronze Age. The excavation of the Uluburun shipwreck yielded an ingot of blue glass, cast during the 14th century BC. Blue glass from Egypt was either colored with copper, iron, or cobalt. The oldest cobalt-colored glass is from the eighteenth dynasty of Egypt (1550–1292 BC). The source for the cobalt the Egyptians used is not known.
The word cobalt is derived from the German , from kobold meaning "goblin", a superstitious term used for the ore of cobalt by miners. The first attempts to smelt those ores for copper or silver failed, yielding simply powder (cobalt(II) oxide) instead. Because the primary ores of cobalt always contain arsenic, smelting the ore oxidized the arsenic into the highly toxic and volatile arsenic oxide, adding to the notoriety of the ore. Paracelsus, Georgius Agricola, and Basil Valentine all referred to such silicates as "cobalt".
Swedish chemist Georg Brandt (1694–1768) is credited with discovering cobalt , showing it to be a previously unknown element, distinct from bismuth and other traditional metals. Brandt called it a new "semi-metal". He showed that compounds of cobalt metal were the source of the blue color in glass, which previously had been attributed to the bismuth found with cobalt. Cobalt became the first metal to be discovered since the pre-historical period. All other known metals (iron, copper, silver, gold, zinc, mercury, tin, lead and bismuth) had no recorded discoverers.
During the 19th century, a significant part of the world's production of cobalt blue (a pigment made with cobalt compounds and alumina) and smalt (cobalt glass powdered for use for pigment purposes in ceramics and painting) was carried out at the Norwegian Blaafarveværket. The first mines for the production of smalt in the 16th century were located in Norway, Sweden, Saxony and Hungary. With the discovery of cobalt ore in New Caledonia in 1864, the mining of cobalt in Europe declined. With the discovery of ore deposits in Ontario, Canada, in 1904 and the discovery of even larger deposits in the Katanga Province in the Congo in 1914, mining operations shifted again. When the Shaba conflict started in 1978, the copper mines of Katanga Province nearly stopped production. The impact on the world cobalt economy from this conflict was smaller than expected: cobalt is a rare metal, the pigment is highly toxic, and the industry had already established effective ways for recycling cobalt materials. In some cases, industry was able to change to cobalt-free alternatives.
In 1938, John Livingood and Glenn T. Seaborg discovered the radioisotope cobalt-60. This isotope was famously used at Columbia University in the 1950s to establish parity violation in radioactive beta decay.
After World War II, the US wanted to guarantee the supply of cobalt ore for military uses (as the Germans had been doing) and prospected for cobalt within the US. High purity cobalt was highly sought after for its use in jet engines and gas turbines. An adequate supply of the ore was found in Idaho near Blackbird canyon. Calera Mining Company started production at the site.
Cobalt demand has further accelerated in the 21st century as an essential constituent of materials used in rechargeable batteries, superalloys, and catalysts. It has been argued that cobalt will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy and dependent on batteries, but this perspective has also been criticised for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production.
Occurrence
The stable form of cobalt is produced in supernovae through the r-process. It comprises 0.0029% of the Earth's crust. Except as recently delivered in meteoric iron, free cobalt (the native metal) is not found on Earth's surface because of its tendency to react with oxygen in the atmosphere. Small amounts of cobalt compounds are found in most rocks, soils, plants, and animals. In the ocean cobalt typically reacts with chlorine.
In nature, cobalt is frequently associated with nickel. Both are characteristic components of meteoric iron, though cobalt is much less abundant in iron meteorites than nickel. As with nickel, cobalt in meteoric iron alloys may have been well enough protected from oxygen and moisture to remain as the free (but alloyed) metal.
Cobalt in compound form occurs in copper and nickel minerals. It is the major metallic component that combines with sulfur and arsenic in the sulfidic cobaltite (CoAsS), safflorite (CoAs2), glaucodot, and skutterudite (CoAs3) minerals. The mineral cattierite is similar to pyrite and occurs together with vaesite in the copper deposits of Katanga Province. When it reaches the atmosphere, weathering occurs; the sulfide minerals oxidize and form pink erythrite ("cobalt glance": Co3(AsO4)2·8H2O) and spherocobaltite (CoCO3).
Cobalt is also a constituent of tobacco smoke. The tobacco plant readily absorbs and accumulates heavy metals like cobalt from the surrounding soil in its leaves. These are subsequently inhaled during tobacco smoking.
Production
The main ores of cobalt are cobaltite, erythrite, glaucodot and skutterudite (see above), but most cobalt is obtained by reducing the cobalt by-products of nickel and copper mining and smelting.
Since cobalt is generally produced as a by-product, the supply of cobalt depends to a great extent on the economic feasibility of copper and nickel mining in a given market. Demand for cobalt was projected to grow 6% in 2017.
Primary cobalt deposits are rare, such as those occurring in hydrothermal deposits, associated with ultramafic rocks, typified by the Bou-Azzer district of Morocco. At such locations, cobalt ores are mined exclusively, albeit at a lower concentration, and thus require more downstream processing for cobalt extraction.
Several methods exist to separate cobalt from copper and nickel, depending on the concentration of cobalt and the exact composition of the used ore. One method is froth flotation, in which surfactants bind to ore components, leading to an enrichment of cobalt ores. Subsequent roasting converts the ores to cobalt sulfate, and the copper and the iron are oxidized to the oxide. Leaching with water extracts the sulfate together with the arsenates. The residues are further leached with sulfuric acid, yielding a solution of copper sulfate. Cobalt can also be leached from the slag of copper smelting.
The products of the above-mentioned processes are transformed into the cobalt oxide (Co3O4). This oxide is reduced to metal by the aluminothermic reaction or reduction with carbon in a blast furnace.
Extraction
The United States Geological Survey estimates world reserves of cobalt at 7,100,000 metric tons. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) currently produces 63% of the world's cobalt. This market share may reach 73% by 2025 if planned expansions by mining producers like Glencore Plc take place as expected. Bloomberg New Energy Finance has estimated that by 2030, global demand for cobalt could be 47 times more than it was in 2017.
Changes that Congo made to mining laws in 2002 attracted new investments in Congolese copper and cobalt projects. Glencore's Mutanda Mine shipped 24,500 tons of cobalt in 2016, 40% of Congo DRC's output and nearly a quarter of global production. After oversupply, Glencore closed Mutanda for two years in late 2019. Glencore's Katanga Mining project is resuming as well and should produce 300,000 tons of copper and 20,000 tons of cobalt by 2019, according to Glencore.
Democratic Republic of the Congo
In 2005, the top producer of cobalt was the copper deposits in the Democratic Republic of the Congo's Katanga Province. Formerly Shaba province, the area had almost 40% of global reserves, reported the British Geological Survey in 2009.
Artisanal mining supplied 17% to 40% of the DRC production. Some 100,000 cobalt miners in Congo DRC use hand tools to dig hundreds of feet, with little planning and fewer safety measures, say workers and government and NGO officials, as well as The Washington Post reporters' observations on visits to isolated mines. The lack of safety precautions frequently causes injuries or death. Mining pollutes the vicinity and exposes local wildlife and indigenous communities to toxic metals thought to cause birth defects and breathing difficulties, according to health officials.
Child labor is used in mining cobalt from African artisanal mines. Human rights activists have highlighted this and investigative journalism reporting has confirmed it. This revelation prompted cell phone maker Apple Inc., on March 3, 2017, to stop buying ore from suppliers such as Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt who source from artisanal mines in the DRC, and begin using only suppliers that are verified to meet its workplace standards.
There is a push globally by the EU and major car manufacturers (OEM) for global production of cobalt to be sourced and produced sustainably, responsibly and traceability of the supply chain. Mining companies are adopting and practising ESG initiatives in line with OECD Guidance and putting in place evidence of zero to low carbon footprint activities in the supply chain production of lithium-ion batteries. These initiatives are already taking place with major mining companies, artisanal and small-scale mining companies (ASM). Car manufacturers and battery manufacturer supply chains: Tesla, VW, BMW, BASF and Glencore are participating in several initiatives, such as the Responsible Cobalt Initiative and Cobalt for Development study. In 2018 BMW Group in partnership with BASF, Samsung SDI and Samsung Electronics have launched a pilot project in the DRC over one pilot mine, to improve conditions and address challenges for artisanal miners and the surrounding communities.
The political and ethnic dynamics of the region have in the past caused outbreaks of violence and years of armed conflict and displaced populations. This instability affected the price of cobalt and also created perverse incentives for the combatants in the First and Second Congo Wars to prolong the fighting, since access to diamond mines and other valuable resources helped to finance their military goals—which frequently amounted to genocide—and also enriched the fighters themselves. While DR Congo has in the 2010s not recently been invaded by neighboring military forces, some of the richest mineral deposits adjoin areas where Tutsis and Hutus still frequently clash, unrest continues although on a smaller scale and refugees still flee outbreaks of violence.
Cobalt extracted from small Congolese artisanal mining endeavors in 2007 supplied a single Chinese company, Congo DongFang International Mining. A subsidiary of Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt, one of the world's largest cobalt producers, Congo DongFang supplied cobalt to some of the world's largest battery manufacturers, who produced batteries for ubiquitous products like the Apple iPhones. Because of accused labour violations and environmental concerns, LG Chem subsequently audited Congo DongFang in accordance with OECD guidelines. LG Chem, which also produces battery materials for car companies, imposed a code of conduct on all suppliers that it inspects.
The Mukondo Mountain project, operated by the Central African Mining and Exploration Company (CAMEC) in Katanga Province, may be the richest cobalt reserve in the world. It produced an estimated one-third of the total global cobalt production in 2008. In July 2009, CAMEC announced a long-term agreement to deliver its entire annual production of cobalt concentrate from Mukondo Mountain to Zhejiang Galico Cobalt & Nickel Materials of China.
In 2016, Chinese ownership of cobalt production in the Congo was estimated at over 10% of global cobalt supply, forming a key input to the Chinese cobalt refining industry and granting China substantial influence over the global cobalt supply chain. Chinese control of Congolese cobalt has raised concern in Western nations which have sought to reduce supply chain reliance upon China and have expressed concern regarding labor and human rights violations in cobalt mines in the DRC.
In February 2018, global asset management firm AllianceBernstein defined the DRC as economically "the Saudi Arabia of the electric vehicle age", due to its cobalt resources, as essential to the lithium-ion batteries that drive electric vehicles.
On March 9, 2018, President Joseph Kabila updated the 2002 mining code, increasing royalty charges and declaring cobalt and coltan "strategic metals". The 2002 mining code was effectively updated on December 4, 2018.
In December 2019, International Rights Advocates, a human rights NGO, filed a landmark lawsuit against Apple, Tesla, Dell, Microsoft and Google company Alphabet for "knowingly benefiting from and aiding and abetting the cruel and brutal use of young children" in mining cobalt. The companies in question denied their involvement in child labour.
Canada
In 2017, some exploration companies were planning to survey old silver and cobalt mines in the area of Cobalt, Ontario, where significant deposits are believed to lie.
Cuba
Canada's Sherritt International processes cobalt ores in nickel deposits from the Moa mines in Cuba, and the island has several others mines in Mayarí, Camagüey, and Pinar del Río. Continued investments by Sherritt International in Cuban nickel and cobalt production while acquiring mining rights for 17–20 years made the communist country third for cobalt reserves in 2019, before Canada itself.
Indonesia
Starting from smaller amounts in 2021, Indonesia began producing cobalt as a byproduct of nickel production. By 2022, the country had become the world's second-largest cobalt producer, with Benchmark Mineral Intelligence forecasting Indonesian output to make up 20 percent of global production by 2030.
Applications
In 2016, of cobalt was used. Cobalt has been used in the production of high-performance alloys. It is also used in some rechargeable batteries.
Alloys
Cobalt-based superalloys have historically consumed most of the cobalt produced. The temperature stability of these alloys makes them suitable for turbine blades for gas turbines and aircraft jet engines, although nickel-based single-crystal alloys surpass them in performance. Cobalt-based alloys are also corrosion- and wear-resistant, making them, like titanium, useful for making orthopedic implants that do not wear down over time. The development of wear-resistant cobalt alloys started in the first decade of the 20th century with the stellite alloys, containing chromium with varying quantities of tungsten and carbon. Alloys with chromium and tungsten carbides are very hard and wear-resistant. Special cobalt-chromium-molybdenum alloys like Vitallium are used for prosthetic parts (hip and knee replacements). Cobalt alloys are also used for dental prosthetics as a useful substitute for nickel, which may be allergenic. Some high-speed steels also contain cobalt for increased heat and wear resistance. The special alloys of aluminium, nickel, cobalt and iron, known as Alnico, and of samarium and cobalt (samarium–cobalt magnet) are used in permanent magnets. It is also alloyed with 95% platinum for jewelry, yielding an alloy suitable for fine casting, which is also slightly magnetic.
Batteries
Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) is widely used in lithium-ion battery cathodes. The material is composed of cobalt oxide layers with the lithium intercalated. During discharge (i.e. when not actively being charged), the lithium is released as lithium ions. Nickel–cadmium (NiCd) and nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries also include cobalt to improve the oxidation of nickel in the battery. Transparency Market Research estimated the global lithium-ion battery market at $30 billion in 2015 and predicted an increase to over US$75 billion by 2024.
Although in 2018 most cobalt in batteries was used in a mobile device, a more recent application for cobalt is rechargeable batteries for electric cars. This industry has increased five-fold in its demand for cobalt, which makes it urgent to find new raw materials in more stable areas of the world. Demand is expected to continue or increase as the prevalence of electric vehicles increases. Exploration in 2016–2017 included the area around Cobalt, Ontario, an area where many silver mines ceased operation decades ago. Cobalt for electric vehicles increased 81% from the first half of 2018 to 7,200 tonnes in the first half of 2019, for a battery capacity of 46.3 GWh.
Since child and slave labor have been repeatedly reported in cobalt mining, primarily in the artisanal mines of DR Congo, technology companies seeking an ethical supply chain have faced shortages of this raw material and the price of cobalt metal reached a nine-year high in October 2017, more than US$30 a pound, versus US$10 in late 2015. After oversupply, the price dropped to a more normal $15 in 2019. As a reaction to the issues with artisanal cobalt mining in DR Congo a number of cobalt suppliers and their customers have formed the Fair Cobalt Alliance (FCA) which aims to end the use of child labor and to improve the working conditions of cobalt mining and processing in the DR Congo. Members of FCA include Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt, Sono Motors, the Responsible Cobalt Initiative, Fairphone, Glencore and Tesla, Inc.
Research is being conducted by the European Union into the possibility of eliminating cobalt requirements in lithium-ion battery production. As of August 2020 battery makers have gradually reduced the cathode cobalt content from 1/3 (NMC 111) to 1/5 (NMC 442) to currently 1/10 (NMC 811) and have also introduced the cobalt free lithium iron phosphate cathode into the battery packs of electric cars such as the Tesla Model 3. In September 2020, Tesla outlined their plans to make their own, cobalt-free battery cells.
Lithium iron phosphate batteries officially surpassed ternary cobalt batteries in 2021 with 52% of installed capacity. Analysts estimate that its market share will exceed 60% in 2024.
Catalysts
Several cobalt compounds are oxidation catalysts. Cobalt acetate is used to convert xylene to terephthalic acid, the precursor of the bulk polymer polyethylene terephthalate. Typical catalysts are the cobalt carboxylates (known as cobalt soaps). They are also used in paints, varnishes, and inks as "drying agents" through the oxidation of drying oils. However, their use is being phased out due to toxicity concerns. The same carboxylates are used to improve the adhesion between steel and rubber in steel-belted radial tires. In addition they are used as accelerators in polyester resin systems.
Cobalt-based catalysts are used in reactions involving carbon monoxide. Cobalt is also a catalyst in the Fischer–Tropsch process for the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide into liquid fuels. Hydroformylation of alkenes often uses cobalt octacarbonyl as a catalyst.
The hydrodesulfurization of petroleum uses a catalyst derived from cobalt and molybdenum. This process helps to clean petroleum of sulfur impurities that interfere with the refining of liquid fuels.
Pigments and coloring
Before the 19th century, cobalt was predominantly used as a pigment. It has been used since the Middle Ages to make smalt, a blue-colored glass. Smalt is produced by melting a mixture of roasted mineral smaltite, quartz and potassium carbonate, which yields a dark blue silicate glass, which is finely ground after the production. Smalt was widely used to color glass and as pigment for paintings. In 1780, Sven Rinman discovered cobalt green, and in 1802 Louis Jacques Thénard discovered cobalt blue. Cobalt pigments such as cobalt blue (cobalt aluminate), cerulean blue (cobalt(II) stannate), various hues of cobalt green (a mixture of cobalt(II) oxide and zinc oxide), and cobalt violet (cobalt phosphate) are used as artist's pigments because of their superior chromatic stability.
Radioisotopes
Cobalt-60 (Co-60 or 60Co) is useful as a gamma-ray source because it can be produced in predictable amounts with high activity by bombarding cobalt with neutrons. It produces gamma rays with energies of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV.
Cobalt is used in external beam radiotherapy, sterilization of medical supplies and medical waste, radiation treatment of foods for sterilization (cold pasteurization), industrial radiography (e.g. weld integrity radiographs), density measurements (e.g. concrete density measurements), and tank fill height switches. The metal has the unfortunate property of producing a fine dust, causing problems with radiation protection. Cobalt from radiotherapy machines has been a serious hazard when not discarded properly, and one of the worst radiation contamination accidents in North America occurred in 1984, when a discarded radiotherapy unit containing cobalt-60 was mistakenly disassembled in a junkyard in Juarez, Mexico.
Cobalt-60 has a radioactive half-life of 5.27 years. Loss of potency requires periodic replacement of the source in radiotherapy and is one reason why cobalt machines have been largely replaced by linear accelerators in modern radiation therapy. Cobalt-57 (Co-57 or 57Co) is a cobalt radioisotope most often used in medical tests, as a radiolabel for vitamin B uptake, and for the Schilling test. Cobalt-57 is used as a source in Mössbauer spectroscopy and is one of several possible sources in X-ray fluorescence devices.
Nuclear weapon designs could intentionally incorporate 59Co, some of which would be activated in a nuclear explosion to produce 60Co. The 60Co, dispersed as nuclear fallout, is sometimes called a cobalt bomb.
Other uses
Cobalt is used in electroplating for its attractive appearance, hardness, and resistance to oxidation.
It is also used as a base primer coat for porcelain enamels.
Biological role
Cobalt is essential to the metabolism of all animals. It is a key constituent of cobalamin, also known as vitamin B, the primary biological reservoir of cobalt as an ultratrace element. Bacteria in the stomachs of ruminant animals convert cobalt salts into vitamin B, a compound which can only be produced by bacteria or archaea. A minimal presence of cobalt in soils therefore markedly improves the health of grazing animals, and an uptake of 0.20 mg/kg a day is recommended, because they have no other source of vitamin B.
Proteins based on cobalamin use corrin to hold the cobalt. Coenzyme B12 features a reactive C-Co bond that participates in the reactions. In humans, B12 has two types of alkyl ligand: methyl and adenosyl. MeB12 promotes methyl (−CH3) group transfers. The adenosyl version of B12 catalyzes rearrangements in which a hydrogen atom is directly transferred between two adjacent atoms with concomitant exchange of the second substituent, X, which may be a carbon atom with substituents, an oxygen atom of an alcohol, or an amine. Methylmalonyl coenzyme A mutase (MUT) converts MMl-CoA to Su-CoA, an important step in the extraction of energy from proteins and fats.
Although far less common than other metalloproteins (e.g. those of zinc and iron), other cobaltoproteins are known besides B12. These proteins include methionine aminopeptidase 2, an enzyme that occurs in humans and other mammals that does not use the corrin ring of B12, but binds cobalt directly. Another non-corrin cobalt enzyme is nitrile hydratase, an enzyme in bacteria that metabolizes nitriles.
Cobalt deficiency
In humans, consumption of cobalt-containing vitamin B12 meets all needs for cobalt. For cattle and sheep, which meet vitamin B12 needs via synthesis by resident bacteria in the rumen, there is a function for inorganic cobalt. In the early 20th century, during the development of farming on the North Island Volcanic Plateau of New Zealand, cattle suffered from what was termed "bush sickness". It was discovered that the volcanic soils lacked the cobalt salts essential for the cattle food chain. The "coast disease" of sheep in the Ninety Mile Desert of the Southeast of South Australia in the 1930s was found to originate in nutritional deficiencies of trace elements cobalt and copper. The cobalt deficiency was overcome by the development of "cobalt bullets", dense pellets of cobalt oxide mixed with clay given orally for lodging in the animal's rumen.
Health issues
The LD50 value for soluble cobalt salts has been estimated to be between 150 and 500 mg/kg. In the US, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has designated a permissible exposure limit (PEL) in the workplace as a time-weighted average (TWA) of 0.1 mg/m3. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.05 mg/m3, time-weighted average. The IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health) value is 20 mg/m3.
However, chronic cobalt ingestion has caused serious health problems at doses far less than the lethal dose. In 1966, the addition of cobalt compounds to stabilize beer foam in Canada led to a peculiar form of toxin-induced cardiomyopathy, which came to be known as beer drinker's cardiomyopathy.
Furthermore, cobalt metal is suspected of causing cancer (i.e., possibly carcinogenic, IARC Group 2B) as per the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Monographs.
It causes respiratory problems when inhaled. It also causes skin problems when touched; after nickel and chromium, cobalt is a major cause of contact dermatitis.
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Cobalt at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
Centers for Disease and Prevention – Cobalt
Chemical elements
Transition metals
Dietary minerals
Ferromagnetic materials
IARC Group 2B carcinogens
Child labour
Cobalt mining
Informal economy in Africa
Resource economics
Mining communities in Africa
Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative
Chemical elements with hexagonal close-packed structure
Native element minerals
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Longest%20Day%20%28film%29
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The Longest Day (film)
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The Longest Day (film)
The Longest Day is a 1962 American epic war film based on Cornelius Ryan's 1959 non-fiction book of the same name about the D-Day landings in Normandy on June 6, 1944. The film was produced by Darryl F. Zanuck for 20th Century Fox, and is directed by Ken Annakin (British and French exteriors), Andrew Marton (American exteriors), and Bernhard Wicki (German scenes). The screenplay was written by Ryan, with additional material written by Romain Gary, James Jones, David Pursall and Jack Seddon.
The film features a large international ensemble cast that includes John Wayne, Kenneth More, Richard Todd, Robert Mitchum, Richard Burton, Steve Forrest, Sean Connery, Henry Fonda, Red Buttons, Peter Lawford, Eddie Albert, Jeffrey Hunter, Stuart Whitman, Tom Tryon, Rod Steiger, Leo Genn, Gert Fröbe, Irina Demick, Bourvil, Curd Jürgens, George Segal, Robert Wagner, Paul Anka and Arletty. Many of these actors played roles that were essentially cameo appearances. Several cast members had seen action as servicemen during the war, including Albert, Fonda, Genn, More, Steiger and Todd, the latter having been among the first British officers to land in Normandy in Operation Overlord and participate in the assault on Pegasus Bridge.
The filmmakers employed several actual Allied and Axis D-Day participants as consultants, many of whom had their roles re-enacted in the film. These included Günther Blumentritt (a former German general), James M. Gavin (an American general), Frederick Morgan (Deputy Chief of Staff at SHAEF), John Howard (who led the airborne assault on the Pegasus Bridge), Lord Lovat (who commanded the 1st Special Service Brigade), Philippe Kieffer (who led his men in the assault on Ouistreham), Marie-Pierre Kœnig (who commanded the Free French Forces in the invasion), Max Pemsel (a German general), Werner Pluskat (the major who was the first German officer to see the invasion fleet), Josef "Pips" Priller (the hot-headed pilot) and Lucie Rommel (widow of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel).
The Longest Day premiered in France on September 25, 1962, and in the United States on October 4. It received positive acclaim from critics and was a significant commercial success, becoming the highest-grossing black-and-white movie at the time. At the 35th Academy Awards, the film was nominated for five Oscars, including Best Picture, and won awards for Best Cinematography (Black-and-White) and Best Special Effects.
Plot
Shot in a docudrama style (with captions identifying the different participants), the film opens in the days leading up to D-Day, depicting events on both sides of the English Channel. There is disagreement within the German High Command as to where the Allies will land and how the Wehrmacht should respond, but the threat is not perceived to be imminent, given the stormy weather. On June 5, 1944, not wanting to keep his forces waiting any longer, Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Supreme Commander of SHAEF, makes the decision to go ahead with plans to invade France through Normandy the following day after receiving a somewhat hopeful weather report.
In the early hours of June 6, Allied airborne troops are sent in to take key locations, and the French Resistance reacts to the news that the invasion has started. British troops arrive in gliders to secure Pegasus Bridge, American paratroopers land scattered around Sainte-Mère-Église to defend a road that will be a vital artery for the invasion, and French Resistance and SOE agents conduct infiltration and sabotage work. There is uncertainty among German commanders about whether these events are a feint to distract from Allied crossings at the Strait of Dover (see Operation Fortitude), where the senior German staff had always assumed the invasion would begin.
As day breaks, Allied forces land on several beaches in Normandy and attempt to push inland, having particular trouble at Omaha Beach. Two lone Luftwaffe pilots strafe the beaches before flying away. The U.S. Provisional Ranger Group conducts an assault on the artillery at Pointe du Hoc, only to discover the guns are not functional. Free French Forces destroy a German stronghold in Ouistreham. After blowing through a concrete barrier, the American troops on Omaha Beach are able to begin their advance and join the rest of the Allied troops on the march to retake France and, eventually, conquer Germany.
Cast
Note: Characters listed in order of rank.
American
British
French
German
Production
Development
French producer Raoul Lévy signed a deal with Simon & Schuster to purchase the filming rights to Cornelius Ryan's book The Longest Day: June 6, 1944 D-Day on March 23, 1960. After finishing The Truth, Lévy set up a deal with the Associated British Picture Corporation and got director Michael Anderson attached. Ryan would receive $100,000, plus $35,000 to write the adaptation's screenplay. Lévy intended to start production in March 1961, filming at Elstree Studios and the English and French coasts, but the project stalled when ABPC could not get the $6 million budget Lévy expected. Eventually, former 20th Century Fox mogul Darryl F. Zanuck learned about the book while producing The Big Gamble, and in December purchased Lévy's option for $175,000. Zanuck's editor friend Elmo Williams wrote a film treatment, which piqued the producer's interest and made him attach Williams to The Longest Day as associate producer and coordinator of battle episodes. Ryan was brought in to write the script, but had conflicts with Zanuck as soon as the two met. Williams was forced to act as a mediator; he would deliver Ryan's script pages to Zanuck, then return them with the latter's annotations. While Ryan developed the script, Zanuck also brought in other writers for cleanups for the various nationalities, including James Jones for the Americans, Romain Gary for the French, Noël Coward for the British and Erich Maria Remarque for the Germans. As their contributions to the finished screenplay were relatively minor, Ryan managed to get the screenplay credit after an appeal to the Writers Guild arbitration, but four other writers are credited for writing "additional episodes" in the film's closing credits.
During pre-production, producer Frank McCarthy, who had worked for the United States Department of War during World War II, arranged for military collaboration with the governments of France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Zanuck, who was friends with Supreme Allied Commander Lauris Norstad, secured 700 United States Army Europe and Africa soldiers for use as extras. However, hundreds of these soldiers had to be recalled after the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and many Members of Congress, such as Bob Wilson, criticized the military for transferring soldiers to a film production in France during a major Cold War standoff. The Senate Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights under Sam Ervin investigated the film for allegedly forcing soldiers to appear as extras against their will. In the end, the film included 250 U.S. Army soldiers and 500 British Army soldiers as extras.
Zanuck realized that, with eight battle scenes, shooting would be accomplished more expediently if multiple directors and units worked simultaneously, so he hired German directors Gerd Oswald and Bernhard Wicki, British director Ken Annakin, and Hungarian-American director Andrew Marton. Zanuck's son Richard D. Zanuck was reluctant about the project, particularly the high budget; with a budget of $10 million ($ in dollars), this was the most expensive black-and-white film made until 1993, when Schindler's List was released.
Casting
Jack Lord was originally cast in a starring role in the film when Levy was producing it.
Charlton Heston actively sought the role of Lt. Col. Benjamin H. Vandervoort, but the last-minute decision of John Wayne to take the role prevented Heston's participation. At 55, Wayne was 28 years older than Vandervoort was on D-Day (and 10 years older than he was in 1962). All of the other major actors accepted $25,000 as payment for their appearance in the film, but Wayne insisted on $250,000 to punish Zanuck for once referring to him as "poor John Wayne", regarding Wayne's problems with his lavish film The Alamo (1960).
Pop stars Paul Anka, Tommy Sands, and Fabian appear together as Rangers in the film.
Mel Ferrer was originally signed to play the role of Gen. James M. Gavin, but was recast due to a scheduling conflict.
Richard Todd played Maj. John Howard, leader of the British airborne assault on the Pegasus Bridge, and Todd himself took part in the real bridge assault on D-Day. He was offered the chance to play himself, but took the part of Maj. Howard instead.
Bill Millin was the piper who accompanied Lord Lovat to Normandy with his bagpipes, and it is a common misconception that he played himself in the film, while he was actually portrayed by Pipe Major Leslie de Laspee, the official piper to the Queen Mother at the time of filming.
There were discussions about having former-President Dwight D. Eisenhower play himself in the film, and he indicated his willingness to participate. However, it was decided that makeup artists couldn't make him appear young enough to play his World War II-era self, so the role went to Henry Grace, a set decorator who had been in the film industry since the mid-1930s. He had no acting experience, but Grace was a dead ringer for the younger Eisenhower (though his voice differed, so someone else dubbed his lines).
In Sainte-Mère-Église, Pvt. John Steele from the 82nd Airborne (played by Red Buttons) has been memorialized by the local population with a dummy hanging from a parachute from the church tower on which he accidentally landed.
According to the 2001 documentary Cleopatra: The Film That Changed Hollywood, Richard Burton and Roddy McDowall, having not been used for several weeks while filming in Rome, were so bored that they phoned Zanuck begging to do "anything" on The Longest Day. They flew themselves to the location and each filmed their cameos in a day for free.
The film marked the last film appearance of Sean Connery before he was cast in the role of James Bond. Gert Fröbe (Sgt. Kaffeekanne) and Curd Jürgens (Gen. Günther Blumentritt) later played Bond villains Auric Goldfinger (Goldfinger) and Karl Stromberg (The Spy Who Loved Me), respectively. Connery played Maj. Gen. Roy Urquhart in the 1977 film A Bridge Too Far, which was also based on a book by Cornelius Ryan. Likewise, Wolfgang Preiss played Maj. Gen. Max Pemsel in The Longest Day and Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt in A Bridge Too Far.
Sgt. Kaffeekanne's (Gert Fröbe) name is German for "coffee pot", which he always carries.
Zanuck hired more than 2,000 active soldiers for the film as extras.
Henry Fonda and John Wayne would team up again three years later to make In Harm's Way, a movie about the US Navy set after the attack on Pearl Harbor.
One of the stuntmen on the film was Robert Weinstein (1936–2019), a French Jew who narrowly avoided the death camps. In his seventies, he wrote his memoirs with the help of Stéphanie Krug. Vent printanier was published by L'Harmattan, and was subsequently renamed L'orphelin du Vel' D'Hiv for its second edition. In it, Weinstein recounts the details of his life, including his work on this film.
Filming
The film was shot at several French locations, including the Île de Ré, Saleccia beach in Saint-Florent, Port-en-Bessin-Huppain (filling in for Ouistreham), Les Studios de Boulogne in Boulogne-Billancourt, and the actual locations of Pegasus Bridge near Bénouville, Sainte-Mère-Église, and Pointe du Hoc.
During the filming of the landings at Omaha Beach, the extras appearing as American soldiers did not want to jump off the landing craft into the water because they thought it would be too cold. Robert Mitchum, as Gen. Norman Cota, became disgusted with their trepidation and jumped in first, at which point they followed his example.
The Rupert paradummies used in the film were far more elaborate and lifelike than those actually used in the decoy parachute drop (Operation Titanic), which were simply canvas or burlap sacks filled with sand. The dummies dressed in American jumpsuits were used in filming the Sainte-Mère-Église sequence. In the real operation, six Special Air Service soldiers jumped with the dummies and played recordings of loud battle noises to distract the Germans.
In the scenes where the paratroopers land, the background noise of frogs croaking was incorrect for northern French frog species and showed that the film probably used an American recording of background night noises.
Colin Maud lent Kenneth More, who had served as an officer in the Royal Navy during World War II, the actual shillelagh that he carried ashore during the invasion. Similarly, Richard Todd wears the beret that he actually wore on D-Day, although he changed the cap-badge to that of Maj. John Howard's regiment, the Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry.
In the film, three Free French Special Air Service paratroopers jump into France before British and American airborne landings. This is accurate. Thirty-six Free French SAS (4 sticks) jumped into Brittany (Plumelec and Duault) on June 5 at 23:30 (Operation Dingson). The first Allied soldiers killed in action were Lt. Den Brotheridge of the 2nd Ox & Bucks Light Infantry as he crossed Pegasus Bridge at 00:22 on June 6, and Corporal Emile Bouétard of the 4th Free French SAS battalion at the same time in Plumelec, Brittany.
The United States Sixth Fleet extensively supported the filming and made available many amphibious landing ships and craft for scenes filmed in Corsica, though many of the ships were of newer vintage. The and were World War II light cruisers extensively reconfigured into guided missile cruisers, and both were used in the shore bombardment scenes. While the USS Springfield was scrapped in 1980, the USS Little Rock is now a museum ship in Buffalo, New York.
The film shows the attack by the 2nd Ranger Battalion on the Point de Hoc. The actual landings were slightly further east than shown in the film, owing to strong tides and high seas. When entering the bunker, one soldier says the guns were never installed. This is inaccurate, as the 155mm guns had been in position until a few days before D-Day, but were moved due to heavy bombing. In reality, the guns were discovered hidden a few hours later and destroyed.
French arms dealer and former flying ace Pierre Laureys restored and provided three Supermarine Spitfire aircraft for the scene of an attack on a German column. Laureys himself flew one of the Spitfire aircraft in the film.
Gerd Oswald was the uncredited director of the parachute drop scenes into Sainte-Mère-Église, and Darryl F. Zanuck said he himself was the uncredited director of some pick-up interior scenes with American and British characters.
Elmo Williams was credited as associate producer and coordinator of battle episodes. He later produced the historical World War II film Tora! Tora! Tora! (1970) for Zanuck. It depicted the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, also using the docudrama style.
Release
The film premiered in France on September 25, 1962, in the United States on October 4, and in the United Kingdom on October 23. Funds from the premiers were donated to the Salk Institute for Biological Studies and the International Rescue Committee. Because Fox was suffering due to financial losses incurred during the concurrent production of Cleopatra, the studio wanted The Longest Day to go straight into wide release to reap quick profits, but Zanuck got them to do a proper roadshow theatrical release, threatening to sell distribution rights to Warner Bros. if Fox refused to do so. The Longest Day eventually became the box office hit Fox needed, with $30.5 million in worldwide theatrical rentals on a $7.5 million budget. It was the highest-grossing black-and-white movie at the time. Zanuck's production company (DFZ Productions) received 50% of the profits, and by 1964 had received over $5.8 million.
There were special-release showings of the film in several cities in the United States at which men who had participated in D-Day were invited to see the film with their fellow soldiers. One such screening took place in Cleveland, Ohio, at the Hippodrome Theater.
The scenes in the film featuring German and French characters were shot both with them speaking their native language and with them speaking English. Almost uniquely among British- and American-produced World War II films of the time, the version of the film with foreign languages accompanied by English subtitles was more widely seen during the film's initial release. The all-English version of the film was used more extensively during the film's late 1960s re-release.
When the film was re-released in 1969, it opened at number one at the US box office with a first-week gross of $501,529. In the first four days of its worldwide re-release in 544 theatres, it grossed $2,846,627.
Home media
The film was released in widescreen with stereo surround sound on LaserDisc in 1989. A colorized version of the film was released on VHS in 1994, the 50th anniversary of the D-Day invasion. The original black-and-white version of the film was released on DVD on November 6, 2001. In 2008, 20th Century Fox released the film on Blu-ray.
Reception
The day after the film opened at the Warner Theatre in New York City, Bosley Crowther of The New York Times declared: "The total effect of the picture is that of a huge documentary report, adorned and colored by personal details that are thrilling, amusing, ironic, sad [...] It is hard to think of a picture, aimed and constructed as this one was, doing any more or any better or leaving one feeling any more exposed to the horror of war as this one does". Variety described it as "a solid and stunning war epic" that "emerges as a sort of grand scale semi-fictionalized documentary concerning the overall logistics needed for this incredible invasion".
Richard L. Coe of The Washington Post called the film "a tingling, eye-gripping, fantastic picture" that "must rank as the screen's most massive battle epic", his only criticism being "the lack of perspective in depicting the German belief that the Normandy landings might not have succeeded had Hitler not taken a sleeping pill [...] 'The Longest Day' should have taken infinitely more care to put this German belief, however strongly held, into proper proportion". Brendan Gill of The New Yorker called the film "a tour de force of audio-visual verisimilitude," but confessed that "my emotions were hardly ever engaged, and I ended, rather to my embarrassment, by being bored". He continued: "Mr. Zanuck made it all the harder for me to take this mock-documentary seriously by stuffing it with innumerable celebrated actors, most of whom make such fugitive appearances that the audience finds itself engaged in a distracting game of instant identification".
The Monthly Film Bulletin stated: "The Longest Day is a monument split down the middle by compromise. At its best, what comes across very strongly is the feeling of immense and careful organisation that went into the whole D-Day operation, the sheer crippling weight of noise, the simple fact that a lot of people died, and the sense of personal confusion and dismay of soldiers wandering alone through the countryside [...] But the film is, first and foremost, a spectacle, and therefore it has stars—a multitude of them, often with barely a line to speak, and usually with no real part to play".
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 87% based on 23 reviews, with an average score of 7.8/10.
Accolades
See also
Chanson d'automne – the Verlaine poem used as an alert code for cells of the Maquis and other French Resistance groups
Tora! Tora! Tora! – film by Daryl F. Zanuck about the attack on Pearl Harbor that follows a similar format to The Longest Day
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
1962 films
1962 war films
American war epic films
American black-and-white films
1960s English-language films
1960s French-language films
1960s German-language films
Operation Overlord films
World War II films based on actual events
Films about the French Resistance
Films based on non-fiction books
Films set in 1944
Films shot in Haute-Corse
Films set on beaches
Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography Academy Award
Films that won the Best Visual Effects Academy Award
20th Century Fox films
CinemaScope films
Films directed by Andrew Marton
Films directed by Bernhard Wicki
Films directed by Ken Annakin
Films produced by Darryl F. Zanuck
Films scored by Maurice Jarre
Epic films based on actual events
Seafaring films based on actual events
Cultural depictions of Dwight D. Eisenhower
Cultural depictions of Bernard Montgomery
Cultural depictions of Erwin Rommel
Historical epic films
American World War II films
1960s American films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo%20Barrera
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Pablo Barrera
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Pablo Barrera
Pablo Edson Barrera Acosta (born 21 June 1987) is a Mexican professional footballer who plays as a winger for Liga MX club Querétaro.
Barrera spent the early part of his career playing for Club Universidad Nacional in Mexico, before transferring to Premier League club West Ham United. He has also spent a loan period with La Liga club Real Zaragoza.
Club career
Club Universidad Nacional
Born in Tlalnepantla, Mexico, Barrera began his career as a midfielder for Mexico City-based club Universidad Nacional, also known as Pumas. He joined Pumas youth system at the age of 11 and worked his way through the ranks to make his debut in the Primera División in 2005. He was involved in all the plays in Pumas' 8–0 victory over Veracruz.
In July 2008, Barrera had surgery to repair a ruptured cruciate ligament in his left knee that would sideline him for six months.
In early January, Barrera came back from his injury and in his very first game back he scored a goal against Necaxa. He was a starter until manager Ricardo Ferreti put him on the bench. He scored another goal that same season against Puebla. He would help Pumas reach the final in which they faced Pachuca and scored the winning goal that gave Pumas the win in the second half of overtime. Barrera enjoyed his finest season in the Torneo Bicentenario 2010 scoring six goals in 13 games, though his season was cut short as he was called up to the Mexico national football team pre-World Cup training camp.
West Ham United
On 16 July 2010 Barrera signed for West Ham United on a four-year contract, with a one-year option, for fee of £4m. He became West Ham's second summer signing of 2010. He made his Premier League debut, on 14 August, in a 3–0 loss to Aston Villa, coming on as a second-half substitute for Luis Boa Morte.
After making only six Premier League starts, scoring no goals and having zero assists, and not being able to help keep West Ham out of relegation, Barrera's first season in England was considered a "flop". It was reported during the summer 2011 transfer window that La Liga club Real Zaragoza wanted to sign Barrera, which would have re-united him with ex-Mexico national team coach Javier Aguirre.
Real Zaragoza (loan)
On 25 August 2011, Barrera joined Spanish club Real Zaragoza on a season-long loan, which would reunite him with former Mexico national team manager Javier Aguirre and teammate Efraín Juárez.
He scored his first La Liga goal for Zaragoza in a 2–2 draw against Villarreal. After the sacking of Aguirre, and the appointment of Manolo Jiménez as new manager, Barrera was slowly relegated to the bench.
Cruz Azul
On 3 July 2012, Cruz Azul announced the signing of Barrera who returned to Mexico after a two-year stint in Europe.
International career
Youth
Barrera participated at the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup in Canada, where he scored two goals.
Senior
Debut, 2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup
Barrera has appeared for the senior national team, making his debut in a friendly against Guatemala on 17 October 2007. He scored his first international goal against Nicaragua on 5 July 2009 at the 2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup. He scored his second goal with "El Tri" in a game against Haiti national football team at the Gold Cup.
2010 FIFA World Cup
Barrera appeared in three matches at the 2010 FIFA World Cup for Mexico. Barrera made his debut in the second match against France, coming on in the 31st minute for an injured Carlos Vela. Barrera caused the second goal for Mexico when French defender Eric Abidal knocked him down in the penalty area and was given a penalty which Cuauhtémoc Blanco scored and Mexico ended up winning the match 2–0.
2011 Gold Cup
He was called up to participate in the 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup. He scored the fourth goal in the 4–1 win against Costa Rica.
On 25 June Barerra scored a brace against the United States in the final where Mexico won 4–2.
Career statistics
Club
Updated 17 August 2012
International
International goals
Scores and results list Mexico's goal tally first.
Honours
UNAM
Mexican Primera División: Clausura 2009
Cruz Azul
Copa MX: Clausura 2013
CONCACAF Champions League: 2013–14
Mexico
CONCACAF Gold Cup: 2009, 2011
Individual
Mexican Primera División Best Rookie: Apertura 2007
References
External links
Premier League profile
1987 births
Living people
People from Tlalnepantla de Baz
Footballers from the State of Mexico
Men's association football wingers
Liga MX players
Club Universidad Nacional footballers
Premier League players
English Football League players
West Ham United F.C. players
La Liga players
Real Zaragoza players
Cruz Azul footballers
C.F. Monterrey players
Mexico men's international footballers
Mexico men's youth international footballers
Mexico men's under-20 international footballers
2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup players
2010 FIFA World Cup players
2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup players
2013 FIFA Confederations Cup players
CONCACAF Gold Cup-winning players
Mexican expatriate men's footballers
Mexican expatriate sportspeople in England
Mexican expatriate sportspeople in Spain
Expatriate men's footballers in England
Expatriate men's footballers in Spain
Mexican men's footballers
CONCACAF Champions Cup-winning players
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/1838%20%D0%B2%20%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D1%96
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1838 в Україні
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1838 в Україні
Пам'ятні дати та ювілеї
Видатних особистостей
Події
Заліський скарб
Особи
Призначено, звільнено
Народились
10 січня, Воробкевич Григорій Іванович (1838—1884) —- український поет.
16 січня, Ян Лям (1838—1886) — польський письменник-сатирик німецького походження, журналіст та педагог.
25 січня, Вревська Юлія Петрівна (1838—1878) — російська шляхтянка, фрейліна імператриці Марії Олександрівни у 1860—1870 роках.
15 березня, Сильвай Іван (1838—1904) — греко-католицький священик, закарпатський поет і письменник москвофільського напряму.
19 березня, Лучаківський Володимир Дмитрович (1838—1903) — український громадський діяч, письменник, перекладач, адвокат і перший українець — бургомістр у Тернополі.
25 березня, П'ясецький Гаврило Михайлович (1838—1900) — історик-краєзнавець Орловської губернії, магістр богослов'я, статський радник, потомствений дворянин.
1 квітня, Тарновський Василь Васильович (1838—1899) — громадський і культурний діяч, аматор української старовини, меценат.
9 червня, Бутовський Олексій Дмитрович (1838—1917) — член першого складу і один із засновників МОК та сучасного Олімпійського руху, генерал-лейтенант РІА, викладач Полтавського кадетського корпусу та спортивний функціонер.
15 червня, Вітошинський Йосип Сильвестрович (1838—1901) — український священик, диригент, громадсько-освітній діяч.
16 червня, Лепкий Онуфрій Федорович (1838—1905) — український філолог, публіцист, мовознавець, літературознавець, релігійний діяч, письменник, член-кореспондент Академії знань у Кракові, професор української академічної гімназії у Львові.
3 липня, Августин (Гуляницький) (1838—1892) — український та литовський релігійний діяч ХІХ століття, богослов, духовний письменник, журналіст, церковний історик.
31 липня, Більбасов Василь Олексійович (1838—1904) — російський історик і публіцист.
1 серпня, Зейферт Ілля Іванович (1838—1888) — гласний Київської міської думи, засновник Лук'янівського кладовища, надвірний радник, дворянин.
23 серпня, Колумба Білецька (1838—1887) — засновниця згромадження сестер Домініканок.
26 серпня, Мар'ян Дубецький (1838—1926) — польський історик і письменник, педагог, громадський і політичний діяч, секретар від Русі в Національному Уряді у часи Січневого повстання.
31 серпня, Потебня Андрій Опанасович (1838—1863) — український військовик шляхетського роду, політичний діяч, учасник Польського визвольного повстання 1863—64.
24 листопада, Білоус Михайло Іванович (1838—1913) — український видавець, редактор, журналіст, громадсько-політичний і культурно-освітній діяч.
25 листопада, Нечуй-Левицький Іван Семенович (1838—1918) — український прозаїк, перекладач, письменник.
4 грудня, Федоровський Микола Федорович (1838—1918) — генерал російської армії, український освітній діяч, меценат.
10 грудня, Данилевський Олександр Якович (1838—1923) — український біохімік, фізіолог і фармаколог, основоположник біохімії як науки, член-кореспондент Петербурзької АН, професор і завідувач кафедри медичної хімії та фізики, нормальної фізіології і фармакології в Харківському університеті, професор Казанського університету та ректор Військово-медичної академії міста Санкт-Петербург.
Болсуновський Карл Васильович (1838—1924) — історик-нумізмат, археолог, музейний діяч.
Кузнецов Олександр Харитонович (1838—1910) — лікар-клініцист часів Російської імперії, почесний професор Харківського університету.
Попович Євсебій (1838—1925) — педагог, теолог, церковний діяч, обирався ректором Чернівецького університету.
Сабов Кирило Антонович (1838—1914) — закарпатський педагог, публіцист, видавець та журналіст русинської орієнтації.
Слюсарчук Олексій (1838—1912) — український католицький священик, галицький церковний і громадський діяч.
Тадеуш Єжи Стецький (1838—1888) — волинський краєзнавець i письменник. Учасник Січневого повстання.
Стрижевський Гаврило Якович (1838 — після 1901) — український громадський діяч, педагог, етнограф, статський радник.
Толочинов Микола Пилипович (1838—1908) — акушер-гінеколог, професор.
Торонський Олексій (1838—1899) — педагог і громадський діяч, греко-католицький священик, катехит у гімназіях, автор підручників для навчання літератури і релігії у середніх школах.
Померли
5 серпня, Антон Шімзер (1790—1838) — скульптор, творив у Львові.
27 вересня, Браницька Олександра Василівна (1754—1838) — графиня, обер-гофмейстрина.
31 жовтня, Кронеберг Іван Якович (1788—1838) — статський радник, філолог, працював у Харківському університеті з 1819 по 1838 рік, його ректор в 1826—1829.
10 листопада, Котляревський Іван Петрович (1769—1838) — український письменник, поет, драматург, засновник нової української літератури, громадський діяч.
8 грудня, Бороздін Андрій Михайлович (1765—1838) — генерал-лейтенант, сенатор, цивільний Таврійський губернатор Російської імперії.
Петров Іван Матвійович (1803—1838) — російський поет, письменник, драматург, видавець.
Засновані, створені
Київський інститут шляхетних дівчат
Одеська духовна семінарія
Катеринославські губернські відомості
Бердянський повіт
Ялтинський повіт
Нижній Бердянський маяк
Березівська загальноосвітня школа (Талалаївський район)
Спасо-Преображенський собор (Болград)
Броніславівка
Дмитрівка (Каховський район)
Золота Долина
Казимирівка
Лозішт
Микільське (Великобурлуцький район)
Новороманівка (Нікольський район)
Павлопіль
Зникли, скасовані
Видання, твори
Козацький бенкет (Шевченко)
Зехер Чаддикім
Полтавские губернские ведомости
Таврические губернские ведомости
Харьковские губернские ведомости (газета)
Черниговские губернские ведомости
Примітки
Посилання
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Список найвеличніших науково-фантастичних творів (Гері К. Вольф)
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Список найвеличніших науково-фантастичних творів (Гері К. Вольф)
Список найвеличніших науково-фантастичних творів — список найкращих науково-фантастичних творів, сформований у 2016 році помітним американським критиком-фантастикознавцем професором Гері К. Вольфом) та наведений у його книзі «Які науково-фантастичні твори є найвеличнішими?» (2016), . Список містить основоположні та класичні твори на думку автора. Список охоплює широкий період науково-фантастичної творчості від 1516 до 2015 року включно, проте перважна більшість творів припадає на часи «Золотого століття наукової фантастики», «Нової хвилі наукової фантастики» та сучасності, тобто від 1940 року. Переважна більшість книг є романами, кількість збірок є незначною. Серед усіх творів переважають книги американських та британських авторів, проте є також книги громадянина Шрі-Ланки Артура Кларка та громадянина Литви Альгіса Будріса, по одній книзі уродженки Ямайки Нало Гопкінсон та ізраїлетянина Леві Тідгара, а також низка науково-фантастичних творів канадських авторів. Ще 4 книги є неангломовними, їх авторами є німець Томас Мор, француз Жуль Верн, чех Карел Чапек та уродженець Львова польський письменник Станіслав Лем.
Нижче в алфавітному порядку (за назвою твору) наведено перелік найвеличніших науково-фантастичних книг на думку Гері К. Вольфа (2016 рік):
Рей Бредбері — «451 градус за Фаренгейтом» (скор. 1950 як «Пожежник», 1953, доп. 1979) (США)
Джордж Орвелл «1984» (1948)
Артур Кларк ««2001: Космічна одісея» (1968) (Шрі-Ланка)
Брюс Стерлінг — «Zeitgeist: Дух часу» (2000), (США)
Джеймс Баллард «Аварія» (Велика Британія)
Кім Стенлі Робінсон «» (2015), (США)
Фріц Лайбер «Безмежний час» (1958), (США)
Теодор Стерджон — «Більше ніж люди» (1953) (США)
Ґрегорі Бенфорд «В океані ночі» (1977), (США)
Джек Фінні «» (2015), (США)
Герберт Дж. Веллс «Війна світів» (Велика Британія)
Джо Голдеман — «Вічна війна» (1972-74; 1974), (США)
Паоло Бачігалупі «» (2015), (США)
Мері Доріа Расселл «» (1996); (США)
Кормак Маккарті — «Дорога» (2006), (США)
Френк Герберт «Дюна» (1963/64), (США)
Стівен Бекстер «» (2002), (Велика Британія)
Едвард Елмер Сміт «» (1928), (США)
Джоанна Расс «Жіночий чоловік», (США)
Жуль Верн «З Землі на Місяць» (1865), (Франція)
«» (антологія, за редакцією Роберта Сілвеберга), (США)
Ієн Бенкс «Згадай Флеба» (1987), (Велика Британія)
— «Земля потерпає» (1949), (США)
Альфред Бестер «Зірки — мета моя» (1956), (США)
Томас Мор «Золота книжечка, така ж корисна, як і забавна, про найкращий устрій держави і про новий острів Утопія» (1516), (Велика Британія)
Джеймс Тіптрі-молодший «» (1990), (США)
Волтер Міллер-молодший «Кантата за Лейбовіцем» (1959), (США)
Деніел Кіз «Квіти для Елджернона», (США)
Артур Кларк — «Кінець дитинства» ((1950) як «Янгол-охоронець» (Guardian Angel), доп. та переробл. [1953]) (Велика Британія), (Шрі-Ланка)
Стівен Бекстер «Кільце» (1994), (Велика Британія)
Джин Вулф — «Книга нового Сонця» (США)
Конні Вілліс «Книга Судного дня» (1992), (США)
Нало Гопкінсон «Коричнева дівчина у кільці» (1998), (Ямайка), (Канада)
Елестер Рейнолдс «» (2000)
Ніл Стівенсон «Лавина» (1992), (США)
Урсула Ле Гуїн «Ліва рука темряви» (1969), (США)
Філіп Дік «Людина у високому замку» (1962), (США)
Річард Метісон — «» (США)
Рей Бредбері «Марсіанські хроніки» (1946-1950; 1950) (США)
Герберт Дж. Веллс «Машина часу» (Велика Британія)
Євген Замятін «Ми» (1924) (Росія)
Джеймс Бліш тетралогія «» (1950-1962; 1970), (США)
Артур Кларк «Місто та зірки» (1956}}), (Шрі-Ланка)
Альгіс Будріс „Місяць-пустунець“, (США)
Вільям Ґібсон «Нейромант» (1984), (Канада)
Маргарет Етвуд «Оповідь служниці» (1985), (Канада)
Леві Тідгар «Осама» (2011), (Ізраїль)
Олаф Стейплдон «Останні і перші люди» (1930) (Велика Британія)
Роберт Гайнлайн«Пасинки Всесвіту» (1941, 1963 - в одному томі), (США)
Роберт Е. Гайнлайн «Піхотинці зорельоту» (1959), (США)
Артур Кларк «Побачення з Рамою», (Шрі-Ланка)
Джон Браннер «Поглянули агнці вгору» (1972), (Велика Британія)
Роберт Е. Гайнлайн «Подвійна зірка» (1955), (США)
Едгар Райс Берроуз «Принцеса Марса» (1912), (США)
Сюзі Маккі Чарнас «Прогулянка до межі світу» (1974), (США)
Карел Чапек «Р.У.Р.» (1920), (Чехія)
Карен Джой Фаулер — «Сара Канарка» (1991), (США)
Роберт Сілверберг «Світ зсередини» (США)
— «» (2002), (Велика Британія)
Ніл Стівенсон «Сімміс» (2015), (США)
Альфред ван Вогт «Слен», (Канада)
Урсула Ле Ґуїн «Слово для світу — ліс» (1976), (США)
Станіслав Лем «Соляріс», (Польща)
Кім Стенлі Робінсон «» (2015), (США)
Джеймс Бліш «Справа совісті» (США)
Керолайн Черрі — «Станція нижче нікуди» (1981), (США)
Олаф Стейплдон «Творець зірок», (Велика Британія)
Фредерик Пол та Сиріл Корнблас — «Торговці космосом» (1952), (США)
Лі Брекетт — «Тривале завтра» (США)
Мері Шеллі «Франкенштейн, або Сучасний Прометей» (1818), (Велика Британія)
Айзек Азімов трилогія «Фундація» (1941-50), (США)
Альгіс Будріс — „Хто?“ (1958) (США)
Джек Лондон «Джек Лондон, Червона чума та інші історії» (1903—1914; 1995), (США)
Кім Стенлі Робінсон «Червоний Марс» (1992), (США)
Роберт Е. Гайнлайн «Чужинець у чужій землі», (США)
Айзек Азімов «Я — робот» (1950)), (США)
Марк Твен «Янкі з Коннектикуту при дворі короля Артура» (1889), (США)
Серед інших книг у вище наведеному переліку також вказано 6 романів, що включені автором до двотомного омнібусу «Американська наукова фантастика, 9 класичних романів 1950-х» (2012), (антологія, за редакцією Гері К. Вольфа), який увійшов до переліку Вольфа як окрема книга. Інші 3 з 9-ти романів антології були включені ним окремо у загальний список.
Посилання
Gary K. Wolfe, «How Great Science Fiction Works» на сайті http://www.sfadb.com/
Gary K. Wolfe, «American Science Fiction: Nine Classic Novels of the 1950s» у міжнародній електронній базі фантастики «The Internet Speculative Fiction Database»
Рецезія на книгу Гері К. Вольфа «How Great Science Fiction Works» у «Washington Post»
Gary K. Wolfe, «How Great Science Fiction Works», текст книги
Див. також
Список найкращих англомовних науково-фантастичних романів
100 найкращих фантастичних книг на думку Аннік Беґуїн
Науково-фантастичні твори
Списки книг
Списки фантастики
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605986
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20L.%20Culbertson%20Jr.
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Frank L. Culbertson Jr.
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Frank L. Culbertson Jr.
Frank Lee Culbertson Jr. (born May 15, 1949) (Capt, USN, Ret.) is an American former naval officer and aviator, test pilot, aerospace engineer, NASA astronaut, graduate of the US Naval Academy, and member of the United States Astronaut Hall of Fame. He served as the commander of the International Space Station for almost four months in 2001 and was the only U.S. citizen not on Earth when the September 11 attacks occurred.
Culbertson retired as President of the Space Systems Group at Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems, where he was responsible for the execution, business development, and financial performance of the company's human spaceflight, science, commercial communications, and national security satellite activities, as well as technical services to various government customers. These include some of Northrop Grumman's largest programs such as NASA's Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) initiatives to the International Space Station (ISS) as well as various national security-related programs.
Early life
Culbertson was born on May 15, 1949, in Charleston, South Carolina, but considers Holly Hill, South Carolina, to be his hometown. He has five children and nine grandchildren.
Culbertson was a Boy Scout and earned the rank of Second Class. He graduated from Holly Hill High School in 1967, and received a Bachelor of Science degree in Aerospace Engineering from the United States Naval Academy in 1971. He was a member of varsity rowing and wrestling teams at U.S. Naval Academy.
United States Navy service
Upon graduation from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1971, Culbertson served aboard in the Gulf of Tonkin prior to reporting to flight training in Pensacola, Florida.
After designation as a Naval Aviator at Beeville, Texas, in May 1973, he flew F-4 Phantom aircraft with VF-121 at NAS Miramar, California; with VF-151 aboard the aircraft carrier , permanently homeported in Yokosuka, Japan; and with the U.S. Air Force in the 426th Tactical Fighter Training Squadron at Luke Air Force Base, Arizona, where he served as Weapons and Tactics Instructor. Culbertson then served as the Catapult and Arresting Gear Officer for until May 1981 when he was selected to attend the U.S. Naval Test Pilot School, NAS Patuxent River, Maryland.
Following graduation with distinction in June 1982, he was assigned to the Carrier Systems Branch of the Strike Aircraft Test Directorate where he served as Program Manager for all F-4 testing and as a test pilot for automatic carrier landing system tests and carrier suitability. He was engaged in fleet replacement training in the F-14 Tomcat at VF-101, NAS Oceana, Virginia, from January 1984 until his selection for the astronaut candidate program.
He has logged over 8,900 hours flying time in 55 different types of aircraft, and has made 450 carrier landings, including over 350 arrested landings, and numerous tests of the Automated Carrier Landing System.
NASA career
Selected as a NASA astronaut candidate in May 1984, Culbertson completed basic astronaut training in June 1985. Technical assignments since then included: member of the team that redesigned and tested the Space Shuttle nosewheel steering, tires, and brakes; member of the launch support team at Kennedy Space Center for Shuttle flights STS-61-A, STS-61-B, STS-61-C, and STS-51-L; in 1986 he worked at the NASA Headquarters Action Center in Washington, D.C., assisting with the Challenger accident investigations conducted by NASA, the Presidential Commission, and U.S. Congress.
He became lead astronaut at the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL); lead of the First Emergency Egress Team; and lead spacecraft communicator (CAPCOM) in the Mission Control Center for seven missions (STS-27, STS-29, STS-30, STS-28, STS-34, STS-33, and STS-32 [note that Shuttle missions are not ordered chronologically]). Following his first flight, he served as the Deputy Chief of the Flight Crew Operations Space Station Support Office, as well as the lead astronaut for Space Station Safety. He was also a member of the team evaluating the hardware and procedures for the proposed mission to dock with the Russian Space Station Mir. Following STS-51, Culbertson was Chief of the Astronaut Office Mission Support Branch; then Chief of the Johnson Space Center Russian Projects Office. In 1994, Culbertson was named Deputy Program Manager, Phase 1 Shuttle-Mir, and in 1995 became Manager of the Shuttle-Mir Program. He was responsible for a multi-national team which executed nine Shuttle docking missions to the Russian Space Station Mir, with seven astronauts spending 30 months cumulatively on board the Mir Station, plus all the associated science and docking hardware to ensure the success of the joint program, a precursor to the building of the joint International Space Station. Just prior to his current flight assignment, Culbertson spent one year as Deputy Program Manager for Operations of the International Space Station Program.
Spaceflight experience
A veteran of three space flights, Culbertson has logged over 146 days in space .
STS-38 Atlantis (November 15–20, 1990) was a five-day mission during which the crew conducted Department of Defense operations. The mission concluded after 80 orbits of the Earth in 117 hours, 54 minutes, 28 seconds, the first Shuttle to land in Florida since 1985.
STS-51 Discovery (September 12–22, 1993) was a ten-day mission during which the crew deployed the U.S. Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS/TOS), and the Shuttle Pallet Satellite (ORFEUS/SPAS) carrying U.S. and German scientific experiments, including an ultraviolet spectrometer. A seven-hour EVA was also conducted to evaluate Hubble Space Telescope repair tools and methods. After the SPAS spacecraft had completed six days of free flight some 40 miles from Discovery, the crew completed a successful rendezvous and recovered the SPAS with the Shuttle's robot arm. The mission concluded with the first night landing of the Shuttle at the Kennedy Space Center. Mission duration was 158 Earth orbits in 236 hours and 11 minutes.
The Expedition 3 crew launched on August 10, 2001, aboard STS-105 Discovery and docked with the International Space Station on August 12, 2001. Culbertson lived and worked aboard the station for a total of 129 days, and was in command of the station for 117 days. He was the only American not to be on Earth during the September 11 attacks. As the ISS passed over the New York City area after the attacks, Culbertson took photographs of the smoke emanating from Ground Zero in lower Manhattan. He later learned that the plane that struck the Pentagon had been piloted (at takeoff) by his Naval Academy classmate Charles Burlingame. The two had been aeronautical engineering majors together, and had both gone on to become F-4 fighter pilots. Culbertson had his trumpet onboard ISS, and with their Academy class having their 30th reunion, he played taps, which he felt was especially fitting in that the two had also played in the academy's Drum & Bugle Corps together. The Expedition 3 crew left the station on December 15 aboard STS-108 Endeavour, landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on December 17, 2001.
Organizations
He is a member of a number of organisations, including the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (senior fellow), the Association of Naval Aviators, the Aircraft Owners & Pilots Association, the Aviation Boatswains Mates Association, and the Association of Space Explorers.
Awards and honors
Culbertson has received numerous awards, including the Legion of Merit, the Distinguished Flying Cross, the Defense Superior Service Medal, the NASA Outstanding Leadership Medal, NASA Space Flight Medals, Navy Commendation Medal, Air Force Commendation Medal, the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal, the Humanitarian Service Medal, and various other unit and service awards. Distinguished graduate, U.S. Naval Test Pilot School. He has been awarded Honorary Doctor of Science Degrees from the College of Charleston, 1994, and Lander University, 1999; he has also been awarded the Komarov Certificate for Space Flight Achievement, 1994, the AAS Flight Achievement Award for STS-51, 1994, Aviation Week & Space Technology 1997 Laurel for Achievement in Space, IEEE/ASME Award for Manager of the Year, 1997, and the Space Center Rotary Club Stellar Award for 1998. Inducted into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 2010 and the South Carolina Aviation Hall of Fame in 1997. Designated a Fellow of AIAA in 2013.
References
External links
Astronautix biography of Frank L. Culbertson Jr.
Spacefacts biography of Frank L. Culbertson Jr.
Culbertson at Spaceacts
1949 births
Living people
United States Navy astronauts
NASA civilian astronauts
Commanders of the International Space Station
United States Astronaut Hall of Fame inductees
Military personnel from Charleston, South Carolina
People from Holly Hill, South Carolina
United States Naval Academy alumni
United States Naval Test Pilot School alumni
United States Navy captains
United States Naval Aviators
American test pilots
American aviators
Aviators from South Carolina
American aerospace engineers
American businesspeople
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Defense Superior Service Medal
Engineers from South Carolina
Space Shuttle program astronauts
Spacewalkers
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102231
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington%20Naval%20Treaty
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Washington Naval Treaty
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Washington Naval Treaty
The Washington Naval Treaty, also known as the Five-Power Treaty, was a treaty signed during 1922 among the major Allies of World War I, which agreed to prevent an arms race by limiting naval construction. It was negotiated at the Washington Naval Conference in Washington, D.C. from November 1921 to February 1922 and signed by the governments of the British Empire (including the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and India), United States, France, Italy, and Japan. It limited the construction of battleships, battlecruisers and aircraft carriers by the signatories. The numbers of other categories of warships, including cruisers, destroyers, and submarines, were not limited by the treaty, but those ships were limited to 10,000 tons displacement each.
The treaty was concluded on February 6, 1922. Ratifications of that treaty were exchanged in Washington on August 17, 1923, and it was registered in the League of Nations Treaty Series on April 16, 1924.
Later naval arms limitation conferences sought additional limitations of warship building. The terms of the Washington Naval Treaty were modified by the London Naval Treaty of 1930 and the Second London Naval Treaty of 1936. By the mid-1930s, Japan and Italy renounced the treaties, while Germany renounced the Treaty of Versailles which had limited its navy. Naval arms limitation became increasingly difficult for the other signatories.
Background
Immediately after World War I, Britain still had the world's largest and most powerful navy, followed by the United States and more distantly by Japan, France and Italy. The British Royal Navy had interned the defeated German High Seas Fleet. The Allies had differing opinions concerning the final disposition of the Imperial German Navy, with the French and Italians wanting the German fleet divided between the victorious powers and the Americans and British wanting the ships destroyed. The negotiations became mostly moot after the German crews had scuttled most of their ships.
News of the scuttling angered the French and the Italians, with the French particularly unimpressed with British explanations that the fleet guarding the Germans had then been away on exercises. Nevertheless, the British joined their allies in condemning the German actions, and no credible evidence emerged to suggest that the British had collaborated actively with the Germans with respect to the scuttling. The Treaty of Versailles, signed a week later, imposed strict limits on the size and the number of warships that the newly-installed German government was allowed to build and maintain.
The Americans, the British, the French, the Italians, and the Japanese had been allies during World War I, but with the German threat seemingly finished, a naval arms race between the erstwhile allies seemed likely for the next few years. US President Woodrow Wilson's administration had already announced successive plans for the expansion of the US Navy from 1916 to 1919 that would have resulted in a massive fleet of 50 modern battleships.
In response, the Japanese Diet finally authorised construction of warships to enable the Japanese Navy to attain its goal of an "eight-eight" fleet programme, with eight modern battleships and eight battlecruisers. The Japanese started work on four battleships and four battlecruisers, all of which were much larger and more powerful than those of the classes that they were replacing.
The 1921 British Naval Estimates planned four battleships and four battlecruisers, with another four battleships to follow the subsequent year.
The new arms race was unwelcome to the American public. The US Congress disapproved of Wilson's 1919 naval expansion plan, and the 1920 presidential election campaign caused politics to resume the non-interventionalism of the prewar era, with little enthusiasm for continued naval expansion. Britain also could ill afford any resumption of battleship construction, given the exorbitant cost.
In late 1921, the US became aware that Britain was planning a conference to discuss the strategic situation in the Pacific and Far East regions. To forestall the conference and to satisfy domestic demands for a global disarmament conference, Warren Harding's administration called the Washington Naval Conference in November 1921.
The Conference agreed to the Five-Power Naval Treaty as well as a Four-Power Treaty on Japan and a Nine-Power Treaty on China.
Negotiations
At the first plenary session held November 21, 1921, US Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes presented his country's proposals. Hughes provided a dramatic beginning for the conference by stating with resolve: "The way to disarm is to disarm". The ambitious slogan received enthusiastic public endorsement and likely abbreviated the conference while helping ensure his proposals were largely adopted. He subsequently proposed the following:
A ten-year pause or "holiday" of the construction of capital ships (battleships and battlecruisers), including the immediate suspension of all building of capital ships.
The scrapping of existing or planned capital ships to give a 5:5:3:1.67:1.67 ratio of tonnage with respect to Britain, the United States, Japan, France and Italy respectively.
Ongoing limits of both capital ship tonnage and the tonnage of secondary vessels with the 5:5:3 ratio.
Capital ships
The proposals for capital ships were largely accepted by the British delegation. However, they were controversial with the British public. Britain could no longer have adequate fleets in the North Sea, the Mediterranean and the Far East simultaneously, which provoked outrage from parts of the Royal Navy.
Nevertheless, there was huge demand for the British to agree to the limits and reductions: the risk of war with the Americans was increasingly regarded as merely theoretical as there were very few policy differences between the two Anglophone powers; continued naval spending was unpopular in Britain throughout the empire; and Britain was implementing major budget reductions due to the post–World War I recession.
The Japanese delegation was divided. Japanese naval doctrine required the maintenance of a fleet 70% the size of that of the United States, which was felt to be the minimum necessary to defeat the Americans in any subsequent war. The Japanese envisaged two separate engagements, first with the U.S. Pacific Fleet and then with the U.S. Atlantic Fleet. It calculated that a 7:5 ratio in the first battle would produce enough of a margin of victory to be able to win the subsequent engagement and so a 3:5 ratio was unacceptable because a 3:5 total fleet size ratio would imply a 6:5 ratio in the first battle. Nevertheless, the director of the delegation, Katō Tomosaburō, preferred to accept the latter to the prospect of an arms race with the United States, as the relative industrial strength of the two nations would cause Japan to lose such an arms race and possibly suffer an economic crisis. At the beginning of the negotiations, the Japanese had only 55% of the capital ships and 18% of the GDP of the Americans.
His opinion was opposed strongly by Katō Kanji, the president of the Naval Staff College, who acted as his chief naval aide at the delegation and represented the influential "big navy" opinion that Japan had to prepare as thoroughly as possible for an inevitable conflict against the United States, which could build indefinitely more warships because of its huge industrial power.
Katō Tomosaburō was finally able to persuade the Japanese high command to accept the Hughes proposals, but the treaty was for years a source of controversy in the navy.
The French delegation initially responded negatively to the idea of reducing their capital ships' tonnage to 175,000 tons and demanded 350,000, slightly above the Japanese limit. In the end, concessions regarding cruisers and submarines helped persuade the French to agree to the limit on capital ships.
Another issue that was considered critical by the French representatives was the Italian request of substantial parity, which was considered to be unsubstantiated; however, pressure from the American and the British delegations caused the French to accept it. That was considered a great success by the Italian government, but parity would never actually be attained.
There was much discussion about the inclusion or exclusion of individual warships. In particular, the Japanese delegation was keen to retain their newest battleship Mutsu, which had been funded with great public enthusiasm, including donations from schoolchildren. That resulted in provisions to allow the Americans and the British to construct equivalent ships.
Cruisers and destroyers
Hughes proposed to limit secondary ships (cruisers and destroyers) in the same proportions as capital ships. However, that was unacceptable to both the British and the French. The British counterproposal, in which the British would be entitled to 450,000 tons of cruisers in consideration of its imperial commitments but the United States and Japan to only 300,000 and 250,000 respectively, proved equally contentious. Thus, the idea of limiting total cruiser tonnage or numbers was rejected entirely.
Instead, the British suggested a qualitative limit of future cruiser construction. The limit proposed, of a 10,000 ton maximum displacement and 8-inch calibre guns, was intended to allow the British to retain the Hawkins class, then being constructed. That coincided with the American requirements for cruisers for Pacific Ocean operations and also with Japanese plans for the Furutaka class. The suggestion was adopted with little debate.
Submarines
A major British demand during the negotiations was the complete abolition of the submarine, which had proved so effective against them in the war. That proved impossible, particularly as a result of French opposition, which demanded an allowance of 90,000 tons of submarines, and the conference ended without an agreement to restrict submarines.
Pacific bases
Article XIX of the treaty also prohibited the British, the Japanese and the Americans from constructing any new fortifications or naval bases in the Pacific Ocean region. Existing fortifications in Singapore, the Philippines and Hawaii could remain. That was a significant victory for Japan, as newly-fortified British or American bases would be a serious problem for the Japanese in the event of any future war. That provision of the treaty essentially guaranteed that Japan would be the dominant power in the Western Pacific Ocean and was crucial in gaining Japanese acceptance of the limits on capital ship construction.
Terms
The treaty strictly limited both the tonnage and construction of capital ships and aircraft carriers and included limits of the size of individual ships.
The tonnage limits defined by Articles IV and VII (tabulated) gave a strength ratio of approximately 5:5:3:1.75:1.75 for the UK, the United States, Japan, Italy, and France, respectively.
The qualitative limits of each type of ship were as follows:
Capital ships (battleships and battlecruisers) were limited to 35,000 tons standard displacement and guns of no larger than 16-inch calibre. (Articles V and VI)
Aircraft carriers were limited to 27,000 tons and could carry no more than 10 heavy guns, of a maximum calibre of 8 inches. However, each signatory was allowed to use two existing capital ship hulls for aircraft carriers, with a displacement limit of 33,000 tons each (Articles IX and X). For the purposes of the treaty, an aircraft carrier was defined as a warship displacing more than 10,000 tons constructed exclusively for launching and landing aircraft. Carriers lighter than 10,000 tons, therefore, did not count towards the tonnage limits (Article XX, part 4). Moreover, all aircraft carriers then in service or building (Argus, Eagle, Furious, Hermes, Langley and Hōshō) were declared "experimental" and not counted (Article VIII).
All other warships were limited to a maximum displacement of 10,000 tons and a maximum gun calibre of 8 inches (Articles XI and XII).
The treaty also detailed by Chapter II the individual ships to be retained by each navy, including the allowance for the United States to complete two further ships of the Colorado class and for the UK to complete two new ships in accordance with the treaty limits.
Chapter II, part 2, detailed what was to be done to render a ship ineffective for military use. In addition to sinking or scrapping, a limited number of ships could be converted as target ships or training vessels if their armament, armour and other combat-essential parts were removed completely. Some could also be converted into aircraft carriers.
Part 3, Section II specified the ships to be scrapped to comply with the treaty and when the remaining ships could be replaced. In all, the United States had to scrap 30 existing or planned capital ships, Britain 23 and Japan 17.
Effects
The treaty marked the end of a long period of increases of battleship construction. Many ships that were being constructed were scrapped or converted into aircraft carriers. Treaty limits were respected and then extended by the London Naval Treaty of 1930. It was not until the mid-1930s that navies began to build battleships once again, and the power and the size of new battleships began to increase once again. The Second London Naval Treaty of 1936 sought to extend the Washington Treaty limits until 1942, but the absence of Japan or Italy made it largely ineffective.
There were fewer effects on cruiser building. The treaty specified 10,000 tons and 8-inch guns as the maximum size of a cruiser, but that was also the minimum size cruiser that any navy was willing to build. The treaty began a building competition of 8-inch, 10,000-ton "treaty cruisers", which gave further cause for concern. Subsequent naval treaties sought to address that by limiting cruiser, destroyer and submarine tonnage.
Unofficial effects of the treaty included the end of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. Although it was not part of the Washington Treaty in any way, the American delegates had made it clear that they would not agree to the treaty unless the British ended their alliance with the Japanese. The 1921 Imperial Conference earlier in the year had already decided not to renew the Alliance.
Violations
In 1935, the French Navy laid down the battleship ; combined with the two s also under construction, which placed the total tonnage over the 70,000-ton limit on new French battleships until the expiration of the treaty. The keel laying of in December 1936, albeit less than three weeks before the treaty expired, increased the magnitude of France's violation by another 35,000 tons. The French government dismissed British objections to the violations by pointing out that Britain had signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement in 1935, which unilaterally dismantled the naval disarmament clauses of the Treaty of Versailles. German naval rearmament threatened France, and according to the French perspective, if Britain freely violated treaty obligations, France would similarly not be constrained.
Italy repeatedly violated the displacement limits on individual ships and attempted to remain within the 10,000-ton limit for the s built in the mid-1920s. However, by the s in the late 1920s and early 1930s, it had abandoned all pretense and built ships that topped by a wide margin. The violations continued with the s of the mid-1930s, which had a standard displacement in excess of . The Italian Navy nevertheless misrepresented the displacement of the vessels as being within the limits imposed by the treaty.
Japanese denunciation
The naval treaty had a profound effect on the Japanese. With superior American and British industrial power, a long war would very likely end in a Japanese defeat. Thus, gaining strategic parity was not economically possible.
Many Japanese considered the 5:5:3 ratio of ships as another snub by the West, but it can be argued that the Japanese had a greater force concentration than the US Navy or the Royal Navy. The terms also contributed to controversy in high ranks of the Imperial Japanese Navy between the Treaty Faction officers and their Fleet Faction opponents, who were also allied with the ultranationalists of the Japanese army and other parts of the Japanese government. For the Treaty Faction, the treaty was one of the factors that had contributed to the deterioration of the relationship between the American and the Japanese governments.
Some have also argued that the treaty was one major factor in prompting Japanese expansionism by the Fleet Faction in the early 1930s. The perception of unfairness resulted in Japan's renunciation of the Second London Naval Treaty in 1936.
Isoroku Yamamoto, who later masterminded the attack of Pearl Harbor, argued that Japan should remain in the treaty. His opinion was more complex, however, in that he believed the United States could outproduce Japan by a greater factor than the 5:3 ratio because of the huge American production advantage of which he had expert knowledge since he had served with the Japanese embassy in Washington. After the signing of the treaty, he commented, "Anyone who has seen the auto factories in Detroit and the oil-fields in Texas knows that Japan lacks the power for a naval race with America." He later added, "The ratio works very well for Japan – it is a treaty to restrict the other parties." He believed that other methods than a spree of construction would be needed to even the odds, which may have contributed to his advocacy of the plan to attack Pearl Harbor.
On December 29, 1934, the Japanese government gave formal notice that it intended to terminate the treaty. Its provisions remained in force formally until the end of 1936 and were not renewed.
Influences of cryptography
What was unknown to the participants of the Conference was that the American "Black Chamber" (the Cypher Bureau, a US intelligence service), commanded by Herbert Yardley, was spying on the delegations' communications with their home capitals. In particular, Japanese communications were deciphered thoroughly, and American negotiators were able to get the absolute minimum possible deal that the Japanese had indicated they would ever accept.
As the treaty was unpopular with much of the Imperial Japanese Navy and with the increasingly active and important ultranationalist groups, the value that the Japanese government accepted was the cause of much suspicion and accusation among Japanese politicians and naval officers.
See also
Arms control
References
Sources
.
Limitation of Naval Armament, treaty, 1922
External links
: the Washington Naval Treaty.
: on warships provided for under the treaty.
EDSITEment lesson Postwar Disillusionment and the Quest for Peace 1921–1929
In depth video discussion of the Washington Naval Treaty
1922 in military history
1922 in France
1922 in Italy
1922 in the United Kingdom
February 1922 events
Treaties concluded in 1922
Treaties entered into force in 1923
United States Navy in the 20th century
Arms control treaties
Naval treaties
Interwar-period treaties
Naval history of Japan
History of the Royal Navy
History of the French Navy
Naval history of Italy
Treaties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)
Treaties of the United States
Japan–United States relations
Imperial Japanese Navy
Treaties of the French Third Republic
Treaties of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
Treaties of the Empire of Japan
United Kingdom–United States relations
Italy–United States relations
France–United States relations
France–Italy relations
Italy–Japan relations
France–Japan relations
Japan–United Kingdom relations
France–United Kingdom relations
Presidency of Calvin Coolidge
League of Nations treaties
Arthur Balfour
Presidency of Warren G. Harding
George V
Emperor Taishō
Victor Emmanuel III
ms:Perjanjian Tentera Laut Washington
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112488
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellettsville%2C%20Indiana
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Ellettsville, Indiana
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Ellettsville, Indiana
Ellettsville is a town in Richland Township, Monroe County, Indiana, United States. The population was 6,655 at the 2020 census. It is part of the Bloomington, Indiana Metropolitan Statistical Area.
History
Ellettsville was platted in 1837. In 1818, Edward Ellett, Sr, and his wife Eleanor settled in what is now known as Ellettsville with their four minor sons: David, Richard, Johnston and Barton. The first winter, they lived in a three-sided log cabin they built. Also settling that year were their two eldest sons, William and Samuel, with their wives and families. Within a few years daughters Sarah, Phoebe and Nancy settled in the area with their husbands. In 1826, their third eldest son, Edward, Jr., also arrived in the town that was named Ellettsville in 1837. Samuel Ellett built the first courthouse in 1820. It was completed ahead of schedule and at the cost of $400. By 1822, the first school opened and with Samuel Ellett's children attending.
When Indiana celebrated its sesquicentennial in 1987, a historical marker was placed to mark the grave of the town's founder, Edward Ellett, Sr. (c.1762-1833). Two of Edward Ellett's sons, Samuel and Edward Jr., fought in The War of 1812. In turn, three of the founder's grandsons fought to preserve the Union in the Civil War. Stephen R. Ellett fought with the 67th Indiana Infantry Regiment, at the Battle of Vicksburg, while his younger brothers, James W. Ellett and John H. Ellett, volunteered and fought with the 27th Indiana Volunteer Infantry Regiment at Gettysburg. James Ellett died in service of his county in 1864 in Alabama while his brother, John Ellett, was wounded at Chancellorsville but survived the Civil War. The family tradition of loyal service to the U.S. was later followed by the founder's great great grandson, Dale Ellett, who volunteered and died in World War II in 1945 fighting against Nazi Germany.
The post office at Ellettsville has been in operation since 1837. The community was incorporated as a town in 1866.
Ellettsville Downtown Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2006.
Geography
According to the 2010 census, Ellettsville has a total area of , all land.
Demographics
2010 census
At the 2010 census, there were 6,378 people, 2,593 households and 1,704 families living in the town. The population density was . There were 2,753 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup was 95.5% White, 1.0% African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.6% Asian, 0.7% from other races, and 1.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.6% of the population.
There were 2,593 households, of which 35.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.2% were married couples living together, 13.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 34.3% were non-families. 28.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 2.98.
The median age was 34.5 years. 26.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 30.7% were from 25 to 44; 23% were from 45 to 64; and 12.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 46.7% male and 53.3% female.
2000 census
At the 2000 census, there were 5,078 people, 1,944 households and 1,345 families living in the town. The population density was . There were 2,085 housing units at an average density of . The racial make-up was 95.83% White, 1.22% African American, 0.18% Native American, 0.73% Asian, 0.81% from other races, and 1.24% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.18% of the population.
There were 1,944 households, of which 40.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.2% were married couples living together, 13.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.8% were non-families. 25.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 people, and the average family size was 3.09 people.
30.1% of the population were under the age of 18, 8.4% from 18 to 24, 32.7% from 25 to 44, 19.4% from 45 to 64, and 9.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.0 males.
The median household income was $37,276 and the median family income was $42,950. Males had a median income of $32,153 and females $26,313. The per capita income was $16,120. About 6.7% of families and 9.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.8% of those under age 18 and 12.6% of those age 65 or over.
Education
Edgewood High School serves students in grades 9-12. Edgewood Junior High School serves grades 6-8. Edgewood Intermediate School serves grades 3-5. Edgewood Primary School serves grades K-2. Richland-Bean Blossom Community School Corporation represents the two townships (Richland and Bean Blossom) in northwestern Monroe County.
Ellettsville has a public library, a branch of the Monroe County Public Library.
References
External links
Town website
Towns in Monroe County, Indiana
Towns in Indiana
Bloomington metropolitan area, Indiana
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Kin-dza-dza!
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Kin-dza-dza! is a 1986 Soviet film released by the Mosfilm studio and directed by Georgiy Daneliya, with a story by Georgiy Daneliya and Revaz Gabriadze. It is a dystopian science-fiction black comedy, in which two men from Earth accidentally travel through space, meeting two aliens from the Kin-dza-dza star system and their post-apocalyptic world.
Plot
The story begins in 1980s Moscow. Vladimir Mashkov, aka Uncle Vova, a generic but gruff construction foreman, is returns home to his apartment after a stressful day at work. His wife asks him to buy some groceries, so Vova goes out to the nearest store. Standing right in the city centre on Kalinin Prospekt (now New Arbat Avenue), is a barefoot man, dressed in a tattered coat, who appeals to passersby with a strange request: "Tell me the number of your planet in the Tentura? Or at least the number of your galaxy in the spiral?".
Uncle Vova and a young Georgian student with a violin (The Violinist) stop and talk to the strange man. During a short conversation, the stranger shows them a teleportation device, which he calls a "device for moving in space". Uncle Vova decides to test the veracity of the stranger's story, and despite the stranger's warnings, presses a random button on the device. Suddenly, Uncle Vova and the Violinist find themselves transported to the planet "Pluke" in the "Kin-dza-dza" galaxy.
The natives of the planet appear human, with deceptively primitive-looking technology and a barbaric culture, which satirically resembles that of humans. They are telepathic; the only spoken words normally used in their culture are "ku" (koo) and "kyu" (kyoo), the former stands for everything good, the latter being a swear word that stands for every bad thing. However, the Plukanians are able to quickly adapt to speaking and understanding Russian and Georgian.
The society of Pluke is divided into two categories: "Chatlanians" and "Patsaks" ("пацак" is a backward spelling of "кацап", a derogatory term for Russians, according to another opinion, from "пацан", "patsan" a guy). The difference is ascertained only by means of a small handheld device, the "visator", similar in appearance to a flash drive; when pointed at a member of the Chatlanian group, an orange light on the device comes on; when pointed at a member of the Patsak group, a green light comes on. It is also noted that the social differences between Patsaks and Chatlanians are not constant: Pluke being a Chatlanian planet, Chatlanians are privileged, and a system of rituals must be followed by the Patsaks to show flattery; however, there are Patsak planets where Patsaks hold the upper hand and where Chatlanians are subservient. The "visator" shows that Uncle Vova and the Violinist are Patsaks.
The only group allowed to use weapons ("tranklucators") and enforce their will are the "ecilopps" ("police" spelled backwards). Outside being a Patsak or Chatlanin, respect towards others is determined by the color of their pants; different shades require those of lower social standing to "ku" at them a predetermined number of times, displaying their submission. The nominal leader of the Plukanian society is Mr. P-Zh; everybody makes their best to display fervent worship to him and disrespect is severely punished; however, when encountered in person, P-Zh appears harmless and dumb. The fuel of Pluke is called "luts" and is made from water. All naturally present water has apparently been processed into luts, so drinking water is a valuable commodity (in fact, it can only be made from luts).
A good deal of the plot is based on the fact that ordinary wooden matchsticks ("ketse") are considered to be extremely valuable on Pluke. Uncle Vova and the Violinist meet two locals, Uef and Bi, who at various points either help or abandon the Earthling duo in their quest to return to Earth, which at various times involves repairing Uef and Bi's ship or raiding P-Zh's private compound.
Uncle Vova and the Violinist finally encounter the man from the film's beginning, but he disappears, making it uncertain if he took them with him. The film then jumps back to the very beginning. As Uncle Vova heads outside, however, there is no man at the city center; furthermore, when he runs into the Violinist there, they do not recognize each other. Suddenly, a passing tractor with a flashing, orange light reminds them of the "ecilopps", and they both reflexively squat and say, "ku!", as it was required on Pluke. They immediately recognize each other. Uncle Vova, looking at the sky, hears the sound of a song performed by the Uef and Bi.
Cast (in order of appearance)
Stanislav Lyubshin as Vladimir Nikolayevitch Mashkov ("Uncle Vova")
Galina Daneliya-Yurkova as Lucya, Mashkov's wife
Levan Gabriadze as Gedevan Alexandrovitch Alexidze ("Fiddler")
Anatoli Serenko as the Barefoot Wanderer from Uzm
Yury Yakovlev as Bi the Patsak, a wandering singer
Yevgeny Leonov as Uef the Chatlanian, a wandering singer
Igor Khan as the one-handed smuggler
Alexander Litovkin as the gang leader
Valentin Bukin as black-moustached ecilop in an egg-shaped pepelats, demonstrating how a tranklucator works
Irina Shmelyova as Tsan, the cart driver (tachanka-driving woman, a wandering singer and dancer)
Lev Perfilov as Kyrr, the dissident Chatlanian with a tranklucator
Nina Ruslanova as Galina Borisovna, the vice-dean
Yuri Voronkov as bearded Chatlanian, leader of the "Children of the Sun" sect (later seen in the subway train, pretending to be a Patsak)
Olesya Ivanova as cage-banging white sectarian woman
Lyudmila Solodenko as sand-throwing black sectarian girl
Vitali Leonov as Shorty (from the sect)
Nikolai Garo as Mr. P-Zh
Igor Bogolyubov as Mr. P-Zh's personal Patsak and grey-moustached elderly ecilop in an egg-shaped pepelats, who will want "40 chatles" and "immediately press the kappa" in a later scene
Victor Marenkov as Patsak, wearing a coil pipe for a mask and working as watchman
Yelena Mashkova-Sulakadze as watchman's wife (redheaded Patsak woman in the trapdoor)
Gennady B.Ivanov as black ecilop, guarding the underground communications
Aleksandra Dorokhina as colossal Chatlanian woman, working as attendant in the subway station
Victor Makhmutov as the red-headed Chatlanian
Vladimir Fyodorov as Mr. Yellow Pants
Yelena Antonova as Mr. Yellow Pants' girlfriend
Tatyana Novitskaya as an employee in the planetarium
Yuri Naumtsev as the judge
Gennady Yalovich as secret agent
Veronica Izotova as the gang leader's female Chatlanian slave, wearing a collar
Vladimir Razumovsky as ecilop with muzzles
Nina Ter-Osipian as Mr. P-Zh's noble mother
Harri Schweitz as Mr. P-Zh's 1st bodyguard (bearded fat man)
Valentin Golubenko as Mr. P-Zh's 2nd bodyguard (long-nosed power man)
Oleg Matveyev as Mr. P-Zh's 3rd bodyguard (young man wearing gloves)
Olga Mashnaya as Dekont (from the planet Alpha)
Georgiy Daneliya as Abradox (from the planet Alpha)
Varvara Vladimirova as young Alphian mother
Anya Andriyanova as little blonde Alphian girl
Plukanian language
Since Plukanians are depicted as telepathic in the movie, they use very few spoken words to communicate. These include:
Ketse (pronounced "keh-tseh", emphasis on the second syllable) – a stick that looks like a match;
Chatl – a currency unit;
Tsak – a small bell worn on the nose to indicate the low social status of the wearer;
Tentura and Antitentura – two opposite parts of the Universe. Some planets and galaxies exist in Tentura (including Earth, number 013 in the Tentura, seventh in Spiral) and some in Antitentura;
Pepelats – an interplanetary spacecraft (from the Georgian პეპელა p’ep’ela, "butterfly");
Tsappa – a component for different machines. A "big tsappa" is a very important component for the pepelats. A "small tsapa" is a component for the gravitsappa; without the small tsappa, a gravitsappa will not work. Described as being similar to a very rusty screwnut;
Gravitsappa – a component for the pepelats which allows intergalactic travel (from "gravity" + "tsappa");
Tranklucator – a weapon;
Visator – a compact device which detects difference between Patsaks and Chatlanians;
Kappa – any trigger;
Luts – the fuel used by the pepelats, originally made of water;
Chatlanian – a being with a high social status (detected as "orange" on a visator);
Patsak – a being with a low social status (detected as "green" on a visator);
Ecilopp – a policeman (from the English word "police" spoken backwards);
Etsikh – a box for prisoners, also the imprisonment in such box (as a penalty), and also a jail with many such boxes (the word "etsikh" is from the Georgian ციხე tsikhe, "prison"). A harsher version is "etsikh with nails".
Kyu – a socially-acceptable profanitу;
Ku (pronounced "koo") – every single other word.
Release
The movie has been released on DVD in Russia, but has gained virtually no notice elsewhere, with the exception of Japan. This is largely due to the fact that there was no official release of the movie with English subtitles for a long time. While the movie was in the making, a censorship threat emerged, due to the use of the word "Ku" (Koo) which sounded like the initials "K.U.", referring to the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the USSR at the time, K.U. Chernenko. Chernenko had assumed the Party leadership in 1984, but died in 1985, which resolved the issue.
In 2005, RUSCICO (Russian Cinema Council) released a version with the original Russian sound and additional English and French dubbing. It also has subtitles in English and other languages.
In 2013, a digitally-restored Blu-ray version was released.
The film is available with English subtitles on YouTube, via Mosfilm.
Critical response
Thirty years after its original release, Little White Lies magazine described Kin-dza-dza! as "Mad Max meets Monty Python by way of Tarkovsky" and said it had remained relevant to audiences. Russia Beyond agreed that the film was still well-loved by Russians in 2016.
On 1 December 2016, Google celebrated the 30th anniversary of Kin-Dza-Dza! with a Google Doodle.
Animated remake
In 2013, Daneliya released an animated remake of the film, named Ku! Kin-dza-dza!. The animated version was based on the plot of the original film, but was targeted more towards children and international audiences. It had a budget of 140 million rubles. Ku! Kin-dza-dza! won Best Animated Feature Film in the 2013 Asia Pacific Screen Awards. The animated remake is mainly a traditionally-animated (drawn-by-hand) feature film, with some computer animation.
References
Further reading
External links
1986 films
1980s science fiction comedy-drama films
1980s dystopian films
1986 black comedy films
Mosfilm films
Films directed by Georgiy Daneliya
Films set in the 1980s
Films set in Moscow
Films set in the Soviet Union
Films shot in Moscow
Films shot in Turkmenistan
Films shot in Yaroslavl Oblast
1980s Soviet films
1980s Russian-language films
1980s Georgian-language films
Fictional-language films
Russian black comedy films
Soviet black comedy films
Soviet science fiction comedy-drama films
Russian science fiction comedy-drama films
Russian dystopian films
Steampunk films
1986 multilingual films
Soviet multilingual films
Films about teleportation
Films set on fictional planets
Films about telepathy
Films about violins and violinists
Films scored by Giya Kancheli
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Пінакотека сучасності
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Пінакотека сучасності — художній музей у Мюнхені, під дахом якого розмістилися чотири незалежні один від одного музеї:
Колекція сучасного мистецтва (входить до складу Баварських державних зібрань живопису)
Нова колекція (Державний музей прикладного мистецтва)
Архітектурний музей Мюнхенського технічного університету, а також
Державні графічні зібрання Мюнхена, що представляють у своїх унікальних констеляціях різні види мистецтва.
Разом зі «Старою» і «Новою» пінакотеками, Музеєм Брандхорста, Державними античними зібраннями, Гліптотекою і Державною галереєю у Будинку Лєнбаха «Пінакотека сучасності» утворює Ареал мистецтва у Мюнхені.
Будинок музею
Сучасна простора будівля, одностайно визнана архітектурною критикою як велика творча удача архітектора Штефана Браунфельса, була побудовано на пожертви приватних осіб (початкове фінансування склало 10 млн євро). Лише на їх основі Вільна держава Баварія узяло на себе фінансові витрати і надала земельну ділянку колишніх Турецьких казарм, що спочатку призначалася для університетських корпусів. Пінакотеку сучасності було відкрито 16 вересня 2002 року. Через півтора року число її відвідувачів перевалило за два мільйони.
З двосферної ротонди, що знаходиться в центрі будівлі білого кольору з облицювального бетону, до експозицій ведуть двоє великих сходів. Сумарний діаметр ротонди складає 30 м. На цокольному поверсі знаходяться Зібрання дизайну, на першому поверсі розташувалися виставкові зали Архітектурної колекції, Графічне зібрання і тимчасові виставки. У західному крилі першого поверху розмістилося Зібрання класичного модерну, у східному — Зібрання сучасного мистецтва.
Другий етап будівництва, що передубачав будівництво прилеглих корпусів з півдня і сходу і додаткових залів для Державного графічного зібрання, був відкладений у зв'язку з нестачею фінансування, пов'язаною з будівництвом Музею Брандхорста.
Тріщини, що з'явилися тим часом у світловому дворі Пінакотеки сучасності, були обстежені для складання плану санаційних робіт.
Колекції
Колекція сучасного мистецтва
У Колекції сучасного мистецтва представлено твори періоду класичного модерну і сучасного мистецтва в усіх основних напрямах: експресіонізм, фовізм, кубізм, «Нова речовинність», баухауз, сюрреалізм, абстрактний експресіонізм, поп-арт і мінімалізм.
Історія
Одно з найбільш великих зібрань свого роду виникло після 1945 року з придбань і пожертвувань.
З відкриттям відновленої Нової Пінакотеки в 1981 році вирішальним чинником при розділенні колекцій галерей, що розміщувалися у Будинку мистецтва, була наявність у творах інноваційних рис, властивих Анрі Матіссу і властивих експресіонізму. Відповідно фовістське полотно Матісса («Натюрморт з геранню», 1910), придбане завдяки так званим «пожертвам Чуді», було передано в експозицію Пінакотеки сучасності, як і твори кубістів і експресіоністів. На відміну від інших міст нечисленні мальовничі скарби Мюнхена практично не постраждали від варварських нападок націонал-соціалістів на «дегенеративне мистецтво». У 1950 році основу Державної галереї сучасного мистецтва складали усього лише сім витворів мистецтва: «Червоні козулі» Франца Марка, «Венеція» Оскара Кокошки, «Лицарська шпора», «Пейзаж з Вальхензе» Ловіса Коринта і «Автопортрет» Макса Бекмана.
Колекція сучасного мистецтва почала швидке зростати після Другої світової війни завдяки придбанням і пожертвам.
Фонди поповнювалися завдяки цілеспрямованій політиці колекціонування, а також за рахунок колекцій, подарованих Фондом Тео Вормланда (сюрреалізм), Софією і Емануелем Фонами, Воті і Теодором Вернером (картини Пауля Клеє і кубістів), Марти і Маркуса Круссів (експресіоністи, зокрема художники групи «Міст»), Гюнтера Франке (роботи Макса Бекмана), Клауса Гебхарда (північноамериканські художники Роберт Раушенберг, Джаспер Джонс), а також герцога Франца Баварського (сучасні німецькі художники Йорг Іммендорфф і Зігмар Польке. Останнє придбання датується 2006 роком: збори німецького і північноамериканського мистецтва 1960-х-1990-х років минулого століття подаровані Елеонорою і Міхаелем Штоффелями.
Колекція класичного модерну
У колекції представлено широке коло художників, починаючи з Анрі Матіса («Натюрморт з геранню», 1910), Робера Делоне («Команда Кардіффу», 1913), Фернана Леже («Пейзаж № 2», 1913), Хуана Гріса («Пляшка бордо», 1913), Умберто Боччоні («Volumi orizzontali», 1912) і Жоржа Брака («Жінка з мандоліною», 1910), Оскара Кокошки («Емігранти», 1916), Отто Дікса («Портрет фотографа Отто Ерфурта», 1925), Ліонеля Фейнінгера («Тройштедт», 1923) і закінчуючи Хоаном Міро («Композиція», 1925), Рене Магріттом («Тренування акробатки», 1928), Джорджо де Киріко («Неспокійні музи», 1917), Сальвадором Далі («Загадка бажання або Мою матір, мою матір, мою матір», 1929) і Максом Ернстом («Домашній ангел», 1937).
Особливе місце в експозиції займають два зали, де представлені роботи Макса Бекмана («Юний аргентинець», 1929, «Спокуси св. Антонія», 1936, «Жінка в жовтому і червоному з мандоліною», 1950) і Пабло Пікассо («Мадам Солер», 1903, «Мати і дитя», 1921, «Сидяча жінка», 1941).
Достойно представлені в колекції усі члени груп «Міст» і «Синій вершник»: Ернст Людвіг Кірхнер («Танцювальна школа», 1914), Еріх Хеккель («Скляний день», 1913), Еміль Нольде («Танець навколо золотого тельця», 1910) і Карл Шмідт-Ротлуф («Пейзаж з водоносицею», 1919), а також Пауль Клеє («Повний місяць», 1919), Олексій фон Явленський («Пейзаж з Карантека з жінкою», 1905—1906, Франц Марк («Мандрил», 1913), Август Маке («Дівчини під деревами», 1914) і Василь Кандинський («Мрійлива імпровізація», 1913).
Колекція сучасного мистецтва кінця 50-х років
Тут представлено роботи Енді Уорхола («СНІД/Джип/Велосипед», 1986), Джаспера Джонса («Прибуття/виїзд», 1963), Роберта Раушенберга («Композиція с футболістами», 1962), Сая Туомблі («Больсена», 1969), Віллема де Кунінга («Об'їзд», 1958), Роберта Мазервелла («Je t'aime», 1955), Франца Клайна («New Year Wall: Night», 1960), Лючіо Фонтана («Concetto Spaziale, Attese», 1954 і 1959), Антоні Тапієса («Овал кольору вохри з чорними врізаннями», 1965), Френсіса Бекона («Розп'яття», 1965), Генрі Мура («Полеглий воїн», 1956), Марино Марині («Портрет Ігоря Стравінського», 1951), Йозефа Бойса («Кінець XX століття», 1983), Блінки Палермо («Straight», 1965), Георга Базеліца («Новий тип», 1966), Герхарда Ріхтера («Завіса», 1966), Зігмара Польке («Ню із скрипкою», 1968) і Ансельма Кіфера («Nero malt», 1974).
Мистецтво мінімалізму в колекції представлене творчістю Дональда Джадда («Монумент», 1969), Дена Флавіна («Wallboxes», 1978) і Фреда Зандбака («Просторові інсталяції для Пінакотеки сучасності», 2003).
Нові медіа, фотографія і відеоарт
У Пінакотеці можна побачити важливі роботи Джон Бальдессарі («Man running/Men carrying box», 1988—1990), Тадеуша Кантора («Мертвий клас», 1975), Брюса Наумана ("World Peace (projected) ", 1996), («Himalaya Goldsteins Stube», 1998—1999), Хіросі Сугімото («World Trade Center, Minoru Yamazaki», 1997), Біла Віоли («Tiny Death», 1993), Сема Тейлора-Вуда («Soliloquy III», 1998) і лайтбокси Джефа Уолла («Eviction Struggle», 1988; «A villager from Aricaköyu arriving in Mahmutbey, Istanbul September», 1997).
Державне графічне зібрання
Державне графічне зібрання Мюнхена включає близько 400 тисяч листів, що представляють усі епохи мистецтва малюнка і друкарської графіки, починаючи з XV ст. і закінчуючи модерном. Своїми коренями воно сходить до колекції Віттельсбахів, зокрема Кабінету гравюр і малюнків курфюрста Карла Теодора. У Другу світову війну колекція зазнала значні втрати, проте як і раніше знаходиться в одному ряду з найбільшими колекціями графіки Німеччини — берлінським і дрезденським. Особливу цінність представляють малюнки і друкарська графіка старих німецьких і нідерландських майстрів (зокрема, твори Альбрехта Дюрера і Рембрандта), італійців (зокрема, Мікеланджело Буанаротті і Леонардо да Вінчі), малюнки німецьких художників XIX ст. і графіка в стилі модерну з інших країн, наприклад, роботи Поля Сезанна, Анрі Матісса, Пауля Клее і Девіда Хокні.
Через чутливість витворів мистецтва до світла, вони демонструються тільки у рамках тимчасових експозицій.
Нова колекція
Нова колекція відноситься до провідних світових музеїв дизайну. У його постійній експозиції уперше представлено історію і розвиток дизайну і прикладного мистецтва з 1900 року до теперішнього часу. Ці найбільші зібрання промислового дизайну у світі. Особливе місце у Новій колекції займає автомобільний дизайн, комп'ютерна культура, дизайн прикрас, предмети побуту і меблів, у тому числі зібрання творів Міхаеля Тонета.
Архітектурний музей
Збори Архітектурного музею Мюнхенського технічного університету є найбільшими зборами такого роду у Німеччині, багаті фонди якого демонструються у змінних експозиціях. Це малюнки, етюди, моделі іменитих архітекторів: Йоганна Балтазара Неймана, Готфріда Земпера, Ле Корбюзьє і Гюнтера Беніша. Є комп'ютерна анімація і відеоматеріали.
Див. також
Пінакотека
Нова пінакотека
Стара пінакотека
Ареал мистецтва у Мюнхені
Мюнхенський технічний університет
Примітки
Посилання
Офіційний сайт
Музеї Мюнхена
Художні музеї Німеччини
Музеї сучасного мистецтва
Музеї, засновані 2002
засновані в Німеччині 2002
Національні музеї Німеччини
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39573527
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Captive%20%282014%20film%29
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The Captive (2014 film)
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The Captive (2014 film)
The Captive is a 2014 Canadian thriller film directed by Atom Egoyan with a script he co-wrote with David Fraser. The film stars Ryan Reynolds, Bruce Greenwood, Scott Speedman, Rosario Dawson, Mireille Enos, Kevin Durand, and Alexia Fast. It was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or in the main competition section at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival. The film was released in select theaters and on demand on December 12, 2014.
The film has a nonlinear presentation, and only context differentiates the current scenes from the flashbacks. Additionally, although the film takes place over eight years, all of the scenes take place during winter for dramatic effect.
Plot
In Niagara Falls, Ontario, homicide detective Jeffrey Cornwall interviews for a job with Nicole Dunlop in the Internet Child Exploitation Unit. He recoils in disgust after seeing the images related to an open case, but Nicole advises him these are the types of images he will have to see every day and not look away from.
Meanwhile, local contractor Matthew Lane picks up his 9-year-old daughter, Cassandra, after her figure skating practice. Matthew stops to pick up pie, leaving Cassandra in his truck. Minutes later, he returns to find her missing. He reports the abduction to the police station, where Jeffrey and Nicole are assigned to the case. They are skeptical of his story, which infuriates him. Cassandra's mother, Tina Lane, arrives and breaks down in rage at Matthew.
Eight years later, Matthew and Tina are estranged; she blames him for Cassandra's disappearance. Nicole and Jeffrey are now romantically involved. Tina meets with the police regularly to discuss their case but Matthew, originally a suspect, has become a vigilante in the search for Cassandra.
This entire time Cassandra has been held captive in the home of a child pornographer named Mika, who has installed remote cameras in the hotel rooms where Tina works as a chambermaid. Although Mika leaves his house to work and is no longer sexually interested in the now-adult Cassandra, the fear that he will harm her parents keeps Cassandra from escaping or seeking help.
Jeffrey finds recent photos of Cassandra online. Mika makes her tell stories on camera to lure in younger children. Nicole poses as a child, which allows her and Jeffrey to catch a child molester named Willy, as well as a group of others. The arrests put Nicole into the public eye. Mika visits Willy in prison and urges him not to take any deals for cooperation. Willy says he will only comply if someone kidnaps Nicole and forces her to reveal what in her past may have inspired her to pursue child protection.
Cassandra begins chatting online with a young girl, trying to entice her to meet. When Nicole arrives home, she finds Jeffrey using his own niece as bait to infiltrate the child porn community and immediately shuts off the web cam. Mika secretly turns the webcam back on to watch their fight and reconsiders Willy's offer regarding Nicole.
Nicole attends a dinner held in her honor where she is drugged and kidnapped by Vicky, a woman working for Mika.
While transporting trees in his truck, Matthew stays overnight at a motel. He wakes to find the trees have been taken and left in a trail that ultimately leads him to a remote location where he finds Cassandra. Cassandra resists leaving with him and Matthew does not understand why until Mika appears and tranquilizes him; Mika had arranged the meeting to watch their reunion.
Mika locks Nicole in a van and tells her to tell her story into a microphone.
At the ice skating rink, Vicky questions Cassandra's former skating partner, Albert, about their history, pressuring him for details on how he was impacted by the disappearance. Matthew overhears this and follows Vicky to a restaurant, where he eavesdrops as Vicky plays a recording of her conversation with Albert for Mika. Matthew calls Jeffrey with their location and plants his GPS-enabled phone on Mika's vehicle.
Matthew goads the diner staff to call the police by being disruptive. He confronts the abductors to buy more time and steals Vicky's cell phone. She and Mika chase Matthew in their vehicle, shooting at his truck. Matthew escapes by driving by the diner again, where multiple police cars have responded to the staff's earlier calls.
Jeffrey tracks Matthew's phone and locates Mika's house. Jeffrey is shot by Vicky, but she is killed by another officer. Jeffrey then fatally wounds Mika, who dies while being interrogated for Nicole's location. The Lane family is reunited at the police station, then Tina and Cass visit Jeffrey as he recovers in the hospital. The police finally find and rescue Nicole.
Cassandra skates at her old ice rink and smiles.
Cast
Production
The shooting of the film began in February 2013 in Sudbury, Ontario. Ahead of its première on 16 May 2014 at the Cannes Film Festival, distributor A24, in partnership with DirecTV, purchased the U.S. rights to the film.
Release
The film received a limited release in Canada on September 5, 2014 and earned a total of $450,000. The film was released on DirecTV
on November 13, 2014 due to A24's partnership with DirecTV. The film was released in select theaters and on demand beginning on December 12, 2014 in the United States. The film was first made available to stream on Netflix and is currently available on HBO Max.
Reception
Before its release, the film had been received negatively. The Captive has a Rotten Tomatoes rating of 28% based on 54 reviews, with an average score of 4.3/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "Wan and lugubrious, The Captive represents another atmospheric, beautifully filmed misfire from director Atom Egoyan." The film's Metacritic score is 36 out of 100 based on 20 reviews, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".
Justin Chang from Variety described it as "a ludicrous abduction thriller that finds a once-great filmmaker slipping into previously un-entered realms of self-parody". Peter Bradshaw from The Guardian commented, "it looks worryingly as if Egoyan has taken a serious issue and burdened it to breaking point and beyond with his own indulgent, naïve and exploitative fantasies". Steven Zeitchik of the Los Angeles Times compliments moments when the film "hints at emotions and mysteries with a delightful subtlety for a while", but remarks that it includes "some wild plots and conspiracies that wouldn't be out of place in the most fantastical spy novel".
References
External links
The Captive at Library and Archives Canada
2014 films
2010s English-language films
English-language Canadian films
Films directed by Atom Egoyan
Films scored by Mychael Danna
Films about missing people
Films about human rights
2010s chase films
2010s road movies
Trucker films
Films shot in Greater Sudbury
2010s thriller films
Canadian thriller films
A24 (company) films
2010s Canadian films
2010s American films
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2243980
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B5%D1%8F%20%28%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%29
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Психея (космічний апарат)
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Психея (космічний апарат)
Психея (англ. Psyche) — космічна місія NASA для дослідження походження планетарних ядер за допомогою вивчення металевого астероїда 16 Психея. Він може мати 253 км у діаметрі та оголене залізо-нікелеве ядро протопланети, що, найімовірніше, є наслідком сильного зіткнення з іншим об'єктом, який здер зовнішню кору. Це найважчий відомий астероїд типу M, який також може містити значну кількість золота і платини, так що загальна його вартість може становити 10 000 квадрильйонів доларів.
30 вересня 2015 року астероїд 16 Психея був обраний як півфіналіст для місії № 13 за програмою «Discovery», а вже 4 січня 2017 року місію було оголошено переможницею.
Запуск космічного апарата первісно було заплановано на серпень 2022 року. Та в жовтні 2022 року NASA повідомило, що він відбудеться у період з 5 по 25 жовтня 2023 року. Причиною стала неготовність наземного обладнання, що унеможливило виконання всіх належних перевірок і тестів. Запуск успішно здійснено 13 жовтня 2023 року ракетою Falcon Heavy компанії SpaceX.
Метою місії є політ до 253-кілометрового астероїда 16 Психея, що відрізняється підвищеним вмістом металів. Багато вчених підозрює, що він являє собою уламок ядра протопланети, що зруйнувалася на зорі існування Сонячної системи. Космічний апарат «Психея» має перевірити це припущення.
Історія
Астероїд 16 Психея був поданий в рамках конкурсу пропозицій для космічної програми «Discovery», який проводився в лютому 2015 року. 30 вересня 2015 року він увійшов до списку п'яти фіналістів і отримав 3 мільйони доларів США на подальшу розробку концепції.
4 січня 2017 року «Психея» була обрана як 14-та місія «Діскавері» із запуском у 2023 році. У травні 2017 року дату запуску було перенесено для отримання ефективнішої траєкторії: запуск був перенесений на липень 2022 року на борту ракети-носія SpaceX Falcon Heavy, 23 травня 2023 року мав відбутись гравітаційний маневр навколо Марса, а прибуття на астероїд Психея планувалося на 31 січня 2026 року.
У червні 2022 року NASA виявило, що запізня поставка тестового обладнання та програмного забезпечення космічного корабля не залишає достатньо часу для завершення необхідних випробувань, і вирішило відкласти запуск. Наступні вікна для запуску були доступні у 2023 і 2024 роках із зустріччю з астероїдом 16 Психея у 2029 і 2030 роках відповідно.
28 жовтня 2022 року NASA оголосило, що місія «Психея» буде запущена до 10 жовтня 2023 року, і приліт до астероїда відбудеться в серпні 2029 року.
Незалежний огляд затримок у Лабораторії реактивного руху (JPL), про який повідомлялося в листопаді 2022 року, виявив нестачу персоналу, недостатнє планування та проблеми з комунікацією між інженерами та керівництвом. Місія VERITAS до Венери була відкладена, щоб вивільнити персонал і задіяти його на місії «Психея».
18 квітня 2023 року, як було повідомлено на сторінці місії «Психея», Лабораторія реактивного руху (JPL) встановила дату запуску на 5 жовтня 2023 року.
20 липня 2023 року, згідно з повідомленням NASA, інженери перейшли до фінального етапу підготовки місії «Психея». Космічний корабель «Психея» провів останній рік на об'єкті космічних операцій Astrotech поблизу Космічного центру імені Кеннеді. Там інженери з Лабораторії реактивного руху (JPL) працювали над остаточним збиранням та випробуваннями напередодні запланованого на 5 жовтня запуску.
16 листопада 2023 року, згідно з повідомленням NASA, космічний апарат «Психея» зміг обмінятися даними з наземними телескопами за допомогою інфрачервоного лазерного сигналу з відстані 16 млн км. Це найбільша відстань, на якій поки вдалося встановити сеанс зв'язку оптичним каналом.
Станом на початок грудня 2023 року, космічний апарат «Психея» перебував між Марсом і Юпітером у головному поясі астероїдів. За даними NASA, 4 грудня апарат «Психея» за допомогою своїх двох камер вперше зробив і надіслав на Землю фотографію далекого космосу.
8 квітня 2024 року, космічний апарат «Психея» передав нове повідомлення на Землю за допомогою оптичного лазерного зв’язку з відстані 226 млн км (140 млн миль) та швидкістю 25 Мбіт/с.
Конструкція апарата
Космічний апарат «Психея» для живлення використовуватиме сонячні батареї. Передбачається, що він матиме наступні наукові інструменти: камера, магнітометр, і гамма-спектрометр. Лінда Елкінс-Тантон із університету штату Аризона є головною керівницею місії, а Лабораторія реактивного руху (JPL) виступає керівником усього проєкту.
Огляд місії
Космічний корабель «Психея» сконструйований із сонячною електричною тягою, а наукове корисне навантаження включає мультиспектральну камеру, магнітометр і гамма-спектрометр.
Місія розрахована на 21 місяць наукових досліджень. Космічний корабель був побудований Лабораторією реактивного руху (JPL) у співпраці з SSL і Університетом штату Аризона.
Здійснення запуску «Психеї» пропонувалося на одній ракеті з окремою космічною місією «Афіна», яка мала здійснити проліт повз астероїд 2 Паллада, третій за величиною астероїд у Сонячній системі. У травні 2020 року було оголошено, що на борту Falcon Heavy разом із «Психеєю» як додатковим корисним навантаженням полетять два малі супутники — для вивчення марсіанської атмосфери і «Янус» для дослідження подвійних астероїдів, але у вересні 2020 року EscaPADE вилучили з плану. Пізніше, 18 листопада 2022 року, «Янус» теж був вилучений із запуску, коли стало зрозуміло, що нова дата запуску «Психеї» не дасть «Янусу» змогу вийти на траєкторію, необхідну для досягнення цілей місії. Остаточно прийнято рішення, що запуск місії відбудеться за допомогою надважкої ракети SpaceX Falcon Heavy.
Цілі місії
Диференціювання — це фундаментальний процес у змінах багатьох астероїдів і всіх планет земної групи, і безпосереднє дослідження ядра може значно покращити розуміння цього процесу. Місія «Психея» матиме змогу охарактеризувати геологію, форму і елементний склад, магнітне поле і розподіл маси 16 Психеї. Очікується, що місія покращить розуміння небулярної гіпотези і внутрішню структуру планетних систем. Наукові питання цієї місії наведені нижче:
Чи мають планетезималі, які формуються близько до Сонця дуже різну об'ємну структуру?
Чи має астероїд 16 Психея оголене ядро чи диференційовану планетезималь або сформоване з багатих на залізо частинок? З чого складаються будівельні блоки планет?
Якщо 16 Психея був позбавлений своєї мантії, коли і як це сталося?
Якщо 16 Психея колись був розплавлений, він затвердів ззовні чи зсередини?
Чи виробляє 16 Психея магнітне поле чи він охолонув?
Які головні сплави та елементи з яких складається залізне ядро?
Які ключові характеристики геологічної поверхні і глобальної топографії астероїда? Чи відрізняється ззовні від інших відомих кам'яних і льодяних тіл?
Як кратери на металічному тілі відрізняються від тих, що існують на кам'яних і льодяних тілах?
Водночас, як стало відомо, місія Психея має й деякі інші цілі, які виходять далеко за межі наукових досліджень. Це пов'язано з тим, що астероїд 16 Психея — унікальний за своїм складом та складається із заліза, нікелю і золота, і є дуже дорогим у грошовому еквіваленті. Його вартість, за попередніми оцінками, складає 10 квінтильйонів доларів США. Він містить таку велику кількість металів, що його маса становить приголомшливий 1 % від сукупної маси всіх інших об'єктів у поясі астероїдів. Це дивовижне відкриття дозволило вченим підрахувати, що вартість Психеї в 90 разів перевершує всю економіку Землі.
Галерея
Посилання
Навіщо NASA відправляє космічний апарат в металевий світ // Канал «Цікава наука» на YouTube, 23 травня 2020
Див. також
DAVINCI
Залізний метеорит
«Люсі»
Near-Earth Object Camera (NEOcam)
VERITAS
Дослідження Марса
Примітки
Дослідження астероїдів
Пропозиції для програми «Discovery»
Місії до малих планет
Космонавтика 2022
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23202701
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nissan%20Primera
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Nissan Primera
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Nissan Primera
The is a large family car which was produced by the Japanese automaker Nissan from 1990 to 2007, for the markets in Japan and Europe. In Japan, it replaced the Auster/Stanza, and was exclusive to Nissan Prince Store locations. In North America, it was the entry level luxury sports sedan for the Infiniti brand. The word "primera" in Spanish means "first", in its female form.
First generation (P10; 1990)
Since 1986, Nissan had been building Bluebirds — essentially a rebadged home market Auster/Stanza – for the market in Europe at its factory in Washington, Tyne and Wear, England. Nissan showcased the Primera X concept car at the 1989 Tokyo Motor Show as part of Project 901 (Nissan's performance vision for 1990), and concept car UV.X at the 1989 Frankfurt Motor Show. The design was specifically targeted at European buyers.
Having originally launched in Japan in February 1990, Nissan replaced the United Kingdom's Bluebird with the slightly smaller Primera in September that year. It had a conventional, front-wheel drive chassis and five-speed manual gearbox, with some versions getting the option of a four-speed automatic.
Power came from 1.6-litre carbureted (not available in Japan, except in the Avenir Cargo van version) and 1.8-litre and 2.0-litre injection petrol engines. In Europe, a 2.0-litre diesel followed from 1992 onwards, while a 1.6-litre injection gasoline was introduced at the end of 1993. The 1.8 was originally a single point injection model (SR18Di); a multi point injection with more power was added in 1991.
The 1.8-litre version was not built with left-hand drive and was not sold in continental Europe. Bodystyles were four- and five-door saloons. A five-door estate was also offered as the Primera Traveller; however, it was based on the slightly different sheet metal of the Nissan Avenir and was only made in Japan. With the exception of the UK GT, only the four-door model was available in Japan.
The Primera saw Nissan's multi link front suspension applied to front-wheel drive for the first time. The 2.0-litre gasoline engine received a power upgrade in 1992, which gave the then ZXe (later renamed the eGT) from the standard 2.0-litre engine and a claimed top speed of .
Some five-door, British made, RHD Primeras were exported back to Japan where they were sold under the name of Primera UK GT. This was the first British-built Japanese car to be reverse-exported back to Japan. In the United States, cars built in Japan was rebadged as the Infiniti G20, part of Nissan's upper scale Infiniti brand. The G20 was based on the Japanese model Primera, which featured a narrower body to remain within the Japanese compact class tax bracket with width limit at ; the Japanese-spec UK GTs also feature the narrower body to comply with the tax bracket.
Trim levels (Europe)
The Primera range came in six trim levels at launch: L, LS, SLX, GS, GSX and ZX. The 1.6-litre engine was available in L, LS and LSX trim and the 2.0-litre engine was available in LS, GS and GSX trim. The ZX model had a 2.0-litre engine. From 1992 onwards, the range was facelifted and new L, LX, SLX, SGX and eGT trim levels replaced the original naming scheme. A 2.0-litre diesel version was available from 1992.
The L cars were basic, and had 1.6-litre petrol engines only. The LX was slightly plusher, but 2.0-litre petrol and diesel versions were also available. SLX was the mid range model, and these also had a choice of 1.6 and 2.0 petrol, or 2.0 diesel engines. The SGX trim level was the luxury specification version; it is powered by the 2.0-litre engine.
The eGT was the sporting version, with a 2.0-litre engine. Engine power was slightly increased during 1994, with the 1.6 model producing and the 2.0 model up to .
From 1994, the range received another facelift, and the trim levels were almost the same; although Equation replaced the basic L as the entry level trim; like its predecessor, it had a 1.6 petrol engine, but there was no diesel option. A rare (1,000 examples in Europe) 4x4 option was available, known as a T4 in Japan, with the DOHC engine. At this time, the SE replaced the SGX.
A new "warm hatch" version, the SRi, joined the line up from 1994. This had a choice of 1.6- or 2.0-litre petrol engines. For the domestic Japanese market there was also a very rare version of the P10 built and tuned by Japanese tuning company Autech: these models came with special Autech suspension and interior packages and a tuned SR20DE 2.0-litre engine making .
Second generation (P11; 1996)
The second-generation Primera was launched in Japan at the end of 1995 and in Europe in the autumn of 1996. Unique in its class, the new Primera featured multi-link front and multi-link beam rear suspension.
As before, in Europe the Primera was sold with 1.6 L and 2.0 L petrol engines and a 2.0 L diesel, with hatchback, saloon and estate bodystyles. While the estate was now based on the Primera's platform, it was assigned a model code of WP11.
In Japan, the Primera was initially offered with the SR18DE, SR20DE and SR20VE engines, and initially only as a sedan; these models (including the British-built UK GT models for sale in Japan) were slightly narrower at to remain within the Japanese compact class tax bracket.
The hatchback assembled in the United Kingdom was available only with the SR20DE engine and automatic transmission and began production from November 1997, a captive import known as the Primera UK GT. Estate began production from September 1997.
Alongside the original Primera, the Nissan Primera Camino was launched as a badge engineered model for different dealer networks.
The models for Japan also introduced a CVT automatic transmission during the P11 series, including a six-speed tiptronic version in the M6 G-V and Autech edition wagons and Te-V saloon. The Te-V was equipped with SR20VE and CVT M6 transmissions only.
Nissan continued selling the Primera in the United States as the Infiniti G20 from 1998 until 2002, when it was replaced by a rebadged version of the Nissan Skyline V35 as the Infiniti G35. The G20 used the same grille and rear lamp alterations from the Primera Camino.
In 1998, Nissan New Zealand released a limited edition Primera SMX with association with Steve Millen (Stillen Sports Parts). Features include cross drilled brakes, Eibach springs and a more aggressive body kit. The engine received minor modifications including a free-flow exhaust and a K&N air filter, bumping power up to . There were a total of 26 (including the prototype numbered 000) made in five colour choices (the prototype was the only white one made).
This was because until 1998 (due to lifting of import tariffs on cars) Nissan had an automotive assembly operation in New Zealand, and for a short time between 1997 and 1998 the P11 Primera was assembled in Wiri, Auckland. The locally assembled models were all fitted with the SR20DE engine and were available in four different trim levels: S, SE, SES, and SEL. The Japanese-made Primeras which replaced it received the one-piece chrome grille (from the Primera Camino) and US-style taillights; the new trim levels were GX and GXE.
The Primera won the British Touring Car Championship manufacturer's and team titles thanks to the factory backed RML teamin 1998 and 1999 as well as the Independents' Cup in 1999 and 2000.
To celebrate the two victories in 1998, Nissan UK released a limited edition of 400 GTSE models, with 16" AZEV alloy wheels, two tone "flip" ChromaFlair "Mystic" green paint, following the special theme to the interior which featured full leather seating with green piping seats, steering wheel and a Momo gearknob.
To celebrate the 1999 "clean sweep", they released a limited edition GTLE model with 16" multi spoke Enkei alloy wheels, a full leather interior with silver piping, a Momo gearknob and a colour choice of Flame Red, Kuro Black, Starburst Silver, and Nordic Blue.
Facelift
In August 1999, Nissan gave the Primera a facelift, giving it a more modern front end with clear style headlamps featuring projector units, instead of the traditional Fresnel lens type. Nissan also introduced their "corporate identity" front, with the "flying wing" grille. The new code name for this model was "P11-144".
Along with the exterior changes, improved specification levels were present; with the entry level models such as the "S" featuring automatic climate control, driver, passenger, and side airbags. Further up the model range, other features were seen such as xenon headlamps.
A new "lean burn" 1.8 L petrol engine, the QG18DE was added to the range. This facelift was not generally applied outside Europe and was not available in Japan when Nissan "formalized" the fronts of other Primeras and Caminos instead, bringing them into line with the look of the American model of Infiniti. Production ended in June 2002.
STCC Edition
The Primera STCC Edition (named for the Swedish Touring Car Championship) is a limited production model based on the Primera Sport. One hundred examples were made. It had the same engine as the Primera Sport, but it was lowered , had headlight "goggles" and had a bigger wing.
Third generation (P12; 2001)
Nissan introduced the third generation Primera in Japan on January 30, 2001, its first all new car since the alliance with Renault was formed two years earlier. The new Primera was more radically styled than previous versions. No Infiniti equivalent was released; the Skyline-based Infiniti G35 replaced the G20 in the United States. The third generation Primera made its European debut at the 2001 Frankfurt Motor Show.
New Zealand Primeras were introduced in 2002, and were all equipped with continuously variable transmissions; there was no manual option. Originally, Japanese-built sedans and wagons were sold in New Zealand. This remained true until 2006, when liftbacks and estates assembled in the United Kingdom became available instead. The CVT is also available in the European 2.0 L and the Japanese-made 2.0 and 2.5 L versions (the larger engine was not available in Europe). In March 2003, a 1.6-liter petrol engine was added to the lineup, while the 2.2 di was joined by a common-rail version (dCi) as well as by a smaller 1.9 dCi of Renault origins.
Falling sales caused the Primera to be withdrawn from sale in the United Kingdom in November 2006. Production of left-hand drive cars, however, continued until 2007. In Japan, production of RHD Primeras also continued until 2007. In 2011, a large number of brand new Primeras appeared in the market in Ireland, after apparently having been in storage since 2006.
The 2.0 L six-speed manual Nissan Primera 20V has Nissan's SR20VE Neo VVL engine with variable valve lift and timing. It produces of power at 7,200 rpm and of torque at 5,200 rpm.
Replacement
Speculation in the motoring press suggested that a "tweaked" version of the Nissan Altima would be the replacement, but this did not happen. In August 2006, Auto Express reported pictures of a disguised, Sentra-based prototype testing in Germany.
However, it was actually the new Nissan Sentra, which was built in Spain rather than at Sunderland for European buyers. Such was the success of the Nissan Qashqai crossover in Europe, that Nissan did not launch a direct replacement for the Primera, despite earlier plans for such a model to be developed for at least some markets in Europe.
References
External links
Official British site
Nissan Primera 20V (Japan)
Primera
Cars introduced in 1990
2000s cars
Mid-size cars
Sedans
Hatchbacks
Station wagons
Police vehicles
Vehicles with CVT transmission
Euro NCAP large family cars
Cars discontinued in 2008
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4711226
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BA%20%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85%20%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D1%96%D0%B2%20%D0%84%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0
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Список латинських патріархів Єрусалима
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Список латинських патріархів Єрусалима
Латинський патріарх Єрусалиму — прелат, єпископською кафедрою якого є Латинський патріархат Єрусалиму, який охоплює території Ізраїлю, Палестини, Кіпру та Йорданії.
Історія
Після захоплення Єрусалима хрестоносцями в 1099 році, була створена нова релігійна структура — Латинський патріархат Єрусалима, який мав доповнювати тимчасову структуру — Єрусалимське королівство.
Титул Єрусалимського патріарха (з 1099 року) є найстарішим серед латинських патріархів і це єдиний титул серед церков, що підпорядковуються Конгрегації Східних Церков, який посідає єпископ Римо-католицької церкви. Патріарх Єрусалиму не очолює окрему Церкву свого права (sui iuris), а радше є єпископом Римо-католицької церкви із постійним привілеєм носити почесний титул патріарха, подібно до патріархів Венеції, Лісабона та Ост-Індії.
Згідно зі статутом, латинський патріарх Єрусалиму є Великим магістром Єрусалимського Ордену Святого Гробу Господнього. Патріарх є також членом Ради Східних Католицьких патріархів.
Нині латинський патріарх Єрусалима — єпархіальний єпископ католиків латинського обряду на Святій землі, включаючи Йорданію та Кіпр. Латинський Патріарх Єрусалиму виконує свої функції в Патріархаті, який нараховує 67 парафій з паствою, яка в 2018 році налічувала 313 тисяч прихожан.
Кафедра
В 1187 році, після втрати хрестоносцями Єрусалиму, патріарша кафедра була переміщена в нову столицю королівства Сен-Жак-д'Акр. 1291 року, після втрати хрестоносцями Акри — на Кіпр. Після розгрому Кіпрського королівства у війні з генуезцями і взяття в полон кіпрського короля П'єра II де Лузіньян, латинський патріарх відмовився залишатись на Кіпрі і в 1374 році кафедра була перенесена в Рим, де перебувала протягом 1374—1847 років.
В Римі резиденція патріарха Єрусалиму містилась в Базиліці Святого Лаврентія за мурами і до 1847 року призначались лише почесні патріархи, які не керували якоюсь церковною структурою. 23 липня 1847 папа Пій IX опублікував Апостольське послання про відновлення Латинського Патріархату Єрусалима. Титул латинський патріарх Єрусалима було відновлено як чинний пост для єпископа Джузеппе Валерги.
17 січня 1848 року латинського патріарх урочисто в'їхав до Єрусалиму і з цього часу офіційним місцем розташування кафедри латинської патріархії Єрусалиму знову є Храм Гробу Господнього. Кафедра латинського патріарха Єрусалиму розташована в співкафедральному Соборі Найсвятішого Імені Ісуса (кафедральний собор, де знаходиться катедра патріарха, але не патріархії), будівництво якого відбувалось у 1862—1872 роках. Собор є частиною комплексу будівель Латинського патріархату Єрусалима і фактично єпископською церквою Єрусалимського патріарха. Однак з історичних причин, офіційним кафедральним собором Католицької церкви в Єрусалимі вважається Храм Гробу Господнього.
З моменту заснування патріархату в XI столітті було 86 титулярних патріархів. Першим з них був Арнульф Шокський, обраний патріархом в 1099 році. Від червня 2016, коли у відставку у зв'язку з досягненням 75-річного віку подав патріарх Фуад Туаль, пост патріарха вакантний. Апостольським адміністратором патріархату є архієпископ П'єрбаттіста Піццабалла O.F.M., призначений 24 червня 2016 р. Папою Франциском.
Список Патріархів Єрусалимських латинського обряду
Арнульф Шокський (1099);
Дагоберт Пізанський (1099–1102);
Еремар (1102);
Дагоберт Пізанський (відновлений) (1102–1107);
Гіббелен Арльський (1107–1112);
Арнульф Шокський (відновлений) (1112–1119);
Гармонд з Пікіньї (1119–1128);
Стефан (1128–1130);
Вільям I Малінський (1130–1145);
Фульк Ангулемський (1146–1157);
Аіальрік Несль (1157–1180);
Іраклій (1180–1191). Єрусалим втрачено 1187; резиденція патріарха перенесена в Акру:
Sede vacante (1191–1194);
Аймаро Монако де Корбіцці (1194–1202);
Соффредо Ерріко Гаетані (1202–1204);
Альберт Авогадро (1204–1214);
Рауль Меренкур (1214–1225);
Жеральд Лозаннський (1225–1238);
Sede vacante (1238–1240), Жак де Вітрі був обраний, але не розпочав виконувати свої обов'язки;
Роберт Нантський (1240–1254);
Жак Панталеон Кур-Пале (1255–1261), майбутній папа римський Урбан IV;
Вільям II Еджен (1261–1270);
Томас Аньї Косенцький (1271–1277);
Іоанн Версальський (1278–1279);
Еліхуа (1279–1287);
Микола Анапс (1288–1294).
Акра втрачена 1291 року; резиденція переміщена на Кіпр, а згодом — в Рим після 1374; тільки почесні патріархи до 1847 року.
невідомо
Ентоні Бек (1306–1311), також князь-єпископ Дарему в Англії з 1284 до 1310.
невідомо
Францисканські кустоси (гросмейстери Ордена Святого Гробу Господнього) утримували титул з 1342 до 1830 року за Папською буллою Gratiam agimus папи римського Климента VI (якщо хтось конкретно не призначався на посаду).
Петро Палуданус (1329–1342);
Елі де Набіналь (1342–1348);
Філіп де Кабассоль (помер 1372);
Філіп Алансонський (помер 1397);
Бертран де Шанак (?-1401?);
невідомо;
Родріго де Карвахаль (1523–1539);
невідомо;
Джованні Антоніо Факінетті (1572–1585), майбутній папа римський Інокентій IX;
Шипіоне Гонзага (1585?-?);
Франческо Ченніні де Саламандрі (1618–1645);
Sede vacante;
Камілло Массімо (1653–1677);
Бандіно Панчіатічі (1689–1698?);
Франческо Мартеллі (1698–1717?);
невідомо;
Вінсан Луї Готті (1728–1729);
Помпео Альдрованді (1729–1734);
Томмазо Червіні (1734–1751);
Томмазо де Монкада (1751–1762);
Георгіус Марія Ласкаріс (1762–1795);
Sede vacante (1795–1800);
Мікеле ди П'єтро (1800–1821);
Франческо Марія Фенці (1816–1829);
Огастус Фосколо (1830–1847), пізніше латинський патріарх Александрійський, 1847–1860.
Відновлення резиденції латинських патріархів Єрусалима з юрисдикцією (1847).
Джузеппе Валерга (1847–1872);
Вінсент Брако (1872–1889);
Відновлено ієрархію латинського патріархату Єрусалима (1889).
Луїджі П'яві (1889–1905);
Sede vacante (1905–1907);
Філіпо Камассей (1907–1919);
Луїджі Баласіна (1920–1947);
Sede vacante (1947–1949);
Альберто Горі (1949–1970);
Джакомо Джузеппе Бельтрітті (1970–1987);
Мішель Саббах (1987–2008);
Фуад Туаль (2008—2016);
Sede vacante (2016—2020)
П'єрбаттіста Піццабалла (з 24 жовтня 2020)
Див. також
Патріарх Венеції
Патріарх Лісабона
Примітки
Джерела
E-G Rey, Les Familles d'outre-mer de du Cange, 1869, Paris, Imprimerie impériale, 998 p., p. 713-7373
Dictionnaire d’Histoire et de Géographie Ecclésiastique, vol. XXVI, Letouzey et Amé, 1997, p. 1124-1130.
G. Fedalto, La Chiesa latina in Oriente, éd. Mazziana, coll. « Studi religiosi » no 3, Vérone, 3 vol, 1973-1978.
La Chiesa latina in Oriente, vol. 1, 1981 (2eéd. augm.), 671 p.
La Chiesa latina in Oriente / Hierarchia latina orientis, vol. 2, 2006 (2eéd. augm.), 300 p. (ISBN 88-85073-77-8)
La Chiesa latina in Oriente / Documenti veneziani, vol. 3, 1978, 308 p.
W. Hotzelt, Kirchengeschichte Palästinas im Zeitalter der Kreuzzüge 1099-1291, éd. Bachem, coll. « Kirchengeschichte Palästinas von der Urkirche bis zur Gegenwart » no 3, Cologne, 1940, 253 p.
B. Hamilton, The Latin Church in the Crusader States : the Secular Church, Londres, Variorum Publications, 1980
L. de Mas Latrie, « Les Patriarches latins d'Alexandrie », dans Charles-Jean-Melchior de Vogüé, Revue de l'Orient latin, vol. I., Paris, Ernest Leroux, 1893 (réimpr. 1964), 644 p. (ISSN 2017-716X, lire en ligne [archive]), p. 16-44.
Латинські патріархи Єрусалима
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130529
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McAlester%2C%20Oklahoma
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McAlester, Oklahoma
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McAlester, Oklahoma
McAlester is the county seat of Pittsburg County, Oklahoma. The population was 18,363 at the time of the 2010 census, a 3.4 percent increase from 17,783 at the 2000 census. The town gets its name from James Jackson McAlester, an early settler and businessman who later became lieutenant governor of Oklahoma. Known as "J. J.", McAlester married Rebecca Burney, the daughter of a full-blood Chickasaw family, which made him a citizen of the Chickasaw Nation.
McAlester is the home of the Oklahoma State Penitentiary, the former site of an "inside the walls" prison rodeo that ESPN's SportsCenter once broadcast.
McAlester is home to many of the employees of the McAlester Army Ammunition Plant. This facility makes the majority of the bombs used by the United States military. In 1998 McAlester became the home of the Defense Ammunition Center (DAC), which moved from Savanna, Illinois, to McAlester Army Ammunition Plant.
History
The crossing of the east–west California Road with the north–south Texas Road formed a natural point of settlement. At the time of its founding, the site was located in Tobucksy County, a part of the Moshulatubbee District of the Choctaw Nation. Alyssia Young, who emigrated from Mississippi to the Indian Territory, first established a settlement at the intersection of the two roads in 1838. The town was named Perryville after James Perry, member of a Choctaw family, who established a trading post. At one time Perryville was the capital of the Choctaw Nation and County Seat of Tobucksy County. During the American Civil War, the Choctaw allied with the Confederate States of America (CSA) as the war reached Indian Territory.
A depot providing supplies to Confederate Forces in Indian Territory was set up at Perryville. On August 26, 1863, a force of 4,500 Union soldiers crossed the Canadian River and destroyed the Confederate munitions depot at Perryville. This became known as the Battle of Perryville, Indian Territory. Union Major General James G. Blunt, finding the Confederate supplies and realizing that Perryville was a major supply depot for Confederate forces, ordered the town burned. The town was rebuilt but never reached its prewar glory or population.
After the end of the Civil War in 1865, Captain J. J. McAlester obtained a job with the trading company of Reynolds and Hannaford. McAlester convinced the firm to locate a general store at Tupelo in the Choctaw Nation. He had learned of coal deposits in Indian Territory during the war while serving as a captain with the 22nd Arkansas Infantry Regiment (Confederate). At Fort Smith, Arkansas, before going to work with Reynolds and Hannaford, McAlester had received maps of the coal deposits from engineer Oliver Weldon, who served with McAlester during the war.
Weldon had worked for the U.S. surveying Indian Territory before the war and knew of the coal deposits. Hearing of the railroad plans to extend through Indian Territory and knowing that rich deposits of coal were in an area north of the town of Perryville, McAlester convinced Reynolds and Hannaford that Bucklucksy would be a more suitable and profitable site for the trading post. He constructed a trading post/general store there in late 1869. The Bucklucksy general store was an immediate success, but McAlester recognized an even greater opportunity in the abundance of coal deposits in the area, so he began obtaining rights to the deposits from the Choctaws, anticipating the impending construction of a rail line through Indian Territory.
As the first railroad to extend its line to the northern border of Indian Territory, the Union Pacific Railway Southern Branch earned right of way and a liberal bonus of land to extend the line to Texas. Several New York businessmen, including Levi P. Morton, Levi Parsons, August Belmont, J. Pierpont Morgan, George Denison and John D. Rockefeller, were interested in extending rail through Indian Territory, and the Missouri-Kansas-Texas Railroad, familiarly called the Katy Railroad, began its corporate existence in 1865 toward that end. Morton and Parsons selected a site near the Kansas Indian Territory border where they incorporated the settlement of Parsons, Kansas in 1871.
That same year, J. J. McAlester, after buying out Reynolds's share of the trading post, journeyed with a sample of coal to the railroad town in hopes of persuading officials to locate the line near his store at Bucklucksy. The trading post's location on the Texas Road weighed in its favor, given that the Katy line construction roughly followed the Shawnee Trail – Texas Road route south to the Red River. The line reached Bucklucksy in 1872, and Katy Railroad officials named the railway stop McAlester .
With the coming of the railroad, businesses in nearby Perryville began relocating to be near the McAlester Rail Depot, marking the end of Perryville and the beginning of McAlester. On August 22, 1872, J. J. McAlester married Rebecca Burney (1841–1919). She was a member of the Chickasaw Nation, which made it possible for McAlester to gain citizenship and the right to own property (including mineral rights to the coal deposits in both the Choctaw and Chickasaw nations). McAlester quickly obtained land near the intersection of the north–south and east–west rail lines, where he opened a second general store and continued selling coal to the railroads.
In 1885, Fritz Sittle (Sittel), a Choctaw citizen by marriage and one of the first settlers in the area, urged visiting newspaperman Edwin D. Chadick to pursue the possibility of an east–west rail line to run through the coal mining district at Krebs that would connect with the north–south line at McAlester. Chadick eventually found financing and established the Choctaw Coal and Railway in 1888, but was unable to come to terms with J. J. McAlester over the issue of right of way.
In the 1870s, miners from Pennsylvania arrived in McAlester to work in the coal mines. Miners of Italian origin arrived in McAlester in 1874.
Chadick and his investors purchased land to the south of McAlester's General Store, and a natural trading crossroads formed where the two rail lines crossed, quickly becoming a bustling community called South McAlester. South McAlester grew much more rapidly than North McAlester. The 1900 census showed a population of 3,470 for the former and 642 for the latter.
The two towns operated as somewhat separate communities until 1907, when the United States Congress passed an act joining them as a single municipality, the action being required since the towns were under federal jurisdiction in Indian Territory. McAlester and South McAlester were combined under the single name McAlester, with South McAlester officeholders as officials of the single town. Designation as a single community by the United States Post Office came on July 1, 1907, nearly five months before Oklahoma statehood, which caused a redrawing of county lines and designations such that the majority of Tobucksy County fell within the new lines of Pittsburg County. The city had 8,144 inhabitants upon statehood, more than a fourth of whom were foreign-born.
McAlester was on the route of the Jefferson Highway established in 1915, with that road running more than 2,300 miles from Winnipeg, Manitoba to New Orleans, Louisiana.
McAlester was the site of the 2004 trial of Terry Nichols on Oklahoma state charges related to the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing. On December 25, 2000, an ice storm hit the area, leaving residents without electrical service and water for more than two weeks; in January 2007, another devastating ice storm crippled the city, leaving residents without power and water for more than a week.
Geography
McAlester is at the intersection of U.S. Route 69 and U.S. Route 270, in Pittsburg County. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land. It has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) and average monthly temperatures range from in January to in July. The hardiness zone is 7b.
Demographics
As of the 2000 census, there were 17,783 people, 6,584 households, and 4,187 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 7,374 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 74.72% White, 8.68% African American, 10.48% Native American, 0.39% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 1.29% from other races, and 4.38% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.04% of the population.
There were 6,584 households, out of which 29.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.6% were married couples living together, 13.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.4% were non-families. 33.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the average family size was 2.93.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 22.2% under the age of 18, 8.7% from 18 to 24, 30.4% from 25 to 44, 20.8% from 45 to 64, and 18.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 107.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 108.2 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $28,631, and the median income for a family was $36,480. Males had a median income of $29,502 versus $19,455 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,694. About 16.1% of families and 19.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 26.8% of those under age 18 and 11.6% of those age 65 or over.
Economy
Agriculture and coal mining supported the city's economy around the turn of the 20th century. Cotton was the main cash crop, and McAlester had three cotton gins and one cotton compress. Then a boll weevil infestation destroyed local cotton production. Meanwhile, railroads converted from coal to oil as their primary fuel, which marked the decline of the coal industry in the area.
The Oklahoma State Penitentiary is a major source of employment and revenue in McAlester.
During World War II, the U.S. Government built the Naval Ammunition Plant a few miles south of McAlester. In 1977, the facility became the U.S. Army Ammunition Plant. It is still the main site of ammunition production and storage for the armed forces in the United States.
Government
Two Oklahoma Department of Corrections facilities, the Oklahoma State Penitentiary and the Jackie Brannon Correctional Center, are in McAlester. McAlester was also previously home to the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Oklahoma in the Carl Albert Federal Building.
Organizations
Pride in McAlester is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization established in April 2008. The organization provides educational services and operates a flea market where community members can recycle and reuse most materials. It also participates in scholarship opportunities, community functions, and citywide cleanup events.
Another non-profit called McAlester Main Street, one of the various national Main Street Programs, is a public-private partnership with the City of McAlester, the Oklahoma Department of Commerce, and the National Trust for Historic Preservation, which works to preserve and revitalize Old Town and Downtown McAlester.
Education
McAlester Public Schools operates public schools. The McAlester Public Library was built in 1970. As of 2010 the city has plans to build a new library. The Friends of the McAlester Public Library is financing the new branch.
McAlester includes Kiamichi Technology Center, which has over 300 students per school year. There is also an extension of Eastern Oklahoma State College that partners with Southeastern Oklahoma State University and East Central University. The Wanda Bass Higher Education Center, a branch of Eastern Oklahoma State College, is also in McAlester.
Transportation
McAlester is served by:
McAlester Regional Airport (KMLC; FAA ID: MLC), approximately three miles southwest of town, features a paved 5602’ x 100’ runway. The airport had commercial air service through Central Airlines in the 1960s.
Points of interest
Notable people
Carl Albert, speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives
Melva Blancett, actress
John Berryman, poet
Mary Blair, artist, Disney animator
Ridge Bond, actor/singer
Riley Brett, race car driver
Quentin Brooks, Olympian athlete
Edwin H. Burba, Jr., U.S. Army four-star general
Lynn Cartwright, actress
Wilburn Cartwright, U.S. representative from Oklahoma
W.H.H. Clayton, U.S. District Court judge
Bennie L. Davis, U.S. Air Force four-star general
Bob Dickson, professional golfer
Lance Fenton, racing driver
Clonie Gowen, professional poker player
Micha Hancock, indoor volleyball player
Jerry Jewell, voice actor affiliated with Funimation
Levi Parham, singer-songwriter
Steve King, NFL football player
Steven T. Kuykendall, U.S. representative from California
Pepper Martin, Major League Baseball player
Dave Matthews, saxophonist
J. J. McAlester, pioneer for whom McAlester was named
Pake McEntire, singer
Reba McEntire, singer/actress
Susie McEntire-Eaton, singer
Beverlee McKinsey, actress
George Nigh (b. 1927), politician, Governor of Oklahoma (1979 - 1987), was born in McAlester
Rutus Sarlls, first lawyer in South McAlester, political candidate, and successful defendant in a United States Supreme Court case involving the sale of malt beverages to Native Americans.
Derek Sitter, founder/former owner, Volcanic Theatre Pub (Bend, Oregon) and actor/filmmaker
Gene Stipe, longest-serving member of the Oklahoma Senate, represented McAlester (1957–2003)
Steven W. Taylor (b. 1949), attended high school in McAlester, mayor of McAlester (1982 - 1984), Oklahoma Supreme Court Justice (2004 - 2016), Oklahoma Supreme Court Chief Justice (2011 - 2013)
Edward Lloyd Thomas, Confederate general
Wade Watts, Baptist minister; civil rights activist
Walter L. Weaver, U.S. representative from Ohio
Michael Wilson, screenwriter
NRHP sites
The following sites in McAlester are listed on the National Register of Historic Places listings in Pittsburg County, Oklahoma:
Notes
References
Bibliography
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External links
City site
McAlester Chamber of Commerce
McAlester Photos
Map from Center for Spatial Analysis
Cities in Oklahoma
Cities in Pittsburg County, Oklahoma
County seats in Oklahoma
Micropolitan areas of Oklahoma
Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma
Populated places established in 1872
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy%20conservation
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Energy conservation
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Energy conservation is the effort to reduce wasteful energy consumption by using fewer energy services. This can be done by using energy more effectively (using less energy for continuous service) or changing one's behavior to use less service (for example, by driving less). Energy conservation can be achieved through efficient energy use, which has some advantages, including a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and a smaller carbon footprint, as well as cost, water, and energy savings.
Green engineering practices improve the life cycle of the components of machines which convert energy from one form into another.
Energy can be conserved by reducing waste and losses, improving efficiency through technological upgrades, improving operations and maintenance, changing users' behaviors through user profiling or user activities, monitoring appliances, shifting load to off-peak hours, and providing energy-saving recommendations. Observing appliance usage, establishing an energy usage profile, and revealing energy consumption patterns in circumstances where energy is used poorly, can pinpoint user habits and behaviors in energy consumption. Appliance energy profiling helps identify inefficient appliances with high energy consumption and energy load. Seasonal variations also greatly influence energy load, as more air-conditioning is used in warmer seasons and heating in colder seasons. Achieving a balance between energy load and user comfort is complex yet essential for energy preservation. On a large scale, a few factors affect energy consumption trends, including political issues, technological developments, economic growth, and environmental concerns.
User-oriented energy conservation
User behavior has a significant effect on energy conservation. It involves user activity detection, profiling, and appliance interaction behaviors. User profiling consists of the identification of energy usage patterns of the user and replacing required system settings with automated settings that can be initiated on request. Within user profiling, personal characteristics are instrumental in affecting energy conservation behavior. These characteristics include household income, education, gender, age, and social norms.
User behavior also relies on the impact of personality traits, social norms, and attitudes on energy conservation behavior. Beliefs and attitudes toward a convenient lifestyle, environmentally friendly transport, energy security, and residential location choices affect energy conservation behavior. As a result, energy conservation can be made possible by adopting pro-environmental behavior and energy-efficient systems. Education on approaches to energy conservation can result in wise energy use. The choices made by the users yield energy usage patterns. Rigorous analysis of these usage patterns identifies waste energy patterns, and improving those patterns may reduce significant energy load. Therefore, human behavior is critical to determining the implications of energy conservation measures and solving environmental problems. Substantial energy conservation may be achieved if users' habit loops are modified.
User habits
User habits significantly impact energy demand; thus, providing recommendations for improving user habits contributes to energy conservation. Micro-moments are essential in realizing energy consumption patterns and are identified using a variety of sensing units positioned in prominent areas across the home. The micro-moment is an event that changes the state of the appliance from inactive to active and helps in building users' energy consumption profiles according to their activities. Energy conservation can be achieved through user habits by following energy-saving recommendations at micro-moments. Unnecessary energy usage can be decreased by selecting a suitable schedule for appliance operation. Creating an effective scheduling system requires an understanding of user habits regarding appliances.
Off-peak scheduling
Many techniques for energy conservation comprise off-peak scheduling, which means operating an appliance in a low-price energy hour. This schedule can be achieved after user habits regarding appliance use are understood. Most energy providers divide the energy tariff into high and low-price hours; therefore, scheduling an appliance to work an off-peak hour will significantly reduce electricity bills.
User activity detection
User activity detection leads to the precise detection of appliances required for an activity. If an appliance is active but not required for a user's current activity, it wastes energy and can be turned off to conserve energy. The precise identification of user activities is necessary to achieve this method of energy conservation.
Energy conservation opportunities by sector
Buildings
Existing buildings
Energy conservation measures have primarily focused on technological innovations to improve efficiencies and financial incentives with theoretical explanations obtained from the mentioned analytical traditions. Existing buildings can improve energy efficiency by changing structural maintenance materials, adjusting the composition of air conditioning systems, selecting energy-saving equipment, and formulating subsidy policies. These measures can improve users' thermal comfort and reduce buildings' environmental impact. The selection of combinatorial optimization schemes that contain measures to guide and restrict users' behavior in addition to carrying out demand-side management can dynamically adjust energy consumption. At the same time, economic means should enable users to change their behavior and achieve a low-carbon life. Combination optimization and pricing incentives reduce building energy consumption and carbon emissions and reduce users' costs.
Energy monitoring through energy audits can achieve energy efficiency in existing buildings. An energy audit is an inspection and analysis of energy use and flows for energy conservation in a structure, process, or system intending to reduce energy input without negatively affecting output. Energy audits can determine specific opportunities for energy conservation and efficiency measures as well as determine cost-effective strategies. Training professionals typically accomplish this and can be part of some national programs discussed above. The recent development of smartphone apps enables homeowners to complete relatively sophisticated energy audits themselves. For instance, smart thermostats can connect to standard HVAC systems to maintain energy-efficient indoor temperatures. In addition, data loggers can also be installed to monitor the interior temperature and humidity levels to provide a more precise understanding of the conditions. If the data gathered is compared with the users' perceptions of comfort, more fine-tuning of the interiors can be implemented (e.g., increasing the temperature where A.C. is used to prevent over-cooling). Building technologies and smart meters can allow commercial and residential energy users to visualize the impact their energy use can have in their workplaces or homes. Advanced real-time energy metering can help people save energy through their actions.
Another approach towards energy conservation is the implementation of ECMs in commercial buildings, which often employ Energy Service Companies (ESCOs) experienced in energy performance contracting. This industry has been around since the 1970s and is more prevalent than ever today. The US-based organization EVO (Efficiency Valuation Organization) has created a set of guidelines for ESCOs to adhere to in evaluating the savings achieved by ECMs. These guidelines are called the International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol (IPMVP).
Energy efficiency can also be achieved by upgrading certain aspects of existing buildings. Firstly, making thermal improvements by adding insulation to crawl spaces and ensuring no leaks achieves an efficient building envelope, reducing the need for mechanical systems to heat and cool the space. High-performance insulation is also supported by adding double/triple-glazed windows to minimize thermal heat transmission. Minor upgrades in existing buildings include changing mixers to low flow greatly aids in water conservation, changing light bulbs to LED lights results in 70-90% less energy consumption than a standard incandescent or C.F.L. bulb, changing inefficient appliances with Energy Star-rated appliances will consume less energy, and finally adding vegetation in the landscape surrounding the building to function as a shading element. A window windcatcher can reduce the total energy use of a building by 23.3%.
Energy conservation through users' behaviors requires understanding household occupants' lifestyle, social, and behavioral factors in analyzing energy consumption. This involves one-time investments in energy efficiency, such as purchasing new energy-efficient appliances or upgrading the building insulation without curtailing economic utility or the level of energy services, and energy curtailment behaviors which are theorized to be driven more by social-psychological factors and environmental concerns in comparison to the energy efficiency behaviors. Replacing existing appliances with newer and more efficient ones leads to energy efficiency as less energy is wasted throughout. Overall, energy efficiency behaviors are identified more with one-time, cost-incurring investments in efficient appliances and retrofits, while energy curtailment behaviors include repetitive, low-cost energy-saving efforts.
To identify and optimize residential energy use, conventional and behavioral economics, technology adoption theory and attitude-based decision-making, social and environmental psychology, and sociology must be analyzed. The techno-economic and psychological literature analysis focuses on the individual attitude, behavior, and choice/context/external conditions. In contrast, the sociological literature relies more on the energy consumption practices shaped by the social, cultural, and economic factors in a dynamic setting.
New buildings
Many steps can be taken toward energy conservation and efficiency when designing new buildings. Firstly, the building can be designed to optimize building performance by having an efficient building envelope with high-performing insulation and window glazing systems, window facades strategically oriented to optimize daylighting, shading elements to mitigate unwanted glare, and passive energy systems for appliances. In passive solar building designs, windows, walls, and floors are made to collect, store, and distribute solar energy in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the summer.
The key to designing a passive solar building is to best take advantage of the local climate. Elements to be considered include window placement and glazing type, thermal insulation, thermal mass, and shading. Optimizing daylighting can decrease energy waste from incandescent bulbs, windows, and balconies, allow natural ventilation, reduce the need for heating and cooling, low flow mixers aid in water conservation, and upgrade to Energy star rated appliances consume less energy. Designing a building according to LEED guidelines while incorporating smart home technology can help save a lot of energy and money in the long run. Passive solar design techniques can be applied most easily to new buildings, but existing buildings can be retrofitted.
Mainly, energy conservation is achieved by modifying user habits or providing an energy-saving recommendation of curtailing an appliance or scheduling it to low-price energy tariff hours. Besides changing user habits and appliance control, identifying irrelevant appliances concerning user activities in smart homes saves energy. Smart home technology can advise users on energy-saving strategies according to their behavior, encouraging behavioral change that leads to energy conservation. This guidance includes reminders to turn off lights, leakage sensors to prevent plumbing issues, running appliances on off-peak hours, and smart sensors that save energy. Such technology learns user-appliance activity patterns, gives a complete overview of various energy-consuming appliances, and can provide guidance to improve these patterns to contribute to energy conservation. As a result, they can strategically schedule appliances by monitoring the energy consumption profiles of the appliances, schedule devices to the energy-efficient mode, or plan to work during off-peak hours.
Appliance-oriented approaches emphasize appliance profiling, curtailing, and scheduling to off-peak hours, as supervision of appliances is key to energy preservation. It usually leads to appliance curtailment in which an appliance is either scheduled to work another time or is turned off. Appliance curtailment involves appliance recognition, activity-appliances model, unattended appliance detection, and energy conservation service. The appliance recognition module detects active appliances to identify the activities of smart home users. After identifying users' activities, the association between the functional appliances and user activities is established. The unattended appliance detection module looks for active appliances but is unrelated to user activity. These functional appliances waste energy and can be turned off by providing recommendations to the user.
Based on the smart home recommendations, users can give weight to certain appliances that increase user comfort and satisfaction while conserving energy. Energy consumption models of energy consumption of appliances and the level of comfort they create can balance priorities among smart home comfort levels and energy consumption. According to Kashimoto, Ogura, Yamamoto, Yasumoto, and Ito, the energy supply reduces based on the historical state of the appliance and increases according to the comfort level requirement of the user, leading to a targeted energy-saving ratio. Scenarios-based energy consumption can be employed as a strategy for energy conservation, with each scenario encompassing a specific set of rules for energy consumption.
Transportation
Transporting people, goods, and services represented 29% of U.S. energy consumption in 2007. The transportation sector also accounted for about 33% of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions in 2006, with highway vehicles accounting for about 84% of that, making transportation an essential target for addressing global climate change (E.I.A., 2008). Suburban infrastructure evolved during an age of relatively easy access to fossil fuels, leading to transportation-dependent living systems.[citation needed] The amount of energy used to transport people to and from a facility, whether they are commuters, customers, vendors, or homeowners, is known as the transportation energy intensity of the building. Land is developing at a faster rate than population growth, leading to urban sprawl and, therefore, high transportation energy intensity as more people need to commute longer distances to jobs. As a result, the location of a building is essential in decreasing embodied emissions.
In transportation, state and local efforts in energy conservation and efficiency measures tend to be more targeted and smaller in scale. However, with more robust fuel economy standards, new targets for the use of alternative transportation fuels, and new efforts in electric and hybrid electric vehicles, EPAct05 and EISA provide a new set of national policy signals and financial incentives to the private sector and state and local governments for the transportation sector. Zoning reforms that allow greater urban density and designs for walking and bicycling can greatly reduce energy consumed for transportation. Many Americans work in jobs that allow for remote work instead of commuting daily, which is a significant opportunity to conserve energy.[citation needed] Intelligent transportation systems (ITS) provide a solution to traffic congestion and C.E.s caused by increased vehicles. ITS combines improvements in information technology and systems, communications, sensors, controllers, and advanced mathematical methods with the traditional world of transportation infrastructure. It improves traffic safety and mobility, reduces environmental impact, promotes sustainable transportation, and increases productivity. The ITS strengthens the connection and cooperation between people, vehicles, roads, and the environment while improving road capacity, reducing traffic accidents, and improving transportation efficiency and safety by alleviating traffic congestion and reducing pollution. It makes full use of traffic information as an application service, which can enhance the operational efficiency of existing traffic facilities.
The most significant energy-saving potential is that there are the most problems in urban transportation in various countries, such as management systems, policies and regulations, planning, technology, operation, and management mechanism. Improvements in one or several aspects will improve road transportation. Efficiency has a positive impact, which leads to the improvement of the urban traffic environment and efficiency.
In addition to ITS, transit-oriented development (T.O.D.) significantly improves transportation in urban areas by emphasizing density, proximity to transit, diversity of uses, and streetscape design. Density is important for optimizing location and is a way to cut down on driving. Planners can regulate development rights by exchanging them from ecologically sensitive areas to growth-friendly zones according to density transfer procedures. Distance is defined as the accessibility of rail and bus transits, which serve as deterrents for driving. For transit-oriented development to be feasible, transportation stops must be close to where people live. Diversity refers to mixed-use areas that offer essential services close to homes and offices and include residential spaces for different socioeconomic categories, commercial and retail. This creates a pedestrian shed where one area can meet people's everyday needs on foot. Lastly, the streetscapes design involves minimal parking and walkable areas that calm traffic. Generous parking incentivizes people to use cars, whereas minimal and expensive parking deters commuters. At the same time, streetscapes can be designed to incorporate bicycling lanes and designated bicycle paths and trails. People may commute by bicycle to work without being concerned about their bicycles becoming wet because of covered bicycle storage. This encourages commuters to use bicycles rather than other modes of transportation and contributes to energy saving. People will be happy to walk a few blocks from a train stop if there are attractive, pedestrian-friendly outdoor spaces nearby with good lighting, park benches, outdoor tables at cafés, shade tree plantings, pedestrian courts that are blocked off to cars, and public internet connection. Additionally, this strategy calms traffic, improving the intended pedestrian environment.
New urban planning schemes can be designed to improve connectivity in cities through networks of interconnected streets that spread out traffic flow, slow down vehicles, and make walking more pleasant. By dividing the number of road links by the number of road nodes, the connectivity index is calculated. The higher the connectivity index, the greater the route choices and the better the pedestrian access. Realizing the transportation impacts associated with buildings allows commuters to take steps toward energy conservation. Connectivity encourages energy-conserving behaviors as commuters use fewer cars, walk and bike more, and use public transportation. For commuters who do not have the option of public transportation, smaller vehicles that are hybrid or have better mileage can be used.
Consumer products
Homeowners implementing ECMs in their residential buildings often start with an energy audit. This is a way homeowners look at what areas of their homes are using, and possibly losing energy. Residential energy auditors are accredited by the Building Performance Institute (BPI) or the Residential Energy Services Network (RESNET). Homeowners can hire a professional or do it themselves or use a smartphone to help do an audit.
Energy conservation measures are often combined into larger guaranteed Energy Savings Performance Contracts to maximize energy savings while minimizing disruption to building occupants by coordinating renovations. Some ECMs cost less to implement yet return higher energy savings. Traditionally, lighting projects were a good example of "low hanging fruit" that could be used to drive implementation of more substantial upgrades to HVAC systems in large facilities. Smaller buildings might combine window replacement with modern insulation using advanced building foams to improve energy for performance. Energy dashboard projects are a new kind of ECM that relies on the behavioral change of building occupants to save energy. When implemented as part of a program, case studies, such as that for the DC Schools, report energy savings up 30%. Under the right circumstances, open energy dashboards can even be implemented for free to improve upon these savings even more.
Consumers are often poorly informed of the savings of energy-efficient products. A prominent example of this is the energy savings that can be made by replacing an incandescent light bulb with a more modern alternative. When purchasing light bulbs, many consumers opt for cheap incandescent bulbs, failing to take into account their higher energy costs and lower lifespans when compared to modern compact fluorescent and LED bulbs. Although these energy-efficient alternatives have a higher upfront cost, their long lifespan and low energy use can save consumers a considerable amount of money. The price of LED bulbs has also been steadily decreasing in the past five years due to improvements in semiconductor technology. Many LED bulbs on the market qualify for utility rebates that further reduce the price of the purchase to the consumer. Estimates by the U.S. Department of Energy state that widespread adoption of LED lighting over the next 20 years could result in about $265 billion worth of savings in United States energy costs.
The research one must put into conserving energy is often too time-consuming and costly for the average consumer when there are cheaper products and technology available using today's fossil fuels. Some governments and NGOs are attempting to reduce this complexity with Eco-labels that make differences in energy efficiency easy to research while shopping.
To provide the kind of information and support people need to invest money, time and effort in energy conservation, it is important to understand and link to people's topical concerns. For instance, some retailers argue that bright lighting stimulates purchasing. However, health studies have demonstrated that headache, stress, blood pressure, fatigue and worker error all generally increase with the common over-illumination present in many workplace and retail settings. It has been shown that natural daylighting increases productivity levels of workers, while reducing energy consumption.
In warm climates where air conditioning is used, any household device that gives off heat will result in a larger load on the cooling system. Items such as stoves, dishwashers, clothes dryers, hot water, and incandescent lighting all add heat to the home. Low-power or insulated versions of these devices give off less heat for the air conditioning to remove. The air conditioning system can also improve efficiency by using a heat sink that is cooler than the standard air heat exchanger, such as geothermal or water.
In cold climates, heating air and water is a major demand for household energy use. Significant energy reductions are possible by using different technologies. Heat pumps are a more efficient alternative to electrical resistance heaters for warming air or water. A variety of efficient clothes dryers are available, and the clothes lines requires no energy- only time. Natural-gas (or bio-gas) condensing boilers and hot-air furnaces increase efficiency over standard hot-flue models. Standard electric boilers can be made to run only at hours of the day when they are needed by means of a time switch. This decreases energy use vastly. In showers, a semi-closed-loop system could be used. New construction implementing heat exchangers can capture heat from wastewater or exhaust air in bathrooms, laundry, and kitchens.
In both warm and cold climate extremes, airtight thermal insulated construction is the largest factor determining the efficiency of a home. Insulation is added to minimize the flow of heat to or from the home, but can be labor-intensive to retrofit to an existing home.
Energy conservation by countries
Asia
Although energy efficiency is expected to play a vital role in cost-effectively cutting energy demand, only a small part of its economic potential is exploited in Asia. Governments have implemented a range of subsidies such as cash grants, cheap credit, tax exemptions, and co-financing with public-sector funds to encourage energy-efficiency initiatives across several sectors. Governments in the Asia-Pacific region have implemented a range of information provision and labeling programs for buildings, appliances, and the transportation and industrial
sectors. Information programs can simply provide data, such as fuel-economy labels, or actively seek to encourage behavioral changes, such as Japan's Cool Biz campaign that encourages setting air conditioners at 28-degrees Celsius and allowing employees to dress casually in the summer.
China's government has launched a series of policies since 2005 to effectively promote the goal of reducing energy-saving emissions; however, road transportation, the fastest-growing energy-consuming sector in the transportation industry, lacks specific, operational, and systematic energy-saving plans. Road transportation is the highest priority to achieve energy conservation effectively and reduce emissions, particularly since social and economic development has entered the "new norm" period. Generally speaking, the government should make comprehensive plans for conservation and emissions reduction in the road transportation industry within the three dimensions of demand, structure, and technology. For example, encouraging trips using public transportation and new transportation modes such as car-sharing and increasing investment in new energy vehicles in structure reform, etc.
European Union
At the end of 2006, the European Union (EU) pledged to cut its annual consumption of primary energy by 20% by 2020. The EU Energy Efficiency Directive 2012 mandates energy efficiency improvements within the EU.
As part of the EU's SAVE program, aimed at promoting energy efficiency and encouraging energy-saving behavior, the Boiler Efficiency Directive specifies minimum levels of efficiency for boilers using liquid or gaseous fuels.
There is steady progress on energy regulation implementation in Europe, North America, and Asia, with the highest number of building energy standards being adopted and implemented. Moreover, the performance of Europe is highly encouraging concerning energy standard activities. They recorded the highest percentage of mandatory energy standards compared to the other five regions.
In 2050, energy savings in Europe can reach 67% of the 2019 baseline scenario, amounting to a demand of 361 Mtoe in an "energy efficiency first" societal trend scenario. A condition is that there be no rebound effect, for otherwise the savings are 32% only or energy use may even increase by 42% if techno-economic potentials are not realized.
Germany has reduced its primary energy consumption by 11% from 1990 to 2015 and set itself goals of reducing it by 30% by the year 2030 and by 50% by the year 2050 in comparison to the level of 2008.
India
The Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA) is an Indian governmental body created in 1978 that engages in promoting energy efficiency and conservation in every walk of life. In the recent past, PCRA has organised mass media campaigns in television, radio, and print media. This is an impact-assessment survey by a third party that revealed that due to these larger campaigns by PCRA, the public's overall awareness level has gone up leading to the saving of fossil fuels worth crores of rupees, besides reducing pollution.
The Bureau of Energy Efficiency is an Indian government organization created in 2001 that is responsible for promoting energy efficiency and conservation.
Protection and Conservation of Natural Resources are done by Community Natural Resources Management (CNRM).
Iran
Supreme leader of Iran Ali Khamenei had regularly criticized energy administration and high fuel consumption.
Japan
Since the 1973 oil crisis, energy conservation has been an issue in Japan. All oil-based fuel is imported, so domestic sustainable energy is being developed.
The Energy Conservation Center promotes energy efficiency in every aspect of Japan. Public entities are implementing the efficient use of energy for industries and research. It includes projects such as the Top Runner Program. In this project, new appliances are regularly tested on efficiency, and the most efficient ones are made the standard.
Middle East
The Middle East holds 40% of the world's crude oil reserves and 23% of its natural gas reserves. Conservation of domestic fossil fuels is, therefore, a legitimate priority for the Gulf countries, given domestic needs as well as the global market for these products. Energy subsidies are the chief barrier to conservation in the Gulf. Residential electricity prices can be a tenth of U.S. rates. As a result, increased tariff revenues from gas, electricity, and water sales would encourage investment in natural gas exploration and production and generation capacity, helping to alleviate future shortages.
Households in the MENA region are responsible for 53% of energy use in Saudi Arabia and 57% of the UAE's ecological footprint. This is partially due to poorly designed and constructed buildings, mainly under a cheap energy model that has left them without contemporary control technology or even proper insulation and efficient appliances. Building energy consumption can be cut by 20% under a combination of insulation, efficient windows and appliances, shading, reflective roofing, and a host of automated controls that adjust energy use.
Governments could also set minimum energy efficiency and water use standards on importing appliances sold inside their countries, effectively banning the sale of inefficient air conditioners, dishwashers, and washing machines. Administration of the laws would essentially be a function of national customs services. Governments could go further, offering incentives – or mandates – that air conditioners of a certain age be replaced.
Lebanon
In Lebanon and since 2002 The Lebanese Center for Energy Conservation (LCEC) has been promoting the development of efficient and rational uses of energy and the use of renewable energy at the consumer level. It was created as a project financed by the International Environment Facility (GEF) and the Ministry of Energy Water (MEW) under the management of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and gradually established itself as an independent technical national center although it continues to be supported by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) as indicated in the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) signed between MEW and UNDP on 18 June 2007.
Nepal
Until recently, Nepal has been focusing on the exploitation of its huge water resources to produce hydropower. Demand-side management and energy conservation were not in the focus of government action. In 2009, bilateral Development Cooperation between Nepal and the Federal Republic of Germany has agreed upon the joint implementation of the "Nepal Energy Efficiency Programme". The lead executing agencies for the implementation are the Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS). The aim of the program is the promotion of energy efficiency in policymaking, in rural and urban households as well as in the industry.
Due to the lack of a government organization that promotes energy efficiency in the country, the Federation of Nepalese Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FNCCI) has established the Energy Efficiency Centre under his roof to promote energy conservation in the private sector. The Energy Efficiency Centre is a non-profit initiative that is offering energy auditing services to the industries. The centre is also supported by Nepal Energy Efficiency Programme of Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit.
A study conducted in 2012 found out that Nepalese industries could save 160,000-megawatt hours of electricity and 8,000 terajoules of thermal energy (like diesel, furnace oil, and coal) every year. These savings are equivalent to annual energy cost cut of up to 6.4 Billion Nepalese Rupees.
As a result of Nepal Economic Forum 2014, an economic reform agenda in the priority sectors was declared focusing on energy conservation among others. In the energy reform agenda, the government of Nepal gave the commitment to introduce incentive packages in the budget of the fiscal year 2015/16 for industries that practices energy efficiency or use efficient technologies (incl. cogeneration).
New Zealand
In New Zealand the Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority is the Government Agency responsible for promoting energy efficiency and conservation. The Energy Management Association of New Zealand is a membership-based organization representing the New Zealand energy services sector, providing training and accreditation services with the aim of ensuring energy management services are credible and dependable.
Nigeria
In Nigeria, the Lagos State Government is encouraging Lagosians to imbibe an energy conservation culture. In 2013, the Lagos State Electricity Board (LSEB) ran an initiative tagged "Conserve Energy, Save Money" under the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources. The initiative is designed to sensitize Lagosians around the theme of energy conservation by influencing their behavior through do-it-yourself tips. In September 2013, Governor Babatunde Raji Fashola of Lagos State and the campaign ambassador, rapper Jude "MI" Abaga participated in the Governor's conference video call on the topic of energy conservation.
In addition to this, during the month of October (the official energy conservation month in the state), LSEB hosted experience centers in malls around Lagos State where members of the public were encouraged to calculate their household energy consumption and discover ways to save money using a consumer-focused energy app. To get Lagosians started on energy conservation, solar lamps and energy-saving bulbs were also handed out.
In Kaduna State, the Kaduna Power Supply Company (KAPSCO) ran a program to replace all light bulbs in Public Offices; fitting energy-saving bulbs in place of incandescent bulbs. KAPSCO is also embarking on an initiative to retrofit all conventional streetlights in the Kaduna Metropolis to LEDs which consume much less energy.
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka currently consumes fossil fuels, hydro power, wind power, solar power and dendro power for their day to day power generation. The Sri Lanka Sustainable Energy Authority is playing a major role regarding energy management and energy conservation. Today, most industries are requested to reduce their energy consumption by using renewable energy sources and optimizing their energy usage.
Turkey
Turkey aims to decrease by at least 20% the amount of energy consumed per GDP of Turkey by 2023 (energy intensity).
United Kingdom
The Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy is responsible for promoting energy efficiency in the United Kingdom.
United States
The United States is currently the second-largest single consumer of energy, following China. The U.S. Department of Energy categorizes national energy use in four broad sectors: transportation, residential, commercial, and industrial.
About half of U.S. energy consumption in the transportation and residential sectors is primarily controlled by individual consumers. In the typical American home, space heating is the most significant energy use, followed by electrical technology (appliances, lighting, and electronics) and water heating. Commercial and industrial energy expenditures are determined by businesses entities and other facility managers. National energy policy has a significant effect on energy usage across all four sectors.
Since the oil embargoes and price spikes of the 1970s, energy efficiency and conservation have been fundamental tenets of U.S. energy policy. The scope of energy conservation and efficiency measures has been broadened throughout time by U.S. energy policies and programs, including federal and state legislation and regulatory actions, to include all economic sectors and all geographical areas of the nation. Measurable energy conservation and efficiency gains in the 1980s led to the 1987 Energy Security Report to the President (DOE, 1987) that "the United States uses about 29 quads less energy in a year today than it would have if our economic growth since 1972 had been accompanied by the less- efficient trends in energy use we were following at that time" The DOE Strategy and the legislation included new strategies for strengthening conservation and efficiency in buildings, industry, and electric power, such as integrated resource planning for electric and natural gas utilities and efficiency and labeling standards for 13 residential appliances and equipment categories. Lack of a national consensus on how to proceed interfered with developing a consistent and comprehensive approach. Nevertheless, the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct05; 109th U.S. Congress, 2005) contained many new energy conservation and efficiency provisions in the transportation, buildings, and electric power sectors.
The most recent federal law to increase and broaden U.S. energy conservation and efficiency laws, programs, and practices is the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA). Over the next few decades, it is anticipated that EISA will significantly reduce energy use because it has more standards and targets than previous legislation. Both acts reinforce the importance of lighting and appliance efficiency programs, targeting an additional 70% lighting efficiency by 2020, introducing 45 new standards for appliances, and setting up new standards for vehicle fuel economy. The Federal Government is also promoting a new 30% model code for efficient building practices in the construction industry. Additionally, according to the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy (ACEEE), the EISA's energy efficiency and conservation initiatives will cut carbon dioxide emissions by 9% in 2030. These requirements cover appliance and lighting efficiency, energy savings in homes, businesses, and public buildings, the effectiveness of industrial manufacturing facilities, and the efficiency of electricity supply and end use. Expectations are high for increased energy savings due to these initiatives, which have already started contributing to new federal, state, and local laws, programs, and practices across the U.S.
The development and use of alternative transportation fuels (whose supply is expected to expand by 15% by 2022), renewable energy sources, and other clean energy technologies have also received more attention and financial incentives. Recent policies also emphasize growing the use of coal with carbon capture and sequestration, solar, wind, nuclear, and other clean energy sources.
In February 2023 the United States Department of Energy proposed a set of new energy efficiency standards that, if implemented, will save to users of different electric machines in the United States around $3,500,000,000 per year and will reduce by the year 2050 carbon emissions by the same amount as emitted by 29,000,000 houses.
Mechanisms to promote conservation
Governmental mechanisms
Governments at the national, regional, and local levels may implement policies to promote energy efficiency. Building energy rules can cover the energy consumption of an entire structure or specific building components, like heating and cooling systems. They represent some of the most frequently used instruments for energy efficiency improvements in buildings and can play an essential role in improving energy conservation in buildings. There are multiple reasons for the growth of these policies and programs since the 2000s, including cost savings as energy prices increased, growing concern about the environmental impacts of energy use, and public health concerns. The policies and programs related to energy conservation are critical to establishing safety and performance levels, assisting in consumer decision-making, and explicitly identifying energy-conserving and energy-efficient products. Recent policies include new programs and regulatory incentives that call for electric and natural gas utilities to increase their involvement in delivering energy-efficiency products and services to their customers. For example, the National Action Plan for Energy Efficiency (NAPEE) is a public-private partnership created in response to EPAct05 that brings together senior executives from electric and natural gas utilities, state public utility commissions, other state agencies, and environmental and consumer groups representing every region of the country. The success of building energy regulation in effectively controlling energy consumption in the building sector will be, to a great extent, associated with the adopted energy performance indicator and the promoted energy assessment tools. It can help overcome significant market barriers and ensure cost-effective energy efficiency opportunities are incorporated into new buildings. This is crucial in emerging nations where new constructions are rapidly developing, and market and energy prices sometimes discourage efficient technologies. The building energy standards development and adoption showed that 42% of emerging developing countries surveyed have no energy standard in place, 20% have mandatory, 22% have mixed, and 16% proposed.
The major impediments to implementing building energy regulations for energy conservation and efficiency in the building sector are institutional barriers and market failures rather than technical problems, as pointed out by Nature Publishing Group (2008). Among these, Santamouris (2005) includes a lack of owners' awareness of energy conservation benefits, building energy regulations benefits, insufficient awareness and training of property managers, builders, and engineers, and a lack of specialized professionals to ensure compliance. Based on the above information, the development and adoption of building energy regulations, such as energy standards in developing countries, are still far behind compared to building energy regulation adoption and implementation in developed countries.
Building energy standards are starting to appear in Africa, Latin America, and Middle East regions, even though this is a new development going to the result obtained in this study. The level of progress on energy regulation activities in Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East is increasing, given the higher number of energy standard proposals recorded in these regions. According to the Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors, several codes are being developed in developing countries with UNDP and GEF support. These typically include elemental and integrated routes to compliance, such as a fundamental method defining the performance requirements of specific building elements. However, they are still far behind in building energy regulation development, implementation, and compliance compared to developed nations. Also, decision-making regarding energy regulations is still from the government only, with little or no input from non-governmental entities. As a result, lower energy regulation development is recorded in these regions compared to regions with integrated and consensus approaches.
Additionally, there is growing government involvement in the development and implementation of energy standards; 62% of Middle Eastern respondents, 45% of African respondents, and 43% of Latin American respondents indicated that existing government agencies, such as building agencies and energy agencies, are involved in implementing building energy standards in their respective nations, as opposed to 20% of European respondents, 38% of Asian respondents, and 0% of North American respondents, who indicated the involvement of existing agencies. Several North African nations, like Tunisia and Egypt, have programs relating to building energy standards, while Algeria and Morocco are now seeking to establish building energy standards, according to the Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors. Similarly, Egypt's residential energy standard became law in 2005, and their commercial standard was anticipated to follow. The standards provide minimal performance requirements for applications involving air conditioners and other appliances and elemental and integrated pathways. However, it was claimed that enforcement legislation was still required in 2005. Additionally, Morocco launched a program in 2005 to create thermal energy requirements for construction, concentrating on the hospitality, healthcare, and communal housing industries.
Mandatory energy standards
Energy standards are the primary way governments foster energy efficiency as a public good. A recognized standard-setting organization prepares a standard. Standards developed by recognized organizations are often used as the basis for the development and updating of building codes. They allow innovative approaches and techniques to achieve effective energy use and optimum building performance. Besides, it encourages cost-effective energy use of building components, including building envelope, lighting, HVAC, electrical installations, lift and escalator, and other equipment. Energy-efficiency standards have been expanded and strengthened for appliances, building equipment, and lighting. For example, appliances and equipment standards are being developed for a new range of devices, including reduction goals for "standby" power that keeps consumer electronic products in a ready-to-use mode. Some devices require certain levels of energy performance from a car, building, appliance, or other technical equipment. If the vehicle, building, appliance, or equipment does not meet these standards, there may be restrictions on its sale or rent. In the U.K., these are called "minimum energy efficiency standards" or MEES and were applied to privately rented accommodation in 2019.
Energy codes and standards are vital in setting minimum energy-efficient design and construction requirements. Buildings should be developed following energy standards to save energy efficiently. They specify uniform requirements for new buildings, additions, and modifications. National organizations like the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers publish the standards (ASHRAE). State and municipal governments frequently use energy standards as the technical foundation for creating their energy regulations. Some energy standards are written in a mandatory and enforceable language, making it simple for governments to add the standards' provisions directly to their laws or regulations.
The American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) is a well-known example of a standard-making organization. This organization dates to the nineteenth century and is international in its membership (About ASHRAE 2018). Examples of ASHRAE standards that relate to energy conservation in the built environment are:
Standard 62.1-2016 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality
Standard 90.2-2007 Energy Efficient Design of Low-Rise Residential Buildings
Standard 100-2018 Energy Efficiency in Existing Buildings
Standard 189.1-2014 Standard for the Design of High-Performance Green Buildings
The Residential Energy Services Network is a crucial benchmark for energy reduction (RESNET). The Home Energy Rating System (HERS) of RESNET, which is based on the International Code Council's (ICC) energy code, is used to rate home energy consumption with a standard numerical scale that examines factors in home energy use (About HERS 2018). The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has acknowledged the HERS assessment system as a national benchmark for evaluating energy efficiency. The International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) of the ICC requires an energy rating index, and the main index used in the residential building sector is HERS. The mortgage financing sector makes substantial use of the HERS index. A home's expected energy usage may impact the available mortgage funds based on the HERS score, with more energy-efficient, lower energy-using homes potentially qualifying for a better mortgage rate or amount.
Mandatory energy labels
Many governments require that a car, building, or piece of equipment be labeled with its energy performance. This allows consumers and customers to see the energy implications of their choices, but does not restrict their choices or regulate which products are available to choose from.
It also does not enable easily comparing options (such as being able to filter by energy-efficiency in online stores) or have the best energy-conserving options accessible (such as energy-conserving options being available in the frequented local store). (An analogy would be nutritional labeling on food.)
A trial of estimated financial energy cost of refrigerators alongside EU energy-efficiency class (EEEC) labels online found that the approach of labels involves a trade-off between financial considerations and higher cost requirements in effort or time for the product-selection from the many available options which are often unlabelled and don't have any EEEC-requirement for being bought, used or sold within the EU. Moreover, in this one trial the labeling was ineffective in shifting purchases towards more sustainable options.
Energy taxes
Some countries employ energy or carbon taxes to motivate energy users to reduce their consumption. Carbon taxes can motivate consumption to shift to energy sources with fewer emissions of carbon dioxide, such as solar power, wind power, hydroelectricity or nuclear power while avoiding cars with combustion engines, jet fuel, oil, fossil gas and coal. On the other hand, taxes on all energy consumption can reduce energy use across the board while reducing a broader array of environmental consequences arising from energy production. The state of California employs a tiered energy tax whereby every consumer receives a baseline energy allowance that carries a low tax. As for usage increases above that baseline, the tax increases drastically. Such programs aim to protect poorer households while creating a larger tax burden for high energy consumers.
Developing countries specifically are less likely to impose policy measures that slow carbon emissions as this would slow their economic development. These growing countries may be more likely to support their own economic growth and support their citizens rather than decreasing their carbon emissions.
The following pros and cons of a carbon tax help one to see some of the potential effects of a carbon tax policy.
Pros of Carbon Tax include:
Making polluters pay the external cost of carbon emissions.
Enables greater social efficiency as all citizens pay the full social cost.
Raises revenue which can, in turn, be spent on mitigating the effects of pollution.
Encourages firms and consumers to search for non-carbon producing alternatives (ex. solar power, wind power, hydroelectricity, or nuclear power).
Reduces environmental costs associated with excess carbon pollution.
Cons of Carbon Tax include:
Businesses claim higher taxes which can discourage investment and economic growth.
A carbon tax may encourage tax evasion as firms may pollute in secret to avoid a carbon tax.
It may be difficult to measure external costs and how much the carbon tax should truly be.
There are administration costs in measuring pollution and collecting the associated tax.
Firms may move production to countries in which there is no carbon tax.
Non-governmental mechanisms
Voluntary energy standards
Another aspect of promoting energy efficiency is using the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) voluntary building design standards. This program is supported by the US Green Building Council. The "Energy and Atmosphere" Prerequisite applies to energy issues, it focuses on energy performance, renewable energy, and other. See green building.
See also
Annual fuel use efficiency
Domestic energy consumption
Climate change mitigation
Efficient energy use
Energy conservation law
Energy crisis
Energy monitoring and targeting
Energy recovery
Energy recycling
Energy storage
Green computing
High-temperature insulation wool
Induced demand
Jevons paradox
Khazzoom–Brookes postulate
List of energy storage projects
List of low-energy building techniques
Low Carbon Communities
Marine fuel management
Minimum energy performance standard
One Watt Initiative
Overconsumption
Passive house
Renewable heat
Smart grid
Superinsulation
Thermal efficiency
Window film
Zero-energy building
References
Further reading
GA Mansoori, N Enayati, LB Agyarko (2016), Energy: Sources, Utilization, Legislation, Sustainability, Illinois as Model State, World Sci. Pub. Co.,
Alexeew, Johannes; Carolin Anders and Hina Zia (2015): Energy-efficient buildings – a business case for India? An analysis of incremental costs for four building projects of the Energy-Efficient Homes Programme. Berlin/New Delhi: Adelphi/TERI
Gary Steffy, Architectural Lighting Design, John Wiley and Sons (2001)
Lumina Technologies, Analysis of energy consumption in a San Francisco Bay Area research office complex, for the (confidential) owner, Santa Rosa, Ca. 17 May 1996
External links
bigEE – Your guide to energy efficiency in buildings
Energy saving advice and grants for UK consumers
Energy efficiency and renewable energy at the U.S. Department of Energy
EnergyStar – for commercial buildings and plants
Ulrich Hottelet: Want to Save the Earth? Pick a Clothesline, Atlantic Times, November 2007
Energy Efficiency in Asia and the Pacific Asian Development Bank
Energy Saving Tips Save up to $100 on power bills per year by switching off any unused appliances.
Conservation
Conservation
Conservation
Sustainable energy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20light%20camera
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Red light camera
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Red light camera
A red light camera (short for red light running camera ) is a type of traffic enforcement camera that photographs a vehicle that has entered an intersection after the traffic signal controlling the intersection has turned red. By automatically photographing vehicles that run red lights, the photo is evidence that assists authorities in their enforcement of traffic laws. Generally the camera is triggered when a vehicle enters the intersection (passes the stop-bar) after the traffic signal has turned red.
Typically, a law enforcement official will review the photographic evidence and determine whether a violation occurred. A citation is then usually mailed to the owner of the vehicle found to be in violation of the law. These cameras are used worldwide, in China, in European countries, and in countries including: Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Indonesia, the United Kingdom, Singapore and the United States. More than 75 countries worldwide use red light cameras.
If a proper identification of the driver cannot be made, instead of a ticket, some jurisdictions send out a notice of violation to the owner of the vehicle, requesting identifying information so that a ticket may be issued later. Other jurisdictions simply assess a fine to the owner of the vehicle and make no attempt to determine personal responsibility for the offence beyond that; in such locales owners are responsible for collecting the fine from the offending driver (assuming it is not themselves); however, such jurisdictions generally do not assign demerit points or other personal consequences for traffic offences caught on camera.
According to the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, red-light running is a frequent cause of crashes, with 6,000 people killed between 1992 and 1998, 850 each year in the United States alone, while 1.4 million were injured. In Australia, 15% to 21% of the crashes at signalized intersections were related to red light running during 1994–1998.
There is debate and ongoing research about the use of red light cameras. Authorities cite public safety as the primary reason that the cameras are installed, while opponents contend their use is more for financial gain.
There have been concerns that red light cameras scare drivers (who want to avoid a ticket) into more sudden stops, which may increase the risk of rear-end collisions. The elevated incentive to stop may mitigate side collisions. Some traffic signals have an all red duration, allowing a grace period of a few seconds before the cross-direction turns green. Some studies have confirmed more rear-end collisions where red light cameras have been used, while side collisions decreased, but the overall collision rate has been mixed. A systematic review summarized evidence from 38 studies and found that overall, red-light cameras are effective at reducing right angle crashes and related injuries, as well as total injuries, but they also lead to an increase in rear end crashes. In some areas, the length of the yellow phase has been increased to provide a longer warning to accompany the red-light-running-camera. There is also concern that the international standard formula used for setting the length of the yellow phase ignores the laws of physics, which may cause drivers to inadvertently run the red phase.
History
Red light cameras were first developed in the Netherlands by Gatso. Worldwide, red light cameras have been in use since the 1960s, and were used for traffic enforcement in Israel as early as 1969. The first red light camera system was introduced in 1965, using tubes stretched across the road to detect the violation and subsequently trigger the camera. One of the first developers of these red light camera systems was Gatsometer BV.
The cameras first received serious attention in the United States in the 1980s following a highly publicized crash in 1982, involving a red-light runner who collided with an 18-month-old girl in a stroller (or "push-chair") in New York City. Subsequently, a community group worked with the city's Department of Transportation to research automated law-enforcement systems to identify and ticket drivers who run red lights. New York's red-light camera program went into effect in 1993. In a near future the might be able to also catch other infractions such as phone usage, failure to wear the seat belt wearing, or failure to maintain safe distance between vehicle. From the 1980s onward, red light camera usage expanded worldwide, and one of the early camera system developers, Poltech International, supplied Australia, Britain, South Africa, Taiwan, the Netherlands and Hong Kong. American Traffic Systems (subsequently American Traffic Solutions) (ATS) and Redflex Traffic Systems emerged as the primary suppliers of red light camera systems in the US, while Jenoptik became the leading provider of red light cameras worldwide.
Initially, all red light camera systems used film, which was delivered to local law enforcement departments for review and approval. The first digital camera system was introduced in Canberra in December 2000, and digital cameras have increasingly replaced the older film cameras in other locations since then.
Operation
Red light cameras are typically installed in protective metal boxes attached to poles at intersections, which are often specifically chosen due to high numbers of crashes and/or red-light-running violations. In some case, cameras are built into traffic lights. Red light camera systems typically employ a sensor that detects the presence of a vehicle past the stop bar, and, in some cases, measures the speed of a vehicle at the time it ran the red light. The sensors may be single or dual inductive loops, piezoelectric strips, laser, radar or optical video analyses. Using the speed measured, the system predicts if a particular vehicle will not be able to stop before entering the intersection. In some instances the system takes two or more photographs. The first photo shows the vehicle just before it enters the intersection, with the light showing red, and the second photo, taken a second or two later, shows the vehicle when it is in the intersection.
Details that may be recorded by the camera system (and later presented to the vehicle owner) include: the date and time, the location, the vehicle speed, the amount of time elapsed since the light turned red, and the amount of time elapsed since the light turned yellow and the vehicle passed into the intersection. The event is captured as a series of photographs or a video clip, or both, depending on the technology used, which shows the vehicle before it enters the intersection on a red light signal and its progress through the intersection. The data and images, whether digital or developed from film, are sent to the relevant law enforcement agency. There, the information is typically reviewed by a law enforcement official or police department clerk, who determines if a violation occurred and, if so, approves issuing a citation to the vehicle owner, who may challenge the citation.
Studies have shown that 38% of violations occur within 0.25 seconds of the light turning red and 79% within one second. A few red light camera systems allow a grace period of up to half a second for drivers who pass through the intersection just as the light turns red. Ohio and Georgia introduced a statute requiring that one second be added to the standard yellow time of any intersection that has a red light camera, which has led to an 80% reduction in tickets since its introduction. New Jersey has the strictest yellow timing provisions in the country as a result of concerns that cameras would be used to generate revenue; they have a statute specifying that the yellow time for an intersection that has a red light camera must be based on the speed at which 85% of the road's traffic moves rather than be based on the road's actual speed limit.
Usage
Red light camera usage is widespread in a number of countries worldwide. Netherlands-based Gatso presented red light cameras to the market in 1965, and red light cameras were used for traffic enforcement in Israel as early as 1969. In the early 1970s, red light cameras were used for traffic enforcement in at least one jurisdiction in Europe. Australia began to use them on a wide scale in the 1980s. , expansion of red light camera usage in Australia is ongoing. In some areas of Australia, where the red light cameras are used, there is an online system to check the photograph taken of your vehicle if you receive a ticket. Singapore also began use of red light cameras in the 1980s, and installed the first camera systems during five years, starting in August 1986. In Canada, by 1998, red light cameras were in use in British Columbia and due to be implemented in Manitoba. In Alberta, red light cameras were installed in 1999 in Edmonton and in 2001 in Calgary. The UK first installed cameras in the 1990s, with the earliest locations including eight rail crossings in Scotland where there was greatest demand for enforcement of traffic signals due to fatalities.
China
Mainland China
Red light camera usage is extensive in mainland China. , approximately 700 intersections in Shenzhen were monitored for red light violations, speeding, or both.
China also has red light camera with facial recognition. Red light offenders, either pedestrian or motorbikers, are captured by a 7 megapixel camera. Within 20 minutes, a facial recognition system identifies personal information including family name, ID number and address which are displayed in the street on an advertising screen. This information can also be published on social media.
According to the owner, in less than four months, in Lianhua intersection in Shenzhen, jaywalking were reduced from 1000 each day to 80.
Hong Kong
Hong Kong introduced red light cameras in 1993.
In Hong Kong, where red light cameras are installed, signs are erected to warn drivers that cameras are present, with the aim of educating drivers to stop for signals. The number of red light cameras in Hong Kong doubled in May 2004, and digital red light cameras were introduced at intersections identified by the police and transport department as having the most violations and greatest risk. The digital cameras were introduced to further deter red-light running. As added assistance to drivers, some of the camera posts were painted orange so that drivers could see them more easily. By 2006, Hong Kong had 96 red light cameras in operation. By 2016 this number had risen to 195.
In Hong-Kong, penalty for the failure to comply with traffic signals is a HK$5,000 fine and three months' jail for a first offense. Penalty for other offenses are a HK$10,000 penalty and six-month term.
In Hong-Kong, red light cameras helped reduce violation jumping by 43 to 55%.
France
In France, red light cameras started use in 2009. Cameras catch drivers that fail to stop on a red light. A removal of 4 points on the driving licence will occur.
New multipurpose camera might, such as the Mesta Fusion 2 have several simultaneous capacity in a single device, such as red light camera, Level crossing red light camera and speed camera. In a near future the might be able to also catch other infractions such as phone usage, failure to wear the seat belt wearing, or failure to maintain safe distance between vehicle.
Some insurance companies recommend to comply with regulation to avoid the fine. This implies a speed decrease when approaching a red light, considering it can switch to orange and then to red, avoiding acceleration when light is orange, using the brake (which turn on braking light) to communicate to followers the braking action, and keep the car before the red light stop line.
In the south east quarter of France, red light cameras (MESTA 3000) are provided by Safran; their availability rate is 95%, taking into account road works and acts of vandalism. This availability is considered better than the one observed in Great Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Germany according to a French National Assembly report.
Germany
The first red light camera in Germany was operated on November 1960 the 15th in Frankfurt am Main with black and white photos.
Red light violations cost a 90€ fine, and one point removal is registered on the driving license. If a red light violation occurs while the light is red for more than one second, the fine is 200€ with two points, and the offender's driving license is suspended for one month. The fine can also be 320€ in cases of immediate danger, or 360€ if there is a crash. The fine for a stop line violation is only 10€.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom the authorities often refer to red-light cameras, along with speed cameras, as safety cameras. They were first used in the early 1990s, with initial deployment by the Department for Environment, Transport and the Regions. All costs were paid by the local authority in which the individual camera was placed, and revenues accrued from fines were paid to the Treasury Consolidated Fund. In 1998 the government handed the powers of collection to local road-safety partnerships, comprising "... local authorities, Magistrates' Courts, the Highways Agency and the police."
In a report, published in December 2005, there were a total of 612 red light cameras in England alone, of which 225 were in London.
In the UK, failure to stop for a red light gives a £100 fine and adds 3 points on the driving license. Some police forces might also register motorists caught running a red light to educational courses.
United States
Source: IIHS
Since the early 1990s, red light cameras have been used in the United States in 26 U.S. states and the District of Columbia. Within some states, the cameras may only be permitted in certain areas. For example, in New York State, the Vehicle and Traffic Law permits red light cameras only within cities with a population above 1 million (i.e. New York City), Rochester, Buffalo, Yonkers, and Nassau and Suffolk Counties. In Florida, a state law went into effect on 1 July 2010, which allows all municipalities in the state to use red light cameras on all state-owned rights-of-way and fine drivers who run red lights, with the aim of enforcing safe driving, according to then-Governor Charlie Crist. The name given to the state law is the Mark Wandall Traffic Safety Act, named for a man who was killed in 2003 by a motorist who ran a red light. In addition to allowing the use of cameras, the law also standardizes driver fines.
Major cities throughout the US that use red light cameras include Atlanta, Austin, Baltimore, Baton Rouge, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Los Angeles, Memphis, New Orleans, New York City, Newark, Philadelphia, Phoenix, Raleigh, San Francisco, Seattle, Toledo, and Washington, D.C. Albuquerque has cameras, but in October 2011 local voters approved a ballot measure advising the city council to cease authorizing the red light camera program. The City of Albuquerque ended its red light program on 31 December 2011.
In March 2017, the city of Chicago changed the period of time between when the light turns red and when the red-light camera is triggered (and a ticket issued) from 0.1 seconds to 0.3 seconds. The "grace period" in Chicago is now in line with other major American cities like New York City and Philadelphia.
Suppliers of red-light cameras in the US include: Affiliated Computer Services (ACS) State and Local Solutions, a Xerox company, of Dallas, Texas; American Traffic Solutions of Scottsdale, Arizona, 1/3 owned by Goldman Sachs; Brekford International Corp., of Hanover, Maryland; CMA Consulting Services, Inc. of Latham, New York; Gatso USA of Beverly, Massachusetts; iTraffic Safety LLC of Ridgeland, South Carolina; NovoaGlobal Inc., of Orlando, Florida; Optotraffic, of Lanham, Maryland; Redflex Traffic Systems of Phoenix, Arizona, with its parent company in Australia; RedSpeed-Illinois LLC, of Lombard, Illinois, whose parent company is in Worcestershire, England; and SafeSpeed LLC, of Chicago, Illinois.
Some states have chosen to prohibit the use of red light cameras. These include Arkansas, Maine, Michigan, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, Texas (phasing out fully by 2021), and West Virginia.
In February 2012, the red light camera ordinance in the city of St. Louis was officially declared void by St. Louis Circuit Court Judge Mark Neill. On 9 August 2012, the Cary, North Carolina town council voted to end their program. In February 2013, the San Diego mayor helped remove a red light camera to keep the campaign promise he made during the November 2012 election to eliminate these systems. New Jersey had to renew the Red Light law by the state legislature in early 2015 and did not do this, making the use of red light cameras illegal in the state afterwards.
In the United States, fines are not standardized and vary to a great degree, from $50 in New York City to approximately $500 in California. The cost in California can increase to approximately $600 if the motorist elects to attend traffic school in order to avoid having a demerit point added to his or her driving record.
Notice of traffic violation
In many California police departments, when a positive identification cannot be made, the registered owner of the vehicle will be mailed a notice of traffic violation instead of a real ticket. Also known as "snitch tickets," these notices are used to request identifying information about the driver of the vehicle during the alleged violation. Because these notices have not been filed at court, they carry no legal weight and the registered owner is under no obligation to respond. In California, a genuine ticket will bear the name and address of the local branch of the Superior Court and direct the recipient to contact that court. In contrast, a notice of traffic violation generated by the police will omit court information, using statements like "This is not a notice to appear" and "Do not forward this information to the Court."
In September 2014, a bill was proposed in New Jersey to disallow the state Motor Vehicle Commission from sharing license plate and driver information needed to cite New Jersey drivers accused of committing infractions in another state.
Decrease since 2012 in the USA
While the number of red light cameras decreased from 533 in 2012 to 421 in 2018, people killed in red-light crashes increased from 696 in 2012 to 811 in 2016, reflecting a 17% increase.
The reasons for the red light camera discontinuation were reduction in camera citations, difficulty sustaining the financial viability of the program and intense community opposition.
In the USA, surveys indicate the public support for red light camera enforcement; however, the support is decreasing if programs are not adequate, or if perception is focused on revenue rather than on saving lives.
To be successful, a red light camera should focus on safety and transparency, as well as be located in a problematic intersection which needs to be assessed by communities (for instance, for road design and signal timing). It could also take into account public input with stakeholders such as law enforcement, victim advocates, school officials and residents to plan a program.
Singapore
In 2014 Singapore started to use German Jenoptik red light cameras, with an 11-megapixel resolution. 240 streets have red light cameras in Singapore.
New South Wales
In New South Wales red light cameras were introduced in April 1982 followed by speed cameras in 2009.
In New South Wales there are 191 cameras at 171 intersection. These camera can check both the red light and the speed
During the period of observations were:
33% reduction in fatal and serious injury crashes
54% reduction in fatalities
35% reduction in serious injuries
49% reduction in pedestrian casualties.
Studies and politics
A report in 2003 by the National Cooperative Highway Research Program examined studies from the previous 30 years in Australia, the UK, Singapore, and the US, and concluded that red light cameras "improve the overall safety of intersections where they are used." While the report states that evidence is not conclusive (partly due to flaws in the studies), the majority of studies show a reduction in angle crashes, a smaller increase in rear-end crashes, with some evidence of a "spillover" effect of reduced red light running to other intersections within a jurisdiction. These findings are similar to a 2005 meta analysis, which compared the results of 10 controlled before-after studies of red light cameras in the US, Australia, and Singapore. The analysis stated that the studies showed a reduction in crashes (up to almost 30%) in which there were injuries; however, evidence was less conclusive for a reduction in total collisions. Studies of red light cameras worldwide show a reduction of crashes involving injury by about 25% to 30%, taking into account increases in rear-end crashes, according to testimony from a meeting of the Virginia House of Delegates Militia, Police, and Public Safety Committee in 2003. These findings are supported by a review of more than 45 international studies carried out in 2010, which found that red light cameras reduce red light violation rates, crashes resulting from red light running, and usually reduce right-angle collisions.
Amongst the many researched safety benefits of installing RLCs, few studies have examined drivers' behavior change in relation to red-light cameras showing that at these intersections drivers tended to react quicker to a yellow light change when stopping. The consequence of this change could be the slight decline in the intersection capacity.
In terms of location-specific studies, in Singapore a study from 2003 found that there was "a substantial drop" in red light violations at intersections with red light cameras. In particular the study found that drivers were encouraged to stop more readily in areas with red light cameras in use. A report from civic administrators in Saskatchewan in 2001, when considering red light camera use, referred to studies in the Netherlands and Australia that found a 40% decrease in red light violations and 32% decrease in right-angle crashes where red light cameras were installed. Following the introduction of red light cameras in Western Australia, the number of serious right-angle crashes decreased by 40%, according to an article from the Canberra Times. In an article from the Xinhua General News Service, the Hong Kong transport department reported that in 2006 the monthly average number of crashes due to red light violations fell 25% and the number of people injured in these crashes decreased by 30%, following an increase in the number of red light cameras in use.
North America
In the U.S. and Canada, a number of studies have examined whether red light cameras produce a safety benefit. A 2005 study by the U.S. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) suggests red light cameras reduce dangerous right-angle crashes. The FHWA study has been criticized as containing critical methodological and analytical flaws and failing to explain an increase in fatalities associated with red light camera use:(...)the authors spotlight the statistical difficulties of including the cost of fatalities, while ignoring the practical implications of such events (...) assuming that each angle injury crash had a societal cost of $64,468, when in fact the cost was $82,816 before camera use and $100,176 after camera use(...)
Not all studies have been favorable to the use of red light cameras. A 2004 study of 17,271 crashes from North Carolina A & T University showed that the presence of red light cameras increased the overall number of crashes by 40%. This research received no peer review and is considered flawed by the IIHS. A 2005 Virginia Department of Transportation study of the long-term effects of camera enforcement in the state found a decrease in the number of right-angle crashes with injuries, but an increase in rear-end crashes and an overall increase in the number of crashes causing injuries. In 2007, the department issued an updated report which showed that the overall number of crashes at intersections with red light cameras increased. This report concluded that the decision to install red light cameras should be made on an intersection-by-intersection basis as some intersections saw decreases in crashes and injuries that justified the use of red light cameras, while others saw increases in crashes, indicating that the cameras were not suitable in that location. This study, too, is considered flawed by the IIHS. Aurora, Colorado experienced mixed results with red light cameras; after starting camera enforcement at 4 intersections, crashes decreased by 60% at one, increased 100% at two, and increased 175% at the fourth. According to the IIHS, most studies suggest the increase in rear-end collisions decreases once drivers have become accustomed to the new dynamics of the intersection. Some locations experience a decrease in rear-end collisions at intersections with red light cameras over time, for instance, in Los Angeles such collisions fell 4.7% from 2008 to 2009. However, a 2010 analysis by the Los Angeles City Controller found L.A.'s red light cameras had not demonstrated an improvement in safety, specifically that of the 32 intersections equipped with cameras, 12 saw more crashes than before the cameras were installed, 4 had the same number, and 16 had fewer crashes; also that factors other than the cameras may have been responsible for the reduced crashes at the 16 intersections. And in Winnipeg, Manitoba, crashes were found to have significantly increased in the years following the deployment of red light cameras. In 2010, Arizona completed a study of their statewide 76 photo enforcement cameras and decided they would not renew the program in 2011; lower revenue than expected, mixed public acceptance and mixed accident data were cited.
Nevertheless, the FHWA has concluded that the cameras yielded a positive overall cost benefit due to the reduction in more expensive right-angle injury collisions. Other studies have found a greater crash reduction. For example, a 2005 study of the Raleigh, North Carolina, red light camera program conducted by the Institute for Transportation Research and Education at North Carolina State University found right-angle crashes dropped by 42%, rear-end crashes dropped by 25% and total crashes dropped by 17%. In 2010, the IIHS looked at results of a number of studies and found that red light cameras reduce total collisions and particularly reduce the type of crashes that are especially likely to cause injuries. A 2011 IIHS report concluded that the rate of fatal collisions involving red-light running in cities with a population of 200,000 or greater was 24% lower with cameras than it would have been without cameras.
Opinions
United States
A 2009 Public Opinion Strategies poll which asked, "Do you support or oppose the use of red-light cameras to detect red-light runners and enforce traffic laws in your state's most dangerous intersections?" found 69% support and 29% oppose. A 2012 telephone survey of District of Columbia residents published in the journal Traffic Injury Prevention found that 87% favored red light cameras.
The National Motorists Association opposes red light cameras on the grounds that the use of these devices raises legal issues and violates the privacy of citizens. They also argue that the use of red light cameras does not increase safety. In the US, AAA Auto Club South argued against the passage of a Florida state law to allow red light cameras, stating that use of red light cameras was primarily for raising money for the state and local government coffers and would not increase road safety. Worse, there are allegations of corruption in shortening the amber to increase the number of tickets. The construction of speed breakers or road bumps were conventional methods of forcing motorists to lower speeds, but were dropped at locales in favor of cameras due to lobbying efforts.
Canada and Europe
In Norway, Spain, and the Netherlands, a postal survey in 2003 showed acceptance of the use of red light cameras for traffic enforcement. For some groups, the enforcement of traffic laws is considered the main reason for using the red light cameras. For example, a report from civic administrators in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada in 2001 described the cameras as "simply an enforcement tool used to penalize motorists that fail to stop for red traffic signals."
Legal questions and restrictions
United States
Arizona, Arkansas, Louisiana, Maine, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, South Carolina, South Dakota, Utah, West Virginia, and Wisconsin have enacted various prohibitions on red light, speed or other photo enforcement camera uses. Texas banned the use of red cameras in 2019. Restrictions or conditions exist in additional states; the New Mexico Department of Transportation, for example, has asserted the right to restrict or prohibit red light cameras on state highways. While red light cameras may not be prohibited in other regions, they may have some restrictions on their use. In some jurisdictions, the law says that the camera needs to obtain a photo of the driver's face in order for the citation issued for running the red light to be valid. This is the case in California and Colorado where the red light cameras are set up to take a series of photographs, including one of the driver's face. In California, state law assesses a demerit point against a driver who runs a red light, and the need to identify the actual violator has led to the creation of a unique investigatory tool, the fake "ticket." Groups opposing the use of red light cameras have argued that where the cameras are not set up to identify the vehicle driver, owner liability issues are raised. It is perceived by some that the owner of the vehicle is unfairly penalized by being considered liable for red-light violations although they may not have been the driver at the time of the offense. In most jurisdictions the liability for red light violations is a civil offense, rather than a criminal citation, issued upon the vehicle owner—similar to a parking ticket. The issue of owner liability has been addressed in the US courts, with a ruling in the District of Columbia Court of Appeals in 2007, which agreed with a lower court when it found that the presumption of liability of the owners of vehicles issued citations does not violate due process rights. This ruling was supported by a 2009 7th US Circuit Court of Appeals ruling in which it was held that issuing citations to vehicle owners (or lessees) is constitutional. The court stated that it also encourages drivers to be cautious in lending their vehicles to others.
The argument that red light cameras violate the privacy of citizens, has also been addressed in the US courts. According to a 2009 ruling by the 7th US Circuit Court of Appeals, "no one has a fundamental right to run a red light or avoid being seen by a camera on a public street." In addition, cameras only take photographs or video when a vehicle has run a red light and, in most states, the camera does not photograph the driver or the occupants of the vehicle. It is also argued that such cameras violate the Sixth Amendment's Confrontation Clause and the right to be assumed innocent until proven guilty.
In most areas, red light enforcement cameras are installed and maintained by private firms. Lawsuits have been raised challenging private companies' rights to hand out citations, such as a December 2008 lawsuit challenging the city of Dallas' red light camera program, which was dismissed in March 2009. In most cases, citations are issued by law enforcement officers using the evidence provided by the companies.
There have been many instances where cities in the US have been found to have too-short yellow-light intervals at some intersections where red light cameras have been installed. In Tennessee, 176 drivers were refunded for fines paid after it was discovered that the length of the yellow was too short for that location, and motorists were caught running the light in the first second of the red phase. In California, a combined total of 7,603 tickets were refunded or dismissed by the cities of Bakersfield, Costa Mesa, East LA, San Carlos, and Union City, because of too-short yellows. Although national guidelines addressing the length of traffic signals are available, traffic signal phase times are determined by the government employees of the city, county or state for that signalized location. While some states set jurisdiction-wide constant durations for yellow-light intervals, a new standard is taking hold. States are required to adopt the 2009 National Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) as their legal state standard for traffic-control devices since 2011. These standards require engineering practices to be used to set yellow-light-timing durations at individual intersections and or corridors. For guidance to state authorities, MUTCD states yellow lights should have a minimum duration of 3 seconds and a maximum duration of 6 seconds. The deadline for compliance is 2014. In the US, if any part of a driver's vehicle has already passed into the intersection when the signal turns red, a violation is not generated. A ticket is only issued if the vehicle enters the intersection while the light is red.
In 2014, a bill was introduced in the United States House of Representatives attempting to prohibit red light cameras on federally funded highways and in the District of Columbia.
Italy
In 2010, it was revealed that the municipality of Segrate, Italy, two nearby traffic lights had been synchronized such that drivers were coerced to either break the speed limit or pass during the red light. This was investigated as a deliberate fraud to increase the income from tickets. It took months before the machines were eventually dismantled by the Guardia di Finanza.
Alternatives
A red light camera is not the only countermeasure against red-light running. Others include increasing the visibility distance and conspicuity of the traffic light so it is more likely to attract the driver's attention in time for him or her to stop, re-timing lights so drivers will encounter fewer red ones, increasing the duration of the yellow light between the green and the red, adding a "clearance" phase to the intersection's traffic signals, during which all directions have a red light. It has been posited that the regulatory minimum yellow duration has been decreased over the years, that this is a cause of the increase in red-light running, and that the latter countermeasures amount to a reversion to earlier, longer regulated yellow-light durations.
See also
Speed bump (Sleeping policeman)
Divided highway
References
External links
Applications of computer vision
Dutch inventions
Traffic enforcement cameras
Road traffic management
Street furniture
Surveillance
Transportation engineering
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B7%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96
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Блумзбері
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Блумзбері — район південного Кемдену, Вест-Енд, Лондон. Вважається модним житловим районом і є місцем розташування численних культурних, інтелектуальних та освітніх установ.
У Блумзбері знаходиться Британський музей, найбільший музей у Сполученому Королівстві, та кілька навчальних закладів, серед них: Університетський коледж Лондона та ряд інших коледжів та інститутів Лондонського університету, , , Королівська академія драматичного мистецтва, та багато інших. Блумзбері — інтелектуальний та літературний центр Лондона, де розташоване всесвітньо відоме видавництво Bloomsbury Publishing, тут також збиралась група британських інтелектуалів Bloomsbury Set, до якої входили автор Вірджинія Вулф, біограф Літтон Стрейчі та економіст Джон Мейнард Кейнс.
Блумзбері почали забудовувати в XVII столітті за часів , але саме в ХІХ столітті, за часів герцога Бедфорда, район був спланований і забудований як заможний житловий квартал епохи Регентства відомим девелепером Джеймсом Бертоном. Район відомий своїми численними озелененими площами («сквери») — , , , тощо.
Географія
Топографія Блумзбері переважно рівнинна, розташована у сточищі Темзи, з поступовим зниженням висоти на схід до Грей-Інн-роуд та Кінг-кросс-роуд.
Район оточений чотирма основними дорогами, його історичні межі: Юстон-роуд на півночі, Грей-Інн-роуд на сході, Гай-Голборн/Нью-Оксфорд-стріт на півдні та Тоттенхем-Корт-роуд на заході. Ці великі та жваві магістралі дають чітко визначені межі географічного району Блумзбері, з відчутною зміною характеру через ці межі. Блумзбері також розділений на північ на південь головною дорогою Саутгемптон-роу/Воберн-плейс, яка має декілька великих туристичних готелів та сполучає Тавісток-сквер та Рассел-сквер. Дорога прямує від на півночі до на півдні.
Район на захід від Саутгемптон-роу/Воберн-Плейс відрізняється концентрацією академічних установ, музеїв та площ. У районі знаходяться Британський музей та коледжі Лондонського університету, включаючи коледж Біркбека, Університетський коледж Лондона, Школа східних та африканських досліджень та Школа підвищення кваліфікації Лондонського університету.
На схід від Саутгемптон-роу/Воберн-плейс розташовані , , , , і , що робить цю територію набагато зеленішою, ніж західна частина району.
Район межує з: на півночі та заході, на заході, Ковент-гарден та на півдні та на сході.
Культура
Освіта
У Блумзбері знаходиться будівля Сенату та головна бібліотека Лондонського університету, коледж Біркбек, Інститут освіти, Лондонська школа гігієни та тропічної медицини, Фармацевтична школа, Школа східних та африканських досліджень, Королівський ветеринарний коледж та Університетський коледж Лондона (зі Школою образотворчого мистецтва «Слейд»), філія Юридичного університету, , Королівська академія драматичного мистецтва та . Серед інших коледжів — Університет Лондонська школа підвищення кваліфікації, на Бедфорд-сквер, а також лондонські кампуси кількох американських коледжів: , Каліфорнійський університет, Делаверський університет, Університет штату Флорида, , Нью-Йоркський університет та .
Музеї
Британський музей, який вперше відкрився для публіки в 1759 році в , в центрі Блумсбері. З 1998 року Британська бібліотека розміщена у спеціально побудованій будівлі на півночі Блумсбері, на вулиці Юстон-роуд.
Також у Блумсбері знаходиться Музей Фундлінга, поруч із площею Брансвік.
знаходиться на . Музей єгипетської археології Пітрі та Музей зоології Гранта знаходяться в університетському коледжі Лондона на Говер-стріт.
знаходиться на 15-20 Фенікс-плейс.
Церкви
, розташована на Блумзбері-роуд. Парафіяльна церква Блумзбері, була побудована в 1716—1731 рр. Має глибокий римський портик із шістьма величезними коринфськими колонами, і примітна своєю статуєю короля Георга II на верхівці.
, також знана як Церква поета. Нинішня церковна будівля була побудована в палладійському стилі в 1733 році.
Рання англійська неоготична на площі . Спроєктована для Рафаелем Брендоном в 1853 році.
, неподалік від станції . Церква була завершена в 1822.
на була побудована в 1703–06 рр.
Центральна баптистська церква Блумзбері на — центральна церква баптистської конфесії. Була відкрита в 1848 році.
Парки та площі
, велика та впорядкована площа; його сади спочатку були спроєктовані Гамфрі Рептоном. Станція метро знаходиться неподалік.
, побудовано в 1775—1783 роках.
, невеликий круглий сквер.
, поруч знаходиться Національний шпиталь неврології та нейрохірургії.
, оточена кампусами Лондонського університетського коледжу, школи мистецтв Біркбецького коледжу, а також колишніх будинків письменниці Вірджинії Вулф та економіста Джона Мейнарда Кейнса.
, поруч кампуси розташовані кампуси Лондонського університетського коледжу.
, поруч розташовані кампуси Лондонського університетського коледжу.
, поруч розташована .
, один з небагатьох скверів, що немає вільного відвідування.
, поруч розташовані та .
Транспорт
Залізничний
Метро
У кроковій досяжності на північ від Блумзбері розташовані три станції National Rail:
Потяги Eurostar до Франції, Брюсселя та Нідерландів вирушають з Сент-Панкрас.
Автобуси
У кроковій досяжності на північ від Блумзбері розташована автостанція .
Автостради
Через Блумзбері прямують автостради:
A4200
Внутрішня кільцева дорога A501
Примітки
Посилання
Bloomsbury Conservation Areas Advisory Committee (BCAAC)
Bloomsbury area guide
Райони Лондона
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauvignon%20blanc
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Sauvignon blanc
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Sauvignon blanc is a green-skinned grape variety that originates from the city of Bordeaux in France. The grape most likely gets its name from the French words sauvage ("wild") and blanc ("white") due to its early origins as an indigenous grape in South West France. It is possibly a descendant of Savagnin. Sauvignon blanc is planted in many of the world's wine regions, producing a crisp, dry, and refreshing white varietal wine. The grape is also a component of the famous dessert wines from Sauternes and Barsac. Sauvignon blanc is widely cultivated in France, Chile, Romania, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Bulgaria, the states of Oregon, Washington, and California in the US. Some New World Sauvignon blancs, particularly from California, may also be called "Fumé Blanc", a marketing term coined by Robert Mondavi in reference to Pouilly-Fumé.
Depending on the climate, the flavor can range from aggressively grassy to sweetly tropical. In cooler climates, the grape has a tendency to produce wines with noticeable acidity and "green flavors" of grass, green bell peppers and nettles with some tropical fruit (such as passion fruit) and floral (such as elderflower) notes. In warmer climates, it can develop more tropical fruit notes but risks losing much aroma from over-ripeness, leaving only slight grapefruit and tree fruit (such as peach) notes.
Wine experts have used the phrase "crisp, elegant, and fresh" as a favorable description of Sauvignon blanc from the Loire Valley and New Zealand. Sauvignon blanc, when slightly chilled, pairs well with fish or cheese, particularly chèvre. It is also known as one of the few wines that can pair well with sushi.
Along with Riesling, Sauvignon blanc was one of the first fine wines to be bottled with a screwcap in commercial quantities, especially by New Zealand producers. The wine is usually consumed young and does not particularly benefit from aging, as varietal Sauvignon blancs tend to develop vegetal aromas reminiscent of peas and asparagus with extended aging. Dry and sweet white Bordeaux, including oak-aged examples from Pessac-Léognan and Graves, as well as some Loire wines from Pouilly-Fumé and Sancerre are some of the few examples of Sauvignon blancs with aging potential.
The first Friday in May is International Sauvignon Blanc Day.
History
The Sauvignon blanc grape traces its origins to the Val de Loire region in France according to Jancis Robinson in her book "Wine Grapes". The earliest recording was in 1534 by Francois Rabelais in his book, Gargantua. As noted above, it is not clear that the vine originated in western France. Ongoing research suggests it may have descended from Savagnin. It has also been associated with the Carmenere family. At some point in the 18th century, the vine paired with Cabernet Franc to parent the Cabernet Sauvignon vine in Bordeaux. In the 19th century, plantings in Bordeaux were often interspersed with Sauvignon vert (In Chile, known as Sauvignonasse) as well as the Sauvignon blanc pink mutation Sauvignon gris. Prior to the phylloxera epidemic, the insect plague which devastated French vineyards in the 19th century, these interspersed cuttings were transported to Chile where the field blends are still common today. Despite the similarity in names, Sauvignon blanc has no known relation to the Sauvignon rosé mutation found in the Loire Valley of France.
The first cuttings of Sauvignon blanc were brought to California by Charles Wetmore, founder of Cresta Blanca Winery, in the 1880s. These cuttings came from the Sauternes vineyards of Château d'Yquem. The plantings produced well in Livermore Valley. Eventually, the wine acquired the alias of Fumé Blanc in California by promotion of Robert Mondavi in 1968. The grape was first introduced to New Zealand in the 1970s as an experimental planting to be blended with Müller-Thurgau.
Climate and geography
The Sauvignon blanc vine often buds late but ripens early, which allows it to perform well in sunny climates when not exposed to overwhelming heat. In warm regions such as South Africa, Australia and California, the grape flourishes in cooler climate appellations such as the Alexander Valley area. In areas where the vine is subjected to high heat, the grape will quickly become over-ripe and produce wines with dull flavors and flat acidity. Rising global temperatures have caused farmers to harvest the grapes earlier than they have in the past.
The grape originated in France, in the regions of Bordeaux and the Loire Valley. Plantings in California, Australia, Chile and South Africa are also extensive, and Sauvignon blanc is steadily increasing in popularity as white wine drinkers seek alternatives to Chardonnay. The grape can also be found in Italy and Central Europe.
Wine regions
Australia
In Australia, particularly the Margaret River region, the grape is often blended with Sémillon. Varietal styles, made from only the Sauvignon blanc grape, from Adelaide Hills and Padthaway have a style distinctive from their New Zealand neighbors that tend to be more ripe in flavor with white peach and lime notes and slightly higher acidity.
Chile and Brazil
In the early 1990s, ampelographers began to distinguish Sauvignon blanc from Sauvignonasse plantings in Chile. The character of non-blended Chilean Sauvignon blanc are noticeably less acidic than the wines of New Zealand and more similar to the French style that is typical of Chilean wines. The region of Valparaíso is the most notable area for Sauvignon blanc in Chile due to its cooler climate which allows the grapes to be picked up to six weeks later than in other parts of Chile. In Brazil, ampelographers have discovered that the vines called Sauvignon blanc planted in the region are really Seyval blanc.
France
In France, Sauvignon blanc is grown in the maritime climate of Bordeaux (especially in Entre-Deux-Mers, Graves and Pessac-Léognan as a dry wine, and in Sauternes as a sweet wine) as well as the continental climate of the Loire Valley (as Pouilly Fumé, Sancerre, and Sauvignon de Touraine). The climates of these areas are particularly favorable in slowing the ripening on the vine, allowing the grape more time to develop a balance between its acidity and sugar levels. This balance is important in the development of the intensity of the wine's aromas. Winemakers in France pay careful attention to the terroir characteristics of the soil and the different elements that it can impart to the wine. The chalk and Kimmeridgean marl of Sancerre and Pouilly produces wines of richness and complexity while areas with more compact chalk soils produces wines with more finesse and perfume. The gravel soil found near the river Loire and its tributaries impart spicy, floral and mineral flavors while in Bordeaux, the wines have a fruitier personality. Vines planted in flint tend to produce the most vigorous and longest lasting wines.
Pouilly Fumé originate from the town of Pouilly-sur-Loire, located directly across the Loire River from the commune of Sancerre. The soil here is very flinty with deposits of limestone, which the locals believed imparted a smoky, gunflint flavor to the wine, and hence Fumé, the French word for "smoky", was attached to the wine. Along with Sémillon, Muscadelle and Ugni blanc, Sauvignon blanc is one of only four white grapes allowed in the production of white Bordeaux wine. Mostly used as a blending grape, Sauvignon blanc is the principal grape in Château Margaux's Pavillon Blanc, In the northern Rhône Valley, Sauvignon Blanc is often blended with Tressallier to form a tart white wine.
In the Sauternes region, the grape is blended with Sémillon to make the late harvest wine, Sauternes. The composition of Sauvignon blanc varies from producer and can range from 5-50% with the Premier Cru Supérieur Château d'Yquem using 20%. A traditional practice often employed in Sauternes is to plant one Sauvignon Blanc vine at regular intervals among rows of Sémillon. However, Sauvignon blanc's propensity to ripen 1–2 weeks earlier can lead the grapes to lose some of their intensity and aroma as they hang longer on the vine. This has prompted more producers to isolate their parcels of Sauvignon blanc.
Near the edge of the Chablis commune is an AOC called Saint-Bris that is gaining attention for its Sauvignon blanc production.
New Zealand
In the 1990s, Sauvignon blanc wines from the maritime climatic regions of New Zealand, particularly the South Island, became popular on the wine market. In the Marlborough wine region, sandy soils over slate shingles have become the most desirable locations for plantings due to the good drainage of the soil and poor fertility that encourages the vine to concentrate its flavors in lower yields. In the flood plain of the Wairau River Valley, the soil runs in east-west bands across the area. This can create a wide diversity of flavors for vineyards that are planted north-south with the heavier soils producing more herbaceous wines from grapes that ripen late and vines planted in stonier soils ripening earlier and imparting more lush and tropical flavors. It is this difference in soils, and the types of harvest time decisions that wine producers must make, that add a unique element to New Zealand Sauvignon blanc.
The long narrow geography of the South Island ensures that no vineyard is more than from the coast. The cool, maritime climate of the area allows for a long and steady growing season in which the grapes can ripen and develop a natural balance of acids and sugars. This brings out the flavors and intensity that distinguish New Zealand Sauvignon blancs. More recently, Waipara in the South Island and Gisborne and Hawkes Bay in the North Island have been attracting attention for their Sauvignon blanc releases, which often exhibit subtle differences to those from Marlborough. The asparagus, gooseberry and green flavor commonly associated with New Zealand Sauvignon blanc is derived from flavor compounds known as methoxypyrazines that becomes more pronounced and concentrated in wines from cooler climate regions. Riper flavors such as passion fruit, along with other notes such as boxwood, may be driven by thiol concentrations.
North America
In North America, California is the leading producer of Sauvignon blanc with plantings also found in the Washington state and on the Niagara Peninsula and Okanagan Valley in Canada. Sauvignon Blanc is also grown in small regions in Ohio along Lake Erie and the Ohio River. In California wine produced from the Sauvignon blanc grape is also known as Fumé Blanc. This California wine was first made by Napa Valley's Robert Mondavi Winery in 1968. Mondavi had been offered a crop of particularly good Sauvignon blanc grapes by a grower. At that time the variety had a poor reputation in California due to its grassy flavor and aggressive aromas. Mondavi decided to try to tame that aggressiveness with barrel agings and released the wine under the name Fumé Blanc as an allusion to the French Pouilly-Fumé. The usage of the term is primarily a marketing base one with California wine makers choosing whichever name they prefer. Both oaked and unoaked Sauvignon blanc wines have been marketed under the name Fumé Blanc. California Sauvignon blancs tend to fall into two styles. The New Zealand-influenced Sauvignon blanc have more grassy undertones with citrus and passion fruit notes. The Mondavi-influenced Fumé Blanc are more round with melon notes.
Other regions
Sauvignon blanc is also beginning to gain prominence in areas like South Africa's Stellenbosch and Durbanville and Italy's Collio Goriziano areas. It is also one of the main ingredients in Muffato della Sala, one of Italy's most celebrated sweet wines.
Winemaking
Winemakers in New Zealand and Chile harvest the grapes at various intervals for the different blending characteristics that the grape can impart depending on its ripeness levels. At its most unripe stage, the grape is high in malic acid. As it progresses further towards ripeness the grape develops red & green pepper flavors and eventually achieves a balance of sugars. The flavors characteristic of Sauvignon blanc come from the chemicals methoxypyrazines. Grapes grown in Marlborough's Wairau Valley may exhibit different levels of ripeness over the vineyard, caused by slight unevenness in the land and giving a similar flavor profile to the resulting wine.
Sauvignon blanc can be greatly influenced by decisions in the winemaking process. One decision is the amount of contact that the must has with the skins of the grape. In the early years of the New Zealand wine industry, there were no wineries in the South Island, which meant that freshly harvested grapes had to be trucked and then ferried to the North Island, often all the way up to Auckland. This allowed for prolonged exposure of the skins and juice which sharpened the intensity and pungency of the wine. Some winemakers, like the Loire, intentionally leave a small amount of must to spend some time in contact with the skin for later blending purposes. Other winemakers, like in California, generally avoid any contact with the skin due to the reduced aging ability of the resulting wine.
Another important decision is the temperature of fermentation. French winemakers prefer warmer fermentations (around 16–18 °C) that bring out the mineral flavors in the wine while New World winemakers prefer slightly cooler temperatures to bring out more fruit and tropical flavors. A small minority of Loire winemakers will put the wine through malolactic fermentation, a practice more often associated with New Zealand wines. Oak aging can have a pronounced effect on the wine, with the oak rounding out the flavors and softening the naturally high acidity of the grape. Some winemakers, like those in New Zealand and Sancerre, prefer stainless steel fermentation tanks over barrels with the intention of maintaining the sharp focus and flavor intensity.
Sauvignon Blanc can be combined with a variety of dishes as it is an easy approachable wine. If we are looking for light meat, it can be suitable for chicken or turkey. Sauvignon Blanc is also excellent for seafood such as lobster, squid, and so on. It is a perfect complement to soft cheeses such as feta, chevre or buffalo mozzarella. Also for vegetable dishes that contain eggplant or zucchini and spices such as thyme or bay leaves.
See also
International variety
References
Further reading
LAROUSSE Encyclopedia of WINE, Hamlyn, 2001. .
Taber, G. Judgment of Paris. New York: Scribner's, 2005.
External links
New Zealand Vintage Chart
Wine News "The four faces of California Sauvignon Blanc"
White wine grape varieties
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukushima%20%28city%29
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Fukushima (city)
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Fukushima (city)
is the capital city of Fukushima Prefecture, Japan. It is located in the northern part of the Nakadōri, central region of the prefecture. , the city had an estimated population of 275,850 in 122,130 households and a population density of . The total area of the city is .
The present-day city of Fukushima partially consists of most of the former Shinobu and Date Districts and a portion of the former Adachi District. The city is located in the Fukushima Basin's southwest area and nearby mountains.
There are many onsen on the outskirts of the city, including the resort areas of Iizaka Onsen, Takayu Onsen, and Tsuchiyu Onsen. Fukushima is also the location of the Fukushima Race Course, the only Japan Racing Association horse racing track in the Tōhoku region of Japan.
Geography
Fukushima is located in the central northeast section of Fukushima Prefecture, approximately east of Lake Inawashiro, north of Tokyo, and about south of Sendai. It lies between the Ōu Mountains to the west and the Abukuma Highlands to the east. Most of the city is within the southeast area and nearby mountains of the Fukushima Basin. Mt. Azuma and Mt. Adatara loom over the city from the west and southwest, respectively
In the north, Fukushima is adjacent to the Miyagi Prefecture cities of Shiroishi and Shichikashuku. In the northwest, Fukushima borders the Yamagata Prefecture cities of Yonezawa and Takahata. Within Fukushima Prefecture, to the west of Fukushima is the town of Inawashiro, to the south is Nihonmatsu, to the east are Kawamata and Date, and to the northeast is Koori.
Terrain
The Fukushima Basin is created by the surrounding Ōu Mountains in the west and the Abukuma Highlands in the east, with the Abukuma River flowing through the center of the basin, from south to north. Multiple tributaries to the Abukuma River source in the Ōu Mountains before flowing down into Fukushima, namely the Surikami, Matsukawa, and Arakawa rivers. These rivers flow eastward through the western side of the city until joining up with the Abukuma River in the central parts of the city. The irrigation from these rivers were formerly used for the cultivation of mullberry trees; however, in the latter half of the 20th century cultivation was switched from focusing on mullberry trees, and instead growing a variety of fruit orchards.
The highest point within the city limits is Mt. Higashi-Azuma, a peak of Mt. Azuma, located on the western edge of the city. The lowest point is the neighborhood of , which is in the northeastern part of the city and has an elevation of . Mt. Shinobu, a monadnock, lies in the southeastern section of the Fukushima Basin and is a symbol of the city.
The Abukuma River flows south to north through the central area of Fukushima and joins with many tributaries on its journey through the city. The Arakawa River originates from Mt. Azuma and flows eastward, eventually flowing into the Abukuma River near the city center. The Matsukawa River, which flows eastward from its origin in Mt. Azuma and also joins with the Abukuma River in the northern part of the city. Another major tributary of the Abukuma River is the Surikami River, which originates along the Fukushima-Yamagata prefectural border near the Moniwa area in the northwest of the city. From there it flows into Lake Moniwa, a reservoir created by the Surikamigawa Dam. From there it continues flowing southeast before meeting up with the Abukuma River in northern Fukushima, thus completing its run.
Other tributaries of the Abukuma River which flow within Fukushima are the , , , , , , , , and rivers. The also flows through the city and is a tributary of the , which itself is also a tributary of the Abukuma River, however the Oguni River does not meet up with the Hirose River until the district of Date, outside of the Fukushima city limits.
There are multiple lakes in the area of Fukushima that falls within Bandai-Asahi National Park. , also called is a caldera lake located in Mt. Azuma's Mt. Issaikyō peak. The lake is so-named due its water color changing in relation to weather conditions. and are also located in Bandai-Asahi National Park.
In the Tsuchiyu area in the western part of the city lie the small lakes of , , and . In the neighborhood of lies . is in the neighborhood.
Neighbouring municipalities
Fukushima Prefecture
Nihonmatsu, Date
Date District – Koori, Kawamata
Yama District – Inawashiro
Yamagata Prefecture
Yonezawa, Takahata
Miyagi Prefecture
Shiroishi, Shichikashuku
Climate
Under the Köppen climate classification, Fukushima has a humid subtropical climate. There is often a large temperature and weather difference between central Fukushima versus the mountains on the edge of the city. The hottest month tends to be August, with an average high of in central Fukushima, at an elevation of , while Tsuchiyu Pass on the western edge of the city and at an elevation of has an average August high of . The coldest month tends to be January, with an average low of in central Fukushima and on Tsuchiyu Pass.
On average, central Fukushima receives of precipitation annually and receives or more of precipitation on 125.2 days per year. An average of of snow falls annually, with 22.9 days receiving or more of snow. An average of of snow falls in January, making it the snowiest month. Central Fukushima also receives an average of 1,738.8 hours of sunshine per year, significantly more than the 1,166.5 hours received at Tsuchiyu Pass.
Population
Fukushima has the third-highest population in the prefecture, behind the cities of Iwaki, with 377,288, and Kōriyama, with 336,328. This makes Fukushima the only prefectural capital in Japan that is the third-largest city in the prefecture.
The Fukushima metropolitan area had a May 2011 estimated population of 452,912 and consisted of the towns and cities of Nihonmatsu, Date, Kunimi, Koori, Kawamata, and Fukushima. It is the second most populous metropolitan area in Fukushima Prefecture, with the Kōriyama metropolitan area being the largest with a population of 553,996. The Fukushima metropolitan area is also the sixth-largest metropolitan area in the Tōhoku region.
History
Jōmon period to 11th century AD
In ancient Japan, the area now known as Fukushima City was called . The mountain in the middle of the city, present-day Mt. Shinobu, was also formerly called .
During the Jōmon period, for around 2,000 years there was a large settlement on the eastern bank of the Abukuma River. This area has since been excavated and named the Miyahata Site.
In the 5th century AD, was appointed by the to be the , giving him control over the Fukushima Basin.
Under the Nara period's Ritsuryō system, stations were established along the Seven Circuits so that officials could change horses. One of the stations, the Tōsandō, passed through the area of present-day Fukushima, and Minekoshi Station was established on the route. Minekoshi Station was located south of the Surikami River and north of the Matsukawa River, which at the time flowed to the south of Mt. Minekoshi. The area south of the Matsukawa River was then, as it still is now, known as . Thus it is believed that the station was located north of the area around the present-day prefectural office, in the .
The implementation of the Ritsuryō system also resulted in administrative changes, with the area of present-day Fukushima and Date being combined to form the district of Shinobu. This was the northernmost point of the Mutsu Province and held responsibility for preventing the southern expansion of the Emishi, a people who lived in northern Honshū.
After 718, and the widening influence of the Yamato Imperial Court, Mutsu Province was expanded northwards into present-day Miyagi Prefecture. Along with this redrawing of boundaries, present-day Fukushima Prefecture was separated from the new Mutsu Province (approximately present-day Miyagi) and split between the newly formed provinces of Iwaki in the east and Iwase in the west. However, by 724 Mutsu Province was unable to deal on its own with the economic costs of holding back the Emishi, so Iwaki and Iwase provinces were merged back into Mutsu.
In the first half of the 10th century, the Date district was separated from the Shinobu district. As a reform to the tax on rice, labor, and textiles, there was a nationwide effort from the Imperial Court to split up districts so they each had approximately the same population. This was accomplished both through administrative changes and forced population relocations. With Mutsu Province viewed as reclaimed land by the Imperial Court, the area saw a significant amount of reorganization.
In the late Heian period, almost the entirety of the Tōhoku region was ruled by the Northern Fujiwara clan. Relatives of the Northern Fujiwara clan, the was given domain over nearly the entirety of present-day Fukushima Prefecture's centrally-located Nakadōri area and eventually expanded their control to include Aizu to the west as well. It is said that the Shinobu Satō clan is one of the reasons for the Satō surname spreading throughout and eventually becoming the most common surname in Japan.
12th century to 18th century
In 1180, Minamoto no Yoshitsune, was accompanied by Shinobu district residents and on his way south to Kantō to fight the Taira clan in the Genpei War.
In 1413, shut himself inside in defiance of the Kamakura kubō. This is the first known historical mention of Daibutsu Castle, which was near the confluence of the Abukuma and Arakawa rivers at the present-day location of the Fukushima Prefectural Offices. It is said that the castle was named after the , a Vairocana Buddha statue kept within the castle. The castle was also known as . It is believed that in this time period the area's name was changed from Minekoshi to to reflect the concentration of political power in the area.
During the Azuchi–Momoyama period, in 1591 Gamō Ujisato gained control of the Shinobu and Date districts, and under him took control of , which was in the southwest of present-day Fukushima. The following year he moved from Ōmori Castle to Suginome Castle. It is said that, inspired by the recent renaming of to the more joyous-sounding , he changed the name of his new residence to . This castle, like many others in Japan, was later demolished at the beginning of the Meiji period.
In 1600, Date Masamune and Honjō Shigenaga, who was under the Uesugi clan and head of Fukushima Castle at the time, fought the . At the time, the Matsukawa River flowed in a different riverbed than it does now, as the current Matsukawa River is north of Mt. Shinobu, while the Matsukawa River at the time of the battle flowed south of Mt. Shinobu. It is said that the Battle of Matsukawa's battlefield extended from the southern base of Mt. Shinobu and extended into the center of modern-day Fukushima. In 1664 the Uesugi clan lost control of the Shinobu district, and the area became directly ruled by the Tokugawa shogunate.
In 1702, the Fukushima Domain was established and governed from Fukushima Castle, and in 1787, the was established in the present-day Sakurashimo area in the western part of Fukushima. This domain was later abolished in 1823.
19th century
On November 17, 1868, , the head of the Fukushima Domain, surrendered to the Satchō Alliance and handed over control of Fukushima Castle to . The Fukushima Domain was abolished the following year. In line with the abolition of domains and introduction of the prefecture system, the first iteration of Fukushima Prefecture came into being on August 29, 1871. The prefecture at the time consisted of the Shinobu, Date, and Adachi districts.
With permission from the Ministry of the Treasury, on September 10, 1871, the village of changed its name to the town of . Fukushima Prefecture was absorbed into Nihonmatsu Prefecture on November 2, making Nihonmatsu Prefecture consist of approximately the entirety of the Nakadōri area. On November 14, Nihonmatsu Prefecture's name was changed to Fukushima Prefecture. Fukushima City was named the prefecture's capital.
Nearly five years later, on August 21, 1876, Fukushima Prefecture merged with (consisting of the coastal Hamadōri area) and (consisting of Aizu in the west), thus creating present-day Fukushima Prefecture. Fukushima continued to serve as the prefecture's capital. In 1879, the Shinobu district's government offices were moved to Fukushima.
On November 3, 1881, , which generally followed a portion of the old Ushū Kaidō, was opened and linked Fukushima to Yonezawa, approximately 45 km to the northwest. On December 15, 1887, the section of the Tōhoku Main Line running through Fukushima, connecting Kōriyama Station in the south to Iwakiri Station in the north, was opened. In Fukushima, this saw the opening of Fukushima Station and Matsukawa Station.
In 1888, there was a large-scale merger of municipalities. In the Date district, the village of absorbed the village of , the villages of and merged to form the village of , the villages of and merged to form the village of . In the Adachi district, the village of absorbed the village of . In the Shinobu district, the village of became the town of . The Shinobu district reduced one town and 70 villages down to two towns and 26 villages.
1890 saw the opening of the , which was the predecessor of Fukushima Medical University. On March 19, 1893, Mt. Azuma's Mt. Issaikyō peak erupted, and on May 15, 1899, Fukushima was linked to Yonezawa by rail via the opening of the , part of the present-day Ōu Main Line. The opening of Niwasaka Station corresponded with the opening of the line. Also in 1899, a Bank of Japan branch was established in Fukushima, the bank's first branch in the Tōhoku region.
20th century
Turn of the century to end of World War II
On April 1, 1907, the town of Fukushima officially became the city of . It was the second municipality in the prefecture and 59th in the nation to become a city. At the time, Fukushima had a population of 30,000.
On April 14, 1908, the opened a light rail system that connected to via . Also in 1908, the opened.
On June 28, 1918, the Fukushima Race Course held its first horse race. On August 30 of the same year, rice riots occurred in the city.
On April 13, 1924, the Fukushima Iizaka Electric Tramway, precursor to the present-day Iizaka Line, began service linking Fukushima Station to Iizaka Station (present-day Hanamizuzaka Station). Three years later, in 1927, the line was extended further north to its present-day terminus of Iizaka Onsen Station. 1927 also saw the opening of and with it the prefecture's first elevator. In 1929 the Fukushima City Library closed and the opened in its place, taking over the Fukushima City Library's collections and facilities. 1929 also saw the beginning of bus service within the city.
In 1937, a section of the village of was absorbed into Fukushima, and in 1939 took over , changed its name to , and moved its head office to Fukushima. This was the precursor to the present-day .
In 1941, NHK opened its first broadcast station in the city.
Near the end of World War II, in which Japan had initiated wars with a number of Pacific powers to create the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, on July 20, 1945, a United States Army Air Forces Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombed the Watari area.
Post-war
In 1946, Toho Bank moved its head office to Fukushima, on June 18, 1947 became Fukushima Medical University, and on March 7, 1948, the Fukushima Prefecture Police Department was dismantled and the Fukushima City Police formed.
On April 27, 1948, at 12:04 am, a train on the Ōu Main Line bound for Ueno derailed upon exiting a tunnel between Akaiwa and Niwasaka stations, killing three crew members. Upon inspection of the crash scene it was determined that someone had removed from the track two connecting plates, six spikes, and four bolts. The perpetrator was never found. This became known as the Niwasaka incident.
On August 17, 1949, at 3:09 am the Matsukawa incident occurred. In a scene highly reminiscent of the scene from the previous year's Niwasaka incident, a train bound for Ueno derailed, killing three crew members. Inspection of the tracks revealed that connecting plates and spikes had been removed. Furthermore, a section of rail had been moved from the track. No one was ever convicted of the crime. 1949 also saw the opening of Fukushima University.
In 1952, a new city hall was opened in the neighborhood. The Seventh National Sports Festival of Japan was also held in the city, and in 1954 the present-day Fukushima Prefectural Office's main wing was completed and the Fukushima City Police were integrated into the Fukushima Prefecture Police. In March 1959 NHK began television broadcasts. Later that year, on May 11, the Bandai-Azuma Skyline tourist roadway opened.
In January 1966, the Kitamachi Route 4 bypass was completed, and on May 29 the on Route 13 was opened.
The very first was held on August 1, 1970. In the festival participants parade a large waraji straw sandal through the streets of Fukushima. Two months later, on November 1, Route13's . The Iizaka East Line was shut down on April 12, 1971, leaving the Iizaka Line the only remaining railway operated by Fukushima Transportation. The same year Fukushima Prefectural Office's west wing was completed, making it, at the time, the tallest building in the prefecture. The section of the Tōhoku Expressway linking Kōriyama in the south to Shiroishi in the north, via Fukushima, opened on April 1, 1975. The Tōhoku Shinkansen opened on June 23, 1982, and connected Ōmiya in the south to Morioka in the north, via Fukushima.
The Route 4 South Bypass opened on November 11, 1983, and the Fukushima Prefectural Museum of Art and Prefectural Library were completed on July 22, 1983. Fukushima hosted the first East Japan Women's Ekiden road relay race on November 24, 1985.
On August 4 and 5 of 1986 the Abukuma River and its tributaries flooded due to Nakdōri receiving from of rain from a typhoon. Cities and towns along the Abukuma River and its tributaries, Fukushima included, suffered 11 people killed or injured, and damage to 14,000 buildings.
Later that year, on September 13, the Fukushima Azuma Stadium was completed. The Abukuma Express Line, a railway line linking Fukushima to Marumori in the north, began operations on July 1, 1988, and on November 12, the Yūji Koseki Memorial Museum was opened.
The Fukushima Mutual Bank changed its name to Fukushima Bank in February 1989, and on September 27 Route 115's was opened. On July 1, 1992, the Yamagata Shinkansen opened, connecting Fukushima to Yamagata. In 1995, the 50th National Sports Festival of Japan was held, primarily at Azuma Sports Park in the west of the city.
The dam completion ceremony for the Surikamigawa Dam in the Moniwa area was held on September 25, 2005.
April 1, 2007, was the 100th anniversary of Fukushima becoming a city, and to celebrate, a festival was held on June 30. Dashi representing the former towns and villages that make up modern-day Fukushima paraded and gathered in front of Fukushima Station.
During the Great Heisei Merger, Fukushima and the towns of Kawamata and Iino held merger talks, however on December 1, 2006, Kawamata withdrew from the talks. Negotiations between Fukushima and Iino continued, and on July 1, 2008, the town of Iino was incorporated into Fukushima.
21st century
On January 4, 2011, Fukushima officially opened a new city hall to replace the previous one built in 1952. The new city hall, as was the previous one, is located in Gorōuchi-machi, next to National Route 4 in the center of the city.
On March 11, 2011, the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami occurred, with the earthquake causing ruptures in multiple water mains originating from the Surikamigawa Dam, which supplies much of the city's water. This resulted in the majority of the city losing access to running water. Train services were also stopped due to damage caused to railway infrastructure. The Iizaka Line reopened two days later on March 13, and on March 31 the Yamagata Shinkansen resumed limited service and the Ōu Main Line resumed full service. By April 7 the Tōhoku Main Line was reopened in both directions, however it was closed again following a strong earthquake later that night. The Tōhoku Main Line was again reopened in both directions from Fukushima on April 17. The Tōhoku Shinkansen reopened with limited service on April 23, and the Abukuma Express Line resumed limited service from Fukushima on April 28.
On April 1, 2018, Fukushima City became a core city.
Government
Fukushima has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral city legislature of 35 members. The city also contributes eight members to the Fukushima Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, most of the city falls within the Fukushima 1st district, a single-member constituency of the House of Representatives in the national Diet of Japan, which also includes the cities of Date, Sōma, Minamisōma and Date District and Sōma District.
Economy
As of 2005, the total income of all citizens of Fukushima totalled trillion. Of this income, 0.8% was made in the primary sector, 24.1% in the secondary sector, and 80.1% in the tertiary sector.
Income in the primary sector was led by that from agriculture, which totaled . The secondary sector was led by general manufacturing, with income there totaling billion. The service industry led the tertiary sector with a total income of billion.
Company headquarters located within Fukushima include that of Toho Bank, Fukushima Bank, and Daiyu Eight.
Agriculture
The majority of Fukushima's agricultural economic output is from planting crops. As of 2010, out of a total agricultural monetary yield of billion, crops accounted for billion and livestock accounted for billion. Of crops planted in Fukushima, fruit comprises 60% of monetary yield, rice 13%, vegetables 12%, and other various crops round out the final 15%. For livestock, both milk and chicken led production with values of million each.
Fruits by far make up the largest value of crops grown in Fukushima, led by an annual production of 14,935 tons of apples, 13,200 tons of Japanese pears, and 11,517 tons of peaches. While Fukushima produces more apples and pears than peaches, as a percentage of national fruit production, in 2010 Fukushima produced 8.2% of all peaches grown in the country, compared to 5.1% of all Japanese pears and 2.3% of all apples. When the neighboring cities of Date, Kunimi and Koori, all of which are also in the Fukushima Basin, are taken into effect, the Fukushima metro area produced 20.1% of all peaches grown in Japan in 2010.
The city is known for its many peach, pear, apple, and cherry orchards which are located throughout the city, especially along the so-called road that loops the western edge of the city. Fukushima is also sometimes known as the .
Industry
In 2009 Fukushima's industries directly employed 18,678 workers and shipped ¥671 billion worth of goods. This was led by information-related industries with 50.5% of total output. Other industries in Fukushima include those dealing with food at 7.6% of total output, metals at 7.5%, chemistry at 5.3%, ceramics at 4.9%, electricity at 4.5%, printed goods at 2.8%, steel at 2.5%, plastics at 2.5%, and electronics at 2.2%. Other various industries make up the final 9.8%.
In 2009, the value of goods shipped by Fukushima's industries comprised 14.2% of all of Fukushima Prefecture's total output for the year.
Commerce
For the year of 2007, wholesale products sold in Fukushima totalled billion and employed 6,645 workers, while retail sales for the same time period totalled billion, and employed 18,767 workers. Total combined sales of both retail and wholesale products in 2007 came to billion, approximately a quarter less than sales in 1997 a decade prior.
Transportation
Due to Fukushima having long been the junction of the Ōshū Kaidō and Ushū Kaidō routes, it has developed into an important transportation hub. It is currently the location of where National Route 13 breaks off from National Route 4. Fukushima Station is where the Ōu Main Line separates from the Tōhoku Main Line and the Tōhoku Shinkansen separates from the Yamagata Shinkansen.
Railway
In addition to the Tōhoku and Yamagata shinkansen, JR East also provides service from Fukushima Station on the Tōhoku Main Line and Ōu Main Line routes. Fukushima Station is north of Tokyo via the Tōhoku Main Line, which then continues north to Morioka Station. The Ōu Main Line originates at Fukushima Station then runs north to Aomori Station, taking a more western route than the Tōhoku Main Line. Train services are also provided by Fukushima Transportation and AbukumaExpress, which respectively run the Iizaka Line and the Abukuma Express Line. The Iizaka Line is a commuter train which connects the center of the city to Iizaka in the north of the city. The Abukuma Express Line takes a route following the Abukuma River and connects the city to Miyagi Prefecture in the north.
East Japan Railway Company (JR East) - Tōhoku Shinkansen / Yamagata Shinkansen
Station in the city:
JR East - Tohoku Main Line
- - - -
JR East - Ōu Main Line (Yamagata Line)
- - -
AbukumaExpress - Abukuma Express Line
- - - -
Fukushima Transportation - Iizaka Line
- Soneda - Bijutsukantoshokanmae - Iwashiroshimizu - Izumi - Kamimatsukawa -Sasaya - Sakuramizu - Hirano - Iohji-mae - Hanamizuzaka - Iizaka Onsen
Highway
For automobile traffic, Fukushima is linked to Tokyo in the south and Aomori in the north via the Tōhoku Expressway, which passes through Fukushima and has multiple interchanges within the city. There are six national highways that run from or through Fukushima. Japan National Route 4 runs to Tokyo in the south, through Fukushima, then north to Sendai and beyond; Japan National Route 13 begins in Fukushima, runs through Yamagata Prefecture, then terminates in Akita Prefecture; Japan National Route 114 starts in Fukushima and runs southeast to the town of Namie; Japan National Route 115 runs through Fukushima, connecting Sōma in the east to Inwashiro in the west; Japan National Route 399 starts southeast of Fukushima in the city of Iwaki, Fukushima, continues northwest through Fukushima, and terminates in the city of Nan'yō, Yamagata; and Japan National Route 459 begins in Niigata, Niigata, runs eastward through Kitakata, through Fukushima, southward to Nihonmatsu, then eastward to Namie.
Also within the city is the Bandai-Azuma Skyline scenic toll road, which runs up and along Mt. Azuma on the western edge of the city, connecting Takayu Onsen and Tsuchiyu Onsen.
Local bus services throughout the city and region are primarily operated by Fukushima Transportation. Local bus service to the Kawamata area is offered by both JR Bus Tōhoku and Kanehachi Taxi. Intercity buses are operated by a multitude of companies and link Fukushima to the cities of Iwaki, Aizuwakamatsu, and Kōriyama within the prefectures and to the Sendai, Tokyo, and Kinki areas outside the prefecture, among others.
Airports
There is no commercial airport within the city limits. For air transportation, Fukushima is served by both Fukushima Airport in the city of Sukagawa and Sendai Airport in Natori, Miyagi.
Education
In addition to libraries and museums, Fukushima is home to many facilities for higher, secondary, and primary education
Museums located in Fukushima include the , the , the , and the . Fukushima is also the location of the Fukushima Prefectural Museum of Art, located near Bijutsukantoshokanmae Station. The museum houses 2,200 works, including French Impressionism, 20th century American realism, Japanese modern paintings, prints, earthenwares, ceramics and textiles.
Fukushima operates 19 libraries and library branches throughout the city, and is also home to the Fukushima Prefectural Library, which is administered by Fukushima Prefecture and is adjacent to the Fukushima Prefectural Museum of Art.
Institutes of higher learning that are located in Fukushima include Fukushima University, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima College, and Sakura no Seibo Junior College.
Sports
The city is home to the Fukushima Azuma Baseball Stadium, which was an Olympic venue at the Tokyo 2020 Summer Olympics. Fukushima United football club play at the athletic Toho Stadium. The city's third professional team is basketball Japanese Second Division club Fukushima Firebonds.
Notes
References
External links
Official Website
Fukushima City Tourism and Convention Association official website
Fukushima City Tourism and Convention Association official website
Cities in Fukushima Prefecture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylation
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Methylation
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Methylation, in the chemical sciences, is the addition of a methyl group on a substrate, or the substitution of an atom (or group) by a methyl group. Methylation is a form of alkylation, with a methyl group replacing a hydrogen atom. These terms are commonly used in chemistry, biochemistry, soil science, and biology.
In biological systems, methylation is catalyzed by enzymes; such methylation can be involved in modification of heavy metals, regulation of gene expression, regulation of protein function, and RNA processing. In vitro methylation of tissue samples is also a way to reduce some histological staining artifacts. The reverse of methylation is demethylation.
In biology
In biological systems, methylation is accomplished by enzymes. Methylation can modify heavy metals and can regulate gene expression, RNA processing, and protein function. It is a key process underlying epigenetics. Sources of methyl groups include S-methylmethionine, methyl folate, methyl B12.
Methanogenesis
Methanogenesis, the process that generates methane from CO2, involves a series of methylation reactions. These reactions are caused by a set of enzymes harbored by a family of anaerobic microbes.
In reverse methanogenesis, methane is the methylating agent.
O-methyltransferases
A wide variety of phenols undergo O-methylation to give anisole derivatives. This process, catalyzed by such enzymes as caffeoyl-CoA O-methyltransferase, is a key reaction in the biosynthesis of lignols, percursors to lignin, a major structural component of plants.
Plants produce flavonoids and isoflavones with methylations on hydroxyl groups, i.e. methoxy bonds. This 5-O-methylation affects the flavonoid's water solubility. Examples are 5-O-methylgenistein, 5-O-methylmyricetin, and 5-O-methylquercetin (azaleatin).
Proteins
Along with ubiquitination and phosphorylation, methylation is a major biochemical process for modifying protein function. The most prevalent protein methylations affect arginine and lysine residue of specific histones. Otherwise histidine, glutamate, asparagine, cysteine are susceptible to methylation. Some of these products include S-methylcysteine, two isomers of N-methylhistidine, and two isomers of N-methylarginine.
Methionine synthase
Methionine synthase regenerates methionine (Met) from homocysteine (Hcy). The overall reaction transforms 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (N5-MeTHF) into tetrahydrofolate (THF) while transferring a methyl group to Hcy to form Met. Methionine Syntheses can be cobalamin-dependent and cobalamin-independent: Plants have both, animals depend on the methylcobalamin-dependent form.
In methylcobalamin-dependent forms of the enzyme, the reaction proceeds by two steps in a ping-pong reaction. The enzyme is initially primed into a reactive state by the transfer of a methyl group from N5-MeTHF to Co(I) in enzyme-bound cobalamin ((Cob), also known as vitamine B12)) ,
, forming methyl-cobalamin(Me-Cob) that now contains Me-Co(III) and activating the enzyme. Then, a Hcy that has coordinated to an enzyme-bound zinc to form a reactive thiolate reacts with the Me-Cob. The activated methyl group is transferred from Me-Cob to the Hcy thiolate, which regenerates Co(I) in Cob, and Met is released from the enzyme.
Heavy metals: arsenic, mercury, cadmium
Biomethylation is the pathway for converting some heavy elements into more mobile or more lethal derivatives that can enter the food chain. The biomethylation of arsenic compounds starts with the formation of methanearsonates. Thus, trivalent inorganic arsenic compounds are methylated to give methanearsonate. S-adenosylmethionine is the methyl donor. The methanearsonates are the precursors to dimethylarsonates, again by the cycle of reduction (to methylarsonous acid) followed by a second methylation. Related pathways are found in the microbial methylation of mercury to methylmercury.
Epigenetic methylation
DNA methylation
DNA methylation is the conversion of the cytosine to 5-methylcytosine. The formation of Me-CpG is catalyzed by the enzyme DNA methyltransferase. In vertebrates, DNA methylation typically occurs at CpG sites (cytosine-phosphate-guanine sites—that is, sites where a cytosine is directly followed by a guanine in the DNA sequence). In mammals, DNA methylation is common in body cells, and methylation of CpG sites seems to be the default. Human DNA has about 80–90% of CpG sites methylated, but there are certain areas, known as CpG islands, that are CG-rich (high cytosine and guanine content, made up of about 65% CG residues), wherein none is methylated. These are associated with the promoters of 56% of mammalian genes, including all ubiquitously expressed genes. One to two percent of the human genome are CpG clusters, and there is an inverse relationship between CpG methylation and transcriptional activity. Methylation contributing to epigenetic inheritance can occur through either DNA methylation or protein methylation. Improper methylations of human genes can lead to disease development, including cancer.
In honey bees, DNA methylation is associated with alternative splicing and gene regulation based on functional genomic research published in 2013. In addition, DNA methylation is associated with expression changes in immune genes when honey bees were under lethal viral infection. Several review papers have been published on the topics of DNA methylation in social insects.
RNA methylation
RNA methylation occurs in different RNA species viz. tRNA, rRNA, mRNA, tmRNA, snRNA, snoRNA, miRNA, and viral RNA. Different catalytic strategies are employed for RNA methylation by a variety of RNA-methyltransferases. RNA methylation is thought to have existed before DNA methylation in the early forms of life evolving on earth.
N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most common and abundant methylation modification in RNA molecules (mRNA) present in eukaryotes. 5-methylcytosine (5-mC) also commonly occurs in various RNA molecules. Recent data strongly suggest that m6A and 5-mC RNA methylation affects the regulation of various biological processes such as RNA stability and mRNA translation, and that abnormal RNA methylation contributes to etiology of human diseases.
In social insects such as honey bees, RNA methylation is studied as a possible epigenetic mechanism underlying aggression via reciprocal crosses.
Protein methylation
Protein methylation typically takes place on arginine or lysine amino acid residues in the protein sequence. Arginine can be methylated once (monomethylated arginine) or twice, with either both methyl groups on one terminal nitrogen (asymmetric dimethylarginine) or one on both nitrogens (symmetric dimethylarginine), by protein arginine methyltransferases (PRMTs). Lysine can be methylated once, twice, or three times by lysine methyltransferases. Protein methylation has been most studied in the histones. The transfer of methyl groups from S-adenosyl methionine to histones is catalyzed by enzymes known as histone methyltransferases. Histones that are methylated on certain residues can act epigenetically to repress or activate gene expression. Protein methylation is one type of post-translational modification.
Evolution
Methyl metabolism is very ancient and can be found in all organisms on earth, from bacteria to humans, indicating the importance of methyl metabolism for physiology. Indeed, pharmacological inhibition of global methylation in species ranging from human, mouse, fish, fly, roundworm, plant, algae, and cyanobacteria causes the same effects on their biological rhythms, demonstrating conserved physiological roles of methylation during evolution.
In chemistry
The term methylation in organic chemistry refers to the alkylation process used to describe the delivery of a group.
Electrophilic methylation
Methylations are commonly performed using electrophilic methyl sources such as iodomethane, dimethyl sulfate, dimethyl carbonate, or tetramethylammonium chloride. Less common but more powerful (and more dangerous) methylating reagents include methyl triflate, diazomethane, and methyl fluorosulfonate (magic methyl). These reagents all react via SN2 nucleophilic substitutions. For example, a carboxylate may be methylated on oxygen to give a methyl ester; an alkoxide salt may be likewise methylated to give an ether, ; or a ketone enolate may be methylated on carbon to produce a new ketone.
The Purdie methylation is a specific for the methylation at oxygen of carbohydrates using iodomethane and silver oxide.
Eschweiler–Clarke methylation
The Eschweiler–Clarke reaction is a method for methylation of amines. This method avoids the risk of quaternization, which occurs when amines are methylated with methyl halides.
Diazomethane and trimethylsilyldiazomethane
Diazomethane and the safer analogue trimethylsilyldiazomethane methylate carboxylic acids, phenols, and even alcohols:
RCO2H + tmsCHN2 + CH3OH -> RCO2CH3 + CH3Otms + N2
The method offers the advantage that the side products are easily removed from the product mixture.
Nucleophilic methylation
Methylation sometimes involve use of nucleophilic methyl reagents. Strongly nucleophilic methylating agents include methyllithium or Grignard reagents such as methylmagnesium bromide. For example, will add methyl groups to the carbonyl (C=O) of ketones and aldehyde.:
Milder methylating agents include tetramethyltin, dimethylzinc, and trimethylaluminium.
See also
Biology topics
Bisulfite sequencing – the biochemical method used to determine the presence or absence of methyl groups on a DNA sequence
MethDB DNA Methylation Database
Microscale thermophoresis – a biophysical method to determine the methylisation state of DNA
Remethylation, the reversible removal of methyl group in methionine and 5-methylcytosine
Organic chemistry topics
Alkylation
Methoxy
Titanium–zinc methylenation
Petasis reagent
Nysted reagent
Wittig reaction
Tebbe's reagent
References
External links
deltaMasses Detection of Methylations after Mass Spectrometry
Epigenetics
Organic reactions
Post-translational modification
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louise%20Cox%20%28painter%29
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Louise Cox (painter)
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Louise Cox (painter)
Louise Howland King Cox (June 23, 1865—1945) was an American painter known for her portraits of children. She won a number of prizes throughout her career, notably a bronze medal at the 1900 Paris Exposition and a silver medal at the 1901 Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo.
Early and personal life
Louise Howland King was born in San Francisco, California, on June 23, 1865, to Anna Stott and James King. Her family moved to New York when she was a child. In 1872, Anna King had sued her husband for divorce, citing cruel and inhumane treatment. James C. King was convicted for a murder related to that suit in November 1872. In 1880, when she was 14, Louise attended small school of Lucy McGuire in Dover, New Jersey. When she first attended art school she lived with her mother and sister Pauline.
On June 30, 1892, she wed her former teacher Kenyon Cox in Belmont, Massachusetts, at the home of her aunt, Mrs. B.M. Jones. Kenyon, who had thought he might be a lifelong bachelor, realized that he was in love with Louise, but he did not express his feelings for some time. They wrote long letters to each other during the period that she was a teacher in Toledo, Ohio. In a letter that he wrote to her in 1887, he commended her artistic talent and expressed his belief that she would have a successful career and said:
That same year he declared her to be his best student. In January 1892, after she had returned to New York, the couple became engaged and both became like "moonstruck youngsters". Kenyon Cox wrote his mother, "Long before I felt the thrill of love, I knew that she would make the best wife in the world for me if I should love her . . . When love came to add to the friendship and confidence, I felt safe and so we mean to marry as soon as we can."
They both exhibited their works at the National Academy of Design and the Society of American Artists. In April 1893, Louise suffered a miscarriage and the couple sailed for Europe about the SS Maasdam weeks before their first anniversary. The trip, partly for her emotional recuperation, included travel to Paris, Italy, and the Netherlands.
They had three children. Leonard, born in 1894 and named after Leonard Opdycke, was a war hero and had a career in city planning and architecture. Son Allyn, born two years later, became an artist, particularly noted for his mural paintings, and an interior decorator. Daughter Caroline born in 1898 was also a talented artist.
The family lived in New York City on East 67th Street and in 1910 Louise's mother, Anna T. King, a writer, lived with them. Cox enjoyed gardening. She did not support the Women's suffragette movement. Cox lived in Italy, Hawaii, and a northern suburb of New York following the death of her husband. She lived in Honolulu, Hawaii by 1930 and as late as 1935. In 1940 she lived on Roaring Brook Road on New Castle, Westchester, New York. At that time she was 74 years of age and still operated and painted in a studio. She died December 11, 1945, in Windham, Connecticut. She was cremated, as was her husband Kenyon, and their ashes were scattered together at Cornish, New Hampshire where they spent their summers.
Education
With financial help from an aunt in Boston, Louise Cox attended the National Academy of Design in New York City, and is quoted as saying, "Although I was born in 1865 in San Francisco, it was not until sixteen years later that I started to live, for in 1881 I entered the National Academy of Design." During her time at the National Academy of Design, Louise Cox learned an academic style of painting, grounded in the style of Jean-Léon Gérôme (One of her instructors, Professor Lemuel Wilmarth, was taught by Gérôme). According to Cox, the Gérôme principles "were based on study, thoroughness, and self-discipline" and her "grounding in the Gérôme tradition prevented my taking on the arty methods in vogue".
She left after two years to enroll with the Art Students League, partially supported by a friend of her mother, and studied under Thomas Dewing. She received a less traditional education at the League, which was unendowed and run by students. Some classes were held collaboratively by the students alone. During a student-led sketching class she quickly learned to interpret and understand forms, which she said "helped me in my later portrait painting of young, active children" Students sometimes dressed in mythic and historic costumes, which became the subject of her paintings.
It was at the Art Students League that Louise Cox met her art instructor and future husband, Kenyon Cox. Having a solid reputation at the League, Kenyon Cox was selected as the 1885 instructor for the women's life class. Her other instructors included J. Alden Weir, George de Forest Brush, and Charles Yardley Turner. She was considered an attractive, industrious student with a good sense of humor.
Career
Cox's first renowned painting was The Lotus Eaters, which was displayed at the National Academy of Design in 1887, the Paris Exposition in 1889, and with A Rondel at the Palace of Fine Arts at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois. In 1893 Cox displayed the painting, Psyche at an annual exhibition for the Society of American Artists. She was elected a member in the same year. The National Academy of Design awarded her the 1896 Third Hallgarten Prize for Pomona, and the 1904 Second Hallgarten Prize for The Sisters.
Beginning in 1896 Louise and Keynon Cox spent the summers with their children in the country's first major artist colony, the Cornish Art Colony in New Hampshire. At Cornish she made paintings of her children and local children, some of which were commissioned portraits.
She was elected an Associate of the National Academy of Design in 1902. She also became a member of the Woman's Art Club of New York.
She painted still life, ideal figures, and portraits but was best known for her portraiture of children. Her works are in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., High Museum of Art in Atlanta, Georgia, Smithsonian American Art Museum in Washington, D.C., and the National Academy of Design in New York, New York. Cox also carved wood and was a photographer. She was considered among the "outstanding stained-glass artists," such as Wright Goodhue, David Maitland Armstrong and William Willet.
Awards
1896 — Third Hallgarten prize of the National Academy of Design for Pamona
1900 — Bronze medal at the Paris Universal Exposition
1901 — Silver medal at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York
1903 — Julia Shaw Memorial prize from the Society of American Artists.
1904 — Silver medal from the St. Louis Exposition in 1904.
1904 — Second Hallgarten prize of the National Academy of Design.
Works
A Rondel, 1892, oil on canvas, High Museum of Art, Atlanta, Georgia
Allyn Cox, 1940, oil on canvas, National Academy of Design, New York, New York
Allyn Cox in Infancy, 1898, oil on canvas, National Academy of Design, New York, New York
Angiola, 1897
May Flowers, 1911, oil on canvas, 24 1/8 × 20 1/8 in. (61.2 × 51.0 cm), Smithsonian American Art Museum, Gift of William T. Evans
Mural Study, 1892, oil on canvas, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, District of Columbia
Pamona
Portrait of Leonard Cox, 1895, oil on canvas, 11 3/4 × 12 in. (29.8 × 30.5 cm), Smithsonian American Art Museum, Bequest of Allyn Cox
Portrait of a Young Girl, oil, Lagakos-Turak Gallery, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Portrait of Mrs. John Larkin, 1903
Portrait of the Artist's Daughter, oil on canvas, private collection
Psyche, 1893
The Fates, 1894
Untitled (Child with Sun Dial), , pencil on paper, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Bequest of Allyn Cox
Untitled (Draped Female Figure), , pencil on paper, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Bequest of Allyn Cox
(Untitled-nude female figure), , pencil on paper, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Bequest of Allyn Cox
Untitled (Seated Draped Female Allegorical Figure), , pencil on paper, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Bequest of Allyn Cox
Untitled (Seated Draped Female Figure, Profile), , pencil on paper, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Bequest of Allyn Cox
Untitled (Seated Young Girl), 1903, pencil and pastel on paper, 15 7/8 × 10 3/8 in. (40.2 × 26.5 cm), Smithsonian American Art Museum, Bequest of Allyn Cox
Untitled {Young Man with Lute}, , pencil on paper, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Bequest of Allyn Cox
References
Further reading
Sarah Burns; John Davis. American art to 1900: a documentary history. University of California Press; 2009. . pp. 842–843.
External links
1865 births
1945 deaths
Painters from San Francisco
National Academy of Design alumni
Art Students League of New York alumni
19th-century American painters
20th-century American painters
19th-century American women painters
20th-century American women painters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drago%20Jan%C4%8Dar
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Drago Jančar
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Drago Jančar (born 13 April 1948) is a Slovenian writer, playwright and essayist. Jančar is one of the most well-known contemporary Slovene writers. In Slovenia, he is also famous for his political commentaries and civic engagement. Jančar's novels, essays and short stories have been translated into 21 languages and published in Europe, Asia and the United States. The most numerous translations are into German, followed by Czech and Croatian translations. His dramas have also been staged by a number of foreign theatres, while back home they are frequently considered the highlights of the Slovenian theatrical season. He lives and works in Ljubljana.
Life
He was born in Maribor, an industrial center in what was then the Yugoslav Socialist Republic of Slovenia. His father, originally from the Prekmurje region, joined Slovene Partisans during World War II. Jančar studied law in his home town. While a student, he became chief editor of the student journal Katedra; he soon came in conflict with the Communist establishment because he published some articles critical of the ruling regime. He had to leave the journal. He soon found a job as an assistant at the Maribor daily newspaper Večer. In 1974 he was arrested by Yugoslav authorities for bringing to Yugoslavia a booklet entitled V Rogu ležimo pobiti (We Lie Killed in the Rog Forest), which he had bought in nearby Austria and lent to some friends. The booklet was a survivor's account of the Kočevski Rog massacres of the Slovene Home Guard war prisoners perpetrated by Josip Broz Tito's regime in May 1945. He was sentenced to a year's imprisonment for "spreading hostile propaganda" but was released after three months. Immediately after his release he was called up for military service in southern Serbia, where he was subjected to systematic harassment by his superiors due to his "criminal file".
After completing military service, Jančar briefly returned to Večer, but he was allowed to perform only administrative work. He decided to move to Ljubljana, where he came into contact with several influential artists and intellectuals who were also critical of the cultural policies of the Communist establishment, among them Edvard Kocbek, Ivan Urbančič, Alenka Puhar, Marjan Rožanc, and Rudi Šeligo. Between 1978 and 1980, he worked as a screenwriter in the film studio Viba Film, but he quit because his adaptation of Vitomil Zupan's script for Živojin Pavlović's movie See You in the Next War was censored. In 1981, he worked as a secretary for the Slovenska matica publishing house, where he is now an editor. In 1982, he was among the co-founders of the journal Nova revija, which soon emerged as the major alternative and opposition voice in Socialist Slovenia. He also befriended Boris Pahor, the Slovene writer from Trieste who wrote about his experience in the Nazi concentration camps. Jančar has frequently pointed out Pahor's profound influence on him, especially in the essay "The Man Who Said No" (1990), one of the first comprehensive assessments of Pahor's literary and moral role in the post-war era in Slovenia.
Early in his career, Jančar was not allowed to publish his works, but when Kardelj's and Tito's deaths in the late 1970s led to gradual liberalisation, he was able to work as a screenwriter and playwright. In the mid-1980s, he gained initial success with his novels and short stories, while his plays earned recognition throughout Yugoslavia. From the late 1980s on, his fame began to grow outside the country, especially in Central Europe.
Since the early 1990s, he has worked as an editor at the Slovenska matica publishing house in Ljubljana.
Work
Jančar started writing as a teenager. His first short novels were published by the magazine Mladina.
Jančar's prose is influenced by modernist models. One of the central themes of his works is the conflict between individuals and repressive institutions, such as prisons, galleys, psychiatric hospitals and military barracks. He is famous for his laconic and highly ironic style, which often makes use of tragicomic twists. Most of his novels explore concrete events and circumstances in Central European history, which he sees as an exemplification of the human condition.
He also writes essays and columns on the current political and cultural situation. During the war in Bosnia, he voiced his support for the Bosnian cause and personally visited the besieged Sarajevo to take supplies collected by the Slovene Writers' Association to the civilian population. In his essay "Short Report from a City Long Besieged" (Kratko poročilo iz dolgo obleganega mesta), he reflected on the war in Yugoslavia and the more general question of the ambiguous role of intellectuals in ethnic, national and political conflicts.
Throughout the 1990s, he engaged in polemics with the Austrian writer Peter Handke regarding the dissolution of Yugoslavia.
The public intellectual
Between 1987 and 1991 Jančar served as president of the Slovene PEN Center and through this role also actively supported the emergence of Slovenian democracy. In 1987, he was among the authors of the Contributions to the Slovenian National Program, a manifesto calling for a democratic, pluralistic and sovereign Slovenian state. During the Ljubljana trial in spring and summer 1988, he was one of the organizers of the first opposition political rally in Slovenia since 1945, which was held on the central Congress Square in Ljubljana. In the run-up to the first democratic elections in April 1990, Jančar actively campaigned for the oppositional presidential candidate Jože Pučnik. During the Slovenian War of Independence, he and several other writers helped rally international support for Slovenia's independence.
Since 1995, he has been a member of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts.
In 2000, Slovenia's most widely read daily newspaper, Delo, published his controversial essay "Xenos and Xenophobia", which accused the Slovenian liberal media of inciting xenophobia and Anti-Catholicism (Jančar himself is an agnostic). He had been accusing the liberal media of similar attitudes since 1994, when his essay "The Fleshpots of Egypt" blamed the media for having helped the rise of the chauvinistic Slovenian National Party.
Although Jančar has never actively participated in politics, he publicly supported the Slovenian Democratic Party during the general elections of 2000 and 2004.
In 2004, he was among the co-founders of the liberal conservative civic platform Rally for the Republic.
Awards and honors
1993: Prešeren Award (1993) for his narratives, plays and essays
1994: European Short Story Award (Augsburg)
1999: Kresnik Award for best novel of the year (for "Ringing In The Head", Zvenenje v glavi)
2001: Kresnik Award for best novel of the year (for "Catherine, The Peacock And The Jesuit", Katarina, pav in jezuit)
2003: Herder Prize for literature
2007: Jean Améry Prize for European essay-writing
2011: Kresnik Award for best novel of the year (for "I Saw Her That Night," To noč sem jo videl)
2011: European Prize for Literature
2021: Honorary Doctor of the University of Maribor
Selected bibliography
Novels
Petintrideset stopinj (1974). Thirty-Five Degrees
Galjot (1978). The Galley Slave, trans. Michael Biggins (2011).
Severni sij (1984). Northern Lights, trans. Michael Biggins (2001).
Pogled angela (1992). Angel's Gaze
Posmehljivo poželenje (1993). Mocking Desire, trans. Michael Biggins (1998).
Zvenenje v glavi (1998). Ringing in the Head
Katarina, pav in jezuit (2000). Katarina, the Peacock and the Jesuit
Graditelj (2006). The Builder
Drevo brez imena (2008). The Tree with No Name, trans. Michael Biggins (2014).
To noč sem jo videl (2010). I Saw Her That Night, trans. Michael Biggins (2016).
In ljubezen tudi (2017). And Love Itself
Ob nastanku sveta (2022). At the Creation of the World
Short story collections
Romanje gospoda Houžvičke (1971). The Pilgrimage of Houžvičke
O bledem hudodelcu (1978). About a Pale Criminal
Smrt pri Mariji Snežni (1985). Death at Mary of the Snows
Pogled angela (1992). The Look of an Angel
Augsburg in druge resnične pripovedi (1994). Augsburg and Other True Stories
Ultima kreatura (1995)
Prikazen iz Rovenske (1998). The Specter from Rovenska
Človek, ki je pogledal v tolmun (2004). The Man Who Looked into a Tarn
Joyce's Pupil (2006). Trans. Alasdair MacKinnon, Lili Potpara and Andrew Baruch Wachtel. Selections from Smrt pri Mariji Snežni, Pogled angela, Augsburg, Ultima kreatura, and others.
The Prophecy and Other Stories (2009). Trans. Andrew Baruch Wachtel. Selections from Smrt pri Mariji Snežni, Prikazen iz Rovenske, and Človek, ki je pogledal v tolmun.
Plays
Disident Arnož in njegovi (1982). Dissident Arnož and His Band
Veliki briljantni valček (1985). The Great Brilliant Waltz
Vsi tirani mameluki so hud konec vzeli ... (1986). All Mameluk Tyrants Had a Bad End...
Daedalus (1988)
Klementov padec (1988). Klement's Fall
Zalezujoč Godota (1988). Stakeout at Godot's, trans. Anne Čeh (1997).
Halštat (1994)
Severni sij (2005). Northern Lights
Niha ura tiha (2007). The Silently Oscillating Clock
Essays
Razbiti vrč (1992). The Broken Jug
Egiptovski lonci mesa (1994). The Fleshpots of Egypt
Brioni (2002)
Duša Evrope (2006). Europe's Soul
See also
List of Slovenian writers
Slovenian literature
Culture of Slovenia
Simona Škrabec
References
External links
Jean Améry-Prize to Drago Jančar
"Drago Jančar: Critical Observer of Society" (Article in Slovenia News)
Short Biography in the Journal Transcript (with picture)
dB, or a Brief History of Noise, essai by Drago Jančar January 2010
Writers from Maribor
Slovenian dramatists and playwrights
Slovenian novelists
Slovenian male short story writers
Slovenian short story writers
Slovenian essayists
Members of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts
1948 births
Living people
Prešeren Award laureates
Kresnik Award laureates
University of Maribor alumni
Members of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts
Herder Prize recipients
20th-century Slovenian writers
21st-century Slovenian writers
20th-century male writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weng%20Wenhao
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Weng Wenhao
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Weng Wenhao (26 July 1889 – 27 January 1971) was a Chinese geologist and politician. He was one of the earliest modern Chinese geologists, and is regarded as the founder of modern Chinese geology and the father of modern Chinese oil industry. From May to November 1948, Weng served as President of the Executive Yuan (Premier) of the Republic of China.
Life
Early years
He was born in 1889 in Cixi, Zhejiang in late Qing dynasty, and his courtesy name was Yongni (咏霓). His father was a local businessman.
In 1902, he earned the xiucai degree in the Imperial Examination at the age of only 13 He later studied at a French Catholic school in Shanghai.
He obtained his Doctor's degree on geology from the Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium, in 1912. He was the first Chinese person to hold a western Doctor's degree in geology.
ROC period
After returning to China in 1912, Weng served as Minister of Mine Industry and Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, in the Beiyang Government. He was a professor (and director from 1914) of the National Research Institute of Geography. Together with Ding Wenjiang, he founded the new National Geological Survey.
He was also a professor of geology in both Beijing University and Tsinghua University. He once was the head of the Department of Geography, Tsinghua University. In July 1931, he was appointed acting president of Tsinghua University.
In 1928, he assisted Canadian paleoanthropologist Davidson Black in the establishment of the Cenozoic Research Laboratory for the research and appraisal of Peking Man fossils unearthed at Zhoukoudian.
During the period of Central (Provisional) Military Government of the Republic of China, he served in the central government as the General Secretary of the Executive Yuan (13 December 1935 – 9 September 1937); the Minister of Industry (until 1 January 1938), Minister of Education (28 October 1932 – 21 April 1933), and the Minister of Economy (1 January 1938 – 1947).
Invited by Chiang Kai-shek, he served as the first president of the Executive Yuan of Nationalist Government (capital Nanjing) (25 May 1948 – 26 November 1948).
In March 1948, he was elected a founding member of Academia Sinica.
People's Republic of China
After the Chinese Civil War, he moved to Beijing and served in the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) with his longtime associate Qian Changzhao.
During the Cultural Revolution, he was specially protected by Zhou Enlai. In 1971, he died in Beijing.
Academic achievements & activities
One of the founders of modern Chinese geography;
Set up modern Chinese oil industry;
Studies of the Peking Man;
Studies of earthquake in China.
Family
He had four sons, the eldest one named (翁心源), was a famous petroleum engineer who was killed in the Cultural Revolution, the second oldest one named (翁心翰) was a Chinese Air Force pilot, and veteran of the Battle of Sichuan, who was killed later in the Second Sino-Japanese War/WWII.
The founder of Chinese modern geophysics - (翁文波), an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, is his cousin.
(翁心植), academician of Chinese Academy of Engineering, is his nephew.
Major works
Studies of Earthquakes in Gansu Procince (《甘肃地震考》)
A Brief Record of Minerals in China (《中国矿产志略》)
Literary Collection of Zhuizhi (《椎指集》)
Mourn for Mr. Ding Zai-Jun (《追悼丁在君先生》)
Earthquake (《地震》)
Quadrumana Fossils in China (《中国灵长类动物化石》)
The First Record on Chinese Mine Industry (《第一次中国矿业纪要》)
Paleozoic Plant Fossils in the Middle Part of Shanxi Province (《山西中部古生代植物化石》)
An Elementary Introduction to Earthquake (《地震浅说》)
Lectures on Geology (《地质学讲义》)
Further reading
Chronicle of Weng Wenhao, (《翁文灏年谱》), Oct. 2005
Weng Wenhao's Outstanding Contributions to Chinese Oil Industry, (《翁文灏的石油业绩》)
Selected Works of Weng Wenhao (《翁文灏选集》)
Fiskesjö, Magnus and Chen Xingcan. _China Before China: Johan Gunnar Andersson, Ding Wenjiang, and the Discovery of China's Prehistory / 中国之前的中国:安特生,丁文江,和中国史前史的发现_. Bilingual edition, in English and Chinese. Stockholm: MFEA monographs no. 15, 2004. .
Fiskesjö, Magnus. "Science across borders: Johan Gunnar Andersson and Ding Wenjiang." In: Stevan Harrell, Charles McKhann, Margaret Swain and Denise M. Glover, eds., _Explorers and Scientists in China's Borderlands, 1880-1950_. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2011, pp. 240–66. .
Shen, Grace Yen. _Unearthing the Nation: Modern Geology and Nationalism in Republican China._ Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014.
References
Bibliography
徐 (Xú), 露梅 (Lùméi). 隕落 (Fallen): 682位空军英烈的生死档案 - 抗战空军英烈档案大解密 (A Decryption of 682 Air Force Heroes of The War of Resistance-WWII and Their Martyrdom). 东城区, 北京， 中国: 团结出版社, 2016. .
1889 births
1971 deaths
20th-century Chinese heads of government
Catholic University of Leuven (1834–1968) alumni
20th-century Chinese geologists
Economic affairs ministers of the Republic of China
Educators from Ningbo
Academic staff of Fu Jen Catholic University
Members of Academia Sinica
People's Republic of China politicians from Zhejiang
Politicians from Ningbo
Premiers of the Republic of China
Vice Premiers of the Republic of China
Republic of China politicians from Zhejiang
Scientists from Ningbo
Henan Polytechnic University
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Шимон Каташек
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Шимон Каташек (Російська імперія — , Варшава, Генеральна губернія) — польський композитор, піаніст, аранжувальник, джазмен, піонер польського джазу.
Біографія
У 1910—1914 році навчався грі на фортепіано у варшавській консерваторії, але повний курс не закінчив. Під час навчання познайомився зі Зигмунтом Карасинським. Створив з ним дует, який спочатку виступав у варшавських кінотеатрах, потім давав виїзні концерти у Берліні та Парижі.
Під час Першої світової війни добровольцем вступив до польської військової організації, потім у Легіони польські. Через малолітній вік був відрахований з армії у 1915 році. Став заробляти тапером. Після окупації німцями Варшави у серпні 1915 року працював ресторанним музикантом. Після закінчення війни працював музикантом у Варшавському міському оркестрі, потім брав участь у боях під час радянсько-польської війни 1920—1921 років. Після закінчення війни у пошуках роботи переїхав до Вільного міста Данциг, потім до Берліна, звідки досить швидко повернувся до Польщі.
У 1922 році почав виступати у варшавському кафе-кабаре «Зем'янська». 29 листопада 1922 року почав виступати в джазовому квінтеті Зигмунта Карасинського у ресторані «Оаза». У середині 1924 року з цим квінтетом випустив перші платівки у видавництві Syrenie Record. У цей час видав перші власні твори. Спочатку гурт грав на дансингах у Театрі Сирена, потім під назвою «Jazz d'Or» у диксилендах у варшавських театрах-ревю «Морське Око», «Веселий Вечір» та «Перське Око», а також у Варшавській опері.
У 1925 році гурт переїхав до Кракова, де став виступати під назвою «Оркестр Карасинського та Каташека». У 1925—1926 роках гурт базувався у Кракові, виїжджаючи на джазові ревю до інших міст і курортів Польщі. З цим оркестром Каташек акомпанував у театральних ревю, розважальних закладах Кракова, Данцига, Сопота, у літні періоди на курортах. Часто виступали у «Будинку здоров'я» у Криниці. У 1928 році виступав у Трускавці.
У 1928 році, після концерту у Лодзінській філармонії, оркестр запросили для виступів як представника польської розважальної музики на Познанському міжнародному ярмарку 1928/29. Оркестр виступав у виставковому павільйоні-дансингу фірми Гартвіга та Канторовича. Був першим польським оркестром, який пропагував диксиленд і чиказький стиль джазу. Їх запрошували для виступів на приватних раутах, карнавальних вечорах, у будинках відомих сімейств Радзивілів, Потоцьких тощо. Також виступали на прийомах у посольствах, дипломатичних прийомах, казино.
У 1930 році поставив разом з оркестром музичне танцювально-комічне шоу у Café George у Варшаві. У 1931 році створив низку творів для соліста Адама Вінського (Астона) на замовлення варшавської філії видавництва Columbia. Виступав у радіопередачах, які пропагували польську літературу. У 1934 році за контрактом з видавництвом Lonora записали кілька танцювальних творів.
У 1930-х роках був директором музичної агенції при Громадському посередницькому бюро Профспілки музикантів Польської Республіки. Також був одним з найстаріших членів Артистичного товариства «ZAiKS».
У 1935 році оркестр вирушив у річне турне Європою та Близьким Сходом. Каташек, разом з Карасинським й оркестром з 12 виконавців, виїхав до Палестини. З початку березня проходили концерти спеціально створеної програми музичного ревю у Тель-Авіві. Потім пройшли виступи у Єгипті, Сирії, Дамаску, Лівані, Індії, Румунії, Болгарії та Греції. Турне отримало численні захоплені відгуки у світовій пресі, які підкреслювали польськість оркестру та його репертуару. Наприкінці 1936 року виступали на новорічному балу у закопанській «Ящірці». У час, що залишився до Другої світової війни, виступав у танцювальних залах «Tabarin» (Лодзь), «Bagatel» і «Casino de Paris» (обидва Львів), «Cyganeriya» (Краків). Грав на балах «Пані вдома», «Політехніка своїй Варшаві», «Грузинський бал».
У 1938 році Каташек організував у Варшаві Великий фестиваль легкої музики, участь в якому взяли десять найвідоміших польських джазових оркестрів, які налічували 80 музикантів.
Початок Другої світової війни Каташек зустрів у Львові. Після приєднання Західної України до СРСР керував розважальною програмою у клубі «Imperial». Коли почалася Велика Вітчизняна війна, Каташек не зміг евакуюватися на схід і повернувся до Варшави. Там його заарештували й ув'язнили у Варшавське гетто, де диригував оркестром при Службі дотримання порядку, який складався з 30 музикантів. Коли почалося висилання ув'язнених гетто до Белжеця та Треблінки, Каташек втік до Львова, де ховався на «арійській» стороні міста. Був упізнаний одним з офіцерів СС, який раніше служив у Варшавському гетто, і був ув'язнений до варшавської в'язниці Павяк. Розстріляно під час однієї з розправ ув'язнених Павяка.
Музика для кіно та постановок
Автор музики перших польських чарльстонів, фокстротів, шиммі-фоксів, вальс-бостонів, слоуфоксів.
У 1931 році написав музику до фільму Юліуша Гардана «Серце на вулиці». Бостон із цього фільму став шлягером.
У 1931 році у співавторстві з Тадеушем Горжинським написав пісні та музику до фільму Олександра Форда «Легіон вулиці».
У 1932 році написав у співавторстві із Зигмунтом Карасинським музику до пригодницького фільму Вацлава Серафіновича «Остання витівка».
У 1933 році написав у співавторстві із Зигмунтом Карасинським музику до першої польської музичної кіно оперети Мечислава Кравіча та Януша Варнецького «Кожен може кохати».
Написане ним у 1932 році танго «Czemuś o mnie zapomniał» отримало першу нагороду на музичному конкурсі, організованому в театрі «Morskie Oko» фірмою «Syrene Record» та Спілкою сценічних авторів і композиторів.
У 1931 році він виступав як диригент оркестру 1-го полку шеволеджерів при виконанні створеного ним на честь генерала Болеслава Веняви-Длугошовського «Великого маршу».
Його пісні виконували, серед інших, такі відомі артисти, як-от: Адам Астон, хор «Дана», Мечислав Фогг, Адольф Димша, Люцина Мессаль, Нора Ней, Зула Погоржельська, Міра Зіміньська й інші.
Твори
1929 — «Suchard» танго. Співавтор — . Слова — Януш Сьмеховский.
1929 — «Don Fernando». Співавтор — Зигмунт Карасинський. Слова — Анджей Власт.
1930 — «Wielki marsz» урочистий фінал ревю «Tańcowały dwa Michały» у театрі «Wesoły Wieczór». Слова — Ян Бжехва. Аранжування — Владислав Эйгер.
1930 — «Szkarłatna róża» вальс-бостон. Слова — Анджей Власт.
1931 — «Zapuszcza brodę» слоуфокс з ревю «Румба-румба» у театрі «Wesołe-Oko». Слова — Ян Бжехва.
1931 — «Serce na ulicy» вальс-бостон з фільму . Слова — Конрад Том.
1931 — «Jeden raz…» вальс-бостон. Слова — Януш Варнецький.
1931 — «Citroën» слоуфокс. Співавтор — Зигмунт Карасинський. Слова — Віктор Фредвальд.
1932 — «Czemuś o mnie zapomniała» танго. Співавтор — Зигмунт Карасинський. Слова — Анджей Власт.
1932 — «Twe oczy piwne». Слова — .
1932 — «Tango Lopka» танго. Слова — Анджей Власт.
1932 — «Nim pocałujesz mnie…» вальс. Слова — .
1932 — «Przy stoliku w Ziemiańskiej» танго. Співавтор — Зигмунт Карасинський. Слова — Людвик Шмарагд.
1932 — «Na to jest Ciechocinek» танго. Автор музики — Зигмунт Карасинський. Слова — Шимон Каташек.
1932 — «Na bezludnej wyspie» гавайський вальс. Співавтор — Зигмунт Карасинський. Слова — Ян Станіслав Лаврусевич.
1933 — «Wiosna» танго. Слова — Людвик Шмарагд.
1933 — «Już więcej nic nie pragnę» танго. Слова — Ежи Риба.
1933 — «Ourson» фокстрот. Слова — Віктор Фредвальд.
1933 — «Czemuś o mnie zapomniał?» танго. Слова — Анджей Власт. Аранжування — .
1934 — «Twe usta kłamią…» танго. Слова — Анджей Власт.
1934 — «Jeżeli kochać, to tylko ciebie!» танго. Слова — Людвик Шмарагд.
1934 — «To tango jest dla mojej matki» танго. Слова — .
1934 — «O donna Marja!» танго. Слова — Вітольд Рихтер.
1935 — «Chcę właśnie Ciebie» танго. Слова — Фелікс Себастьян.
1937 — «Złota pieśń» вальс-канцона. Слова — . Аранжування — Іво Весбі.
? — «Na falach Brdy» вальс. Співавтор — Зигмунт Карасинський.
? — «Chevroletka zgrabna jak kobietka» фокстрот. Співавтор — Зигмунт Карасинський. Слова — Анджей Власт.
? — «A ile mi dasz?» шимми-фокс. Слова — Анджей Власт.
? — «Spotkamy się na Nowym Świecie!» шимми-фокс. Співавтор — Зигмунт Карасинський. Слова — Анджей Власт.
? — «O Dolores!» фокстрот. Соавтор — Зигмунт Карасинський. Слова — Анджей Власт. Аранжування — Генрик Варс.
? — «Abram, ja ci zagram» фокстрот. Співавтор — Зигмунт Карасинський. Слова — Юліан Тувім.
? — «Czy pamiętasz tę noc w Zakopanem» танго. Співавтор — Зигмунт Карасинський. Слова — .
? — . Співавтор — Зигмунт Карасинський. Слова — Анджей Власт.
? — «Witaj Warszawo». Слова — Людвик Шмарагд.
Примітки
Посилання
Члени Польської Організації Військової
Вояки Леґіонів Польських
Жертви Голокосту
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point%20guard
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Point guard
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Point guard
The point guard (PG), also called the one or the point, is one of the five positions in a regulation basketball game. A point guard has perhaps the most specialized role of any position and is usually the shortest player on the court. Point guards are expected to run the team's offense by controlling the ball and making sure that it gets to the right player at the right time. Above all, the point guard must understand and accept their coach's game plan; in this way, the position can be compared to the position of quarterback in gridiron football. They must also be able to adapt to what the defense is allowing and must control the pace of the game.
A point guard specializes in certain skills, like other player positions in basketball. Their primary job is to facilitate scoring opportunities for their team, or sometimes for themselves. Lee Rose has described a point guard as a coach on the floor, who can handle and distribute the ball to teammates. This typically involves setting up plays on the court, getting the ball to the teammate in the best position to score and controlling the tempo of the game. Generally, a point guard should always look out for teammates and have the ability to pass well. A point guard should know when and how to instigate a fast break and initiate the more deliberate sets. Point guards are expected to be vocal floor leaders, with situational awareness of the shot clock and game clock times, the score, the number of remaining timeouts for both teams and more.
Magic Johnson won the National Basketball Association Most Valuable Player Award (MVP) three times in his career, the most for a point guard in NBA history. Stephen Curry and Steve Nash have each been named the league MVP twice. Other NBA point guards with wins include Bob Cousy, Oscar Robertson, Allen Iverson, Derrick Rose and Russell Westbrook. Since 1969, Johnson and Curry are the only point guards to win the NBA MVP, Finals MVP and All-Star Game MVP awards in their careers. Notable point guards of the WNBA include five-time champion Sue Bird, her Olympic teammate Diana Taurasi (the only two basketball players of either gender to earn five Olympic gold medals for basketball) and Courtney Vandersloot. In the NBA, point guards generally range from to whereas in the WNBA, point guards are usually or shorter. Having above-average size (height, muscle) is considered advantageous, although size is secondary to situational awareness, speed, quickness and ball-handling skills. At the shortest player in NBA history, Muggsy Bogues played 889 games in a 14-year career as a point guard.
After the opponent scores, it is typically the point guard who brings the ball down the court to begin an offensive play. Passing skills, ball handling and court vision are crucial. Speed is important; a speedy point guard is better able to create separation and space off the dribble, giving themselves room to work. Point guards are often valued more for their assist totals than for their scoring. John Stockton holds the all time NBA record for assists. Another major evaluation factor is the assist-to-turnover ratio, which reflects the decision-making skills of the player. Given the evolved nature of basketball in the modern day, a first-rate point guard is also required to have a reasonably effective jump shot.
Offense
The point guard is positioned on the perimeter of the play to have the best view of the action, which is crucial because of their leadership obligations. Announcers often refer to the point guard as a "coach on the floor" or a "floor general." These nicknames were particularly true in the past, as several point guards, such as Lenny Wilkens, served their teams as player-coaches. This practice is rare now, as most coaches specialize in their role. Some point guards have great leeway in the offense though they are still extensions of their coach on the floor and must display good leadership skills.
Along with leadership and general basketball acumen, ball-handling is an important skill for a point guard. Generally speaking, the point guard is often the player in possession of the ball and is responsible for maintaining its possession. Point guards must be able to maintain possession of the ball in crowded spaces and be able to advance it quickly. A point guard with enough ball-handling skill and quickness to drive to the basket in a half-court set is also very valuable and considered by some to be a must for a successful offense.
After ball-handling, the most important areas of the game for a point guard are passing and scoring. As the primary decision-maker for a team, a point guard's passing ability determines how well a point guard can put their decision into play. It is one thing to be able to recognize the player that is in a tactically advantageous position. Still, it is another thing entirely to be able to deliver the ball to that player. For this reason, a point guard is usually, but not always, more skilled and focused on passing than shooting. However, a good jump shot and the ability to score off a drive to the basket are still valuable skills. Point guards often use their scoring ability to augment their effectiveness as decision-makers and playmakers.
In addition to the traditional role of the point guard, modern teams have found new ways to utilize the position. Notably, several modern point guards have used a successful style of post-play, a tactic usually practiced by much larger centers and forwards. Exploiting the fact that the opposing point guard is often an undersized player with limited strength, several modern point guards have developed games close to the basket that include being able to utilize the drop step, spin move and fade-away jump shot.
In recent years, the sport's shift from a fundamental style of play to a more athletic, scoring-oriented game resulted in the proliferation of so-called combo guards at the point guard position. More explosive and athletic point guards focus on scoring instead of play-making, forgoing assists, ball movement and often defense for higher scoring numbers. Young players who are relatively short are now developing the scoring aspects of their skill sets, whereas previously, these players would find it difficult to enter the NBA without true point guard skills. These combo point guards can surprise defenses. Instead of passing after bringing up the ball, they quickly drive to the basket or step back for an outside shot. There are some disadvantages to this style of play. A point guard often controls the offense and who gets the ball, as this type of controlling style of play is necessary to maintain the tempo of a game. Scoring point guards typically look to score first, thus preventing teammates from getting the ball and excluding them from the offense. Even so, combo guards still require above-average passing skills, but not as much as "pure" point guards (in the traditional sense).
Defense
A defensive point guard primarily plays on the perimeter, just like an offensive one. Their goal is to make the opposing point guard as ineffective as possible. A defensive point guard will try to accomplish this with constant pressure on the ball, making it difficult to maintain possession. A defensive point guard will also pressure opponents in passing lanes to generate steals and scoring opportunities for their team.
Current NBA point guards known for their defensive prowess include Jrue Holiday, Mike Conley Jr., Marcus Smart, Patrick Beverley and Chris Paul.
See also
Bob Cousy Award – An annual award given to the nation's top NCAA male point guard
Nancy Lieberman Award – The counterpart to the Cousy Award; given to the top NCAA female point guard
Point forward – when a forward assumes the point guard duties
References
The Basketball Handbook (pg 14) (2004). Lee H. Rose
External links
, accessed February 9, 2008
Basketball positions
Basketball terminology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst-Wilhelm%20Reinert
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Ernst-Wilhelm Reinert
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Ernst-Wilhelm Reinert (2 February 1919 – 5 September 2007) was a German Luftwaffe military aviator during World War II, a fighter ace credited with 174 enemy aircraft shot down in 715 combat missions. The majority of his victories were claimed over the Eastern Front, with 51 in the Mediterranean theatre and 20 over the Western Front. He was "ace-in-a-day" four times, shooting down five or more aircraft on a single day.
Born in Cologne-Lindenthal, Reinert volunteered for military service in the National Socialist Luftwaffe in 1938. Following flight training, he was posted to Jagdgeschwader 77 (JG 77—77th Fighter Wing). He fought in Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, and claimed his first aerial victory on 8 August 1941. He received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross following his 53rd aerial victory. Accumulating further victories, he surpassed the century mark in October 1942 for which he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves. In November 1942, his unit was transferred to the Mediterranean theatre in support of the Afrika Korps. There, Reinert claimed 51 victories against the Western Allies. In August 1943, he was appointed Staffelkapitän (squadron leader) of 3. Staffel (3rd squadron) of JG 77, and in February 1944 the 8. Staffel of Jagdgeschwader 27 (JG 27—27th Fighter Wing) based in France. Reinert was then appointed Gruppenkommandeur (group commander) of IV. Gruppe (4th group) of JG 27 and, credited with 174 aerial victories, received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords on 30 January 1945. He then received conversion training to the then new Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter and was posted to Jagdgeschwader 7 (JG 7—7th Fighter Wing), an all-jet fighter wing.
In 1956, Reinert joined the newly established German Air Force of West Germany. He retired in 1972, his final rank was Oberstleutnant (lieutenant colonel), and died on 5 September 2007 in Bad Pyrmont.
Early life and career
Ernst-Wilhelm Reinert was born 2 February 1919 in Cologne-Lindenthal, at the time in the Rhine Province of the Free State of Prussia. He was the son of an executive secretary with the Deutsche Reichsbahn (German Reich Railway). After attending school in Leverkusen-Schlebusch, he completed his vocational education as a metalworker. With the beginning of his vocational education, Reinert learned to fly glider aircraft with the National Socialist Flyers Corps (NSFK), completing his A, B and C-license for glider aircraft.
Following the compulsory Reichsarbeitsdienst (Reich Labour Service), Reinert volunteered for military service of Nazi Germany with the Luftwaffe in early 1938. Eight days after joining, he was discharged on medical grounds which required an operation. In January 1939, he was admitted to the Reichsschule für Motorflug (motor powered flight school of the Reich) at Bielefeld where he attained his A/2 license. On 14 April 1939, Reinert was called back into the Luftwaffe, at first serving with a Fliegerausbildungsregiment (flight training regiment), and received three months of recruit training. He was then trained as a fighter pilot at various flight and fighter pilot schools.
World War II
World War II in Europe had begun on Friday, 1 September 1939, when German forces invaded Poland. On 1 December 1940, Reinert was promoted to Unteroffizier (corporal). At the time he was based in Bordeaux, France with the Ergänzungsgruppe, a supplementary training unit, of Jagdgeschwader 77 (JG 77—77th Fighter Wing). This unit was tasked with patrolling the Atlantic coast.
Eastern Front
On 14 June 1941, Reinert was transferred to II. Gruppe (2nd group) of JG 77 where he was assigned to 4. Staffel (4th squadron). With this unit, he participated in Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union, which marked the beginning of the Eastern Front on 22 June 1941. JG 77, augmented by I.(J)./Lehrgeschwader 2 (LG 2—2nd Demonstration Wing), primary role in Operation Barbarossa was to support the German advance as part of Army Group South. During this campaign, Reinert was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class on 31 July 1941. A week later, at 13:42 on 8 August 1941, he was credited with his first aerial victory, a Polikarpov I-16 fighter. On 28 September 1941, he received the Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Fighter Pilots in Gold, at the time he was credited with 16 aerial victories. One day later, he received the Iron Cross 1st Class.
II. Gruppe, which was scheduled for replenishment and conversion to the Bf 109 F-4 in Germany, flew its last mission of 1941 following the Battle of Rostov on 2 December northeast of Rostov. The next day, the unit began relocating to Germany, first to Schweidnitz, present-day Świdnica, and then to Vienna-Aspern. On 7 February 1942, Reinert was awarded the Honour Goblet of the Luftwaffe for 24 victories. Shortly after this, Reinert was transferred west in support of Operation Donnerkeil. The objective of this operation was to give the German battleships and and the heavy cruiser fighter protection in the breakout from Brest to Germany. The Channel Dash operation (11–13 February 1942) by the Kriegsmarine (Navy) was codenamed Operation Cerberus by the Germans. In support of this, the Luftwaffe under the leadership of General der Jagdflieger (General of the Fighter Force) Adolf Galland, formulated an air superiority plan dubbed Operation Donnerkeil for the protection of the three German capital ships. Following this assignment, Reinert was transferred back to II. Gruppe still based at Vienna-Aspern. On 11 March 1942, II. Gruppe began transferring back to the Eastern Front, first stop was Proskurov, present-day Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine. On 15 March, they reached Bukarest before they reached Sarabus, present-day Hwardijske, located north of Simferopol on the Crimean peninsula on 17 March 1942. At the time, 4. Staffel was commanded by Oberleutnant (first lieutenant) Heinrich Setz while II. Gruppe was led by Hauptmann Anton Mader.
On 19 March, Reinert claimed three Soviet aircraft including two Petlyakov Pe-2s. On 3 May, Reinert claimed two Polikarpov I-153 fighters belonging to 9 IAP/VVS-ChF (Black Sea Fleet). By June Reinert had become one of leading aces in JG 77 with Anton Hackl and Setz. Reinert was promoted to Feldwebel (staff sergeant) on 1 May 1942 and after 44 aerial victories, he received the German Cross in Gold on 18 May 1942.
On 9 June, Reinert claimed three victories for his 49th to 51st. On this day, JG 77 was involved in dogfights over the besieged city of Sevastopol. Reinert engaged the 3rd OAG (Osobaya Aviatsionnaya Gruppa—Special Aviation Group) ChF and 6 GIAP ChF. He claimed a Polikarpov I-16 for his 49th victory. On 1 July 1942, after 53 aerial victories, Reinert received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross which was presented to him by II. Gruppes commander Mader. Reinert shot down 26 Soviet aircraft in July 1942. On 14 July 1942, the day Reinert claimed three Bell P-39 Airacobras shot down, he crashed his Bf 109 F-4 (Werknummer 13 117—factory number) during the landing at Kastornoje. The aircraft was 70% destroyed and he sustained minor injuries. On 26 July, he was again wounded in a flying accident. His Bf 109 F-4 (Werknummer 8280—factory number) had technical problems, the engine caught fire. This forced Reinert to bail out over friendly territory and resulted in a broken arm. A period in hospital followed. Reinert returned to the front in September. On 16 September, 4./JG 77 bounced a formation of Ilyushin Il-2 ground-attack aircraft south-east of Voronezh and Reinert claimed two shot down.
On 3 October 1942, Reinert passed the century mark with four claims. He was the 27th Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark. That day, the Rotte, a pair of aircraft, Reinert and his wingman Unteroffizier Rudolf Flindt had been ordered to fly from Stary Oskol to Kursk with the plan to intercept the daily Soviet reconnaissance aircraft. During the takeoff, the German airfield came under attack by a flight of Soviet Il-2 ground-attack aircraft escorted by Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-3 and Lavochkin-Gorbunov-Gudkov LaGG-3 fighter aircraft. Reinert shot down two Il-2s before his 20 mm MG 151/20 cannon jammed. This forced him to continue the fight with only his two MG 131 machine guns operationally. Reinert managed to shoot down two further aircraft, two MiG-3s claimed at 14:17 and 14:20. In this encounter, Flindt was credited with two aerial victories. At the time, Reinert was also credited with the destruction of 14 aircraft on the ground in addition to the 103 aerial victories. On 6 October, he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves. Reinert, together with Alfred Druschel, Johannes Steinhoff, Günther Rall and Max Stotz received the Oak Leaves from Adolf Hitler personally on 4 November 1942. A flying ace or fighter ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down five or more enemy aircraft during aerial combat. Reinert was only the second Feldwebel in the Luftwaffe to receive the award, after Gerhard Köppen.
North Africa
In early 1941, the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW—Supreme Command of the Armed Forces) had sent an expeditionary force, to North Africa to support the Regio Esercito Italiano (Royal Italian Army) fighting in the North African Campaign. As intensity of combat increased, the OKW committed additional military forces to the Mediterranean theatre. First elements of JG 77 had already been committed to this theatre in February 1942. The Axis defeat at the Second Battle of El Alamein (23 October—4 November 1942) and the 8 November 1942 Operation Torch landings had pushed the Axis out of Morocco, Algeria, Egypt and Libya into Tunisia. On 10 November 1942, Reinert's II. Gruppe was also withdrawn from the Eastern Front and began relocating to North Africa. On 5 December 1942, the Gruppenstab (headquarters unit), 4. and 6. Staffel arrived at Zazur, west of Tripoli, Libya. During the relocation, II. Gruppe stopped at Munich for two weeks. There, Reinert got in trouble with the authorities and was briefly confined to quarters for not properly saluting an elderly senior officer.
Reinert was thrust into aerial combat in this final phase of the North African Campaign—the Battle of Tunisia. On 2 January 1943 Reinert claimed two P-40s from No. 250 Squadron RAF while escorting Tactical Reconnaissance Hurricanes from 40 Squadron SAAF. His wingman Unteroffizier Weidlich claimed the other. Pilot Officer S. Holland, Flight Sergeant Graham and Sergeant J. H . Baron were the casualties—they were reported as prisoner of war, safe but wounded in action and killed in action respectively. Five days later on 7 January, II./JG 77 engaged and shot down three Spitfires while the RAF claimed two Bf 109s destroyed and damaged. Two of the No. 92 Squadron RAF pilots can be identified—Flight Sergeant Broomhall was killed and Sergeant Patterson parachuted to safety. On 11 January Reinert claimed four victories over Spitfires and a single P-40. In this battle Franz Hrdlicka also claimed a Spitfire. Reinert misidentified his first three opponents who were all P-40s from the 64th and 65th Fighter Squadrons of the US 57th Fighter Group. On 17 January B-17 Flying Fortress' from the US 97th Bombardment Group and escorted by P-38 Lightnings from the US 1st Fighter Group crossed into Tunisia from airfields in Algeria. JG 77 and Italian fighters intercepted. Reinert shot down the P-38 flown by Lieutenant Burton Weil. On 20 January 1943 Reinert shot down a Curtiss P-40 Warhawk piloted by Lieutenant Richard Kimball of the 65th Fighter Squadron who was taken prisoner of war. Reinert claimed again on 6 February. He attacked a formation of No. 112 Squadron RAF P-40s and claimed two as they attacked artillery and motor transport near Ras Agadir. Sergeant R. Le Cours was shot down and another P-40 was badly damaged. On 23 February Reinert claimed two Spitfires. The first was probably Sergeant S. G. T. Twine of No. 152 Squadron RAF.
The Axis won a series of offensive successes at Sidi Bou Zid and the Kasserine Pass in February 1943. A confident Erwin Rommel ordered the 5th Panzer Army under Hans-Jürgen von Arnim to begin operation Ochsenkopf on 26 February. The Royal Air Force (RAF) Desert Air Force responded by attacking all known German and Italian airfields in the region to deny the Axis air support for the offensive. JG 77 were involved in large-scale air battles and claimed 26 P-40s for nine losses and two pilots killed. Heinrich Bär claimed five and Reinert was credited with four in one mission. Their opponents were from the 7 SAAF Wing. The South African unit records confirm 14 losses. JG 77 claimed 13 of them. The following day II./JG 77 bounced 12 P-40s attacking German airfields and Reinert claimed two for his 123rd and 124th victories. A further three fell to other pilots. On 7 March JG 77 engaged Spitfires over the Mareth Line. Heinz-Edgar Berres, Bär and two other pilots shot down a Spitfire. In the afternoon, Reinert claimed a brace of Spitfires west of Medenine. The latter was probably over a No. 145 Squadron RAF pilot.
On 1 March B-26 Marauders and P-38 Lightnings attacked the bridge at La Hencha. Reinert claimed one Marauder and two of the escorting P-38s. Three B-26s were lost. In the morning of the 13 March Reinert claimed two P-39s. In fact they were P-40s from the 57th Fighter Group which lost four The American unit involved in the air battles was the US 57th Fighter Group escorted by Spitfires from 244 Wing RAF. Among the losses were Major Robert F. Worley, commanding the 314th Fighter Squadron was shot down but evaded capture and reached American lines. Major Archie Knight, the 57th Fighter Group operations officer, was also shot down. He also evaded capture by swimming undercover of darkness and reaching British lines. Lieutenant William E. Jenks and Robert Douglas of the 314th Fighter Squadron were also shot down: the latter was captured and the former was killed. In the afternoon Geschwaderkommodore (wing commander) Joachim Müncheberg led I./JG 77 over Gabès. On this sortie, Reinert claimed four victories, after Müncheberg ordered them to attack some low-flying United States Army Air Force (USAAF) P-39 Airacobras while returning to base. Eight of the P-39s were claimed shot down in 12 minutes. The claims were Reinert's 132nd–135th. The 81st Fighter Group confirmed the loss of seven P-39s, despite the escort of the 31st Fighter Group's Spitfires. The P-39s were from the 91st and 93rd Squadrons. The Spitfires were from 307 and 308 Squadron. Nine American fighters were lost in total: Lieutenants Murray, Turkington, Smith, Leech, McCreight and Lewis from the 93rd and Lyons from the 91st. Another pilot was captured. Only Murray returned alive from the group.
On 26 March Reinert accounted for Sergeant J. H. D. Herberte. Herberte had been flying with Spitfire Vs and IXs of No. 145 Squadron RAF when they were attacked by II./JG 77. It appears this was the only loss. The Germans lost one pilot killed also. Three days later, on 29 March 1943, Reinert claimed two USAAF P-40s and his wingman Unteroffizier Funke claimed another. II./JG 51's Oberleutnant Rammelt claimed his 20th victory. JG 77 lost three pilots over the airfield when P-40s attacked low-flying Bf 109s—Rudolf Fischer, Ewald Bleul and Gunter Schimmelpfennig were killed. Reinert's victims were from the US 79th Fighter Group. Captain Kenneth D. Boggs was killed, Lieutenant Harlan E. Highfield was captured and the third pilot escaped to Allied lines. On 30 March Siegfried Freytag led I./JG 77 against USAAF bombing raids. The Bf 109s engaged the US 52nd Fighter Group, which was escorting 18 A-20 Havoc bombers from the 47th Bombardment Group en route to attacking La Fauconnerie. Reinert claimed two bombers before the P-40s claimed two German fighters. Reinert became an officer when he was promoted to Leutnant (second lieutenant) on 1 April 1943.
On 1 April Reinert became an "ace in a day". In the morning he claimed three Spitfires from the US 31st Fighter Group, specifically the 308th and 309th Fighter Squadrons. Lieutenant O'Brien, Juhnke and Strole were killed. Three Bf 109s were damaged. A further two claims were made against the US 52nd Fighter Group. Lieutenant Edwin Boughton was killed. Other Spitfires may have force-landed but American records generally list only those that caused the death of a pilot. On 4 April, JG 77 engaged in a day of heavy air combat with the new commanding officer Johannes Steinhoff and lost three pilots. Steinhoff and Reinert claimed one and three respectively: Steinhoff's claim was against a Spitfire in the afternoon. Reinert's opponents were P-40s from the US 33rd Fighter Group. Fredrick W. Mayo Jr, James H. Raddin and Alfred J. Schmidt were captured on this date. Mayo and Schmidt were shot down by Reinert. The next day Operation Flax began an intensive aerial offensive against Axis transport aircraft and airfields. On 16 April Reinert's 4. Staffel with 2. and 3./JG 77 formed a 15-strong fighter escort for 13 Italian Savoia-Marchetti SM.82 transports. No. 145 Squadron RAF led by Wing Commander Ian Gleed intercepted the mixed Axis force over Cape Bon. The Germans failed to protect the Italians and seven transports were shot down along with Bf 109 (Werknummer 16 485), "White 9" and its pilot Leutnant Rüdiger. JG 77 claimed four Spitfires—one for Bär and Berres. Reinert also claimed a victory, recorded as a P-51 Mustang. Gleed, who was killed in action that day along with his wingman, flew a clipped-wing Spitfire LF. Vb coded IR-G and Reinert mistook the unusual Spitfire for a Mustang.
Three days later, on 19 April, Reinert claimed another P-51. Once more, this was probably a misidentified clipped-wing Spitfire. The identity of this victory was either Lieutenant Maurice Langberg who was killed or Second Lieutenant Edwin C. Smithers who was captured. The pilots belonged to the 2nd and 4th Fighter Squadrons of the 52nd Fighter Group which claimed four German fighters. It may have also been Warrant Officer Williams of No. 608 Squadron RAF. The victory was Reinert's 150th of the war. By the 25 April 1943 the Axis front was collapsing. On this day Reinert led an attack on USAAF P-39s from the 350th Fighter Group. Reinert claimed one and the Americans lost five. Captain Howes and Lieutenant O'Connor were killed. In the afternoon he claimed the Spitfire J17616 flown by Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) Warrant Officer Bruce Edward Anderson, with 145 Squadron. Anderson died of wounds.
On 6 May Axis forces held a narrow strip of territory on the coast near Tunis. The acute fuel shortages forced German fighters to operate in pairs. JG 77 lost two pilots killed. At 10:55 Reinert claimed his 153rd victory over a Spitfire. Only III./JG 77 claimed a further victory. On 8 May JG 77 decided to evacuate its headquarters from Korobus airfield. Reinert took off in a Bf 109 sitting on the lap of Leutnant Zeno Bäumel and carrying 4. Staffels chief mechanic Oberfeldwebel Walter inside the fuselage. On the flight to Sicily Reinert spotted and attacked a Grumman F4F Wildcat "Martlet" which crashed into the sea.
Air war over Italy
On 8 May 1943, JG 77 evacuated from Tunisia to various airfields in Sicily while I. Gruppe was sent to Munich. The original intent was to give the Geschwader a period of rest. On 11 May, II. Gruppe moved from Trapani to the Italian mainland at Foggia for replenishment. After a month of rest, on 19 June 1943, the Gruppe relocated back to Trapani. In June and early July the USAAF and British and Commonwealth Air Forces, after initial resistance, attained air superiority. At this time the Mediterranean Air Command had 146 American and 121 British and Commonwealth squadrons available and in range of Sicily. The Axis had 838 operational aircraft including 434 Sicily-based fighter and fighter bomber–aircraft.
By 15 June 1943, some 19 main airfields with 12 minor airstrips were available. Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder ordered all-out attacks to destroy Axis aviation in and over Sicily. On 10 July 1943 Operation Husky began and by 18 July only 25 German fighters remained. Allied air power had completely bombed-out the Axis air forces. JG 77, which formed part of the ad hoc Jagdgruppe Vibo Valentia, lost the last of its fighters when 80 German and Italian aircraft were destroyed in one attack on 16 July, eliminating the fighter group. By 20 July I. and II./JG 77 had been pulled out of Sicily to Calabria, on the mainland, where Reinert continued to fly combat sorties over Sicily.
Reinert claimed his first aerial victory in Sicily on 7 August. Two P-40s shot down at 11:45 and 11:54 respectively, took his total of aerial victories to 156. On 13 August 1943, a flight of six Bf 109s from I. Gruppe and nine Bf 109s from II. Gruppe took off at 09:45 on an escort mission for five Dornier Do 217 from Kampfgeschwader 100 which were on an anti-shipping mission. On this mission, the flight encountered 25 to 30 P-40s north coast of Sicily. Reinert shot down three P-40's and his Bf 109 G-6 (Werknummer 20 380—factory number) was hit in the radiator forcing him to ditch in the sea north of Milazzo. Reinert nearly drowned and was shot at by Italian soldiers before he returned to his unit on 14 August. The campaign ended with the Axis withdrawal on 17 August. Reinert claimed two P-40s the following day.
On 7 September 1943, I. Gruppe lost the Staffelkapitän (squadron leader) of 3./JG 77 Oberleutnant Gerhard Strasen who was wounded in combat. In consequence, Reinert was transferred from II. Gruppe to I. Gruppe, replacing Strasen as Staffelführer, acting squadron leader. Reinert served in this position until 1 December 1943, when he was officially appointed as Staffelkapitän of 3./JG 77.
Defence of the Reich
In April 1944, Reinert was posted to Jagdgeschwader 27 (JG 27—27th Fighter Wing), at first flying with 1. Staffel from an airfield at Fels am Wagram in Defence of the Reich. At 13:39 on 24 April, he claimed the final destruction of an already damaged Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bomber. That day, the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) with a force of 754 heavy bombers, escorted by 867 fighter aircraft, targeted German aircraft manufacturing and airfields in Southern Germany. On 13 May 1944, Reinert was appointed Staffelkapitän of 12. Staffel of JG 27. Command had been transferred from Oberleutnant Franz Stigler who took command of 8. Staffel of JG 27. On 1 August 1944, Reinert was promoted to Oberleutnant.
JG 27 was transferred in June to the invasion front, flying over Caen and claiming a P-47 Thunderbolt on 27 June. Two further victories over Normandy followed, although Reinert was injured on 17 June and 5 July. On 1 August, IV. Gruppe was withdrawn from the Invasion front. They relocated to Champfleury-la-Perthe, an airfield approximately south of Reims, before they arrived in Hustedt, present-day part of Celle, for a period of replenishment and refitting. In mid-August, the JG 27 expanded its Gruppen by a fourth Staffel. In consequence, 12. Staffel was renamed to 14. Staffel and received factory new Bf 109 G-14 aircraft.
Group commander and end of war
On 1 January 1945, JG 27 participated in Operation Bodenplatte, a Luftwaffe mass attack against Allied airfields in the Benelux area. The operation resulted in hundreds of aircraft losses on both sides and was an operational failure of the Luftwaffe. JG 27, augmented by VI. Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 54, was ordered to attack the airfield at Brussels-Melsbroek. IV. Gruppe of JG 27, led by Hauptmann Heinz Dudeck, took off from Achmer shortly before 08:30. During the attack, IV./JG 27 made five strafing attacks on Brussels-Melsbroek, claiming multiple aircraft destroyed. IV./JG 27 did not suffer any casualties over the target area. However, on the return flight to Achmer, three aircraft were shot down, including Dudeck who was taken prisoner of war. On 5 January 1945, Reinert succeeded Dudeck as Gruppenkommandeur (group commander) of VI. Gruppe.
In Reinert's first month of command, VI. Gruppe saw little action in January 1945, largely due to the relatively bad weather conditions in Germany. On 23 January, one Bf 109 was lost in combat with P-51s near Lengerich, otherwise no claims nor losses were recorded. Reinert, together with Erich Hartmann, Werner Schröer, Günther Rall and others, was posted to a group commanders training course at Königsberg, present-day Chojna in western Poland. On 1 February 1945, he received a telegram announcing that he had been awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords. The presentation was made by the commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe, Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring at the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM—Ministry of Aviation) in Berlin on 23 February 1945. At the same time, Reinert was promoted to Hauptmann, the promotion backdated to 1 January 1945.
In March 1945, the increasing Allied air superiority forced JG 27 to abandon its bases at Achmer and Rheine. On 18 March, it was decided to relocate JG 27 further east, to airfields in the vicinity of Lippstadt. On 21 March and prior to its relocation, VI. Gruppe was annihilated at Achmer by an attack of 180 Consolidated B-24 Liberator bombers of the USAAF Eighth Air Force which destroyed 37 of the 38 remaining Bf 109 on the ground. On 31 March, it was decided to disband VI. Gruppe. It was not possible to replenish the unit with new aircraft. The majority of its personnel were assigned to various Fallschirmjäger and infantry units destined to fight in the Battle of Berlin.
On 23 March 1945, Reinert had been transferred to I. Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 7 (JG 7—7th Fighter Wing) for conversion training to the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter. The Gruppe was commanded by Major Wolfgang Späte and at the time based at Brandenburg-Briest. Reinert did not fly any combat missions on the Me 262. Before the end of World War II in Europe, the unit relocated multiple times, from Berlin to Prague, to Lagerlechfeld, to Munich–Holzkirchen, Plattling and to Mühldorf. There, on 8 May 1945, he was taken prisoner of war by US forces.
Later life
In September 1945, Reinert was released from US captivity and pursued a career in business as an industrial sales representative. On 1 April 1956, he reentered military service in the Bundeswehr as an Hauptmann in the West German Air Force, at the time referred to as the Bundesluftwaffe. Following various training courses, he was appointed Staffelkapitän of the 2. Staffel of Jagdbombergeschwader 31 "Boelcke" (JaBoG 31—Fighter-Bomber Wing 31), named after the World War I fighter pilot Oswald Boelcke and at the time under the command of Oberstleutnant (Lieutenant Colonel) Gerhard Barkhorn. The unit was initially equipped with the Republic F-84F Thunderstreak and based at the Nörvenich Air Base. On 19 January 1959, JaBoG 31 became the first German Air Force wing to be assigned to NATO. On 1 March 1959, Reinert was promoted to Major.
For the next four years, Reinert commanded the flying elements of Jagdbombergeschwader 35 (JaBoG 35—Fighter-Bomber Wing 35), at the time under the command of Oberstleutnant Karl Henze. JaBoG 35 existed from 1959 to 1966 and was then reformed as Leichtes Kampfgeschwader 41 (LeKG 41—Light-Bomber Wing 41). Reinert then served as staff officer with the 3. Luftwaffendivision (3rd Luftwaffe Division) and as chief of the air-ground firing range at the Sylt Air Base near Westerland. On 1 March 1971, he was promoted to Oberstleutnant. His final posting was to the Luftflottenkommando (Air Force Forces Command) at Köln-Wahn where he served as a staff officer. Reinert retired from military service on 30 September 1972.
Reinert then became a certified Heilpraktiker, a healing practitioner, in Bad Pyrmont. Until his deteriorating health prohibited otherwise, he continued to fly civil aircraft as hobby. He died on 5 September 2007 in Bad Pyrmont.
Summary of career
Aerial victory claims
According to US historian David T. Zabecki, Reinert was credited with 174 aerial victories. Obermaier also lists Reinert with 174 enemy aircraft shot down in 715 combat missions, of which 103 were claimed over the Eastern Front, with 51 in the Mediterranean theatre and 20 over the Western Front. On 60 ground attack missions, he was also credited with the destruction of 16 aircraft, 10 tanks and 6 locomotives. Mathews and Foreman, authors of Luftwaffe Aces – Biographies and Victory Claims, researched the German Federal Archives and found records for 168 aerial victory claims, plus nine further unconfirmed claims. This figure includes 103 aerial victories on the Eastern Front and 65 over the Western Allies, including two four-engine bomber.
Victory claims were logged to a map-reference (PQ = Planquadrat), for example "PQ 35364". The Luftwaffe grid map covered all of Europe, western Russia and North Africa and was composed of rectangles measuring 15 minutes of latitude by 30 minutes of longitude, an area of about . These sectors were then subdivided into 36 smaller units to give a location area in size.
Awards
Wound Badge in Silver
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Fighter Pilots
in Gold (28 September 1941)
in Gold with Pennant (18 March 1943)
Combined Pilots-Observation Badge
Iron Cross (1939)
2nd Class (31 July 1941)
1st Class (29 September 1941)
Honour Goblet of the Luftwaffe (Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe) on 16 February 1942 as Unteroffizier and pilot
German Cross in Gold on 18 May 1942 as Unteroffizier in the II./Jagdgeschwader 77
Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords
Knight's Cross on 1 July 1942 as Unteroffizier and pilot in the 4./Jagdgeschwader 77
131st Oak Leaves on 7 October 1942 as Feldwebel and pilot in the 4./Jagdgeschwader 77
130th Swords on 1 February 1945 as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 12./Jagdgeschwader 27
Dates of rank
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
1919 births
2007 deaths
Military personnel from Cologne
German World War II flying aces
Military personnel from the Rhine Province
Luftwaffe pilots
Recipients of the Gold German Cross
Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords
German prisoners of war in World War II held by the United States
German Air Force pilots
Reich Labour Service members
National Socialist Flyers Corps members
Heilpraktiker
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3492763
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%94%D0%B2%D0%B0%20%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F%20%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%96%D1%97%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0
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Бахметєва Софія Андріївна
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Бахметєва Софія Андріївна
Софія Андріївна Бахметєва (у першому шлюбі Міллер, у другому графиня Толстая; 1827, село Смольково, Пензенська губернія — 1895, Лісабон) — дружина письменника Олексія Костянтиновича Толстого. Підтримувала знайомство з багатьма відомими діячами мистецтв свого часу — Іваном Тургенєвим, Федором Достоєвським, Афанасієм Фетом, Володимиром Соловйовим та іншими. Тітка відомого філософа і поета Д. М. Цертелєва.
Дитинство і юність
Батько — Андрій Миколайович Бахметєв.
Попри те, що народилася 1827 року в провінції, була дуже освіченою та мала допитливий розум. Знала чотирнадцять іноземних мов. Багато читала, поглинала новинки європейської літератури й уважно стежила за вітчизняною літературою.
У молоді роки мала роман з князем Григорієм Миколайовичем В'яземським, внаслідок якого завагітніла. Мати Бахметєвої висунула звинувачення князю, суть яких полягала в тому, що той затягував час з одруженням з її донькою. Князя викликали на дуель. В результаті дуелі, що відбулась 1847 року в Петровському-Розумовському, загинув брат Софії, Юрій.
А 29 лютого 1848 року, поза шлюбом, народилась дочка, Софія Бахметєва. Щоб уникнути чуток, дитину оформили як племінницю, дочку брата Петра.
Перший шлюб
Після смерті брата Софія Андріївна Бахметєва не змогла стриматись, коли її звинувачували у його смерті. Вона покинула родовий маєток Смольково і поспішно вийшла заміж за Лева Міллера — племінника Катерини Львівни Толстої, яка була матір'ю Федора Івановича Тютчева. Лев — блискучий офіцер-кавалергард, однак це не принесло щастя Софії. Подружжя довго жили окремо і вони мало спілкувалися між собою.
Роман з Олексієм Толстим
У січні 1851 року Софія Міллер познайомилася на маскараді у Большому театрі з Іваном Тургенєвим і графом Олексієм Толстим. Софія Андріївна була в масці і заінтригувала Тургенєва, тому вони домовилися про повторне побачення. Іван Сергійович взяв з собою мовчазного Толстого за компанію.
Побачивши Софію без маски, Тургенєв був сильно розчарований. Пізніше він скаже:
<poem><blockquote>
«Що ж я тоді побачив? ...
...Лице чухонського солдата в спідниці! »</poem>
Незважаючи на некрасиве обличчя, у неї була гарна фігура і, крім того, вона була досить привабливою і товариською. За словами сучасника, Софія Андріївна " була живим доказом, що чарівність не потребує краси. Риси обличчя її достоїнством не були, але розумні очі і розумний теж золотий голос придавали найменшому її слову щось особливо захоплююче". Пізніше відбулася приємна бесіда за чаєм, в ході якої Тургенєв занудьгував, а Олексій Костянтинович, навпаки, був зачарований. Незабаром він присвятив їй наступні рядки:<blockquote>
Серед гамірного балу, випадково, У тривозі мирської суєти, Тебе я побачив, але таємниця
Твої покривала риси.
Пізніше ці рядки лягли в основу знаменитого романсу Петра Чайковського.
Однак, поки Олексій Костянтинович складав романтичні вірші і писав їй листи, у Софії трапився пристрасний роман з Дмитром Григоровичем під час поїздки до Саратова. Скоро до Толстого дійшли неприємні чутки. Він одразу ж зібрався і поїхав до Смольково, в маєток Бахметєвих, для того щоб вимагати пояснень. Спокійно вислухавши Олексія Костянтиновича, Софія розповіла йому історію всього свого життя. Гнів Толстого змінився на ніжність, і він зрозумів, що він та людина, яка позбавить її від поганого минулого і подарує сімейне щастя. Але проти шлюбу була мати Толстого, яка вважала Софію жахливою жінкою, і чоловік, який не давав їй розлучення…
Вони зустрічалися зрідка, таємно. Лише коли під час Кримської війни Толстой захворів на тиф, Софія, не криючись, приїжджала виходжувати його.
Нарешті, після смерті матері Олексія Костянтиновича, через 12 років після знайомства вони обвінчалися в Дрездені, в грецькій церкві.
Життя в шлюбі з Олексієм Толстим
Спочатку життя у молодят складалася щасливо і гармонійно. Толстой ніколи не ревнував дружину до минулого, він тільки безмежно беріг її.
«Бідне дитя, з тих пір, як ти кинута в життя, ти знала тільки бурі і грози… Мені важко навіть слухати музику без тебе. Я ніби через неї зближуються з тобою!»
Але Софія Андріївна не могла все життя залишатися тихою, скромною дружиною. Вона нудьгувала. Взимку нудьгувала в Європі, демонструючи розкішне життя. А влітку нудьгувала в маєтку. Кликала Олексія Костянтиновича на прізвище: «Які дурниці ти говориш, Толстой!» Він її дратував. Вона не вважала за потрібне приховувати від нього, що ставить Івана Тургенєва як письменника набагато вище.
Це дуже засмучувало Олексія Костянтиновича і відбивалося на його здоров'ї. Його мучили головні болі, астма, невралгія. Хтось порадив йому знімати біль морфіном. Пізніше це і привело до крнчини — 1875 року він помер від передозування.
Подальші роки життя і смерть
Після похорону чоловіка Софія Андріївна переїждхала до Петербурга. У себе в вітальні вона влаштувала літературний салон, де регулярно збиралися письменники, поети і впливові люди. На одному з таких вечорів вона зав'язала романтичне знайомство з Федором Достоєвським, і він став її частим гостем, до самої його смерті в 1881 році.
Решту життя Софія Андріївна багато подорожувала і померла 1895 року в Лісабоні. За заповітом її перепоховали в маєтку Червоний Ріг, поруч з Олексієм Костянтиновичем.
Примітки
Примітки
Виноски
Посилання
Софія Міллер на сайті www.peoples.ru .
Господині салонів
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29971322
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX%20CRS-1
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SpaceX CRS-1
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SpaceX CRS-1, also known as SpX-1, was SpaceX's first operational cargo mission to the International Space Station, under their Commercial Resupply Services (CRS-1) contract with NASA. It was the third flight for the uncrewed Dragon cargo spacecraft, and the fourth overall flight for the company's two-stage Falcon 9 launch vehicle. The launch occurred on 8 October 2012 at 00:34:07 UTC.
History
In May 2012, it was reported that the Falcon 9 had been transported to Cape Canaveral (CCAFS). The Dragon CRS-1 arrived on 14 August 2012. On 31 August 2012, a wet dress rehearsal (WDR) was completed for the Falcon 9, and on 29 September 2012, a static fire test was completed; both of these tests were completed without the Dragon capsule attached to the launch vehicle stack. The mission passed its Launch Readiness Review (LRR) on 5 October 2012.
The launch occurred on 8 October 2012 at 00:34:07 UTC and successfully placed the Dragon spacecraft into the proper orbit for arriving at the International Space Station with cargo resupply several days later. During the launch, one of the nine engines suffered a sudden loss of pressure 79 seconds into the flight, and an immediate early shutdown of that engine occurred; debris could be seen in the telescopic video of the night launch. The remaining eight engines fired for a longer period of time and the flight control software adjusted the trajectory to insert Dragon into a near-flawless orbit.
Mission timeline
Flight day 1, launch (8 October 2012)
The mission plan, as published by NASA before the mission, called for the Falcon 9 to reach supersonic speed at 70 seconds after liftoff, and pass through the area of maximum aerodynamic pressure, "max Q" — the point when mechanical stress on the launch vehicle peaks due to a combination of the velocity and resistance created by the Atmosphere of Earth — 10 seconds later. The plan called for two of the first-stage engines to shut down to reduce the launch vehicle's acceleration at approximately 2 minutes 30 seconds into the flight when the Falcon 9 would nominally be high and traveling at 10 times the speed of sound. The remaining engines were planned to cut off shortly after — an event known as main-engine cutoff (MECO). Five seconds after MECO, the first and second stages separate. Seven seconds later, the second stage's single Merlin vacuum engine was projected to ignite to begin a 6-minute, 14-second burn to put Dragon into low Earth orbit. Forty seconds after second-stage ignition, Dragon's protective nose cone, which covers Dragon's berthing mechanism, was planned to be jettisoned. At the 9-minute 14-second mark after launch, the second-stage engine was scheduled to cut off (SECO). Thirty-five seconds later, Dragon was planned to separate from Falcon 9's second stage and reach its preliminary orbit. The dragon would, per plan, then deploy its solar panels and open its guidance and navigation control (GNC) bay door which holds the sensors necessary for rendezvous and Dragon's grapple fixture.
Flight day 2 (9 October)
The mission plan called for the Dragon spacecraft to perform a coelliptic burn that would place it in a circular coelliptic orbit.
Flight day 3 (10 October)
As Dragon chased the International Space Station (ISS), the spacecraft established Ultra high frequency (UHF) communications using its COTS Ultra-high-frequency Communication Unit (CUCU). Also, using the crew command panel (CCP) on board the station, the expedition crew monitored the approach. This ability for the crew to send commands to Dragon is important during the rendezvous and departure phases of the mission.
During the final approach to the station, a go/no-go was performed by Mission Control Houston and the SpaceX team in Hawthorne to allow Dragon to perform another engine burn that brought it from the station. At this distance, Dragon began using its close-range guidance systems, composed of LIDAR and thermal imagers. These systems confirmed that Dragon's position and velocity are accurate by comparing the LIDAR image that Dragon receives against Dragon's thermal imagers. The Dragon flight control team in Hawthorne, with assistance from the NASA flight control team at the Johnson Space Center's International Space Station Flight Control Room, commanded the spacecraft to approach the station from its hold position. After another go/no-go was performed by the Houston and Hawthorne teams, Dragon was permitted to enter the Keep-Out Sphere (KOS), an imaginary sphere drawn around the station that reduces the risk of collision. Dragon proceeded to a position from the station and was automatically held. Another go/no-go was completed. Then Dragon proceeded to the position — the capture point. A final go/no-go was performed, and the Mission Control Houston team notified the crew they were go for the capture of Dragon.
At that point, Expedition 33 crewmember Akihiko Hoshide of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency used the station's robotic arm, known as Canadarm2, reached for and grappled the Dragon spacecraft at 10:56 UTC. Hoshide, with the help of Expedition 33 Commander Sunita Williams of NASA, guided Dragon to the Earth-facing side of the station's Harmony module. Williams and Hoshide swapped places and Williams gently berthed Dragon to Harmony's Common Berthing Mechanism at 13:03 UTC. The opening of the hatch between Dragon and the Harmony module, which was originally not scheduled to occur until 11 October 2012, was moved up and occurred at 17:40 UTC.
Remainder of mission (11 to 28 October)
Over a period of two and a half weeks, the ISS crew unloaded Dragon's payload and reloaded it with cargo for return to Earth.
After its mission at the orbital laboratory was completed, newly arrived Expedition 33 Flight Engineer Kevin Ford used the Canadarm2 robotic arm to detach Dragon from Harmony, maneuver it out to the release point, and release the vehicle. The Dragon then performed a series of three burns to place it on a trajectory away from the station. Approximately six hours after Dragon departed the station, it conducted a deorbit burn, which lasted up to 10 minutes. It takes about 30 minutes for Dragon to reenter in the Earth's atmosphere, allowing it to splashdown in the Pacific Ocean, about off the coast of southern California. The Dragon's trunk, which contains its solar arrays, have then be jettisoned.
The landing was controlled by automatic firing of its Draco thrusters during the atmospheric reentry. In a carefully timed sequence of events, dual drogue parachutes deploy at an altitude of to stabilize and slow the spacecraft. The full deployment of the drogues triggers the release of the three main parachutes, each in diameter, at about . While the drogues detach from the spacecraft, the main parachutes further slow the spacecraft's descent to approximately . Even if Dragon were to lose one of its main parachutes, the two remaining chutes would still permit a safe landing. The Dragon capsule is expected to land in the Pacific Ocean, about off the coast of southern California. SpaceX uses a boat equipped with an A-frame and an articulating crane, a crew boat for telemetry operations, and two rigid-hull inflatable boats to perform recovery operations. Onboard are approximately a dozen SpaceX engineers and technicians as well as a four-person dive team. Once the Dragon capsule splashed down, the recovery team secured the vehicle and then placed it on deck for the journey back to shore.
SpaceX technicians opened the side hatch of the vehicle and retrieved the time-critical items. The critical cargo items were placed on a fast-boat for the trip back to California for eventual return to NASA that then took care of the precious science cargo and handle the post-flight analysis of the samples. The rest of the cargo was unloaded once the Dragon capsule reached SpaceX's test facility in McGregor, Texas.
Payload
Primary payload
When launched the CRS-1 Dragon was filled with about of cargo, without packaging. Included was of crew supplies, of critical materials to support the 166 experiments on board the station and 66 new experiments, as well as of hardware for the station as well as other miscellaneous items.
The Dragon returned of cargo, without packaging. Included was of crew supplies, of scientific experiments and experiment hardware, of space station hardware, of spacesuit equipment and of miscellaneous items.
Secondary payload
For some months prior to the launch, a prototype second-generation Orbcomm-G2 satellite was planned to be launched as a secondary payload from Falcon 9's second stage. Although the secondary payload made it to the Dragon insertion orbit, an engine anomaly on one of the nine engines on the Falcon 9 first stage during the ascent resulted in automatic engine shutdown and a longer first-stage burn on the remaining eight engines to complete orbital insertion while subsequently increasing use of propellant over the nominal mission.
The primary payload contractor, NASA, requires a greater-than-99% estimated probability that the stage of any secondary payload on a similar orbital inclination to the International Space Station will reach their orbital altitude goal above the station. Due to the engine failure, the Falcon 9 used more propellant than intended, reducing the success probability estimate to approximately 95%. Because of this, the second stage did not attempt a second burn, and Orbcomm-G2 was left in an unusable orbit and burned up in Earth's atmosphere within 4 days after the launch.
Both SpaceX and Orbcomm were aware, prior to the mission, of the high risk that the secondary payload satellite could remain at the lower altitude of the Dragon insertion orbit, and that was a risk that Orbcomm agreed to take given the dramatically lower cost of launch for a secondary payload.
Launch attempts
Falcon 9 engine anomaly
During the ascent, 79 seconds after launch, an engine anomaly occurred with one of the nine engines on the Falcon 9 first stage. SpaceX has emphasized for several years that the Falcon 9 first stage is designed for "engine out" capability, with the capability to shut down one or more malfunctioning engines and still make a successful ascent. In the event, the SpaceX CRS-1's first stage shut down Engine no. 1, and as a result continued the first-stage burn on the remaining eight engines longer than usual at a somewhat reduced thrust to insert the Dragon spacecraft into the proper orbit. Although unintended, this was the first inflight demonstration of Falcon 9's "engine out" design, and "provides a clear demonstration of the engine out capability".
In response to the anomaly, NASA and SpaceX jointly formed the CRS-1 Post-Flight Investigation Board. Preliminary information from the post-flight review board indicates that the Engine no. 1 fuel dome, above the nozzle, ruptured but did not explode. The burning fuel that exited before the engine was shut down caused the fairing rupture, as seen in the flight video recordings. Subsequent investigations revealed in a Congressional hearing pinpointed the issue as a result of an undetected material flaw in the engine chamber jacket, likely introduced during engine production. During flight, the data suggests this material flaw ultimately developed into a breach in the main combustion chamber. This breach released a jet of hot gas and fuel in the direction of the main fuel line causing a secondary leak and ultimately a rapid drop in engine pressure. As a result, the flight computer commanded shutdown of Engine no. 1 and Falcon 9 continued on its path to ensure Dragon's entry into orbit for subsequent rendezvous and berthing with the ISS.
See also
List of Falcon 9 launches
References
External links
SpaceX CRS-1 NASA page
SpaceX CRS-1 Mission Press Kit (4 October 2012)
Video of Static Fire test. YouTube (spacexchannel)
Video of Launch. YouTube (spacexchannel)
Video of Approach, Grappling and Berthing of Dragon. YouTube (ReelNASA)
Video of Hatch Opening. YouTube (NASA TV)
Video of Dragon Splashdown. YouTube (spacexchannel)
SpaceX Dragon
Spacecraft launched in 2012
Spacecraft which reentered in 2012
SpaceX payloads contracted by NASA
Supply vehicles for the International Space Station
Articles containing video clips
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330102
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20learning%20theory
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Social learning theory
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Social learning theory
A social behavior theory which proposes that new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others. Albert Bandura is known for studying this theory. It states that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement. In addition to the observation of behavior, learning also occurs through the observation of rewards and punishments, a process known as vicarious reinforcement. When a particular behavior is rewarded regularly, it will most likely persist; conversely, if a particular behavior is constantly punished, it will most likely desist. The theory expands on traditional behavioral theories, in which behavior is governed solely by reinforcements, by placing emphasis on the important roles of various internal processes in the learning individual.
History and theoretical background
In the 1940s, B. F. Skinner delivered a series of lectures on verbal behavior, putting forth a more empirical approach to the subject than existed in psychology at the time. In them, he proposed the use of stimulus-response theories to describe language use and development, and that all verbal behavior was underpinned by operant conditioning. He did however mention that some forms of speech derived from words and sounds that had previously been heard (echoic response), and that reinforcement from parents allowed these 'echoic responses' to be pared down to that of understandable speech. While he denied that there was any "instinct or faculty of imitation", Skinner's behaviorist theories formed a basis for redevelopment into Social Learning Theory.
At around the same time, Clark Leonard Hull, an American psychologist, was a strong proponent of behaviorist stimulus-response theories, and headed a group at Yale University's Institute of Human Relations. Under him, Neal Miller and John Dollard aimed to come up with a reinterpretation of psychoanalytic theory in terms of stimulus-response. This led to their book, Social Learning and Imitation, published in 1941, which posited that personality consisted of learned habits. They used Hull's drive theory, where a drive is a need that stimulates a behavioral response, crucially conceiving a drive for imitation, which was positively reinforced by social interaction and widespread as a result. This was the first use of the term 'social learning', but Miller and Dollard did not consider their ideas to be separate from Hullian learning theory, only a possible refinement. Nor did they follow up on their original ideas with a sustained research program.
Julian B. Rotter, a professor at Ohio State University, published his book, Social Learning and Clinical Psychology in 1954. This was the first extended statement of a comprehensive social learning theory. Rotter moved away from the strictly behaviorist learning of the past, and considered instead the holistic interaction between the individual and the environment. Essentially he was attempting an integration of behaviorism (which generated precise predictions but was limited in its ability to explain complex human interactions) and gestalt psychology (which did a better job of capturing complexity but was much less powerful at predicting actual behavioral choices). In his theory, the social environment and individual personality created probabilities of behavior, and the reinforcement of these behaviors led to learning. He emphasized the subjective nature of the responses and effectiveness of reinforcement types. While his theory used vocabulary common to that of behaviorism, the focus on internal functioning and traits differentiated his theories, and can be seen as a precursor to more cognitive approaches to learning.
Rotter's theory is also known as expectancy-value theory due to its central explanatory constructs. Expectancy is defined as the individual's subjectively held probability that a given action will lead to a given outcome. It can range from zero to one, with one representing 100% confidence in the outcome. For example, a person may entertain a given level of belief that they can make a foul shot in basketball or that an additional hour of study will improve their grade on an examination. Reinforcement value is defined as the individual's subjective preference for a given outcome, assuming that all possible outcomes were equally available. In other words, the two variables are independent of each other. These two variables interact to generate behavior potential, or the likelihood that a given action will be performed. The nature of the interaction is not specified, though Rotter suggests that it is likely to be multiplicative. The basic predictive equation is:
Where:
BP = Behavior Potential
E = Expectancy
RV = Reinforcement Value
Although the equation is essentially conceptual, it is possible to enter numerical values if one is conducting an experiment. Rotter's 1954 book contains the results of many such experiments demonstrating this and other principles.
Importantly, both expectancies and reinforcement values generalize. After many experiences ('learning trials', in behaviorist language) a person will develop a generalized expectancy for success in a domain. For example, a person who has played several sports develops a generalized expectancy concerning how they will do in an athletic setting. This is also termed freedom of movement. Generalized expectancies become increasingly stable as we accumulate experience, eventually taking on a trait-like consistency. Similarly, we generalize across related reinforcers, developing what Rotter termed need values. These needs (which resemble those described by Henry Murray) are another major determinant of behavior. Generalized expectancies and needs are the major personality variables in Rotter's theory. The influence of a generalized expectancy will be greatest when encountering novel, unfamiliar situations. As experience is gained, specific expectancies are developed regarding that situation. For example, a person's generalized expectancy for success in sports will have less influence on their actions in a sport with which they have long experience.
Another conceptual equation in Rotter's theory proposes that the value of a given reinforcer is a function of the expectancy that it will lead to another reinforcing outcome and the value set upon that outcome. This is important because many social reinforcers are what behaviorists term secondary reinforcers – they have no intrinsic value, but have become linked with other, primary, reinforcers. For example, the value set on obtaining a high grade on an examination is dependent on how strongly that grade is linked (in the subjective belief system of the student) with other outcomes – which might include parental praise, graduation with honors, offers of more prestigious jobs upon graduation, etc. – and the extent to which those other outcomes are themselves valued.
Rotter's social learning theory also generated many suggestions for clinical practice. Psychotherapy was largely conceptualized as expectancy modification and, to some extent, as values modification. This may be seen as an early form of cognitive-behavioral therapy.
In 1959, Noam Chomsky published his criticism of Skinner's book Verbal Behavior, an extension of Skinner's initial lectures. In his review, Chomsky stated that pure stimulus-response theories of behavior could not account for the process of language acquisition, an argument that contributed significantly to psychology's cognitive revolution. He theorized that "human beings are somehow specially designed to" understand and acquire language, ascribing a definite but unknown cognitive mechanism to it.
Within this context, Albert Bandura studied learning processes that occurred in interpersonal contexts and were not, in his view, adequately explained either by theories of operant conditioning or by existing models of social learning. Bandura began to conduct studies of the rapid acquisition of novel behaviors via social observation, the most famous of which were the Bobo doll experiments (1961-63).
In their 1963 book Social Learning and Personality Development, Bandura and Richard Walters argued that "the weaknesses of learning approaches that discount the influence of social variables are nowhere more clearly revealed than in their treatment of the acquisition of novel responses." Skinner's explanation of the acquisition of new responses relied on the process of successive approximation, which required multiple trials, reinforcement for components of behavior, and gradual change. Rotter's theory proposed that the likelihood of a behavior occurring was a function of the subjective expectancy and value of the reinforcement. According to Bandura, this model did not account for a response that had not yet been learned – though this contention does not address the likelihood that generalization from related situations would produce behaviors in new ones.
Bandura went on to write the book Social Learning Theory in 1977.
Bandura's Social Learning Theory (1977)
Social Learning Theory integrated behavioral and cognitive theories of learning in order to provide a comprehensive model that could account for the wide range of learning experiences that occur in the real world. As initially outlined by Bandura and Walters in 1963, the theory was entirely behavioral in nature; the crucial element that made it innovative and increasingly influential was its emphasis upon the role of imitation. Over the years, however, Bandura shifted to a more cognitive perspective, and this led to a major revision of the theory in 1977. At this time, the key tenets of Social Learning Theory were stated as follows:
Learning is not purely behavioral; rather, it is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context.
Learning can occur by observing a behavior and by observing the consequences of the behavior (vicarious reinforcement).
Learning involves observation, extraction of information from those observations, and making decisions about the performance of the behavior (observational learning or modeling). Thus, learning can occur without an observable change in behavior.
Reinforcement plays a role in learning but is not entirely responsible for learning.
The learner is not a passive recipient of information. Cognition, environment, and behavior all mutually influence each other (reciprocal determinism).
Observation and direct experience
Typical stimulus-response theories rely entirely upon direct experience (of the stimulus) to inform behavior. Bandura opens up the scope of learning mechanisms by introducing observation as a possibility. He adds to this the ability of modeling – a means by which humans "represent actual outcomes symbolically". These models, cognitively mediated, allow future consequences to have as much of an impact as actual consequences would in a typical S-R theory. An important factor in Social Learning Theory is the concept of reciprocal determinism. This notion states that just as an individual's behavior is influenced by the environment, the environment is also influenced by the individual's behavior. In other words, a person's behavior, environment, and personal qualities all reciprocally influence each other. For example, a child who plays violent video games will likely influence their peers to play as well, which then encourages the child to play more often.
Modeling and underlying cognitive processes
Social Learning Theory draws heavily on the concept of modeling as described above. Bandura outlined three types of modeling stimuli:
Live models, where a person is demonstrating the desired behavior
Verbal instruction, in which an individual describes the desired behavior in detail and instructs the participant in how to engage in the behavior
Symbolic, in which modeling occurs by means of the media, including movies, television, Internet, literature, and radio. Stimuli can be either real or fictional characters.
Exactly what information is gleaned from observation is influenced by the type of model, as well as a series of cognitive and behavioral processes, including:
Attention – in order to learn, observers must attend to the modeled behavior. Experimental studies have found that awareness of what is being learned and the mechanisms of reinforcement greatly boosts learning outcomes. Attention is impacted by characteristics of the observer (e.g., perceptual abilities, cognitive abilities, arousal, past performance) and characteristics of the behavior or event (e.g., relevance, novelty, affective valence, and functional value). In this way, social factors contribute to attention – the prestige of different models affects the relevance and functional value of observation and therefore modulates attention.
Retention – In order to reproduce an observed behavior, observers must be able to remember features of the behavior. Again, this process is influenced by observer characteristics (cognitive capabilities, cognitive rehearsal) and event characteristics (complexity). The cognitive processes underlying retention are described by Bandura as visual and verbal, where verbal descriptions of models are used in more complex scenarios.
Reproduction – By reproduction, Bandura refers not to the propagation of the model but the implementation of it. This requires a degree of cognitive skill, and may in some cases require sensorimotor capabilities. Reproduction can be difficult because in the case of behaviors that are reinforced through self-observation (he cites improvement in sports), it can be difficult to observe behavior well. This can require the input of others to provide self-correcting feedback. Newer studies on feedback support this idea by suggesting effective feedback, which would help with observation and correction improves the performance on participants on tasks.
Motivation – The decision to reproduce (or refrain from reproducing) an observed behavior is dependent on the motivations and expectations of the observer, including anticipated consequences and internal standards. Bandura's description of motivation is also fundamentally based on environmental and thus social factors, since motivational factors are driven by the functional value of different behaviors in a given environment.
Evolution and cultural intelligence
Social Learning Theory has more recently applied alongside and been used to justify the theory of cultural intelligence. The cultural intelligence hypothesis argues that humans possess a set of specific behaviors and skills that allow them to exchange information culturally. This hinges on a model of human learning where social learning is key, and that humans have selected for traits that maximize opportunities for social learning. The theory builds on extant social theory by suggesting that social learning abilities, like Bandura's cognitive processes required for modeling, correlate with other forms of intelligence and learning. Experimental evidence has shown that humans overimitate behavior compared to chimpanzees, lending credence to the idea that we have selected for methods of social learning. Some academics have suggested that our ability to learn socially and culturally have led to our success as a species.
In neuroscience
Recent research in neuroscience has implicated mirror neurons as a neurophysiology basis for social learning, observational learning, motor cognition and social cognition. Mirror neurons have been heavily linked to social learning in humans. Mirror neurons were first discovered in primates in studies which involved teaching the monkey motor activity tasks. One such study focused on teaching primates to crack nuts with a hammer. When the primate witnessed another individual cracking nuts with a hammer, the mirror neuron systems became activated as the primate learned to use the hammer to crack nuts. However, when the primate was not presented with a social learning opportunity, the mirror neuron systems did not activate and learning did not occur. Similar studies with humans also show similar evidence to the human mirror neuron system activating when observing another person perform a physical task. The activation of the mirror neuron system is thought to be critical for the understanding of goal directed behaviors and understanding their intention. Although still controversial, this provides a direct neurological link to understanding social cognition.
In social work
In social work, some theories can be taken from many disciplines, such as criminology and education. Even though social learning theory comes from psychology, this theory can also be applied to the study of social work. Social learning theory is important in social work because of the observation of others. For example, if a child watches their sibling do their daily routine they are more likely going to want to copy the routine step by step. Feedback and reinforcement can help individuals learn and adopt new behaviors. Social workers can use feedback and reinforcements to help their clients make positive changes. For example, a social worker might provide feedback and reinforcement for a client who has made progress toward a goal, such as maintaining sobriety. Social learning provides a useful framework for social workers to help their clients make positive changes by leveraging the power of social influence and modeling.
Depression
Social learning theory has been explained and shown in many different examples. Depression in social learning can be discussed in a variety of ways. For example, a person with depression may withdraw from social situations and avoid interacting with others. They may feel like they don't have anything to contribute to conversations or others won't understand them. Depression can make it difficult for people to find the motivation to engage in social activities. They may also feel like it takes too much energy to interact with others, and they would rather stay home alone. Social learning theory provides a framework for understanding the role of social factors in depression and for developing interventions that promote positive behaviors and attitudes.
In health promotion
Social learning theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes and beliefs of others in promoting health behaviors. Promoting positive and healthy habits is a big part of an educator's and even a social worker's job. Teachers are expected to teach their students how to behave in class. For example, if a teacher desires students to be quiet while they are talking, they have to teach them that when the teacher is talking they should be quiet. The teachers are also expected to teach them how to role play and tell stories and also do classroom activities. Another example is peer led health programs they can effectively promote health behaviors among adolescents and young adults by using social learning behaviors and attitudes and provide social support for positive changes. Community based interventions can use Social learning theory principles to promote healthy behaviors at the community levels.
In addiction
Addiction is related to the social learning theory as it emphasizes the role of social influences and reinforces the development and maintenance of addictive behaviors. The social learning theory suggests that people learn and adopt behaviors through observation, experience, and reinforcement from social interactions with others. In the case of addiction, individuals may learn and adopt substance use behaviors from peers, family members, or media exposure, and through positive reinforcement such as pleasure or relief from stress. Additionally, the social learning theory highlights the importance of social context in reinforcing addictive behaviors, as social situations and norms may influence the decision to engage in substance use. The social learning theory proposes that addiction is a learned behavior influenced by environmental and social factors.
Viral challenges
One modern-day example of the social learning theory in action is the phenomenon of "viral challenges" on social media. These challenges involve individuals performing a specific action or task, usually for the purpose of entertainment, and then sharing the video with their online community. According to Bandura's social learning theory, people learn new behaviors by observing and imitating the actions of others. In the case of viral challenges, individuals watch others perform a specific task and then "imitate" the behavior by completing the challenge themselves.
For example, the ALS Ice Bucket Challenge, which went viral in the summer of 2014, involved people dumping a bucket of ice water over their heads to raise awareness for ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) and then challenging others to do the same. The challenge quickly spread across social media platforms, with celebrities and politicians also participating, and raised over $115 million for the ALS Association.
Another example is the "In My Feelings" challenge, which took place on social media in the summer of 2018. The challenge involved people dancing to Drake's song "In My Feelings" alongside a moving car and sharing the video online. The challenge was initially started by Instagram user @theshiggyshow and quickly gained popularity across social media platforms.
These examples demonstrate how the social learning theory can be applied to real-world phenomena, with individuals learning and imitating new behaviors through the observation of others on social media platforms.
Criminology
Social learning theory has been used to explain the emergence and maintenance of deviant behavior, especially aggression. Criminologists Ronald Akers and Robert Burgess integrated the principles of social learning theory and operant conditioning with Edwin Sutherland's differential association theory to create a comprehensive theory of criminal behavior. Burgess and Akers emphasized that criminal behavior is learned in both social and nonsocial situations through combinations of direct reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement, explicit instruction, and observation. Both the probability of being exposed to certain behaviors and the nature of the reinforcement are dependent on group norms.
Developmental psychology
In her book Theories of Developmental Psychology, Patricia H. Miller lists both moral development and gender-role development as important areas of research within social learning theory. Social learning theorists emphasize observable behavior regarding the acquisition of these two skills. For gender-role development, the same-sex parent provides only one of many models from which the individual learns gender-roles. Social learning theory also emphasizes the variable nature of moral development due to the changing social circumstances of each decision: "The particular factors the child thinks are important vary from situation to situation, depending on variables such as which situational factors are operating, which causes are most salient, and what the child processes cognitively. Moral judgments involve a complex process of considering and weighing various criteria in a given social situation."
For social learning theory, gender development has to do with the interactions of numerous social factors, involving all the interactions the individual encounters. For social learning theory, biological factors are important but take a back seat to the importance of learned, observable behavior. Because of the highly gendered society in which an individual might develop, individuals begin to distinguish people by gender even as infants. Bandura's account of gender allows for more than cognitive factors in predicting gendered behavior: for Bandura, motivational factors and a broad network of social influences determine if, when, and where gender knowledge is expressed.
Management
Social learning theory proposes that rewards are not the sole force behind creating motivation. Thoughts, beliefs, morals, and feedback all help to motivate us. Three other ways in which we learn are vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. Modeling, or the scenario in which we see someone's behaviors and adopt them as our own, aide the learning process as well as mental states and the cognitive process.
Media violence
Principles of social learning theory have been applied extensively to the study of media violence. Akers and Burgess hypothesized that observed or experienced positive rewards and lack of punishment for aggressive behaviors reinforces aggression. Many research studies and meta-analyses have discovered significant correlations between viewing violent television and aggression later in life and many have not, as well as playing violent video games and aggressive behaviors. The role of observational learning has also been cited as an important factor in the rise of rating systems for TV, movies, and video games.
Creating social change with media
Entertainment-education in the form of a telenovela or soap opera can help viewers learn socially desired behaviors in a positive way from models portrayed in these programs. The telenovela format allows the creators to incorporate elements that can bring a desired response. These elements may include music, actors, melodrama, props or costumes. Entertainment education is symbolic modeling and has a formula with three sets of characters with the cultural value that is to be examined is determined ahead of time:
Characters that support a value (positive role models)
Characters who reject the value (negative role models)
Characters who have doubts about the value (undecided)
Within this formula there are at least three doubters that represent the demographic group within the target population. One of these doubters will accept the value less than halfway through, the second will accept the value two-thirds of the way through and the third doubter does not accept the value and is seriously punished. This doubter is usually killed. Positive social behaviors are reinforced with rewards and negative social behaviors are reinforced with punishment. At the end of the episode a short epilogue done by a recognizable figure summarizes the educational content and within the program viewers are given resources in their community.
Applications for social change
Through observational learning a model can bring forth new ways of thinking and behaving. With a modeled emotional experience, the observer shows an affinity toward people, places and objects. They dislike what the models do not like and like what the models care about. Television helps contribute to how viewers see their social reality. "Media representations gain influence because people's social constructions of reality depend heavily on what they see, hear and read rather than what they experience directly". Any effort to change beliefs must be directed toward the sociocultural norms and practices at the social system level. Before a drama is developed, extensive research is done through focus groups that represent the different sectors within a culture. Participants are asked what problems in society concern them most and what obstacles they face, giving creators of the drama culturally relevant information to incorporate into the show.
The pioneer of entertainment-education is Miguel Sabido a creative writer/producer/director in the 1970s at the Mexican national television system, Televisa. Sabido spent eight years working on a method that would create social change and is known as the Sabido Method. He credits Albert Bandura's social learning theory, the drama theory of Eric Bentley, Carl Jung's theory of archetypes, MacLean's triune brain theory and Sabido's own soap opera theory for influencing his method. Sabido's method has been used worldwide to address social issues such as national literacy, population growth and health concerns such as HIV.
Psychotherapy
Social Learning Theory has significantly influenced psychotherapy, providing a multifaceted framework that extends beyond traditional behavioral conditioning. Social learning theory can be integrated with various therapeutic models and lends itself to a wide range of practical techniques and interventions. For example, therapists in many therapeutic approaches utilize modeling, where clients observe and learn from the therapist's behaviors and response patterns. Techniques such as behavioral rehearsal, role-playing, and social skills training empower clients to acquire new behaviors and enhance their coping mechanisms in various situations. Additionally, social learning theory underscores the profound influence of culture on human development, and posits that cultural norms, values, and social contexts significantly shape individual development. Therapists must assess for the influence of culture in understanding their clients and adapt interventions to align with clients cultural backgrounds.
In systemic therapy, such as couples or family therapy, social learning theory assists therapists in identifying intergenerational patterns of behavior. Systemic therapists may assist clients in gaining insights into the origins of presenting problems. Presenting problems are often conceptualized as behaviors and coping mechanisms that can be transmitted across generations through observational learning and operant conditioning. Frequently, issues are rooted in learned behaviors and coping strategies acquired through observation and modeling.
Social learning theory enriches psychotherapy by providing a holistic perspective that encompasses historical context, cultural considerations, family dynamics and interpersonal relationships, and intergenerational patterns. These allow therapists to have a more complex, nuanced understanding of the development and maintenance of presenting problems.
School psychology
Many classroom and teaching strategies draw on principles of social learning to enhance students' knowledge acquisition and retention. For example, using the technique of guided participation, a teacher says a phrase and asks the class to repeat the phrase. Thus, students both imitate and reproduce the teacher's action, aiding retention. An extension of guided participation is reciprocal learning, in which both student and teacher share responsibility in leading discussions. Additionally, teachers can shape the classroom behavior of students by modelling appropriate behavior and visibly rewarding students for good behavior. By emphasizing the teacher's role as model and encouraging the students to adopt the position of observer, the teacher can make knowledge and practices explicit to students, enhancing their learning outcomes.
Algorithm for computer optimization
In modern field of computational intelligence, the social learning theory is adopted to develop a new computer optimization algorithm, the social learning algorithm. Emulating the observational learning and reinforcement behaviors, a virtual society deployed in the algorithm seeks the strongest behavioral patterns with the best outcome. This corresponds to searching for the best solution in solving optimization problems. Compared with other bio-inspired global optimization algorithms that mimic natural evolution or animal behaviors, the social learning algorithm has its prominent advantages. First, since the self-improvement through learning is more direct and rapid than the evolution process, the social learning algorithm can improve the efficiency of the algorithms mimicking natural evolution. Second, compared with the interaction and learning behaviors in animal groups, the social learning process of human beings exhibits a higher level of intelligence. By emulating human learning behaviors, it is possible to arrive at more effective optimizers than existing swarm intelligence algorithms. Experimental results have demonstrated the effectiveness and efficiency of the social learning algorithm, which has in turn also verified through computer simulations the outcomes of the social learning behavior in human society.
Another example is the social cognitive optimization, which is a population-based metaheuristic optimization algorithm. This algorithm is based on the social cognitive theory, simulating the process of individual learning of a set of agents with their own memory and their social learning with the knowledge in the social sharing library. It has been used for solving continuous optimization, integer programming, and combinatorial optimization problems.
There also several mathematical models of social learning which try to model this phenomenon using probabilistic tools.
See also
Mimetic theory
References
External links
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Собачий полудень
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Собачий полудень
«Собачий полудень» — фільм-драма 1975 року американського режисера Сідні Люмета, сюжет якого базується на реальній історії про пограбування бруклінського банку 22 серпня 1972 року. Отримав Оскара за найкращий оригінальний сценарій.
Сюжет
У спекотний полудень троє невдах один за одним заходять до Першого ощадного банку Брукліна з метою його пограбувати. Сонні Ворцик (Аль Пачіно) — ватажок, Сел (Джон Казале) — помічник, плюс юний Стіві. Усе відразу йде не за планом, у Стіва здають нерви й він іде зі сцени. Сховище швидко відкривають, але виявляється, що пограбування відбувається незабаром після інкасації, а в сховищі всього лише 1100 доларів готівкою.
Щоб відшкодувати втрати, Сонні бере дорожні чеки і спалює книгу реєстру, щоб чеки не можна було відстежити. Дим витягується назовні і його помічають, незабаром банк оточують поліція і натовпи роззяв, прибувають також і тележурналісти.
«Добре сплановане» пограбування перетворюється на цирк.
Поліцейський детектив-сержант Юджин Моретті дзвонить у банк і повідомляє Сонні про прибуття поліції. Той говорить про заручників, погрожуючи вбити їх у разі раптової атаки. Сел повідомляє Сонні, що готовий убивати, якщо буде потрібно. Моретті бере на себе роль перемовника, у той час, як агент ФБР Шелдон стежить за його діями. Моретті просить звільнити одного із заручників як демонстрацію добрих намірів, і Сонні дозволяє піти охоронцеві банку, в якого почався напад астми. Моретті також вмовляє Сонні вийти з дверей і переконатися, що банк щільно оточений. Прикриваючись Сільвією — провідним касиром банку — Сонні виходить і бачить велику кількість агресивно налаштованих поліцейських. Наприкінці діалогу з Моретті Сонні вигукує «Аттика!» (Посилаючись на тюремний бунт в Аттиці), і натовп підхоплює його крик, підтримуючи Сонні.
Зрозумівши, що просто так піти не вийде, Сонні вимагає надати вертоліт, який повинен сісти на дах банку, щоб дозволити Сонні й Селу прибути в аеропорт, де їх повинен чекати підготовлений літак. За деякий час поліцейські повідомляють, що вертоліт не зможе тут сісти, а замість цього нададуть велику машину. Сонні також вимагає доставити їжу й привезти в банк свою дружину; грабіжникам доставляють піцу. Дружиною Сонні виявляється Леон Шермер — чоловік, який збирається стати жінкою; з'ясовується, що причиною пограбування стала потреба у грошах на операцію зі зміни статі для Леона, також Леон повідомляє, що у Сонні є колишня дружина з дітьми.
Після заходу сонця світло в банку вимикається. На вході в банк Сонні бачить агента Шелдона, який узяв керування операцією на себе. Шелдон уже не дає Сонні жодних поступок, але дозволяє пройти в банк доктору — у банківського керуючого почався напад діабету. Поки доктор перебуває в банку, Шелдон пропонує Сонні поговорити з Леоном. Під час тривалої бесіди з'ясовується, що Леон намагався накласти на себе руки, щоб «піти від Сонні». Довгий час він перебував на лікуванні у психіатричній клініці, де поліція й знайшла його. Леон відмовляється приєднатися до Сонні й Села в їхній втечі. Сонні переконує поліцейських, що прослуховують лінію, в тому, що Леон непричетний до пограбування. Після розмови доктор переконує Сонні відпустити хворого керуючого, і Сонні погоджується; однак той відмовляється йти, залишивши в небезпеці своїх підлеглих.
ФБР знову викликає Сонні, цього разу на сцені з'являється його мати з домовленостями здатися поліції, але Сонні відмовляється; агент Шелдон показує, що через 10 хвилин прибуде машина. Повернувшись у банк, Сонні диктує одній із дівчат свій заповіт.
Коли прибуває лімузин, Сонні ретельно перевіряє його на відсутність зброї або пасток. Він вибирає агента Мерфі як водія. Всі разом, грабіжники в оточенні заручників, переміщаються в лімузин. За попередньою домовленістю, одну з дівчат звільняють. Сонні сидить попереду поруч із водієм, Сел ззаду між заручниками. Мерфі просить Села тримати ствол угору, щоб уникнути випадкових пострілів.
Кортеж із поліцейських та лімузина приїжджає до аеропорту. Прибуває літак. Одну з дівчат відпускають. Мерфі знову просить Села тримати дуло вгору, Сел виконує вказівку, у цей момент агент Шелдон блокує рушницю Сонні; користуючись нагодою, агент Мерфі дістає прихований у його підлокітнику револьвер і робить точний постріл в голову Селу. Заручників супроводжують у будівлю аеропорту, Сонні заарештований і спостерігає, як відвозять мертве тіло Села. У завершальних титрах повідомляють, що Сонні отримав 20 років в'язниці.
У ролях
Аль Пачино — Сонні Ворцик
Джон Казале — Сальваторе «Сел» Натуріле
Чарльз Дернінг — сержант Юджин Моретті
Джеймс Бродерік — агент Шелдон
Ленс Генріксен — агент Мерфі
Кріс Сарандон — Леон
Саллі Бояр — менеджер Малвені
Сьюзен Перець — Енжі, дружина Сонні
Гері Спрінгер — Стіві
Пенелопа Аллен — Сильвія
Нагороди
Загалом фільм здобув 12 нагород і 17 номінацій, зокрема:
Оскар:
найкращий оригінальний сценарій
найкращий актор (номінація)
найкращий актор другого плану (номінація)
найкраща режисура (номінація)
найкращий монтаж (номінація)
найкращий фільм (номінація)
BAFTA:
найкращий актор
найкращий монтаж
найкраща режисура (номінація)
найкращий фільм (номінація)
найкращий сценарій (номінація)
найкращий саундтрек (номінація)
Номінації на Золотий глобус:
найкращий акторський дебют
найкраща режисура
найкращий фільм-драма
найкращий актор драми
найкращий сценарій
найкращий актор другого плану
У березні 2016 року фільм увійшов до рейтингу 30 найвидатніших ЛГБТ-фільмів усіх часів, складеному Британським кіноінститутом (BFI) за результатами опитування понад 100 кіноекспертів, проведеного до 30-річного ювілею Лондонського ЛГБТ-кінофестивалю BFI Flare.
Посилання
Стаття у журналі LIFE про пограбування, яке лягло в основу фільму
Примітки
Фільми-драми США
ЛГБТ-фільми США
Фільми 1975
Фільми, засновані на реальних подіях
Фільми Сідні Люмета
Фільми англійською мовою
Фільми, дія яких відбувається в Нью-Йорку
Фільми про трансгендерність
Фільми-пограбування
Національний реєстр фільмів
Фільми — лауреати премії BAFTA
Фільми США 1975
Фільми про пограбування банків
Докудрами
Фільми на тематику бісексуальності
Фільми Warner Bros.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural%20movement
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Cultural movement
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Cultural movement
A cultural movement is a change in the way a number of different disciplines approach their work. This embodies all art forms, the sciences, and philosophies. Historically, different nations or regions of the world have gone through their own independent sequence of movements in culture, but as world communications have accelerated this geographical distinction has become less distinct. When cultural movements go through revolutions from one to the next, genres tend to get attacked and mixed up, and often new genres are generated and old ones fade.: These changes are often reactions against the prior cultural form, which typically has grown stale and repetitive. An obsession emerges among the mainstream with the new movement, and the old one falls into neglect – sometimes it dies out entirely, but often it chugs along favored in a few disciplines and occasionally making reappearances (sometimes prefixed with "neo-").
There is continual argument over the precise definition of each of these periods, and one historian might group them differently, or choose different names or descriptions. As well, even though in many cases the popular change from one to the next can be swift and sudden, the beginning and end of movements are somewhat subjective, as the movements did not spring fresh into existence out of the blue and did not come to an abrupt end and lose total support, as would be suggested by a date range. Thus use of the term "period" is somewhat deceptive. "Period" also suggests a linearity of development, whereas it has not been uncommon for two or more distinctive cultural approaches to be active at the same time. Historians will be able to find distinctive traces of a cultural movement before its accepted beginning, and there will always be new creations in old forms. So it can be more useful to think in terms of broad "movements" that have rough beginnings and endings. Yet for historical perspective, some rough date ranges will be provided for each to indicate the "height" or accepted time span of the movement.
This current article covers Western, notably European and American cultural movements. They have, however, been paralleled by cultural movements in East Asia and elsewhere. In the late 20th and early 21st century in Thailand, for example, there has been a cultural shift away from Western social and political values more toward Japanese and Chinese. As well, That culture has reinvigorated monarchical concepts to accommodate state shifts away from Western ideology regarding democracy and monarchies.
Cultural movements
Graeco-Roman
The Greek culture marked a departure from the other Mediterranean cultures that preceded and surrounded it. The Romans adopted Greek and other styles, and spread the result throughout Western Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Together, Greek and Roman thought in philosophy, religion, science, history, and all forms of thought can be viewed as a central underpinning of Western culture, and is therefore termed the Classical Age by some. Others might divide it into the Hellenistic period and the Roman period, or might choose other finer divisions.
See: Classical architecture — Classical sculpture — Greek architecture — Hellenistic architecture — Ionic — Doric — Corinthian — Stoicism — Cynicism — Epicurean — Roman architecture — Early Christian — Neoplatonism
Romanesque (11th century & 12th centuries)
A style (esp. architectural) similar in form and materials to Roman styles. Romanesque seems to be the first pan-European style since Roman Imperial Architecture and examples are found in every part of the continent.
See: Romanesque architecture — Ottonian Art
Gothic (mid 12th century until mid 15th century)
See: Gothic architecture — Gregorian chant — Neoplatonism
Nominalism
Rejects Platonic realism as a requirement for thinking and speaking in general terms.
Humanism (16th century)
Renaissance
The use of light, shadow, and perspective to more accurately represent life. Because of how fundamentally these ideas were felt to alter so much of life, some have referred to it as the "Golden Age". In reality it was less an "Age" and more of a movement in popular philosophy, science, and thought that spread over Europe (and probably other parts of the world), over time, and affected different aspects of culture at different points in time. Very roughly, the following periods can be taken as indicative of place/time foci of the Renaissance: Italian Renaissance 1450–1550. Spanish Renaissance 1550–1587. English Renaissance 1588–1629.
Protestant Reformation
The Protestant Reformation, often referred to simply as the Reformation, was a schism from the Roman Catholic Church initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli and other early Protestant Reformers in the 16th century Europe.
Mannerism
Anti-classicist movement that sought to emphasize the feeling of the artist himself.
See: Mannerism/Art
Baroque
Emphasizes power and authority, characterized by intricate detail and without the "disturbing angst" of Mannerism. Essentially is exaggerated Classicism to promote and glorify the Church and State. Occupied with notions of infinity.
See: Baroque art — Baroque music
Rococo
Neoclassical (17th–19th centuries)
Severe, unemotional movement recalling Roman and Greek ("classical") style, reacting against the overbred Rococo style and the emotional Baroque style. It stimulated revival of classical thinking, and had especially profound effects on science and politics. Also had a direct influence on Academic Art in the 19th century. Beginning in the early 17th century with Cartesian thought (see René Descartes), this movement provided philosophical frameworks for the natural sciences, sought to determine the principles of knowledge by rejecting all things previously believed to be known about the world. In Renaissance Classicism attempts are made to recreate the classic art forms — tragedy, comedy, and farce.
See also: Weimar Classicism
Age of Enlightenment (1688–1789): Reason (rationalism) seen as the ideal.
Romanticism (1770–1830)
Began in Germany and spread to England and France as a reaction against Neoclassicism and against the Age of Enlightenment.. The notion of "folk genius", or an inborn and intuitive ability to do magnificent things, is a core principle of the Romantic movement. Nostalgia for the primitive past in preference to the scientifically minded present. Romantic heroes, exemplified by Napoleon, are popular. Fascination with the past leads to a resurrection of interest in the Gothic period. It did not really replace the Neoclassical movement so much as provide a counterbalance; many artists sought to join both styles in their works.
See: Symbolism
Realism (1830–1905)
Ushered in by the Industrial Revolution and growing Nationalism in the world. Began in France. Attempts to portray the speech and mannerisms of everyday people in everyday life. Tends to focus on middle class social and domestic problems. Plays by Ibsen are an example. Naturalism evolved from Realism, following it briefly in art and more enduringly in theatre, film, and literature. Impressionism, based on 'scientific' knowledge and discoveries concerns observing nature and reality objectively.
See: Post-impressionism — Neo-impressionism — Pointillism — Pre-Raphaelite
Art Nouveau (1880–1905)
Decorative, symbolic art
See: Transcendentalism
Modernism (1880–1965)
Also known as the Avant-garde movement. Originating in the 19th century with Symbolism, the Modernist movement composed itself of a wide range of 'isms' that ran in contrast to Realism and that sought out the underlying fundamentals of art and philosophy. The Jazz age and Hollywood emerge and have their hey-days.
See: Fauvism — Cubism — Futurism — Suprematism — Dada — Constructivism — Surrealism — Expressionism — Existentialism — Op art — Art Deco — Bauhaus — Neo-Plasticism — Precisionism — Abstract expressionism — New Realism — Color field painting — Happening — Fluxus — Hard-edge painting — Pop art — Photorealism — Minimalism — Postminimalism — Lyrical abstraction — Situationism
Postmodernism (since c.1965)
A reaction to Modernism, in a way, Postmodernism largely discards the notion that artists should seek pure fundamentals, often questioning whether such fundamentals even exist – or suggestion that if they do exist, they may be irrelevant. It is exemplified by movements such as deconstructivism, conceptual art, etc.
See: Postmodern philosophy — Postmodern music — Postmodern art
Post-postmodernism (since c.1990)
See also
Art movement
List of art movements
Critical theory
Cultural imperialism
Cultural sensibility
History of philosophy
Postliterate society
Periodization
Social movement
External links
Alphabetical list of some movements, styles, discoveries and facts on the World History Timeline chart
Culture
Social movements
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tewodros%20II
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Tewodros II
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Tewodros II (once referred to by the English cognate Theodore; baptized as Kassa, – 13 April 1868) was Emperor of Ethiopia from 1855 until his death in 1868. His rule is often placed as the beginning of modern Ethiopia and brought an end to the decentralized Zemene Mesafint (Era of the Princes).
Although Tewodros II's origins were in the Era of the Princes, his ambitions were not those of the regional nobility. He sought to re-establish a cohesive Ethiopian state and to reform its administration and church.
Tewodros II's first task after having reunited the other provinces was to bring Shewa under his control. During the Era of the Princes, Shewa was, even more than most provinces, an independent entity, its ruler even styling himself Negus, the title for King. In the course of subduing the Shewans, Tewodros took with him a Shewan prince, Sahle Maryam, who he brought up as his own son, who would later become Emperor (or Atse) himself as Menelik II. Despite his success against Shewa, Tewodros faced constant rebellions by stiffnecked nobles in other regions not understanding the benefits of modernization. He ultimately committed suicide at the Battle of Magdala, during the British Expedition to Abyssinia.
In the first six years of his reign, the new ruler managed to put down these rebellions, and the empire was relatively peaceful from about 1861 to 1863, but the energy, wealth, and manpower necessary to deal with regional opposition limited the scope of Tewodros's other activities.
Tewodros II never realized his dream of restoring a strong monarchy, although he took many important initial steps. He sought to establish the principle that governors and judges must be salaried appointees. He also established a professional standing army, rather than depending on local lords to provide soldiers for his expeditions. He introduced the collection of books in the form of a library, tax codes, as well as a centralized political system with respective administrative districts. He also intended to reform the church but he was confronted by strong opposition when he tried to impose a tax on church lands to help finance government activities. Tewodros confiscation of these lands gained him enemies in the church and little support elsewhere. Essentially, Tewodros was a talented military campaigner.
Description
The British Consul Walter Plowden knew well the political events of Ethiopia during the 1850s and had foretold the rising star of Kassa the freelance warrior from Qwara.
When being crowned as King, Plowden described him as such:
The French explorer, geographer, ethnologist, linguist and astronomer Antoine Thomson D'Abbadie describes him during his stay in Ethiopia:
Georg Wilhelm Schimper the German botanist had mentioned the following about Tewodros:
Early life
Kassa Hailu was born in Qwara west of Gondar, his father was an Amhara nobleman of the Qwara district named Hailegiorgis Woldegiorgis. His paternal grandfather, Dejazmatch Woldegiorgis, was a widely respected figure of his time. Dembiya was part of the large territory known as Ye Maru Qemas, which translates as "the taste of the honey" or literally "What has been tasted by Maru". His paternal grandfather, Dejazmatch Woldegiorgis, was a widely respected figure of his time. Dembiya was part of the large territory known as Ye Maru Qemas, which translates as "the taste of the honey" or literally "What has been tasted by Maru". This name was given to the territory because it was the personal fief of Dejazmach Maru, a powerful warlord, and relative of Kassa. When Maru died in October 1827, his fiefdom was given (albeit begrudgingly) to Dejazmach Hailu by the governor of the province, Empress Menen Liben Amede. Kassa was in line to potentially take control of Ye Maru Qemas after Kenfu's death (though Kenfu also wanted to give the land to his own sons). When Kenfu died, however, neither his sons nor Kassa inherited control of the territory because Empress Menen Liben re-annexed it under her own control.
According to the Ethiopian chronicles, Kassa's mother, Woizero Atitegeb Wondbewossen, was from Gondar and belonged to a noble family. However, According to Hormuzd Rassam, she was originally from Amhara Sayint. Her mother, Woizero Tishal, was a member of a noble family of Begemder, while her paternal grandfather, Ras Wodajo, was a powerful and highly influential figure. It is thought that Tewodros II's paternal side of the family carried with it a slim margin of Solomonic pedigree, however insignificant it proved when compared to the more prominently illustrious ancestries of some of his highborn rivals. Tewodros, in his reign, indeed claimed that his father was descended from Emperor Fasilides by way of a daughter.
When Kassa was very young, his parents divorced and Woizero Atitegeb moved back to Gondar taking her son with her. Not long after their departure, however, news reached them that Kassa's father had died. Popular legend states that Kassa's paternal relatives split up the entire paternal inheritance, leaving young Kassa and his mother with nothing and in very dire circumstances financially. In hard times, his enemies came up with a rumour that she was reduced to selling Kossoa claim for which Kassa would go on to imprison Henry Aaron Stern for publishing during his reign. There is actually no evidence that Woizero Atitegeb was ever a Kosso seller, and several writers such as Paulos Ngo Ngo have stated outright that it was a false rumor spread by her detractors. Evidence indicates that Woizero Atitegeb was fairly well-to-do, and indeed had inherited considerable land holdings from her own illustrious relatives from which to lead a comfortable life. Kassa's youth was probably not lived lavishly, but he was far from a pauper.
Kassa was sent to school at the convent of Tekla Haymanot, between Gondar and Lake Tana. He took refuge when it was sacked by a defeated Dejazmatch Wube, who by burning and dismembering the children, took vengeance on their victorious parents. Kassa escaped and fled to the protection of his kinsman, Dejazmach Kenfu Hailu, probably his uncle, but believed to be his half-brother. He continued his formal education and became familiar with the Bible and Ethiopian literature. He also received instruction on the techniques of Ethiopian warfare from Kenfu. When Kenfu died, and his two sons were defeated by another dajazmach (earl), Dajazmach Goshu of Damot and Gojjam, Kassa was forced to make another start in life, and offered his services to Goshu.
Rise to power
Kassa Hailu was born into a country rife with civil war, and he defeated many regional noblemen and princes before becoming emperor during time known as the Zemene Mesafint or "Age of the Princes". During this era, regional princes, and noble lords of diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds vied with each other for power and control of the Gondarine Emperor. A puppet Emperor of the Solomonic dynasty was enthroned in Gondar by one nobleman, only to be dethroned and replaced by another member of the Imperial dynasty when a different regional prince was able to seize Gondar and the reins of power. Regions such as Gojjam and Shewa were ruled by their own branches of the Imperial dynasty and, in Shewa, the local prince went as far as assuming the title of King. In Wollo, competing royal powerful Oromo and Muslim dynasties also vied for power. Nevertheless, a semblance of order and unity was maintained in northern Ethiopia during the era of the Princes by the powerful Rases of the Were Sheik dynasty of Wollo such as Ras Ali the Great and Ras Gugsa who controlled Gondar and the Emperor.
Kassa began his career in this era as a shifta (outlaw), but after amassing a sizable force of followers, was able to not only restore himself to his father's previous fiefdom of Qwara but was able to control all of Dembiya. Moreover, he gained popular support by his benevolent treatment of the inhabitants in the areas he controlled: according to Sven Rubenson, Kassa "shared out captured grain and money to the peasants in Qwara and told them to buy hoes and plant." This garnered notice of the nobleman in control of Gondar, Ras Ali II of Yejju of Wollo. Empress Menen Liben Amede, wife of Emperor Yohannes III, and the mother of Ras Ali, arranged for Kassa to marry her granddaughter, Tewabech Ali. She awarded him all of Ye Meru Qemas in the hopes of binding him firmly to her son and herself.
Although all sources and authorities believe that Kassa truly loved and respected his wife, his relationship with his new in-laws deteriorated largely because of the disdainful treatment he repeatedly received from the Empress Menen. By 1852, he rebelled against Ras Ali and, in a series of victories – Gur Amaba, Takusa, Ayshal, and Amba Jebelli – over the next three years he defeated every army the Ras and the Empress sent against him. At Ayshal he captured the Empress Menen, and Ras Ali fled. Kassa announced that he was deposing Emperor Yohannes III, and then marched on his greatest remaining rival, Dejazmach Wube Haile Maryam of Semien. Kassa refused to acknowledge an attempt to restore the former Emperor Sahle Dengel in the place of the hapless Yohannes III who had acknowledged Kassa immediately. Yohannes III was treated well by Kassa who seems to have had some personal sympathy for him. His views on Sahle Dengel are not known but are not likely to have been sympathetic. Following the defeat of Dejazmach Wube, Kassa was crowned Emperor by Abuna Salama III in the church of Derasge Maryam on February 11, 1855. He took the throne name of Tewodros II, attempting to fulfill a prophecy that a man named Tewodros would restore the Ethiopian Empire to greatness and rule for 40 years.
Military skills
Tewodros II's military career started when he served in his relative, Kenfu Haile Giorgis', army. In 1837, he led a successful attack on Ottoman forces in the town of Gallabat and fought in the Battle of Wadkaltabu were he helped defeat an Egyptian raid. His uncle, Dejazmach Kenfu died in 1839 and Qwara was lost to the family and claimed by Empress Menen of Gondar. Kassa Hailu resorted to become a shifta, one who refuses to recognize his feudal lord. Kassa Hailu organized his own army in the plains of Qwara. When he became too powerful to ignore, as a way to deal with him without using force, he was named Dajazmach of Qwara and given the hand of Tawabach, the daughter of Ras Ali of Begemder, in 1845.
Kassa was very close to Tawabach and devoted to his marriage but his submission to Empress Menen was short-lived. In October 1846, he attacked and plundered Dembea, a city located due south of Gondar, and in January 1847 he went on to occupy Gondar. When Kassa unoccupied Gondar later that year, Empress Menen sent an army after him into north of Lake Tana. Kassa easily defeated the army and took the Empress as prisoner. Her son, Ras Ali of Begemder, chose to negotiate with Kassa; he gave Kassa all lands west and north of Lake Tana and Kassa in return released his mother (Prouty and Rosenfeld 1982, 60). The reconciled relationship with Empress Menen led him to join up with Ras Ali and Ras Goshu Zewde of Gojam. However, when conflict re-emerged yet again in 1852, Kassa retreated back to Qwara to re-strengthen his troops.
In 1842 Tewodros invaded Egyptian-controlled Sudan from western Ethiopia, successfully capturing Metemma. However, he suffered a major defeat in March 1848 at the Battle of Dabarki, effectively ending his invasion. The defeat at Dabarki led to Tewodros taking efforts to modernize his military, incorporating firearm drills and more modern artillery.
Reign
Tewodros sought to unify and modernise Ethiopia. However, since he was nearly always away on campaign during his tenure as emperor, disloyal leaders frequently tried to dislodge him while he was away fighting. Within a few years, he had forcibly brought back under direct Imperial rule the Kingdom of Shewa and the province of Gojjam. He crushed the many lords and princes of Wollo and Tigray and brought recalcitrant regions of Begemder and Simien under his direct rule.
He moved the capital city of the Empire from Gondar, first to Debre Tabor, and later to Magdala. Tewodros ended the division of Ethiopia among the various regional lords and princes that had vied among each other for power for almost two centuries. He forcibly re-incorporated the regions of Gojjam, Tigre, Shewa and Wollo under the direct administration of the Imperial throne after they had been ruled by local branches of the Imperial dynasty (in Gojjam and Shewa) or other noblemen (Wollo). With all of his rivals apparently subdued, he imprisoned them and their relatives at Magdala. Among the royal and aristocratic prisoners at Magdala was the young Prince of Shewa, Sahle Maryam, the future Emperor Menelik II. Tewodros doted on the young prince, and married him to his own daughter Alitash Tewodros. Menelik would eventually escape from Magdala, and abandon his wife, offending Tewodros deeply.
The death of his beloved wife, Empress Tewabech, marked the start of a deterioration in Tewodros II's behavior. Increasingly erratic and vengeful, he gave full rein to some of his more brutal tendencies now that the calming influence of his wife was absent. For instance, after the murder of the English traveller, John Bell, who had become the emperor's close friend and confidante, the emperor, in revenge, had 500 prisoners beheaded in Debarek. Then, in February 1863, after defeating the rebel, Tedla Gwalu, Tewodros ordered the killing of the 7,000 prisoners he had taken.
Tewodros II remarried, this time to the daughter of his imprisoned enemy Dejazmach Wube. The new Empress, Tiruwork Wube was a proud and haughty woman, very aware of her illustrious Solomonic ancestry. She is said to have intended on the religious life and becoming a nun, especially after the fall of her father and his imprisonment along with her brothers at the hands of Tewodros II. However, Tewodros' request for her hand in marriage was seen by her family as an opportunity to get Dejazmatch Wube and his sons freed from imprisonment, and so they prevailed on her to marry the Emperor. However, while the conditions of their imprisonment were eased, Dejazmatch Wube and his sons were not released, deeply imbittering Empress Tiruwork against Tewodros. Already feeling that she had married far beneath her dignity to a usurper, the failure of the Emperor to free her family did not help their marital relationship. The marriage was very far from a happy one, and was extremely stormy. They did have a son, Dejazmatch Alemayehu Tewodros, whom the Emperor adored and whom he regarded as his heir.
By October 1862, Emperor Tewodros' position as ruler had become precarious, much of Ethiopia was in revolt against him, except for a small area stretching from Lake Tana east to his fortress at Magdala, Ethiopia. He was engaged in constant military campaigns against a wide array of rebels. Likewise, Abyssinia was also threatened by the encroachment of Islam as Muslim Turks and Egyptians repeatedly invaded Ethiopia from the Red Sea and from Sudan while the Muslim Oromo tribe was expanding throughout Central Ethiopia. Tewodros wrote a letter to Queen Victoria as a fellow Christian monarch, asking for British assistance in the region. Tewodros asked the British Consul in Ethiopia, Captain Charles Duncan Cameron, to carry a letter to Queen Victoria requesting skilled workers to come to teach his subjects how to produce firearms, and other technical skills. Cameron traveled to the coast with the letter, but when he informed the Foreign Office of the letter and its contents, he was instructed to simply send the letter to London rather than take it himself. He was to proceed to Sudan to make inquiries about the slave trade there. After doing this, Cameron returned to Ethiopia.
On Cameron's return, the Emperor became enraged when he found out that Cameron had not taken the letter to London personally, had not brought a response from the Queen, and most of all, had spent time traveling through enemy Egyptian and Turkish territories. Cameron tried to appease the Emperor saying that a reply to the letter would arrive shortly. The Foreign Office in London did not pass the letter to Queen Victoria, but simply filed it under Pending. There the letter stayed for a year. Then the Foreign Office sent the letter to India, because Abyssinia came under the Raj's remit. It is alleged that when the letter arrived in India, officials filed it under Not Even Pending.
Britain had several reasons for ignoring the letter. The British Empire's interests in Northeast Africa were quite different from those of Tewodros. The British did not want to conduct a Christian "crusade" against Islam but instead to cooperate politically, strategically and commercially with the Ottoman Empire, Egypt and the Sudan. This was not only to protect the route to India but also to ensure that the Ottoman Empire continued to act as a buffer against Russia's plans for expansion into Central Asia. More so, as a result of the American Civil War, deliveries of cotton from the American South to the British textile industry were cut off entirely, making the British increasingly dependent on Egyptian-Sudanese cotton. The British did not wish to see a conflagration in the region which would upset the status quo.
After two years had passed and Tewodros had not received a reply, he imprisoned Cameron, together with all the British subjects in Ethiopia and various other Europeans, in an attempt to get the queen's attention. His prisoners included an Anglican missionary named Henry A. Stern, who had previously published a book in Europe describing Tewodros as a barbaric, cruel, unstable usurper. When Tewodros saw this book, he became violently angry, pulled a gun on Stern, and had to be restrained from killing the missionary. He then beat to death the two servants Stern had brought with him. Tewodros also received reports from abroad that foreign papers had quoted these European residents of Ethiopia as having said many negative things about him and his reign.
Conflict with Great Britain
The British sent a mission under an Assyrian-born British subject, Hormuzd Rassam, who bore a letter from the Queen (in response to Tewodros' now three-year-old letter requesting aid). He did not bring the skilled workers as Tewodros had requested. Deeply insulted by the British failure to do exactly as they were asked, Tewodros had the members of the Rassam mission added to his other European prisoners. This last breach of diplomatic immunity was the catalyst to Britain launching the 1868 Expedition to Abyssinia under Robert Napier. He traveled from India, then a British colony, with more than 30,000 personnel (a force of 13,000 troops and 26,000 camp followers), which consisted of not only soldiers but also specialists such as engineers. Tewodros had become increasingly unpopular over the years due to his harsh methods, and many regional figures had rebelled against him. Several readily assisted the British by providing guides and food as the expeditionary force marched towards Magdala, where the Emperor had fortified the mountaintop.
The British force defeated the Abyssinian army at Arogye, on the plain facing Magdala, on 10 April 1868. With Tewodros' army so decisively defeated, many of his men began to desert and the emperor was left with only 4,000 soldiers. Tewodros II attempted to make peace. Napier responded with a message thanking him for this peace offering and stating that he would treat the Emperor and his family with every dignity. Tewodros II furiously responded that he would never be taken prisoner. The British shelled Magdala, which killed most of Tewodros's remaining soldiers. Tewodros released all the Europeans unharmed but ordered 300 Ethiopian prisoners to be flung over the cliff.
On 15 April 1868, as the British troops stormed the citadel of Magdala, Emperor Tewodros committed suicide rather than surrender.
A modern commentator states "When Tewodros preferred self-inflicted death to captivity, he deprived the British of this ultimate satisfaction and laid the foundation for his own resurrection as a symbol of the defiant independence of the Ethiopian."
He has been said to have used a pistol which he had used during fighting for unification during the era, though in reality he used a duelling pistol gifted to him by Queen Victoria and presented by Consul Cameron. Tewodros II was buried by the British troops at Magdala's Medhane Alem (Savior of the World) Orthodox Church under the name of Theodore II. In 2019 the National Army Museum announced the return to Ethiopia of a lock of Tewodros' hair, taken after his death in battle.
Magdala was in the territory of the Muslim Oromo tribes who had long before taken it from the Amhara people; however Tewodros had won it back from them some years earlier. Two rival Oromos queens, Werkait and Mostiat, had both allied themselves with the British and claimed control of the conquered fortress as a reward. Napier much preferred to hand Magdala over to the Christian ruler of Lasta, Wagshum Gobeze, because if Gobeze were in control of the fortress, he would be able to halt the Oromos advance and assume responsibility for over 30,000 Christian refugees from Tewodros's camp. Yet as Gobeze was unresponsive to these overtures, much preferring to acquire Tewodros's cannons, and the two Oromo queens could not reach an arrangement, Napier decided to destroy the fortress. After a thorough medical examination which confirmed Tewodros' death as the result of suicide, the body was dressed and laid out in a hut. By the request of the Emperor's widow, the body was later buried in the Church of Magdala. Lieutenant Stumm, an eyewitness, described the discovery of Tewodros's body:
After Tewodros has been buried, Napier allowed his troops to loot the citadel as a punitive measure; according to historian Richard Pankhurst, "fifteen elephants and almost 200 mules were required to carry away the booty". These became dispersed in museums and state collections across Europe, though some looted artifacts have been returned to Ethiopia. Tewodros II's family later moved the Emperor's remains to the Mahedere Selassie Monastery in his native Qwara, where they remain to this day.
Tewodros had asked his wife, the Empress Tiruwork Wube, in the event of his death, to put his son, Prince Alemayehu, under the protection of the British. This decision was apparently made in fear that his life would be taken by any aspirant for the empire of Abyssinia. In accordance with these wishes, Alemayehu was taken to London where he was presented to Queen Victoria, who took a liking to the young boy. Alemayehu later studied at Cheltenham College, the Rugby School and the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. However, both the Queen and Napier were later concerned with the subsequent development of the young prince who became increasingly lonely, unhappy and depressed during this time. In 1879, the prince died at the age of 19. He was buried near the royal chapel in Windsor with a funeral plaque placed to his memory by Queen Victoria.
On a curious side note, many of the hostages were unhappy with Napier's demand that they leave the country. Several hostages argued that they had long since become alienated from their old homeland in Europe and would no longer have any chance of building a new life for their families there. The German observer Josef Bechtinger, who accompanied the expedition, wrote:
Most of them, instead of thanking Providence for their final rescue – were not all happy with the new turn of events. They were indignant, upset, at having to leave Abyssinia. "What" they said, "are we supposed to do in Europe now, what are we supposed to do now with our wives and children back in our homeland – which has become alien to us? How are we supposed to live now among people who have [become] alien to us and whom we no longer like? What are we supposed to live on?
Bechtinger reported that many of them eventually returned to their adopted country from Suez by way of Massawa.
Following some short squabbles for the throne after his death, Tewodros II was eventually succeeded by Yohannes IV as the next Emperor of Ethiopia.
Heirs
The widowed Empress Tiruwork and the young heir of Tewodros, Alemayehu, were also to be taken to England. However, Empress Tiruwork died on the journey to the coast, and little Alemayehu made the journey alone. The Empress was buried at Sheleqot monastery in Tigray where her ancestors ruled. Although Queen Victoria subsidised the education at Rugby of Dejazmatch Alemayehu Tewodros, Captain Tristram Speedy was appointed as his guardian. He developed a very strong attachment to Captain Speedy and his wife. However, Prince Alemayehu grew increasingly lonely as the years went by, and his compromised health made things even harder. He died in October 1879 at the age of 19 without seeing his homeland again. Prince Alemayehu left an impression on Queen Victoria, who wrote of his death in her journal: "It is too sad! All alone in a strange country, without a single person or relative belonging to him... His was no happy life".
Emperor Tewodros II had an elder son born outside of wedlock, named Meshesha Tewodros. Meshesha was frequently at odds with his father, especially after it was learned that he had assisted Menelik of Shewa in his escape from Magdala. When Menelik became Emperor of Ethiopia, Meshesha Tewodros was raised to the title of Ras and given Dembia as his fief. Ras Meshesha would remain a loyal friend of Emperor Menelik II until his death, and his descendants were regarded as among the highest nobility and the leading representatives of Tewodros' line.
Tewodros II's much loved daughter, Woizero Alitash Tewodros, was the first wife of Menelik of Shewa who eventually became Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia. Woizero Alitash was abandoned by her husband when Menelik escaped from Magdala to return and reclaim his Shewan throne. She was subsequently remarried to Dejazmatch Bariaw Paulos of Adwa. When Menelik II was proclaimed Emperor of Ethiopia at Were Illu in Wollo shortly after the death of Yohannes IV, Woizero Alitash was among the first of the nobility to travel to Were Illu to pay homage to her former husband as the new Emperor. Rumors persist that Alitash and Emperor Menelik may have rekindled their relationship and that Alitash found that she was pregnant by the Emperor in the following months. The rumors continue that upon hearing about this pregnancy of the Emperor's first wife, the childless and barren Empress Taytu Bitul had Alitash poisoned. Yet a different version of these rumors state that she gave birth to a boy and handed him over to a friend to be raised as a common farmer in Shewa. The eldest descendant of this line now resides in Kenya married to the daughter of a Jegna, some Ethiopians believe them to be the only legitimate heirs to the line of Tewedros II and Menelik II. Regardless of the veracity of these rumors, Woizero Alitash Tewodros, daughter of Tewodros II, died within the first few months of the reign of her ex-husband Menelik II.
Honours
Ascanian duchies: Grand Cross of Albert the Bear, 15 March 1863
In popular culture
Emperor Tewodros has come to occupy a high regard amongst many Ethiopians. Examples of his influence are seen in plays, literature, folklore, songs and art works (such as a 1974 book by Sahle Sellassie). Emperor Tewodros has come to symbolise Ethiopian unity and identity.Tsegaye Gebre-Medhin wrote his play 'Tewodros' in 1963. Chronicles of his life have been seen to be significant in the formation of Amharic and Ethiopian literature in English.
Tewodros, under the name Theodore, appears in George MacDonald Fraser's fictionalised account of the 1868 conflict, Flashman on the March, where he is portrayed as a volatile, bloodthirsty madman.
Karen Mercury's historical fiction The Four Quarters of the World (Medallion Press, 2006) depicts the rise and fall of Tewodros as seen through the eyes of his European captives, using primary sources from eyewitnesses to create an unbiased portrait of the Emperor.
When the Emperor Dies by Mason McCann Smith is another work of historical fiction based around the rise, reign and fall of Emperor Tewodros.
Philip Marsden's The Barefoot Emperor chronicles the life and times of Emperor Tewodros's quest for power and his reign. Marsden remarks that Tewodros's violence makes him ambiguous to be a true hero worthy of a bronze statue like Napier in London.
Tewodros features prominently in Alan Moorehead's historical survey The Blue Nile.
John Pridham composed and published a piano solo piece, "Abyssinian Expedition", commemorating the Battle of Magdala. The digitized (scanned) sheet music can be found at the National Library of Australia's website.
Emperor Tewodros appears as the leader of the Ethiopians in Age of Empires III: Definitive Edition – The African Royals.
References
Bibliography
d'Abbadie d'Arrast, Antoine (1868). L'Abyssinie et le roi Théodore, Ch. Douniol, Paris.
Bates, Darrell (1979). The Abyssinian Difficulty: The Emperor Theodorus and the Magdala Campaign, 1867–68, Oxford University Press
Bekele, Shiferaw (2007). L'Éthiopie contemporaine (sous la direction de Gérard Prunier), Karthala, 440 pages,; chap. III ("La restauration de l'État éthiopien dans la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle"), partie I ("L'ascension de Tewodros II et la restauration de la monarchie (1855–1868)"), pp. 92–97
Henze, Paul B. (2000). "The Empire from Atrophy to Revival: The Era of the Princes and Tewodros II". IN: Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia. New York: Palgrave.
Rubenson, Sven (1966). King of Kings: Tewodros of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Haile Selassie I University
Zewde, Bahru; James Currey, A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855–1991, London, 2002, pp. 64–111; partie II ("Unification and Independence – 1855–1896"), chap. I ("The first response: Kasa – Tewodros"), pp. 27–42.
(Amharic letter) Lettre du Negussa Negest Téwodros II à un destinataire inconnu, sur le site des archives nationales d'Addis Abeba በኢንተርኔት
Further reading
Anderson, Ruth (1967). "A study of the career of Theodore II, Emperor of Ethiopia, 1855–1868." Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University
Blanc, Henry (1868). A Narrative of Captivity in Abyssinia; With Some Account of the Late Emperor Theodore, His Country and People, available at Project Gutenberg
Jesman, Czeslaw (April 1972). "Theodore II of Ethiopia" History Today, pp. 255–264
Markham, C. R. (1869). History of the Abyssinian Expedition
Myatt, Frederick (1970). The March to Mandala
External links
Tewodros II at the Imperial Ethiopia Homepages
Ethiopian Treasures – Emperor Tewodros II, Battle of Meqdala – Ethiopia
The Great Unifier: Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia
1810s births
1868 deaths
19th-century emperors of Ethiopia
1860s suicides
People from Amhara Region
Emperors of Ethiopia
People of the Abyssinian War
Suicides by firearm in Ethiopia
Solomonic dynasty
Heads of state who died by suicide
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovatens
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Lovatens
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Lovatens is a municipality in the district Broye-Vully in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland.
History
Lovatens is first mentioned between 996 and 1017 as Lovatingis.
Geography
Lovatens has an area, , of . Of this area, or 78.1% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 17.9% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 3.7% is settled (buildings or roads).
Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 1.4% and transportation infrastructure made up 2.3%. Out of the forested land, 16.4% of the total land area is heavily forested and 1.4% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 60.8% is used for growing crops and 17.0% is pastures.
The municipality was part of the Moudon District until it was dissolved on 31 August 2006, and Lovatens became part of the new district of Broye-Vully.
The municipality is located to the right of the Broye river. It consists of the village of Lovatens and the hamlets of Colans and Prassy.
Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Per bend Argent and Gules, overall a Minerva's head Or.
Demographics
Lovatens has a population of . , 0.7% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1999–2009 ) the population has changed at a rate of 0.7%. It has changed at a rate of 4.9% due to migration and at a rate of -4.9% due to births and deaths.
Most of the population speaks French (140 or 92.7%), with German being second most common (7 or 4.6%) and English being third (3 or 2.0%).
Of the population in the municipality 57 or about 37.7% were born in Lovatens and lived there in 2000. There were 52 or 34.4% who were born in the same canton, while 27 or 17.9% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 12 or 7.9% were born outside of Switzerland.
In there were live births to Swiss citizens and were 3 deaths of Swiss citizens. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens decreased by 3 while the foreign population remained the same. The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was a decrease of 8 and the non-Swiss population decreased by 1 people. This represents a population growth rate of -6.2%.
The age distribution, , in Lovatens is; 17 children or 11.9% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 18 teenagers or 12.6% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 16 people or 11.2% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 15 people or 10.5% are between 30 and 39, 27 people or 18.9% are between 40 and 49, and 14 people or 9.8% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 16 people or 11.2% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 12 people or 8.4% are between 70 and 79, there are 5 people or 3.5% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 3 people or 2.1% who are 90 and older.
, there were 69 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 64 married individuals, 8 widows or widowers and 10 individuals who are divorced.
, there were 58 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.6 persons per household. There were 17 households that consist of only one person and 6 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 59 households that answered this question, 28.8% were households made up of just one person and there was 1 adult who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 12 married couples without children, 22 married couples with children There were 5 single parents with a child or children. There was 1 household that was made up of unrelated people and 1 household that was made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.
there were 26 single family homes (or 54.2% of the total) out of a total of 48 inhabited buildings. There were 3 multi-family buildings (6.3%), along with 17 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (35.4%) and 2 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (4.2%). Of the single family homes 17 were built before 1919, while 2 were built between 1990 and 2000. The most multi-family homes (3) were built before 1919 and the next most were built between 1919 and 1945.
there were 61 apartments in the municipality. The most common apartment size was 5 rooms of which there were 19. There were single room apartments and 34 apartments with five or more rooms. Of these apartments, a total of 58 apartments (95.1% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 2 apartments (3.3%) were seasonally occupied and 1 apartments (1.6%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 0 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0%.
The historical population is given in the following chart:
Sights
The entire village of Lovatens is designated as part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.
Politics
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 48.05% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SP (18.07%), the Green Party (12.32%) and the FDP (6.57%). In the federal election, a total of 55 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 49.1%.
Economy
, Lovatens had an unemployment rate of 2.7%. , there were 24 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 9 businesses involved in this sector. people were employed in the secondary sector and there were businesses in this sector. 4 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 1 business in this sector. There were 62 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 43.5% of the workforce.
the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 21. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 17, all of which were in agriculture. There were no jobs in the secondary sector. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 4, all in the sale or repair of motor vehicles.
, there were 42 workers who commuted away from the municipality. Of the working population, 11.3% used public transportation to get to work, and 56.5% used a private car.
Religion
From the , 19 or 12.6% were Roman Catholic, while 90 or 59.6% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. There was 1 individual who was Islamic. 40 (or about 26.49% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 1 individuals (or about 0.66% of the population) did not answer the question.
Education
In Lovatens about 51 or (33.8%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 19 or (12.6%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 19 who completed tertiary schooling, 52.6% were Swiss men, 36.8% were Swiss women.
In the 2009/2010 school year there were a total of 17 students in the Lovatens school district. In the Vaud cantonal school system, two years of non-obligatory pre-school are provided by the political districts. During the school year, the political district provided pre-school care for a total of 155 children of which 83 children (53.5%) received subsidized pre-school care. The canton's primary school program requires students to attend for four years. There were 11 students in the municipal primary school program. The obligatory lower secondary school program lasts for six years and there were 6 students in those schools.
, there were 39 students from Lovatens who attended schools outside the municipality.
References
Municipalities of the canton of Vaud
Cultural property of national significance in the canton of Vaud
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articles%20of%20Confederation
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Articles of Confederation
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Articles of Confederation
The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was an agreement among the 13 states of the United States, formerly the Thirteen Colonies, that served as the nation's first frame of government. It was debated by the Second Continental Congress at Independence Hall in Philadelphia between July 1776 and November 1777, and finalized by the Congress on November 15, 1777. It came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 colonial states. A guiding principle of the Articles was the establishment and preservation of the independence and sovereignty of the states. The Articles consciously established a weak federal government, affording it only those powers the former colonies had recognized as belonging to king and parliament. The document provided clearly written rules for how the states' league of friendship, known as the Perpetual Union, would be organized.
While waiting for all states to ratify, the Congress observed the Articles as it conducted business, directing the war effort, conducting diplomacy with foreign states, addressing territorial issues and dealing with Native American relations. Little changed procedurally once the Articles of Confederation went into effect, as ratification did little more than constitutionalize what the Continental Congress had been doing. That body was renamed the Congress of the Confederation; but most Americans continued to call it the Continental Congress, since its organization remained the same.
As the Confederation Congress attempted to govern the continually growing U.S. states, its delegates discovered that the limitations placed upon the central government (such as in assembling delegates, raising funds, and regulating commerce) rendered it ineffective at doing so. As the government's weaknesses became apparent, especially after Shays' Rebellion, some prominent political thinkers in the fledgling union began asking for changes to the Articles. Their hope was to create a stronger government. Initially, in September 1786, some states met to address interstate protectionist trade barriers between them. Shortly thereafter, as more states became interested in meeting to revise the Articles, a meeting was set in Philadelphia on May 25, 1787. This became the Constitutional Convention. Delegates quickly agreed that the defects of the frame of government could not be remedied by altering the Articles, and so went beyond their mandate by replacing it with a new constitution. On March 4, 1789, the government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the Constitution. The new Constitution provided for a much stronger federal government by establishing a chief executive (the president), courts, and taxing powers.
Background and context
The political push to increase cooperation among the then-loyal colonies began with the Albany Congress in 1754 and Benjamin Franklin's proposed Albany Plan, an inter-colonial collaboration to help solve mutual local problems. Over the next two decades, some of the basic concepts it addressed would strengthen; others would weaken, especially in the degree of loyalty (or lack thereof) owed the Crown. Civil disobedience resulted in coercive and quelling measures, such as the passage of what the colonials referred to as the Intolerable Acts in the British Parliament, and armed skirmishes which resulted in dissidents being proclaimed rebels. These actions eroded the number of Crown Loyalists (Tories) among the colonials and, together with the highly effective propaganda campaign of the Patriot leaders, caused an increasing number of colonists to begin agitating for independence from the mother country. In 1775, with events outpacing communications, the Second Continental Congress began acting as the provisional government for the United Colonies.
It was an era of constitution writing—most states were busy at the task—and leaders felt the new nation must have a written constitution; a "rulebook" for how the new nation should function. During the war, Congress exercised an unprecedented level of political, diplomatic, military and economic authority. It adopted trade restrictions, established and maintained an army, issued fiat money, created a military code and negotiated with foreign governments.
To transform themselves from outlaws into a legitimate nation, the colonists needed international recognition for their cause and foreign allies to support it. In early 1776, Thomas Paine argued in the closing pages of the first edition of Common Sense that the "custom of nations" demanded a formal declaration of American independence if any European power were to mediate a peace between the Americans and Great Britain. The monarchies of France and Spain, in particular, could not be expected to aid those they considered rebels against another legitimate monarch. Foreign courts needed to have American grievances laid before them persuasively in a "manifesto" which could also reassure them that the Americans would be reliable trading partners. Without such a declaration, Paine concluded, "[t]he custom of all courts is against us, and will be so, until, by an independence, we take rank with other nations."
Beyond improving their existing association, the records of the Second Continental Congress show that the need for a declaration of independence was intimately linked with the demands of international relations. On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee introduced a resolution before the Continental Congress declaring the colonies independent; at the same time, he also urged Congress to resolve "to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances" and to prepare a plan of confederation for the newly independent states. Congress then created three overlapping committees to draft the Declaration, a model treaty, and the Articles of Confederation. The Declaration announced the states' entry into the international system; the model treaty was designed to establish amity and commerce with other states; and the Articles of Confederation, which established "a firm league" among the thirteen free and independent states, constituted an international agreement to set up central institutions for the conduct of vital domestic and foreign affairs.
Drafting
On June 12, 1776, a day after appointing the Committee of Five to prepare a draft of the Declaration of Independence, the Second Continental Congress resolved to appoint a committee of 13 with one representative from each colony to prepare a draft of a constitution for a union of the states. The committee was made up of the following individuals:
John Dickinson (Pennsylvania, chairman of the committee)
Samuel Adams (Massachusetts)
Josiah Bartlett (New Hampshire)
Button Gwinnett (Georgia)
Joseph Hewes (North Carolina)
Stephen Hopkins (Rhode Island)
Robert R. Livingston (New York)
Thomas McKean (Delaware)
Thomas Nelson (Virginia)
Edward Rutledge (South Carolina)
Roger Sherman (Connecticut)
Thomas Stone (Maryland)
Francis Hopkinson (New Jersey, added to the committee last)
The committee met frequently, and chairman John Dickinson presented their results to the Congress on July 12, 1776. Afterward, there were long debates on such issues as state sovereignty, the exact powers to be given to Congress, whether to have a judiciary, western land claims, and voting procedures. To further complicate work on the constitution, Congress was forced to leave Philadelphia twice, for Baltimore, Maryland, in the winter of 1776, and later for Lancaster then York, Pennsylvania, in the fall of 1777, to evade advancing British troops. Even so, the committee continued with its work.
The final draft of the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was completed on November 15, 1777. Consensus was achieved by including language guaranteeing that each state retained its sovereignty, leaving the matter of western land claims in the hands of the individual states, including language stating that votes in Congress would be en bloc by state, and establishing a unicameral legislature with limited and clearly delineated powers.
Ratification
The Articles of Confederation was submitted to the states for ratification in late November 1777. The first state to ratify was Virginia on December 16, 1777; 12 states had ratified the Articles by February 1779, 14 months into the process. The lone holdout, Maryland, refused to go along until the landed states, especially Virginia, had indicated they were prepared to cede their claims west of the Ohio River to the Union. It would be two years before the Maryland General Assembly became satisfied that the various states would follow through, and voted to ratify. During this time, Congress observed the Articles as its de facto frame of government. Maryland finally ratified the Articles on February 2, 1781. Congress was informed of Maryland's assent on March 1, and officially proclaimed the Articles of Confederation to be the law of the land.
The several states ratified the Articles of Confederation on the following dates:
Article summaries
The Articles of Confederation contain a preamble, thirteen articles, a conclusion, and a signatory section. The individual articles set the rules for current and future operations of the confederation's central government. Under the Articles, the states retained sovereignty over all governmental functions not specifically relinquished to the national Congress, which was empowered to make war and peace, negotiate diplomatic and commercial agreements with foreign countries, and to resolve disputes between the states. The document also stipulates that its provisions "shall be inviolably observed by every state" and that "the Union shall be perpetual".
Summary of the purpose and content of each of the 13 articles:
Establishes the name of the confederation with these words: "The stile of this confederacy shall be 'The United States of America.'"
Asserts the sovereignty of each state, except for the specific powers delegated to the confederation government: "Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated."
Declares the purpose of the confederation: "The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever."
Elaborates upon the intent "to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse among the people of the different States in this union," and to establish equal treatment and freedom of movement for the free inhabitants of each state to pass unhindered between the states, excluding "paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice." All these people are entitled to equal rights established by the state into which they travel. If a crime is committed in one state and the perpetrator flees to another state, if caught they will be extradited to and tried in the state in which the crime was committed.
Allocates one vote in the Congress of the Confederation (the "United States in Congress Assembled") to each state, which is entitled to a delegation of between two and seven members. Members of Congress are to be appointed by state legislatures. No congressman may serve more than three out of any six years.
Only the central government may declare war, or conduct foreign political or commercial relations. No state or official may accept foreign gifts or titles, and granting any title of nobility is forbidden to all. No states may form any sub-national groups. No state may tax or interfere with treaty stipulations already proposed. No state may wage war without permission of Congress, unless invaded or under imminent attack on the frontier; no state may maintain a peacetime standing army or navy, unless infested by pirates, but every State is required to keep ready, a well-trained, disciplined, and equipped militia.
Whenever an army is raised for common defense, the state legislatures shall assign military ranks of colonel and below.
Expenditures by the United States of America will be paid with funds raised by state legislatures, and apportioned to the states in proportion to the real property values of each.
Powers and functions of the United States in Congress Assembled.
Grants to the United States in Congress assembled the sole and exclusive right and power to determine peace and war; to exchange ambassadors; to enter into treaties and alliances, with some provisos; to establish rules for deciding all cases of captures or prizes on land or water; to grant letters of marque and reprisal (documents authorizing privateers) in times of peace; to appoint courts for the trial of pirates and crimes committed on the high seas; to establish courts for appeals in all cases of captures, but no member of Congress may be appointed a judge; to set weights and measures (including coins), and for Congress to serve as a final court for disputes between states.
The court will be composed of jointly appointed commissioners or Congress shall appoint them. Each commissioner is bound by oath to be impartial. The court's decision is final.
Congress shall regulate the post offices; appoint officers in the military; and regulate the armed forces.
The United States in Congress assembled may appoint a president who shall not serve longer than one year per three-year term of the Congress.
Congress may request requisitions (demands for payments or supplies) from the states in proportion with their population, or take credit.
Congress may not declare war, enter into treaties and alliances, appropriate money, or appoint a commander in chief without nine states assenting. Congress shall keep a journal of proceedings and adjourn for periods not to exceed six months.
When Congress is in recess, any of the powers of Congress may be executed by "The committee of the states, or any nine of them", except for those powers of Congress which require nine states in Congress to execute.
If Canada [referring to the British Province of Quebec] accedes to this confederation, it will be admitted. No other colony could be admitted without the consent of nine states.
Affirms that the Confederation will honor all bills of credit incurred, monies borrowed, and debts contracted by Congress before the existence of the Articles.
Declares that the Articles shall be perpetual, and may be altered only with the approval of Congress and the ratification of all the state legislatures.
Congress under the Articles
Army
Under the Articles, Congress had the authority to regulate and fund the Continental Army, but it lacked the power to compel the States to comply with requests for either troops or funding. This left the military vulnerable to inadequate funding, supplies, and even food. Further, although the Articles enabled the states to present a unified front when dealing with the European powers, as a tool to build a centralized war-making government, they were largely a failure; Historian Bruce Chadwick wrote:
Phelps wrote:
The Continental Congress, before the Articles were approved, had promised soldiers a pension of half pay for life. However Congress had no power to compel the states to fund this obligation, and as the war wound down after the victory at Yorktown the sense of urgency to support the military was no longer a factor. No progress was made in Congress during the winter of 1783–84. General Henry Knox, who would later become the first Secretary of War under the Constitution, blamed the weaknesses of the Articles for the inability of the government to fund the army. The army had long been supportive of a strong union.
Knox wrote:
As Congress failed to act on the petitions, Knox wrote to Gouverneur Morris, four years before the Philadelphia Convention was convened, "As the present Constitution is so defective, why do not you great men call the people together and tell them so; that is, to have a convention of the States to form a better Constitution."
Once the war had been won, the Continental Army was largely disbanded. A very small national force was maintained to man the frontier forts and to protect against Native American attacks. Meanwhile, each of the states had an army (or militia), and 11 of them had navies. The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met. In 1783, George Washington defused the Newburgh conspiracy, but riots by unpaid Pennsylvania veterans forced Congress to leave Philadelphia temporarily.
The Congress from time to time during the Revolutionary War requisitioned troops from the states. Any contributions were voluntary, and in the debates of 1788, the Federalists (who supported the proposed new Constitution) claimed that state politicians acted unilaterally, and contributed when the Continental army protected their state's interests. The Anti-Federalists claimed that state politicians understood their duty to the Union and contributed to advance its needs. Dougherty (2009) concludes that generally the States' behavior validated the Federalist analysis. This helps explain why the Articles of Confederation needed reforms.
Foreign policy
The 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended hostilities with Great Britain, languished in Congress for several months because too few delegates were present at any one time to constitute a quorum so that it could be ratified. Afterward, the problem only got worse as Congress had no power to enforce attendance. Rarely did more than half of the roughly sixty delegates attend a session of Congress at the time, causing difficulties in raising a quorum. The resulting paralysis embarrassed and frustrated many American nationalists, including George Washington. Many of the most prominent national leaders, such as Washington, John Adams, John Hancock, and Benjamin Franklin, retired from public life, served as foreign delegates, or held office in state governments; and for the general public, local government and self-rule seemed quite satisfactory. This served to exacerbate Congress's impotence.
Inherent weaknesses in the confederation's frame of government also frustrated the ability of the government to conduct foreign policy. In 1786, Thomas Jefferson, concerned over the failure of Congress to fund an American naval force to confront the Barbary pirates, wrote in a diplomatic correspondence to James Monroe that, "It will be said there is no money in the treasury. There never will be money in the treasury till the Confederacy shows its teeth."
Furthermore, the 1786 Jay–Gardoqui Treaty with Spain also showed weakness in foreign policy. In this treaty, which was never ratified, the United States was to give up rights to use the Mississippi River for 25 years, which would have economically strangled the settlers west of the Appalachian Mountains. Finally, due to the Confederation's military weakness, it could not compel the British army to leave frontier forts which were on American soil — forts which, in 1783, the British promised to leave, but which they delayed leaving pending U.S. implementation of other provisions such as ending action against Loyalists and allowing them to seek compensation. This incomplete British implementation of the Treaty of Paris would later be resolved by the implementation of Jay's Treaty in 1795 after the federal Constitution came into force.
Taxation and commerce
Under the Articles of Confederation, the central government's power was kept quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions but lacked enforcement powers. Implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures.
Congress was denied any powers of taxation: it could only request money from the states. The states often failed to meet these requests in full, leaving both Congress and the Continental Army chronically short of money. As more money was printed by Congress, the continental dollars depreciated. In 1779, George Washington wrote to John Jay, who was serving as the president of the Continental Congress, "that a wagon load of money will scarcely purchase a wagon load of provisions." Mr. Jay and the Congress responded in May by requesting $45 million from the States. In an appeal to the States to comply, Jay wrote that the taxes were "the price of liberty, the peace, and the safety of yourselves and posterity." He argued that Americans should avoid having it said "that America had no sooner become independent than she became insolvent" or that "her infant glories and growing fame were obscured and tarnished by broken contracts and violated faith." The States did not respond with any of the money requested from them.
Congress had also been denied the power to regulate either foreign trade or interstate commerce and, as a result, all of the States maintained control over their own trade policies. The states and the Confederation Congress both incurred large debts during the Revolutionary War, and how to repay those debts became a major issue of debate following the War. Some States paid off their war debts and others did not. Federal assumption of the states' war debts became a major issue in the deliberations of the Constitutional Convention.
Accomplishments
Nevertheless, the Confederation Congress did take two actions with long-lasting impact. The Land Ordinance of 1785 and Northwest Ordinance created territorial government, set up protocols for the admission of new states and the division of land into useful units, and set aside land in each township for public use. This system represented a sharp break from imperial colonization, as in Europe, and it established the precedent by which the national (later, federal) government would be sovereign and expand westward—as opposed to the existing states doing so under their sovereignty.
The Land Ordinance of 1785 established both the general practices of land surveying in the west and northwest and the land ownership provisions used throughout the later westward expansion beyond the Mississippi River. Frontier lands were surveyed into the now-familiar squares of land called the township (36 square miles), the section (one square mile), and the quarter section (160 acres). This system was carried forward to most of the States west of the Mississippi (excluding areas of Texas and California that had already been surveyed and divided up by the Spanish Empire). Then, when the Homestead Act was enacted in 1867, the quarter section became the basic unit of land that was granted to new settler-farmers.
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 noted the agreement of the original states to give up northwestern land claims, organized the Northwest Territory and laid the groundwork for the eventual creation of new states. Although it did not happen under the articles, the land north of the Ohio River and west of the (present) western border of Pennsylvania ceded by Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, eventually became the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and the part of Minnesota that is east of the Mississippi River. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also made great advances in the abolition of slavery. New states admitted to the union in this territory would never be slave states.
No new states were admitted to the Union under the Articles of Confederation. The Articles provided for a blanket acceptance of the Province of Quebec (referred to as "Canada" in the Articles) into the United States if it chose to do so. It did not, and the subsequent Constitution carried no such special provision of admission. Additionally, ordinances to admit Frankland (later modified to Franklin), Kentucky, and Vermont to the Union were considered, but none were approved.
Presidents of Congress
Under the Articles of Confederation, the presiding officer of Congress—referred to in many official records as President of the United States in Congress Assembled—chaired the Committee of the States when Congress was in recess, and performed other administrative functions. He was not, however, an executive in the way the later president of the United States is a chief executive, since all of the functions he executed were under the direct control of Congress.
There were 10 presidents of Congress under the Articles. The first, Samuel Huntington, had been serving as president of the Continental Congress since September 28, 1779.
U.S. under the Articles
The peace treaty left the United States independent and at peace but with an unsettled governmental structure. The Articles envisioned a permanent confederation but granted to the Congress—the only federal institution—little power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were enforced. There was no president, no executive agencies, no judiciary, and no tax base. The absence of a tax base meant that there was no way to pay off state and national debts from the war years except by requesting money from the states, which seldom arrived. Although historians generally agree that the Articles were too weak to hold the fast-growing nation together, they do give credit to the settlement of the western issue, as the states voluntarily turned over their lands to national control.
By 1783, with the end of the British blockade, the new nation was regaining its prosperity. However, trade opportunities were restricted by the mercantilism of the British and French empires. The ports of the British West Indies were closed to all staple products which were not carried in British ships. France and Spain established similar policies. Simultaneously, new manufacturers faced sharp competition from British products which were suddenly available again. Political unrest in several states and efforts by debtors to use popular government to erase their debts increased the anxiety of the political and economic elites which had led the Revolution. The apparent inability of the Congress to redeem the public obligations (debts) incurred during the war, or to become a forum for productive cooperation among the states to encourage commerce and economic development, only aggravated a gloomy situation. In 1786–87, Shays' Rebellion, an uprising of dissidents in western Massachusetts against the state court system, threatened the stability of state government.
The Continental Congress printed paper money which was so depreciated that it ceased to pass as currency, spawning the expression "not worth a continental". Congress could not levy taxes and could only make requisitions upon the States. Less than a million and a half dollars came into the treasury between 1781 and 1784, although the governors had been asked for two million in 1783 alone.
When John Adams went to London in 1785 as the first representative of the United States, he found it impossible to secure a treaty for unrestricted commerce. Demands were made for favors and there was no assurance that individual states would agree to a treaty. Adams stated it was necessary for the States to confer the power of passing navigation laws to Congress, or that the States themselves pass retaliatory acts against Great Britain. Congress had already requested and failed to get power over navigation laws. Meanwhile, each State acted individually against Great Britain to little effect. When other New England states closed their ports to British shipping, Connecticut hastened to profit by opening its ports.
By 1787, Congress was unable to protect manufacturing and shipping. State legislatures were unable or unwilling to resist attacks upon private contracts and public credit. Land speculators expected no rise in values when the government could not defend its borders nor protect its frontier population.
The idea of a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation grew in favor. Alexander Hamilton realized while serving as Washington's top aide that a strong central government was necessary to avoid foreign intervention and allay the frustrations due to an ineffectual Congress. Hamilton led a group of like-minded nationalists, won Washington's endorsement, and convened the Annapolis Convention in 1786 to petition Congress to call a constitutional convention to meet in Philadelphia to remedy the long-term crisis.
Signatures
The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles for distribution to the states on November 15, 1777. A copy was made for each state and one was kept by the Congress. On November 28, the copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned, and the cover letter, dated November 17, had only the signatures of Henry Laurens and Charles Thomson, who were the President and Secretary to the Congress.
The Articles, however, were unsigned, and the date was blank. Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on June 27, 1778. They ordered a final copy prepared (the one in the National Archives), and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification.
On July 9, 1778, the prepared copy was ready. They dated it and began to sign. They also requested each of the remaining states to notify its delegation when ratification was completed. On that date, delegates present from New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia and South Carolina signed the Articles to indicate that their states had ratified. New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland could not, since their states had not ratified. North Carolina and Georgia also were unable to sign that day, since their delegations were absent.
After the first signing, some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended. For example, John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on August 8. John Penn was the first of North Carolina's delegates to arrive (on July 10), and the delegation signed the Articles on July 21, 1778.
The other states had to wait until they ratified the Articles and notified their Congressional delegation. Georgia signed on July 24, New Jersey on November 26, and Delaware on February 12, 1779. Maryland refused to ratify the Articles until every state had ceded its western land claims. Chevalier de La Luzerne, French Minister to the United States, felt that the Articles would help strengthen the American government. In 1780, when Maryland requested France provide naval forces in the Chesapeake Bay for protection from the British (who were conducting raids in the lower part of the bay), he indicated that French Admiral Destouches would do what he could but La Luzerne also "sharply pressed" Maryland to ratify the Articles, thus suggesting the two issues were related.
On February 2, 1781, the much-awaited decision was taken by the Maryland General Assembly in Annapolis. As the last piece of business during the afternoon Session, "among engrossed Bills" was "signed and sealed by Governor Thomas Sim Lee in the Senate Chamber, in the presence of the members of both Houses... an Act to empower the delegates of this state in Congress to subscribe and ratify the articles of confederation" and perpetual union among the states. The Senate then adjourned "to the first Monday in August next." The decision of Maryland to ratify the Articles was reported to the Continental Congress on February 12. The confirmation signing of the Articles by the two Maryland delegates took place in Philadelphia at noon time on March 1, 1781, and was celebrated in the afternoon. With these events, the Articles were entered into force and the United States of America came into being as a sovereign federal state.
Congress had debated the Articles for over a year and a half, and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years. Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates, and some of the signers had only recently arrived. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were signed by a group of men who were never present in the Congress at the same time.
Signers
The signers and the states they represented were:
Connecticut
Roger Sherman
Samuel Huntington
Oliver Wolcott
Titus Hosmer
Andrew Adams
Delaware
Thomas McKean
John Dickinson
Nicholas Van Dyke
Georgia
John Walton
Edward Telfair
Edward Langworthy
Maryland
John Hanson
Daniel Carroll
Massachusetts Bay
John Hancock
Samuel Adams
Elbridge Gerry
Francis Dana
James Lovell
Samuel Holten
New Hampshire
Josiah Bartlett
John Wentworth Jr.
New Jersey
John Witherspoon
Nathaniel Scudder
New York
James Duane
Francis Lewis
William Duer
Gouverneur Morris
North Carolina
John Penn
Cornelius Harnett
John Williams
Pennsylvania
Robert Morris
Daniel Roberdeau
Jonathan Bayard Smith
William Clingan
Joseph Reed
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
William Ellery
Henry Marchant
John Collins
South Carolina
Henry Laurens
William Henry Drayton
John Mathews
Richard Hutson
Thomas Heyward Jr.
Virginia
Richard Henry Lee
John Banister
Thomas Adams
John Harvie
Francis Lightfoot Lee
Roger Sherman (Connecticut) was the only person to sign all four great state papers of the United States: the Continental Association, the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.
Robert Morris (Pennsylvania) signed three of the great state papers of the United States: the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.
John Dickinson (Delaware), Daniel Carroll (Maryland) and Gouverneur Morris (New York), along with Sherman and Robert Morris, were the only five people to sign both the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution (Gouverneur Morris represented Pennsylvania when signing the Constitution).
Parchment pages
Original parchment pages of the Articles of Confederation, National Archives and Records Administration.
Revision and replacement
In September 1786, delegates from five states met at what became known as the Annapolis Convention to discuss the need for reversing the protectionist interstate trade barriers that each state had erected. At its conclusion, delegates voted to invite all states to a larger convention to be held in Philadelphia in 1787. The Confederation Congress later endorsed this convention "for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation". Although the states' representatives to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia were only authorized to amend the Articles, delegates held secret, closed-door sessions and wrote a new constitution. The new frame of government gave much more power to the central government, but characterization of the result is disputed. The general goal of the authors was to get close to a republic as defined by the philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment, while trying to address the many difficulties of the interstate relationships. Historian Forrest McDonald, using the ideas of James Madison from Federalist 39, described the change this way:
In May 1786, Charles Pinckney of South Carolina proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. Recommended changes included granting Congress power over foreign and domestic commerce, and providing means for Congress to collect money from state treasuries. Unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations, however, and Congress failed to reach a consensus. The weakness of the Articles in establishing an effective unifying government was underscored by the threat of internal conflict both within and between the states, especially after Shays' Rebellion threatened to topple the state government of Massachusetts.
Historian Ralph Ketcham commented on the opinions of Patrick Henry, George Mason, and other Anti-Federalists who were not so eager to give up the local autonomy won by the revolution:
Historians have given many reasons for the perceived need to replace the articles in 1787. Jillson and Wilson (1994) point to the financial weakness as well as the norms, rules and institutional structures of the Congress, and the propensity to divide along sectional lines.
Rakove identifies several factors that explain the collapse of the Confederation. The lack of compulsory direct taxation power was objectionable to those wanting a strong centralized state or expecting to benefit from such power. It could not collect customs after the war because tariffs were vetoed by Rhode Island. Rakove concludes that their failure to implement national measures "stemmed not from a heady sense of independence but rather from the enormous difficulties that all the states encountered in collecting taxes, mustering men, and gathering supplies from a war-weary populace." The second group of factors Rakove identified derived from the substantive nature of the problems the Continental Congress confronted after 1783, especially the inability to create a strong foreign policy. Finally, the Confederation's lack of coercive power reduced the likelihood for profit to be made by political means, thus potential rulers were uninspired to seek power.
When the war ended in 1783, certain special interests had incentives to create a new "merchant state," much like the British state people had rebelled against. In particular, holders of war scrip and land speculators wanted a central government to pay off scrip at face value and to legalize western land holdings with disputed claims. Also, manufacturers wanted a high tariff as a barrier to foreign goods, but competition among states made this impossible without a central government.
Legitimacy of closing down
Two prominent political leaders in the Confederation, John Jay of New York and Thomas Burke of North Carolina believed that "the authority of the congress rested on the prior acts of the several states, to which the states gave their voluntary consent, and until those obligations were fulfilled, neither nullification of the authority of congress, exercising its due powers, nor secession from the compact itself was consistent with the terms of their original pledges."
According to Article XIII of the Confederation, any alteration had to be approved unanimously:
[T]he Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State.
On the other hand, Article VII of the proposed Constitution stated that it would become effective after ratification by a mere nine states, without unanimity:
The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.
The apparent tension between these two provisions was addressed at the time, and remains a topic of scholarly discussion. In 1788, James Madison remarked (in Federalist No. 40) that the issue had become moot: "As this objection… has been in a manner waived by those who have criticised the powers of the convention, I dismiss it without further observation." Nevertheless, it is a historical and legal question whether opponents of the Constitution could have plausibly attacked the Constitution on that ground. At the time, there were state legislators who argued that the Constitution was not an alteration of the Articles of Confederation, but rather would be a complete replacement so the unanimity rule did not apply. Moreover, the Confederation had proven woefully inadequate and therefore was supposedly no longer binding.
Modern scholars such as Francisco Forrest Martin agree that the Articles of Confederation had lost its binding force because many states had violated it, and thus "other states-parties did not have to comply with the Articles' unanimous consent rule". In contrast, law professor Akhil Amar suggests that there may not have really been any conflict between the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution on this point; Article VI of the Confederation specifically allowed side deals among states, and the Constitution could be viewed as a side deal until all states ratified it.
Final months
On July 3, 1788, the Congress received New Hampshire's all-important ninth ratification of the proposed Constitution, thus, according to its terms, establishing it as the new framework of governance for the ratifying states. The following day delegates considered a bill to admit Kentucky into the Union as a sovereign state. The discussion ended with Congress making the determination that, in light of this development, it would be "unadvisable" to admit Kentucky into the Union, as it could do so "under the Articles of Confederation" only, but not "under the Constitution".
By the end of July 1788, 11 of the 13 states had ratified the new Constitution. Congress continued to convene under the Articles with a quorum until October. On Saturday, September 13, 1788, the Confederation Congress voted the resolve to implement the new Constitution, and on Monday, September 15 published an announcement that the new Constitution had been ratified by the necessary nine states, set the first Wednesday in January 1789 for appointing electors, set the first Wednesday in February 1789 for the presidential electors to meet and vote for a new president, and set the first Wednesday of March 1789 as the day "for commencing proceedings" under the new Constitution. On that same September 13, it determined that New York would remain the national capital.
See also
Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture
Founding Fathers of the United States
Journals of the Continental Congress
History of the United States (1776–1789)
Libertarianism
Perpetual Union
Vetocracy
Citations
General and cited references
(Collection published 1995.)
External links
Text version of the Articles of Confederation
Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union
Articles of Confederation and related resources, Library of Congress
Today in History: November 15, Library of Congress
United States Constitution Online—The Articles of Confederation
Free Download of Articles of Confederation Audio
Mobile friendly version of the Articles of Confederation
1777 in Pennsylvania
1777 in the United States
1781 in American law
1781 in the United States
Defunct constitutions
Documents of the American Revolution
Federalism in the United States
History of York County, Pennsylvania
Legal history of the United States
Ordinances of the Continental Congress
Philadelphia in the American Revolution
Political charters
United States documents
York, Pennsylvania
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek%20Boateng
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Derek Boateng
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Derek Boateng
Derek Owusu Boateng (born 2 May 1983) is a Ghanaian former professional footballer who played as a defensive midfielder. Born in Ghana, Boateng went on to play professional football in Greece, Sweden, Israel, Germany, Spain, Ukraine, England, and the United States during a career that spanned between 1999 and 2017. A full international between 2001 and 2013, he won 47 caps for the Ghana national team and represented his country at the 2006 and 2010 FIFA World Cups.
Club career
Early career
Boateng was born in Accra, Greater Accra, where he played for the local side Liberty Professionals.
Greece
He signed for Kalamata F.C. in Greece when he was 16. In 2001, Boateng joined another Greek Super League club Panathinaikos. In 2002, Boateng was unable to keep his place in the Panathinaikos squad and was sent on loan to OFI Crete.
AIK
He signed for AIK in August 2003. In the 2004 season, AIK was relegated from Allsvenskan for the third time in the history of the club. In the following season, AIK gained promotion after winning the Superettan, distancing runners-up Östers IF by nine points. Boateng extended his contract with AIK for one more year until the end of 2007. When he left for Beitar Jerusalem, Boateng stated in an interview that he loves Sweden and AIK, and that he one day will come back to Allsvenskan and AIK the team he supports.
Beitar Jerusalem
In July 2006, Boateng signed with Beitar Jerusalem until January 2009. Boateng helped Beitar Jerusalem to win the league for the fifth time in their history, and for the first time for 10 years, contributing four goals in the campaign.
The 2007–08 season started off poorly for Boateng, as he got sent off during Beitar Jerusalem's first official game of the season, in leg one of the second qualifying round for the 2007–08 UEFA Champions League, away to F.C. Copenhagen. Beitar Jerusalem lost 2–1 on aggregate and were eliminated. Boateng ended the season with another championship for Beitar Jerusalem. At the Israel State Cup final, Boateng missed a penalty in a thrilling penalty shootout against Hapoel Tel Aviv, but Beitar Jerusalem secured the title with a 5–4 win at the shootout, and secured an historical double.
The 2008–09 season started with yet another early elimination at the second qualification round for the UEFA Champions League, this time with a 5–0 away defeat to Wisła Kraków, and 6–2 in aggregate.
Whilst with Beitar, Boateng received financial backing whilst raising a lawsuit against his former agent.
Köln and Getafe
On 21 January 2009, Boateng signed a four-year contract with 1. FC Köln. However, on 31 July 2009, Getafe CF signed him from Köln for one million euros. He stayed at the Spanish club for just over two seasons, making 61 appearances and scoring two goals.
Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk
On 20 June 2011, Boateng completed a move to Ukrainian club FC Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk, signing a four-year contract. For Dnipro Derek mostly played in the 2011–12, while the next season he was side benched by the head coach after playing the first couple of games for the first team. Later after playing some games for the reserve team, Boateng lost interest of playing for the club at all.
Fulham
In May 2013, Boateng confirmed that he had moved on a free transfer to Premier League side Fulham on Ghanaian radio. He said, "I have signed a two-year deal with Fulham and will be training with them for the first time [on Tuesday]. "I believe it's a good move and I'm finally happy to see this deal [confirmed]."
Fulham officially confirmed Boateng signed a one-year deal with an option for a further year on 22 May 2013. He featured in the 2013–14 English Premiership opener against Sunderland where he played only 65 minutes and was substituted by Giorgos Karagounis.
Rayo Vallecano and Eibar
After his contract with Fulham expired, Boateng decided to join Spanish club Rayo Vallecano on 3 June 2014. However, only two months later, he was deemed surplus to requirements by manager Paco Jémez, and rescinded his link with the Madrid outfit on 18 August.
Hours after rescinding with Rayo, Boateng signed a one-year deal with fellow league club SD Eibar.
After leaving Eibar, Boateng returned to Beitar Jerusalem to train with them whilst looking for a move in the upcoming transfer window.
Rayo OKC
On 25 January 2016, Boateng signed with expansion side Rayo OKC of the North American Soccer League.
OFI FC
On 30 January 2017, Boateng signed with Football League side OFI Crete F.C. till the end of the season. It is expected with his experience to help the club in his effort to be promoted in the Superleague Greece.
International career
While playing for Panathinaikos in 2001, Boateng also played for the Ghana national football team at the FIFA World Youth Championship in Argentina, in which Ghana progressed to the final. After participating in a friendly with Ghana against French club Nice, he was selected for the Ghana squad at the 2006 FIFA World Cup. He made his first FIFA World Cup appearance on 17 June 2006, when he replaced Otto Addo at half-time in the 2–0 win against the Czech Republic. He was also selected for the national team for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, in which Ghana progressed to the quarter-finals.
Career statistics
International
Appearances and goals by national team and year
Honours
AIK
Superettan: 2005
Beitar Jerusalem
Israeli Premier League: 2006–07, 2007–08
Israel State Cup: 2008
Ghana U20
FIFA World Youth Championship runner-up: 2001
Individual
2007–08 Israeli Premier League Best Foreign Player of the Year
References
External links
Derek Boateng at aik.se
1983 births
Living people
Ghanaian men's footballers
Footballers from Accra
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decapoda
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Decapoda
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Decapoda
The Decapoda or decapods (literally "ten-footed") are an order of crustaceans within the class Malacostraca, and includes crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, and prawns. Most decapods are scavengers. The order is estimated to contain nearly 15,000 extant species in around 2,700 genera, with around 3,300 fossil species. Nearly half of these species are crabs, with the shrimp (about 3,000 species) and Anomura including hermit crabs, porcelain crabs, squat lobsters (about 2500 species) making up the bulk of the remainder. The earliest fossils of the group date to the Devonian.
Anatomy
Decapods can have as many as 38 appendages, arranged in one pair per body segment. As the name Decapoda (from the Greek , , "ten", and , -pod, "foot") implies, ten of these appendages are considered legs. They are the pereiopods, found on the last five thoracic segments. In many decapods, one pair of these "legs" has enlarged pincers, called chelae, with the legs being called chelipeds. In front of the pereiopods are three pairs of maxillipeds that function as feeding appendages. The head has five pairs of appendages, including mouthparts, antennae, and antennules. There are five more pairs of appendages on the abdomen. They are called pleopods. There is one final pair called uropods, which, with the telson, form the tail fan.
Evolution
A 2019 molecular clock analysis suggested decapods originated in the Late Ordovician around 455 million years ago, with the Dendrobranchiata (prawns) being the first group to diverge. The remaining group, called Pleocyemata, then diverged between the swimming shrimp groupings and the crawling/walking group called Reptantia, consisting of lobsters and crabs. High species diversification can be traced to the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, which coincides with the rise and spread of modern coral reefs, a key habitat for the decapods. Despite the inferred early origin, the oldest fossils of the group such as Palaeopalaemon only date to the Late Devonian.
The cladogram below shows the internal relationships of Decapoda, from analysis by Wolfe et al. (2019).
In the cladogram above, the clade Glypheidea is excluded due to lack of sufficient DNA evidence, but is likely the sister clade to Polychelida, within Reptantia.
Classification
Classification within the order Decapoda depends on the structure of the gills and legs, and the way in which the larvae develop, giving rise to two suborders: Dendrobranchiata and Pleocyemata. The Dendrobranchiata consist of prawns, including many species colloquially referred to as "shrimp", such as the "white shrimp", Litopenaeus setiferus. The Pleocyemata include the remaining groups, including "true shrimp". Those groups that usually walk rather than swim (Pleocyemata, excluding Stenopodidea and Caridea) form a clade called Reptantia.
This classification to the level of superfamilies follows De Grave et al.
Order Decapoda Latreille, 1802
Suborder Dendrobranchiata Bate, 1888
Penaeoidea Rafinesque, 1815
Sergestoidea Dana, 1852
Suborder Pleocyemata Burkenroad, 1963
Infraorder Stenopodidea Bate, 1888
Infraorder Caridea Dana, 1852
Procaridoidea Chace & Manning, 1972
Galatheacaridoidea Vereshchaka, 1997
Pasiphaeoidea Dana, 1852
Oplophoroidea Dana, 1852
Atyoidea De Haan, 1849
Bresilioidea Calman, 1896
Nematocarcinoidea Smith, 1884
Psalidopodoidea Wood-....., 1874
Stylodactyloidea Bate, 1888
Campylonotoidea Sollaud, 1913
Palaemonoidea Rafinesque, 1815
Alpheoidea Rafinesque, 1815
Processoidea Ortmann, 1896
Pandaloidea Haworth, 1825
Physetocaridoidea Chace, 1940
Crangonoidea Haworth, 1825
Infraorder Astacidea Latreille, 1802
Enoplometopoidea de Saint Laurent, 1988
Nephropoidea Dana, 1852
Astacoidea Latreille, 1802
Parastacoidea Huxley, 1879
Infraorder Glypheidea Winckler, 1882
Glypheoidea Winckler, 1882
Infraorder Axiidea de Saint Laurent, 1979b
Infraorder Gebiidea de Saint Laurent, 1979
Infraorder Achelata Scholtz & Richter, 1995
Infraorder Polychelida Scholtz & Richter, 1995
Infraorder Anomura MacLeay, 1838
Aegloidea Dana, 1852
Galatheoidea Samouelle, 1819
Hippoidea Latreille, 1825a
Chirostyloidea Ortmann, 1892
Lomisoidea Bouvier, 1895
Paguroidea Latreille, 1802
Infraorder Brachyura Linnaeus, 1758
Section Dromiacea De Haan, 1833
Dromioidea De Haan, 1833
Homolodromioidea Alcock, 1900
Homoloidea De Haan, 1839
Section Raninoida De Haan, 1839
Section Cyclodorippoida Ortmann, 1892
Section Eubrachyura de Saint Laurent, 1980
Subsection Heterotremata Guinot, 1977
Aethroidea Dana, 1851
Bellioidea Dana, 1852
Bythograeoidea Williams, 1980
Calappoidea De Haan, 1833
Cancroidea Latreille, 1802
Carpilioidea Ortmann, 1893
Cheiragonoidea Ortmann, 1893
Corystoidea Samouelle, 1819
Dairoidea Serène, 1965
Dorippoidea MacLeay, 1838
Eriphioidea MacLeay, 1838
Gecarcinucoidea Rathbun, 1904
Goneplacoidea MacLeay, 1838
Hexapodoidea Miers, 1886
Leucosioidea Samouelle, 1819
Majoidea Samouelle, 1819
Orithyioidea Dana, 1852c
Palicoidea Bouvier, 1898
Parthenopoidea MacLeay,
Pilumnoidea Samouelle, 1819
Portunoidea Rafinesque, 1815
Potamoidea Ortmann, 1896
Pseudothelphusoidea Ortmann, 1893
Pseudozioidea Alcock, 1898
Retroplumoidea Gill, 1894
Trapezioidea Miers, 1886
Trichodactyloidea H. Milne-Edwards, 1853
Xanthoidea MacLeay, 1838
Subsection Thoracotremata Guinot, 1977
Cryptochiroidea Paul'son, 1875
Grapsoidea MacLeay, 1838
Ocypodoidea Rafinesque, 1815
Pinnotheroidea De Haan, 1833
See also
List of Atlantic decapod species
Phylogeny of Malacostraca
References
External links
Decapod Crustacea "Tree of Life" page at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County
Crustacean orders
Extant Devonian first appearances
Taxa named by Pierre André Latreille
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth%20Patrick
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Ruth Patrick
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Ruth Patrick
Ruth Myrtle Patrick (November 26, 1907 – September 23, 2013) was an American botanist and limnologist specializing in diatoms and freshwater ecology. She authored more than 200 scientific papers, developed ways to measure the health of freshwater ecosystems and established numerous research facilities.
Early life and education
Ruth Patrick was the daughter of Frank Patrick, a banker, and lawyer. Frank had a degree in botany from Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, and was a hobbyist scientist. He often took Ruth and her sister on Sunday afternoons to collect specimens, especially diatoms, from streams. This sparked a lifelong interest in diatoms and ecology. Ruth Patrick recalls that she "collected everything: worms, mushrooms, plants, rocks. I remember the feeling I got when my father would roll back the top of his big desk in the library and roll out the microscope... it was miraculous, looking through a window at the whole other world." Ruth attended the Sunset Hill School in Kansas City, Missouri, graduating in 1925. Ruth's mother insisted that she attend Coker College, a women's school in Hartsville, South Carolina, but her father arranged for her to attend summer courses, through fear that Coker would not provide satisfactory education in the sciences. When she graduated in 1929, she then enrolled in the University of Virginia, earning a master's degree in 1931, followed by a Ph.D. in 1934.
Career
Patrick's research in fossilized diatoms showed that the Great Dismal Swamp between Virginia and North Carolina was once a forest, which had been flooded by seawater. Similar research proved that the Great Salt Lake was not always a saline lake. During the Great Depression, she volunteered to work as a curator of microscopy for the Academy of Natural Sciences, where she worked for no pay for eight years. She was payrolled in 1945. In 1947, she formed and chaired the academy's Department of Limnology. She continued to work there for many years and was regarded as a talented and outstanding scientific administrator, in addition to her other scientific contributions. In 1967, she founded Stroud Water Research Center in collaboration with W.B. Dixon Stroud and his wife Joan Milliken Stroud; this facility was located on the Stroud's property adjoining White Clay Creek in Avondale, Pennsylvania
Patrick's work on the Great Salt Lake in the 1930s used the history of diatoms in the sediments of the lake to prove the lake was once a freshwater body of water, and established some solid clues as to what caused the shift to saltwater.
In 1945 she invented the diatometer, a device to take better samples for studying diversity in water ecology. Patrick was a pioneer in the use of biodiversity to determine a body of water's overall health. Her work with both academics and industry giants like DuPont fostered an understanding of pollutants and their effect on rivers, lakes, and drinking water sources. Patrick was an advocate for clean water, including helping develop the guidelines for the US Congress Clean Water Act. President Lyndon B. Johnson sought her expertise on water pollution, and President Ronald Reagan asked for her input on acid rain.
Awards and honours
Her work has been widely published and she has received numerous awards for her scientific achievements. A complete list is available on her institutional page. Highlights include:
Member of the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1970
Eminent Ecologist Award from the Ecological Society of America in 1972
Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1974
John and Alice Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement in 1975
Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1975
Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1976
Golden Medal of the Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Belgium, in 1978
Honorary Lifetime Membership from the American Society of Naturalists in 1988
Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences in 1993
National Medal of Science in 1996
A.C. Redfield Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Society of Limnology and Oceanography in 1996
Mendel Medal from Villanova University (the university's highest honour), 2002
Heinz Award Chairman's Medal in 2002
The Ruth Patrick Science Education Center in Aiken, South Carolina, is named after her. The Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography gives out a Ruth Patrick Award "to honor outstanding research by a scientist in the application of basic aquatic science principles to the identification, analysis and/or solution of important environmental problems." This botanist is denoted by the author abbreviation R.M.Patrick when citing a botanical name.
On November 17, 2007, a gala was held in honor of. Patrick's upcoming 100th birthday at The Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, PA. Notable guests included Governor of Pennsylvania Ed Rendell.
Dr Patrick received more than 25 honorary degrees. In 2009, Patrick was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.
Personal life
Patrick was married twice. She retained her maiden name when writing scientific papers, at her father's request. Her husbands were Charles Hodge IV and Lewis H. Van Dusen Jr. With Charles Hodge IV she had one son. Charles was an entomologist and a direct descendant of Benjamin Franklin.
Patrick died at a retirement home in 2013. She was 105. As a tribute to her father and her childhood in Kansas City, Missouri, Dr. Patrick left most of her library to the Linda Hall Library at her death. These books focus on microscopy and microscopical observations.
References
External links
Patrick Center for Environmental Research, The Academy of Natural Sciences
Ruth Patrick, The Academy of Natural Sciences
Botanists with author abbreviations
1907 births
2013 deaths
American ecologists
American women ecologists
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
American phycologists
Women phycologists
American women botanists
American botanists
National Medal of Science laureates
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
American centenarians
Coker University alumni
University of Virginia alumni
People from Topeka, Kansas
20th-century American women scientists
20th-century American scientists
Fellows of the Ecological Society of America
Women centenarians
Women limnologists
American limnologists
21st-century American women
Members of the American Philosophical Society
Pembroke Hill School alumni
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%20%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD
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Яков Бекенштейн
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Яков Бекенштейн
Яков Давід Бекенштейн (1 травня 1947 — 16 серпня 2015) — американський та ізраїльський фізик-теоретик, який зробив фундаментальний внесок у створення основ термодинаміки чорних дір та інші аспектів зв'язку між інформацією та гравітацією.
Біографія
Яков Бекенштейн народився в Мехіко в родині Йосефа та Естер, польських євреїв, які емігрували до Мексики. У ранньому віці він переїхав до Сполучених Штатів, отримавши громадянство США в 1968 році Він також був громадянином Ізраїлю.
Бекенштейн навчався в Політехнічному інституті Брукліна, тепер відомому як інженерна школа Нью-Йоркського університету Тандон, здобувши ступінь бакалавра та ступінь магістра наук у 1969 році. У 1972 році він здобув ступінь доктора філософії в Принстонському університеті, працюючи під керівництвом Джона Арчибальда Вілера.
Бекенштейн мав трьох дітей зі своєю дружиною Білхою. Усі троє дітей, Єгонадав, Урія та Рівка Бекенштейн, стали вченими. Бекенштейн був відомий як релігійна людина, його цитували: «Я дивлюся на світ як на продукт Бога, Він встановив дуже конкретні закони, і ми із задоволенням відкриваємо їх завдяки науковій роботі».
Наукова кар'єра
До 1972 року Бекенштейн опублікував три впливові статті про зірковий феномен чорної діри, постулюючи теорему про відсутність волосся та представивши теорію термодинаміки чорної діри. У наступні роки Бекенштейн продовжив дослідження чорних дір, опублікувавши статті про їхню ентропію та квантову масу.
З 1972 по 1974 рік Бекенштейн був докторантом Техаського університету в Остіні. Потім він іммігрував до Ізраїлю, щоб читати лекції та викладати в Університеті Бен-Гуріона в Беер-Шеві. У 1978 році став професором, а в 1983 році — завідувачем кафедри астрофізики.
У 1990 році він став професором Єврейського університету в Єрусалимі, а через три роки був призначений керівником кафедри теоретичної фізики. У 1997 році він був обраний до Ізраїльської академії наук і гуманітарних наук. Він був запрошеним науковцем в Інституті перспективних досліджень у 2009 та 2010 роках.
Крім лекцій і резиденцій по всьому світу, Бекенштейн продовжував служити професором теоретичної фізики в Єврейському університеті до своєї смерті у віці 68 років у Гельсінкі, Фінляндія. Він несподівано помер 16 серпня 2015 року, лише через кілька місяців після отримання премії Ейштейна від Американського фізичного товариства «за його новаторську роботу з ентропії чорної діри, яка започаткувала створення термодинаміки чорної діри та змінила тривалі зусилля з уніфікації квантової механіки і гравітації».
Внесок у фізику
У 1972 році Бекенштейн першим припустив, що чорні діри повинні мати чітко визначену ентропію. Він писав, що ентропія чорної діри пропорційна площі її (чорної діри) горизонту подій. Бекенштейн також сформулював узагальнений другий закон термодинаміки, термодинаміку чорних дір, для систем, що містять чорні діри. Обидва внески були підтверджені, коли Стівен Гокінг (і, незалежно, Зельдович та інші) запропонував існування випромінювання Гокінга через два роки. Гокінг спочатку заперечував ідею Бекенштейна на тій підставі, що чорна діра не може випромінювати енергію і, отже, не може мати ентропію. Однак у 1974 році Гокінг провів тривалий розрахунок, який переконав його, що частинки справді можуть випускатися з чорних дір. Сьогодні це відоме як випромінювання Гокінга. Також Бекенштейн та Джон Арчібальд Вілер працювали разом, щоб розробити теорему про відсутність волосся, посилання на вислів Вілера про те, що «чорні діри не мають волосся» на початку 1970-х років. Пропозиція Бекенштейна виявилася нестійкою, але вона вплинула на розвиток галузі .
Ґрунтуючись на своїй роботі з термодинаміки чорних дір, Бекенштейн також продемонстрував межу Бекенштейна котра стверджує: існує максимальна кількість інформації, яка потенційно може зберігатися в певній кінцевій області простору, яка має кінцеву кількість енергії (що подібно до голографічного принципу).
У 1982 році Бекенштейн розробив сувору структуру для узагальнення законів електромагнетизму для обробки непостійних фізичних констант. Його структура замінює сталу тонкої структури скалярним полем. Однак ця основа для зміни констант не включала гравітацію.
У 2004 році Бекенштейн розширив теорію модифікованої ньютонівської динаміки (MOND) Мордехая Мілгрома, розробивши релятивістську версію. Він відомий як TeVeS для тензора/вектора/скаляра і вводить три різні поля в просторі-часі замість одного поля тяжіння.
Нагороди та визнання
Наукова премія Ернста Давида Бергмана (Ізраїль) 1977 року
Премія Ландау за дослідження в галузі фізики (Ізраїль) 1981 р.
Премія у Фонд досліджень гравітації (Сполучені Штати) у 1981 році
Премія Ротшильда з фізичних наук у 1988 році
Обраний до Ізраїльської академії наук і гуманітарних наук у 1997 році
Друга премія за есе від Gravity Research Foundation у 2001 році
Обраний до Всесвітньої єврейської академії наук у 2003 році
Премія Ізраїлю з фізики 2005 р.
Премія Вейцмана з точних наук (Тель-Авів, Ізраїль) 2011 р.
Премія Вольфа з фізики 2012 року
Премія Ейнштейна Американського фізичного товариства в 2015 році
Опубліковані праці
Дж. Д. Бекенштейн, Інформація в голографічному Всесвіті. Scientific American, том 289, номер 2, серпень 2003 р., с. 61.
JD Bekenstein і M. Schiffer, Квантові обмеження на зберігання та передачу інформації, Int. J. of Modern Physics 1:355–422 (1990) .
JD Bekenstein, Вміст ентропії та потік інформації в системах з обмеженою енергією, Phys. Рев. D 30:1669–1679 (1984) Archived. [citeseer]
JD Bekenstein, Комунікація та енергія, Phys. Rev A 37(9):3437–3449 (1988) Archived. [citeseer]
JD Bekenstein, Межі ентропії та другий закон для чорних дір, Phys. Рев. D 27(10):2262–2270 (1983). [citeseer]
JD Bekenstein, Питома ентропія та знак енергії, Phys. Рев. D 26(4):950–953 (1982). [citeseer]
Дж. Д. Бекенштейн, Чорні діри та повсякденна фізика, Загальна теорія відносності та гравітація, 14(4):355–359 (1982). [citeseer]
JD Bekenstein, Універсальна верхня межа відношення ентропії до енергії для обмежених систем, Phys. Рев. D 23:287–298 (1981). [citeseer]
JD Bekenstein, Вартість енергії передачі інформації, Phys. Рев. Lett 46:623–626. (1981). [citeseer]
Дж. Д. Бекенштейн, Термодинаміка чорної діри, Physics Today, 24–31 (січень 1980 р.).
JD Bekenstein, Статистична термодинаміка чорної діри, Phys. Рев. D 12:3077–3085 (1975). [citeseer]
JD Bekenstein, Узагальнений другий закон термодинаміки у фізиці чорних дір, Phys. Рев. D 9:3292–3300 (1974) Archived. [citeseer]
JD Bekenstein, Чорні діри та ентропія, Phys. Рев. D 7:2333–2346 (1973) Archived. [citeseer]
JD Bekenstein, Black holes and the second law, Nuovo Cimento Letters 4:737–740 (1972).
JD Bekenstein, Неіснування баріонного числа статичних чорних дір, Phys. Рев. D 5:2403–2412 (1972). [citeseer]
Примітки
Список літератури
зовнішні посилання
Bekenstein's papers list at ArXiv with links to the full papers
Israel Prize Official Site – CV of Jacob Bekenstein
Мексиканські емігранти до США
Лауреати премії Вольфа (фізика)
Мексиканські євреї
Мексиканські емігранти до Ізраїлю
Члени Ізраїльської академії природничих і гуманітарних наук
Викладачі Єврейського університету в Єрусалимі
Випускники Принстонського університету
Ізраїльські фізики
Ізраїльські астрономи
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26197505
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paeonia%20daurica
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Paeonia daurica
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Paeonia daurica is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the peony family. It has slender carrot-shaped roots, leaves mostly consisting of nine leaflets, with one flower per stem. The flower is subtended by none to two leafy bracts, and has two or three sepals, five to eight petals, and many stamens. The subspecies vary in the colour of the petals (white, light yellow, pink, red), the size and shape of the leaflets, and the hairiness of the leaflets and the carpels. Paeonia daurica can be found from the Balkans to Iran, and the Crimea to Lebanon, with the centre of its distribution in the Caucasus. It is also cultivated as an ornamental.
Description
Paeonia daurica is a perennial herbaceous photosynthesising plant, emerging in spring and retreating underground in the autumn. It has slender carrot-shaped roots which are directed downwards. The leaves are alternately set along the stems and have an outline of 5–11 × 8–17 cm. The lower leaves are usually composed of three sets of three entire or sometimes bifid leaflets, and occasionally there is third order division, resulting in a maximum of nineteen leaflets. The shape of the leaflets is wide to narrowly oval, with the largest width at midlength or towards the tip. The base of the leaflets is more or less wedge-shaped or sometimes rounded, the margin is entire and sometimes wavy, and the tip is rounded or has a smaller or larger sharp tip. The upper surface of the leaf is hairless, while the undersides are hairless or sparsely to densely covered in felty hairs. The hermaphrodite flowers are set individually at the end of the stems and are subtended by none to two leafy bracts. The flower itself consists of two or three green sepals, five to eight petals, that may be white, pale yellow, yellow, yellow with a red blotch at the base or with a reddish margin, pink, red, or purple-red, and many stamens consisting of pale, yellow, pink or purple filaments topped by anthers that contain yellow pollen. At the very centre of each flower are one to five carpels that are glabrous, sparsely to densely covered in felty hairs and almost directly tipped by the stigmas which are mostly curved or S-shaped from above.
Subspecies
Paeonia daurica subsp. daurica and Paeonia daurica subsp. coriifolia both have red petals and the undersides of the leaves is hairless or carries sparse felty hairs. The typical subspecies however has broad ovate leaflets with a rounded or truncated tip, while subsp. coriifolia has obovate to oblong leaflets with a rounded to pointed tip. P. daurica subsp. mlokosewitschii usually has inverted egg-shaped leaves with a rounded ends that very suddenly develop into small but sharp tips, with its undersides mostly sparsely or rather densely covered soft hairs, but sometimes hairless. P. daurica subsp. wittmanniana has leaflets that vary in hairiness. Its flowers have one to three hairless or sparsely felty carpels and yellow petals that may have a pink spot at the base. P. daurica subsp. macrophylla has larger leaflets and consistently hairless carpels. P. daurica subsp. tomentosa can be distinguished by leaflets with a mostly dense covering of felty hairs on the lower surface and on the carpels. In P. daurica subsp. velebitensis, the lower leaves consist of three sets of three leaflets each, which are inverted egg-shaped or sometimes longish oval, with a rounded tip that may end in a point, and are covered in felty hair on the underside, while the two of three ovaries are felty as well.
Taxonomy
Taxonomic history
Paeonia daurica was first described by Henry Cranke Andrews in the seventh volume of his Botanist's Repository published in 1807. A yellow flowered Paeonia species from Abkhazia was collected by C.M. Worontzoff, and described in 1846 by John Lindley, who named it P. wittmanniana Lindl.. In 1848 Christian von Steven described another taxon with yellow petals under the same specific name P. wittmanniana Steven. It had been collected at Atskhu, Meskheti Province, in Georgia. Pierre Edmond Boissier made descriptions of three taxa in this complex in 1869: P. corallina and P. corallina var. triternata, and P. wittmanniana Steven. Franz Josef Ruprecht in 1869, distinguished P. triternata f. coriifolia. In 1892 Ernst Huth distinguished between P. corallina var. typica with entire leaflets and red petals, and P. wittmanniana with lobed leaflets and yellow petals. Russian botanist Nikolai Michailowitsch Albow was the first to think that a difference only in petal colour does not merit distinguishing species, and he reduced P. wittmanniana to P. corallina var. wittmanniana, under which he described a new form, f. macrophylla. Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Lomakin recognized four species in this group in 1897: P. corallina, P. mlokosewitschii, P. macrophylla, P. wittmanniana, and introduced P. wittmanniana var. tomentosa. In 1899, Vladimir Ippolitovich Lipsky mostly supported the ideas of Lomakin, but distinguished between P. triternata and P. corallina. In 1901, Nikolai Busch recognized P. corallina subsp. triternata, its variety coriifolia (Rupr.), P. wittmanniana f. macrophylla and subsp. tomentosa, and P. mlokosewitschii. Alexander Grossheim distinguished in 1930 seven taxa that differed in the colour of the petals, the shape and number of leaflets, and the hairiness of the leaflets and fruits, so recognizing P. corallina var. caucasica and var. coriifolia, P. mlokosewitschii, P. wittmanniana and its var. macrophylla, P. tomentosa and the new P. abchasica. Nikolai Schipczinsky in the Flora of the USSR (1937) distinguished between P. mlokosewitschii – as part of the series Obovatae having orbicular, ovate or rarely pointed leaflets – and P. triternata, P. caucasica, P. wittmanniana, P. macrophylla, P. tomentosa and P. abchasica – all having rather wide, pointed leaflets – assigning them to the series Corallinae. Frederick Claude Stern in his book A study of the genus Paeonia recognized in his subsection Foliolatae the species P. daurica, P. mlokosewitschii and P. wittmanniana, the latter with four varieties. In 1950 Grossgeim revised his view from 1930 and recognized P. kavachensis (= P. caucasica), P. mlokosewitschii (including P. tomentosa) and P. wittmanniana (including P. abchasica). P. wittmanniana Steven was renamed to P. steveniana by the Georgian botanist Kemularia-Nathadze in 1961, who recognized all previous taxa except P. abchasica in addition to describing a new species named P. ruprechtiana. In 2010 D.Y. Hong revised the genus Paeonia, recognising seven subspecies in P. daurica, among which the new subsp. velebitensis.
Modern classification, subdivision and synonymy
Paeonia corallina is a synonym of Paeonia mascula, so cannot be applied to the taxa of P. daurica. According to the most recent taxonomic review of this complex of taxa, no morphological differences occur that are distinct enough to recognize separate species. There are however sufficient differences between the average character states between populations to make a distinction between seven subtaxa useful.
Leaflets are broad ovate with a rounded to obtuse tip, hairless or sparsely villose or pilose, the petals are red, and the genome is diploid (2n=10).→ P. daurica subsp. daurica = P. corallina var. triternatiformis
Leaflets are obovate to oblong with a rounded to pointed tip, hairless or sparsely villose or pilose, the petals are red, and the genome is diploid (2n=10).→ P. daurica subsp. coriifolia = P. triternata f. coriifolia, P. corallina subsp. triternata var. coriifolia, P. caucasica var. coriifolia, P. corallina var. caucasica, P. caucasica, P. ruprechtiana, P. kavachensis Grossheim auct. non Aznavour var. coriifolia, P. triternata Ruprecht auct. non Pall. ex. DC
The leaflets are large (12–18×8–12 cm), the carpels are without hairs, and the genome is diploid (2n=10).→ P. daurica subsp. macrophylla = P. macrophylla, P. wittmanniana Steven, P. corallina var. wittmanniana f. macrophylla, P. steveniana, P. wittmanniana var. nudicarpa
The leaflets are usually inverted egg-shaped but with a slender pointed tip (or mucronate), the petals are white, pale yellow, yellow, or yellow but with a red or pink margin or with a red spot at the base, pink, red or purple-red, the hairiness of the leaflets and fruits is variable, and the genome is diploid (2n=10).→ P. daurica subsp. mlokosewitschii = P. mlokosewitschii, P. lagodechiana
The fruits and lower surface of the leaflets are nearly always covered with dense felty hairs, the petals are pale yellow, reddish at the base in some, and the genome is tetraploid (2n=20).→ P. daurica subsp. tomentosa = P. wittmanniana Steven var. tomentosa, P. corallina var. triternata, P. mlokosewitschii Grossheim auct. non Lomakin
The lower leaves consist of three sets of three leaflets each, with an inverted egg-shape or sometimes longish oval, with a rounded tip that may end pointy. The carpels each contain two of three ovaries and underside of the leaflets is covered in felty hair. The genome in this subspecies has not yet been analysed.→ P. daurica subsp. velebitensis
The leaflets are hairless or sparsely villose or pilose, there are one to three carpels that are glabrous or sparsely villose or pilose, the petals are yellow, sometimes with a pink spot at the base, and the genome is tetraploid (2n=20).→ P. daurica subsp. wittmanniana = P. wittmanniana Lindl., P. abchasica
Distribution
Paeonia daurica can be found scattered in the Balkans (Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia, Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia, northern Greece), the Crimea, the Caucasus (Dagestan and Krasnodar Krai in Russia, Georgia, Azerbaijan), Kaçkar Mountains (Turkey), the Alborz Mountains (northern Iran), Talysh Mountains (west of Guilan province, South of Caspian sea), and in Lebanon. The typical P. daurica subsp. daurica is widespread, but is not sympatric with the other subspecies, and does not occur in the Velebit, Caucasus and Alborz mountains. P. daurica subsp. coriifolia occurs at elevations below 1000 m in the west and north-west of the Caucasus and it is found in deciduous forests dominated by oak, beech, elm, maple and ash or in mixed forests of fir, oak and beech, growing on a wide range of limestone, sandstone and volcanic rocks. P. daurica subsp. mlokosewitschii is only known from eastern Georgia, north-western Azerbaijan and adjacent Russia, where it grows in deciduous oak, beech, elm, maple and chestnut forests. P. daurica subsp. wittmanniana is found in north-western Georgia and the upper reaches of the Mzymta River in adjacent Russia where it grows in both deciduous forests and subalpine and alpine meadows between 1000 and 2300 m, only on limestone. P. daurica subsp. macrophylla is confined to the mountains of south-western Georgia and north-eastern Turkey from 1200 to 2200 m, although it has been found as low as 800 m. It can be found in deciduous or mixed forests and in glades, but there seems to be no preference for any soil type. P. daurica subsp. tomentosa occurs in the Talysch and Alborz Mountains in south-eastern Azerbaijan and northern Iran where it occurs in deciduous forests and pastures on poor soils derived from sandstone at altitudes between 1100 and 1800 m. P. daurica subsp. velebitensis only grows at elevations between 900 and 1200 m in the Velebit Mountains (Dinaric Alps) of Croatia.
Ecology
With its hairless leaves, P. daurica, does not seem to be adapted to a typical Mediterranean climate, but to rather more humid circumstances in summer. The population on Mount Orjen grows in forest consisting of silver fir, European beech, Turkish hazel, the maple species Acer pseudoplatanus and A. intermedium, and ash, and is further accompanied by widespread species such as European spindle, mountain cherry, drooping bittercress, Turk's cap lily, but also with endemics such as the Orjen iris.
Cultivation
Several subspecies of P. daurica are on offer as seed or plants (daurica, coriifolia, tomentosa, macrophylla, mlokosewitschii and wittmanniana) and are collected by specialist gardeners. These are said to be hardy in western Europe and suitable for normal garden conditions, the lowland taxa with preference for more or less shady circumstances.
Paeonia daurica subsp. mlokosewitschii has won the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. As the name is virtually unpronounceable in English, it is often affectionately referred to as 'Molly-the-Witch'. P. daurica is a red book species (VU) in Ukraine and is cultivated in the Crimean reservations of Yalta, Karadag and Cape Martyan. In the Crimean Tatar language it's called patlaq çanaq, meaning 'broken cup', referring to the shape of the petals that remind an elegant cup that was broken with the pieces still held in place.
References
daurica
Flora of Southeastern Europe
Flora of the Caucasus
Taxa named by Henry Cranke Andrews
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005%20FIFA%20Club%20World%20Championship%20final
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2005 FIFA Club World Championship final
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2005 FIFA Club World Championship final
The 2005 FIFA Club World Championship final was an association football match played between São Paulo of Brazil, the CONMEBOL club champions, and Liverpool of England, the UEFA club champions, on 18 December 2005 at the International Stadium Yokohama, Japan. It was the final match of the 2005 FIFA Club World Championship, a competition for the winners of the primary cup competitions of FIFA's continental members. The Club World Championship replaced the Intercontinental Cup, which both teams had competed in before. São Paulo had won the Intercontinental Cup twice in 1992 and 1993, while Liverpool had lost twice in 1981 and 1984.
The teams qualified for the championship by winning their continent's primary cup competition. São Paulo won the 2005 Copa Libertadores, defeating Brazilian team Atlético Paranaense 5–1. Liverpool won the 2004–05 UEFA Champions League, defeating Italian team Milan 3–2 in a penalty shootout after the match had finished 3–3. Both teams played one match in the championship en route to the final. São Paulo beat 2005 AFC Champions League winners Al-Ittihad 3–2, while Liverpool beat 2005 CONCACAF Champions' Cup winners Deportivo Saprissa 3–0.
Watched by a crowd of 66,821, São Paulo took the lead in the first half when Mineiro scored. Liverpool missed a number of chances to equalise in the first half. In the second half they had the majority of the possession and also had three goals disallowed. Despite all their chances they were unable to score against São Paulo who held on to win the match 1–0.
Route to the final
São Paulo qualified for the FIFA Club World Championship as the reigning Copa Libertadores winners. They had won the 2005 Copa Libertadores beating Atlético Paranaense 5–1 over two-legs in the final. It would be São Paulo's first appearance in the competition, although they had won the forerunner to the competition, the Intercontinental Cup twice, in 1992 and 1993.
Liverpool had qualified for the Club World Championship as a result of winning the 2004–05 UEFA Champions League. They beat Italian team Milan 3–2 in a penalty shootout after the match had finished 3–3. Like São Paulo, Liverpool were competing in the competition for the first time, although they had appeared twice in the Intercontinental Cup, losing in 1981 and 1984.
Both teams entered the competition in the semi-finals. São Paulo's opponents were the winners of the 2005 AFC Champions League, Al-Ittihad. A 3–2 victory with two goals from Amoroso and a penalty from goalkeeper Rogério Ceni ensured São Paulo's progression to the final. Liverpool faced 2005 CONCACAF Champions' Cup winners Deportivo Saprissa. They won the match 3–0, Peter Crouch scored twice and Steven Gerrard also scored as Liverpool reached the final.
Match
Background
Both teams were well into their respective domestic competitions. São Paulo's domestic season had finished two weeks before the final. They finished the 2005 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A in 11th position after 42 games, they won and lost 16 games each and drew 10. Liverpool were in the middle of their domestic season, they were competing in the 2005–06 Premier League. They were second in the table and won their last match before the competition 2–0, against Middlesbrough. The victory meant Liverpool had gone 10 matches without conceding a goal, which equalled a club record.
São Paulo manager Paulo Autuori was adamant that his team would have to improve on their performance in the semi-final if they were to win the match: "We're going to have to improve certain aspects of our play if we want to win the final." Autouri was not worried about Liverpool's aerial threat, but was expecting them to keep the ball during the match: "English teams are well known for their aerial excellence, But Liverpool are a side that can keep the ball very well too as they proved when winning the Champions League."
Liverpool manager Rafael Benítez would take control of the team for the final, despite the death of his father earlier in the week. Benitez was confident that his Liverpool team would be capable of beating São Paulo: "We are playing with confidence and strength. I think we can beat anyone." Liverpool Striker Crouch who scored twice in the semi-final was as adamant as his manager about winning the competition. Adding that "We've not travelled all the way to Japan to go sightseeing."
First half
Before the start of the match, a minute's silence was held, in memory of Rafa Benítez's father Francisco who died of heart failure on the Wednesday before the final. Both teams took the pitch wearing black armbands as a mark of respect. The match was delayed further when a fan invaded the pitch, he headed for one of the goals and got stuck in the goal before being caught. São Paulo lined up in a 3–5–2 formation, while Liverpool opted for a 4–4–1–1 formation. Liverpool had the first chance of the match inside the opening 79 seconds. Liverpool captain Steven Gerrard's cross into the penalty area was met by Fernando Morientes, but the striker headed wide of the goal. Liverpool created more chances with Luis García missing the goal twice from headers. São Paulo had only created one chance, a shot from striker Amoroso, but they began to grow in confidence. They pressed forward after Amoroso's shot and defender Cicinho nearly scored with a lob from the halfway line which just went over the crossbar.
São Paulo's pressure resulted in them taking the lead in the 27th minute. A chipped pass from Aloísio to Mineiro found the midfielder in space who put the ball beyond Liverpool goalkeeper Pepe Reina to give the Brazilians a 1–0 lead. It was the first goal Liverpool had conceded in over 1,041 minutes of play. Immediately afterwards, Liverpool had a corner, which almost resulted in a goal. Xabi Alonso took the corner which found García, but his shot hit the woodwork. Liverpool had another chance 30 minutes into the match, but again he failed to score with a header. Gerrard had a chance to equalise five minutes later, but he put his shot wide after Harry Kewell had passed him the ball. Liverpool continued to create chances and in the 39th minute García saw his header into the far corner saved by São Paulo goalkeeper Rogério Ceni. From the resulting corner Liverpool defender Sami Hyypiä shot straight at Ceni. He had another chance late in the first half, but his header was saved by Ceni.
Second half
Liverpool had the first scoring opportunity of the half, six minutes into the second half. Liverpool were awarded a free kick 25 yards from the goal. Gerrard's subsequent shot was saved by Ceni. Ceni made another save soon afterwards when he tipped a cross from Kewell onto the crossbar. Liverpool did score on the hour mark, but the goal was disallowed. García's headed goal was ruled out for offside. Soon afterwards Morientes had another chance to score, but his overhead kick went over the crossbar. Liverpool had another goal disallowed soon afterwards. Alonso's corner from which Hyypiä was adjudged to have drifted out of play before the defender scored.
São Paulo made the first substitution of the match in the 75th minute when striker Grafite replaced Aloísio. Liverpool made two substitutions four minutes later in an attempt to equalise. John Arne Riise and Florent Sinama Pongolle replaced Stephen Warnock and Mohamed Sissoko. They made their final substitution in the 85th minute when Peter Crouch replaced Morientes. Liverpool had a third goal disallowed in the 89th minute; substitute Sinama Pongolle's goal was disallowed after the assistant referee had flagged García as being offside in the build-up to the goal. Liverpool had a final chance before the end of the match, but García put his shot wide. No further goals were scored and the referee blew for full-time with the final score 1–0 to São Paulo.
Details
Statistics
Post-match
Much of the talk after the match centred on Liverpool's three disallowed goals. Liverpool manager Rafael Benítez was incensed by the referee's decisions and remonstrated with the officials after the final whistle. Benitez was clear that at least one of the goals should not have been disallowed: "We knew that one of the goals was a goal, clear." He also questioned the competency of the officials stating: "You wouldn't get a Mexican referee and a Canadian linesman in the final of the World Cup." Midfielder Luis García, who had a goal disallowed, summed up the feeling in the Liverpool dressing room: "We feel cheated."
São Paulo goalkeeper Rogério Ceni was named as man of the match and also won the Golden Ball as the best player of the competition. Ceni was gracious in receiving the awards stating: "The awards are nice to have but the win was not just about me" Ceni dedicated the awards to those at the club saying: "When I look in these awards I see the faces of my team-mates, the coach and everyone involved at the club." São Paulo manager was delighted with his team after the victory and agreed with Ceni that the victory was a team effort: "It was a collective victory" he also said that it was "a great achievement for the club." Goalscorer Mineiro was equally overjoyed with the victory stating: "It is the happiest moment in my career."
See also
Liverpool F.C. in international football
References
External links
FIFA Club World Championship Toyota Cup Japan 2005 , FIFA.com
Technical Report and Statistics (PDF) , FIFA.com
world
Final
FIFA Club World Cup Final 2005
FIFA Club World Cup Final 2005
2005
World
Sports competitions in Yokohama
Football in Yokohama
2000s in Yokohama
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0%20%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%20%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%97%20%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%96%20%28%D0%A2%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%BE%D1%85%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0%29
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Церква Покрова Пресвятої Богородиці (Трьохізбенка)
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Церква Покрова Пресвятої Богородиці (Трьохізбенка)
Церква Покрова Пресвятої Богородиці — церква у Трьохізбенці, яка розташовувався на однойменній вулиці селища міського типу вулиці Артема
Історія церкви
Історія Свято-Покровського храму села Трьохізбенка тісно пов'язана з історією заснування і розвитку села.
Необхідність захисту південного кордону Росії змусила уряд на землях по річці Сіверський Донець поставити прикордонні пости. В ці землі з села Нижнє Салтове Білгородської губернії були перевезені "служильні люди". Вони зобов'язані були нести прикордонну службу на новозбудованій Українській оборонній линії.
В 1715 р. "служильні люди" на місці першого прикордонного городка (від слова "городити", "огорожувати") заснували село, залишивши стару назву - Трьохізбенка. Прикордонники були православними людьми. В першій половині XVIII ст. вони збудували дерев'яну церкву для богослужінь. Але ріка Донець підмивала огорожу села, а потім підмила і церкву, тому мешканці в 1765 р. заснували новий городок і перейшли на білш підвищене місце під гору.
На нове місце була перевезена і дерев'яна церква на честь ікони Казанської Божої Матері. Але з часом церква занепала.
В 1895 р. в слободі Трьохізбенка Старобільського повіту Харківської губернії розпочалось будівництво цегляного храму. Все населення слободи "від мала до велика" допомагало будувати храм. Будували 12 років.
Освячення Свято-Покровського храму відбулось 15 жовтня 1907 р. при священнику отці Нікіфорі Оршевському.
Освячення приделів храма во ім'я Святого пророка Ілії відбулось 26 і 27 листопада 1912 р. В Свято-Покровському храмі 27 років служили отець Нікіфор Оршевський і отец Микола. В 30-ті рр. XX ст. вони були репресовані.
В середины 1920-х рр. будівлю храму зайняла "оновленчеська" малочисельна громада, яку не підтримало населення Трьохізбенки. В 1935 р. Свято-Покровський храм закривають, знімають колоколи і везуть їх на переплавку на Алчевський металургійний завод. Під час переправи на паромі через Донець колоколи затонули. Після закриття в 1935 р. храм використовували під сільський клуб. Але віруюча молоь Трьохізбенки не відвідувала його. Активисти-комсомольці пригадували, що в будівлі храму вони відчцвали себе незатишно. Тут було тривожно. Одного разу, під час танців, вони почули гучний жіночий галас, в жаху всі втекли з храму, молодь вирішила, що це був галас Богородиці. Під час демонстрації фільмів в храмі зникав звук.
З розповідей старожилів села відомо, що після побудови дерев'яної церкви, в Свято-Покровському храмі було влаштовано зерносховище колгоспів "Олексієва" і "Шлях Серго".
В вересні 1943 р. після визволення Слов'яносербщини від німецько-фашистських загарбників в храмі відновлено богослужіння. Благочинний Ворошиловградського округу призначив на прихід священника отця Іоана Ткачева.
Отця Іоана змінив отець Андрій Бойко, який тривалий час служив в храмі, дуже банато зробив для його розвитку.
В кінці 1950-х рр. церковна громада за несплату податків в розмірі 24 тис. рублів була на межі розпаду. В 1959 р. завдяки зусиллям настоятеля і пожертввам вірян борг вдалося погасити.
В наступні роки в храмі служили: отець Василь Сомик, отець Петро Деркач, ієромонах Сергій (Беденко) та ін. Дуже багато зробив для зміцнення і розвитку церкви отець Іаков Лобов.
В 1980-х рр. купили в Воронежі і встановили 4 колоколи, збудували сторожку і хрестильню.
Багато сил віддали розвитку храма його прихожани: старости - Захарова Галина Семенівна, Щеголеватий Савелій Іванович, Дуліна Ганна Іванівна, регент церковного хору - Салманов Савелій Климович, Чернова Параскева Григорівна, Довженко Марія Григорівна.
З 1994 по 2001 р. настоятелем Свято-Покровського храму був отець Олександр Перепелиця. В 2001 р. призначено на служіння в храм два священослужителя - отець Олександр Міхеєв і отець Владислав Фоменко, в тому ж році була організована недільна школа під керівництвом Михеєвої Віри Вікторовни. Під час занятть в школі діти вивчають Закон Божий, історію церкви, готують вітання до свят в храмі для прихожан і священників, беруть участь в богослужіннях, хресних ходах, роблять паломництва до Києво-Печерської Лаври, Старобільський монастир, Святогорску лавру, Кисельову Балку, в місто Луганськ, до чудодійних ікон і святим мощам.
При школі діють гуртки вишивки і кулінарії. В 2006 р. відбувся перший випуск недільної школи. Зараз гуртком вишивки керує Наталія Олександрівна Міхеєва. Учні гуртка вишивають золотими і срібними нитями, канителлю, бісером, дорогоцінним камінням. Роботи учнів відзначено дипломами, про них написано статті в журналах. Вишиті їх руками хоругви, покровці, закладки для Євангелія, речі церковного вбрання демонструються на виставках в Москві, Києві, Донецьку, Санкт-Петербурзі і отримали чудові відгуки.
З 2002 р. в храме служить один священник - протоієрей Олександр Міхеєв.
В 2012 р. на церковному дворі обладнаний дитячий майданчик.
В 2013 р. встановено нову огорожу і ворота
В Зимку с 2014 р на 2015 рік церква була підверглася масованими обстрілами з боку так званої ЛНР.
Церкви Луганської області
Трьохізбенка
Релігійні споруди, пошкоджені чи знищені в ході російського вторгнення в Україну (2022)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophie%20Buxhoeveden
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Sophie Buxhoeveden
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Sophie Buxhoeveden
Sophie Freiin von Buxhoeveden (tr. ; September 6, 1883 – November 26, 1956), also known as Baroness Sophie Buxdoeveden, was a Baltic German Lady-in-waiting, in service to Tsarina Alexandra of Russia. She was the author of three memoirs about the imperial family and about her own escape from Russia.
In her book Before the Storm, Sophie describes a side of old Russia seldom seen elsewhere, a family in the old-fashioned provincial country life of the gentry in the years before the revolution. As a child, Sophie shared picnics and mushroom hunts with other famous players in the story such as Anna Vyrubova, Felix Yussupov, Dmitri Pavlovich and the sons of poet Konstantin Romanov.
Early life
According to her memoirs, Buxhoeveden's father, Baron Karlos Matthias Konstantin Ludwig Otto von Buxhoeveden (1856-1935), was the Russian minister in Copenhagen, Denmark during World War I. Her mother was Lyudmila Petrovna Osokina (1858–1917).
Lady-in-waiting
In her youth, she was a part of the social life of St. Petersburg. Buxhoeveden was chosen as an honorary Lady in Waiting to the Tsarina in 1904, and became an official Lady in Waiting in 1913. She was nicknamed "Isa" by the Tsarina and her four daughters and, during World War I, was often chosen by the Tsarina to accompany the four grand duchesses to official duties.
She had no time for Grigori Rasputin, but witnessed his miracles first-hand and was baffled by his powers. Alexandra would have liked her to accept Rasputin as a holy man, but knew Buxhoeveden's opinion was not likely to be changed. The fact she kept her negative opinion to herself was appreciated by the Empress, who knew Buxhoeveden would say nothing to discredit her.
She followed the family to exile in Siberia following the Russian Revolution of 1917. She was released by the Bolsheviks, unlike many of the other people in the family's entourage, most likely because they mistook her Danish name for Swedish (She was Baltic German). The Bolsheviks did not imprison foreign nationals in fear of reprisals from other nations. Sophie spent many months on the run across Siberia, with other members of the royal household, including Gibbes, Alexandra Tegleva, and Gilliard. She was only allowed safe passage out of Russia when she made it to Omsk, which was then under the control of the Russian White Army and the British Military. Her experiences can be read in her book "Left Behind."
Exile, death and legacy
After being refused permission to join the family in the Ipatiev house, Sophie, along with the foreign tutors, Pierre Gilliard and Sydney Gibbes, and attendants Alexandra Tegleva and Elizaveta Ersberg, lodged in a fourth class railway car while they tried to find a way to help the family. Every day, the three of them badgered Thomas Preston, the British consul, discussing all possible options. She and her two companions even made personal representations to the Ural Soviet on behalf of the Romanovs. These attempts failed and they were forced to leave Ekaterinburg.
Following many long months of fleeing across Siberia in fear for her life, Buxhoeveden was finally able to leave Russia with the help of the British military, namely General Alfred Knox, who got her safe passage on a military train. While in Omsk she had a surprise reunion with Joy, Alexei's spaniel, who had been rescued by Colonel Paul Rodzianko. Though now almost blind, the dog seemed to recognize her. Joy had been traumatized by the loss of the family, and was heartbroken. It was a sad but bittersweet reunion for her too; seeing the dog brought back vivid memories of the Tsarevich.
From Omsk, they had to travel across China to avoid unsafe parts of Siberia. Upon reaching Vladivostok, she described it as "Vladivostok, being the base of the Allied forces, was full of foreigners. There was the military element as well as representatives of the various Red Cross units, some Canadian detachments that had never gone any farther, as well as civilians and diplomats." She also described seeing the Pacific coast for the first time in her life, and expressed her sadness as she sailed away from her native country:
"I was leaving Russia. Would I ever see my country again, and in what condition would I find it if I ever returned? Who among my friends and relations would have survived the storm? The Russia I had known, the old Russia, disappeared slowly from view."
After she passed through Japan and Hawaii, regretting not having more time to see these places, her ship landed in San Francisco, where she took a train across the United States. She marveled at the sights she had never seen before:
"Everything in America seemed to me on such a monumental scale that it dwarfed every bit of European scenery I had ever seen before, or have ever seen since. What were the Norwegian fjords, or even the Alps, after the Rocky Mountains? What are the largest buildings of other towns after those in San Francisco and New York?"
When she finally arrived in Denmark at the home of her father, she told of seeing the Dowager Empress in Copenhagen, and how melancholy it was to hear "God Save the Tsar" played, knowing what had happened to the country she had loved.
"Was this to be the last time that they would hear that hymn? The Empire had been wiped out, the Emperor was no more, our great country had lost even its name. In the notes of our anthem was the echo of one of the world's greatest tragedies. It seemed to set a seal on a past that for us was gone... gone forever."
In exile, Buxhoeveden lived in Copenhagen with her father, then at Hemmelmark in northern Germany, the estate owned by Prince Heinrich of Prussia, younger brother of Kaiser Wilhelm II, and his wife, Princess Irene, the Tsarina's sister.
Finally at Kensington Palace in London, Baroness Buxhoeveden faithfully performed lady-in-waiting services for the late Tsarina's older sister Victoria, Marchioness of Milford Haven. It is quite incorrectly claimed, without any historical verification, that the Baroness was not trusted by the Tsar's sister, Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia, who warned Victoria that "Isa" was not to be trusted. The truth of the matter was revealed through a statement made in March 1958 by Grand Duchess Xenia that she believed in her. "Isa" died in England in grace and favor rooms granted to her by the Queen, the drawers chests were crammed with mementos of the family, photo albums and pieces of Fabergé.
After her death she left a number of items that had belonged to the Russian imperial family to Grand Duchess Xenia including, "a green enamel Fabergé pencil given to me by Empress Alexandra ... a white china cup with a pattern of cornflowers and the mark NII used by the Emperor at Tobolsk .. a small wooden Ikon .. with a few words of prayer written by the Empress at Tobolsk ... ".
Allegations of betrayal of the Romanovs
Amateur historians, usually Anna Anderson supporters, have accused her of betraying the family by taking money from them and later informing their guards that the Romanov children had sewn jewels into their clothing. This was based on a claim by Anderson that Buxhoeveden, after she denounced Anderson as a fraud pretending to be Grand Duchess Anastasia, had betrayed the family. She allegedly told Rodionov that "The buttons on her coat aren't buttons, they are diamonds; the aigrette of that hat conceals a diamond from the shah of Persia; and that belt there – underneath it are ropes of pearls.
Such a proposition has been completely disproven since the Bolsheviks had no idea the jewels were in the clothes until after the execution. Yurovsky stated "They shot the daughters but nothing happened, then Yermakov set the bayonet in motion and that didn't help; then they were finally finished off by being shot the head. Only in the forest did I discover what hampered the shooting of the daughters." According to King and Wilson, Yurovsky wrote in his 1922 memoirs about "the damn valuables and jewels we knew they had concealed in their clothes when they arrived, which caused troubles to no end."
It is fact that Yurovsky explained that while the truck was stuck in the forest, "some of Yermakov's people started to pull at the girls' blouses, where they discovered the valuables.".."Things that had been sewn into the daughters' clothing were discovered when the bodies began to be undressed..The daughters had bodices made up of diamonds and other precious stones that served not just as a receptacle for valuables but as protective armor. This is why neither bullets nor bayonets yielded results during the shooting and bayonet blows..there turned out to be eighteen pounds of such valuables." One of the large diamonds that had been carefully covered and concealed in a button was never discovered by the Bolsheviks, and was later found by the Whites trampled into the mud at the grave site after they took Ekaterinburg. The diamond was identified by two former servants who had helped the Grand Duchesses sew the jewels into the clothing.
King and Wilson allege that Buxhoeveden borrowed 1,300 rubles from the Romanov children's tutor Charles Sydney Gibbes to escape Russia. It is claimed she told him she would return the money, but never did. "I knew she was greedy, but I never knew she'd go that far!" Gibbes allegedly wrote to the French tutor Pierre Gilliard. Others said that Sophie's apparent poverty, as described by Gilliard and Gibbes, is proof she never had any money and certainly had not stolen anything from anyone. At her own admission, Sophie's rooms had been searched, and nothing of value had been found.
One source of the allegations blaming her with theft from the family was Boris Soloviev, the true guilty party. He was the husband of Maria Rasputin, author of historically disproven books, having married her to gain the trust of Rasputin supporters who were financing a plot to rescue the Romanovs. It was he who betrayed the family, and attempted to cast doubt on others. Soloviev really was involved in a scheme to defraud the family of the money sent by supporters to rescue them, and betray the rescuers to the Bolsheviks. The maid Anna Romanova was an accomplice of Soloviev. Romanova, said by some to have joined Buxhoeveden in the alleged 'betrayal' over the jewels and was supposedly interrogated in on the subject in Ekaterinburg, actually never even made the trip and stayed in Tobolsk.
Involvement in the Anna Anderson affair
In 1922, in Berlin, a woman, later known to the world as Anna Anderson, was reportedly claiming to be a Romanov Grand Duchess. It was said that she was Grand Duchess Tatiana. She claimed, however, according to nurse Thea Malinovski to be Grand Duchess Anastasia in the fall of 1921. Baroness Buxhoeveden went to Berlin to visit the woman and pronounced her "too short" to be Tatiana.
"She was in bed close to the wall, she was turned facing against the window, in full sunlight. When she heard us enter the room, she hid herself under the cover to hide herself from our stares, and we were not able to get her to show us her face....The unknown one spoke German with Miss Peuthert. Although she was permitted to get up, she preferred to stay in bed as long as possible. This is how I found her. After asking my companions to move away from the bed a little, I tried to attract the young woman's attention as I caressed her hair and speaking to her in English while using the types of phrases I would have used while speaking with the Grand Duchesses, but I did not refer to her by any name other than 'Darling'. She did not reply and I saw that she did not understand a word of what I had said, for when she raised the cover after a certain period of time, and I saw her face, there was nothing in her eyes which showed she had recognized me. The eyes and forehead showed some resemblance to the Grand Duchess Tatiana Nicolaievna, resemblance that disappeared, nevertheless, as soon as her face was not covered. I had to remove the cover by force, and I saw that neither the nose, the mouth, nor the chin were formed like that of the Grand Duchess. The hair was lighter in color, some of her teeth were missing-and the remaining ones were not like those of the Grand Duchess ... Her hands were also completely different, the fingers were longer and the nails narrower. I wanted to measure her height, but she refused, and I found it impossible to get an exact measurement without force. We judged roughly that in any case, she was smaller than me, while the Grand Duchess Tatiana was more than ten centimeters taller than me. I have been able to verify this, thanks to the patient's official measurement at the time of her arrival at the hospital and that corresponded exactly with the one which was taken in my presence.
"I tried to awaken the memory of the young woman by all the possible means; I showed to her an 'icon', with the date of the Romanov jubilee, that the emperor had given to some persons of the suite, after that a ring that had belonged to the empress; the latter had been given to her in the presence of the Grand Duchess Tatiana. But none of these things seemed to evoke in her the slightest recognition. She remained completely indifferent, she whispered some incomprehensible words into Ms. Peuthert's ear. Although I noted a certain similarity in the upper part of the face with the unknown -currently Mrs. Tschaikovski- with the Grand Duchess Tatiana, I am sure that she is not her. I later learned that the she supposes that she is the Grand Duchess Anastasia, but she does not physically resemble her in the least. She has none of the special characteristics that would allow any one who knew the Grand Duchess Anastasia well to identify her."
It was after that Anderson mentioned Buxhoevden's alleged treachery and betrayal of the family to the Bolsheviks, claiming that was why she denied her. Except among diehard supporters, this vicious counter-attack did little to cushion the blow of having been flatly rejected by someone who was very close to the Imperial family. Sophie Buxhoeveden never wavered in her view that Anderson was an impostor.
Baroness Buxhoeveden was also involved in disproving another Romanov claimant, this time Eugenia Smith, who claimed to be Grand Duchess Anastasia. She wrote about Smith, "I found no likeness whatsoever to the Grand Duchess physically .... Although a total stranger, she is sympathetic on the whole, but seemed to be labouring under a mental delusion."
Writings
The Baroness wrote three books that are considered to give one of the best accounts of the Romanov family's life and final days. They were Life and Tragedy of Alexandra Feodorovna, published in 1928; Left Behind: Fourteen Months in Siberia During the Revolution, published in 1929; and Before the Storm.
References
External links
Sophie Buxhoeveden, The life and tragedy of Alexandra Feodorovna, empress of Russia, a biography by Baroness Sophie Buxhoeveden; with an introduction by J. C. Squire, 1928
Genealogy of the Buxhoeveden family
Genealogy handbook of The Oesel Noble Corporations 1935 – XX.1.1. Sophia (Isa) Buxhoeveden
1883 births
1956 deaths
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United Kingdom
Nobility from the Russian Empire
Ladies-in-waiting from the Russian Empire
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to Denmark
Sophie
Baltic-German people from the Russian Empire
Court of Nicholas II of Russia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal%20Robson-Kanu
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Hal Robson-Kanu
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Hal Robson-Kanu
Thomas Henry Alex "Hal" Robson-Kanu (born 21 May 1989) is a former professional footballer who played as a forward. Although he initially played primarily on the wing, he was used as a forward during Wales' run to the semi-finals of UEFA Euro 2016.
Robson-Kanu started his career as a schoolboy at Arsenal but was released at 15 and joined Reading. After graduating from the academy in 2007 he spent time on loan at Southend United and Swindon Town before returning to Reading and making his first team debut in 2009. Limited to mainly substitute appearances during his first season, he became an important member of the squad appearing regularly during the 2011–12 Championship winning campaign. He made his Premier League debut in 2012 and went on to score 30 goals in 228 games for the club before his release in 2016. He then signed for West Bromwich Albion. After five years, Robson-Kanu was released by the club in May 2021.
At international level Robson-Kanu initially represented the country of his birth, England, at under-19 and under-20 level. In 2010, he switched allegiance to Wales, the country of his grandmother, playing for the under-21 side before his debut for the senior team against Croatia on 23 May that year. Robson-Kanu was selected to represent Wales at UEFA Euro 2016, where they made the semi-finals, with Robson-Kanu notably scoring against Belgium in the quarter-finals.
Club career
Reading
Early career
Born in Acton, London, Robson-Kanu began his career at Arsenal as a schoolboy aged 10. He went on to play at Acton Ealing Whistlers for a number of seasons. He was released by the club at 15 and joined Reading after speaking to then Academy manager Brendan Rodgers. After graduating from the Academy he signed his first professional contract in July 2007, penning a two-year deal with the club. The 2007 Peace Cup in South Korea saw Robson-Kanu involved with the Reading senior team for the first time with appearances against River Plate and Shimizu S-Pulse. Steve Coppell's policy of resting first-team players for cup matches saw Robson-Kanu selected on the bench for the first time on 5 January 2008 for the FA Cup third round tie against Tottenham Hotspur, though he remained an unused substitute.
Not in contention for a regular place in the Reading first team, Robson-Kanu's first experience of senior football came on 30 January 2008 when he joined Southend United on loan until the end of the season. He made his debut three days later as a second-half substitute in a 2–2 draw away at Leyton Orient and scored his first career goal against Nottingham Forest. He struck twice more in the next two games against Huddersfield Town and Swansea City and returned to Reading with three goals in eight appearances. Robson-Kanu was again involved in the first team during the 2008–09 pre-season, scoring a goal in a 9–0 win over Didcot Town in July. He re-joined Southend on a month's loan on 21 August 2008 and after one goal in six appearances extended his spell for a second month. He returned to Reading on 15 November after his three-month spell came to an end having made 15 appearances, scoring twice, during his second spell at the club.
After returning to Reading he was among the substitutes for the FA Cup third round tie against Cardiff City on 3 January 2009. He would again have to wait to make his debut though, remaining on the bench as Cardiff won the match. On 26 January 2009 he joined Swindon Town on a one-month loan which, after six games, was extended for a further month. Midway through his spell at Swindon, having impressed on loan at the club as well with Southend previously, he signed a new contract with Reading until 2011. He cemented a regular place in the Swindon team and started in all 20 of his appearances for the club before returning to Reading after three months. At the conclusion of his spell Swindon boss Danny Wilson hailed Robson-Kanu and fellow loanee Gordon Greer for their "fantastic impression" which helped the club pull away from relegation.
First-team breakthrough
The 2009–10 season saw Robson-Kanu's former Academy boss Brendan Rodgers take over as Reading manager. He scored five goals during pre-season, including a hat-trick against Jonsereds IF in just 28 minutes during the first game of the tour of Sweden. Robson-Kanu finally made his competitive debut for Reading starting on the right wing in a 0–0 draw with Nottingham Forest on the opening day of the season. He was used mainly as a substitute during his first season, starting just four times in 18 appearances.
The following season saw Robson-Kanu establish himself in the first team setup. He scored his first Reading goal in the League Cup against Northampton Town on 24 August 2010, and followed it with his first league goal in a 3–0 win against Barnsley a month later, having earlier set-up Jimmy Kébé for the second. He continued to feature regularly and finished the season in good goalscoring form, netting four times from March onwards including the winner in a 2–1 wins over Preston North End and Derby County as Reading finished in the play-off positions. He came on as a late substitute in the 4–2 play-off final defeat to Swansea but had no time to influence the game and finished the season with six goals in 34 appearances. His contract expired at the end of the season and despite interest from other Championship clubs including Millwall and Portsmouth, he signed a new three-year contract with Reading in July keeping him with the club until 2014.
After the sale of Shane Long in August 2011, Robson-Kanu was played as a forward by Brian McDermott during some of the pre-season, a position he was familiar with from his Academy years. He struck twice playing up front in the warm-up fixtures and began the season in good goalscoring form with two in the first four games against Leicester City and Barnsley. With injuries to both Kebe and Jobi McAnuff during various points of the season, he soon reverted to a role on the wings though his season followed a familiar pattern to previous years as he was in and out the side, playing a supporting role to the two senior wingers. His longest run of starts came in October when he was named on the teamsheet for six consecutive games. He scored twice more during the campaign, including a spectacular volley against Millwall and finished the season having made 37 appearances, the most in his career to date.
In Kébé, McAnuff and new signing Garath McCleary, Robson-Kanu faced stiff competition for places on the wing for Reading's return to the Premier League. With Kébé injured, he was named on the teamsheet on the opening day of the season as Reading came from behind to draw against Stoke City. Limited to a substitutes role over the next three months, he still managed to score twice, in a defeat to Tottenham Hotspur and a 3–3 draw with Fulham. His only two starts came in the League cup, including the 7–5 defeat to Arsenal in October. He had to wait until 17 November for his next league start in Reading's 2–1 win over Everton, their first league victory of the season, and was a regular over the next month, scoring his third goal of the season in the defeat to Manchester United. Despite his goals, Robson-Kanu again had to settle for a place on the bench with two FA Cup matches his only starts for the club between December and March. He scored a late consolation goal coming on as a substitute against Everton on 2 March and returned to the lineup for the following game against Aston Villa.
The game against Villa proved to be Brian McDermott's last in charge and Robson-Kanu, having played only a bit-part role under the former manager, began to feature more prominently with the appointment of Nigel Adkins. He missed just two games under Adkins through a freak knee injury, and with a regular berth on the wing finished the season strongly, scoring against Arsenal, and twice in Reading's 4–2 win over Fulham. Having enjoyed his most prolific season yet, scoring seven times, Robson-Kanu was nominated for Reading Player of the Season. In a fans vote he finished in third place behind Adam Le Fondre and Alex McCarthy, despite all three players starting 13 or fewer league games all season. He signed a new contract in July 2013, keeping him with Reading until June 2016. Reading announced on 9 May 2016, that Robson-Kanu would leave Reading when his contract expired at the end of June 2016.
West Bromwich Albion
On 31 August 2016 after reportedly turning down "significant offers" from Asia, Robson-Kanu signed a two-year contract, with the option of a third year, with Premier League side West Bromwich Albion. He made his first start of the season on 31 December 2016 in a 2–1 win over Southampton, finishing the game with a goal and an assist.
In July 2017, Robson-Kanu signed a new three-year contract with West Brom. In "The Baggies" second game of the 2017–18 Premier League season against Burnley, Robson-Kanu became only the fourth player in Premier League history to get substituted on, score then get sent off.
After West Brom's relegation from the Premier League in 2018, Robson-Kanu scored twice and assisted once as his team beat Coventry City 5–2 to win the inaugural Regis Shield. He then scored his first league goal of the 2018–19 Championship season in a 4–3 win away at Norwich City. He headed home his fourth league goal of the season away at Aston Villa in a 2–0 away win as West Brom closed in for a promotion place. He missed the playoff campaign after receiving a red card against Derby County on the final day of the season.
On 19 October 2019, the day after signing a contract extension to keep him at the club until 2021, Robson-Kanu came off the bench to score a late winner in a 1–0 away win against Middlesbrough. He scored six goals in nine games between October and December, and ended the season as the team's joint top scorer alongside Charlie Austin with ten, as Slaven Bilić's team won promotion as runners-up.
On 17 May 2021, Robson-Kanu scored his first Premier League goal of the 2020–21 season in a 1–2 home defeat against Liverpool.
On 27 May 2021 it was announced that Robson-Kanu would leave West Bromwich Albion after five years following the conclusion of his contract, having appeared for the club 154 times scoring 24 goals. A year after being released and having failed to find a new club, Robson-Kanu revealed that he left Albion because he felt the club was lacking the direction needed to push for promotion. "I didn't agree with the direction the club was going in," he told the Express & Star s Baggies Broadcast podcast. "If I was staying there had to be a long-term vision, a project. I didn't want to be in a place where we were languishing in mid-table in the Championship."
International career
Robson-Kanu was born in England to a Nigerian father, and an English mother of Welsh descent. Robson-Kanu initially represented England at international level, making his debut for the under-19 side against Germany in November 2007. He made a second appearance against Croatia the following year before winning one cap for the England under-20s against Montenegro in 2009.
In 2010, he switched to Wales, for which he qualifies through his Caerphilly-born grandmother. The switch came about when Welsh coach Brian Flynn came to the Reading training ground to see Simon Church, and Glen Little jested that Robson-Kanu would be eligible for Wales through going on holiday there. Robson-Kanu told Flynn that the family went to Tenby via picking up his grandmother in Caerphilly, and Flynn asked whether she was born in Wales.
He was first selected in the Wales under-21s squad for the friendly against Austria on 18 May 2010 and made his debut in a 1–0 defeat. Robson-Kanu's first cap for the senior team came just five days later, coming on as a second-half substitute for Robert Earnshaw in a 2–0 loss to Croatia. He continued to play for the under-21s after his senior debut and made a further three appearances, scoring twice, with his last appearance coming in a defeat to Italy which ended Wales hopes of qualifying for the European Under-21 Football Championships. He scored his first senior international goal on 22 March 2013 in a 2–1 World Cup qualifying win over Scotland at Hampden Park.
Robson-Kanu gained notoriety when during a friendly game against the Netherlands, his shorts tore and he had to change shorts in the middle of the game, showing off his white briefs.
Robson-Kanu played nine games in Wales' successful qualification campaign for UEFA Euro 2016, scoring on 13 October 2014 in their 2–1 home win over Cyprus. After being selected for the final tournament in France, on 11 June he came on as a 71st-minute substitute in place of Jonny Williams during their opener against Slovakia and scored the winner in a 2–1 victory in Bordeaux. He also started as striker in Wales' historic 3–1 quarter-final win on 1 July against Belgium in Lille and, after outwitting three defenders with a Cruyff turn, scored the team's second goal. It was nominated in the FIFA Puskás Award for best goal of the year. Wales were eliminated following a 2–0 defeat to eventual champions Portugal in the semi-final of the tournament on 6 July.
Robson-Kanu then made 9 appearances, scoring once, as Wales failed to qualify for the 2018 FIFA World Cup.
On 29 August 2018, Robson-Kanu announced his retirement from international football. After reversing his decision, he was called up for the matches against Finland and Bulgaria in October 2020.
Robson-Kanu, Tyler Roberts and Rabbi Matondo were all sent home from the Wales squad in March 2021 after breaching COVID-19 protocols. He was not included in Rob Page's squad for UEFA Euro 2020 that May.
Outside football
In August 2018, Robson-Kanu founded The Turmeric Co. brand, selling a range of turmeric-based shots made from natural ingredients. Robson-Kanu has hailed turmeric as his 'secret weapon', claiming that using turmeric as a nutritional supplement saved his footballing career and helped him to recover from a cruciate knee ligament rupture.
Career statistics
Club
International
Scores and results list Wales' goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Robson-Kanu goal.
Honours
Reading
Football League Championship: 2011–12
West Bromwich Albion
EFL Championship runners-up: 2019–20
Individual
BBC Goal of the Tournament – Euro 2016
References
External links
Hal Robson-Kanu profile at West Bromwich Albion
1989 births
Living people
Footballers from the London Borough of Ealing
People from Acton, London
Welsh men's footballers
Wales men's under-21 international footballers
Wales men's international footballers
English men's footballers
England men's youth international footballers
Black British sportsmen
English people of Nigerian descent
English people of Welsh descent
Men's association football wingers
Arsenal F.C. players
Reading F.C. players
Southend United F.C. players
Swindon Town F.C. players
West Bromwich Albion F.C. players
Premier League players
English Football League players
UEFA Euro 2016 players
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43710666
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.I%20%28rapper%29
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B.I (rapper)
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B.I (rapper)
Kim Han-bin (born October 22, 1996), known professionally as B.I is a South Korean rapper, singer, songwriter, record producer, and dancer. He debuted in the South Korean boy band IKon under YG Entertainment in September 2015. On June 12, 2019, he departed from the group due to drug allegations. During his time with the group, he played a significant role in the production and songwriting of their music, and is credited as the sole record producer for all of the group's releases. His contributions to iKon's second studio album, Return, for the lead single "Love Scenario", earned him the prestigious "Songwriter of the Year" award at the 2018 Melon Music Awards.
In 2021, he debuted as a solo artist under his self-founded label, 131, with the charity single album Midnight Blue (Love Streaming) and full-length charity studio album Waterfall. Cosmos, the first half of his second studio album was released in November 2021. In 2022, he launched his global album project Love or Loved, starting with the single "BTBT" in May, followed by the EP Love or Loved Part.1 in November. B.I released his second studio album To Die For on June 1, 2023.
Early life
Kim Han-bin was born on October 22, 1996, in Cheonan, South Korea.
In 2009, B.I made his first appearance by featuring and participating in promotions for MC Mong's single "Indian Boy", including live performances and accompanying the rapper to the TV show You Hee-yeol's Sketchbook. He also appeared in the music video for the song and had a cameo appearance in the music video of another song by MC Mong, "Horror Show".
B.I joined YG Entertainment as a trainee in January 2011.
Career
2013–2014: Career beginnings
After over two years of training, in 2013, B.I participated in Mnet reality survival program WIN: Who Is Next as a contestant under Team B. However, his team's opponent, Team A, won the program, so B.I, together with the other members of the team, continued as a trainee under YG Entertainment. In 2014, B.I and his label-mate Bobby competed in Mnet's Show Me the Money 3, during which B.I released his self-written digital single "Be I", which became the first single from the show to top the charts. This was noteworthy as he was only 17 years old and still a trainee at the time.
While B.I was still competing on Show Me the Money 3, it was announced in September 2014 that Team B would return to compete on another survival program, Mix & Match. This show eventually led to the debut of Team B, with the addition of trainee Jung Chan-woo, under the group name iKon. In October 2014, B.I was featured in label-mate Epik High's lead single "Born Hater" alongside Beenzino, Verbal Jint, Bobby, and Winner's Mino, and they performed the song together at the 2014 Mnet Asian Music Awards.
2015–May 2019: Leader of iKon
B.I made his debut as the leader of iKon under YG Entertainment on September 15, 2015, with their warm-up single "My Type", followed by lead singles "Rhythm Ta" and "Airplane" on October 1, 2015.
Throughout his leadership tenure, B.I played a significant role in the production and songwriting of iKon's music, This includes the group's full-length studio albums Welcome Back and Return, as well as the compilation album The New Kids, and singles and EPs such as "#WYD", New Kids: Begin, "Rubber Band", New Kids: Continue, and New Kids: The Final. He is credited as the sole record producer for all of iKon's albums.
In December 2018, B.I was awarded the "Songwriter of the Year" award at the 10th Melon Music Awards for his contributions to iKon's second studio album, Return, and specifically for his work on the lead single "Love Scenario". Deemed one of the "100 greatest songs in the history of Korean pop music" by Rolling Stone in 2023, "Love Scenario" topped the South Korean Gaon Digital Chart for the year 2018, and received several awards in South Korea, including the Melon Music Award for "Song of the Year", the Golden Disc Award for "Song of the Year", and the Seoul Music Award for "Best Song".
While serving as the leader of iKon, B.I released one non-promoted solo track, "One and Only", as a B-side from iKon's album Return. In December 2015, he and fellow iKon member Jin-hwan joined the cast of JTBC's Mari and I. He was also featured in label-mate Psy's studio album 4X2=8 in June 2017, on the track "Bomb" along with Bobby, and on the track "Mollado" from Seungri's debut studio album, The Great Seungri, released on July 20, 2018.
In 2019, B.I was cast for JTBC2's variety show Grand Buda-guest. He was also featured on label-mate Lee Hi's single "No One", and co-wrote and co-composed the track "1, 2" from her EP 24°C.
June 2019–2020: Departure from iKon and YG, hiatus
On June 12, 2019, following drug allegations, B.I left the group iKon and terminated his exclusive contract with YG Entertainment.
Despite his departure from iKon and YG Entertainment, B.I was still credited with writing and composing four out of five songs on iKon's 2020 EP I Decide, including the title track "Dive", which was released by YG Entertainment on February 6, 2020.
On September 28, 2020, B.I was appointed as the executive director of IOK Company.
2021: Return to music as a solo artist under 131, Waterfall, Cosmos
On January 11, 2021, it was announced that B.I would feature on Epik High's tenth studio album, Epik High Is Here 上 (Part 1), on the song "Acceptance Speech", which was released on January 18, 2021, along with the rest of the album.
This was followed by B.I's release of a charity single album, Midnight Blue (Love Streaming), on March 19, 2021, through B.I's self-founded label, 131 Label, an affiliate of IOK Music. The label's name was inspired by the shape created when the letters "B" and "I" are combined. The debut single album contained three self-written songs, and an animated music video for lead single "Midnight Blue" was released on the same day. All tracks had been previously released, partially, as demos via B.I's SoundCloud between 2020 and 2021.
On May 7, 2021, 131 Label announced the release schedule for B.I as a solo artist. This included a global single "Got It Like That" featuring American artists Destiny Rogers and Tyla Yaweh, released on May 14, 2021, and his first full-length studio album, Waterfall, released on June 1, 2021. Waterfall featured former label-mates Lee Hi and Tablo of Epik High. A cinematic music video for the title track "Illa Illa" was also released alongside the album. The music video surpassed 12.7 million views on YouTube within the first 24 hours of its release, breaking the record for the most viewed K-pop male solo artist debut music video within the first 24 hours.
On August 25, 2021, B.I was announced to feature on Lee Hi's upcoming third studio album, 4 Only, on the song "Savior", which he wrote and co-composed. The music video for "Savior" was released on September 3, 2021. Supposedly distributed on August 27, the song was officially released on all platforms on September 9, 2021, along with the rest of the album.
On October 1, 2021, B.I released the digital single "Lost At Sea (Illa Illa 2)", a reinterpretation of "Illa Illa", featuring British artist Bipolar Sunshine and Indonesian singer Afgan.
B.I held his first-ever solo concert online on October 3, 2021. During the virtual concert, which was exclusively streamed on LiveXLive, B.I performed the tracks from his debut studio album, Waterfall. Pink Sweats, Afgan, Destiny Rogers and Epik High joined him as guest performers.
On November 11, 2021, B.I released the first half of his second studio album, Cosmos, including the lead single of the same name. South Korean singer-songwriter Colde was featured on the album. On November 25, he made an appearance on TV5's Lunch Out Loud, a Philippine variety show.
2022–present: Love or Loved, White Noise Club, To Die For
In January 2022, B.I became the first K-pop and Asian act to participate in the digital performance series by The Recording Academy called Grammy Global Spin, that aims to showcase artists from around the world. He performed a live band version of his song "Nineteen", which was originally released on his album Cosmos.
In April 2022, B.I announced his global album project Love or Loved. He launched a pre-release single in collaboration with Soulja Boy titled "BTBT", featuring DeVita, on May 13. Also in May, B.I's label 131 unveiled the record production and songwriting team White Noise Club, which includes B.I and other South Korean producers Millennium, Sihwang, Padi, and Kim Chang-hoon. B.I later featured on Padi's digital single "Handsome", alongside South Korean rappers Nucksal, Kid Milli and Gaeko.
From April to August 2022, B.I performed "BTBT" and some tracks from Waterfall and Cosmos through a series of offline fan meetings in Seoul, Singapore, Bangkok and Manila. On June 26, 2022, he held his second online concert, BTBT Performance Online Fancon, which was exclusively streamed on LiveOne. During the event, he unveiled two unreleased tracks from his upcoming EP Love or Loved Part.1, "Tangerine" and "Endless Summer".
On June 27, B.I released the digital single "Lullaby" with Chuu as a collaboration with Dingo Music.
B.I announced his resignation as an executive director of IOK Company on October 11, 2022. Following his departure, his label 131 confirmed that it would operate as an independent label. The label had undergone a rebranding earlier in January 2022, from 131 Label to 131 (One Three One), or simply 131. It had also signed its first artist besides B.I, Reddy, on September 30, 2022.
First part of B.I's global album project, the EP Love or Loved Part.1 was released on November 18, 2022, featuring the pre-release single "BTBT" and a new lead single titled "Keep Me Up".
Following the release of the EP, B.I held his first standard in-person concert as a soloist, titled L.O.L: The Hidden Stage, in Seoul on December 10, 2022. He performed a selection of songs from all of his albums, and was joined on stage by special guests Lee Hi and the Epik High trio.
On February 3, 2023, B.I's record label, 131, announced that he would be stepping down from his position as the head of the label in order to focus on his music work as an artist and producer, while the label would be managed by a team of entertainment business professionals. The label also announced a change in B.I's release schedule for 2023, stating that his second full-length studio album, the continuation of Cosmos, would be released first, so as to express his take on "love" to a full completion. The second part of his Love or Loved project, with stories about "loved" in the past tense, would be released later on.
On February 10, 2023, B.I and the record production and songwriting team White Noise Club produced A Tempo, the debut EP of the South Korean R&B singer-songwriter Soovi, as a part of their "New Voice Project". B.I contributed to writing and composing two of the songs, including the title track "Missing You".
In March 2023, B.I embarked on the L.O.L: The Hidden Stage tour. The tour included six stops across Southeast and East Asia, with local special guests joining him on stage at some of the shows. It concluded on May 20, 2023 with an additional concert in Bangkok.
B.I collaborated with Sik-K and Reddy for the single "TTM" that was released while he was touring, on April 27, 2023. In an interview with Esquire Korea, B.I shared that he was inspired by a scene from the movie Taxi Driver, in which the protagonist repeatedly asks "You talkin' to me?" in front of a mirror.
B.I's second studio album, titled To Die For, was released on June 1, 2023, including the lead singles "Dare to Love" (featuring Big Naughty) and "Die for Love" (featuring Jessi). Through an exploration of love and resistance, the album brought to a close the project about youth that B.I had started with Cosmos.
On July 10, 2023, the newly created agency Grid Entertainment announced that 131 had become their first affiliated label.
In July 2023, 131 announced B.I's first concert tour in Europe, Love or Die, with 16 stops across 14 countries in September and October 2023. The list included countries where South Korean artists rarely perform, such as Luxembourg, Estonia or Finland. Most of the dates were sold-out and Rolling Stone UK gave the concert in London a five out of five stars review, describing it as a "masterclass of live performance" and "one of those one-off perfect, euphoric night's out that are impossible to recreate, but ingrained as a core memory forever".
The release schedule for the second and last part of B.I's Love or Loved global album project, Love or Loved Part.2, was revealed shortly before the beginning of the tour. Prior to the release of the EP, on November 10, 2023, the title track, "Loved", became available on October 27, 2023. Another single from the EP, "4 Letters", was released on September 30, 2023. B.I also unveiled the title track on the stage of Lollapalooza Berlin, on September 10, 2023. He was the first South Korean artist to take part in the German edition of the festival.
On March 13, 2024, B.I released his first Japanese EP, . The EP consisted of five original songs written in Japanese, with two lead singles, and "Wish You Were Here", and guest appearances of rappers Sky-Hi and Chanmina on B-side tracks. "Kowai" had been made available in advance, on February 23, 2024.
B.I's second tour in Asia, Hype Up, was announced in March 2024. Seven concerts are scheduled from May to July 2024 in Hong Kong, Bangkok, Singapore, Manila, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur and Macau, following the opening concerts in Seoul on May 17 and 18, 2024.
Artistry
Musical style
B.I has mentioned "Shake Ya Tailfeather" by Nelly, P. Diddy and Murphy Lee, "Song Cry" by Jay-Z or Eminem's "Lose Yourself" as the songs that brought about his dream of becoming a rapper, when he was at primary school.
But while hip-hop and R&B remain major influences on his music,
he also looks up to the "not too elaborate but still very beautiful" music of the Beatles.
Rather than "lock[ing] [him]self into a certain genre," he stated in 2022 that he was intent on exploring as many as he could, always trying to "experiment with new sounds," and "make the boundaries more blurry."
Thus, the songs "Savior" he composed for Lee Hi (September 2021) and "Alive" (November 2021) were inspired by jazz,
"Endless Summer" (November 2022) by tropical music and EDM,
"Cosmos" (November 2021) by 1980s rock and doo-wop,
"Illusion" (June 2021) by lo-fi,
and so on. Even though his songs usually highlight electronic sounds,
he has acoustic tracks as well, such as "Remember Me" (March 2021).
Similarly, B.I explained in 2021 that he wouldn't oppose rapping and singing, as they were simply two ways of "expressing the message of [his] music."
He actually sings more than he raps in his album Love or Loved Part.1 (November 2022).
In 2018, B.I discussed the process behind his songwriting, admitting, "Because I don't have much experience, I typically draw a lot of my inspiration from movies or dramas. I'm also the type to draw inspiration from things like poetry". He explained that it was a way of "making up for things I'm unable to experience or feel for myself". When asked what type of music he wanted to make, he stated, "There are just two things. Music that people can relate to and music that draws imagination. Aside from that, the reason that I compose and make music is simply because it's fun. My hobby doesn't feel like work just yet".
Songwriting
B.I has written and co-composed all the songs in his debut single album, Midnight Blue (Love Streaming), his debut studio album, Waterfall, his half album Cosmos, and second studio album To Die For. He also contributed to the writing of all the songs on his first global EP, Love or Loved Part.1.
During his tenure as the leader of iKon, B.I was instrumental in the production and songwriting of their music. He is credited as the sole record producer and main songwriter for all of their releases. This includes the group's full-length studio albums, Welcome Back and Return, compilation album, The New Kids, and various singles and EPs such as "#WYD", New Kids: Begin, "Rubber Band", New Kids: Continue, and New Kids: The Final. B.I also wrote and co-composed four of the five songs on the group's 2020 EP, I Decide. B.I's contributions to iKon's album Return, particularly for the lead single "Love Scenario", earned him the "Songwriter of the Year" award at the 2018 Melon Music Awards.
B.I has also written songs for other artists, including MC Mong and several current and former artists under YG Entertainment, such as Epik High, Winner, Blackpink, Psy, Seungri, Lee Hi and Eun Ji-won.
B.I was selected as a full member of the Korea Music Copyright Association (KOMCA) on January 22, 2019. As of May 2024, 121 songs are registered under his name with KOMCA.
In 2022, B.I and South Korean producers Millennium, Sihwang, Padi and Kim Chang-hoon founded the record production and songwriting team White Noise Club under 131. In 2023, White Noise Club produced the first EP of the South Korean R&B singer-songwriter Soovi, called A Tempo, with B.I taking part in writing and composing two of the songs, including the lead track "Missing You". The same year, White Noise Club also contributed to the debut EP by South Korean boy band Pow, Favorite. B.I, in particular, wrote and co-composed two of the four songs and co-wrote and co-composed another.
Philanthropy
Starting from 2016, B.I has been making private donations to the Seungil Hope Foundation, which is a non-profit organization that raises awareness about ALS. The foundation disclosed in 2018 that B.I had donated a sum of 30 million won to their cause. B.I also donated 10 million won to the Hope Bridge National Disaster Relief Association in 2019 to help the victims of the forest fires in Sokcho, Gangwon Province. Furthermore, B.I, along with the cast and crew of Grand Buda-Guest, donated 30 million won worth of dog food to a dog shelter in Gyeonggi-do on June 10, 2019.
During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, B.I donated 100,000 face masks worth 200 million won to his fans, intended to be distributed to vulnerable groups such as children, the elderly, and low-income families, in South Korea, China, Thailand, Japan, Indonesia, and Vietnam. Additionally, B.I donated shoes to the childcare facility "Angel's Haven for Children" on August 10, 2020. He also surprised his fans by volunteering in Incheon and donating 10,000 KF94 masks to a briquette sharing project on December 19, 2020.
On December 18, 2020, B.I, and IOK Company donated 200 million won worth of items, including 200,000 masks and 10,000 underwear, to World Vision, an international relief and development NGO. On January 5, 2021, B.I and IOK company CEO Jang Jin-woo delivered an additional 200 million won worth of KF94 masks and underwear to Osan City to help the vulnerable during the COVID-19 pandemic.
In March 2021, B.I released a charity single album called Midnight Blue (Love Streaming), and pledged to donate all proceeds from the sound sources, recordings, and copyright fees of the single album to World Vision to support children in crisis across the globe. On May 4, 2021, B.I met with the chairman of World Vision in Seoul to donate all the profits from the sale of 10,000 limited edition single albums of Midnight Blue (Love Streaming). B.I also promised to continuously donate all revenue generated from the digital music sales and copyright fees from the single album.
On September 17, 2021, IOK Company announced that B.I had made a second donation to World Vision. B.I plans to conduct a "monthly donation project" where he will continuously donate all his music and copyright profits from his Midnight Blue (Love Streaming) and Waterfall albums. The donations will include all copyright fees, music and album sales, and content revenue generated following the album's release, and will go towards the Basic for Girls project, which aims to improve women's restroom facilities in Zambia, Africa, and provide sanitary napkins to support women's health.
Drug allegation controversy
On June 12, 2019, it was revealed that B.I had allegedly attempted to purchase marijuana and LSD in 2016 from an undisclosed female dealer, and used the former. He was also accused of evading police charges. Following the reports, B.I posted an apology on his personal Instagram account. He acknowledged some of the allegations, explaining that he was going through "a hard and painful time and wanted something to rely on", and announced his departure from iKon. A few hours later, YG Entertainment confirmed that he had indeed left the group and terminated his exclusive contract. His appearances on television series Law of the Jungle, Grand Buda-Guest, and Stage K were edited out by the networks prior to their broadcast. The dealer was revealed to be Han Seo-hee, who was involved in drug issues with former label-mate T.O.P and received four years of probation in 2017.
In September 2019, it was reported that B.I had admitted during police questioning to violating the Act on the Control of Narcotics in 2016. In February 2020, results of a drug test conducted on B.I were released, revealing no detection of illegal drugs from a sample of B.I's body hair sent by South Korea's Gyeonggi Southern Provincial Police Agency to the National Forensic Service.
On May 28, 2021, B.I was indicted without detention by the violent crimes department of the Seoul Central District Prosecutors' Office for violating the Act on the Control of Narcotics. During the first hearing, on August 26, 2021, he admitted to all the charges stated by the prosecution: three accounts of illegal marijuana usage and one account of purchasing illegal LSD in 2016. On September 10, 2021, the Seoul Central District Court sentenced B.I to three years of incarceration, suspended for a probationary period of four years, 80 hours of community service, 40 hours of drug education courses, and a fine of 1.5 million won (approximately US$1,300).
Awards and nominations
Discography
Studio albums
EPs and half albums
Single albums
Singles
As lead artist
As featured artist
Other charted songs
Other guest appearances
Videography
Filmography
Television
Live performances
B.I's first concert as a soloist was held online on October 3, 2021, four months after his debut with Waterfall. His first regular concert, L.O.L: The Hidden Stage, took place in Seoul one year later, on December 10, 2022. In 2023, he embarked on his first tour of Asia, also titled L.O.L: The Hidden Stage, in the first semester, then his first tour of Europe, Love or Die, in the second semester.
From 2022 onwards, B.I also performed in various music events in South Korea and abroad, including South Korean hip hop festivals such as Rapbeat and Hiphopplaya festival, regional events such as KV Fest in Jakarta or S2O Songkran Music Festival in Hong Kong, K-pop concerts such as MIK Festival in Paris and Overpass in Manila, as well as international festivals such as Rolling Loud and Lollapalooza.
Tours
L.O.L: The Hidden Stage Asia Tour (2023)
Love or Die Europe Tour (2023)
Hype Up Asia Tour (2024)
Notes
References
External links
1996 births
IKon members
Living people
21st-century South Korean singers
Show Me the Money (South Korean TV series) contestants
South Korean hip hop record producers
South Korean hip hop singers
South Korean male dancers
South Korean male idols
South Korean male pop singers
South Korean male rappers
South Korean record producers
South Korean male singer-songwriters
YG Entertainment artists
South Korean singer-songwriters
People from Cheonan
Musicians from South Chungcheong Province
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madison%20Kocian
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Madison Kocian
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Madison Kocian
Madison Taylor Kocian (born June 15, 1997) is an American retired artistic gymnast. On the uneven bars, she is one of four 2015 World co-champions and the 2016 Olympic silver medalist. She was part of the gold medal-winning team dubbed the "Final Five" at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, and she was a member of the first-place American teams at the 2014 and 2015 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships. She graduated from the University of California, Los Angeles in 2020, where she was a member of its women's gymnastics team. She helped the UCLA Bruins win the 2018 NCAA Championships.
Early life
Kocian was born and raised in Dallas, Texas. Her parents, Thomas and Cindy Kocian, put her in gymnastics at a young age. At age five, she began training at the World Olympic Gymnastics Academy (WOGA) in Plano, Texas. WOGA was the gym where Olympic all-around champions Carly Patterson and Nastia Liukin trained. Patterson and Liukin served as early inspirations for Kocian, particularly Liukin, whom Kocian has likened to an older sister. Kocian has one younger brother. She was raised Catholic. She attended Spring Creek Academy in Plano, Texas, and graduated in 2015.
Junior elite career
2009–2010
Kocian made her elite gymnastics debut at the 2009 U.S. Classic, finishing 18th in the all-around. At the 2009 U.S. Championships, she placed sixth in the all-around and was added to the U.S. Junior National Team. Later that year, Kocian was selected to make her international debut at the Top Gym Invitational in Charleroi, Belgium. She won a bronze medal in the all-around competition behind Larisa Iordache and Julie Croket. In the event finals, she won a gold medal on the vault, and a silver medal on the balance beam behind Iordache.
Kocian began the 2010 season at the WOGA Classic where she finished second in the all-around to her club teammate Grace McLaughlin. She then placed fifth in the all-around at the U.S. Classic in Chicago. At the U.S. Championships, she won a bronze medal on the uneven bars and once again finished fifth in the all-around.
2011–2012
Kocian began the 2011 season by winning a silver medal in the all-around at the WOGA Classic. Then at the City of Jesolo Trophy, she won a gold medal with the American team and finished second in the all-around to Kyla Ross.
Kocian finished second in the all-around at the 2012 WOGA Classic behind club teammate Katelyn Ohashi. She missed the rest of the season due to a broken growth plate in the radius of her wrist.
Senior elite career
2013
Kocian became age-eligible for senior competitions in 2013. She returned to competition at the WOGA Classic competing on vault and uneven bars where she finished third and second, respectively. She then won the all-around title at the American Classic. Then at the U.S. Classic, held in Hoffman Estates, Illinois, where she placed seventh all-around and earned a silver medal on the uneven bars behind Kyla Ross. On the first day of the U.S. Championships, she led the all-around competition after two rotations. However, on the floor exercise, she rolled her ankle on a triple twist and suffered a third-degree sprain. She withdrew from the competition and did not compete for the rest of the year.
2014
Kocian returned to competition at the WOGA Classic. She only competed on the uneven bars and the balance beam, winning gold and silver on the events, respectively. At the City of Jesolo Trophy, she stuck her full-twisting double back dismount to win the uneven bars gold medal. She once again only competed on uneven bars and balance beam at the U.S. Classic. She won the silver medal on the uneven bars behind Ashton Locklear, and she placed eighth on the balance beam. Then at the U.S. Championships, she again finished second to Locklear on the uneven bars, and she placed fifth on the balance beam.
Kocian competed at the Pan American Championships in Mississauga, Canada. She helped the American team place first in the team competition. In the event finals, she placed second on the uneven bars behind teammate Ashton Locklear. She also qualified for the balance beam event final and finished fourth. On September 17, Kocian was selected to compete at the 2014 World Championships in Nanning, China, alongside Locklear, Alyssa Baumann, Simone Biles, Kyla Ross, and Mykayla Skinner. In qualifications, she competed in the all-around and finished in 14th place with a score of 55.966, but she did not make it into the all-around final due to the two-per-country rule with Biles, Ross, and Skinner all outscoring her. She competed in the team final on the uneven bars and contributed a score of 14.900 to the U.S. team's gold medal finish.
After the World Championships, Kocian chose to have wrist surgery. After breaking a growth plate in 2012, her ulna bone grew to be 6 millimeters longer than her radius. She had a plate and seven screws put in, and she missed five months of training.
2015
Kocian returned to competition at the U.S. Classic competing only on the uneven bars and balance beam. She finished first on the uneven bars and ninth on the balance beam. Then at the U.S. Championships, she placed sixth in the all-around and won her first national title on the uneven bars. She was once again named to the senior U.S. national team. She was invited to the World Championships selection camp held on October 6.
Kocian was selected to compete at the World Championships in Glasgow, alongside Simone Biles, Gabby Douglas, Brenna Dowell, Maggie Nichols, and Aly Raisman. During the qualification round, Kocian competed on the balance beam and on the uneven bars, where she qualified for the event final in third place. Her scores helped the American team qualify for the team final in first place and secured a team berth for the 2016 Olympic Games. She then helped the U.S. team win the gold medal in the team final. In the uneven bars final, she scored a 15.366, placing her in a first-ever four-way tie for the gold medal with Russians Viktoria Komova and Daria Spiridonova, and China's Fan Yilin.
2016
Kocian began the Olympic season at the WOGA Classic and competed on the uneven bars and balance beam, winning the gold medals on both events. In March, Kocian, along with fellow National Team members attended the Team USA Media Summit in Los Angeles, an event for the media to interview and interact with Olympic-hopefuls. Kocian attended the event on crutches and wearing a cast, and confirmed to reporters that she had a fractured tibia. She missed six weeks of training.
Kocian returned to competition at the U.S. Classic and competed on the uneven bars and balance beam. She finished second on the uneven bars behind Ashton Locklear and placed 15th on the balance beam. She returned to competing on all four events at the U.S. Championships and placed fifth in the all-around. She once again finished second to Locklear on the uneven bars. Then at the U.S. Olympic Trials, she placed eighth in the all-around and won the uneven bars gold medal.
On July 10, 2016, Kocian was named to the U.S. team for the 2016 Olympic Games alongside Simone Biles, Gabby Douglas, Aly Raisman, and Laurie Hernandez.
Rio de Janeiro Olympics
On August 7, Kocian competed in the qualification round at the 2016 Summer Olympics. Despite showing all four events in podium training, she competed only on the uneven bars, scoring a 15.833. Her score was the highest on that event, and she qualified in first place for the uneven bars event final. The American team also qualified for the team final in first place by nearly ten points ahead of second-place China. In the team final on August 9, Kocian again competed on the uneven bars, anchoring the American team on the event. She contributed a score of 15.933 to help the team to its second consecutive team gold at the Olympic Games, more than eight points ahead of the silver medalists. Kocian's uneven bars score tied with Russia's Aliya Mustafina the highest of the team final. On August 14, Kocian won a silver medal in the uneven bars event final, scoring 15.833 and finishing behind Mustafina by only 0.067.
College career
2017
Kocian began attending the University of California, Los Angeles in the fall of 2016 and joined the UCLA Bruins gymnastics program. Her collegiate debut came on January 7, 2017, in a home dual meet against the University of Arkansas where she won three individual event titles and tallied an all-around score of 39.425 to win the all-around title. Kocian and 2012 Olympic gold medalist Kyla Ross became the first Olympic gold medalists to compete in NCAA gymnastics. In February 2017, she scored a perfect 10.0 on the uneven bars in a dual meet against Stanford. On March 27, 2017, Kocian received first-team regular season All-American honors in the all-around and second-team honors on floor exercise. She helped UCLA place fourth in the Super Six at the NCAA Championships.
2018
On August 21, 2017, Kocian underwent surgery to repair her torn labrum, an injury she had dealt with since the 2016 Olympic Trials. She returned to NCAA competition on January 20, 2018, in a dual meet against Arizona, competing on only balance beam. She added floor exercise to her repertoire on February 25 in a dual meet against Oregon State, and she returned to competing on uneven bars at the NCAA Regional Championship on April 7. She helped UCLA win the PAC-12 Championships. During the Super Six finals, she fell on the balance beam but contributed great performances on uneven bars and floor exercise to help UCLA win their first NCAA Gymnastics title since 2010.
2019
On January 21, Kocian earned her second career perfect 10 on uneven bars in a meet against Arizona State. She helped UCLA repeat at the PAC-12 Championships, and UCLA finish third at the NCAA Championships. Kocian earned several post-season accolades, including Pac-12 First Team honors on uneven bars and was named to the Pac-12 All-Academic team with a 3.81 GPA.
2020
Kocian was sidelined for the first few weeks of the 2020 season with shoulder soreness. She delayed surgery for another torn labrum to compete in her senior season. She returned to competition at the BYU, Utah State tri-meet where she competed on both uneven bars and floor exercise. On March 13, all remaining competitions for the season were canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, including UCLA's senior night and the entire post-season. This effectively ended Kocian's gymnastics career. She confirmed in April she would not return to elite gymnastics due to her injury history.
Kocian was named the Pac-12 Conference scholar-athlete of the year for the sport of gymnastics. At the conclusion of the school year, Kocian was named UCLA scholar-athlete of the year alongside cross country athlete Millen Trujillo. She was also named as the Bruins' Tom Hansen Medal recipient alongside football player Darnay Holmes. She was nominated by UCLA for the NCAA Woman of the Year Award.
Career perfect 10.0
Kocian received a perfect 10 twice in her NCAA career, both on the uneven bars.
Personal life
On August 16, 2018, Kocian came forward as a survivor of Larry Nassar's sexual abuse alongside UCLA teammate Kyla Ross.
In July 2022, Kocian began studying at Baylor College of Medicine in its Physician Assistant Program.
Competitive history
References
External links
1997 births
Living people
American female artistic gymnasts
Medalists at the World Artistic Gymnastics Championships
World champion gymnasts
Sportspeople from Dallas
World Olympic Gymnastics Academy
Gymnasts at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in gymnastics
Olympic silver medalists for the United States in gymnastics
UCLA Bruins women's gymnasts
Gymnasts from Texas
Catholics from Texas
U.S. women's national team gymnasts
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%8F%20%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE
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Вулиця Маяковського
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Вулиця Маяковського — назва вулиць у різних населених пунктах держав колишнього СРСР.
Вулиця Маяковського — вулиця в місті Мелітополь.
Вулиця Маяковського — вулиця в місті Новомиргород.
Вулиця Маяковського — вулиця в місті Сімферополь.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Андрія Кизила у місті Авдіївка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Малинова у місті Апостолове.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва Поетичної вулиці в місті Балаклія.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва Василя Решетка у місті Балта.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Василя Стуса в місті Бар.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Ярослава Максименка у місті Бахмач.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Храмова у місті Бахмут.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Сонячна у місті Баштанка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва Театральної вулиці в місті Бердичів.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Індустріальна у місті Березань.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці М.Овчаренка у місті Березівка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Скіфська у місті Бершадь.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Казимира Малевича у місті Білопілля.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиць Героїв України і Захисників Миколаєва у місті Білгород-Дністровський.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Ярославська у місті Бобровиця.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Щаслива у місті Богуслав.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Лисичівка у місті Бориспіль.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Симона Петлюри у місті Боярка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Короля Данила у місті Бровари.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Патона в місті Буча.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Михайла Поготовка у місті Валки.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Творча у місті Васильків.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Одеська у місті Ватутіне.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Котляревського у місті Верхівцеве.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Світанкова у місті Верхньодніпровськ.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Синьоводська у місті Вінниця.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Гапошино у місті Вилкове.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Пухова у місті Виноградів.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Європейська у місті Вознесенськ.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Россоха у смт. Вороновиця.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Незалежності в смт Врадіївка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Європейська у місті Гайворон.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Миколаївська у місті Генічеськ.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Івана Зарицького у місті Глобине.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Піддубного в місті Гнівань.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Сергія Єфремова в місті Городище.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Василя Симоненка у місті Гребінка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва Широкої вулиці в смт Гриців.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Олекси Слісаренка у місті Дергачі.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва (до 2012 року) Паланкової вулиці у колишньому селищі Таромське Новокодацького району міста Дніпро.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Західний Шлях у місті Дніпро.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Миколи Міхновського у місті Дружківка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва Володимирської вулиці в місті Житомир.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Івана Мазепи у місті Заводське.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Героїв Азову у місті Знам'янка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва Привокзальної вулиці в місті Золоте.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Отамана Чепіги у місті Ізмаїл.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва Борисоглібської вулиці в місті Ізюм.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Василя Стуса в місті Ізяслав.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Гуцала в місті Ірпінь.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Молодіжна у місті Ічня.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Героїв України у місті Кагарлик.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Левка Лук'яненка у місті Калинівка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Данила Кононенка в місті Кам'янка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Олександра Довженка у місті Кам'янське.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Героїв чорнобильців у місті Карлівка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Михайла Коцюбинського у місті Каховка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Волі у місті Ківерці.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Героїв Майдану у місті Кілія.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Українська у місті Кобеляки.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Юзефа Любомирського в місті Кодима.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Івана Мазепи в смт Козелець.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Вишнева у місті Козятин.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Корятовича в смт Королево.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Степана Бандери у місті Коростень.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Леоніда Стеблецького у місті Коростишів.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Гетьмана Полуботка у місті Корюківка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Драгоманова в місті Костопіль.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Миколи Міхновського у місті Костянтинівка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці В'ячеслава Чорновола у місті Краматорськ.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Пилипа Орлика у місті Красилів.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва Медичної вулиці в місті Красногорівка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Поезії у місті Красноград.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Єднання України в місті Кременчук.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва Тихої вулиці в місті Кривий Ріг.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Каштанова у місті Кролевець.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Моріса Подолова у місті Кропивницький.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Українська у місті Лебедин.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Осипа Глуха у місті Липовець.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва Кобзарської вулиці в смт Лисянка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Павла Тичини у місті Лозова.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Левадна у місті Лохвиця.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Вільна у місті Лубни.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Олександра Довженка в місті Любомль.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Івана Миколайчука у місті Малин.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Покровська у місті Маневичі.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Поетична у місті Марганець.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Василя Стуса в смт Машівка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Костя Щита у місті Мерефа.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Лесі Українки в місті Миколаївка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Григорія Сковороди в місті Миронівка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Олькуська у місті Ніжин.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Дмитра Коцюбайла у місті Нікополь.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Ліснича у місті Новий Буг.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Покровська у смт. Нова Водолага.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Ярославська у місті Нова Одеса.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Левка Лук’яненка у місті Нововолинськ.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Дмитра Донцова у місті Новоград-Волинський.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Героїв Чорнобиля у місті Новоукраїнка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Василя Стуса в місті Оріхів.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Варшавська у місті Павлоград.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Добросусідська у місті Первомайськ.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Залізничної у місті Перечин.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Благовісна у місті Переяслав.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва Вишневої вулиці в смт Піщанка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Весняна у місті Пирятин.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Весела у місті Подільськ.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Ліни Костенко у місті Покровськ.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Генерала Кульчицького у місті Полонне.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Павла Чубинського у місті Полтава.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Героїв Рятувальників у місті Помічна.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Козацька у місті Радомишль.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Андрія Малишка у місті Ржищів.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Прикордонна у місті Рені.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Якова Бичківського в місті Рівне.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Рятувальників у місті Ромни.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Гайдамацька у місті Сарни.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Миколи Уманця у місті Сватове.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Віталія Куликова в місті Світловодськ.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Лесі Українки у місті Святогірськ.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Миколи Леонтовича у місті Сєвєродонецьк.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Героїв Рятувальників у місті Синельникове.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Дмитра Павличка у місті Слов'янськ.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Єдності у місті Снігурівка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці В'ячеслава Чорновола у місті Сновськ.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Леся Курбаса в місті Сокиряни.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Відродження у місті Соледар.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Київської Русі у місті Старобільськ.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Сенатора Маккейна у місті Суми.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Юрія Паращука в місті Тальне.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Патріотична у місті Татарбунари.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Лісок у місті Тараща.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Героїв України у місті Тернівка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Підгірна у місті Тростянець.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва Торгової вулиці в місті Тульчин.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Княгині Ольги в місті Тячів.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Володимира Симиренка в місті Узин.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Миколи Хвильового у місті Харків.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Володимира Примаченка у місті Херсон.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Івана Багряного у місті Хмільник.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва Привітної вулиці в місті Хорол.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Ярослава Мудрого в місті Христинівка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Празька у місті Хуст.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Симона Петлюри у місті Умань.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Олеся Гончара у місті Фастів.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Івана Дзюби у місті Чернівці.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Чернишева в смт Червоногригорівка.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Галини Кузьменко у місті Чернігів.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Лесі Українки у місті Чоп.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Добровольців у місті Чугуїв.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Святослава Хороброго в місті Шпола.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Свободи у місті Южноукраїнськ.
Вулиця Маяковського — колишня назва вулиці Олександра Федини у місті Яготин.
Див. також
Проспект Маяковського
Примітки
Вулиці, названі на честь людей
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%20%28%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%8F%29
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Баядера (компанія)
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Баядера (компанія)
BAYADERA GROUP — український алкогольний холдинг, створений 1991 року. Компанія охоплює понад 30 % ринку горілки за обсягами виробництва та продажів. У штаті компанії працює більше 4 тисяч осіб.
Компанія випускає продукцію під ТМ Хлібний дар, Козацька рада, Перша Гільдія, Воздух, Коблево, Marengo. Компанія також імпортує світові бренди Diageo, Moët Hennessy, Rémy Cointreau, Jägermeister та інші, має близько 30 власних алкогольних брендів. Входить до топ-3 українських експортерів алкогольної продукції та постачає свої напої у 46 країн світу.
За даними Forbes, за десять місяців 2021 року «Хлібний дар» зріс на 3,7 %, Козацька рада — на 7,7 %, коньяк Коблево Reserve — на 5,1 % відносно аналогічного періоду минулого року. Імпорт продукції збільшився більше ніж на 20 %. Підприємство переробляє понад 10 тисяч тонн винограду за сезон.
Історія
Компанію засновано 1991 року Нечитайло-Ріджок Ольгою Володимирівною, Нечитайло Святославом Ігоровичем та Бондарєвою Наталею Володимирівною.
У 2002 році компанією був створений бренд горілки «Хлібний дар». У 2003 році засновано «Національну Горілчану Компанію». У 2003—2005 рр. виведені на ринок бренди KOZAЦЬКА PADA і «Перша Гільдія», створена ТМ «Цельсій». Крім того, модернізовані виноробні KOBLEVO. Запрацювало власне виробництво лікеро-горілчаної продукції — «Національна горілчана компанія». У цей же період BAYADERA GROUP уклала контракт з Diageo — світовим лідером алкоголю.
У 2010 році бренди компанії встановили на «Продекспо» рекорд, завоювавши найбільшу кількість винагород — 18 з 32, якими нагороджені українські виробники. Вперше в історії конкурсу виробник алкогольної продукції отримав Гран-прі у двох номінаціях: винагородами «Продекспо» було відзначено підприємство «Національна горілчана компанія» — «За найвищу якість горілки „Перша Гільдія“» і «За постійно високу якість продукції заводу впродовж 6 років».
З 2010 по 2014 у регіонах Україні налічувалося 30 дистрибюційних представництв. За даними Інтерфакс-Україна січні-червні 2010 року чистий прибуток підприємства збільшився на 15,3 % порівняно з аналогічним періодом 2008 року.
У 2013 році компанія стає офіційним дистрибьютором Remy Cointreau. Наступного року починається співпраця компанії з Moët Hennessy.
У 2015 холдинг запускає нове виробництво — Миколаївський коньячний завод, де починається виробництво коньяків та бренді бренду KOBLEVO. Окрім KOBLEVO, у 2015 на ринок виходить ігристе під ™ MARENGO, відкривається виробництво власних імпортних вин Cartaval з Чилі та Kengoo з Австралії, а також виробництво private label рому, джину та текіли.
У 2016 році директором компанії став Анатолій Миколайович Корчинський.
У 2018 український бренд вин KOBLEVO виходить на польский ринок.
У 2019 запущено оптову мережу магазинів WINE WINE by Winehouse у Києві.
У 2021 році компанія запустила B2B e-commerce-платформу. У грудні 2021 запущено інтернет-магазин алкогольних напоїв власного та імпортного виробництва. За 2021 рік BAYADERA GROUP оновили лінійку вермутів та ігристих вин MARENGO, розпочали випуск нової народної горілки «ВАКЦИНА», почали продаж продуктів від KOZAЦЬКА PADA: «Трофейна» і ZUBROVKA.
Склад холдингу
Логістика — дистрибутор алкогольної продукції
Імпорт — імпортер і дистрибутор продукції алкогольних компаній «Moet Hennessy» (Hennessy, Glenmorangie, Moët & Chandon, Dom Pérignon, Veuve Clicquot, Krug і Ardbeg), «Diageo» («Johnie Walker», «White Horse», «Bayleys», «Smirnoff», «Sterling»), Rémy Cointreau, Latvijas Balzams, Mast-Jägermeister.
Експорт — експортер алкоголю
Рітейл — мережа магазинів-складів з гуртовими цінами Wine Wine, онлайн-магазин. Запущена 2019 року.
Е-commerce: B2B-портал з червня 2021 року і B2C-сайт — фірмовий онлайн магазин алкоголю від виробника.
Виробничі потужності
Національна горілчана компанія
Завод побудовано в 2005 в Черкаській області. У цьому регіоні зосереджені найбільші в Україні запаси прісних та мінеральних вод. Перед будівництвом проведені масштабні гідрологічні дослідження, для чого було пробурено 9 свердловин. Загальна площа підприємства становить майже 17 га.
Другий виробничий майданчик розташовано в с. Кам'янка Черкаської області. У 1820 тут знайдено джерело на глибині 220 м.
Виноробня Коблево
АТ «Коблево» — одне з провідних підприємств виноробної галузі України. Земельні площі складають 2550 га. Тут вирощуються більше 15-ти сортів винограду, серед яких: Каберне Совіньйон, Мерло, Бастардо, Шардоне, Совіньйон, Аліготе, Рислінг, Ркацителі, Трамінер, Мускат Оттонель, Мускат Гамбурзький, Одеський Чорний тощо.
Миколаївський коньячний завод
ТОВ «Миколаївський коньячний завод» — підприємство повного циклу для виробництва коньяків та бренді. Тут відбувається весь процес, починаючи від вирощування винограду, викурювання спиртів, витримки в дубових бочках і закінчуючи розливом продукту.
Розташовано в Миколаївській області за 70 км від АТ «Коблево». Завод знаходиться на 46-й паралелі — на тій же географічній широті, що й французький регіон Божоле. У виробництві коньяків використовується виноград, зібраний на виноградниках ТОВ «МКЗ» та АТ «Коблево».
Власні бренди
HLIBNY DAR
KOZAЦЬКА PADA
KOBLEVO
MARENGO
Перша Гільдія
Воздух
Celsius
Rada
Вакцина
Nikita
ENTRE
ALIKO
Нагороди 2020—2021
У 2021 році компанія увійшла у топ-100 найбільших компаній Forbes та у рейтинг кращих компаній-роботодавців видання «ФОКУС», потрапила до рейтингу найбільших компаній від видань «Власть денег» та «Економіка+».
У 2021 горілка «Хлібний дар» увійшла до топ-5 The Vodka List 2021 by Drinks International, того ж року отримала золоту медаль дегустаційного конкурсу XV Degustacji Wódek Rynki Alkoholowe 2021 у Польщі.
HLIBNY DAR також увійшла у топ-100 українських найдорожчих брендів та ТМ України 2020—2021, посівши 9 місце.
Koblevo «Select Muscat Gold» отримав золоту медаль у міжнародному дегустаційному конкурсі Wine&Spirits Ukraine 2021. Koblevo «Cabernet» та «Saperavi» отримали срібні медалі, вина Koblevo сортів «Merlo», «Sauvignon» та «Pinot Grigio» — бронзові.
Примітки
Посилання
Виробники горілки України
Підприємства, засновані 1991
Підприємства Києва
Засновані в Україні 1991
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%81%20%D0%95%D0%BA
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Матс Ек
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Матс Ек (18 квітня 1945, Мальме) — шведський танцівник, хореограф, театральний режисер, керівник Cullberg Ballet з 1985 по 1993 роки. Син актора та балерини, хореографа Бірґіт Кульберг, брат танцівника та брат-близнюк актриси Малін Ек, чоловік танцівниці Ани Лагуни.
Біографія
Ек народився у Мальме 1945 року у сім'ї актора Андерса Ека і хореографа Бірґіт Кульберг.
Навчався театральному мистецтву у Стокгольмі. У 1976 році, захопившись театром маріонеток, поставив лялькову виставу по драмі Бюхнера «Войцек». Працював у Королівському драматичному театрі Стокгольму (Драматен) із режисером Інгмаром Бергманом. У 17 років, різко змінивши свій шлях, почав займатися спочатку сучасним танцем, вивчаючи техніку Марти Грем у педагога , а потім і класичним балетом. 1971 року дебютував як танцівник. Танцювальна манера та розуміння балетного мистецтва склалися у Ека під впливом ідей та техніки танцю модерн. У 1973 році він вступив до балетної трупи матері як танцівник, згодом почав постановчу діяльність, а у 1985—1993 був її керівником. Крім балетних постановок виступає як театральний та оперний режисер.
Матс Ек — чоловік танцівниці Ани Лагуни, з розрахунку саме на її обдарованість ним було поставлено багато спектаклів. Також при створенні нових робіт співпрацював з балериною Сільві Ґіллем, своїм братом Нікласом та Михайлом Баришниковим.
Матс Ек та Ана Лагуна попрощалися зі сценою у році, давші останні виступи 6 та 10 січня у Парижі, у Театрі Єлисейських Полів та виконавши She was Black (1994), «Соло для двох» (1996) та Hache (2016) разом з танцівниками Іваном Аузелі, Оскаром Соломонсоном та Дороті Делабі.
Творчість
Серед перших робіт Матса Ека «Святий Георгій та дракон» (1976). В таких його балетах як «Дім Бернарди» (1978) за драмою Федеріко Гарсіа Лорки і «Кармен» (1992) видно тяжіння до постановок на іспанські теми. Іспанкою була і його абсолютно антикласична муза Ана Лагуна, для якої він поставив майже всі центральні партії своїх балетів. У балетах Ека не використовуються пуанти, а костюми здебільшого побутові.
Міжнародне визнання Еку принесло авторське прочитання старовинного романтичного балету «Жизель» (1982). Матс Ек також зробив власні інтерпретації таких балетів класичної спадщини, як «Лебедине озеро» (1987) та «Спляча красуня» (1996). Манеру Ека-хореографа відрізняє схильність до цитати та пародії, підриву авторитетів, наближеність до театру абсурду. Хореографія Матса Ека вирізняється поєднанням класичного танцю, модерну і мінімалістських жестів.
Постановки
Ляльковий театр
1976 — Kalfaktorn (за драмою Георга Бюхнера «Войцек»)
Балет
1976 — «Св. Георгій та дракон», «Слуга офіцера»
1978 — «Бернарда» (за драмою Федеріко Гарсіа Лорки «Дім Бернарди Альби»)
1982 — «Жизель» Адольфа Адана
1984 — «Весна священна» Ігоря Стравінського
1987 — «Парк», «Трава», «Лебедине озеро» П. І. Чайковського
1989 — Gamla barn
1992 — «Кармен»
1995 — She was Black, «Дим»
1996 — «Спляча красуня» (для трупи Гамбурзького балету)
1997 — A Sort Of… (для Нідерландського театру танцю)
2000 — Квартира (для Паризької національної опери)
2002 — Fluke
2012 — Прощання (для Сільві Гілем)
2013 — Джульєтта і Ромео на музику П. І. Чайковського , сценографія Магдалени Оберг, світло , в головних ролях — Маріко Кіда (Джульєтта), Ентоні Ломільо (Ромео), Ана Лагуна (Годівниця), Жером Маршан (Jérôme Marchands, Меркуціо), (Герцог), диригент — Олександр Поляничко, Шведський королівський балет.
Опера
1999 — Дон Жуан В. А. Моцарта
Драматичний театр
2001 — Андромаха Жана Расіна
2007 — Августа Стріндберга
2010 — Вишневий сад А. П. Чехова
Фільмографія
Режисерські роботи:
1974 — «Тінь» / En skugga (телеспектакль за п'єсою Ялмара Бергмана, в ролях: Йонас Бергстрьом, Андерс Ек, Малін Ек)
1978 — «Дім Бернарди» (Бернарда Альба — Люк Боуї)
1982 — «Жизель» (Жизель — Ана Лагуна, граф Альберт — Люк Боуї)
1990 — «Лебедине озеро» (Принц — Іван Аузелі, Королева лебедів — Ана Лагуна)
1993 — «Мокра жінка» / Wet woman (Сільві Гіллем, для док. фільму Найджела Уоттіса)
1994 — «Кармен» (Кармен — Ана Лагуна, Дон Хозе — Марк Хван, Ескамільо — Іван Аузелі)
1996 — «Дим» / Rök (Ніклас Ек і Сільві Гіллем)
1999 — «Спляча красуня» (принцеса Аврора — Ванесса де Ліньєр, Карабосс — Джамаль Гуда, принц Дезіре — Ітан Сівак)
2012 — «Стара і двері» / Gammal och dörr (Іван Аузелі та Ана Лагуна)
2013 — «Прощання» / Ajö, «За лаштунками: знімаючи „Прощання“» / Behind the Scenes: The Filming of Bye (док. фільм)
Балетмейстерські роботи:
2003 — «Квартира» (вистава Паризької Опери за участю Кадера Беларбі, Марі-Аньєс Жило, Клермарін Оста, Ніколя Ле Ріша, Жозе Мартінеса)
2012 — «Місце» / Place (Михайло Баришніков та Ана Лагуна; режисер — Йонас Окерлунд (Jonas Åkerlund)
Творчості хореографа присвячений документальний фільм «Танець, сповнений життя: портрет Матса Ека» / Keeping Dance Alive: A Mats Ek Portrait
Визнання
2006 — приз «Бенуа танцю» (у номінації «За життя в мистецтві»)
Література
Примітки
Посилання
Матс Ек
Театральні режисери Швеції
Нагороджені медаллю Літератури та мистецтв (Швеція)
Хореографи XX століття
Персоналії за алфавітом
Уродженці Мальме
Народились 1945
Народились 18 квітня
Хореографи за країною
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18285
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange%20point
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Lagrange point
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Lagrange point
In celestial mechanics, the Lagrange points (also Lagrangian points or libration points) are points of equilibrium for small-mass objects under the gravitational influence of two massive orbiting bodies. Mathematically, this involves the solution of the restricted three-body problem.
Normally, the two massive bodies exert an unbalanced gravitational force at a point, altering the orbit of whatever is at that point. At the Lagrange points, the gravitational forces of the two large bodies and the centrifugal force balance each other. This can make Lagrange points an excellent location for satellites, as orbit corrections, and hence fuel requirements, needed to maintain the desired orbit are kept at a minimum.
For any combination of two orbital bodies, there are five Lagrange points, L1 to L5, all in the orbital plane of the two large bodies. There are five Lagrange points for the Sun–Earth system, and five different Lagrange points for the Earth–Moon system. L1, L2, and L3 are on the line through the centers of the two large bodies, while L4 and L5 each act as the third vertex of an equilateral triangle formed with the centers of the two large bodies.
When the mass ratio of the two bodies is large enough, the L4 and L5 points are stable points, meaning that objects can orbit them and that they have a tendency to pull objects into them. Several planets have trojan asteroids near their L4 and L5 points with respect to the Sun; Jupiter has more than one million of these trojans.
Some Lagrange points are being used for space exploration. Two important Lagrange points in the Sun-Earth system are L1, between the Sun and Earth, and L2, on the same line at the opposite side of the Earth; both are well outside the Moon's orbit. Currently, an artificial satellite called the Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) is located at L1 to study solar wind coming toward Earth from the Sun and to monitor Earth's climate, by taking images and sending them back. The James Webb Space Telescope, a powerful infrared space observatory, is located at L2. This allows the satellite's large sunshield to protect the telescope from the light and heat of the Sun, Earth and Moon. The L1 and L2 Lagrange points are located about from earth.
The European Space Agency's earlier Gaia telescope, and its newly launched Euclid, also occupy orbits around L2. Gaia keeps a tighter Lissajous orbit around L2, while Euclid follows a halo orbit similar to JWST. Each of the space observatories benefit from being far enough from Earth's shadow to utilize solar panels for power, from not needing much power or propellant for station-keeping, from not being subjected to the Earth's magnetospheric effects, and from having direct line-of-sight to Earth for data transfer.
History
The three collinear Lagrange points (L1, L2, L3) were discovered by the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler around 1750, a decade before the Italian-born Joseph-Louis Lagrange discovered the remaining two.
In 1772, Lagrange published an "Essay on the three-body problem". In the first chapter he considered the general three-body problem. From that, in the second chapter, he demonstrated two special constant-pattern solutions, the collinear and the equilateral, for any three masses, with circular orbits.
Lagrange points
The five Lagrange points are labelled and defined as follows:
point
The point lies on the line defined between the two large masses M1 and M2. It is the point where the gravitational attraction of M2 and that of M1 combine to produce an equilibrium. An object that orbits the Sun more closely than Earth would typically have a shorter orbital period than Earth, but that ignores the effect of Earth's gravitational pull. If the object is directly between Earth and the Sun, then Earth's gravity counteracts some of the Sun's pull on the object, increasing the object's orbital period. The closer to Earth the object is, the greater this effect is. At the point, the object's orbital period becomes exactly equal to Earth's orbital period. is about 1.5 million kilometers, or 0.01 au, from Earth in the direction of the Sun.
point
The point lies on the line through the two large masses beyond the smaller of the two. Here, the combined gravitational forces of the two large masses balance the centrifugal force on a body at . On the opposite side of Earth from the Sun, the orbital period of an object would normally be greater than Earth's. The extra pull of Earth's gravity decreases the object's orbital period, and at the point, that orbital period becomes equal to Earth's. Like L1, L2 is about 1.5 million kilometers or 0.01 au from Earth (away from the sun). An example of a spacecraft designed to operate near the Earth–Sun L2 is the James Webb Space Telescope. Earlier examples include the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe and its successor, Planck.
point
The point lies on the line defined by the two large masses, beyond the larger of the two. Within the Sun–Earth system, the point exists on the opposite side of the Sun, a little outside Earth's orbit and slightly farther from the center of the Sun than Earth is. This placement occurs because the Sun is also affected by Earth's gravity and so orbits around the two bodies' barycenter, which is well inside the body of the Sun. An object at Earth's distance from the Sun would have an orbital period of one year if only the Sun's gravity is considered. But an object on the opposite side of the Sun from Earth and directly in line with both "feels" Earth's gravity adding slightly to the Sun's and therefore must orbit a little farther from the barycenter of Earth and Sun in order to have the same 1-year period. It is at the point that the combined pull of Earth and Sun causes the object to orbit with the same period as Earth, in effect orbiting an Earth+Sun mass with the Earth-Sun barycenter at one focus of its orbit.
and points
The and points lie at the third vertices of the two equilateral triangles in the plane of orbit whose common base is the line between the centers of the two masses, such that the point lies 60° ahead of or behind the smaller mass with regard to its orbit around the larger mass.
Stability
The triangular points (and ) are stable equilibria, provided that the ratio of is greater than 24.96. This is the case for the Sun–Earth system, the Sun–Jupiter system, and, by a smaller margin, the Earth–Moon system. When a body at these points is perturbed, it moves away from the point, but the factor opposite of that which is increased or decreased by the perturbation (either gravity or angular momentum-induced speed) will also increase or decrease, bending the object's path into a stable, kidney bean-shaped orbit around the point (as seen in the corotating frame of reference).
The points , , and are positions of unstable equilibrium. Any object orbiting at , , or will tend to fall out of orbit; it is therefore rare to find natural objects there, and spacecraft inhabiting these areas must employ a small but critical amount of station keeping in order to maintain their position.
Natural objects at Lagrange points
Due to the natural stability of and , it is common for natural objects to be found orbiting in those Lagrange points of planetary systems. Objects that inhabit those points are generically referred to as 'trojans' or 'trojan asteroids'. The name derives from the names that were given to asteroids discovered orbiting at the Sun–Jupiter and points, which were taken from mythological characters appearing in Homer's Iliad, an epic poem set during the Trojan War. Asteroids at the point, ahead of Jupiter, are named after Greek characters in the Iliad and referred to as the "Greek camp". Those at the point are named after Trojan characters and referred to as the "Trojan camp". Both camps are considered to be types of trojan bodies.
As the Sun and Jupiter are the two most massive objects in the Solar System, there are more known Sun–Jupiter trojans than for any other pair of bodies. However, smaller numbers of objects are known at the Lagrange points of other orbital systems:
The Sun–Earth and points contain interplanetary dust and at least two asteroids, and .
The Earth–Moon and points contain concentrations of interplanetary dust, known as Kordylewski clouds. Stability at these specific points is greatly complicated by solar gravitational influence.
The Sun–Neptune and points contain several dozen known objects, the Neptune trojans.
Mars has four accepted Mars trojans: 5261 Eureka, , , and .
Saturn's moon Tethys has two smaller moons of Saturn in its and points, Telesto and Calypso. Another Saturn moon, Dione also has two Lagrange co-orbitals, Helene at its point and Polydeuces at . The moons wander azimuthally about the Lagrange points, with Polydeuces describing the largest deviations, moving up to 32° away from the Saturn–Dione point.
One version of the giant impact hypothesis postulates that an object named Theia formed at the Sun–Earth or point and crashed into Earth after its orbit destabilized, forming the Moon.
In binary stars, the Roche lobe has its apex located at ; if one of the stars expands past its Roche lobe, then it will lose matter to its companion star, known as Roche lobe overflow.
Objects which are on horseshoe orbits are sometimes erroneously described as trojans, but do not occupy Lagrange points. Known objects on horseshoe orbits include 3753 Cruithne with Earth, and Saturn's moons Epimetheus and Janus.
Physical and mathematical details
Lagrange points are the constant-pattern solutions of the restricted three-body problem. For example, given two massive bodies in orbits around their common barycenter, there are five positions in space where a third body, of comparatively negligible mass, could be placed so as to maintain its position relative to the two massive bodies. This occurs because the combined gravitational forces of the two massive bodies provide the exact centripetal force required to maintain the circular motion that matches their orbital motion.
Alternatively, when seen in a rotating reference frame that matches the angular velocity of the two co-orbiting bodies, at the Lagrange points the combined gravitational fields of two massive bodies balance the centrifugal pseudo-force, allowing the smaller third body to remain stationary (in this frame) with respect to the first two.
The location of L1 is the solution to the following equation, gravitation providing the centripetal force:
where r is the distance of the L1 point from the smaller object, R is the distance between the two main objects, and M1 and M2 are the masses of the large and small object, respectively. The quantity in parentheses on the right is the distance of L1 from the center of mass. The solution for r is the only real root of the following quintic function
where
is the mass fraction of M2 and
is the normalised distance. If the mass of the smaller object (M2) is much smaller than the mass of the larger object (M1) then and are at approximately equal distances r from the smaller object, equal to the radius of the Hill sphere, given by:
We may also write this as:
Since the tidal effect of a body is proportional to its mass divided by the distance cubed, this means that the tidal effect of the smaller body at the L or at the L point is about three times of that body. We may also write:
where ρ and ρ are the average densities of the two bodies and d and d are their diameters. The ratio of diameter to distance gives the angle subtended by the body, showing that viewed from these two Lagrange points, the apparent sizes of the two bodies will be similar, especially if the density of the smaller one is about thrice that of the larger, as in the case of the earth and the sun.
This distance can be described as being such that the orbital period, corresponding to a circular orbit with this distance as radius around M2 in the absence of M1, is that of M2 around M1, divided by ≈ 1.73:
The location of L2 is the solution to the following equation, gravitation providing the centripetal force:
with parameters defined as for the L1 case. The corresponding quintic equation is
Again, if the mass of the smaller object (M2) is much smaller than the mass of the larger object (M1) then L2 is at approximately the radius of the Hill sphere, given by:
The same remarks about tidal influence and apparent size apply as for the L point. For example, the angular radius of the sun as viewed from L2 is arcsin() ≈ 0.264°, whereas that of the earth is arcsin() ≈ 0.242°. Looking toward the sun from L2 one sees an annular eclipse. It is necessary for a spacecraft, like Gaia, to follow a Lissajous orbit or a halo orbit around L2 in order for its solar panels to get full sun.
L3
The location of L3 is the solution to the following equation, gravitation providing the centripetal force:
with parameters M1, M2, and R defined as for the L1 and L2 cases, and r being defined such that the distance of L3 from the centre of the larger object is R − r. If the mass of the smaller object (M2) is much smaller than the mass of the larger object (M1), then:
Thus the distance from L3 to the larger object is less than the separation of the two objects (although the distance between L3 and the barycentre is greater than the distance between the smaller object and the barycentre).
and
The reason these points are in balance is that at and the distances to the two masses are equal. Accordingly, the gravitational forces from the two massive bodies are in the same ratio as the masses of the two bodies, and so the resultant force acts through the barycenter of the system. Additionally, the geometry of the triangle ensures that the resultant acceleration is to the distance from the barycenter in the same ratio as for the two massive bodies. The barycenter being both the center of mass and center of rotation of the three-body system, this resultant force is exactly that required to keep the smaller body at the Lagrange point in orbital equilibrium with the other two larger bodies of the system (indeed, the third body needs to have negligible mass). The general triangular configuration was discovered by Lagrange working on the three-body problem.
Radial acceleration
The radial acceleration a of an object in orbit at a point along the line passing through both bodies is given by:
where r is the distance from the large body M1, R is the distance between the two main objects, and sgn(x) is the sign function of x. The terms in this function represent respectively: force from M1; force from M2; and centripetal force. The points L3, L1, L2 occur where the acceleration is zero — see chart at right. Positive acceleration is acceleration towards the right of the chart and negative acceleration is towards the left; that is why acceleration has opposite signs on opposite sides of the gravity wells.
Stability
Although the , , and points are nominally unstable, there are quasi-stable periodic orbits called halo orbits around these points in a three-body system. A full n-body dynamical system such as the Solar System does not contain these periodic orbits, but does contain quasi-periodic (i.e. bounded but not precisely repeating) orbits following Lissajous-curve trajectories. These quasi-periodic Lissajous orbits are what most of Lagrangian-point space missions have used until now. Although they are not perfectly stable, a modest effort of station keeping keeps a spacecraft in a desired Lissajous orbit for a long time.
For Sun–Earth- missions, it is preferable for the spacecraft to be in a large-amplitude Lissajous orbit around than to stay at , because the line between Sun and Earth has increased solar interference on Earth–spacecraft communications. Similarly, a large-amplitude Lissajous orbit around keeps a probe out of Earth's shadow and therefore ensures continuous illumination of its solar panels.
The and points are stable provided that the mass of the primary body (e.g. the Earth) is at least 25 times the mass of the secondary body (e.g. the Moon), The Earth is over 81 times the mass of the Moon (the Moon is 1.23% of the mass of the Earth). Although the and points are found at the top of a "hill", as in the effective potential contour plot above, they are nonetheless stable. The reason for the stability is a second-order effect: as a body moves away from the exact Lagrange position, Coriolis acceleration (which depends on the velocity of an orbiting object and cannot be modeled as a contour map) curves the trajectory into a path around (rather than away from) the point. Because the source of stability is the Coriolis force, the resulting orbits can be stable, but generally are not planar, but "three-dimensional": they lie on a warped surface intersecting the ecliptic plane. The kidney-shaped orbits typically shown nested around and are the projections of the orbits on a plane (e.g. the ecliptic) and not the full 3-D orbits.
Solar System values
This table lists sample values of L1, L2, and L3 within the Solar System. Calculations assume the two bodies orbit in a perfect circle with separation equal to the semimajor axis and no other bodies are nearby. Distances are measured from the larger body's center of mass (but see barycenter especially in the case of Moon and Jupiter) with L3 showing a negative direction. The percentage columns show the distance from the orbit compared to the semimajor axis. E.g. for the Moon, L1 is from Earth's center, which is 84.9% of the Earth–Moon distance or 15.1% "in front of" (Earthwards from) the Moon; L2 is located from Earth's center, which is 116.8% of the Earth–Moon distance or 16.8% beyond the Moon; and L3 is located from Earth's center, which is 99.3% of the Earth–Moon distance or 0.7084% inside (Earthward) of the Moon's 'negative' position.
Spaceflight applications
Sun–Earth
Sun–Earth is suited for making observations of the Sun–Earth system. Objects here are never shadowed by Earth or the Moon and, if observing Earth, always view the sunlit hemisphere. The first mission of this type was the 1978 International Sun Earth Explorer 3 (ISEE-3) mission used as an interplanetary early warning storm monitor for solar disturbances. Since June 2015, DSCOVR has orbited the L1 point. Conversely, it is also useful for space-based solar telescopes, because it provides an uninterrupted view of the Sun and any space weather (including the solar wind and coronal mass ejections) reaches L1 up to an hour before Earth. Solar and heliospheric missions currently located around L1 include the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, Wind, Aditya-L1 Mission and the Advanced Composition Explorer. Planned missions include the Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe(IMAP) and the NEO Surveyor.
Sun–Earth is a good spot for space-based observatories. Because an object around will maintain the same relative position with respect to the Sun and Earth, shielding and calibration are much simpler. It is, however, slightly beyond the reach of Earth's umbra, so solar radiation is not completely blocked at L2. Spacecraft generally orbit around L2, avoiding partial eclipses of the Sun to maintain a constant temperature. From locations near L2, the Sun, Earth and Moon are relatively close together in the sky; this means that a large sunshade with the telescope on the dark-side can allow the telescope to cool passively to around 50 K – this is especially helpful for infrared astronomy and observations of the cosmic microwave background. The James Webb Space Telescope was positioned in a halo orbit about L2 on January 24, 2022.
Sun–Earth and are saddle points and exponentially unstable with time constant of roughly 23 days. Satellites at these points will wander off in a few months unless course corrections are made.
Sun–Earth was a popular place to put a "Counter-Earth" in pulp science fiction and comic books, despite the fact that the existence of a planetary body in this location had been understood as an impossibility once orbital mechanics and the perturbations of planets upon each other's orbits came to be understood, long before the Space Age; the influence of an Earth-sized body on other planets would not have gone undetected, nor would the fact that the foci of Earth's orbital ellipse would not have been in their expected places, due to the mass of the counter-Earth. The Sun–Earth , however, is a weak saddle point and exponentially unstable with time constant of roughly 150 years. Moreover, it could not contain a natural object, large or small, for very long because the gravitational forces of the other planets are stronger than that of Earth (for example, Venus comes within 0.3 AU of this every 20 months).
A spacecraft orbiting near Sun–Earth would be able to closely monitor the evolution of active sunspot regions before they rotate into a geoeffective position, so that a seven-day early warning could be issued by the NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center. Moreover, a satellite near Sun–Earth would provide very important observations not only for Earth forecasts, but also for deep space support (Mars predictions and for crewed missions to near-Earth asteroids). In 2010, spacecraft transfer trajectories to Sun–Earth were studied and several designs were considered.
Earth–Moon
Earth–Moon allows comparatively easy access to Lunar and Earth orbits with minimal change in velocity and this has as an advantage to position a habitable space station intended to help transport cargo and personnel to the Moon and back. The SMART-1 Mission passed through the L1 Lagrangian Point on 11 November 2004 and passed into the area dominated by the Moon's gravitational influence.
Earth–Moon has been used for a communications satellite covering the Moon's far side, for example, Queqiao, launched in 2018, and would be "an ideal location" for a propellant depot as part of the proposed depot-based space transportation architecture.
Earth–Moon and are the locations for the Kordylewski dust clouds. The L5 Society's name comes from the L4 and L5 Lagrangian points in the Earth–Moon system proposed as locations for their huge rotating space habitats. Both positions are also proposed for communication satellites covering the Moon alike communication satellites in geosynchronous orbit cover the Earth.
Sun–Venus
Scientists at the B612 Foundation were planning to use Venus's L3 point to position their planned Sentinel telescope, which aimed to look back towards Earth's orbit and compile a catalogue of near-Earth asteroids.
Sun–Mars
In 2017, the idea of positioning a magnetic dipole shield at the Sun–Mars point for use as an artificial magnetosphere for Mars was discussed at a NASA conference. The idea is that this would protect the planet's atmosphere from the Sun's radiation and solar winds.
See also
Co-orbital configuration
Euler's three-body problem
Gegenschein
Interplanetary Transport Network
Klemperer rosette
L5 Society
Lagrange point colonization
Lagrangian mechanics
List of objects at Lagrange points
Lunar space elevator
Oberth effect
Explanatory notes
References
External links
Joseph-Louis, Comte Lagrange, from Œuvres, Tome 6, « Essai sur le Problème des Trois Corps »—Essai (PDF); source Tome 6 (Viewer)
"Essay on the Three-Body Problem" by J.-L. Lagrange, translated from the above, in merlyn.demon.co.uk .
Considerationes de motu corporum coelestium—Leonhard Euler—transcription and translation at merlyn.demon.co.uk .
ZIP file
J R Stockton - Includes translations of Lagrange's Essai and of two related papers by Euler
What are Lagrange points?—European Space Agency page, with good animations
Explanation of Lagrange points—Neil J. Cornish
A NASA explanation—also attributed to Neil J. Cornish
Explanation of Lagrange points—John Baez
Locations of Lagrange points, with approximations—David Peter Stern
An online calculator to compute the precise positions of the 5 Lagrange points for any 2-body system—Tony Dunn
Astronomy Cast—Ep. 76: "Lagrange Points" by Fraser Cain and Pamela L. Gay
The Five Points of Lagrange by Neil deGrasse Tyson
Earth, a lone Trojan discovered
See the Lagrange Points and Halo Orbits subsection under the section on Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit in NASA: Basics of Space Flight, Chapter 5
Trojans (astronomy)
Point
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1607515
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haujobb
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Haujobb
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Haujobb is a German electronic musical project whose output has ranged drastically within the electronic music spectrum, from electro-industrial to ambient and techno. They have become a staple crossover act, bringing several forms of electro into the mainstream industrial music world.
History
Haujobb was formed in 1992 by Daniel Myer, Dejan Samardzic, and Björn Junemann. Hailing from Germany, the trio were inspired by the music of Skinny Puppy, as Myer recalls: "When Too Dark Park was released... this was the initiative for us to make this kind of music." The name comes from the German translation of "skin job" from the film Blade Runner. They were soon signed to Off Beat, and began distributing their music in North America via Pendragon Records.
Following the release of Freeze Frame Reality in 1995 saw the departure of bandmate Björn, the lineup has consisted of Daniel and Dejan ever since. After Metropolis Records acquired Pendragon, the two musicians have been able to spread their music to a larger fanbase in North America, and have remained continuously popular in the European industrial music scene.
Over the course of their subsequent releases in the 1990s, they wove increasing amounts of drum 'n' bass and IDM influence into their sound. 1996's Solutions for a Small Planet marked the first stylistic deviation, including production credits by Guido Fricke of dark ambient duo La Floa Maldita and saxophone credits from Fricke's brother Andreas. 1999's NinetyNine deviated further into a sparse, downtempo collection of ambient electronic compositions. They have since reintroduced some of the more rhythmic elements back into their sound on their more recent albums, but have continued to experiment, drawing concepts from a wide variety of musical styles.
In 2011, Haujobb released a new album with the title New World March which according to the band uses more hardware, guitars, drums, and sound recordings compared to software based Vertical Theory of 2003.
In 2013 Haujobb created their own production label, Basic Unit Productions, and began releasing other artists such as Div|ider, Blush Response, and Black Nail Cabaret. Basic Unit Productions also released two compilations under the title Frost. In September 2015, Haujobb released the minimal-wave influenced, Blendwerk on Basic Unit Productions in Germany and on Negative Gain Productions in the United States. In early Haujobb liner notes and credits, Daniel was listed as D. Meier, however in more recent liner notes he is listed as Daniel Myer.
Projects
Today, both Daniel Myer and Dejan Samardzic continue to record music under the name Haujobb – the duo also briefly recorded as Dots+Dashes. Myer has several other projects of his own, including Architect, Clear Vision (initially a collaboration with Thorsten Meier) as well as a number of other short-lived electronic projects. Myer, along with Claire Voyant's Victoria Lloyd, form HMB. While Newt is a collaboration with Andreas Meyer of Forma Tadre. More recent side-project collaborations of Myer include Destroid, also featuring Rinaldo Ribi Bite and Sebastian Ullmann and Radioaktivists with Frank M. Spinath, Krischan Jan-Eric Wesenberg and Sascha Lange. Daniel Myer also created the soundtrack for the Xbox game Tao Feng: Fist of the Lotus.
Band members
Current members
Daniel Myer – programming, production, vocals (1992–present)
Dejan Samardzic – programming, production (1992–present)
Former members
Björn Jünemann – programming, sampler (1992–1995)
Session/touring musicians
Manuel G. Richter – synthesizer, noise, drums (2010–present) (aka Xabec) (also appeared on "New World March" (2011), "Input Error" (2015), "Blendwerk" (2015), "Alive" (2018))
Former session/touring musicians
Sven Jünemann – guitar (1994–1995) (on "Eye Over You" (1994) and "Freeze Frame Reality" (1995))
Gabriel Shaw – synthesizer, noise, drums (2012) (aka Ionnokx)
Timeline
Discography
As Haujobb
Drift Wheeler (1993) demo cassette
Homes & Gardens (1993) first studio album
Eye Over You (1994) single
Freeze Frame Reality (1995) second studio album
Frames (1995) EP (later Frames: The Remix Album)
Cleaned Visions (1996) single
Solutions for a Small Planet (1996) third studio album
Electronic Live Performance (1996) Live
The Remix Wars: Strike 1 (vs. Wumpscut) (1996) split EP
From Homes to Planets (Mission Summery 93-97) (1997) compilation
Matrix (1997) 2CD Remixes + new songs
Less (1998) single
Ninetynine (1999) 4th studio album – #16 CMJ RPM Chart
Ninetynine Remixes (1999) Remixes
Polarity (2001) 5th studio album – #4 CMJ RPM Chart; #27 CMJ RPM for year 2001
Penetration (2002) EP
Vertical Theory (2003) 6th studio album
Vertical Mixes (2005) Remixes – #4 German Alternative Charts (DAC)
Smack My Bitch Up (2007) EP
Dead Market (2011) maxi-single
New World March (2011) 7th studio album
New World March - The Remixes (2011) Remixes
Let's Drop Bombs (2012) EP + Remixes
Letting the Demons Sleep (2013) single
We Must Wait (2014) single
Input Error (2015) single
Blendwerk (2015) 8th studio album
Alive (2018) Live album
As Cleaner/Cleen/Clear Vision
See separate article
As Destroid
Future Prophecies (2004)
Loudspeaker (2007)
Silent World EP (2010)
As Architect
Galactic Supermarket (1998) – #39 CMJ RPM Chart
Galactic Edge 12" (1998)
I Went Out Shopping To Get Some Noise (2003)
Noise Is Out Of Stock 12" (2005)
The Analysis Of Noise Trading (2005)
Lower Lip Interface (2007)
Consume Adapt Create (2010)
Upload Select Remix (2011)
Upload Select Remix 2 (Digital only release) (2011)
Mine (2013)
Mine Remixes 2 (2014) (featuring remixes Dreissk and Textbeak)
As h_m_b
Great Industrial Love Affairs (2001)
As Newt
-273°C (1997)
Phaseshifting EP (1998)
37°C (1999)
As Dots+Dashes
Aircutter EP (1997)
Dots & Dashes (1998)
Selected Drum Works Vol 1 EP (1998)
As Aktivist
Ein Abend Mit Mir... 12" (1998)
As S'Apex
Out There Back On 12" (1998)
Audiodesign (1999)
Henryk Remixes (2000)
As Hexer
R:A Vs. Hexer: Compress (1998)
Hexer Vs. Omega Men (1998)
Hexer vs. Crunch (1999)
Paradoxon I & II (1999)
As Myer
Contra Technique (1998)
Style 12" (1997)
Pressure Drop (1998)
Leavin' Space (1998)
As Standeg
Ultrahightechviolet (2008)
Rushing Pictures EP (2008)
See also
List of industrial music bands
Notes
References
External links
Haujobb official site
D. Myer official website (archived)
Electro-industrial music groups
German industrial music groups
Cyberpunk music
Metropolis Records artists
Dependent Records artists
Off Beat label artists
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189413
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%B9%20%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0
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Американський музей природознавства
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Американський музей природознавства — один з найкращих природознавчих музеїв у світі; був відкритий у 1869 році. Розташований на острові Мангеттен в місті Нью-Йорк, у парку Теодора Рузвельта, недалеко від Центрального парку. Музейний комплекс включає 26 взаємопов'язаних будівель, в яких розміщено 45 постійних виставкових залів, крім планетарію та бібліотеки. Музейні колекції містять понад 34 мільйони екземплярів рослин, тварин, скам'янілостей, мінералів, гірських порід, метеоритів, людських решток та інших артефактів, а також спеціалізовані колекції для заморожених тканин та астрофізичні дані, з яких лише невелика частина виставляється в будь-який час і займає понад 190 000 квадратних метрів. Науковий штат музею налічує 225 осіб. Щороку музей спонсорує понад 120 спеціальних польових експедицій. Близько п'яти мільйонів відвідувачів навідуються до музею щороку.
Одне з найголовніших завдань Американського музею природознавства є: «Відкривати, інтерпретувати та поширювати — за допомогою наукових досліджень та освіти — знання про людські культури, природний світ та Всесвіт».
Історія
Заснування
До будівництва нинішнього комплексу музей розміщувався в будівлі Арсеналу в Центральному парку. Теодор Рузвельт-старший, батько Теодора Рузвельта, 26-го президента США, був одним із засновників музею разом з Джоном Пірпонтом Морганом, Мозесом Гіксом Ґріннеллом, Джоном Девідом Вульфом, Вільямом Т. Блоджетом, Робертом Л. Стюартом, Ендрю Г. Гріном, Робертом Колґейтом, Бенджаміном Г.Філдом, Д.Джексоном Стюардом, Генрі Г. Стеббінсом, Генрі Перішом та Говардом Поттером. Заснування музею здійснило мрію доктора-натураліста Альберта С. Бікмора. Бікмор, студент зоолога Луїса Аґассіза, роками невтомно лобіював створення музею природознавства в Нью-Йорку. Його пропозиція була підтримана потужними спонсорами та отримала підтримку губернатора Нью-Йорка Джона Томпсона Гофмана, який підписав законопроєкт про офіційне створення Американського музею історії природи 6 квітня 1869 р.
Спорудження
У 1874 році був закладений наріжний камінь для першої будівлі музею, яка зараз прихована від очей багатьма будівлями комплексу, які сьогодні займають більшу частину площі Манхеттен. Оригінальна вікторіанська готична будівля, яка була відкрита в 1877 році, була спроєктована Калвертом Воксом та Дж. Врі Молдом, обидва тісно ототожненими з архітектурою Центрального парку.
Розширення
Оригінальна будівля незабаром була затьмарена південним ареалом музею, спроєктованим Дж. Клівлендом Кеди, зведеним в неороманському стилі під впливом Г. Г. Річардсона. Він простягається на 210 метрів вздовж Західної 77-ї вулиці, кутові вежі заввишки 14 метрів (46 футів). Його рожевий бурий камінь і граніт, схожі на ті, що знайдені на острові Ґріндстоун у річці Св. Лаврентія, походять із кар'єрів на острові Піктон, штат Нью-Йорк.
Меморіал Теодору Рузвельту, добудований Джоном Расселом Попом у 1936 році, є визначною пам'яткою мистецтв. Вона веде до величезної римської базиліки, де відвідувачів зустрічає відлиток скелета вирощуваного барозавра, який захищає своїх молодих від алозавра. До музею також можна дійти через фойє 77-ї вулиці, перейменовану у «Ґранд-галерею» та з повністю підвішеним каное Хайда. Зал веде до найстарішого збереженого експонату музею — залу індіанців північно-західного узбережжя.
Доповнення, реставрації та реконструкції
Починаючи з 1930 року, мало що було додано до зовнішнього вигляду оригінальної будівлі. Архітектор Кевін Рош та його фірма Roche-Dinkeloo відповідають за генеральне планування музею з 1990-х років. Були проведені різні реконструкції інтер'єру та екстер'єру. Реставрація залу динозаврів була проведена 1991 року, музей також відновив настінний розпис у Меморіальному залі Рузвельта в 2010 році. У 1992 році фірма Roche-Dinkeloo спроєктувала восьмиповерхову бібліотеку AMNH. Однак, в цілому генеральний план не був повністю реалізований, і до 2015 року музей складався з 25 окремих будівель, які були погано пов'язані між собою.
Південний фасад музею, що охоплює 77-му вулицю від Центрального парку на захід до проспекту Коламбус, був очищений, відремонтований і відновлений у 2009 році. Стівен Рейхл, речник музею, сказав, що робота включатиме відновлення 650 чорно-вишневих віконних рам і ремонт каменю. Консультантом музею з останнього ремонту є Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc., архітектурна та інженерна фірма зі штаб-квартирою в Нортбруці, штат Іллінойс.
У 2014 році музей опублікував плани прибудови площею 195 тис. квадратних метрів — центру науки, освіти та інновацій Річарда Гілдера на стороні Колумбус-авеню. Розроблений студією Gang, Higgins Quasebarth & Partners та ландшафтним архітектором Рід Гілдербранд, рожевий гранітний фасад нової будівлі Milford матиме фактурний, криволінійний дизайн, натхненний природними топографічними елементами, продемонстрованими в музеї, включаючи «геологічні шари, заглиблені в льодовики печери, криві каньйони та брили льоду», як контраст до домінуючих в музеї архітектурних романського та вікторіанського стилів. Сам інтер'єр містив би новий вхід з проспекту Коламбус на північ від 79-ї вулиці; багатоповерхова структура зберігання, що містить зразки та предмети; кімнати для експонування цих предметів; зал для комах; «інтерпретаційна» «стіна пошуку дороги» та театр. Спочатку це розширення мало бути на південь від існуючого музею, займаючи частини парку Теодора Рузвельта. Розширення було перенесено на західну сторону музею, а його розмір зменшився через протидію будівництву в парку. Натомість додаток замінить три існуючі будівлі вздовж східної сторони проспекту Колумбус, маючи понад 30 підключень до діючого музею, і він буде заввишки шість поверхів, такої ж висоти, як і навколишні будівлі. Плани розширення були детально розглянуті Комісією з охорони пам'яток Нью-Йорка. 11 жовтня 2016 року Комісія зі збереження пам'яток одноголосно схвалила розширення. Будівництво Центру Позолоти, який, як очікувалося, зруйнується в наступному році після розробки проєкту та Повідомлення про вплив на навколишнє середовище, призведе до знесення трьох музейних будівель, побудованих між 1874 і 1935 рр. Музей офіційно подав плани будівництва розширення в серпні 2017 року, але через спротив громади будівництво розпочалося лише в червні 2019 року. Очікується, що проєкт буде завершений до 2022 року.
Президенти
Першими двома президентами музею були Джон Девід Вульф (1870—1872) та Роберт Л. Стюарт (1872—1881), обидва є засновниками музею. Важливим у формуванні музею був його третій президент призначений у 1881 році Морріс К. Джесуп (також один з первинних засновників). Джесуп був президентом понад 25 років, контролюючи його розширення та більшу частину золотої доби розвідки та збору. Четвертий президент, Генрі Фейрфілд Осборн, був призначений у 1906 році після смерті Джесупа. Осборн продовжив розширення музею, перетворивши його на один із найвідоміших природничих музеїв світу. Ф. Трубі Девісон був президентом з 1933 по 1951 рік, а А. Перрі Осборн виконував обов'язки президента з 1941 по 1946 рік. Олександр М. Уайт був президентом з 1951 по 1968 рік. Гарднер Д. Стаут був президентом з 1968 по 1975 рік. Роберт Гестьє Гелет з 1975—1988 рр. Джордж Д. Ленґдон-молодший з 1988 по 1993 рр. Елен В. Футтер була президентом музею з 1993 р.
Пов'язані імена
Серед відомих імен, пов'язаних з музеєм, — палеонтолог і геолог Генрі Фейрфілд Осборн; мисливець на динозаврів у пустелі Гобі Рой Чепмен Ендрюс (один із натхненників Індіани Джонса): фотограф 97–8 Івет Боруп Ендрюс; Джордж Гейлорд Сімпсон; біолог Ернст Майр; антропологи Франц Боас та Маргарет Мід; дослідник і географ Олександр Г. Райс-молодший; та орнітолог Роберт Кушман Мерфі. Дж. П. Морган також був серед відомих благодійників музею.
Зали ссавців
Ссавці Старого Світу
Еклі-зал африканських ссавців
Названий на честь таксидерміста Карла Аклі, зал африканських ссавців Еклі — це двоповерховий зал безпосередньо за ротондою Теодора Рузвельта. Її 28 діорам детально зображують широкий спектр екосистем, знайдених в Африці, та ендемічних для них ссавців. Центральним елементом залу є зграя з восьми африканських слонів у характерному «стривоженому» формуванні. Хоча ссавці, як правило, є основною особливістю діорам, іноді також трапляються птахи та флора регіонів. За 80 років з моменту створення Еклі-залу, багато видів, що знаходяться всередині, опинились під загрозою зникнення, деякі з них критично важливі. Попри це, жоден з видів ще не зник, частково завдяки роботі самого Карла Еклі (див. Національний парк Вірунга). Зал з'єднується із Залом африканських народів.
Історія
Зал африканських ссавців був вперше запропонований музею Карлом Еклі близько 1909 року. Його оригінальна концепція містила сорок діорам, які представляли би пейзажі, що швидко зникають та тварин Африки. Намір полягав у тому, що відвідувач залу «може бачити ілюзію, в гіршому випадку, передачу серії фотографій первісної Африки, а в кращому випадку на хвилинку може подумати, що він переступив 8000 км через океан в саму Африку». Пропозиція Еклі вразила як опікунську раду, так і тодішнього президента музею Генрі Фейрфілда Осборна. Щоб заохотити фінансування Даніель Померой, довірений музею та партнер JP Morgan, запропонував зацікавленим інвесторам можливість супроводжувати експедиції музею в Африці в обмін на фінансування.
Аклі почав збирати зразки для зали ще в 1909 році, знаменито зіткнувшись з Теодором Рузвельтом у розпал африканської експедиції Смітсоніана-Рузвельта. У цих ранніх експедиціях Еклі супроводжував його колишній учень Джеймс Л. Кларк та художник Вільям Р. Лі.
Коли Еклі повернувся до Африки, щоб зібрати горил для першої діорами залу, Кларк залишився позаду і розпочав чистку, щоб художники створили тло. Можлива поява перших груп середовищ існування мала б величезний вплив на музей. Уміла таксидермія Еклі та Кларка в поєднанні з фонами, намальованими під керівництвом Лі, створила ілюзію життя цих тварин, завдяки чому інші експонати музею здаються порівняно нудними (оригінальний стиль виставки музею все ще можна побачити на невеликій площі, присвяченій птахам і тваринам Нью-Йорка). Плани щодо інших залів діорами швидко з'явилися, в 1929 р. «Птахи світу», Зал північноамериканських ссавців, Зал Верне північно-східних Азійських ссавців та Зал океанічного життя були на стадії планування або будівництва.
Після несподіваної смерті Еклі під час експедиції Істмена-Поммероя в 1926 році відповідальність за добудову залу лягла на Джеймса Л. Кларка. Попри те, що перешкодило настання Великої депресії в 1929 році, пристрасть Кларка до Африки та відданість своєму колишньому наставнику відіграли важливу роль у підтримці проєкту. 1933 року Кларк найняв художника-архітектора Джеймса Перрі Вілсона, щоб допомогти Лі у розписі фонів. Більш технічно налаштований, ніж Лі, Вілсон зробив би багато вдосконалень у техніках Лі, включаючи цілий ряд методів, щоб мінімізувати спотворення, спричинені кривими стінами діорам.
У 1936 році Вільям Дюрант Кемпбелл, багатий член правління мав бажання побачити Африку, запропонував фінансування кількох діорам, якщо отримає дозвіл самостійно отримати зразки. Кларк погодився на цю домовленість і незабаром після того, як Кемпбелл пішов збирати зразки окапі та чорного носорога у супроводі художника Роберта Кейна. Кемпбелл був задіяний у кількох експедиціях. Попри невдачі, включаючи малярію, повені, втручання іноземних урядів і навіть затоплення човна, ці експедиції змогли придбати деякі найбільш вражаючі зразки Залу Еклі. Повернувшись до музею, Кейн приєднався до Лей та Вілсона разом із ще кількома художниками у добудові решти діорам залу. Хоча будівництво залу було завершено в 1936 році, діорами поступово відкривалися між серединою 1920-х та початком 1940-х років.
Зал азіатських ссавців
Зал азіатських ссавців, який іноді називають Залом ім. Верне-Фаунторпа, є одноповерховим залом прямо ліворуч від ротонди Теодора Рузвельта. Він містить 8 повних діорам, 4 часткові діорами та 6 груп середовищ існування ссавців та населених пунктів з Індії, Непалу, Бірми та Малайзії. Зал відкрився в 1930 році і, подібно до залу Еклі, зосереджений навколо 2 індійських слонів. У якийсь момент велика панда та амурський тигр також були частиною колекції Залу, спочатку передбачалася бути частиною сусіднього Залу північноазіатських ссавців (запланованого в теперішньому місці Стаут-Голу азіатських народів). Наразі ці зразки можна побачити в залі біорізноманіття.
Історія
Зразки для Залу азіатських ссавців збирали протягом шести експедицій під керівництвом Артура С. Верне та полковника Джона Фаунторпа (як зазначають стилізовані таблички на обох входах). Експедиції фінансував повністю Вернай, британець, що торгував в нью-йоркську антикваріатом. Він схарактеризував ці витрати як данину Великій Британії за участь американців у Першій світовій війні.
Перша експедиція Верней-Фаунторп відбулася в 1922 році. У той час багато тварин, яких Верне шукав, такі як суматранський носоріг та азійський лев, були вже рідкісними і перед можливістю вимирання. Щоб придбати ці екземпляри, Верне довелося б звертатись із багатьма зверненнями до регіональної влади, щоб отримати дозволи на полювання. Відносини, які він зав'яже в цей час, допоможуть майбутнім експедиціям, пов'язаним з музеями, які очолюватиме Верне, отримати доступ до районів, раніше обмежених для іноземних відвідувачів. Художник Кларенс К. Розенкранц супроводжував експедиції Верне-Фаунторпа як польовий художник, а згодом намалював більшість фонів діорами в залі. Ці експедиції також були добре задокументовані як у фото, так і у відео, з достатньою кількістю кадрів першої експедиції для створення повнометражного фільму «Мисливські тигри в Індії» (1929).
Ссавці Нового Світу
Сімейний зал північноамериканських ссавців (Бернарда)
У залі північноамериканських ссавців розміщено 43 діорами різних ссавців американського континенту, на північ від тропічної Мексики. Кожне місце діорами зосереджується на певному виді, починаючи від найбільшої мегафауни і закінчуючи меншими гризунами та хижаками. До відомих діорам належать бурі ведмеді з аляски, які дивляться на лосося після того, як вони відлякували видру, пару вовків, пару сонорських ягуарів та бичачого лося (теж з аляски).
Історія
Зал північноамериканських ссавців відкрився в 1942 році лише десятьма діорамами, включаючи більших північноамериканських ссавців. 1948 року була встановлена вовча діорама, але подальший прогрес у залі був зупинений внаслідок Другої світової війни. Після війни в 1954 році зал припинили добудовувати. Відтоді зал залишався майже таким самим, і більшість кріплень вивітрювались та вибілювались. Масовий проєкт реставрації розпочався наприкінці 2011 року завдяки великій пожертві Джилл та Льюїса Бернардів. Таксидермісти були залучені для очищення кріплень і шкур, а художники відновили фони діорами. У жовтні 2012 року зал був знову відкритий як Зал Бернарда північноамериканських ссавців і включав науково оновлені вивіски для кожної діорами.
Зал дрібних ссавців
Зал дрібних ссавців є відгалуженням сімейного залу Бернардів північноамериканських ссавців. Є кілька невеликих діорам із зображенням дрібних ссавців, знайдених по всій Північній Америці, включаючи Pecari tajacu, Sciurus aberti та росомаху.
Зали птахів, плазунів та амфібій
Санфордський зал північноамериканських птахів
Санфордський зал північноамериканських птахів — являє собою одноповерховий зал на третьому поверсі музею, над Залом африканських народів, між залом приматів та другим рівнем Аклі. На його 25 діорамах зображені птахи з усієї Північної Америки в їх рідних місцях проживання. Відкрившись в 1909 році, діорами в Санфордському залі були першими, що були виставлені в музеї, і на сьогоднішній день є найстарішими. У кінці залу — дві великі фрески орнітолога та художника Луїса Аґасіса Фуертеса. Окрім перелічених нижче видів, у залі також є вітрини, присвячені великим колекціям плетенок, сов та хижаків.
Історія
Задуманий музейним орнітологом Френком Чепменом, будівництво діорам для Залу північноамериканських птахів розпочалося ще в 1902 році. Зал названий на честь друга та орнітолога-любителя Чепмена Леонарда С. Санфорда, який частково фінансував зал, а також пожертвував повністю його власну колекцію зразків птахів до музею.
Хоча Чепмен не був першим, хто створив музейні діорами, він відповідав за багато нововведень, які розділили б і врешті визначили діорами в Американському музеї. У той час як в інших діорамах того періоду, як правило, були представлені загальні декорації, Чепмен був першим, хто привів художників у поле з надією зловити конкретне місце та час. На відміну від драматичних сцен, створених пізніше Карлом Еклі для Африканського залу, Чепмен хотів, щоб його діорами викликали науковий реалізм, врешті-решт слугуючи історичним записом середовищ існування та видів, що мають велику ймовірність зникнення.
На час будівництва Санфорд-Голу полювання за пір'ям для торгівлі молочними копалинами привело багато прибережних видів птахів до межі зникнення, особливо чепуру велику. Френк Чепмен був ключовою фігурою в природоохоронному русі, що виник в цей час. Його діорами були створені з метою продовжити цю природоохоронну справу, даючи відвідувачам музею короткий погляд на великі природні втрати в ім'я моди. Частково завдяки зусиллям Чепмена, як всередині музею, так і за його межами, збереження цих видів птахів було б дуже успішним, встановивши сховища, такі як Національний притулок дикої природи на острові Пелікан, і врешті-решт призвів до прийняття Закону про перелітних птахів 1918 р.
Зал птахів світу
У цьому залі виставляються найрізноманітніші види птахів з усього світу. 12 діорам демонструють різні екосистеми в усьому світі та надають зразок різновидів птахів, які там мешкають. Прикладом діорам є Південна Джорджія, де представлені королівські пінгвіни та поморники, східноафриканські рівнини із птахами-секретарами та дрохвовими, а також австралійська глибинка із медолюбові, какаду та кукабарами.
Меморіальний зал океанічних птахів Вітні
Цей особливий зал має складну багаторічну історію з моменту його заснування в 1953 році. Френк Чепмен та Леонард С. Санфорд, спершу як волонтери музею, створили зал для птахів тихоокеанських островів. За роки до свого заснування музей брав участь у різних експедиціях на Фіджі, Новій Зеландії та Маріанських островах (та інших місцях) для збору птахів для експозиції. Зал був розроблений як цілісна колекція діорам, включаючи кругову виставку із зображенням дивоптахових. 1998 року Консерваторія метеликів була встановлена всередині залу спочатку як тимчасовий експонат, але в міру того, як популярність виставки зростала, Зал океанічних птахів більш-менш залишався закритим музеєм.
Зал плазунів та земноводних
Зал рептилій та земноводних служить вступом до герпетології, де є безліч експонатів, що деталізують еволюцію, анатомію, різноманітність, розмноження та поведінку плазунів. Серед відомих експонатів — група варанів комодських, американський алігатор, Самотній Джордж, Абінгдонська слонова черепаха з острова Пінта та Дереволазові.
У 1926 р. В. Даґлас Берден, Ф. Дж. Дефосс та Еммерет Рід Данн зібрали для музею зразки дракона Комодо. Розділ Бердена «Дракон Комодо» у «Погляді на пустелю» описує експедицію, середовище існування та поведінку дракона.
Біорізноманітні та екологічні зали
Зал північноамериканських лісів
Зал північноамериканських лісів — це одноповерховий зал на першому поверсі музею, між Меморіальним залом Теодора Рузвельта та Залом Варбурґа штату Нью-Йорк. Він містить десять діорам, що зображують цілий ряд типів лісів з усієї Північної Америки, а також кілька показів щодо збереження лісів та здоров'я дерев. Побудований під керівництвом відомого ботаніка Генрі К. Свенсона (який також керував створенням Варбурзького залу) і відкритий в 1959 році, кожна діорама містить як конкретне місце розташування, так і точний час року, що зображується. Дерева та рослини, представлені в діорамах, побудовані з поєднанням предметів мистецтва та фактичної кори та інших зразків, зібраних у полі. На вході в зал представлений поперечний переріз 1400-річної секвої, взятої з гаю Кінґ-Рівер на західному фланзі гір Сьєрра в 1891 році.
Зал Ворбурґ середовища штату Нью-Йорк
Зал Ворбурґ середовища штату Нью-Йорк — це одноповерховий зал на першому поверсі музею між Залом північноамериканських лісів та Великим залом. Заснований на містечку Пайн-Плейнс та поблизу гори Штіссінг в окрузі Дачесс, зал дає багатогранну презентацію екосистем, характерних для Нью-Йорка. Покриті аспекти включають типи ґрунтів, сезонні зміни та вплив як людей, так і тварин на навколишнє середовище. Він названий на честь німецько-американського мецената Фелікса Варбурґа. Спочатку знаний як «Зал людини і природи», Зал Варбурґа відкрився в 1951 р. З тих пір він мало змінився, і зараз його часто розглядають за його ретро-сучасний стиль. У залі розміщено багато видів експонатів, представлених у музеї, а також один тип експозиції, унікальний для Варбурґа, який має вбудовану мініатюрну діораму за передній план видів та зразків із зображеного середовища.
Мілштейнський зал океанського життя
Зал океанічного життя Мілштейна зосереджений на біології океану та ботаніці. Зал найвідоміший своєю моделлю кита синього завдовжки 94 фути (29 м), підвішеною до стелі за спинним плавцем.
На верхньому рівні залу представлений величезний спектр екосистем, наявних в океані. Діорами порівнюють і протиставляють життя в цих різних умовах, включаючи полярні моря, ліси водоростей, мангрові зарості, коралові рифи та батіаль. Він намагається показати, наскільки великими і різноманітними є океани, заохочуючи загальноприйняті теми. Нижня і, можливо, відоміша половина зали складається з декількох великих діорам великих морських організмів. Саме на цьому рівні знаходиться знаменита діорама «Кальмар і кит», зображуючи гіпотетичну боротьбу між двома істотами. Інші помітні експонати в цьому залі включають діораму коралового рифу Андрос, яка є єдиною дворівневою діорамою в Західній півкулі. Однією з найвідоміших ікон музею є модель зі склопластику в натуральну величину, розміром 94 метра (29 метрів), атлантичного синього кита. Кит був кардинально перероблений під час реконструкції 2003 року: його плавники були відрегульовані, додано пупок, і він був перефарбований з тьмяно-сірого в різні насичені відтінки синього. Верхні діорами — це менші версії екосистем, коли нижні версії набагато більші та видаються живими.
Історія
У 1910 році президент музею Генрі Ф. Осборн запропонував побудувати велику будівлю на південно-східному внутрішньому дворику музею, щоб розмістити новий Зал океанічного життя, в якому будуть виставлені «моделі і скелети китів». Ця пропозиція побудови на подвір'ї ознаменувала велику переоцінку оригінального архітектурного плану музею. Калверт Вокс спроєктував музейний комплекс на чотири відкриті подвір'я, щоб максимально збільшити кількість природного світла, що потрапляє в навколишні будівлі. 1969 року після реконструкції залу було більш чітко зосереджено увагу на океанічній мегафавні, щоб намалювати океан як грандіозне та захопливе місце. Ключовим компонентом ремонту стало додавання реалістичної моделі блакитного кита, яка замінила популярну модель кита зі сталевого та пап'є-маше, що висіла в залі біології ссавців. Річард Ван Ґелдер керував створенням залу в його нинішньому втіленні.
Зал був відремонтований у 2003 році, цього разу головним чином увага наділялася енвайронменталізму та охороні природи. Пол Мілштейн був бізнесовим лідером та меценатом, а Ірма Мілштейн — давня член правління Американського музею природної історії. Реконструкція 2003 року включала ремонт відомого блакитного кита, підвішеного високо над виставковою підлогою площею 19000 квадратних футів (1750 м2), та оновлення діорам 1930-х та 1960-х років. Нові дисплеї були пов'язані зі школами за допомогою технологій.
Зали культур та походження людини
Зали культур
Стаутський Зал азіатських народів
Стаутський зал азіатських народів — це одноповерховий зал на другому поверсі музею, між Залом азіатських ссавців та Птахів світу. Він названий на честь Гарднера Д. Стаута, колишнього президента музею. В першу чергу його організував доктор Вальтер А. Ферсервіс, давній музейний археолог. Відкритий у 1980 році, Стаутський зал є найбільшим антропологічним залом музею і містить артефакти, придбані музеєм між 1869 та серединою 1970-х. Багато відомих експедицій, спонсорованих музеєм, пов'язані з артефактами в залі, включаючи експедиції Роя Чепмена Ендрюса в Центральній Азії та експедицію Верне-Гопвуда Чіндвіна.
Стаутський Зал має два розділи: Стародавня Євразія, невеликий розділ, присвячений еволюції людської цивілізації в Євразії, та Традиційна Азія, набагато більший розділ, що містить культурні артефакти з усього азіатського континенту. Останній розділ організований так, щоб географічно відповідати Шовковому шляху. Як і багато виставкових залів музею, артефакти в Стаутському Залі представлені різними способами, включаючи експонати, мініатюрні діорами та п'ять повномасштабних діорам. Визначні експонати в давньоєвразійському розділі включають репродукції з археологічних пам'яток Тешик-Таш і Чатал-Гьоюк, а також копію стели Хаммурапі в повному розмірі. Розділ «Традиційна Азія» містить райони, присвячені великим азіатським країнам, таким як Японія, Китай, Тибет та Індія, а також включає величезну кількість менших азіатських племен, включаючи айнів, семаїв та якутів.
Зал африканських народів
Зал африканських народів знаходиться позаду залу африканських ссавців Еклі і під Санфордським залом північноамериканських птахів. Він організований чотирма основними екосистемами, що знаходяться в Африці: річковою долиною, луками, рідколіссям та пустелею. У кожному розділі представлені артефакти та експонати народів, корінні в екосистемах по всій Африці. Зал містить три діорами, а помітні експонати включають велику колекцію духовних костюмів, виставлених у розділі Ліс-Ліс. Об'єднання секцій залу — це багатогранне порівняння африканських товариств, засноване на полюванні та рослинництві та тваринництві. Кожен тип суспільства представлений в історичному, політичному, духовному та екологічному контексті. Також включена невелика частина африканської діаспори, поширювана работоргівлею. Нижче наведено короткий перелік деяких представлених племен та цивілізацій:
Долина річки: Стародавні єгиптяни, Нубійці, Куба, Лозі
Луки: Покот, Шиллуки, Барава
Ліси: Йоруба, Кофяр, Мбуті
Пустеля: Айт-Атта, Туареги
Зал Мексики та Центральної Америки
Зал Мексики та Центральної Америки — одноповерховий зал на другому поверсі музею, розташований за птахами Світу та перед Залом південноамериканських народів. У ньому представлені археологічні артефакти з широкого кола доколумбових цивілізацій, що колись існували в Середній Америці, включаючи мая, ольмеків, сапотеків та ацтеків. Оскільки більшість цих цивілізацій не залишили записаних творів та не мали будь-якого контакту із західною цивілізацією, головна мета залу полягає в тому, щоб зібрати всю інформацію, яку можна про них зібрати лише на основі артефактів.
Музей демонстрував доколумбові артефакти з моменту свого відкриття, одразу після відкриття цивілізацій археологами, а його перший зал був присвячений відкриттю цього предмета ще в 1899 р. У міру того як колекція музею збільшувалась, зал зазнав капітальних ремонтів у 1944 році та знову в 1970 році, коли він знову відкрився в теперішньому вигляді. Визначні експонати, що демонструються, включають сокиру Кунца та повномасштабну копію могили 104 з археологічної розкопки Монте-Албан, спочатку демонстровану на Всесвітній виставці 1939 року.
Індійські зали
Зал індіанців північно-західного узбережжя
Зал індіанців північно-західного узбережжя — це одноповерховий зал на першому поверсі музею за Великою галереєю та між залами Варбурґа та Шпіцера. Відкритий у 1900 році під назвою «Jesup North Pacific Hall», це нині найстаріший виставковий зал у музеї, хоча за свою історію він зазнав чимало ремонтів. Зал містить артефакти та експонати племен культурного регіону Північно-Тихоокеанського узбережжя (Південна Аляска, Північний Вашингтон та частина Британської Колумбії). На видному місці в залі є чотири «Будинки» від нації Кваквакавак і фрески Вільяма С. Тейлора, що зображують рідне життя.
Історія
Артефакти в залі походять із трьох основних джерел. Найбільш раннім з них був подарунок артефактів Хайди (включаючи відоме тепер каноє Хайди Великої галереї), зібраний Джоном Веслі Павеллом і подарований Гербертом Бішопом у 1882 р. Після цього музей придбав дві колекції артефактів з Тлінкіту, Підполковник Джордж Т. Еммонс у 1888 і 1894 рр.
Решта артефактів залу були зібрані під час знаменитої експедиції в північно-тихоокеанському регіоні Єсуп між 1897 і 1902 роками. Під керівництвом впливового антрополога Франца Боаса та за фінансування президента музею Моріса Кетчума Єсупа, експедиція стала першою для Відділу антропології музею і зараз розглядається «найвища експедиція в американській антропології». Участь взяли багато відомих етнологів, у тому числі Джордж Хант, який забезпечував будинки Квакваки, що зараз стоять у залі.
На момент відкриття Зал індіанців північно-західного узбережжя був одним із чотирьох залів, присвячених корінним народам США та Канади. Спочатку він був організований у двої секціяк, перша — загальна територія, що стосувалася всіх народів регіону, а друга — спеціалізована територія, поділена за племенами. Це була суперечка для Боаса, який хотів, щоб усі артефакти в залі були пов'язані з належним племенем (подібно до того, як це організовано в даний час), що врешті призвело до розриву відносин Боаса з музеєм.
Серед інших племен, які представлені в залі, є: Прибережний Саліш, Нуу-чах-нулт (перерахований як Ноотка), Цімшиани і Нуксалк (перерахований як Белла Кула)
Зал рівнинних індіанців
Основний фокус цього залу — це народи Північноамериканських Великих рівнин, якими вони були в середині 19 сторіччя, включаючи зображення чорноногих, культур Хідаци та Дакоти. Особливий інтерес представляє Фолсома, відкрита в 1926 р. В Нью-Мексико, що забезпечує цінні докази ранньої колонізації Америки.
Зал індіанців східних лісів
Цей зал детально описує життя та технології традиційних корінних американських народів у лісових умовах Східної Північної Америки. Деякі виставлені культури включають Крі, Мохеган, Оджибве та Ірокези.
Зали походження людини
Бернарда та Енн Спітцер Зал походження людини
Зал Бернарда та Енн Спітцер, який раніше був Залом біології та еволюції людини, відкрився 10 лютого 2007 р. Спочатку відомий під назвою «Зал епохи людини», на момент його первісного відкриття в 1921 році це була єдина велика виставка в США, яка представляла глибоке дослідження еволюції людини. Покази простежували історію Homo sapiens, висвітлювали шлях людської еволюції та досліджували джерела людської творчості.
Багато відомих виставок з оригінального залу все ще можна переглянути в нинішньому розширеному форматі. Сюди входять діорами натуральної величини наших попередників — австралопітеків афарських, людина працююча, неандертальці та кроманьйонці, демонструючи кожен вид, що демонструє поведінку та можливості, які, на думку вчених, їм притаманні. Також демонструються повномасштабні зліпки важливих скам'янілостей, включаючи скелет Люсі віком 3,2 мільйона років і Хлопчика з Туркани 1,7 мільйона років, а також екземпляри Homo erectus, включаючи пекінську людину.
У залі також представлені копії мистецтва льодовикової ери, знайдені в регіоні Дордонь на південному заході Франції. Вапнякове різьблення коней було зроблено майже 26 000 років тому і вважається одним із найдавніших художніх виразів людей.
Наукові зали про Землю та планети
Зал метеоритів Артура Росса
Зал метеоритів Артура Росса містить деякі найкращі зразки у світі, включаючи Агнігіто, ділянку 200-тонного Кейп-Йоркського метеориту, який вперше був відомий неінуїтським культурам під час розслідування острова Метеорит, Гренландія. Велика вага, 34 т, робить його найбільшим у Північній півкулі. Він має опору колонами, які проходять через підлогу та в основу під музеєм.
У залі також містяться позасонячні наноалмази (алмази з розмірами на нанометровому рівні) віком понад 5 мільярдів років. Вони були вилучені із зразка метеориту хімічним шляхом, і вони настільки малі, що квадрильйон із них вміщується в об'єм менше кубічного сантиметра.
Зал дорогоцінних каменів та мінералів Гаррі Франка Гуггенхайма
Зал мінералів Гаррі Франка Гуггенхайма містить сотні незвичайних геологічних зразків. Він знаходиться біля Меморіального залу самоцвітів Морґана, де представлено багато рідкісних та цінних дорогоцінних каменів. Експозиція була розроблена архітектурною фірмою Wm. Ф. Педерсен та доц. з керівником Фредом Букхардтом. Вінсент Менсон був куратором катедри мінералогії. На проєктування та будівництво експозиції пішло шість років, 1970—1976. Архітектурний критик New York Times Пол Ґолдберґер сказав: «Це одна з найкращих музейних інсталяцій, яку бачив Нью-Йорк або будь-яке місто за багато років».
На виставці представлено багато відомих зразків, які обрані серед понад 100 000 експонатів музею. Серед них — Смарагд Патріції, камінь 632 карати (126 г), 12-сторонній камінь. Він був виявлений у 1920-х роках у шахті високо в колумбійських Андах і названий на честь дочки власника шахти. Патриція — один із небагатьох великих смарагдів, які залишаються незрізаними. Також представлена 563-каратна (113 г) Індійська зірка, найбільша і найвідоміша зірчаста сапфіра у світі. Це було виявлено понад 300 років тому на Шрі-Ланці, найімовірніше, в пісках древніх русел річок, звідки і сьогодні існують зірчасті сапфіри. Його подарував музею фінансист Дж. П. Морган. Тонка, сяюча шестикутна зірка або астеризм створюється надходить світлом, яке відбивається від голкоподібних кристалів мінерального рутилу, які знаходяться в сапфірі. Зірка Індії відполірована у формі кабошона, або купола, щоб покращити красу зірки. Серед інших помітних екземплярів — 596-фунтовий (270 кг) топаз — 4,5-тонний екземпляр блакитного азуритового/малахітового руд, який був знайдений у шахті Королеви міді в Бісбі, штат Аризона, на початку 20 століття; і рідкісний, 20-каратний (20 г) помаранчевого кольору сапфір із Шрі-Ланки, який вважається «матір'ю всіх прокладок». У колекцію також входить Midnight Star, 116,75-каратний глибоко-пурпурно-червоний зоряний рубін, яка була зі Шрі-Ланки, а також була подарована JP Morgan AMNH, як Зірка Індії. Він також був подарований AMNH того ж року, коли Зірка Індії була подарована AMNH, 1901.
29 жовтня 1964 року зірку Індії разом із Північною зіркою, Рубіном ДеЛонга та Орлиним діамантом було викрадено з музею. Зломщики, Джек Роланд «Murph The Surf» Мерфі, та його два співучасники, Аллен Дейл Кун та Роджер Фредерік Кларк, отримали доступ, пролізши через вікно ванної кімнати, яке вони відчинили за кілька годин до того, як музей був закритий. Зірка опівночі та зірка DeLong Ruby пізніше були знайдені в Маямі. Через кілька тижнів, також у Маямі, зірку Індії вдалося знайти в шафці на автовокзалі, але Орлиного діаманта так і не знайшли; можливо, його було перероблено або загублено. Мерфі, Кун і Кларк пізніше були спіймані і засуджені до трьох років ув'язнення, і всі вони отримали умовно-дострокове звільнення.
Зал планети Земля Девіда С. та Рута Л. Ґоттесмана
Зал Планета Земля — це постійний зал, присвячений історії Землі, починаючи від її зародження і закінчуючи життям та впливом сучасних людей на планету. У кількох розділах також обговорюються дослідження систем Землі, включаючи геологію, гляціологію, атмосферні науки та вулканологію.
Експозиція славиться своїми великими зразками гірських порід. У залі представлені вражаючі зразки стрічкового заліза та деформованих конгломератних порід, а також граніти, пісковики, лави та три чорні курці.
Північна секція залу, яка займається переважно тектонікою плит, влаштована так, щоб імітувати структуру Землі, а ядро та мантія розташовані в центрі, елементи земної кори знаходятья по периметру.
Викопні зали
Більшість музейних колекцій скам'янілостей ссавців та динозаврів залишаються прихованими від очей громадськості. Вони зберігаються в багатьох сховищах глибоко в музейному комплексі. Серед них найбільш значущим сховищем є десятиповерхова будівля Чайлдса Фріка, яка стоїть у внутрішньому дворику музею. Під час будівництва Фріка були використані гігантські крани, щоб підняти сталеві балки безпосередньо з вулиці, над дахом у внутрішній дворик, щоб гарантувати, що класичний фасад музею залишався незмінним. Прогнозована велика вага викопних кісток змусила дизайнерів додати спеціальну сталеву арматуру до конструкції будівлі, оскільки в ній зараз знаходиться найбільша колекція викопних ссавців та динозаврів у світі. Ці колекції займають підвал і нижні сім поверхів Будови Фріка, тоді як верхні три поверхи містять лабораторії та кабінети. Саме в цій конкретній будівлі провадиться багато інтенсивних дослідницьких програм палеонтології хребетних.
Інші райони музею також містять сховища життя з минулого. Кімната китів — це печерний простір, в якому потужні лебідки спускаються зі стелі, щоб рухати гігантські викопні кістки. Музей-мансарда нагорі включає ще більше сховищ, таких як Слонова кімната, тоді як бивни та кабани знаходяться внизу від горища.
Великі колекції викопних копалин, відкриті для загального огляду, займають весь четвертий поверх музею, а також окремий експонат, який постійно експонується в Меморіальному залі Теодора Рузвельта, головному вході музею. Експонати четвертого поверху дозволяють відвідувачеві простежити еволюцію хребетних, проходячи круглим шляхом, що веде через кілька музейних будівель. На 77-й вулиці музею відвідувач починає в Центрі орієнтації і йде ретельно розміченою стежкою, яка веде відвідувача еволюційним деревом життя. Коли дерево «гілкується», відвідувачеві представляються сімейні стосунки між хребетними. Цей еволюційний шлях знаний як кладистика.
Для створення кладистики вчені шукають спільні фізичні характеристики, щоб визначити спорідненість різних видів. Наприклад, кладистика покаже взаємозв'язок між земноводними, ссавцями, черепахами, ящірками та птахами, оскільки ці, мабуть, розрізнені групи поділяють рису «чотирьох кінцівок з рухомими суглобами, оточеними м'язами», роблячи їх чотириногими. Група споріднених видів, таких як тетраподи, називається «кладою». У групі тетрапод лише у ящірок і птахів є ще одна риса: «два отвори в черепі за оком». Отже, ящірки та птахи представляють меншу, ближчу кладу, відому як діапсиди. У кладистиці еволюційний вигляд нової риси вперше знаний як «вузол». По всьому викопному залу вузли ретельно розмічені по шляху еволюції, і ці вузли попереджають нас про появу нових рис, що представляють цілі нові гілки еволюційного дерева. Види, що демонструють ці ознаки, виставляються в нішах по обидва боки шляху. Відеопроєкція на четвертому поверсі музею знайомить відвідувачів з поняттям кладистики і користується популярністю серед дітей та дорослих.
Багато виставлених скам'янілостей представляють унікальні та історичні предмети, зібрані під час золотої ери музею у світових експедиціях (1880–30-ті роки). У меншому масштабі експедиції продовжуються дотепер і призвели до поповнення колекцій з В'єтнаму, Мадагаскару, Південної Америки та Центральної та Східної Африки.
4-й поверх включає такі зали:
Зал походження хребетних
Зал динозаврів Saurischian (їх розпізнають за схоплюючою рукою, довгою рухомою шиєю та положенням лобкової кістки вниз / вперед, вони є попередниками сучасної птиці)
Зал птахотазових динозаврів (визначений для лобкової кістки, яка спрямована в бік спини)
Зал первісних ссавців
Зал передових ссавців
Викопні копалини
Серед багатьох видатних скам'янілостей є:
Тиранозавр рекс: Складений майже повністю із справжніх викопних кісток, він встановлений у горизонтальній позі стебла, красиво збалансованій на потужних ногах. Зразок насправді складається з викопних кісток двох скелетів T. rex, виявлених у Монтані у 1902 та 1908 роках відомим мисливцем на динозаврів Барнумом Брауном.
Маммут: Ці скам'янілі, більші за свого родича шерстистого мамонта, від тварини, яка мешкала 11000 років тому в штаті Індіана.
Апатозавр або Бронтозавр: цей гігантський зразок був виявлений наприкінці 19 століття. Хоча більшість його викопних кісток є оригінальними, череп — ні, оскільки його на місці не знайдено. Лише через багато років був виявлений перший череп Апатозавра, і тому гіпсовий відлив з цього черепа був виготовлений і розміщений на горі музею. Череп Камаразавра використовувався помилково, поки не був знайдений правильний череп. Не зовсім точно, чи є цей зразок бронтозавром чи апатозавром, і тому його вважають «неідентифікованим апатозаврином», оскільки він також може бути зразком амфіцелія або атлантозаврів.
Megacerops: Вимерлий ссавець, віддалено пов'язаний з конем та носорогом. Він жив 35 мільйонів років тому на території сучасної Південної Дакоти. Він відомий своєю чудовою і незвичайною парою рогів.
Скелет едмонтозаврів анектенів, великий рослиноїдний динозавр-орнітопод. Зразок є прикладом «муміфікованого» скам'янілості динозавра, в якому відбитки м'яких тканин і шкіри були вкладені в навколишню породу. Зразок встановлений так, як його знайшли, лежачи на боці з піднятими ногами та відведеною назад головою.
26 вересня 2007 р. У музеї дебютувала скам'янілість аммоніту діаметром 80 футів (61 см) діаметром, яка повністю складається з дорогоцінного каміння амоноідеї. Ніл Ландман, куратор викопних безхребетних, пояснив, що аммоніти (облуплені головоногі молюски в підкласі Ammonoidea) вимерли 66 мільйонів років тому в той самий випадок, коли загинули динозаври. Korite International передала скам'янілість після відкриття в Альберта, Канада.
Один скелет алозавра, що вивозить з трупа апатозавра.
Єдиний відомий череп Andrewsarchus mongoliensis.
Показ різних видів наземних лінивців, включаючи Megalocnus rodens, Scelidotherium cuvieri, Megalonyx wheatleyi та Glossotherium robustus
Трицератопс і стегозавр також представлені серед багатьох інших зразків.
Окрім скам'янілостей у музейних експозиціях, багато зразків зберігається у колекціях, доступних для вчених. До них належать такі важливі зразки, як повний диплодоковий череп, тиранозавридні зуби, завроподні хребці та багато голотипу.
Центр Землі і космосу Роуз
Планетарій Гайдена, під'єднаний до музею, зараз є частиною Центру Землі і Космосу, розміщеного в скляному кубі, що містить сферичний космічний театр, спроєктований Джеймсом Стюартом Полшеком. Космічний шлях «Гайльбрун» — один із найпопулярніших експонатів Центру троянд, який відкрився 19 лютого 2000 р.
Оригінальний планетарій Гайдена був заснований в 1933 році коштом пожертви мецената Чарльза Гайдена. Відкритий у 1935 р., він був зруйнований і замінений у 2000 р. Центром Землі та Космосу Фредеріка Фінеаса та Сандри Пріст Роуз на 210 млн. Доларів. Спроєктована Джеймсом Стюартом Полшеком, нова будівля складається із шестиповерхового високого скляного куба, що охоплює освітлену сферу на висоті 27 метрів (27 м), яка, здається, плаває, хоча насправді вона підтримується фермою. Джеймс Полшек називав свою роботу «космічним собором». Центр троянд та прилегла до нього площа на північному фасаді музею вважаються одними з найвидатніших архітектурних доповнень Манхеттена. Об'єкт охоплює 333 500 квадратних футів (30 980 м2) дослідницьких, освітніх та виставкових площ, а також планетарій Гайдена. Також на території закладу знаходиться катедра астрофізики, найновіший науково-дослідний відділ музею. Ніл Деграсс Тайсон — директор планетарію Гайдена. Крім того, Полшек спроєктував Вестонський павільйон площею 1800 квадратних футів (170 м2), високу прозору конструкцію із «білого водяного» скла заввишки 43 фути вздовж західного фасаду музею. Ця споруда, невеликий супутник Центру троянд, пропонує новий шлях до музею, а також відкриває подальший виставковий простір для астрономічно пов'язаних об'єктів. Колишній журнал планетарію «Небо» об'єднався з «Телескопом», щоб стати астрономічним журналом «Небо та телескоп».
Том Генкс проголосував за перше шоу планетарію під час відкриття нового Роуз-центру для Землі та космосу в планетарії Гайдена у 2000 р. З тих до планетарію долучені такі знаменитості, як Вупі Ґолдберґ, Роберт Редфорд, Гаррісон Форд та Майя Енджелоу.
Виставкова лабораторія
Заснована в 1869 році, виставкова лабораторія AMNH відтоді виготовила тисячі інсталяцій. Катедра відрізняється інтеграцією нових наукових досліджень у захоплююче мистецтво та мультимедійні презентації. На додаток до відомих діорам у своєму домашньому музеї та Центрі Землі та космосу Роуз, лабораторія також випустила міжнародні виставки та програмне забезпечення, таке як Атлас цифрового Всесвіту.
Сьогодні команда виставок налічує понад шістдесят художників, письменників, підготовників, дизайнерів та програмістів. Департамент відповідає за створення від двох до трьох експонатів на рік. Ці великі шоу, як правило, подорожують національними музеями природничих історій. Вони створили, серед інших, перші експонати для обговорення дарвінівської еволюції, індукованих людиною кліматичних змін та масового вимирання мезозою за допомогою астероїда.
Дослідницька бібліотека
Дослідницька бібліотека відкрита для співробітників та відвідувачів та знаходиться на четвертому поверсі музею.
Бібліотека збирає матеріали, що охоплюють такі теми, як теріологія, наука про землю та планету, астрономія та астрофізика, антропологія, ентомологія, герпетологія, іхтіологія, палеонтологія, етологія, орнітологія, мінералогія, безхребетні, систематика, екологія, океанографія, конхологія, розвідки та подорожі, історія наук, музеєзнавства, бібліографії, геноміки та периферійних біологічних наук. Колекція багата ретроспективними матеріалами — деякі ще з XV століття — які важко знайти деінде.
Історія
У перші роки бібліотека розширювала свою колекцію здебільшого за допомогою таких подарунків, як конхологічна бібліотека Джона К. Джея, бібліотека Карсона Бревоорта про риб і загальну зоологію, орнітологічна бібліотека Даніеля Жиро Елліота, ентомологічна бібліотека Гаррі Едвардса, Г'ю Джуетт колекція подорожей і подорожей та колекція геології Жуля Марку. У 1903 р. Американське етнологічне товариство здало на зберігання свою бібліотеку в музей, а в 1905 р. Нью-Йоркська академія наук послідувала цьому прикладу, передавши свою колекцію з 10 000 томів.
На сьогоднішній день колекції бібліотеки містять понад 550 000 томів монографій, серіалів, памфлетів, перевидань, мікроформ та оригінальних ілюстрацій, а також фільмів, фотографій, архівів та рукописів, образотворчого мистецтва, пам'яток та колекцій рідкісних книг.
Нова бібліотека була розроблена фірмою Roche-Dinkeloo у 1992 році. Площа — 5500 кв. Футів (5100 м2) і включає п'ять різних «заповідних зон», починаючи від читальної зали та громадських кабінетів на 50 осіб, закінчуючи контролем температури та вологості кімнати.
Спеціальні колекції
Інституційні архіви, рукописи та особисті документи: включає архівні документи, польові зошити, вирізки та інші документи, що стосуються музею, його вчених та співробітників, наукових експедицій та досліджень, музейних виставок, освіти та загального управління.
Колекція «Мистецтво та пам'ятні речі».
Колекція рухомих зображень.
Вертикальні файли: відносно виставок, експедицій та музейної діяльності.
Запропоновані заходи
Дослідницька діяльність
Музей має понад 225 наукових працівників та щороку спонсорує понад 120 спеціальних польових експедицій. Багато виставлених скам'янілостей представляють унікальні та історичні предмети, зібрані під час золотої ери музею у світових експедиціях (1880–30-ті роки). Прикладами деяких з цих експедицій, які повністю або частково фінансуються АМНХ, є: Північно-Тихоокеанська експедиція Джесупа, Південно-морська експедиція Уітні, Наукова експедиція Рузвельта — Рондона, Експедиція Крокера Ленда та експедиції Річарда на Мадагаскар та Нову Гвінею. Арчболд. У меншому масштабі експедиції продовжуються по нині. Музей також видає кілька рецензованих журналів, зокрема Вісник Американського музею природничої історії. У 1976 році захисник прав тварин Генрі Спіра очолив кампанію проти вівісекції котів, яку Американський музей природознавства проводив протягом 20 років, з метою дослідження впливу деяких видів каліцтва на статеве життя котів. Музей припинив дослідження в 1977 році.
Освітня робота
Освітні програми AMNH включають охоплення шкіл у Нью-Йорку Музеєм рухомих.
Крім того, сам музей пропонує широкий спектр освітніх програм, таборів та занять для студентів. Показово, що Музей фондує Наукову програму Lang, комплексну науково-дослідну та науково-освітню програму з 5 по 12 клас та Науково-дослідницьку програму наставництва (SRMP), серед найпрестижніших платних стажувань у Нью-Йорку, в яких пари студентів проводять повний рік інтенсивних оригінальних досліджень з вченим AMNH.
Вища школа Річарда Гілдера
AMNH пропонує маґістра мистецтв у галузі викладання наук та ступінь доктора філософії порівняльної біології.
23 жовтня 2006 року музей заснував Вищу школу Річарда Ґілдера, яка пропонує докторську ступінь із порівняльної біології, ставши першим американським музеєм у США, який присуджує докторські ступені від свого імені. Акредитований у 2009 році, у 2011 році в аспірантуру було зараховано 11 студентів, які тісно співпрацюють з кураторами і мають доступ до колекцій. Перші сім випускників, які закінчили програму, отримали свої ступені 30 вересня 2013 р. Декан аспірантури — палеонтолог AMNH Джон Дж. Флінн, а тезка і головний благодійник — Річард Ґілдер.
Південно-західна дослідна станція
AMNH працює на біологічній польовій станції в Порталі, штат Аризона, серед гір Чирікахуа. Південно-західна дослідна станція була створена в 1955 році, придбана за грантом від мецената Девіда Рокфеллера та першим директором ентомолога Мон Казьє Станція у «гарячій точці біорізноманіття» використовується дослідниками та студентами та пропонує епізодичні семінари для громадськості.
Околиці
Музей знаходиться на 79-й вулиці та в Центральному парку на захід, до нього можна дістатися поїздами B та C метро Нью-Йорка. До музею можна потрапити через поверх низького рівня через станцію метро 81-ша вулиця — Музей природознавства на лінії Восьмої авеню IND на південному кінці верхньої платформи (куди прибувають поїзди вгорі).
На постаменті біля входу в музей на проспект Коламбус знаходиться часова капсула з нержавіючої сталі, яка була створена після дизайнерського конкурсу, який виграв Сантьяго Калатрава. Капсула була закрита на початку 2000 року, щоб ознаменувати початок 3-го тисячоліття. Він приймає форму складеного сідлоподібного об'єму, симетричного на кількох осях, який досліджує формальні властивості складених сферичних рамок. Калатрава описав це як «квітку». План передбачає, що капсулу відкриють у 3000 році.
Музей знаходиться у міському парку площею 17 акрів (69 000 м2), відомого як Парк Теодора Рузвельта, який простягається від Центрального парку на захід до проспекту Колумба та від Західної 77-ї до 81-ї вулиць і містить паркові лавки, сади та газони, а також собаку бігти.
Кінна статуя Теодора Рузвельта знаходиться біля музею, що виходить на захід від Центрального парку, і може бути вилучена через підпорядковане зображення афроамериканських та корінних американських діячів позаду Рузвельта.
Деякі експонати
Діорами ссавців з Африки, Азії, і Північної Америки
Синій кит у натуральну величину
Найбільший синій сапфір у світі
Колекція динозаврів
Планетарій ім. Гайдена
Коридор еволюції людини розумної
Бібліотека Американського музею природознавства (в колекції бібліотеки понад 450 000 примірників книг)
Галерея
Посилання
Американський музей природознавства — офіційний сайт.
Guide to American Museum of Natural History in New York.
Онлайн-курси — Американський музей природознавства.
Ology — «Ологія», сайт для дітей про науки від Американського музей природознавства.
Примітки
Музеї Нью-Йорка
Мангеттен
Природознавчі музеї
Американський музей природної історії
Музеї, засновані 1869
Національний реєстр історичних місць США
Неоготичні споруди США
Доколумбові музеї США
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace%20of%20Augsburg
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Peace of Augsburg
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Peace of Augsburg
The Peace of Augsburg, also called the Augsburg Settlement, was a treaty between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and the Schmalkaldic League, signed on 25 September 1555 in the German city of Augsburg. It officially ended the religious struggle between the two groups and made the legal division of Christianity permanent within the Holy Roman Empire, allowing rulers to choose either Lutheranism or Roman Catholicism as the official confession of their state. Calvinism was not allowed until the Peace of Westphalia.
The Peace of Augsburg has been described as "the first step on the road toward a European system of sovereign states." The system, created on the basis of the Augsburg Peace, collapsed at the beginning of the 17th century, which was one of the reasons for the Thirty Years' War.
Overview
The Peace elaborated the principle Cuius regio, eius religio ("whose realm, his religion"), which allowed the princes of states within the Holy Roman Empire to adopt either Lutheranism or Catholicism within the domains they controlled, ultimately reaffirming their sovereignty over those domains. Subjects, citizens, or residents who did not wish to conform to the prince's choice were given a grace period in which they were free to emigrate to different regions in which their desired religion had been accepted.
Article 24 stated: "In case our subjects, whether belonging Augsburg Confession, should intend leaving their homes with their wives and children to settle in another, they shall be hindered neither in the sale of their estates after due payment of the local taxes nor injured in their honor."
Charles V had made an interim ruling, the Augsburg Interim of 1548, on the legitimacy of two religious creeds in the empire, and this was codified in law on 30 June 1548 upon the insistence of the emperor, who wanted to work out religious differences under the auspices of a general council of the Catholic Church. The Interim largely reflected principles of Catholic religious behavior in its 26 articles, although it allowed for marriage of the clergy, and the giving of both bread and wine to the laity. This led to resistance by the Protestant territories, who proclaimed their own Interim at Leipzig the following year.
The Interim was overthrown in 1552 by the revolt of the Protestant elector Maurice of Saxony and his allies. In the negotiations at Passau in the summer of 1552, even the Catholic princes had called for a lasting peace, fearing that the religious controversy would never be settled. The emperor, however, was unwilling to recognize the religious division in Western Christendom as permanent. This document was foreshadowed by the Peace of Passau, which in 1552 gave Lutherans religious freedom after a victory by Protestant armies. Under the Passau document, Charles granted a peace only until the next imperial Diet, whose meeting was called in early 1555.
The treaty, negotiated on Charles' behalf by his brother, Ferdinand, gave Lutheranism official status within the domains of the Holy Roman Empire, according to the policy of cuius regio, eius religio. Knights and towns who had practiced Lutheranism for some time were exempted under the Declaratio Ferdinandei. Conversely, the Ecclesiastical reservation prevented the principle of cuius regio, eius religio from being applied if an ecclesiastical ruler converted to Lutheranism.
In practice the principle of cuius regio had already been implemented between the time of the Nuremberg Religious Peace of 1532 and the 1546–1547 Schmalkaldic War. Now legal in the de jure sense, it was to apply to all the territories of the Empire except for the Ecclesiastical principalities and some of the cities in those ecclesiastical states, where the question of religion was addressed under the separate principles of the and the , which also formed part of the Peace of Augsburg. This agreement marked the end of the first wave of organized military action between Protestants and Catholics; however, these principles were factors during the wars of the 1545–1648 Counter-Reformation.
This left out Reformed Zwinglians and Anabaptists, but not Calvinists who approved of the Augsburg Confession Variata. Practices other than the two which were the most widespread in the Empire was expressly forbidden, considered by the law to be heretical, and could be punishable by death. Although "cuius regio" did not explicitly intend to allow the modern ideal of "freedom of conscience", individuals who could not subscribe to their ruler's religion were permitted to leave his territory with their possessions. Also under the , Lutheran knights were given the freedom to retain their religion wherever they lived. The revocation of the by the Catholics in the 1629 Edict of Restitution helped fuel the Thirty Years' War of 1618–1648. The Edict of Restitution itself was overturned in the 1635 Peace of Prague, which restored the 1555 terms of the Peace of Augsburg. Stability brought by assortative migrations under the principle were threatened by subsequent conversion of rulers. Therefore, the Peace of Westphalia preserved the essence of the principle by prohibiting converting rulers to force-convert their subjects and by determining the official religion of Imperial territories to the status of 1624 as a normative year.
Although some dissenters emigrated, others lived as Nicodemites. Because of geographical and linguistic circumstances on the continent of Europe, emigration was more feasible for Catholics living in Protestant lands than for Protestants living in Catholic lands. As a result, there were more crypto-Protestants than crypto-Papists in continental Europe.
Main principles
The Peace of Augsburg contained three main principles:
The principle of ("Whose realm, his religion") provided for internal religious unity within a state: the religion of the prince (either Lutheranism or Roman Catholicism) became the religion of the state and all its inhabitants. Those inhabitants who could not conform to the prince's religion were allowed to leave: an innovative idea in the 16th century. This principle was discussed at length by the various delegates, who finally reached agreement on the specifics of its wording after examining the problem and the proposed solution from every possible angle. Forms of Christianity other than the two specified - notably the emerging faith of Calvinism - were not recognised by the Empire.
The second principle, called the (ecclesiastical reservation), covered the special status of the ecclesiastical state. If the prelate of an ecclesiastic state changed his religion, the inhabitants of that state did not have to do so. Instead, the prelate was expected to resign from his post, although this was not spelled out in the agreement.
The third principle, known as (Ferdinand's Declaration), exempted knights and some of the cities from the requirement of religious uniformity, if the reformed religion had been practiced there since the mid-1520s. This allowed for a few mixed cities and towns where Catholics and Lutherans had lived together. It also protected the authority of the princely families, the knights and some of the cities to determine what religious uniformity meant in their territories. Ferdinand inserted this at the last minute, on his own authority.
The third principle was not publicized as part of the treaty, and was kept secret for almost two decades.
Problems
The document left some unresolved problems. While it gave legal basis for the practice of the Lutheran confession, it did not Zwinglianism nor Anabaptism. Although the Peace of Augsburg was moderately successful in relieving tension in the empire and increasing tolerance, it meant that many Protestant groups living in the empire still found themselves in danger of the charge of heresy. (Article 17: "However, all such as do not belong to the two above named religions shall not be included in the present peace but be totally excluded from it.") These minorities did not achieve any legal recognition until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.
Failure to secure a broader peace ultimately led to the Thirty Years' War. One precursor was the Third Defenestration of Prague (1618) in which two representatives of the fiercely Catholic king of Bohemia, Archduke Ferdinand, were thrown out of a castle window.
Aftermath
The principle of ecclesiastical reservation was tested in the Cologne War (1583–1588), which grew out of the scenario envisioned by Ferdinand when he wrote the proviso: the reigning prince-archbishop, Hermann of Wied, converted to Protestantism; although he did not insist that the population convert, he placed Calvinism on a parity with Catholicism throughout the Electorate of Cologne. This in itself came forth as a two-fold legal problem: first, Calvinism was considered a heresy; second, the elector did not resign his see, which made him eligible in theory to cast a ballot for emperor. Finally, his marriage raised the possibility of convert the electorate into a dynastic principality, shifting the balance of religious power in the empire, as Protestants could potentially hold a majority of electorates.
A side effect of the religious turmoil was Charles' decision to abdicate and divide Habsburg territory into two sections. His brother Ferdinand ruled the Austrian lands, and Charles' fervently Catholic son, Philip II, became administrator of Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, parts of Italy, and other overseas holdings.
Notes
Bibliography
Holborn, Hajo. A History of Modern Germany, The Reformation. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1959 [1982], .
Further reading
External links
Full text of the "Peace of Augsburg"
Brittanica's words on the "Peace of Augsburg"
1555 in law
16th century in Bavaria
Augsburg
Augsburg
History of Augsburg
Diplomatic conferences in Germany
16th-century diplomatic conferences
1555 treaties
1555 in the Holy Roman Empire
Schmalkaldic War
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
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Duke of Osuna
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Duke of Osuna is a Spanish noble title that was first awarded in 1562 by King Philip II of Spain to Pedro Girón de la Cueva, (Osuna, Seville, 29 July 1537 – 1590). Pedro was also Viceroy of Naples, (1582–1586), Ambassador in Portugal and 5th Count of Ureña.
The fortunes of the town of Osuna started to rise in the mid-15th century. At that time, Osuna was ruled by Pedro Girón Acuña Pacheco, the younger brother of Juan Pacheco. His son Alfonso Téllez-Girón de las Casas was elevated to Count of Ureña in 1464 by King Enrique IV of Castile. The dynasty's influence increased, obtaining the title of Duke of Osuna in 1562. Osuna became the Andalusian capital of the domains of the Téllez-Girón family, who carried the ducal title.
Some of the most notable members of the House of Osuna were Pedro Téllez-Girón, 3rd Duke of Osuna, who was a general and viceroy of Naples. He became known to history as the "Great Duke of Osuna".
Another celebrated member was Pedro Téllez-Girón, 9th Duke of Osuna and his wife María Josefa Pimentel, 12th Countess-Duchess of Benavente, who were among the most prominent patrons of the painter Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes.
Counts of Ureña (1464)
Alfonso Téllez-Girón de las Casas, 1st Count of Ureña
Juan Téllez-Girón de las Casas, 2nd Count of Ureña
Pedro Girón y Velasco, 3rd Count of Ureña
Juan Téllez-Girón y Velasco, 4th Count of Ureña
Dukes of Osuna (1562)
Pedro Girón de la Cueva, 1st Duke of Osuna
Juan Téllez-Girón de Guzmán, 2nd Duke of Osuna, 1st Marquis of Peñafiel.
Pedro Manuel Girón de Velasco, 3rd Duke of Osuna, Viceroy of Sicily (1611–1616) and Viceroy of Naples (1616–1620).
Juan Tellez-Girón y Enriquez de Ribera, 4th Duke of Osuna (1597–1656).
Gaspar Téllez-Girón y Sandoval, 5th Duke de Osuna, Viceroy of Catalonia (1667–1669) and Governor of Milan (1670–1674).
Francisco de Paula Téllez-Girón y Benavides, 6th Duke of Osuna (1678–1716).
José María Téllez-Girón y Benavides, 7th Duke of Osuna since 1716 (1685 – 8 March 1733).
Pedro Zoilo Téllez-Girón y Pérez de Guzmán el Bueno, 8th Duke of Osuna since 1733, 7th Marquis of Peñafiel, 11th Count of Ureña, since 1733, Grandee of Spain, was made a Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, and of the Order of Carlos III, (27 June 1728 – 1 April 1787).
Pedro Téllez-Girón y Pacheco, 9th Duke of Osuna since 1787 (8 August 1755 – 7 January 1807).
Francisco Téllez-Girón, 10th Duke de Osuna since 1807 (6 October 1785 – 21 May 1820).
Pedro de Alcántara Téllez-Girón y Beaufort-Spontin, 11th Duke of Osuna (1810–1844), also 14th Duke of the Infantado, died without issue.
Mariano Téllez-Girón y Beaufort-Spontin, 12th Duke of Osuna (Madrid, 19 July 1814 – Beauraing, Belgium, 2 June 1882), also 15th Duke of the Infantado and brother of the 11th Duke.
Pedro de Àlcantara Téllez-Girón y Fernández de Santillán, 13th Duke of Osuna (1812–1900).
Luis María Téllez-Girón y Fernández de Córdoba, 14th Duke of Osuna (1870–1909).
Mariano Téllez-Girón y Fernández de Córdoba, 15th Duke of Osuna. (1887–1931), brother of the 14th Duke. Married to Petra Duque de Estrada y Moreno.
Angela Téllez-Girón y Duque de Estrada, 16th Duchess of Osuna (1925–2015), became duchess at the age of 6 years.
Ángela María de Solís-Beaumont y Téllez-Girón. 17th Duchess of Osuna since 2016.
Details
Pedro Téllez-Girón, 1st Duke of Osuna :
One of his daughters, María, (Moron de la Frontera, 1553–1608) married on 18 March 1570, Juan Fernández de Velasco, 5th Duke of Frías, and their daughter, known as Ana de Velasco y Girón married, on 17 June 1603, the Portuguese 7th Duke of Braganza, Teodósio II, (Vila Viçosa, Portugal, 28 February 1568 – Vila Viçosa, 29 November 1630). The outcome of this marriage between the Ana de Velasco y Téllez-Girón and the Duke Teodósio II, was that they were the parents of John IV of Portugal "the Restorer", (Vila Viçosa, 18 March 1604 – Lisbon, 6 November 1656), the first Braganza to be crowned King of Portugal, following the nacionalist coup against the Spanish Habsburgs, on 1 December 1640.
It was alleged that being already a Duke, he fathered an illegitimate son, known as Gabriel Téllez, becoming an active Member and Travel Visitor of the Religious Orden de la Merced, and being known today as famous Spanish theatrical author Tirso de Molina, (1584 – Soria, 12 March 1648).
Don Francisco Téllez-Girón, 6th Duke of Osuna :
Married in 1694, aged 16, Maria Remigia Fernández de Velasco y Tovar, but there was not adult male issue.
He was a supporter of King Philip V of Spain and plenipotentiary signer of the Treaty of Utrecht.
Francisco de Borja Téllez-Girón y Pimentel, 10th Duke of Osuna :
Painted by Goya as a child together with his eldest sister, Maria Joaquina Téllez-Girón y Pimentel.
Married 19 March 1802, at 17, 17th year old Françoise Philippine Thomas de Beaufort-Spontin y Toledo, (Paris 7 March 1785 – 28 January 1830), daughter of Count and Marquis Friedrich August Alex von Beaufort-Spontin, who also became c. 1782 Duke von Beaufort-Spontin (Namur 14 September 1751 – Brussels 22 April 1817), and Leopoldina de Toledo y Salm-Salm, (Madrid, 1760 – Brussels, 4 July 1792).
Mariano Téllez-Girón, 12th Duke of Osuna :
He represented Spain in the crowning of Queen Victoria in England and in the marriage in 1853 of Spanish aristocrat Eugenia de Montijo to Napoleon III. He is reported by Spanish diplomat and notorious writer Juan Valera, later Spanish Ambassador in the US, to have spent with him, Embassy Officer, and his extravagant Russian friends, while Spanish Ambassador in Russia (1856–1862), incredible amounts of money in Saint Petersburg.
When Mariano died in 1882, aged 68, there were lawsuits from pretenders supposed to be closely connected to the family, as well as creditors racing many of the buildings, castles, lands, artworks, etc. Closer inspections around many of the accumulated nobility titles reveal that they are held now by rather ambiguous persons (legally speaking about their supposed inheritance rights).
He married in Wiesbaden, 4 April 1866, Marie Eleonore zu Salm-Salm, née Princess zu Salm-Salm, (Hessen, Frankfurt am Main, 31 January 1842 – Dülmen, 18 June 1891), who became thus the 12th Duchess Consort of Osuna. She remarried to the Duc of Croy when Mariano died but there was no issue from either marriage.
Notice that the Salm-Salm family had entered already within the Osuna family through the Count, Marquis and Duke Friedrich, (deceased 1817), and his first wife Leopoldina de Toledo y Salm-Salm, (deceased 1792), parents-in-law of the 10th Duke of Osuna.
See also
Collegiate Church of Osuna
Paintings for the alameda of the Dukes of Osuna
References
Sources
Dukedoms of Spain
Lists of dukes
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Організація Об'єднаних Націй
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Організація Об'єднаних Націй (ООН) — глобальна міжнародна організація, заснована 1945 року. Декларованою метою діяльності організації є підтримання й зміцнення миру й міжнародної безпеки, розвиток співробітництва між державами світу. Штаб-квартира розміщується в Нью-Йорку. Організація має офіси в Женеві, Відні, Найробі та Гаазі.
Головними органами є Генеральна Асамблея (ГА), Рада Безпеки (РБ), Секретаріат (генеральний секретар обирається Генеральною Асамблеєю за рекомендацією Ради Безпеки на 5 років), Міжнародний суд, Економічна і соціальна рада; Рада з Опіки; штаб-квартира розташована у Нью-Йорку.
Члени-засновники — 51 держава (у т. ч. Українська РСР).
Станом на 1998 рік ООН нараховувала 185 держав-членів. Із 14 липня 2011 року має держави-члени. Західна Сахара й інші маленькі держави не приєдналися до ООН через їх невизнання.
Організація фінансується з обов'язкових і добровільних внесків від своїх держав-членів і користується шістьма офіційними мовами: арабська, китайська, англійська, французька,
російська й іспанська.
Загальна інформація
Організація Об'єднаних Націй (ООН) є міжурядовою організацією, яка прагне підтримувати міжнародний мир і безпеку, розвивати дружні відносини між державами, досягати міжнародної співпраці й бути центром для узгодження дій держав. Це найбільша, найбільш звична, найбільш міжнародна й найпотужніша міжурядова організація у світі. Штаб-квартира ООН знаходиться на міжнародній території в Нью-Йорку, а інші її головні офіси знаходяться в Женеві, Найробі, Відні й Гаазі.
Місія організації щодо збереження світового миру була ускладнена в перші десятиліття холодною війною між США і Радянським Союзом та їхніми союзниками. Її місії складалися здебільшого із беззбройних військових спостерігачів і легкоозброєних військ, які виконували переважно функції моніторингу, звітування й зміцнення довіри. Членство в ООН значно зросло після широкомасштабної деколонізації, що почалася в 1960-х роках. Відтоді 80 колишніх колоній здобули незалежність, зокрема 11 довірчих територій, які контролювала Рада з опіки. До 1970-х років бюджет ООН на програми економічного й соціального розвитку значно перевищував її витрати на підтримку миру. Після закінчення «холодної війни» ООН змінила й розширила свої польові операції, виконуючи широкий спектр складних завдань.
ООН має шість основних органів: Генеральну Асамблею; Рада Безпеки; Економічна і соціальна рада (ЕКОСОР); Рада з опіки; Міжнародний суд; і Секретаріат ООН. Система ООН містить безліч спеціалізованих установ, фондів і програм, таких як Група Світового банку, Всесвітня організація охорони здоров'я, Всесвітня продовольча програма, ЮНЕСКО і ЮНІСЕФ. Крім того, неурядові організації можуть отримати консультативний статус в ЕКОСОР та інших відомствах для участи в роботі ООН.
Головним адміністративним директором ООН є Генеральний секретар; зараз це португальський політик і дипломат Антоніу Гутерріш, який розпочав свій п'ятирічний термін 1 січня 2017 року. Організація фінансується за рахунок добровільних внесків держав-членів.
ООН, її службовці й агенції здобули багато Нобелівських премій миру, хоча не всі оцінки її ефективности однозначні. Деякі коментатори вважають, що ця організація є важливою силою для миру й людського розвитку, а інші називають її неефективною, упередженою чи корумпованою. Як і будь-яка інша Інтернаціональна організація, ООН має багато критики на свою адресу.
Історія створення
Після невдалих спроб і ухвал Ліги Націй (1919—1946), до якої принципово не приєднувалися Сполучені Штати Америки, у 1945 році було створено Організацію Об'єднаних Націй для підтримки міжнародного миру й розвитку співпраці у вирішенні міжнародних проблем економічного, соціального й гуманітарного типу. Перші задуми й конкретний план для нової всесвітньої організації було підготовлено під егідою Державного департаменту США в 1939 році. А Франклін Делано Рузвельт тоді вперше ввів поняття «Організація Об'єднаних Націй» як термін для позначення союзних країн. Цей термін було вперше офіційно використано 1 січня 1942 року, коли 26 держав підписали Декларацію Об'єднаних Націй і зобов'язалися від імені урядів сприяти утворенню системи загальної безпеки й активізації процесу роззброєння. 25 квітня 1945 Конференція ООН зі створення міжнародної організації почала діяти в Сан-Франциско, на якій було представлено 50 урядів і низку неурядових організацій, що брали участь у розробці Статуту Організації Об'єднаних Націй. Організація Об'єднаних Націй офіційно існує з 24 жовтня 1945 завдяки ратифікації Статуту п'ятьма постійними членами Ради Безпеки — Францією, Республікою Китай, СРСР, Великою Британією і Сполученими Штатами та більшістю — 46 іншими сторонами, що теж підписали цей договір-статут. Перше засідання Генеральної Асамблеї, з 51 країною-учасницею, та Ради Безпеки, відбулося в Центральному залі Вестмінстера в Лондоні в січні 1946 року.
Структура Організації Об'єднаних Націй
Структурно Організація Об'єднаних Націй складається з п'яти основних органів (раніше шести — Рада з Опіки ООН призупинила свою діяльність у 1994 році): Генеральної Асамблеї ООН, Ради Безпеки ООН, Економічної та Соціальної Ради (ЕКОСОР) ООН, Секретаріату ООН і Міжнародного Суду юстиції ООН.
Чотири з п'яти основних органів ООН містяться здебільшого в Організації Об'єднаних Націй, штаб-квартира якої розташована на території міжнародного центру в Нью-Йорку. Міжнародний Суд перебуває в Гаазі, а інші великі установи — у відділеннях ООН у Женеві, Відні й Найробі. Решта установ ООН розташовано по всьому світу.
Шість офіційних мов Організації Об'єднаних Націй, які використовують у міжурядових нарадах і документах — це арабська, китайська, англійська, французька, російська й іспанська, а Секретаріат ООН використовує дві робочі мови — англійську й французьку. П'ять з офіційних мов було обрано при заснуванні ООН, арабську було додано згодом, у 1973 році. У редакційних рекомендаціях Організації Об'єднаних Націй сказано, що стандартні документи ведуть англійською мовою Британського використання й Оксфордського правопису (EN-GB-OED), а також китайським стандартним письмом (спрощеним). Заміну традиційного китайського правопису (у 1971 році) було введено, коли представництво ООН у Китаї було змінено з Китайської Республіки (яка нині відома як Тайвань) на Народну Республіку Китай.
Генеральна Асамблея ООН
Генеральна Асамблея є головним дорадчим органом Асамблеї Організації Об'єднаних Націй. Вона складається з усіх держав-членів ООН. Асамблея збирається на чергові щорічні сесії з участю президентів або керівників держав-членів ООН. Упродовж двох тижнів від початку кожної сесії ООН усі її члени мають можливість виступити перед Асамблеєю. Традиційно Генеральний секретар ООН виступає першим, після чого вибраний на той період сесії Голова Асамблеї розпочинає і веде Генеральну Асамблею ООН. Першу сесію було скликано 10 січня 1946 в Центральній залі Вестмінстера в Лондоні за участі представників 51-ї країни.
Коли Генеральна Асамблея проводить голосування з важливих питань, рішення ухвалюють більшістю в дві третини з присутніх. До важливих питань, які розглядають на цій сесії, належать рекомендації з питань миру й безпеки, вибори членів органів та допуск, призупинення і усунення з членів; а також бюджетні питання. Кожна країна-член має один голос. Крім затвердження бюджетних питань, ухвали не є обов'язковими для членів ООН. Асамблея може робити рекомендації з будь-яких питань у рамках ООН, за винятком питань миру й безпеки, які розглядає Рада Безпеки.
Рада Безпеки ООН
Рада Безпеки відповідає за підтримання миру й безпеки у стосунках між країнами — членами ООН. Якщо інші органи Організації Об'єднаних Націй можуть лише подати «рекомендації» різним урядам держав, то Рада Безпеки ООН має право ухвалювати обов'язкові рішення, щоб урядові делегації країн їх утілили, згідно з нормами Статуту ООН (стаття 25). Ухвали Ради називають резолюціями Ради Безпеки.
Рада Безпеки складається з 15 держав-членів, котрі знову-таки поділяються на 5 постійних членів — Китай, Франція, Росія, Сполучене Королівство Великої Британії та Північної Ірландії та Сполучені Штати Америки — і 10 непостійних членів. (15 жовтня 2015 року новими непостійними членами Ради Безпеки ООН терміном на 2 роки обрали Україну, Єгипет, Сенегал, Уругвай і Японію, до складу РБ вони ввійшли 1 січня 2016 року, термін їхніх повноважень становив два роки. Окрім того, членами РБ ООН були Ангола, Венесуела, Іспанія, Малайзія та Нова Зеландія — термін їхніх повноважень сплив наприкінці 2016 року.)
П'ять постійних членів Ради мають право на «вето» щодо головних питань, але не щодо процедурних резолюцій, що дозволяє постійному члену Ради блокувати ухвалення рішень, але не дозволяє блокувати обговорення самої резолюції, навіть коли вона не є прийнятною для нього. Десять тимчасових місць у Раді Безпеки ООН визначаються на дворічний термін із держав-членів ООН, за які проголосували на Генеральній Асамблеї ООН і відповідно на регіональній основі. Голову Ради Безпеки ООН призначають за абеткою, змінюючи його щомісяця.
Економічна й Соціальна Рада (ЕКОСОР) ООН
Економічна й Соціальна Рада (ЕКОСОР) допомагає Генеральній Асамблеї ООН у сприянні міжнародної економічної й соціальної співпраці й розвитку. ЕКОСОР складається з 54 членів ООН, яких обирає Генеральна Асамблея ООН на трирічний термін. Президента ЕКОСОР обирають строком на один рік серед малих і середніх держав, представлених в ЕКОСОР. Рада скликає засідання один раз на рік у липні, сесії тривають чотири тижні. З 1998 року вона почала скликати ще одне засідання — кожного квітня з міністрами фінансів і представниками-головами ключових комітетів Світового банку й Міжнародного валютного фонду (МВФ). У функції ЕКОСОР входить збирання інформації, консультування членів Організації Об'єднаних Націй, розроблення рекомендацій і координування роботи спеціалізованих комітетів ООН. Крім того, ЕКОСОР добре справляється з наданням консультаційних політичних ухвал у суперечках та веде координацію і дублювання деяких функцій органів ООН у сфері допоміжних секторів; саме в цій ролі ЕКОСОР найактивніша.
Міжнародний Суд ООН
Міжнародний суд (МС), що розташований у Гаазі, Нідерланди, є головним судовим органом Організації Об'єднаних Націй. Заснований у 1945 році за Статутом Організації Об'єднаних Націй, Суд почав працювати в 1946 році як наступник Постійної палати міжнародного правосуддя. Статут Міжнародного Суду, який схожий на свого попередника, є основним конституційним документом, складовою і регламентом дій суду.
МС засновано у Палаці миру в Гаазі, в Нідерландах, й розташовано у спільній будівлі з Гаазькою академією міжнародного права, визнаним центром вивчення міжнародного права. Дехто з нинішніх суддів суду є її випускниками чи колишніми професорами факультетів Академії. Метою Міжнародного Суду є вирішення суперечок між державами. Суд розглядає справи, пов'язані з військовими злочинами, незаконним втручанням держав і етнічних чисток, та, як і раніше, інші юридичні справи.
Згодом було запроваджено зміни, пов'язані з діяльністю МС: запровадження Міжнародного кримінального суду (МКС), який почав функціонувати в 2002 році в рамках міжнародних обговорень за ініціативою Генеральної Асамблеї; відтоді чинний міжнародний суд постійно звинувачує тих, хто скоює найважчі злочини, згідно з міжнародним правом, зокрема й військові злочини та геноцид. МКС є функціонально незалежним від ООН щодо кадрів і фінансування, але деякі засідання МКС і його керівного органу — Асамблеї держав-учасниць Римського статуту — скликають в ООН. Існує «Угода про взаємини» між МКС і ООН, яка визначає, як ці дві установи здійснюють свою діяльність і на законних підставах розподіляють функції один з одним.
Секретаріат ООН
Секретаріат Організації Об'єднаних Націй, очолюваний Генеральним секретарем, організований зі службовців ООН і міжнародних цивільних службовців з усього світу. Секретаріат забезпечує дослідження, збір інформації та коштів, необхідних органам Організації Об'єднаних Націй для організації своїх засідань і регламентних дій. Він також виконує завдання за вказівками від ООН, Ради Безпеки ООН, Генеральної Асамблеї ООН, Економічної та Соціальної Ради ООН та інших її органів. У статуті Організації Об'єднаних Націй передбачано, що службовців обиратимуть шляхом врахування «високого рівня працездатності, компетентності й сумлінності» та важливости добирання персоналу на основі широкої географічної вибірки.
Статут передбачає, що службовці не повинні запитувати чи отримувати вказівки від будь-яких владних структур, окрім ООН. Кожній країні-члену ООН пропонують поважати міжнародний характер Секретаріату й не намагатися впливати на своїх службовців. Генеральний секретар ООН самостійно несе відповідальність за добирання персоналу.
Секретаріат наділено такими обов'язками: сприяння вирішенню міжнародних суперечок, керування операціями з підтримання миру, скликання й організація міжнародних конференцій, збирання інформації про виконання ухвал Ради Безпеки, здійснення консультацій з урядами держав-членів щодо різних ініціатив ООН. Основними підрозділами Секретаріату з цих питань є Управління координатора з гуманітарних питань і Департамент операцій із підтримки миру. Генеральний секретар може інформувати Раду Безпеки щодо будь-яких питань, які, на його (або її) думку, можуть становити загрозу міжнародному миру й безпеці.
Генеральний секретар ООН
Генерального секретаря призначає Генеральна Асамблея, після того, як його рекомендовано Радою Безпеки ООН. На їхній вибір може бути накладено вето з боку будь-якого члена Ради Безпеки ООН і Генеральної Асамблеї, теоретично вони можуть перевизначити «рекомендацію» Ради Безпеки, якщо більшості голосів не досягнуто, хоча цього не ставалося ще ніколи. Тривалість перебування на цьому посту не має конкретних критеріїв, але з роками стало прийнято вважати, що пост передаватиметься протягом однієї чи двох каденцій (одна каденція в п'ять років). На цю посаду призначають людину на основі географічної ротації, і Генеральний секретар не повинен походити з жодної постійної держави-члена Ради Безпеки ООН.
За визначенням Франкліна Д. Рузвельта, ця посада оцінюється як «модератор світу», його позиція визначено в Статуті ООН як «організація головної адміністративної посадової особи», але в Статуті також сказано, що Генеральний секретар може доводити до Ради Безпеки ООН у разі термінової необхідності, будь-які питання, які, на його думку, «можуть загрожувати підтриманню міжнародного миру й безпеки» та виявляти своє бачення більшости дій на світовій арені. Позиція Генерального секретаря ООН зводиться до подвійної ролі — адміністратора організації ООН і дипломата-посередника у вирішенні суперечок між державами-членами ООН та знаходженні консенсусу щодо глобальних проблем.
Секретаріат очолює Генеральний секретар, який виступає в ролі представника де-факто й лідера ООН. Нинішній Генеральний секретар ООН — Антоніу Гутерреш, який узяв на себе ці обов'язки після Пан Гі Мун.
Спеціалізовані установи й підрозділи ООН
Статут Організації Об'єднаних Націй передбачає, що кожен із головних органів ООН може встановити різні спеціалізовані установи чи підрозділи для виконання своїх обов'язків.
Є багато організацій і агентств ООН, які функціонують і здійснюють різноманітну роботу з конкретних питань. Деякі з найвідоміших установ — Міжнародна організація праці, Міжнародне агентство з атомної енергії (МАГАТЕ), Продовольча й сільськогосподарська організація ООН, ЮНЕСКО (Організація Об'єднаних Націй із питань освіти, науки й культури), ЮНІДО (Організація Об'єднаних Націй із промислового розвитку), Світовий банк і Всесвітня організація охорони здоров'я (ВООЗ). Саме через ці установи ООН виконує велику частину своєї гуманітарної роботи. Приклади цих дій — програми масових щеплень (у рамках ВООЗ), програми задля уникнення голоду й недоїдання (у рамках роботи МПП), захист вразливих груп і переміщених осіб (наприклад, шляхом ВСР).
Членство в ООН
Членами ООН можуть бути всі миролюбні держави, які беруть на себе зобов'язання дотримуватися статуту і, на думку ООН, можуть і прагнуть ці зобов'язання виконувати. Нових членів приймає Генеральна Асамблея за рекомендацією Ради Безпеки ООН.
Фінансування ООН
ООН фінансується за рахунок нарахованих і добровільних внесків держав-членів. Регулярно складається дворічний бюджет ООН і його спеціалізованих установ, що фінансуватимуться за рахунок внесків його членів. Генеральна Асамблея ООН затверджує регулярний бюджет і визначає фінансовий внесок для кожного її члена. Ці відрахування значною мірою базуються на відносному потенціалі кожної країни й на основі обсягу їхнього валового національного доходу (ВНД), з поправками на зовнішню заборгованість і показник доходу на душу населення.
Асамблея створила такий принцип, щоб ООН не була надмірно залежною від одного її члена, який береться за фінансування її операцій або дій. Таким чином, існує ставка «стелі», встановлений максимальний розмір фінансового внеску для будь-якого члена, який оцінюється у відсотковому відношенні щодо регулярного бюджету організації. У грудні 2000 року Асамблея переглянула шкалу внесків з урахуванням поточних економічних глобальних умов. У рамках цього перегляду, регулярна бюджетна ставка «стелі» була знижена з 25 % до 22 % і США є єдиним членом, який зобов'язується виплачувати максимальну ставку. На додаток до максимальної ставки, виводиться мінімальна сума, яка нараховується кожній із країн-членів (або «нижня ставка») — встановлена на рівні 0,001 % від загального регулярного бюджету ООН (тобто його фінансовий еквівалент). Крім того, для слаборозвинених країн (НРС), також встановлено максимальну ставку, яка становить 0,01 %, хоча існують випадки значних непроплат серед цих країн (деякі з тривалістю в 10 років).
Розрахунок бюджету ООН — це процес, у який залучені всі члени організації. Бюджет висувається Генеральним секретарем ООН після узгодження з органами організації і на підставі їхніх вимог. Згодом запропонований бюджет аналізує Консультативний комітет з адміністративних і бюджетних питань, що складається з 16 членів, і Комітет програм та координації, що складається з 34 членів. Рекомендації комітетів надходять Адміністративно-бюджетному комітету Генеральної Асамблеї, до якого належать всі держави-члени ООН; вони ще раз ретельно аналізують поданий бюджет. І нарешті, бюджет представляють Генеральній Асамблеї для остаточного розгляду та затвердження. Поточний бюджет у період з 2008 по 2009 рік оцінюється в $ 4,19 млрд. за 2 роки, або трохи більше 2 млрд доларів на рік (див. таблицю для великих платників).
Велика частка витрат Організації Об'єднаних Націй надається для її основної місії — підтримування миру і безпеки. Так миротворчий бюджет на 2005–2006 фінансовий рік становив близько $ 5 млрд (у порівнянні з річним надходженням у бюджет ООН за той же період у 1,5 млрд дол США), здебільшого це платня для 70000 військовослужбовців, які розгорнуті в 17 місіях по всьому світу. Операції ООН задля миру також фінансуються за рахунок додаткових внесків; у таких випадках використовують додаткову формулу за шкалою фінансування, але зокрема враховується доплата від п'яти постійних членів Ради Безпеки, які мають індивідуальне право затверджувати всі миротворчі операції. Станом на 1 січня 2008 року, в десятку найбільших донорів фінансової допомоги та внесків для операцій Організації Об'єднаних Націй із підтримання миру входять США, Японія, Німеччина, Велика Британія, Франція, Італія, Китай, Канада, Іспанія і Республіка Корея.
Частина спеціальних програм ООН (такі, як ЮНІСЕФ, МПП та ПРООН), не входять до регулярного бюджету організації та фінансуються коштом добровільних внесків від урядів інших країн-членів. Більшу його частину становлять таки фінансові внески від країн та спонсорська допомога від комерційних структур, але деякі з організацій отримують допомогу ще й у вигляді сільськогосподарських товарів чи предметних пожертв для постраждалого населення.
Оскільки фінансування цих установ має добровільний характер, більшість їх потерпає від гострої нестачі коштів під час світових економічних спадів. У липні 2009 року Всесвітня продовольча програма повідомила, що була змушена суттєво скоротити свої послуги через недостатнє фінансування. Вони отримали лише чверть від загального обсягу того, що їм необхідно було на поточний 09/10 фінансовий рік.
Пам'ятні дати ООН
Організація Об'єднаних Націй засновує спеціальні міжнародні дні, тижні, роки і десятиліття, присвячені темі або проблематиці, що визнаються всесвітньо важливими. Цим Організація Об'єднаних Націй стимулює інтерес до своєї діяльності та програм у певних сферах, сприяє активізації міжнародній діяльності. Більшість спеціальних заходів і пам'ятних дат було ініційовано Генеральною Асамблеєю ООН, деякі — спеціалізованими установами ООН. Також відзначають ювілеї ключових подій в історії ООН.
Україна та ООН
Україна є однією з країн-засновниць ООН — з 1945 по 1991 рік вона брала участь у праці ООН як УРСР, а з моменту проголошення незалежності — як Україна. Після проголошення незалежності України участь у діяльності Організації Об'єднаних Націй було визначено одним із пріоритетних напрямів зовнішньої політики держави.
Новий етап участі незалежної України в міжнародних організаціях почався з 24 серпня 1991 року. Цього ж року, вперше за 45 років членства в ООН, делегація України брала участь у роботі сесії ГА ООН, керуючись тільки інтересами власної держави.
Сучасними пріоритетними сферами діяльності ООН для України є:
розроблення ефективних підходів до зміцнення міжнародної та регіональної безпеки;
повніше залучення ООН до процесу роззброєння, зокрема ядерного, зниження військового протистояння у різних регіонах світу, здійснення конструктивного діалогу з проблем конверсії, участь у формуванні нових та зміцненні існуючих регіональних структур безпеки, налагодження співробітництва з ними;
використання досвіду ООН для розв'язання соціально-економічних проблем, експертної допомоги в інтересах державного будівництва України, сприяння переходу до ринкової економіки;
використання унікальних можливостей ООН для ведення діалогу з представниками інших держав.
Перебуваючи у вересні 1995 року в Києві, Генеральний секретар ООН Бутрос Бутрос Галі зазначив: «У тому, що стосується Організації Об'єднаних Націй, роль України є унікальною і важливою. Я впевнений, що в найближчому майбутньому ми зміцнимо наші стосунки, особливо у сфері інформації».
Представники України в ООН
Удовиченко Петро Платонович (1958—1961)
Кизя Лука Єгорович (1961—1964)
Шевченко Сергій Тимофійович (1964—1968)
Поляничко Михайло Деонисович (1968—1973)
Мартиненко Володимир Никифорович (1973—1979)
Кравець Володимир Олексійович (1979—1984)
Удовенко Геннадій Йосипович (1985—1991)
Батюк Віктор Гаврилович (1992—1993)
Гудима Борис Миколайович (1993)
Зленко Анатолій Максимович (1994—1997)
Єльченко Володимир Юрійович (1997—2001)
Кучинський Валерій Павлович (2001—2006)
Крижанівський Віктор Володимирович (2006—2007)
Сергєєв Юрій Анатолійович (2007—2015)
Єльченко Володимир Юрійович (2015—2019)
Кислиця Сергій Олегович (18 грудня 2019 і дотепер з лютого 2020 — надзвичайний і повноважний посол, постійний представник України при ООН)
Координатори системи ООН в Україні
Стівен Френсіс Браун (1992—1996),
Педро Пабло Вільянуева (1996—2000);
Даглас Гарднер (2000—2004)
Френсіс О'Доннелл (2004—2009)
Олів'є Адам (2009—2014)
Ніл Вокер (2014—2018)
Оснат Лубрані (2018—2022)
Деніз Браун (з 2022)
Програма партнерства
30 листопада 2017 підписано Рамкову програму партнерства між Урядом України і ООН на 2018—2022 роки. Очікуваний бюджет програми — 675 мільйонів доларів США.. З 2019 року Програму розвитку координує Дафіна Ґерчева.
8 лютого 2021 року Україна увійшла до складу Комітету всесвітньої продовольчої безпеки ООН.
Документи, прийняті ООН
Загальна декларація прав людини (1948)
Декларація прав дитини (1959)
Декларація про принципи міжнародного права (1970)
Декларація про права розумово відсталих осіб (1971)
Декларація ООН про захист жінок і дітей при надзвичайних обставинах та під час збройних конфліктів (1974)
Декларація про усунення насильства проти жінок (1993)
Декларація прав корінних народів (2007)
Примітки
Джерела та література
А. М. Зленко. Організація Об'єднаних Націй //
В. С. Коваль. Декларація двадцяти шести держав 1942 //
«Think Again: The United Nations», Madeleine K. Albright, Foreign Policy, September/October, 2004.
Hans Köchler, Quo Vadis, United Nations?, in: Law Review, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, College of Law, May 2005 Online version.
An Insider's Guide to the UN, Linda Fasulo, Yale University Press (1 November 2003), hardcover, 272 pages, ISBN 0-300-10155-4.
United Nations: The First Fifty Years, Stanley Mesler, Atlantic Monthly Press (1 March 1997), hardcover, 416 pages, ISBN 0-87113-656-2.
United Nations, Divided World: The UN's Roles in International Relations edited by Adam Roberts and Benedict Kingsbury, Oxford University Press; 2nd edition (1 January 1994), hardcover, 589 pages, ISBN 0-19-827926-4.
A Guide to Delegate Preparation: A Model United Nations Handbook, edited by Scott A. Leslie, The United Nations Association of the United States of America, 2004 edition (October 2004), softcover, 296 pages, ISBN 1-880632-71-3.
«U.S. At War — International.» Time Magazine XLV.19 7 May 1945: 25-28.
The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations, edited by Thomas G. Weiss and Sam Daws, Oxford University Press, July 2007, hardcover, 896 pages, ISBN 978-0-19-927951-7, ISBN 0-19-927951-9.
Dore Gold. Tower of Babble: How the United Nations Has Fueled Global Chaos. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2004.
Международные организации системы ООН: Справочник / Сост. Титаренко А. А. — М.: Международные отношения, 1990.
Література
Б. І. Гуменюк. Організація Об'єднаних Націй // Українська дипломатична енциклопедія: У 2-х т./Редкол.:Л. В. Губерський (голова) та ін. — К.:Знання України, 2004 — Т.2 — 812с. ISBN 966-316-045-4
В. Матвієнко. Організація Об'єднаних Націй // Політична енциклопедія. Редкол.: Ю. Левенець (голова), Ю. Шаповал (заст. голови) та ін. — К.: Парламентське видавництво, 2011. — 808 с.517 ISBN 978-966-611-818-2
Посилання
Офіційні вебсайти ООН в Україні:
Сайт представництва ООН в Україні
Контакти агенцій ООН в Україні
Програма розвитку ООН (ПРООН) в Україні
Публікації ООН в Україні
Офіційні глобальні вебсайти ООН:
United Nations official homepage
United Nations Systems of Organizations
About the United Nations
Global Issues on the UN Agenda
High-level Panel on United Nations Systemwide Coherence
Journal of the United Nations: Programme of meetings and agenda.
The United Nations Regional Information Centre (UNRIC)
UN Chronicle Magazine
UN Organisation Chart
UN Works
United Nations Charter — Charter text
United Nations Directory
United Nations Security Council Resolutions
United Nations Volunteers
United Nations Webcasts
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
World Map of UN websites and locations
Інші ресурси:
УКРАЇНА-ООН
Documents and Resources on UN, War, War Crimes and Genocide
Eye on the U.N. — A Project of the Hudson Institute New York and the Touro Law Center Institute for Human Rights
History of the United Nations — UK Government site
Inner City Press — UN related news.
Permanent Missions To The United Nations
Searchable archive of UN discussions and votes
List of UN datasets on CKAN, a registry of open data
Task Force on United Nations — U.S. Institute of Peace
U.N. watch — non-governmental organization based in Geneva whose mandate is to monitor the performance of the United Nations by the yardstick of its own Charter.
United Nations Association of the UK: independent policy authority on the UN
United Nations: Change at the Helm — Change for the Whole Ship? — Independent news reports by the news agency Inter Press Service
United Nations eLearning Unit created by ISRG — University of Innsbruck
United Nations Research Guide from the Mississippi State University Libraries
Website of the Global Policy Forum, an independent think-tank on the UN
Фотоконкурс організований волонтерами ООН «Вдягни Зелене»
Див. також
Штаб-квартира ООН
Західна Сахара
6000 Організація Об'єднаних Націй — астероїд, названий на честь організації.
Модель ООН
Регіональний центр підтримки (РЦП) програми UN-SPIDER
Система ООН в Україні
Міжнародні міжурядові організації
Міжурядові організації, створені за договором
Організації Нью-Йорка
Надпопулярні статті
Засновані в США 1945
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Hartford%2C%20New%20York
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New Hartford, New York
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New Hartford, New York
New Hartford is a town in Oneida County, New York, United States. As of the 2020 census, the town population was 21,874. The name of New Hartford was provided by a settler family from Hartford, Connecticut.
The Town of New Hartford contains a village named New Hartford. New Hartford is the largest suburb of Utica, which is located directly north of the town and village.
History
New Hartford was settled in March 1788 when Jedediah Sanger, who was bankrupted in 1784 by a fire at his farm in Jaffrey, New Hampshire and afterwards moved to the area.
Sanger Land Purchase
Common history
According to the earliest recorded history (Annals and Recollections of Oneida County, Jones, 1851), Sanger bought , the land was sold at a price of fifty cents an acre. This land, thought to be separated into two equal parts by the Sauquoit Creek, was part of the Town of Whitestown at the time. Within a year, Sanger sold the area east of the creek to Joseph Higbee, the areas' second resident, for one dollar per acre. A subsequent survey found this area was .
Possible inaccuracy
This narrative of a 1000-acre purchase by Sanger for $500 and the ensuing resale to Higbee of half the land for $500 (a 100% profit) is repeated in The History of Oneida County, New York by Samuel W. Durant, 1878 which used the Jones' Annals of 1851 as a primary reference. The story was expressed in an address at the 1888 New Hartford Centennial by Henry Hurlburt, again citing Jones' Annals as his source. It is again repeated in Our County and Its People: A Descriptive Work on Oneida County, New York, Wager, 1896.
However, a footnote in Transactions of the Oneida Historical Society at Utica, New Hartford Centennial, 1889, which documented the 1888 centennial, questions the validity of the story through research of property deed records. The footnote cites one deed for the sale of four 492 acre lots from John G. Leake to Sanger in November 1790 for approximately $1.16 per acre (US dollars were not the currency in use at the time), and another deed shows the sale of one of the four lots to Higbee in December 1791 for approximately $1.06 per acre. Also listed is a deed conveying to Sanger from George Washington and George Clinton for $1.27 per acre in 1790. From the recorded deeds, the land Sanger sold to Hibgee was sold for slightly less than the price originally paid by Sanger.
In spite of the research done in 1889, the original story is popularly told. This version can be found at the Town of New Hartford website and is attributed to the New Hartford Historical Society:
"Sanger traveled to Philadelphia and purchased of land at $.50 per acre on credit from George Washington and George Clinton. The following year he shrewdly sold a little over half the land on the east side of the Sauquoit Creek to Joseph Higbee (Higby) at $1.00 per acre."
Other land
Present-day New Hartford covers over in area, considerably more than that contained in Sanger's original purchases. Sanger's purchase had been part of the Coxe Patent, land purchased directly from the colonial government of New York.
Other portions of New Hartford is made up of land from the following Patents:
Cosby's Manor, deeded on January 2, 1734, to Joseph Worrell and 10 others.
Sadaqueda (Sauquoit) Patent, deeded on June 25, 1736, to Fredrick Morris, Lendert Gasenvoort and others.
Coxe Patent, deeded on May 30, 1770, to William Coxe, Daniel Coxe, Rebecca Coxe, John Tabor Kempe and his wife Grace (Coxe). Daniel, William, and Rebecca were the children of Daniel Coxe, Jr. and grandchildren of Daniel Coxe. Kempe was Attorney General of New York at the time and remained loyal to England during the Revolution. As a loyalist, his property was confiscated after the war and the Coxe patent was divided with General George Washington, General DeWitt Clinton, and Colonel Marinus Willett owning large parts of the patent.
Bayard Patent, deeded on June 12, 1771, to William Bayard, Alexander Ellis, and fifty-three others
Early settlers
In 1789, Sanger relocated his family to the settlement and erected a sawmill. A gristmill was added in 1790. Both mills utilized the water of the Sauquoit for power.
Another early settler was General Oliver Collins (1762–1838), Connecticut native, Revolutionary War veteran and father of future Congressman Ela Collins. Collins settled a farm in the area then known as Middle Settlement in 1789 and resided there until his death. Shortly after arriving, he was commissioned Captain in the local militia and rose to the rank of Brigadier-general at the time of the War of 1812. Eli Butler arrived from Middletown, Connecticut, also in 1789.
John French (1766–1839) arrived from New Hampshire in 1792 and settled another farm, as did Colonel Nathan Seward (1758–1815) of Connecticut, also a Revolutionary War veteran.
Other settlers included Nathan Seward, Ashbel Beach, Amos Ives, Solomon Blodget, Salmon Butler, Joel Blair, Agift Hill, Stephen Bushnell, Joseph Jennings.
Captain David Risley, Revolutionary War veteran and brother Allen Risley, and Truman and Webster Kellogg settled in the area that is now the hamlet of Washington Mills.
There were two families named Olmstead, and a Seymour, Hurlburt, Kilborn, and Montague. More settlers from Connecticut were Henry Blackstone, Zenas Gibbs, Ashbel Tylor, and Nehemiah Ensworth (from Canterbury), all arriving in 1791. The first child born to the settlers was Uriel H. Kellogg.
Civic formation
Thirty-nine years after Sanger arrived, the Town of New Hartford was created on April 12, 1827, formed from the Town of Whitestown. Whitestown originally contained all of New York state west of Herkimer, and was subsequently split into many counties and towns with New Hartford being the last. The legislative act was entitled "An Act to Divide the Town of Whitestown, in the County of Oneida." The early settlers had adopted the name New Hartford for the settlement, and the name was retained for the town.
The first town meeting was held on April 24, 1827, and the following positions were filled: Town supervisor, Town Clerk, Assessors (3), Commissioner of Highways (3), Overseers of the Poor (2), Collector, Commissioners of Common Schools (3), Inspectors of Schools (3).
Seven years later, the town was enlarged, with a piece of the Town of Kirkland by legislative act on April 26, 1834.
The legislature passed an act on November 22, 1855, transferring a small part of New Hartford, Westmoreland, and Whitestown to Kirkland, enabling the hamlet of Clark Mills to be contained entirely within Kirkland instead of being partly within four different towns.
Village of New Hartford
Many manufacturing ventures started in New Hartford after its settlement and throughout the 19th century.
The Village of New Hartford was incorporated in 1870, from approximately of the town by a vote of 32 to 9. On December 21, 1871, the area of the village east of the Sauquoit Creek was reverted to the town.
Early manufacturing and commerce
Carpets: Ingrain carpets were made on the first ingrain loom in the state by an Englishman named Butterfield. Ingrain carpets are a reversible, flat weave carpet popular from the 18th century to the early 20th century. This form of carpeting has no pile and the pattern is shown in opposing colors on both faces, making it possible to turn the carpet over when one side was worn or soiled.
Nails: The first cut nails made in the state were produced by Jonathan Richardson, who purchased wine and liquor casks and made cut nails from the iron hoops of the casks.
Tanneries were established by Thomas and Ezekiel Williams, and another by Stephen Childs.
Paper and Textiles: Factories were established for the production of paper, batting, cotton cloth, and knitted fabric.
The earliest manufacturing operations were concentrated along the Sauquoit Creek and utilized water as the primary power source. The power of the creek was the reason that New Hartford had such extensive manufacturing operations for a town of its size. Business in New Hartford exceeded that of Utica due to the water power of the creek. Most factories later transitioned to steam power.
Another boon to the economy of New Hartford was the Seneca Turnpike, a toll road connecting Utica to the western part of the state. The Seneca Road Company was formed in 1800 to improve the main road running west from Utica, NY and operate it as a toll road or turnpike. The original road ran north of New Hartford, but Jedediah Sanger purchased stock in the company and through his influence, the turnpike was routed through New Hartford. The turnpike traffic made New Hartford prosper, outstripping other towns in the area and rivaling neighboring Utica until the Erie Canal was constructed through Utica, removing most cross-state traffic from New Hartford. Utica then grew into a large city and New Hartford continues to this day to be a suburb.
Education
New Hartford is served by the New Hartford Central School District. In 2016, the border between the Utica City School District and New Hartford Central School District was identified by the non-profit EdBuild as the 12th most segregating school district borders in the United States.
Elementary schools
Bradley Elementary School
E.R. Hughes Elementary School
Robert E. Myles Elementary School
Middle schools
Ralph W. Perry Junior High School
High schools
New Hartford Senior High School
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which is land and (0.46%) is water.
The eastern town line is formed by the boundaries of the towns of Litchfield and Frankfort in Herkimer County.
Historic Places
The following is listed on the National Register of Historic Places:
St. Stephen's Church
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 21,172 people, 8,601 households, and 5,625 families residing in the town. The population density was 834.1 people per square mile (322.1/km2. There were 9,084 housing units at an average density of 357.9 per square mile 138.2/km2. The racial makeup of the town was 96.03% White, 0.80% Black or African American, 0.10% Native American, 2.34% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.21% from other races, and 0.51% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.73% of the population.
There were 8,601 households, out of which 27.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.6% were married couples living together, 8.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.6% were non-families. 30.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 and the average family size was 2.94.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 21.7% under the age of 18, 5.3% from 18 to 24, 23.6% from 25 to 44, 25.7% from 45 to 64, and 23.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 45 years. For every 100 females, there were 85.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80.1 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $45,991, and the median income for a family was $60,843. Males had a median income of $40,046 versus $28,532 for females. The per capita income for the town was $26,528. About 3.4% of families and 5.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.4% of those under age 18 and 6.5% of those age 65 or over.
42% of New Hartford residents ages 25 and older have a bachelor's or advanced college degree.
Communities and locations in New Hartford
Chadwicks – A hamlet near the southern town line.
New Hartford – A village in the eastern part of the town.
Washington Mills – A hamlet south of New Hartford village on NY 8.
New York Mills – A village north of New Hartford village approximately one-third within the town and the remainder within the town of Whitestown.
Notable people
Waleed Abdalati, raised in New Hartford, Class of 1982, served as NASA Chief Scientist and is Currently Director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES) at the University of Colorado in Boulder.
Derek Bard, professional golfer, currently on the PGA Tour Latinoamérica.
Joe Bonamassa, (born May 8, 1977) is an American blues rock guitarist and singer.
Joel de la Fuente, actor.
Chuck Garvey and Al Schnier are guitarists in the jam band moe.
Grace Lin, children’s book author.
Frederick S. Martin, former US Congressman.
Roswell B. Mason, Mayor of Chicago during the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.
William John Murphy, born in 1839. Murphy is the founder of the city of Glendale, Arizona.
Henry Palmer, born in 1827. Palmer was a surgeon in the Union Army during the Civil War.
James Wilson Seaton, Wisconsin lawyer and legislator.
Claudia Tenney, lawyer, publisher, commentator and politician.
Maria Van Kerkhove, an infectious disease epidemiologist who is the technical lead of the COVID-19 response and the head of the emerging diseases and zoonosis unit at the World Health Organization (WHO).
Andy Van Slyke, born December 21, 1960, in Utica) raised in New Hartford, is a retired Major League Baseball outfielder and former first base coach for the Detroit Tigers. He is currently the first base coach for the Seattle Mariners.
William Williams Printer and publisher, elder of Presbyterian Church
Mike Zalewski, professional hockey player in the NHL.
Steven Zalewski, professional hockey player in the NHL.
References
External links
Town of New Hartford, NY
New Hartford CSD - District Home
Utica–Rome metropolitan area
1827 establishments in New York (state)
Populated places established in 1827
Towns in Oneida County, New York
Towns in New York (state)
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13163104
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex%20Pietrangelo
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Alex Pietrangelo
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Alex Pietrangelo
Alexander Pietrangelo (born January 18, 1990) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman and alternate captain for the Vegas Golden Knights of the National Hockey League (NHL). He previously played for the St. Louis Blues for parts of twelve seasons, captaining the Blues for his final four seasons with the franchise. Nicknamed "Petro", as a junior, he played with the Niagara IceDogs and Barrie Colts of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL). Pietrangelo is a two-time Stanley Cup champion, winning with the St. Louis Blues in 2019 and the Vegas Golden Knights in 2023.
Pietrangelo has competed with Team Canada at the junior and senior level, winning a gold medal win with Canada's under-20 team at the 2009 World Junior Championships. Individually, he was named Best Defenceman at the 2010 World Junior Championship and 2011 Men's World Championship. Pietrangelo was named to the 2014 Canadian Olympic hockey team and won a gold medal at the 2014 Winter Olympics.
Playing career
Minor
Pietrangelo played minor hockey in the Greater Toronto Area when he was growing up. He started to play hockey for the NobleKing Knights, Rep A team and then with the Richmond Hill Stars of the OMHA before playing three years with the Vaughan Kings of the Greater Toronto Hockey League (GTHL). As a novice aged player (nine and under), Pietrangelo and his Toronto Pro Hockey Development teammates participated in the 2000 Brick Super Novice Tournament in Edmonton, Alberta. His teammates included Steven Stamkos, John Tavares, Philip McRae and Michael Del Zotto. Toronto, however, was defeated in the tournament final by the Vancouver Pacific Vipers, on a goal by Jordan Eberle. Pietrangelo was also a member of the All-Ontario Peewee AAA Champion Vaughan Kings team in 2003. He played three years in the Toronto Jr. Canadiens AAA system. The Jr. Canadiens won Ontario's bantam championship in 2005, with Pietrangelo scoring the game-winning goal in the final against the Markham Waxers.
Junior
After his successful minor hockey career, Pietrangelo was drafted third overall by the Ontario Hockey League (OHL)'s Mississauga IceDogs in the first round of the 2006 OHL Priority Selection. He scored at a near point-per-game pace in his rookie season with the IceDogs with 52 points in 59 games, then moved with the team to Niagara as the franchise relocated in 2007.
In September 2007, he was named Canadian Hockey League Player of the Week after recording three goals and four assists in two games. In December 2007, TSN ranked Pietrangelo third overall among eligible skaters for the 2008 NHL Entry Draft. International Scouting Services described Pietrangelo as a "tremendous specimen in terms of size and skills" and ranked him fifth among North American draft prospects at mid-season, then sixth in their final rankings leading up to the Draft. Pietrangelo finishing his second OHL season with 53 points in 60 games.
After the Blues lent him to the Canadian under-20 team for the 2010 World Junior Championships, Pietrangelo was returned to the OHL. During the World Juniors, his OHL rights were traded from the IceDogs to the Barrie Colts. Playing half a season with Barrie, he recorded 29 points in 25 games, while adding 14 points in 17 playoff games. Due to his long playoff run with the Colts, he did not have the opportunity to play in the AHL as he did the previous season.
Professional
St. Louis Blues
Pietrangelo was selected fourth overall by the St. Louis Blues at the Entry Draft on June 20, 2008. Coming into training camp, the Blues signed him to an entry-level contract on September 4, 2008. Pietrangelo earned his way onto the team for opening night and played his first NHL game against the Nashville Predators on October 10, 2008. Three days later, however, he suffered a head injury on October 13 in a game against the Toronto Maple Leafs, when Ryan Hollweg checked him from behind into the boards. Pietrangelo returned shortly, and after playing eight games total for the Blues, he was sent back to his junior team, the Niagara Icedogs. On April 10, 2009, he was assigned to the Blues' top minor league affiliate, the Peoria Rivermen of the American Hockey League (AHL), after his junior season had ended.
Pietrangelo began the 2009–10 season on the Blues' roster for a second consecutive year, but played in only nine games by December 2009. In 2010–11, Pietrangelo played his first full season with the Blues, leading all team defencemen with 43 points (11 goals and 32 assists) over 79 games. He also led team defencemen in plus-minus (+18) and shots (161), while ranking third in average ice time per game. Due to his previous eight- and nine-game seasons in the NHL, he did not qualify as a rookie. Comparatively, the league's leading scorer among rookie defencemen that season was teammate Kevin Shattenkirk, who was born a year earlier than Pietrangelo; he also recorded 43 points. At the end of the 2011–12 season, Pietrangelo was named to the NHL Second All-Star Team. On September 13, 2013, Pietrangelo agreed to a seven-year, $45 million contract with the Blues. Pietrangelo was again named to the NHL Second All-Star Team during the 2013–14 season.
On August 24, 2016, Pietrangelo was named captain of the Blues. In his second year as captain, he was injured in a game against the Detroit Red Wings on December 9 and was placed on injured reserve until December 19. Despite his setback from injury, Pietrangelo was selected for his first NHL All-Star Game where he won the All-Star passing challenge. Pietrangelo also set a new career-high in points and goals at the conclusion of the regular season. On June 12, 2019, Pietrangelo and the Blues defeated the Boston Bruins to win their first Stanley Cup in franchise history. Pietrangelo scored the cup-winning goal in Game 7 after being set up by Jaden Schwartz. During the 2019 playoffs, Pietrangelo tied with Bruins defenceman Torey Krug for leading the league in assists and lead the league in scoring amongst defenceman.
On December 29, 2019, Pietrangelo got his 326th assist, topping Al MacInnis as the most by a Blues defenseman. Pietrangelo was selected to play in his second All-Star Game, along with Blues teammates Ryan O'Reilly, David Perron and Jordan Binnington.
Vegas Golden Knights
In the final year of his contract with free agency impending, Pietrangelo and the Blues were unable to come to terms on a contract extension, and the two parties ultimately broke off negotiations, making Pietrangelo a free agent for the first time in his career; the main point of contention was that Pietrangelo was looking for a full no movement clause (which was personally important for Pietrangelo as he has four children all under the age of 3 years old and wanted guaranteed stability of not having to move teams via trade or waivers), which Blues general manager Doug Armstrong refused to give (Armstrong has a consistent history of never handing out full no move clauses to any of his players). On October 12, 2020, Pietrangelo signed a seven-year, $61.6 million contract with the Vegas Golden Knights that included a full no move clause for the entirety of the contract.
In 2022, Pietrangelo was named to his third All-Star Game. With help from actor Jon Hamm, Pietrangelo won the Breakaway Challenge portion of the All-Star Skills Competition despite missing both of his shots.
Pietrangelo took time away from the team midway through the 2022–23 season after his daughter was suffering from a brain lesion, and briefly contemplated retirement. However, as her condition improved, he was able to return to play, having missed nine games. Pietrangelo attracted controversy at multiple points during the team's deep run in the 2023 Stanley Cup playoffs, the first coming after he was suspended for one game during the Golden Knights' second round series against the Edmonton Oilers after slashing the arm of Oilers forward Leon Draisaitl. He would in turn accuse the Oilers players of "premeditated" hits on him that were ignored by the officials. Vegas would ultimately reach the 2023 Stanley Cup Finals against the Florida Panthers. Pietrangelo exited the penalty box following the end of Game 4 and became enmeshed in an ongoing brawl, which attracted some speculation as to whether the rules required him to be suspended for ten games. However, ultimately none was applied. The Golden Knights ultimately defeated the Panthers in five games, and Pietrangelo hoisted the Stanley Cup for the second time in his career.
International play
Pietrangelo was picked to play for Team Canada's under-18 team at the 2007 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament, where he served as an alternate captain. The team finished fourth. He played next for the Canadian National Junior Team at the 2009 World Junior Championships and won a gold medal.
The following year, Pietrangelo was loaned by his NHL team, the St. Louis Blues, to play for Team Canada in his second World Junior Championships in 2010. He was selected as an alternate captain to Patrice Cormier. In the final game of the round-robin, Pietrangelo scored a shorthanded game-tying goal against the United States to send the game to overtime. Canada eventually won in a shootout and earned a bye into the semi-final. Advancing to the gold medal game, Canada met the United States in a rematch, but lost 6–5 in overtime. Pietrangelo picked up several individual honours at the conclusion of the tournament. He was named a Tournament All-Star by the media, the Best Defenceman by the directorate and was selected by the coaching staff as one of Canada's top three players.
As the St. Louis Blues failed to make the playoffs in Pietrangelo's first full season in the NHL, he was selected to Canada's men's team for the 2011 IIHF World Championship in Slovakia. With two goals and three assists for five points over seven games, he led Canada in defensive scoring, while tying for second overall among all tournament defencemen. Canada advanced to the quarterfinal as the top-ranked team in their pool, but lost 2–1 to Russia. At the end of the tournament, Pietrangelo was chosen as the Best Defenceman by the directorate. Pietrangelo was part of Canada's gold medal-winning 2014 Winter Olympic team. He played in all six of Canada's games, contributing one assist.
On October 3, 2021, Pietrangelo was one of the first three players named to the men's hockey roster for Canada's team for the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing, alongside Sidney Crosby and Connor McDavid. However, due to the NHL's subsequent decision not to attend the Beijing Games as a result of the Omicron variant's impacts on scheduling, Pietrangelo was unable to compete.
Personal life
Pietrangelo was born to parents Joe and Edy, and raised along with his older brother David in King City. His father is the cousin of former NHL goaltender Frank Pietrangelo.
Pietrangelo married St. Louis native Jayne in July 2016. In 2017, he and his wife experienced pregnancy loss. They had triplets in July 2018. The couple had their fourth child in September 2020. In September 2022, one of their children developed encephalitis; the ordeal caused Pietrangelo to miss nine games in the 2022–23 season and briefly contemplate retirement, though she made a recovery by the end of the year.
As a child, Pietrangelo's friend died of cancer. As an adult, his niece was diagnosed with Wilms' tumor, but survived. This led him to partner with Friends of Kids with Cancer to raise funds and awareness for youth living with cancer.
Career statistics
Regular season and playoffs
Bold indicates led league
International
Awards and achievements
References
External links
1990 births
Living people
Barrie Colts players
Canadian ice hockey centres
Canadian sportspeople of Italian descent
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Ice hockey players at the 2014 Winter Olympics
Medalists at the 2014 Winter Olympics
National Hockey League All-Stars
NHL first-round draft picks
Olympic gold medalists for Canada
Olympic ice hockey players for Canada
Olympic medalists in ice hockey
Mississauga IceDogs players
Niagara IceDogs players
Peoria Rivermen (AHL) players
Sportspeople from King, Ontario
St. Louis Blues draft picks
St. Louis Blues players
Canadian expatriate ice hockey players in the United States
Stanley Cup champions
Vegas Golden Knights players
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1907445
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B4%20I%20%28%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%86%D0%BE%D0%B3%20%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%97%29
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Леопольд I (герцог Лотарингії)
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Леопольд I (герцог Лотарингії)
Леопольд I Добрий (11 вересня 1679 — 27 березня 1729) — герцог Лотарингії та Бару у 1690—1729 роках, герцог Цешину у 1722—1729 роках, син герцога Лотарингії Карла V та принцеси з дому Габсбургів Елеонори Марії Австрійської, батько імператора Священної Римської імперії Франца I. Кавалер ордену Золотого руна.
Життєпис
Леопольд народився 11 вересня 1679 у палаці Іннсбрука в Тиролі. Хлопчик став первістком в родині герцога Карла V Лотаринзького та його дружини Елеонори Марії Австрійської. Новонароджений отримав ім'я Леопольд Йозеф Карл Домінік Агапет Гіацинт. Перше ім'я було дане на честь Леопольда I, що став його хрещеним батьком.
Землі батька, Бар та Лотарингія, були захоплені Францією, і він був герцогом лише номінально. Карл V знайшов прихисток при австрійському дворі і став на службу імператору. Одружившись із його сестрою, він отримав посаду губернатора Тиролю. Тож дитинство Леопольда пройшло в Іннсбруку. Згодом в сім'ї з'явилося ще четверо синів та донька, що померла відразу після народження. Батько часто брав участь у походах проти турків. Сини виховувалися матір'ю, жінкою видатного розуму та суворого характеру.
Карл V раптово помер дорогою до Відня у 1690. 10-річний Леопольд успадкував титул герцога Лотарингії. Матір, всіляко намагаючись виконати волю чоловіка, робила все, щоб їхнім дітям були повернені законні вотчини. Так, вона зверталася до рейхстагу у Регенсбурзі. Леопольд в цей час здобував військову освіту у Відні під наглядом імператора. Він зростав разом з його синами Йозефом та Карлом.
У віці 18 років герцог став до лав армії. Під час війни за Пфальцську спадщину, у 1697, він командував Рейнською армією.
Війна завершилася підписанням восени 1697 Рейсвейкського мирного договору. Його положеннями передбачалось повернення територій Лотарингії та Бару дому де Водемон. Леопольд урочисто в'їхав у Нансі 17 серпня 1698 року. У жовтні він одружився із французькою принцесою для закріплення мирних відносин із Францією. Посагом нареченої стали 900 000 ліврів, що було істотним внеском до порожньої скарбниці герцогства. Й надалі у зовнішній політиці Леопольд намагався підтримувати добрі стосунки із сусідньою державою, а також зробив Лотарингію нейтральною країною.
Не зважаючи на ці дипломатичні маневри, під час війни за іспанську спадщину в 1702 році столиця Лотарингії була окупована. Герцог переніс двір до Люневілю, оселившись в тамтешньому замку. Палац було відновлено та реконструйовано за моделлю Версаля за проектом Жермена Бофрана.
Ідея щодо створення нового замку в Нансі не була реалізована. Замість нього був реконструйований замок Ла Мальґранж, неподалік столиці, що став улюбленою резиденцією родини. Сприяв герцог і благоустрою Нансі. Були збудовані новий собор, театр опери, зміцнені укріплення. Леопольд також заснував академію скульптури та живопису.
Для підвищення престижу, Леопольд прийняв титул короля Єрусалиму, як нащадок Готфріда Буйонського. Як кузен імператора, він отримав право на предикат Його королівська високість та збільшив кількість своїх послів при іноземних дворах, в тому числі, і в Версалі.
Випущений у 1703 «Код Леопольда» («le Code Léopold») регламентував відношення уряду з духовенством в односторонньому порядку. Таке рішення було несхвально прийнято Римом. Відносини герцога з Папою Римським стали натягнутими.
1708 року, після смерті Карла Фердинанда Ґонзаґа, який доводився йому троюрідним братом, Леопольд претендував на Мотферратське герцогство. Однак, за Утрехтським миром 1714, воно було присуджене Савої.В 1722 році, як компенсацію, він отримав території Цешину.
У 1710 герцог із дружиною відвідали Париж з приводу вінчання Марії Луїзи Єлизавети Орлеанської із герцогом Шарлем Берррійським та були присутніми на бенкеті у Люксембурзькому палаці.
У 1719 Леопольд викупив графство Ліньї-ан-Барруа у свого родича Шарля Анрі де Коммерсі.
Щодо внутрішньої політики, то герцог відбудував країну, постраждалу після окупації та війн. Також всіма засобами сприяв зростанню чисельності населення, у тому числі, заохочував еміграцію. Сприяв розвитку торгівлі та коммерції і шляхом створення мануфактур. Намагався відмінити кріпосне право, але викупні платежі були занадто високими для селянства навіть тоді, коли були зменшені вдвічі. Тому, у переддень Нового 1719 року, герцог звільнив своїх кріпаків без викупу, сподіваючись, що дворянство наслідує його шляхетний приклад.
Леопольд оточив себе гідними талановитими людьми, які у державних справах виявляли старанність, розуміння та добру волю. Правосуддя під час його правління здійснювалося зразково. Він постійно консультувався з найкращими паризькими адвокатами у вирішенні складних правових питань.
Для впровадження централізації влади був реформований уряд, призначені чотири державні секретарі та п'ятдесят вісім прево, створено новий адміністративний поділ країни. Була реформована податкова система для підвищення продуктивності. Були відбудовані старі та прокладені нові дороги.
Наприкінці царювання Леопольда Лотарингія переживала часи благоденстваː була мирною, безпечною та процвітаючою. Правитель був дуже популярним серед населення.
Відносини з Францією після 1725 року ускладнилися, оскільки юний король Людовик XV узяв за дружину Марію Лещинську, а не доньку Леопольда Анну Шарлотту, як сподівались. Почали знову укріплюватися зв'язки з австрійським двором. Спадкоємний принц Франсуа Етьєнн вже проживав у Відні, здобуваючи академічну та військову підготовку.
У березні 1729 року герцог підхопив якусь гарячку під час прогулянки околицями Люневіля, і за кілька днів помер у Люневільському замку, оплакуваний своїми підданими, на 50-му році життя. Поховали його у герцогському склепі церкви Сен-Франсуа-де-Кордельєр у Нансі.
По собі Леопольд залишив пам'ять як про мирного та щедрого монарха, що сприяв процвітанню свого народу. Його син Франсуа Етьєнн став засновником династії Габсбургів-Лотарингів на престолі Священної Римської імперії.
Шлюб та нащадки
У віці 19 років Леопольд одружився із 22-річною французькою принцесою Єлизаветою Шарлоттою Орлеанською, небогою короля Людовіка XIV. Весілля за домовленістю відбулося 13 жовтня 1698 у Фонтенбло. Церемонія вінчання пройшла 25 жовтня у Бар-ле-Дюк. Шлюб був укладений з політичних мотивів, однак, виявився щасливим та гармонійним. Молодята покохали один одного. Із народженням дітей у Єлизавети Шарлотти проявилися великий материнський інстинкт та турботливий характер. За цей час у подружжя народилося дев'ятеро дітейː
Леопольд (1699—1700) — помер немовлям;
Єлизавета Шарлотта (1700—1711) — пішла з життя під час епідемії віспи у віці 10 років;
Луїза Крістіна (13—18 листопада 1701) — померла через п'ять днів після народження;
Марія Габріела (1702—1711) — пішла з життя під час епідемії віспи у віці 9 років;
Луї (1704—1711) — пішов з життя під час епідемії віспи у віці 7 років;
Жозефіна Габріела (1705—1708) — померла у віці 3 років;
Габріела Луїза (1706—1710) — померла у віці 4 років;
Леопольд Клемент (1707—1723) — спадкоємний принц Лотарингії у 1711—1723 роках, був заручений з Марією-Терезією Австрійською, дітей не мав.
У 1706 році герцог захопився 20-річною Анною Маргаритою де Лінвілль, дружиною свого друга дитинства Марка де Бово, і значно збагатив її сім'ю. Єлизавета Шарлотта, за порадою матері, продовжила жити із чоловіком в палаці. Після закінчення роману вони примирилися і в них народилося ще п'ятеро дітейː
Франсуа Етьєнн (1708—1765) — герцог Лотарингії у 1729—1737, герцог Цешину у 1729—1765, великий герцог Тоскани у 1737—1765, імператор Священної Римської імперії у 1737—1765 роках, був одружений з імператрицею Марією-Терезією, мав численних нащадків;
Елеонора (4 червня—28 липня 1710) — померла невдовзі після народження;
Єлизавета Тереза (1711—1741) — дружина герцога Савої та короля Сардинії Карла Еммануїла III, мала трьох дітей;
Шарль Александр (1712—1780) — штатгальтер Іспанських Нідерландів у 1744—1780 роках, був одруженим з ерцгерцогинею Марією Анною Австрійською, мав позашлюбних нащадків;
Анна Шарлотта (1714—1773) — незаміжня, дітей не мала.
Епідемія натуральної віспи, на яку Леопольд раніше щасливо перехворів, 1711 року забрала життя спадкоємного принца Луї та двох доньок. Дорослого віку досягли п'ятеро дітей. Нащадки їхнього сина Франсуа Етьєнна живі й донині.
Єлизавета Шарлотта пережила чоловіка на 15 років. Кінець життя вона провела у замку Аруе в Коммерсі, дочекавшись дев'ятьох онуків. Похована, як і Леопольд, в церкві Сен-Франсуа-де-Кордельєр в Нансі.
Нагороди
Орден Золотого руна № 561 (1690)
Генеалогія
Примітки
Література
Henry Bogdan, La Lorraine des ducs, sept siècles d'histoire, Perrin, 2005. ISBN 2-262-02113-9
Georges Poull, La maison ducale de Lorraine, Nancy, Presses Universitaires de Nancy, 1991, 575 p. ISBN 2-86480-517-0
Посилання
Профіль на Geneall.net
Профіль на Thepeerage.com
Генеалогія Леопольда Лотаринзького
Уродженці Інсбрука
Водемонський дім
герцоги Лотарингії
Тешинські герцоги
Особи, які перенесли натуральну віспу
Померли від гарячки
Французи Австрії
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4094584
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%20%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD
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Анжела Кейн
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Анжела Кейн (нар. 1948, Гамельн, Нижня Саксонія, Німеччина) — німецька дипломатка, раніше була Верховною представницею ООН з питань роззброєння та заступницею Генерального секретаря з питань управління в ООН.
Освіта та кар'єра
Кейн отримала ступінь в коледжі Бріна Мора та Школі передових міжнародних досліджень Джона Хопкінса. Їй було присвоєно почесний ступінь докторки Інституту міжнародних досліджень Міддлбері в Монтереї, Каліфорнія.
Перш ніж вступити до секретаріату ООН, Кейн працювала у Світовому банку у Вашингтоні, округ Колумбія, та в приватному секторі Європи.
Кар'єра в ООН
З 1995 по 1999 рік Кейн займала керівну посаду в Департаменті громадської інформації, де вона відповідала за публікації ООН. У цій якості вона запустила вебсайт ООН усіма офіційними мовами ООН та керувала створенням електронної системи документації через вебсайт ООН.
Вона також обіймала низку інших посад в Організації Об'єднаних Націй, включаючи головну директорку з політичних питань в офісі колишнього генерального секретаря Бутроса Бутрос Галі та політичної радниці особистого представника Генерального секретаря з питань Центральноамериканського миру Процес припинення конфлікту в Сальвадорі. Крім того, вона працювала в декількох місіях ООН, у тому числі на посаді заступниці спеціального представника Генерального секретаря Місії ООН в Ефіопії та Еритреї (МООНЕЕ), а також у Джакарті та Бангкоку. Вона також працювала помічницею Генерального секретаря з питань Генеральної Асамблеї та управління конференціями, де зосереджувалась на реалізації ініціатив щодо реформ, інтегрованому глобальному управлінні, використанні інструментів інформаційних технологій та зміні позиції Департаменту як ініціативного та ефективного постачальника послуг.
Роззброєння та пізніші ролі
Вона була призначена новою Верховною представницею ООН з питань роззброєння 8 березня 2012 року, замінивши Серхіо де Кейроза Дуарте. Вона відповідала за переговори та проведення розслідування щодо хімічної зброї в Сирії в 2013 році, що призвело до приєднання Сирії до Конвенції про хімічну зброю та демонтажу заявлених запасів хімічної зброї. У період з травня 2008 по 2012 рік вона була заступницею Генерального секретаря з питань управління, відповідала за річний бюджет на 11 мільярдів доларів США, плюс 2 мільярди доларів на реконструкцію університетського містечка в Нью-Йорку, і керувала управлінням понад 50 000 співробітників по всьому світу.
Двічі працювала у Департаменті з політичних питань на посаді помічниці Генерального секретаря а раніше — директора, зосереджуючись на попередженні та вирішенні конфліктів. В якості останньої вона відповідала за підрозділи, що займаються країнами Америки, Азії та Тихого океану, Європою та Близьким Сходом, а також деколонізацією та відділом прав Палестини. Вона підтримала кілька спеціальних політичних місій в Іраку, Непалі та на Близькому Сході та створила Міжнародну комісію проти безкарності в Гватемалі, що було безпрецедентно серед зусиль ООН та інших міжнародних зусиль щодо сприяння підзвітності та зміцненню верховенства права.
Пізніше життя
Починаючи з 2016 року, Кейн викладає в Паризькій школі міжнародних відносин Інститут політичних досліджень (Париж) з питань роззброєння. Вона також є старшою науковою співробітницею Віденського центру з роззброєння та нерозповсюдження зброї, вона є віце-президентом Міжнародного інституту миру у Відні. У 2015 році вона отримала орден «За заслуги» перед Федеративною Республікою Німеччина (Grosses Verdienstkreuz). У 2016 році вона також отримала прикрасу в золоті «Зірка» від Міністерства закордонних справ Австрії. Також у 2016 році Кейн отримала медаль Дага Хаммаршельда від тодішнього міністра закордонних справ Штайнмаєра.
У 2019 році вона була призначена Головою Ради УООН.
Крім того, Кейн займає різні посади, включаючи такі:
Співголова Регіональної ради майбутнього на Корейському півострові, Світовий економічний форум (ВЕФ)
Членка Європейської лідерської мережі
Членка групи видатних осіб (GEM), Підготовча комісія до Договору про всебічну заборону ядерних випробувань (CTBTO)
директор Дорадчої ради, Дорадча група з питань діалогу
Віце-президент Міжнародного інституту миру (IIP)
Членка дорадчої ради, звіт Ради Безпеки
Членка Міжнародної ради Боннського міжнародного центру конверсії (BICC)
Членка Стратегічного комітету Паризької школи міжнародних відносин (PSIA)
Консультантка, Асоціація зовнішньої політики
Особисте життя
Анжела Кейн була одружена з голландським дипломатом Германом Кніппенбергом, який був прикріплений до посольства Нідерландів у Бангкоку в середині сімдесятих років, коли французький серійний вбивця Чарльз Собрадж скоював свої вбивства (1975-76) у Таїланді та Непалі. Подружжя першими розслідували злочини Собраджа, врешті-решт накопичивши значну кількість знань, переданих Інтерполу, які відіграли вирішальну роль у подальшому арешті та засудженні Собраджа та його партнерки Марі-Андрі Леклерк .
Кейн заявила, що справа Собрадж вплинула на її шлюб, що, зрештою, призвело до її розлуки з Кніппенбергом. Її зобразила актриса Еллі Бамбер у серіалі ВВС під назвою «Змій», який транслювався в січні 2021 року. Кейн заявила, що їй неприємно через зменшення її ролі у розкритті справи, як це зображено в серіалі.
Примітки
Посилання
http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp? NewsID = 41489 & Cr = ban + ki-moon & Cr1 = призначити
Командори ордена За заслуги перед ФРН
Випускники Мюнхенського університету
Німецькі дипломати
Народились 1948
Сторінки з неперевіреними перекладами
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3755816
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avia%20B-534
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Avia B-534
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Avia B-534
The Avia B-534 is a Czechoslovak biplane fighter developed and manufactured by aviation company Avia. It was produced during the period between the First World War and the Second World War. The B-534 was perhaps one of the most well-known Czechoslovakian aircraft of the era.
During 1932, work had commenced on the development of a new single-engined biplane fighter aircraft, the Avia B-34, which had been designed by aeronautical engineer František Novotný. During its development, various alternative engines were considered and trialled before eventually settling upon the licence-built Hispano-Suiza 12Y engine. Other improvements during the prototype stage included the adoption of an enclosed cockpit along with a revised tail and undercarriage arrangement. On 14 April 1934, the second prototype, while flown by test pilot Václav Kočí, successfully attained a Czechoslovak national speed record of . Deliveries of aircraft to the Czechoslovak Air Force commenced in October 1935.
Partially as a result of its impressive maneuvrability, as well as some operators continuing to maintain a preference for the established biplane configuration over the incoming generation of monoplane fighters that would soon prove to outperform them, the B-534 stayed in production for considerable time (1933-1939). During the late 1930s, Czechoslovakia sought to expand production of the type in response to German claims over the Sudetenland (the western border area of Czechoslovakia). Large numbers of the type saw combat with multiple nations during the course of the Second World War. While relatively ineffective in combat during the later stages of war due to its obsolescence, the type formed a sizeable proportion of several countries' military aviation components.
Development
Origins
During 1932, the Czechoslovak aircraft company Avia flew the first prototype of a single-engined fighter biplane, the Avia B-34, designed by aeronautical engineer František Novotný. After modification, the Czechoslovak Ministry of Defence placed an order for B-34s. A second prototype, the Avia B-34/2, was built, which was intended to be powered by a Avia Rr 29 radial engine instead of the Hispano-Suiza 12N V12 engine of the first prototype and the initial production series. This engine proved prone to overheating and vibration, however, and it was decided to re-engine the B.34/2 before it flew, fitting it with a Hispano-Suiza 12Ybrs V12 engine.
The Avia B-34/2 made its maiden flight on 25 May 1933. The prototype was sent for testing in September and was redesignated as the B-534.1. On 10 September, the B-534 was displayed to the public for the first time at an Army Air Day. It was to compete against the Praga E-44 and Letov Š-231.
A second prototype, the B-534.2, was completed in September 1933. It differed from the first prototype by having an enclosed cockpit and a revised tail and undercarriage. On 14 April 1934, the second prototype, while flown by test pilot Václav Kočí, successfully attained a Czechoslovak national speed record of .
Initial production
More testing followed, and an initial order for 34 aircraft for the Czechoslovak Air Force, soon increasing to 147, was placed on 17 July 1934. At that time, the B-534 was well ahead of its contemporaries. The United Kingdom was still dependent on Hawker Furies, with the first Gloster Gladiators being produced at this time. The Soviet Union was placing its hope on its Polikarpov aircraft designs. The United States was still using descendants of the Curtiss Hawk series, with the Seversky P-35 and Curtiss P-36 about to fly as prototypes.
The B-534 was designed as a single-engine biplane fighter with a licence-built Hispano-Suiza inline powerplant, and fixed landing gear. The air forces of the 1930s were reluctant to abandon the manoeuvrability and climb rates of biplanes for the speed of monoplanes, even in the face of new and better technology. The success of Soviet pilots with biplanes may have contributed to this reluctance; they were known to strip their aircraft of sliding canopies, preferring to have the wind in their faces. Aircraft with two fabric-covered wings and fixed landing gear were also less expensive to manufacture.
First deliveries of the B-534 to the Czechoslovak air force began in October 1935, and 568 had been completed by 1939. The first 100 of these were of the first series. The second prototype was the blueprint for the I series, although it was built with an open cockpit. These early series aircraft were initially armed with four 7.92mm vz.28 guns. Two were located in the nose on either side of the engine in a similar manner to the Avia B-34 and two were fitted in the wings. At an early stage of production, it was however recognised that the wing-mounted guns were troublesome. Aircraft from serial number B-534.47 were completed without the wing guns, which were also removed from the earlier aircraft. The first to fourth series aircraft were fitted with the Avia licence-built version of the Hispano-Suiza 12Ydrs engine. This was a liquid-cooled V12-cylinder engine with a capacity of 36.05 litres. On the ground its normal power rating was 650 hp, it could deliver 750 hp for two minutes. At an operational height of 3,000 m (9,842 ft), it could deliver 850 hp for 30 minutes. At an operational height of 4,000 m (13,123 ft), it could reach 860 hp. Total fuel was 347 litres (76 gal) which was held in two fuselage fuel tanks of 90 and 257 litres.
Further development
The II series completed the remainder of the first order from the Czechoslovak Government, These were 45 aircraft numbered B-534.102 to 147. Like the I series these carried four guns. However the solution to the problems with the wing-mounted guns was to move these guns, now upgraded to the vz.30 to the fuselage with the others. The four 7.92 mm (0.312 in) machine guns were located on the sides of the fuselage, firing through the propeller. One very modern innovation was a bubble canopy; this had been tested on a small number of the early series aircraft, although it certainly was not a standard fit.
During 1936, a second order for 46 aircraft were issued by the government. The first 25 of these were the B-534/III version serial numbers B-534: 148–173. Production took place in the second half of 1936. It entered service between March and April 1937. The III series had aerodynamic refinements which saw the streamlining of the front carburetor air intake. Mudguard spats were also often added at the factory to the main gear.
The remainder of the second order from 534.174 to 534.193 were the IV series. With later orders the fourth series would occupy the serial numbers .174 and 445 and was therefore the most numerous of the types. The most important change to the earlier series was the enclosed cockpit. The IV series also enjoyed a metal light alloy Letov (Hochfeld) Hd-43 propeller. The various refinements allowed the IV series to have an increased speed of over 200 mph, and this placed it on par with the best of its contemporary biplanes. A common alteration to the IV series was the replacement of the tailskid with a tailwheel. Operational experiences had shown that the spat on the main landing gear could become clogged with mud on grassy airfields and cause takeoff and landing problems. The spats were then often removed.
During 1937, the superb performance of the B-534 was demonstrated at a flying exhibition. The aircraft was tested against the best in the world at the IV International Air Meeting at Zürich's Dübendorf airport. The B-534 entered three of the competitions. The first of these tested climbing and diving. A German Bf 109 took first place and a Henschel Hs 123 pilot pushed his biplane to claim second. The B-534 took the next three positions. The 534 outflew every other fighter participating, bar the Messerschmitt Bf 109 – and even then, the Avia was only 11 km/h slower than the German aircraft.
Allegedly, problems were encountered with the redesign effort to adapt to installation of a newly installed cannon. These were not resolved in the summer of 1938; by this point, Czechoslovakia, sensing rising political tension amongst German claims to Czech-held territory, was eager to get more aircraft in the air, Avia decided to use a third machine gun in the nose. Judging by the size of the gun magazine, the nose machine gun was matched with an increased supply of ammunition. For the nation, time was running out and drew to Munich Diktat, at which point Germany commenced its occupation of the Sudetenland (the western border area of Czechoslovakia). Two series Bk-534 were produced, cn's 501 – 554 (63, for Czechoslovak air force), and cn's 555 – 620. Only three of the second batch were completed for the Czechoslovak air force, and the remaining 63 aeroplanes from this production block were finished for the Germans, after the German invasion of the remainder of Czechoslovakia on 15 March 1939.
Design
The Avia B-534 was a single-seat unequal-span biplane fighter aircraft. The fuselage used a rectangular structure composed of steel tubes, which were attached together using a mixture of bolts and rivets and braced together using streamline wires. The wing, which had a riveted steel structure and fabric covering, was attached to the fuselage using N struts; similar struts were present in the outer section of the wings attaching the wings together. The forward section of the fuselage was covered with detachable metal panels, while the rear section had a fabric covering.
Production aircraft were exclusively powered by the Hispano-Suiza 12Y 12-cylinder water-cooled engine, rated to produce a maximum of 850 hp, which was built under licence by Avia. The total fuel capacity was 70 gallons (320 litres); a combined cooler and oil tank was installed beneath the fuselage, while a water-based radiator was also set below the engine. Engine ignition was provided via the cockpit, along with automated fire-fighting equipment. Other cockpit equipment included a radio set, oxygen provision, and an adjustable seat and cockpit cover. Early-built aircraft featured an open cockpit, while later-built examples were furnished with an enclosed cockpit.
The B-534 was furnished with a monoplane tailplane, composed of steel and covered by fabric; similar construction methods were used for the fin and rudder. Both the rudder and the elevator were statically and aerodynamically balanced. The undercarriage was of a split-type configuration, being oleo-sprung and equipped with Dunlop-built wheels. The wheels, which were housed within streamlined fairings, were fitted with brakes; for conducting operations under winter conditions, skis could also be fitted to the undercarriage. According to reports from pilots who flew the B-534, it possessed excellent handling characteristics for the era.
The Bk-534 was designed to carry one 20 mm (0.79 in) Oerlikon FFS-20 cannon firing through the nose, along with a pair of 7.92 mm (0.312 in) machine guns to the sides of the fuselage. By the summer of 1938, Czechoslovakia, sensing rising political tension caused by German claims to Czechoslovak border territory, was eager to get more aircraft in the service, thus Avia decided to use a third machine gun in the nose. However, there have been claims that the company had encountered substantial difficulties in adapting the aircraft to accommodate the additional weapon and these were not quickly resolved. Judging by the size of the gun magazine, the nose machine gun was matched with an increased supply of ammunition. Consequently, however, the fuel load was decreased
Operational history
Czechoslovakia
Upon its introduction to squadron service with the Czechoslovak Air Force during the latter half of 1935, the B-534 was put to use in the interceptor role. Initially, the responsibility for pursuit and aerial combat was shared with several other aircraft, including the Avia BA-33L and the Letov Š-31; however, by 1938, the B-534 was the sole type of aircraft in Czech service to be tasked with this role. By 10 November 1938, a total of 370 B-534 and Bk-534 aircraft in service; additionally, 53 aircraft had been written off as a result of accidents.
On 1 September 1938, less than a month before the Munich Agreement would cause Czechoslovakia to lose 30 per cent of its territory and 34 per cent of its population, 328 B-534s and Bk-534s equipped 21 fighter squadrons of the Czechoslovak Air Force, while other aircraft were assigned to reserve and training squadrons, and deliveries continuing of the final batch of fighters.
On 14 March 1939, Germany forced the partition of Czechoslovakia, with Slovakia being declared as the nominally independent Slovak Republic with Germany annexing the remaining "Czech" part of Czechoslovakia as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia the next day. The abrupt partition of Czechoslovakia during 1939 prevented any actual combat operations of the B-534 to be conducted by the nation that had produced it. By then, high performance monoplanes such as the Bf 109 and Britain's leading models – the Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire – were raising the bar of fighter/interceptor standards. The Slovenské vzdušné zbrane (Slovak Air Force) was organised out of the units of the Czechoslovak Air Force that were based in Slovakia at the time of partition, and inherited about 71 B-534s and Bk-534s.
Slovakia had to quickly make use of its newly formed air force, weakened by the departure of many Czech pilots, to defend itself when neighbouring Hungary launched an invasion on 23 March 1939. During the ensuing combat, a pair of B-534s were shot down by Hungarian anti-aircraft fire while a further four were claimed to have been shot down by Hungarian Fiat CR.32 fighters. Another Avia was compelled to perform a forced landing behind Hungarian lines and was captured.
During September 1939, Slovakia participated in the German Invasion of Poland; the nation held the aim of regaining territories which had been previously lost to Poland at Munich. A pair of squadrons of B-534s were assigned to support the invasion. In the theatre, these were typically used to escort Luftwaffe aircraft, such as the Junkers Ju 87 dive-bomber, on eight missions. On 6 September the Avias shot down Polish reconnaissance aircraft Lublin R.XIIID over Prešov, killing its two-men crew. One Avia was shot down by Polish anti-aircraft cannons, the other one crashed on 9 September (a pilot was killed). Also the downing of Polish RWD-8 liaison aircraft fleeing to Hungary was reported.
The same squadrons fought alongside the elements of the German military in the area of Ukraine during summer 1941. According to aviation author Josef Krybus, on this front, moral amongst the Slovak pilots was low and no significant victories were achieved during their deployment. During 1942, one of these squadrons was redeployed to Slovakia to conduct anti-partisan operations. Over time, a combination of obsolescence, the lack of spare components and the old Czechoslovak air force's proprietary fuel mixture (BiBoLi, or some other mix of ethanol, benzol and petrol) finally relegated the surviving B-534s to performing the trainer role and other secondary duties during 1943.
The training role would have been the last operational service of the B-534s in Slovak colours if not for the Slovak National Uprising of September–October 1944. The rest of the Slovak air assets did not turn-coat as expected and the leaders of the uprising were faced with using a rag-tag collection of leftover aircraft, including several B-534s stationed at Tri Duby airfield. On 2 September 1944, Master Sergeant František Cyprich, just after testing a repaired B-534, downed a Junkers Ju 52 transport under Hungarian colours on its way to a base in occupied Poland. This was at once the first aerial victory for the Uprising and the last recorded biplane fighter air-to-air victory. As the Slovak National Uprising was desperate for available aircraft, Sergeant Cyprich was derided by his colonel for not trying to force the Junkers Ju 52 to land and be captured instead. The last pair of B-534s at Tri Duby were burned as the base was evacuated on 25 October 1944.
Bulgaria
During 1939, Bulgaria opted to procure a batch of 78 B-534s, well after the enactment of the Czech partition, from Germany, who had captured a large number of the type. The last batch of these aircraft were delivered from Czechoslovakia during March 1942. On 1 August 1943, 48 of these aircraft were able to make two passes at American Consolidated B-24 Liberator bombers returning from the raid on Ploieşti. Hits were scored but no B-24s were shot down and some of the B-534s that received damage in the combat, cracked up on landing.
The B-534s saw little use as frontline aircraft as Bulgaria had also procured the more capable Bf 109E and the French-built Dewoitine D.520 monoplane fighters. After the anti-German coup of 9 September 1944, Bulgaria switched sides overnight. As such its B-534s were quickly pressed into use to conduct ground attacks against German units. On 10 September 1944, a flight of six B-534s were involved in a brief melee with six German Bf 109s at low altitude. One B-534 was lost, but the Germans quickly broke off, wary of both the low altitude and the B-534's manoeuvrability.
Other operators
During 1937, a batch of 14 B-534s was supplied to Yugoslavia; some of these aircraft were still in service when Germany launched the Invasion of Yugoslavia in early 1941. During 1937, a handful of fighters were delivered from Czechoslovakia to Greece, additional Greek B-534s appear to have been acquired from Yugoslavia as well. During 1940–1941, these fighters were later used during the Greco-Italian War as part of efforts by Greece to resist the invading Axis forces.
Following Germany's forced annexation of the remaining "Czech" part of Czechoslovakia as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia on 15 March 1939, large numbers of captured B-534s were pressed into the Luftwaffe. In German service, the type was heavily used as a fighter-trainer at several fighter pilot training schools; another major use was as a glider-tug and target tug, which involved those B-534s involved being outfitted with cables and release-gear.
Germany was also interested in potentially using the B-534 as a carrier-based aircraft. In order to evaluate its suitability for such a role, three aircraft were equipped with tailhook and underwent structural strengthening before the commencement of a flight test programme; however, none of Germany's aircraft carriers, the Graf Zeppelin-class, were ever completed. The B-534 also featured in the German propaganda movie Kampfgeschwader Luetzow in which the type was used as a stand-in for Polish PZL P.11, being painted in Polish Air Force markings.
Germany also sold a number of the captured B-534s to its allies, reportedly at 40 per cent of their original cost. Following the German occupation of Yugoslavia in 1941, the Axis-aligned Croatian Air Force was created and supplied with B-534s by Germany, as well as the integration of remaining examples from Yugoslavia's own B-534s ordered prior to the outbreak of the conflict.
Variants
B-534/1: First prototype.
B-534/2: Second prototype.
B-534-I: First production version. (cn's 2 – 101)
B-534-II: (cn's 102 – 147)
B-534-III: (cn's 148 – 173)
B-534-IV: Closed canopy (cn's 174 – 445)
Bk-534: Cannon version (cn's 501 – 620)
Surviving aircraft
There are no real surviving airframes, but a B-534-IV replica is on display in the Prague Aviation Museum, Kbely, Czech Republic. A second replica (Bk-534), using (like the Kbely example) some original parts, is displayed at the Museum of Aviation at Košice International Airport, Slovakia.
Operators
Bulgarian Air Force – The Bulgarian Air Force operated between 48 and 100 aircraft (though mostly the number 78 is named), which they called "Dogan" (Hunting Hawk).
Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia – An unknown number of Avia B-534 aircraft were supplied by the Germans.
Czechoslovakian Air Force
Luftwaffe – The German Luftwaffe used most of the airframes confiscated from the Czechs. These aircraft served through the early years of the war as trainers, night fighters, and glider tugs; three were used to test carrier landing operations for the aborted . The Germans had another use as well: B-534s also starred disguised as Polish fighters in a German propaganda film, "Kampfgeschwader Lützow".
Hellenic Air Force – Greek businessman Giorgos Koutarellis, a millionaire expatriate living in Egypt, bought two B-534s and presented them to the Greek government in August 1936. They were lost in the chaos of 1941.
Royal Hungarian Air Force – One B-534 was captured by the Hungarians during the border war in 1939 and tested for a period, carrying the code HA-VAB, later serialled G.192. The Hungarians concluded that the B-534 was an inferior aircraft to their existing fighters. In 1943 the B-534 was handed over to the Gliding and Aero Club at Győr, and was destroyed in 1945 when the Soviet Army overran the area.
Together with three DFS 230 gliders, Romania received an unknown number of Avia B-534 tugs according to one source.
Slovenské vzdušné zbrane – The Slovak Air Force operated several B-534s from Czechoslovakia.
Slovak Insurgent Air Force
A number (eight is given in some sources) of B-534s were allegedly used by the Soviets in a secret NKVD squadron to shadow flights of German aircraft.
Specifications (B-534 IV)
See also
References
Citations
Bibliography
Bílý, Miroslav and Jiří Vraný. Avia B-534: Czechoslovak Fighter, 3rd and 4th Version (Model File). Prague, Czech Republic: MBI, 2008. . With 71 pages the most comprehensive detail publication about the B-534 to date.
Chant, Chris. Aircraft of World War II. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1999. .
Cieślak, Krzysztof. Samolot Mysliwski Avia B.534 (Typy Broni i Uzbrojenia 34) (in Polish). Warszawa, Poland: Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, 1975.
Green, William. Aircraft of the Third Reich Vol.1 (1st ed.). London: Aerospace Publishing, 2010. .
Green, William. War Planes of the Second World War, Fighters, Volume One. London: Macdonald & Co.(Publishers) Ltd., 1960. .
Krybus, Josef. The Avia B.534 (Aircraft in Profile number 152). Leatherhead, Surrey, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1967. ISBN B000-7K11J-M.
Kudlička, Bohumil. Avia B.534 Czechoslovakian Fighter 1933–45. Prague, Czech Republic: CMK, 2006. .
"The Last Belligerent Biplane – The Avia B 534". Air International, Vol. 7, No. 1, July 1974, pp. 25–35.
Rajlich, Jirí and Jirí Sehnal. "'Tatra Eagles' The Slovak Air Force in Combat 1942–1945. Air International, No. 56, Winter 1994. pp. 63–68.
Šumicrast, Peter. "Avia B.34, B.534 a Bk.534, Slovenských Pilotov 1939–1944." HT model špeciál 905. Poprad, Slovakia: HT Model, 2003, ISSN 1335-3667.
Titz, Zdenek. Czechoslovakian Air Force, 1918–1970. Reading, Berkshire, UK: Osprey Publications Ltd., 1971. .
Vraný, Jiří. Avia B.534 (in Czech). Prague, Czechoslovakia: AeroArchiv, 1991. .
External links
Avia B.534 and Avia Bk.534 by Håkan Gustavsson
"Avia B.534". Paul Tagliaferri The Great Planes, 3 June 2002. Retrieved: 5 July 2006.
Avia B.534 Series II in Greek service
Biplanes
Single-engined tractor aircraft
1930s Czechoslovakian fighter aircraft
B-534
Aircraft first flown in 1933
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR%20code%20payment
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QR code payment
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QR code payment
A QR code payment is a mobile payment method where payment is performed by scanning a QR code from a mobile app. This is an alternative to doing electronic funds transfer at point of sale using a payment terminal. This avoids a lot of the infrastructure traditionally associated with electronic payments such as payment cards, payment networks, payment terminal and merchant accounts.
To make a QR code payment, the consumer scans the QR code displayed by the merchant with their smartphone to pay for their goods. They enter the amount they have to pay and finally submit. This is a more secure card-not-present method than others.
History
The QR code system was invented in 1994 by Masahiro Hara from the Japanese company Denso Wave.
In December 2010, the first documented description of QR code-based payments came from two patents filed by Shaun Cooley and Andrew Charles Payne, based on a prototype system developed for Norton Labs at Symantec called Norton Mobile Pay. describes a payment mechanism where a website displays a QR code and a mobile device's camera is used to read the code and complete the payment. describes payment mechanisms where a payment terminal displays a QR code that is scanned by a mobile device, a mobile device displays a QR code that is scanned by a payment terminal, and a mobile device displaying a QR code that is scanned by another mobile device. These patents have since been cited by companies like Wells Fargo, Google, Microsoft, IBM, United States Postal Service, Apple, Capital One, and Toast. There are no records of Symantec, Gen Digital, CA Technologies, or Broadcom attempting to enforce these patents in court.
The first mobile wallet app for cryptocurrency Bitcoin featured the ability to send and receive payments with QR codes in March 2011. In 2011, Chinese company Alipay designed a QR code payment method which allowed partnering offline stores to accept payment by scanning an individual's QR code in Alipay Wallet. In 2014, Chinese technology company Tencent introduced a similar feature on its messaging app WeChat to allow its users to make QR code payments. QR code payment has helped mobile payment become the most popular method of payments in China, accounting for 83% of all payments as of 2018. Nearly all shops, street vendors, most metro systems, buses, and taxis in Mainland China accept either WeChat Pay, Alipay, or Cloud QuickPass for payment.
In 2012, the Czech branch of Raiffeisen Bank International developed the Short Payment Descriptor format for exchanging payment information via QR codes. The format was soon adopted by other Czech banks as well as the Czech Banking Association as the national standard for QR code payments. SPD can technically be used with any bank using IBAN account numbers, although in practice it is only used within Czechia.
In 2017, the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) launched BharatQR as a single, interoperable QR code that could be used for making payments to and from bank accounts using UPI and wallets. It works alongside QR codes from wallet providers as well as card providers such as Visa's mVisa and Mastercard's Masterpass.
In 2020, PayPal announced the ability to pay with QR codes in its mobile app.
Usage by industry
Transportation
China
Most metro systems, buses, and taxis in Mainland China accept either WeChat Pay or Alipay for payment. The national railway operator, China Railway, also accepts the two major apps for payment.
India
Line 1 of the Mumbai Metro in India allows users to purchase a ticket on their phones using QR code payments. Instead of swiping an RFID card or single-use token, a QR code is generated on the Paytm app which is then read by a scanner mounted on the turnstile.
Malaysia
QR code payment is becoming increasingly popular recently in Malaysia as a convenient and secure way to pay for transportation services. KTM ETS and KTM Komuter Northern Sector, as well as KLIA Ekspres and Penang Ferry Service, are all offering QR code payments to their passengers.
As Malaysia continues to modernize its transportation infrastructure, it is likely that more services including Rapid KL will adopt QR code payments to enhance the passenger experience and streamline operations.
Philippines
QR code tickets, named beep QR, were introduced in LRT-1 on 1 June 2023 by AF Payments, Inc., the operator of beep card, in partnership with Maya, an e-wallet app. QR tickets can be bought on the Maya app or ikotMNL app. Each LRT-1 station is equipped with at least 1 QR code-enabled gate.
Integrated QR code payment systems
ASEAN Integrated QR Code Payment System
This integrated QR code payment system allows people to make transactions with banks or e-money that supports their local integrated QR code payment system in any of the participating countries. Local currencies are used in these transactions, meaning that transactions in Thailand using an Indonesian payment app will directly exchange rupiah with baht. Currently, three of the QR code payment systems in ASEAN are connected (Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand). Singapore and the Philippines are also planning to integrate their QR payment systems. The following are QR Payment systems that are in or soon will be in the integrated payment system.
QRIS (Quick Response Code Indonesian Standard)
QRIS is a standardized national QR payment system for Indonesia launched by Bank Indonesia on August 17, 2019. Almost all payment services in Indonesia support this system, including GoPay, OVO, ShopeePay, BCA, and BRI. It combines all the separate QR codes from different payment services into one QR code which can be used by merchants to receive payments from any e-wallets or banks that supports QRIS.
DuitNow
DuitNow allows all participating banks and e-wallets in Malaysia to use the same QR Code for transactions. It is launched by PayNet under the Bank Negara Malaysia's Interoperable Credit Transfer Framework (ICTF). Some of the banks and e-wallets that support this payment system are Maybank, Hong Leong Bank, CIMB, HSBC, Touch 'n Go eWallet, GrabPay, Setel, ShopeePay, OCBC, UOB, ICBC, and more.
Thai QR Payment
Thai QR Payment (Promptpay) integrates QR payment systems in Thailand. It was launched by the Bank of Thailand.
SGQR (Singapore Quick Response Code)
SGQR is a unified QR code payment system launched on September 17, 2018. SGQR combines multiple QR codes used by multiple payment services in Singapore, including PayNow, into one QR code. This scheme is co-owned by MAS and IMDA.
QR Ph
QR Ph is the QR code standard in the Philippines, approved by the Philippines Payment Management, inc. (PPMI) in accordance with circular 1055 of the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas. The system is based on the Europay-Mastercard-VISA (EMV) standard, allowing one QR Code to serve transactions from different banks and e-wallets.
VietQR
VietQR is the national QR code payment standard for Vietnam, launched as a collaborative effort by the National Payment Corporation of Vietnam (NAPAS) in partnership with several major banks, including Vietcombank, BIDV, VietinBank, and Agribank. Introduced to the public in 2021, VietQR aims to streamline digital transactions across various financial platforms by using a unified QR code format that supports interoperability among different banks and e-wallets.
UPI (Unified Payment Interface)
UPI is a unified instant payment system developed by the National Payments Corporation of India, launched on 25 August 2016 and was backed by 35 banks across the country in the first year of its launch. Multiple startups like Paytm who were providing digital wallets for customers and merchants, along with new market players like PhonePe quickly got into the scene, with them incorporating new merchants by providing QR based payment solutions, along with QR code scanners for customers in their respective mobile apps which resulted in the widespread use of QR based payments in India. In FY 2023, there were 84 billion UPI transactions, accounting to about Rs 139.09 trillion ($1.67 trillion). Singapore, UAE, Nepal, Bhutan, France and Sri Lanka have also started adopting UPI after seeing its success in India.
See also
Short Payment Descriptor
EPC QR code
QR code
References
Payment systems
Contactless payments
Japanese inventions
1994 introductions
2011 introductions
Mobile payments
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Avril Lavigne (album)
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Avril Lavigne (album)
Avril Lavigne is the fifth studio album by Canadian singer-songwriter Avril Lavigne. It was released on November 1, 2013, through Epic Records in North America and Sony Music Entertainment worldwide. Lavigne collaborated with numerous producers including Martin Johnson, Peter Svensson, David Hodges, Matt Squire, and Chad Kroeger. In both musical and lyrical aspects, the album represents a departure from the acoustic-oriented production of her previous album Goodbye Lullaby (2011), featuring a more uptempo pop sound juxtaposed with power and piano ballads. Avril Lavigne also incorporates electronic music, industrial and punk rock. The album features two vocal collaborations: Kroeger and American industrial metal singer Marilyn Manson, making Avril Lavigne Lavigne's first album to contain featured vocalists. The album marks her first and only release through Epic Records, and is her second and final studio album with Sony Music, to which, from BMG, she first signed in 2000, before being moved to Sony Music following their acquisition of all BMG labels.
Avril Lavigne received generally positive reviews from music critics, with many praising its carefree, feel-good vibe while others criticized its "rebellious" attitude in some tracks, calling it forced and unnatural. The album debuted at number five on the Billboard 200, selling 44,000 copies in its first week. While this proved to be her fifth consecutive top-five album on the chart, it also tallied the lowest first-week sales of Lavigne's career. It also peaked at number two in Japan, selling 47,873 copies in its first week, the highest opening for the album in a particular country. Worldwide, the album impacted moderately on the charts, reaching the top-ten in over twelve countries, while peaking at number one in China and Taiwan.
Five singles were released from Avril Lavigne worldwide. "Here's to Never Growing Up" was released as the lead single in April 2013 and was an international success, reaching number one on the Taiwan and Philippines charts, while reaching the top ten in China, Ireland, Japan and Russia among others. The second, "Rock n Roll", had less impact, while the third, "Let Me Go", performed well internationally, reaching the top 20 in Czech Republic, South Korea, and Canada. Lavigne also generated publicity with a controversial music video for the Japan-only fourth single "Hello Kitty". To further promote the album, Lavigne embarked on her fifth concert tour, The Avril Lavigne Tour.
Background, development and release
Three months after the release of Goodbye Lullaby, Lavigne announced that work on her fifth studio album had already begun, with eight songs written so far. Lavigne stated that the album would musically be the opposite of Goodbye Lullaby, with a release date rumored for sometime in 2012. Lavigne explained, "Goodbye Lullaby was more mellow, [but] the next one will be pop and more fun again. I already have a song that I know is going to be a single, I just need to re-record it!" In late 2011, Lavigne confirmed that she had moved to Epic Records, which is now headed by L.A. Reid, who signed Lavigne to Arista Records in 2000. In August 2012, it was reported that Lavigne had completed work on the album, stating on her Twitter, "That's a wrap boyz @hodgesmusic and chad @Nickelback !!! Woo hoo. Super stoked for this record."
In September 2012, Epic Records chairman L.A. Reid told Billboard that Lavigne "just completed" the album and that she enlisted her then-fiancée Chad Kroeger for a song. "She worked with Chad Kroeger, who is now her fiance, and they did a really good record," says Reid. He also revealed, "We're in the mixing process now and I expect to release it very soon. I'd like to get it out this year, but time seems to be flying. If we don't, it will be top of the new year." The same month, French website Charts in France announced that the album would be released in March, however, in April 2013, the singer announced that she was still working on the album, stating, "I've been working on this record for a year, so it's been quite a while," she said. "As soon as I played [producer LA Reid] the song, he wanted to put it out right away. So I'm actually still in the studio - I'm still making my record. I still have one more song left to write that I'm going to do by myself, because I love to do that. It's important for me. But it's just - it's all happened so fast, and I'm so excited."
On August 8, 2013, Lavigne announced that the album would be a self-titled released and also revealed the cover art for the album via her Instagram account. The cover features a closeup of her face against an all-black background, with her eyes ringed in smeared eyeliner, while her hair is pulled back tight on her head. In an interview on Extra in September 2013, Lavigne said of the artwork: "I like it because I always wear my hair down, so I put my hair up and it's a little more fashion, I guess. I went nuts with the eye make-up, just a ton of black eye oil." In an interview at the radio station WRVE, Lavigne confirmed that the album would be available to pre-order on September 24, 2013, and would be released later on November 5, 2013. The official track listing was later revealed on September 5, while the entire album streamed on iTunes and her official website on October 29.
Recording
Recording sessions began in November 2011, and took place over a period of almost two years, concluding in July 2013. One of the first confirmed producers and writers for the album was Nickelback's frontman Chad Kroeger. The first song they wrote was "Let Me Go", a breakup ballad. "We started off [in March 2012] just getting to know each other, and then we really bonded through music," Lavigne said. Eventually, Lavigne and Kroeger became romantically involved in July 2012, and a month later they got engaged. Kroeger co-wrote 10 songs on the album, being the producer of three, and co-producer of four. They promised power ballads, piano ballads, string arrangements and a duet. Lavigne also worked with Evanescence former member David Hodges, commenting, "I’ve just spent 17 days working with Chad Kroeger and David Hodges. And the three of us have been writing a lot of songs together. A lot. And recording and having a really good time, having a really great time. They’re very talented musicians and it feels good for me to be around people like that."
Boys Like Girls frontman Martin Johnson also worked with Lavigne on the album, co-producing five songs, including the lead-single "Here's to Never Growing Up". In a Billboard interview, Lavigne revealed that she worked with Marilyn Manson on a track called "Bad Girl". She said about the collaboration, "It's a heavier tune and I thought his voice would be perfect on it, so I hit him up. I called him and he came over to the studio and he really liked the track and he just put some vocals down on it. He was a pro and he did an amazing job. I really appreciate him as an artist and I love his style and I really respect him and his art, and I thought it was really cool to have him on this record."
In an interview for 4Music, Lavigne teased a female collaboration, but it didn't make to the album. Because Lavigne had written so many songs for her fifth album, she was considering releasing two back-to-back albums. This is the second time that Lavigne has mentioned writing enough material for more than one record, the first during the production of Goodbye Lullaby. "I kinda wanna do the back-to-back records because I've worked so hard on writing a ton of songs and I just wanna make it perfect. And then because there were so many it was like, 'OK well what makes sense?'," she commented.
Composition and themes
In an interview for Nylon, Lavigne stated that the album was "more artistic" than her previous efforts, explaining, "This time it's not just all songs about relationships and dudes. I just wanted to write songs and make something that was a little more artistic. I wanted to go down that road, I wasn't trying to write a big radio record." While discussing the album's style for Entertainmentwise, Lavigne opined, "The album is really all over the place. There's piano songs which are just piano and vocals, some very raw, emotional pieces. There's a few summer songs, it's nostalgic." Regarding the album's lyrical meaning, she commented, "Lyrically I pushed myself to talk about different subjects I haven't talked about before. I didn't want to be so simple. I tried to really express myself and go deeper." [...] "There's a bunch of summer songs then a couple of songs which are pretty nostalgic, about looking back like ‘17’. I guess I didn't mean for it to turn out like that but it's good."
While discussing the songs on the album, Lavigne revealed, "I'm really excited about the song 'Hello Kitty' that I've written for this record, because I'm obsessed with Hello Kitty and it's really fun and the sound is different," she said. "It sounds like nothing I've done before, and I even throw a little bit of Japanese in it." She also described the song called "Rock n Roll" as "LOUD, impressive and it stands for so many other things than just music – that's really what it comes down to - and it's a song that I’m just putting the final touches to now." She also called her duet with Marilyn Manson as "heavier" and "rock". While responding what was her favourite song on the album, Lavigne answered, "'Give You What You Like,' 'Hush Hush' and 'Bad Girl.'"
Songs
The album's opening track "Rock n Roll" is an upbeat, pop punk song, about a boisterous declaration of rebellion on which Lavigne puts up her "middle finger to the sky" to "let 'em know that we're still rock and roll." The second track and lead single, "Here's to Never Growing Up", is a celebration of being forever young. The third track "17" was considered a "fizzy, buzzing look back on adolescence," over a "steady" beat, "long acoustic" strums and "yelping" vocals that refract the mischievous glow of youth. It also stays the course, recalling her high school days of "learning how to break the rules". The fourth track, "Bitchin' Summer", is a mid-tempo song where she and the object of her affection are like "high school lovebirds" and she's picking him up at the liquor store. "Let Me Go", the fifth track, is a duet with Lavigne's husband and Nickelback's frontman Chad Kroeger, and was described by Lavigne as "the journey of love through one's life, going from one stage in one love into finding the right one." The sixth track "Give You What You Like" is a sensual-sounding ballad about the exchange of physical pleasures to combat loneliness.
The seventh track "Bad Girl" finds Lavigne teaming up with Marilyn Manson in a rock, industrial and nu metal arrangement, with Manson singing about his perverted "daddy" fantasies while Lavigne invites him to "do whatever" and more. "Hello Kitty" sees Lavigne flirting with electronic music and techno pop, while also featuring a dubstep breakdown. Lyrically, Lavigne pointed out that the song "is about her love of the Japanese brand" but also has a "flirtatious" meaning. The ninth track, the pop rock "You Ain't Seen Nothin' Yet", finds its protagonist rounding "third base and headed for a home run," while the bouncy "Sippin' on Sunshine" with lyrics about the sunshine being delivered by way of a kiss. The breakup track "Hello Heartache" has a background vocal hook crawling "la-la-la" and a skittering backbeat, which amplify Lavigne's pain. The twelfth track "Falling Fast" is a country pop influenced song. The song's guardedly celebrates new love with "hushed" rock elements and "crystallized" melody, which was described by Jason Lipshutz of Billboard as "at home on a Taylor Swift album". "Hush Hush", the last track on the album's standard edition, is a piano-driven ballad which emits a rush of feelings - regret, anger, desperation, nakedness, and finally, faint hopefulness.
Promotion
Lavigne promoted the album with a series of live performances. First, she went to Los Angeles' famed Sunset Strip club, "the Viper Room", performing a range of tracks, including "17". On September 21, 2013, Lavigne performed on the iHeart Radio Festival, performing "Here's to Never Growing Up", "Rock n Roll" and other hits. In October 2013, Lavigne performed at "We Day 2013", which took place in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. She performed "Let Me Go" with Chad Kroeger, as well as "Girlfriend" and "Here's to Never Growing Up". On November 5, 2013, during the album's release day in the United States, Lavigne performed "Let Me Go" and snippets of "Girlfriend" and "Sk8er Boi". She also performed "Let Me Go" on The Katie Couric Show, on November 8, 2013 and on Conan, on November 11, 2013. On December 4, 2013, Lavigne performed on Q102's Jingle Ball, singing "Here's To Never Growing Up", "Girlfriend", "Let Me Go" and "Sk8er Boi".
Singles
On April 9, 2013, the album's lead single, "Here's to Never Growing Up", produced by Martin Johnson of the band Boys Like Girls, was released. The song received mixed reviews, but was the album's most successful single.
The track peaked at number 20 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States, also reaching the top-twenty in Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom, while reaching the top-ten in Ireland and Japan. A lyric video featuring submitted photographs of fans "never growing up" was released onto Lavigne's official Vevo account the same day as the release of the single. The song's official music video was later released on May 9, 2013.
The second single, "Rock n Roll", premiered on Lavigne's official YouTube channel on July 18, 2013, and was released on August 27, with the music video premiering a week earlier on August 20, while the lyric video for the song, featuring fan-made videos submitted through Instagram, was released onto Lavigne's official Vevo account on August 12, 2013. The song received very limited commercial success, being a success in Japan, where it reached number five. However, it only managed to peak at number 37 in Canada, number 45 in Australia, number 68 in the United Kingdom and number 91 in the United States.
"Let Me Go" featuring Chad Kroeger was confirmed as the album's third single. It premiered on the radio station KBIG on October 7, 2013. It was officially impacted contemporary hit radio in Italy on October 11, 2013. It was later made available for purchase on iTunes along with its music video on October 15, 2013. Worldwide, "Let Me Go" was more successful than "Rock n Roll", reaching a peak of number 12 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart and the top-forty in Austria. Elsewhere, it also achieved moderate impact in the United Kingdom and the United States.
On February 27, 2014, Lavigne revealed on her Twitter page that she would be releasing two singles in two different territories. Later, she revealed that "Hello Kitty" was going to be released in Asia, shooting its music video in March 2014. Lavigne also revealed the cover art for the single and its music video was released on April 21, 2014. Its music video was heavily criticised by critics, with Billboard labelling it "abhorrent" and "lazy". Its depiction of Japanese culture was met with widespread criticism, which has included suggestions of racism, with Lavigne denying it. "Hello Kitty" debuted at number 75 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, due to the popularity of its music video.
On March 21, 2014, Lavigne confirmed that "Give You What You Like" would be released as the album's fifth single. Almost a year later, on February 2, 2015; the official artwork for "Give You What You Like" was uploaded via Lavigne's official Twitter account along with the announcement that the song would be featured in the upcoming Lifetime film Babysitter's Black Book, which premieres on February 21, 2015. The following day, a 30-second clip of the music video, including footage from the film, was posted on Vevo. On February 10, 2015, the music video for "Give You What You Like" was released. The song was released to the radio by Epic Records on March 30, 2015, as the album's fifth single.
Other songs
The only promotional single "How You Remind Me" was released in Japan on December 11, 2012, as a digital download on the One Piece Film: Z soundtrack. It was released on December 19, 2013, as a digital download in the UK. The song was included in the Japan, Taiwan and China Tour Edition of the album as one of the bonus tracks.
Tour
To further promote the album, Lavigne embarked on her fifth concert tour, "The Avril Lavigne Tour", starting in Asia, followed by South America. In the United States, Lavigne served as opening act on the Backstreet Boys tour, "In a World Like This Tour".
Critical reception
At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, it received an average score of 65, based on 9 reviews indicating "Generally favorable reviews". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the album a rating of 3.5 out of 5 stars, calling it "one of Avril's livelier and better albums; it's all about the good times, no matter how temporary or illusionary they may be." Erlewine also wrote that the "hooks are stronger, better than so many of Avril's songs since her 2002 debut, Let Go." Jason Lipshutz of Billboard praised the album for "encapsulat[ing] everything worth loving about the 29-year-old's long-running artistry," highlighting that "unlike 2011's Goodbye Lullaby, which featured moments in which Lavigne sounded unsure of herself, the singer is fully in control here." Nick Catucci of Entertainment Weekly was also positive, praising Lavigne for "revealing her grown-woman wisdom," noticing that the album "reminds us that maturity sometimes means doubling down on what's expected of you." Sowing Season of Sputnikmusic wrote that the album "couldn't be a better representation of her career up to the present day. It's fun, easily digestible pop for the masses, featuring the soaring choruses and melodies that made us fall in love with her over the past ten years."
Sam Lansky of Idolator lauded the album as his "favorite pop album of the year," labeling it "the Avril-iest album of Avril's career. It's brimming with character, jagged with contradictions, deeply nostalgic, occasionally annoying, likably bratty and mostly great." Laurence Green of musicOMH praised the album, writing that "the eponymous effort goes a long way to restore the singer to her rightful place as purveyor of some of the most carefree, feelgood pop around." Craig Manning of Absolute Punk acknowledged that, "It's not going to be a new favorite album for anyone other than Avril Lavigne's most ardent admirers, but a handful of great summer mixtape songs and a few other exercises in mindless pop fun are still enough to make 'Avril Lavigne' the eponymous singer's best record in nine years." Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian echoed the same thought, calling the "bratty nostalgia trip", "the best thing she's done in years." In a more negative review, Chuck Eddy of Rolling Stone found that the album features "soggy ballads, sometimes vaguely goth or R&B, and tries in vain to keep up with Taylor Swift," but praised "Hello Kitty" for feeling "truly playful." Kyle Fowle of Slant Magazine also found the exploration of life-affirming mantras and boasts of rebelliousness "forced, as if she's trying to capture an attitude, and craft a persona, that she no longer lives."
Accolades
Commercial performance
Avril Lavigne debuted at number five on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart, selling over 44,000 copies, becoming Lavigne's fifth straight top 10 album. However, it also heralded her lowest peak and first-week sales on the chart. In its second week, the album dropped from number 5 to number 26. As of September 2015, the album has sold 156,000 pure copies in the United States and received a Gold certification from RIAA with 500,000 units sold in the US. In Canada, the album debuted at number four, with sales of 8,500 copies. With this chart position, Lavigne managed to have all of her albums debut on the chart within the top five. The album was certified Platinum in MC Canada with 80,000 units sold. In Japan, the album debuted at number-two, shifting 47,873 copies in its first week, becoming the second album by Lavigne to peak in this position, the other being Goodbye Lullaby (2011). As of 2014, the album has sold over 210,000 copies in Japan.
In the United Kingdom, the album debuted and peaked at number 14 with a little over 9,000 units sold, becoming her first album to enter and peak outside the top 10 within the United Kingdom, leaving the charts after one week. As of September 2015, Avril Lavigne sold 50,000 copies, becoming the least successful album by Lavigne in the United Kingdom. In Australia, the album debuted at number 7, selling 2,829 copies and remained on the chart for two weeks. In China and Taiwan, the album debuted at the top of the charts, eventually receiving Gold certification in China with sales of 10,000 copies. The album is the 9th best selling album of 2013 in Taiwan with sales of over 36,000 sold making Lavigne the only female western artist on the Top 10 list. Avril Lavigne selftitled album has sold 650,000 copies worldwide as of April 2014.
Track listing
Notes
signifies an additional producer
signifies a vocal producer
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Avril Lavigne.
Keith Armstrong – assistant mixer
Chris Baseford – additional engineer, recorder, producer, instruments
Chris Bernard – gang vocals
Cory Bice – assistant engineer
Candece Campbell – A&R
David Campbell – string arrangements
Chad Copelin – bass, programming, recorder
Tom Coyne – mastering
Dan Dymtrow – management
Şerban Ghenea – mixing
Dan Gillan – gang vocals
Justin Glasco – drums, percussion
Larry Goetz – additional guitar, mandolin
Richard B. Göransson – songwriter, producer, guitar, keyboards
John Hanes – engineer for mix
Jeri Heiden – art direction, design
Justin Hergett – assistant engineer for mix
David Hodges – songwriter, piano, gang vocals, instruments, backup vocals, producer, programming, acoustic guitars, background vocals, keys, additional vocal producer, keys
Sam Holland – recorder
Martin Johnson – producer, electric guitar, acoustic guitar, piano, programming, percussion, cigar box guitar, background vocals, songwriter, gang vocals, additional instrumentation, recorder
Taylor Johnson – mandolin
Devin Kam – gang vocals
Nik Karpen – assistant mixer
J Kash – songwriter, backup vocals
Suzie Katayama – cello
Ethan Kaufmann – acoustic guitar, electric guitars
Chad Kroeger – songwriter, vocals, gang vocals, producer, instruments, guest vocals, acoustic guitar, electric guitars, drums, percussion, additional vocal producer
Miguel Lara – assistant additional engineer
Avril Lavigne – songwriter, vocals, gang vocals, guitars, background vocals, percussion, executive producer
Adam Leber – management
Mark Liddell – photography
Chris Lord-Alge – mixer
James McAlister – drums, percussion
Peter Mack – assistant additional engineer, assistant recorder
Marilyn Manson – guest vocals
Max Martin – additional programming, keyboard
Tony Maserati – mixing
Steven Miller – guitars, mixing
Kyle Moorman – programming, additional producer, gang vocals, recorder
Josh Newell – additional engineer
Dave "Rave" Ogilvie – mixing
Brandon Paddock – programming, additional producer, gang vocals, bass, recorder
L.A. Reid – executive producer
Eva Reistad – assistant additional engineer
JP Robinson – epic art direction
Larry Rudolph – management
Andrew Schubert – additional assistant mixer, assistant additional engineer
SMOG Design – art direction, design
Matt Squire – producer, instruments, backup vocals
Gordini Sran – programming, additional engineer
Steven Stark – cello
Nick Steinhardt – art direction, design
Kyle Stevens – assistant additional engineer, assistant recorder
Peter Svensson – songwriter, producer, guitar, programming, keyboards, recorder
Brad Townsend – additional assistant mixer, assistant additional engineer
Eric Weaver – assistant additional engineer
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
Release history
References
2013 albums
Avril Lavigne albums
Epic Records albums
Albums recorded at Henson Recording Studios
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathcad
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Mathcad
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Mathcad — система комп'ютерної алгебри з класу систем автоматизованого проєктування, орієнтована на підготовку інтерактивних документів з обчисленнями і візуальним супроводженням, відрізняється легкістю використання і застосування для колективної роботи.
Mathcad має простий і інтуїтивний для використання інтерфейс користувача. Для введення формул і даних можна використовувати як клавіатуру, так і спеціальні панелі інструментів.
Деякі з математичних можливостей Mathcad (версії до 13.1 включно) засновані на підмножині системи комп'ютерної алгебри Maple (MKM, Maple Kernel Mathsoft). Версії 14 та 15 використовують символьне ядро MuPAD. Нове покоління — Mathcad Prime (поточна версія 9.0) зворотної сумісності із попередніми версіями Mathcad не має (можлива конвертація файлів попередніх версій у формат Mathcad Prime).
Робота здійснюється в межах робочого аркуша, на якому рівняння і вирази відображаються графічно, на противагу текстовому запису в мовах програмування. При створенні документів-програм використовується принцип WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get — «що бачиш, те й отримуєш») набору математичних виразів та тексту у інтерактивному блокноті.
Попри те, що ця програма здебільшого орієнтована на користувачів-непрограмістів, Mathcad також використовується в складніших проєктах, щоб візуалізувати результати математичного моделювання, шляхом використання найбільш поширених обчислень і традиційних мов програмування.
Mathcad доволі зручно використовувати для навчання, обчислень і інженерних розрахунків. Відкрита архітектура застосунків у поєднанні з підтримкою технологій .NET і XML дозволяють легко інтегрувати Mathcad практично в будь-які ІТ-структури і інженерні застосування. Є можливість створення електронних книг (e-Book).
Можливості
Mathcad містить сотні операторів і вбудованих функцій для вирішення різних технічних завдань. Програма дозволяє виконувати чисельні і символьні обчислення, проводити операції з скалярними величинами, векторами і матрицями, автоматично переводити одні одиниці вимірювання в інші.
Mathcad має такі можливості:
Розв'язання диференціальних рівнянь (в тому числі - диференціальних рівнянь з частинними похідними).
Побудова двовимірних і тривимірних графіків (в різних системах координат, контурні, векторні тощо).
Використання грецького алфавіту (верхній і нижній регістр) як в тексті, так і у рівняннях.
Символьні обчислення.
Операції з векторами і матрицями.
Символьне розв'язання систем рівнянь.
Згладжування кривих.
Виконання підпрограм.
Знаходження коренів функцій і поліномів, розв'язання тригонометричних рівнянь.
Статистичні функції і розподіли ймовірностей.
Пошук власних значень і власних векторів.
Обчислення з розмірностями; перетворення одиниць вимірювань.
Інтеграція із САПР (Creo Elements/Pro, Windchill, Creo Elements/View), використання результатів обчислень для параметричного конструювання.
Інтеграція таблиць Excel.
За допомогою Mathcad інженери можуть документувати всі обчислення в процесі їх проведення.
Порівняльна характеристика
Призначення
Mathcad належить до так званих систем комп'ютерної алгебри, тобто засобів автоматизації математичних розрахунків. В цьому класі програмного забезпечення існує багато аналогів різноманітної спрямованості і принципу побудови. Найбільш часто Mathcad з такими програмними комплексами, як Maple, Mathematica, MATLAB, а також з їх аналогами MuPAD, SciLab, Maxima та ін. Втім, об'єктивне порівняння ускладнюється у зв'язку із різним призначенням програм і ідеологією їх використання.
Система Maple, наприклад, призначена головним чином для виконання аналітичних (символьних) обчислень і має для цього один з найпотужніших у своєму класі арсенал спеціалізованих процедур і функцій (понад 3000). Така комплектація для більшості користувачів, які стикаються з необхідністю виконання математичних розрахунків середнього рівня складності, є надлишковою. Можливості Maple орієнтовані на користувачів — професійних математиків; розв'язання задач в середовищі Maple потребує не тільки вміння оперувати тією чи іншою функцією, але й знання методів розв'язання, в неї закладених: в багатьох вбудованих функціях Maple фігурує аргумент, що задає метод розв'язання.
Те ж саме можна сказати і про Mathematica. Це одна з найпотужніших систем; має надзвичайно велику функціональну наповненість (є навіть синтезування звуку). Mathematica має високу швидкість обчислень, але потребує вивчення доволі незвичайної мови програмування.
Розробники Mathcad зробили ставку на розширення системи відповідно до потреб користувача. Для цього призначені додаткові бібліотеки і пакети розширення, які можна придбати окремо і які мають додаткові функції, що вбудовуються в систему при інсталяції; а також електронні книги із описом методів розв'язання специфічних задач, з прикладами діючих алгоритмів і документів, які можна використовувати безпосередньо у власних розрахунках. Крім того, в разі потреби і за умови наявності навичок програмування в C, є можливість створення власних функцій і їх прикріплення до ядра системи через механізм dll.
Mathcad, на відміну від Maple, спочатку створювався для чисельного вирішення математичних задач, він орієнтований на вирішення задач саме прикладної, а не теоретичної математики, коли потрібно отримати результат без заглиблення в математичну суть задачі. Втім, для тих, кому потрібні символьні обчислення, і призначене інтегроване ядро Maple (з версії 14 — MuPAD). Особливо це корисно, коли йдеться про створення документів освітнього призначення, коли необхідно продемонструвати побудову математичної моделі, виходячи з фізичної картини процесу або явища. Символьне ядро Mathcad, на відміну від оригінального Maple (MuPAD), штучно обмежене (доступно близько 300 функцій), але цього в переважній більшості випадків цілком достатньо для розв'язання задач інженерного характеру.
Більш того, досвідчені користувачі Mathcad виявили, що принаймні у версіях до 13 включно є можливість не надто складним способом задіяти майже весь функціональний арсенал ядра Maple (так звані «недокументовані можливості»), що наближує обчислювальну потужність Mathcad до Maple.
Інтерфейс, програмування
Основна відмінність Mathcad від аналогічних програм — це графічний, а не текстовий режим вводу виразів. Для набору команд, функцій, формул можна використовувати як клавіатуру, так і кнопки на численних спеціальних панелях інструментів. В будь-якому разі — формули будуть мати звичний, аналогічний книжковому, вигляд. Тобто особливої підготовки для набору формул, власне, й не потрібно. Обчислення із введеними формулами здійснюються за бажанням користувача або миттєво, одночасно із набором, або за командою. Звичайні формули обчислюються зліва-направо і зверху вниз (подібно читанню тексту). Будь-які змінні, формули, параметри можна змінювати, спостерігаючи наочно відповідні зміни результату. Це дає можливість організації справді інтерактивних обчислювальних документів.
В інших програмах (Maple, MuPAD, Mathematica) обчислення здійснюються в режимі програмного інтерпретатора, який трансформує у формули введені у вигляді тексту команди. Maple своїм інтерфейсом орієнтовано на тих користувачів, хто вже має навички програмування в середовищі традиційних мов із введенням складних формул в текстовому режимі. Для користування Mathcad можна взагалі не бути знайомим з програмуванням в тому чи іншому вигляді.
Mathcad передбачався як засіб програмування без програмування, але якщо виникає така потреба — Mathcad має доволі прості для засвоєння інструменти програмування, що дозволяють, проте, будувати вельми складні алгоритми, до чого вдаються, коли вбудованих засобів вирішення задачі бракує, а також коли необхідно виконувати серійні розрахунки.
Окремо слід відзначити можливість використання у розрахунках Mathcad величин з розмірностями, причому можна вибрати систему одиниць: СІ, СГС, МКС, американську або побудувати власну. Результати обчислень, зрозуміло, також отримують відповідну розмірність. Користь від такої можливості важко переоцінити, оскільки значно спрощується відстеження помилок у розрахунках, особливо — у фізичних та інженерних.
Графіка
В середовищі Mathcad фактично немає графіків функцій в математичному розумінні терміну, а є візуалізація даних, що знаходяться у векторах та матрицях (тобто здійснюється побудова як ліній, так і поверхонь по точках з інтерполяцією), хоча користувач може про це й не знати, оскільки у нього є можливість використання безпосередньо функцій однієї або двох змінних для побудови графіків чи поверхонь відповідно. Так чи інакше, механізм візуалізації Mathcad значно поступається існуючому в Maple, де достатньо мати лише вид функції, щоб побудувати графік або поверхню будь-якого рівня складності. Порівняно з Maple графіка Mathcad має ще такі недоліки, як: неможливість побудови поверхонь у непрямокутній області існування двох аргументів; створення і форматування графіків доступне лише через меню, що обмежує можливості програмного керування параметрами графіки.
Однак слід пам'ятати про основну область застосування Mathcad — для задач інженерного характеру і створення навчальних інтерактивних документів можливостей візуалізації цілком достатньо. Досвідчені користувачі Mathcad демонструють можливість візуалізації надзвичайно складних математичних конструкцій, але об'єктивно це вже виходить за рамки призначення пакету.
Розширення функціональності Mathcad (окрім Prime-версій)
Можливе доповнення Mathcad новими можливостями за допомогою спеціалізованих пакетів розширень і бібліотек, які поповнюють систему додатковими функціями і константами для вирішення спеціалізованих задач:
Пакет для аналізу даних (Data Analysis Extension Pack). Це розширення забезпечує Mathcad необхідними інструментами для аналізу даних.
Пакет для обробки сигналів (Signal Processing Extension Pack). У цьому пакеті міститься більше 70 вбудованих функцій для обробки сигналів, за допомогою яких можна здійснювати аналогову і цифрову обробку сигналів, проводити аналіз і представляти результати в графічному вигляді.
Пакет для обробки зображень (Image Processing Extension Pack). Це розширення забезпечує Mathcad необхідними інструментами для обробки зображень, аналізу і візуалізації.
Пакет для роботи з функціями хвильового перетворення (Wavelets Extension Pack). У цьому пакеті містяться сімейства вейвлет-функцій, які можна додати в бібліотеку вбудованих функцій Mathcad Professional. Пакет надає можливість застосувати новий підхід до аналізу сигналів і зображень, статистичної оцінки сигналів, аналізу стиснення даних, а також спеціальних чисельних методів. Функціональність включає одно- і двомірні вейвлети, , мультианаліз роздільної здатності і багато іншого. Пакет об'єднує понад 60 функцій ключових вейвлетів. Включено ортогональні і біортогональні сімейства вейвлетів, серед іншого — Гаарів вейвлет, вейвлет Добеші, симлет, койфлет і B-сплайни. Пакет також містить обширну діалогову документацію по основних принципах вейвлетів, додатки, приклади і таблиці посилань.
Бібліотека розширень для обробки цифрових сигналів (Digital Signal Processing Extension Library). Включає три пакети розширення: Wavelets Extension Pack, Image Processing Extension Pack, Signal Processing Extension Pack.
Пакет для виконання складних розрахунків і розв'язання задач оптимізації (Solving & Optimization Extension Pack, раніше — Expert Solver Extension Pack). Цей пакет надає можливості для складних інженерних, фінансових розрахунків в галузі виробництва, бізнесу, дослідження операцій. Інсталяція пакету розширення дає можливість скористатись понад 1000 константами, функціями і змінними; багатьма шаблонами стандартних задач. Пакет додає розширені процедури оптимізації, квадратичне програмування; можливість застосування квадратичного програмування у розв'язанні складних задач інженерії і фінансів; оптимізаційні процедури лінійного та нелінійного програмування; усунення деяких обмежень на використання констант і змінних у чисельних розрахунках і оптимізації.
Пакети Numerical Recipes Extension Pack, Communication System Design Pack, Steam Tables Extension Pack зараз не поставляються.
Електронні бібліотеки
Додаток має 3 електронних бібліотеки:
Електротехнічна бібліотека (Electrical Engineering Library). У цій бібліотеці містяться сотні стандартних обчислювальних процедур, формул і довідкових таблиць для вжитку в електротехніці. Текстові пояснення і приклади допоможуть отримати всю необхідну інформацію у будь-який момент. Кожен заголовок має гіперпосилання на зміст і покажчик, і його можна знайти в системі пошуку.
Бібліотека машинобудування (Mechanical Engineering Library). Бібліотека машинобудування включає застосування Roark's Formulas for Stress and Strain, обчислювальні процедури з довідника McGraw-Hill і метод скінченних елементів. Наявні текстові пояснення, приклади і пошукова система для отримання потрібної інформації. У бібліотеці також є електронна книга, написана інженером і викладачем Девідом Пінтуром, «Вступ в метод скінченних елементів».
Бібліотека будівництва (Civil Engineering Library). У бібліотеці будівництва є довідник Roark's Formulas for Stress and Strain, шаблони для будівельного проєктування, що настроюються, приклади теплових розрахунків.
Електронні книги
Існує також величезна кількість електронних книг, орієнтованих на вирішення специфічних задач, а також освітньої спрямованості. Багато з них розповсюджуються безкоштовно (доступно на сайті Mathcad).
Взаємодія з іншими програмами
Mathcad інтегрується з такими програмами як SmartSketch, VisSim/Comm PE і Creo Parametric.
Додаток SmartSketch оснований на новітніх технологіях Windows і дозволяє інженерам, дизайнерам, архітекторам, креслярам, системним і мережевим адміністраторам працювати з точними кресленнями і графіками.
VisSim/Comm PE — це Windows-додаток для моделювання аналогових, цифрових або змішаних систем зв'язку на сигнальному або фізичному рівні.
Використання компонентів
В документах-програмах Mathcad є можливість вставки модулів (component) інших додатків для розширення можливостей візуалізації, аналізу даних, виконання специфічних обчислень.
Для розширеної візуалізації даних призначений компонент Axum Graph. Для роботи з табличними даними — Microsoft Excel.
Компоненти Data Acquisition, ODBC Input дозволяють скористатись зовнішніми базами даних.
Пропонуються також безкоштовні модулі (add-in) для інтеграції Mathcad з програмами Excel, AutoCAD.
Для статистичного аналізу призначений компонент Axum S-PLUS Script.
Значне розширення можливостей пакету досягається при інтеграції з надпотужним додатком MATLAB.
Пропонуються також безкоштовні модулі (add-in) для інтеграції Mathcad з програмами Excel, AutoCAD.
Історія
Mathcad був задуманий і спочатку написаний Алленом Раздовим та Джошем Бернофф з Массачусетського технологічного інституту (MIT), співзасновником компанії Mathsoft Inc., яка з 2006 року є частиною корпорації PTC (Parametric Technology Corporation). Перший реліз був випущений у 1986 році на платформі DOS. Це була перша система, яка підтримувала WYSIWYG-редагування та перерахунок математичних виразів, змішаних з текстом. Вона також була першою, яка водночас з обчисленнями перевіряла узгодженість одиниць вимірювання. На той час існували й інші системи розв'язання рівнянь, але вони не мали інтерфейсу інтерактивного блокнота: TK Solver від Software Arts був випущений у 1982 році, а Eureka від Borland: The Solver була випущена у 1987 році.
Mathcad був придбаний компанією Parametric Technology у квітні 2006 року.
Mathcad був названий редакторами журналу PC Magazine "Кращим у 87 році" та "Кращим у 88 році".
Історія версій
Скриншоти попередніх версій Mathcad
Mathcad 1.0—5.xx
Версії Mathcad з 1.0 по 2.5.2 працювали в операційній системі DOS, мали невеликий загальний розмір виконуваних файлів (до 1 МБ) і незначні (за сучасними мірками) системні вимоги (оперативна пам'ять до 1 МБ, IBM-сумісний комп'ютер). Можливості дозволяли виконувати операції як з елементарними математичними функціями, так і спеціальними (статистичними, булевими, комплексними тощо). Вже в перших версіях існувала можливість використання розмірностей у розрахунках і побудови 2D-графіки.
3D-графіка з'явилась у версіях 2.5х і вище, можливості якої, втім, суттєво стримувались незначними обчислювальними можливостями тогочасних ЕОМ.
Об'єднавши зусилля з фірмою Waterloo Maple Software і ввівши в свої системи ядро потужної системи символьної математики Maple V, MathSoft Inc. навчила свою систему (починаючи вже з версії 3.0) основам комп'ютерної алгебри (символьної математики). Проте, з численних функцій ядра Maple V і його розширень (їх було близько 2500 в Maple V R3 для Windows) залучено лише мізерну частину найпоширеніших функцій символьної математики. Тим часом з'явилася можливість використовувати функції ядра Maple V з викликом їх з системи Mathcad.
Можливості програмування обмежувались функціями if і until, що дозволяли реалізовувати лише дві основні алгоритмічні конструкції — вибір і повторення. Але ці функції не можуть мати як аргументи блоки складених операторів. Тому для реалізації навіть нескладного алгоритму потрібно було підключати механізм вкладених функцій, що суттєво ускладнювало програмування.
Версії з 3.1 і вище вже працювали на платформі Windows. Починаючи з п'ятої версії Mathcad користувачам була представлена можливість оголошення в середовищі Mathcad нових вбудованих функцій. Їх потрібно було написати мовою С, відкомпілювати 32-розрядним транслятором і прикріпити до Mathcad через механізм DLL.
В п'ятій версії також з'явились інструменти розв'язання звичайних диференціальних рівнянь (ЗДР) і їх систем.
Mathcad 6
Версії Mathcad 6.0 і PLUS 6.0 були розраховані на роботу з ОС Windows 95 і були повноцінними 32-розрядними додатками, що могли повністю використовувати нові можливості мікропроцесорів серій 486/Pentium. Інтерфейс системи було поліпшено, підвищена швидкість виконання операцій, введені численні нові графічні можливості, нові функції і нові можливості програмування.
Система 6.0 Standard Edition розрахована на звичайних користувачів, до яких належать науковці, інженери, викладачі і студенти вузів, що з повагою ставляться до математики, але що не вважають все ж таки її головним своїм заняттям. Система орієнтована на ПК класу 386DX і вище з місткістю RAM не менше 4 МБ і вільним простором на диску не менше 12 МБ для файлу підкачки і ще 20 МБ для установки самої системи.
Другий варіант системи — PLUS 6.0 орієнтований на користувачів — професіоналів, що потребують потужнішого математичного помічника. Для реалізації розширених можливостей стає необхідною RAM з місткістю не менше 8 МБ. Mathcad PLUS 6.0 має помітно розширений набір функцій (20 нових матричних функцій, 13 функцій для розв'язання диференціальних рівнянь різного типу, ряд нових статистичних функцій тощо), розширені можливості символьних обчислень і потужну графіку. Вартість Mathcad 6.0 складала $129, а Mathcad PLUS 6.0 — $495. Були також версії для студентів і школярів (Mathcad 6.0 BASIC, $90), Mathcad 6.0 Standart ($240). До версій Standart і PLUS додатково включався засіб рисування технічних і бізнес-діаграм Visio Express корпорації Visio.
Mathcad 7
У версії Mathcad 7.0 PRO були такі удосконалення й нововведення: відсутність проблеми 2000 року; інтерфейс, істотно перероблений і наближений до інтерфейсу текстового процесора Word 95/97; виділення частин математичних виразів мишею; задання вперше для даної змінної її значення або значень натисненням клавіші «=» (при цьому на екрані виводиться знак привласнення «:=»), при повторному використанні клавіші "=" для цієї ж змінної виводиться її поточне значення; швидка побудова (QuickPlot) графіків в декартових і полярних координатах з автоматичною установкою меж зміни незалежних змінних; нова палітра символьної математики з розширеними операторами; зручніший і наочніший синтаксис символьних операцій; можливість обробки помилок в ході обчислень; нові інструкції on error, continue, return; застосування в програмах операторів символьних операцій; новий тип рядкових даних, констант і змінних; вісім нових функцій для роботи з рядковими даними; задання розмірних величин в системі СІ; можливість підготовки складних документів різними користувачами, що працюють в різних місцях, за допомогою Collaboratory; можливість обміну документами через Інтернет; поява більш оперативного центру ресурсів (Resource Center) замість «швидких шпаргалок» QuickSheet, електронних книг, самовчителя та ін.; моделювання (симуляція) роботи складних систем, побудованих з функціональних блоків, за допомогою системи MathConnex, що має 16 компонентів; можливість використання функцій інших систем (Excel, Axum, MATLAB і ін.) і фактична інтеграція з ними.
Деякі з вказаних змін були, швидше, з розряду приємних дрібниць, наприклад розширена дія знаку "=" (раніше для привласнення змінним значень потрібно було вводити тільки комбінований знак «:=»). Інші зміни, такі як інтеграція з іншими системами і застосування системного інтегратора MathConnex, були серйозними доповненням системи, що відкрили безліч нових можливостей.
Mathcad 8
Версія Mathcad 8.0 PRO надала ще цілий ряд корисних можливостей: близько 50 нових математичних функцій (елементарних, спеціальних статистичних та ін.); нові функції оптимізації maximize і minimize; розв'язання задач лінійного програмування; нові функції контролю типу даних; поліпшений блок розв'язання систем нелінійних рівнянь — знято обмеження на повне число рівнянь (раніше було не більше 50), тепер їх число досягло 200; введення набору методів чисельного інтегрування з можливістю вибору конкретного методу через контекстне меню; можливість проведення бінарних обчислень; ефективні засоби згладжування даних; поліпшені засоби введення і форматування тексту; команди редагування Find (знайти) і Replace (знайти і замінити); нова можливість блокування і приховування областей; поліпшене виведення таблиць; можливість запису документів у форматі HTML; можливість запису документів у форматі попередніх версій; підтримка нової графіки OpenGL і ActiveX; застосування майстрів для створення складних тривимірних графіків; істотно поліпшені засоби форматування графіків; перегляд графіків в збільшеному масштабі; застосування функціонального забарвлення поверхонь; можливість зображення на одному тривимірному графіку поверхонь і фігур різного типу; можливість зображення на одному тривимірному графіку різних об'єктів, з перетинанням в просторі; можливість обертання тривимірних графіків в просторі мишею; анімація тривимірних графіків.
Mathcad 2000 (версія 9)
Версія Mathcad 2000 додала до існуючих можливостей ще ряд нових і істотних відмінностей: поліпшений інтерфейс системи, зокрема інтеграція з Інтернетом перенесена в центр ресурсів; введений ряд нових функцій для фінансово-економічних розрахунків, створення матриць тривимірних поверхонь, чисельного розв'язання диференціальних рівнянь у складі блоку Given, контролю типу розмірних змінних та ін.; введений набір функцій для виконання регресії — експоненціальної, логарифмічної, синусоїдальної та ін.; введений набір логічних операторів; розширені можливості функції root — тепер вона може шукати корінь не тільки по заданому наближенню (функція з двома параметрами), але й у заданому інтервалі (функція з чотирма параметрами); введена прискорена і спрощена побудова тривимірних графіків; передбачено накладення написів на блоки документів, зокрема графічні; введено трасування помилок; істотно оновлений набір прикладів в центрі ресурсів; забезпечений контроль орфографії англомовних текстів на трьох діалектах англійської мови.
Mathcad 2001 (версія 10)
У версії Mathcad 2001 ще більше зросла продуктивність обчислень і розширені можливості. Впроваджено підтримку Windows 2000. Створено чотири модифікації з урахуванням специфіки використання.
Основні нововведення: істотно розширена сумісність з іншими популярними додатками; обробка одиниць вимірювання в реальному часі; обмеження рекурсивного спуску в процесі обчислень (виграш в швидкості до 5-20 разів у порівнянні з попередніми версіями); оптимізовані обчислення, особливо для ітерацій, підсумовування, інтегрування і диференціювання; нові логічні алгоритми, засновані на залежностях від областей зміни змінних і велика узгодженість між аналітичними і чисельними розрахунками; поліпшене управління пам'яттю і обробка об'єктів робочого документа, що видаляються; новий режим публікації у поєднанні з заснованими на MathML можливостями електронних публікацій; включення останньої версії IBM Techexplorer Professional Edition для читання і редагування MathML, TeX і LaTeX.
Суттєво вдосконалено інструменти для створення додатків з використанням Mathcad: поліпшені об'єкти програмування сценарію для створення нових модулів з програмованих OLE і COM об'єктів і зберігання їх для повторного використання і розповсюдження. Підтримуються стандартні мови програмування сценаріїв, такі як VBScript і JScript.
Mathcad 2001i («інтерактивний»)
Mathcad 2001i отримав повну підтримку Windows XP, розширені можливості збору даних від зовнішніх пристроїв, підвищену захищеність Mathcad-документів введенням сучасної криптографії, спрощену публікацію в Інтернет, розширене число алгоритмів розв'язання задач і набір опцій користувацьких налаштувань.
Основні нововведення:
включення сучасних методів криптографії файлів для захисту змісту документів до того моменту, поки вони не надійдуть в руки адресатів; крім того, при розповсюдженні документів додано можливість заблокувати всі області Mathcad з конструкціями і обчисленнями, тобто поширювати результати не відкриваючи суті ідей. Mathcad 2001i також надав можливість користувачам задавати нові опції секретності для захисту від внесення до документів кодів, небезпечних для призначених для користувача комп'ютерних систем;
введено підтримку збору даних від аналогових DAQ-плат і поліпшену сумісність з платами пристроїв компанії National Instruments;
додано декілька опцій для підвищення комфортності роботи, ґрунтуючись на безлічі запитів користувачів, зокрема: опція кольорової сітки для двовимірних графіків, включення і написи на тривимірних графіках, регіональні установки і друк поточної сторінки;
двонаправлена підтримка MathML, підтримка інтерактивних даних, поліпшена графіка і, за допомогою додаткових Інтернет-шаблонів, спрощена публікація в Інтернет;
новий, швидкий і точний алгоритм Radau розв'язання звичайних диференціальних рівнянь. Блоки розв'язку звичайних диференціальних рівнянь тепер підтримують системи диференціальних рівнянь і диференціальні алгебраїчні рівняння, в той же час вкладені блоки тепер підтримують складніші завдання оптимізації;
поліпшені інтерфейси автоматизації для вбудованих додатків. Нові інтерфейси Mathcad додатків, робочі документи, вікна і області забезпечують ширший набір опцій для налаштування Mathcad з метою виконання завдань, що повторюються.
Mathcad 11—11.2a
При створенні Mathcad 11 основна увага була звернена на збільшення швидкості і потужності роботи системи. Мета полягала в тому, щоб поліпшити ядро Mathcad, розширити і поліпшити зручності роботи з Mathcad.
Основні нововведення:
Розширені компоненти вводу-виводу для імпорту і експорту даних у вигляді рядків і стовпчиків, а також можливості читання-запису змішаних текстово-числових файлів; забезпечена глибша інтеграція з Microsoft Excel; використовуючи прості команди copy/paste, можна створювати і відображати змішані дані безпосередньо у формі матриць і таблиць; забезпечена нова підтримка читання/запису для рівномірних, довільних і однорідних файлів двійкового формату (READBIN і WRITEBIN), що дає користувачам більшу гнучкість в операціях імпорту-експорту даних, ніж їх перетворення в ASCII-коди; забезпечена нова підтримка для проходження рядкових даних через UserEFI-інтерфейс (функції, визначені користувачем; DLL).
На основі ODE-обчислювальних блоків (для розв'язання звичайних диференціальних рівнянь) Mathcad 2001i, Mathcad 11 тепер підтримує PDE-обчислювальні блоки (для розв'язання диференціальних рівнянь з частинними похідними); забезпечена нова підтримка для комплексних аргументів функцій floor, ceil, round і trunc; додані комплексні функції Бесселя і Ганкеля; розширені можливості функції genfit, яка забезпечує апроксимацію кривих нелінійними функціями загального вигляду; введена нова sinc функція для обчислення точних значень sin(x)/x в границі при х, що прямує до 0; новий доступ до «зернових» значень в генераторах випадкових чисел.
Поліпшений формат тексту RTF дозволяє вставляти фрагменти з документу Mathcad в такі прикладні застосунки як Microsoft Word без додаткового переформатування; поліпшена підтримка протоколу HTTP, яка дозволяє відкривати віддалені файли Mathcad, розміщені на Web-сервері, за допомогою команди File Open; поліпшений HTML-подібний формат для вставки в Internet сторінок з колонтитулами, посиланнями і картинками; забезпечена можливість зберігати документи як Інтернет-сторінки.
Mathcad 12
Нова версія пакету отримала досконаліше математичне ядро, а також додаткові опції, що дозволяють зберігати і публікувати документи Mathcad в різних форматах.
Основні нововведення:
Можливість трасування обчислень: проміжні дані можуть бути виведені як для всього документа в цілому, так і для його окремих областей, що дозволяє ефективно контролювати виконання початкових кодів Mathcad.
Додаткові можливості публікації результатів обчислень завдяки новому формату даних XML: XSL-HTML-конвертер дозволяє генерувати вебсторінки кращої якості; опція XSL: FO дозволяє зберігати дані у форматі PDF; всередині XML зображення зберігаються в спеціальному економічному форматі, що дозволяє значно зменшити обсяг на диску для файлів з великою кількістю графіки.
подвійна вісь ординат на двовимірних графіках, що дозволяє представити на одному графіку функції, що значно розрізняються по величині, а також збільшити допустиму кількість графіків, що можуть одночасно відображатись в одному блоку, до 32 (порівняно з 16 в попередніх версіях).
Mathcad Application Server: форми і кнопки для вебдодатків, підтримуваних Mathcad Application Server.
Нові можливості по імпорту даних з файлів, створених іншими програмами: підтримка великої кількості нових форматів даних; функція READFILE дозволяє імпортувати дані всередині програмних циклів.
Mathcad 13—13.1
Основні нововведення:
Потужні засоби відладки програм, включаючи можливість вставки міток і покрокового виконання програмних циклів; нова функція автозбереження дозволяє виключити можливість втрати виконаної інженерами роботи; новий покажчик математичних помилок дозволяє усувати помилки, які без нього могли б бути пропущені.
Підтримка нелінійних одиниць вимірювання, таких, як Фаренгейт, Цельсій і децибел; можливість створення власних одиниць вимірювання за допомогою простого меню.
Істотно підвищена продуктивність обчислень в порівнянні з попередніми версіями.
Включено новий потужний клас можливостей визначення «походження», які дають можливість підприємствам точно визначити джерело конкретних розрахунків, величину або результат. Це дозволяє контролювати і відстежувати виконувану роботу.
Mathcad 14
Mathcad 14 — версія Mathcad релізу 12 лютого 2007 року, перша з моменту придбання Mathsoft Inc. компанією PTC. Відповідно, реалізовано можливість двобічної інтеграції з основним продуктом PTC — пакетом Pro/ENGINEER. Базові величини, розраховані в системі Mathcad, можуть бути переведені в параметри і розміри CAD-моделі для управління геометричним об'єктом. Параметри з моделі Pro/ENGINEER також можна ввести в Mathcad для наступних інженерно-конструкторських розрахунків.
Суттєві зміни торкнулись також математичного ядра системи, яке тепер використовує символьну систему MuPAD. Це дозволило в багатьох випадках підвищити точність символьних обчислень та їх деталізацію, але є й негативні наслідки, пов'язані, насамперед, з сумісністю символьних алгоритмів з попередніми версіями (обчислення, які працюють у попередніх версіях, можуть не виконуватись у новій і навпаки).
Основні нововведення:
Інтернаціоналізація: введено повну підтримку шрифтів Unicode та азійських локалізацій операційних систем. Інтерфейс перекладено дев'ятьма мовами (англійська, французька, німецька, італійська, іспанська, японська, корейська, спрощена і традиційна китайська), підтримується перевірка орфографії 15-ма мовами.
2D-графіки: додано можливість вибору формату відображення чисел на шкалах координатних осей. При використанні полярної системи координат є можливість застосування від'ємних значень функції на радіусі.
Інструментарій розв'язання диференціальних рівнянь доповнено трьома новими алгоритмами — за методами Адамса, BDF (формули зворотного диференціювання) і комбінованим Adams/BDF.
Нова функція statespace (поряд з новими функціями Ейрі дозволяє розв'язувати ЗДР, записані у матричній формі.
Додано оператор, що повертає значення градієнту функції у вигляді вектора частинних похідних функції багатьох змінних.
Введено довгоочікуваний користувачами тандем операторів інтерфейсу «…:=…=…», який дозволяє присвоювати змінній будь-який вираз і відразу виводити значення (результат), що ще в більшому ступені наблизило формат запису до звичайного («некомп'ютерного»).
Символьний процесор Mathcad поповнено трьома функціями, трьома ключовими словами і дев'ятьма модифікаторами. Результат символьних обчислень за бажанням можна суттєво деталізувати. Символьні обчислення тепер можливі і з векторизованими функціями.
Загальна функціональність:
є можливість порівняння змін у двох документах Mathcad (XMCD-файли), що дозволяє виявляти математичні та текстові елементи, що було додано, вилучено або змінено, із відповідною кольоровою розміткою. Є можливість виявлення змін результатів обчислень при різниці у налаштуваннях і алгоритмах між версіями Mathcad.
пошук і заміна можливі у прихованих областях документу;
зображення можна зберігати у форматі JPEG із налаштуванням якості, що дозволяє зменшити розмір документів;
активацію замінено на використання ліцензійного файлу, що отримується через Internet під час інсталяції.
Версії Mathcad з 12-ї включно, в зв'язку з використанням формату даних XML, а також із поступовим зростанням функціонального інструментарію, мають обмежену зворотну сумісність документів із попередніми версіями, але можуть майже без обмежень відкривати документи, створені у старих версіях. Як наслідок, імпорт також має обмеження: документ, створений в Mathcad 14 можна зберегти у форматі версії не нижче 11-ї.
Mathcad 15
В актуальній версії Mathcad — 15.0 — суттєвих змін немає. Традиційно Mathcad підтримує роботу САПР Pro/Engineer, а також Windchill ProductPoint.
Основні нові можливості:
додано 25 функцій для розрахунків з планування експериментів (design of experiments (DoE)). Також наявні шаблони для проведення декількох експериментів, за наявності декількох рівнів експерименту (режимів тестування) та різних умов;
інтеграція з базою даних KnovelMath (інженерні і технічні стандарти);
інтеграція з програмним забезпеченням Kornucopia (дозволяє застосовувати шаблони процесів для оцінки даних натурних експериментів і результатів розрахунків);
інтеграція з базою даних Truenumbers (Truenumbers от True Engineering Technology), що надає доступ до різноманітних довідкових матеріалів і даних (результати з Mathcad просто передаються в різноманітні формати документів, що полегшує передачу даних у ланцюгу розробників);
підтримка операційної системи Microsoft Windows 7;
підтримка Microsoft Excel 2007.
Mathcad Prime
Mathcad Prime 9.0 є останнім релізом компанії PTC у програмному забезпеченні для інженерних розрахунків.
Mathcad Prime не сумісний із версіями Mathcad 15.0 та попередніми. Для відкриття файлів, створених у Mathcad, передбачено автоматичний конвертер, який потребує встановлення одночасно з Mathcad Prime версії Mathcad 15, яка поставляється в комплекті.
Більш детально про Mathcad Prime читайте на офіційному сайті розробника PTC.com (англ.) та на сайті партнерів (рос.).
Комплектації
Версії Mathcad можуть відрізнятися комплектацією і ліцензією користувача. В різні часи поставлялись версії Mathcad Professional, Mathcad Premium, Mathcad Enterprise Edition (відрізняються комплектацією). Для академічних користувачів призначена версія Mathcad Academic Professor (має повну функціональність, але відрізняється ліцензією користувача і має в декілька разів нижчу вартість).
Для студентів і співробітників навчальних закладів пропонується «студентська» версія, із суттєвими знижками.
MAS
Подальший розвиток технологія Mathcad отримала при створенні Mathcad Application Server (MAS). Суть технології MAS — в реалізації віддаленого доступу до програмного забезпечення Mathcad, або вже готових Mathcad-документів через вебінтерфейс (технологія Web Calc). Користувач MAS не має потреби купувати Mathcad, скачувати і запускати exe-файли (але це не виключається і визначається рівнем доступу).
Розробником підтримку MAS-технології припинено.
Системні вимоги
Для поточної версії (Mathcad Prime 9.0):
Технічні засоби:
2 ГБ вільного дискового простору (600 МБ для установки Mathcad, 1,5 ГБ для зберігання тимчасових файлів під час установки).
Привід DVD (лише для установки з диска).
Інтернет-з'єднання (для завантаження та для активації ліцензії).
Програмне забезпечення:
Операційна система: Microsoft Windows 10 64-bit або пізнішої версії
Microsoft .NET Framework 4.8
Браузери: Internet Explorer 9.0 або вище, Google Chrome, Firefox 10 або вище
Див. також
Порівняння систем комп'ютерної алгебри
TechEditor
Примітки
Посилання
Офіційний сайт Mathcad
Сторінка Mathcad на сайті представництва PTC у країнах СНД.
«Інженерна компанія ТЕХНОПОЛІС» (офіційний представник розробника PTC в Україні)
Порівняння версій Mathcad Prime 3.1, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0
Порівняння версій Mathcad (13.0, 14.0, 15,0 та Prime 2.0) ,
Корисні матеріали
, — Повний перелік функцій Mathcad і деяких пакетів розширення
Англомовний форум користувачів Mathcad
http://www.adeptscience.co.uk/download/dldcat/33/0/All/Mathcad.html — вільне скачування за умови реєстрації
http://www.mathcad.com/resources/electronic_books/
Приклади застосування Mathcad у різних галузях: http://www.mathcad.com/resources/mathcad_files/ http://www.benkoltd.com/yazilim/mathcad/Mathcad_Files.htm
http://www.mathcad.com/resources/gallery/
Література
http://www.mathcad.com/resources/print_books/
Шукати на Amazon.com
Профільне використання Mathcad
Приклади вирішення задач в Mathcad Prime (рос.)
Фізична хімія ,
http://science.widener.edu/~svanbram/mathcad.html
http://www.math-tech.at/
Хімія, забруднення повітря, теорія ймовірності і статистика, будівництво, механіка рідин, чисельні методи та ін.
Системи комп'ютерної алгебри
САПР
Наукове програмне забезпечення
Математичне програмне забезпечення
Власницьке програмне забезпечення тільки для Windows
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2012060
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From%20Under%20the%20Cork%20Tree
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From Under the Cork Tree
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From Under the Cork Tree is the second studio album by the American rock band Fall Out Boy, released on May 3, 2005 by Island Records as the band's major label debut. The music was composed by lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist Patrick Stump, with all lyrics penned by bassist Pete Wentz, expanding the band's songwriting approach they took for some songs on their debut album, Take This to Your Grave (2003). Neal Avron served as the album's producer. Commenting on the record's lyrical themes, Wentz said the lyrics were about "the anxiety and depression that goes along with looking at your own life." In support of its release, the group headlined tours worldwide and played at various music festivals. For their Black Clouds and Underdogs tour, the album was re-released as From Under the Cork Tree (Limited "Black Clouds and Underdogs" Edition), featuring new songs and remixes.
The album was Fall Out Boy's breakthrough mainstream success. Spearheaded by the lead single "Sugar, We're Goin Down", the album debuted at No. 9 on the US Billboard 200 with 168,000 first week sales, a position it stayed at for two non-consecutive weeks, earning the band their first Top 10 album and becoming their longest charting and best-selling album. It logged 14 weeks in the Top 20 out of its 78 chart weeks. The album as well as its singles won several awards and the album was certified 2× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It has since sold over 2.5 million units in the United States, and over seven million worldwide. The album produced two hugely popular hit singles, "Sugar, We're Goin Down" and "Dance, Dance", which peaked at No. 8 and No. 9 on the Billboard Hot 100 respectively, receiving regular radio play on both pop and alternative stations. In 2005, the album was ranked at No. 43 on the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry's (IFPI) list of the "Top 50 Best Selling Albums of 2005" worldwide.
Background
Fall Out Boy formed near Chicago, Illinois, in 2001. The band debuted with a self-released demo in the same year, and in 2002 released a split EP with Project Rocket through Uprising Records. A first mini-album, Fall Out Boy's Evening Out with Your Girlfriend was recorded in 2002 but released in 2003 by Uprising against the band's wishes. Both releases helped Fall Out Boy gain notoriety on the internet and attention from record labels. The band signed with indie label Fueled by Ramen and received an advance from major label Island Records, which financed the production of Take This to Your Grave. Grave became an underground success and helped the band gain a dedicated fanbase. Fall Out Boy returned to the studio in November 2004 to begin work on a new album.
However, the group suffered a setback in February 2005 after Wentz's anxieties about creating a new record culminated in a suicide attempt. Wentz explained, "It was overwhelming. I was either totally anxious or totally depressed. It is particularly overwhelming when you are on the cusp of doing something very big and thinking that it will be a big flop. I was racked with self-doubt." After undergoing therapy, Wentz rejoined the band and headed to Burbank, California to record the album.
Recording and production
From Under the Cork Tree was recorded in Burbank, California, and served as the first time the band had stayed in California for an extended period of time. The group lived in corporate housing during the making of the album. In contrast to Take This to Your Grave'''s rushed recording schedule, Fall Out Boy took a much more gradual pace while working on From Under the Cork Tree. It was the first Fall Out Boy record in which Stump created all the music and Wentz wrote all the lyrics, continuing the approach they took for some songs on Grave. Stump felt that this process was much more "smooth" as every member was able to focus on their individual strengths. He explained: "We haven't had any of those moments when I play the music and he'll say, 'I don't like that,' and he'll read me lyrics and I'll say, 'I don't like those lyrics.' It's very natural and fun." Despite this, the band had great difficulty creating its desired sound for the album, constantly scrapping new material. Two weeks before recording sessions began, the group abandoned ten songs and wrote eight more, including the album's first single, "Sugar, We're Goin Down".
The chorus of "Sugar, We're Goin Down" was nearly thrown away by the group's label, Island Records, but it was ultimately salvaged. Wentz recalled, "Our label told us the chorus was too wordy and the guitars were too heavy and that the radio wasn't going to play it." Island Records also intervened when the band wanted to title the album's first track "My Name Is David Ruffin And These Are The Temptations". Wentz stated "Our label said, 'You're going to get sued for doing that,' and our lawyer said, 'You're definitely going to get sued for doing that,' which totally sucked. So we said, 'OK, why don't we immortalize you in a song?'" The group subsequently retitled the song "Our Lawyer Made Us Change the Name of This Song So We Wouldn't Get Sued".
Composition
Music
Stump served as the primary composer for From Under the Cork Tree. He said of the album's musical style: "We experimented quite a bit with all sorts of stuff. Some metal, some folk, some R&B. But ultimately, your band sounds like your band. You can put those things in it, but it's still going to sound like you." Niyaz Pirani of the Orange County Register referred to "Dance, Dance" as "pop-punk-meets-swing-dance glory". Critics have described the album as being pop-punk and emo.
Lyrics
On earlier works, Stump collaborated with Wentz on the lyrics. For From Under the Cork Tree and albums thereafter, Wentz handled all the lyrical duties. He called them "more introspective" than the group's previous album. "Take This To Your Grave was very reactionary," Wentz said. "It was like this person does this to you. But part of growing up is understanding that if you end up in the same situation over and over again you probably have to examine your own self and wonder whether that's one of the reasons that you have ended up in the same situation repeatedly. This time the lyrics were more about the anxiety and depression that goes along with looking at your own life." He also said of his lyrics, "This is where we're going to be a year from now, and this is what you're going to be saying about us." Wentz described "I've Got a Dark Alley and a Bad Idea that Says You Should Shut Your Mouth (Summer Song)" as "looking in the mirror and not feeling safe in your own skin".
The band wanted to create a record that was "a lot more developed," Wentz said. "When we did Take This to Your Grave, we were really young, we had two weeks to do it and it was like, make it or break it, this is your only shot. This time we had more time to sit with the songs and make them work and more of a chance to plan things out. To us, we're throwing the fight, but we didn't write a record that's throwing a fight. We wrote a record that means a lot to us but maybe isn't going to mean a lot to the people who are hyping us as the next big thing. And that's fine. We don't want to be the saviors of anything — we just want to be ourselves. We made a record we really like, and that's all we ever wanted. Fall Out Boy have never been about goals or ambitions. We started out just for fun, and it became this huge thing. In 2007, it emerged that the band had reached an out of court settlement with American Nightmare vocalist Wesley Eisold, over the use of his poetry in some songs from From Under the Cork Tree and Infinity on High. The settlement led to future pressings of both albums listing Eisold in the credits.
Title and artwork
The title is taken from a line in the 1936 children's book The Story of Ferdinand by Munro Leaf, which Wentz was intrigued by. The story focuses on a bull named Ferdinand who would rather sniff flowers under a cork tree than participate in fights. The album cover features a van with a trailer in a slump of snow. This is a reference to the car accident the band was in while they were driving to New York City to film the video for "Grand Theft Autumn/Where Is Your Boy" from their album Take This to Your Grave.
Critical reception
Critical reaction to From Under the Cork Tree was generally positive. In an extremely positive review of the album, Johnny Loftus of AllMusic said: "Musically, Cork Tree's first five tracks are relentless, with razor-sharp melodies that seem familiar but sound totally unique at the same time. The 'Oh! Oh!'s and punchy chords of 'Of All the Gin Joints in All the World' are a thrill greater than any Jimmy Eat World album ever; 'Sugar, We're Going Down' 's half-time shifts are triumphs of tumbling words; and the opening track meditates wryly on all-ages shows' fame. Further, when Fall Out Boy rip into 'Sophomore Slump or Comeback of the Year,' summer 2005 will not be able to ignore them. 'We're the therapists pumping through your speakers/Delivering just what you need,' they sing. It's obviously time to embrace our inner mall kid." Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B+ in one of its "short takes" and called it "Peppy pop-punk aimed at the Warped Tour crowd. If the infectious songs don't get you, the snarky titles will".
However, mixed criticism was dealt by reviewers for the band being part of a saturated scene of pop-punk bands. In Rolling Stones review, they gave it 3 stars out of 5 saying "...FOB's knack for crafting ginormous, soaring anthems is in full-force: even with its demented, inscrutable lyrics, "Sugar, We're Goin Down" will likely still be blasting from radios ten years on." Music critic Robert Christgau, in a C+ review of the album, said that "these Warped Tour cover boys aren't terrible, but are they ever ordinary. Only their record company would claim that emotional vocals, dramatic dynamics, poppy-punky tempos, and not actually all that catchy tunes add up to their own sound." IGN was very negative towards the album, giving it a 3.6 out of 10 saying: "Pop-punk had to begin somewhere, and when it rains, it apparently pours; Fall Out Boy is merely another addition to a stable bursting at the seams."
Accolades
Rolling Stone listed it among the "40 Greatest Emo Albums of All Time" in 2016, with Brittany Spanos writing it "changed the course of emo-punk, pop-punk and pop itself with From Under the Cork Tree, which brought the scene mainstream."
Commercial performance
From Under the Cork Tree debuted at No. 9 on the US Billboard 200 with 168,000 copies sold in its first week. It became the band's first top 10 effort, as their 2003 album Take This to Your Grave did not chart in the top 200. Logging 78 weeks on the chart, Cork Tree has sold over 2 million copies in the US and over seven million worldwide, making it Fall Out Boy's best selling album. It is certified RIAA 2× platinum for shipments of two million copies. During Christmas 2005, the album again reached its peak of No. 2 with 257,000 sales, posting the band's second biggest sales week to date as of 2013. Upon the release of Fall Out Boy's 2007 follow-up album Infinity on High, which debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200, From Under the Cork Tree re-entered the Billboard 200 at No. 168 with 5,300 sales. In early 2015, the album re-entered the Billboard 200 at No. 190 for a 78th week on the strength of the band's American Beauty/American Psycho No. 1 album release.
On the 2005 year-end charts, Cork Tree was No. 53 on the Billboard 200, No. 26 in 2006, and No. 187 on the 2000s decade-end chart.
Singles
Three singles were released from this album: "Sugar, We're Goin Down", "Dance, Dance" and "A Little Less Sixteen Candles, a Little More "Touch Me"". The first two singles enjoyed mainstream and commercial success and exposed Fall Out Boy to a new audience. From Under the Cork Trees lead single, "Sugar, We're Goin Down", debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 at No. 93 and eleven weeks later it peaked at No. 8 in September 2005. It spent five weeks in the top 10 and 20 weeks (five months) in the top 20, logging a total of 42 weeks on the chart before it was retired. The track received heavy airplay spins on Alternative as well as Pop stations, being a crossover hit. It reached No. 3 on Billboard Alternative Songs. Its MTV2-award-winning video enjoyed regular rotation on TV music programs. This exposed the band to the mainstream audience and helped them reach great popularity. In the UK, "Sugar" also reached No. 8, and spent 21 weeks in the top 75. "Sugar, We're Goin Down" has sold over two million copies in the US and was certified Triple Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting the shipment of three million copies. It stands as the band's best-selling single to date.
The second single from the album, "Dance, Dance" was also released to commercial success, charting at No. 9 in the US in January 2006 and No. 8 in the UK, a second top 10 hit single for the band in both regions. In the US it spent 14 weeks in the top 20 out of a total of 30 chart weeks before it was retired, being certified Platinum by the RIAA for the shipment of one million units. "Dance, Dance" is Fall Out Boy's highest hit on Alternative radio, peaking at No. 2 on Billboard Alternative Songs. It charted at No. 35 on Ireland's singles chart. "Dance, Dance"'s music video won awards for "Viewer's Choice" and "Best Group" at the 2006 MTV awards, two Teen Choice Awards for "Rock Track" and "Single", and helped the band win "People's Choice: Favorite International Group" at the MuchMusic Video Awards.
"A Little Less Sixteen Candles, a Little More "Touch Me"", the album's third and last single, was much less popular than Cork Trees first two singles but managed to reach No. 65 on the Hot 100. It charted for 13 weeks. On Billboard Alternative Songs, it peaked at No. 38. In the UK, "Sixteen Candles" reached No. 38 on the singles chart. The band considered between "A Little Less Sixteen Candles..." and "Sophomore Slump or Comeback of the Year" as the third and last single, deciding on the former.
Track listing
Limited "Black Clouds and Underdogs" edition
On March 14, 2006, a separate version of the album was released entitled From Under the Cork Tree (Limited "Black Clouds and Underdogs" edition). This consisted of a total 18 tracks, the first 13 being the original release. The album rose to No. 9 on the Billboard 200 upon its re-release, its second week at its peak position. The three new songs and two dance remixes are as follows and in this order:
The iTunes Store released a similar From Under the Cork Tree (Limited "Black Clouds and Underdogs" Edition) EP consisting of 8 tracks: the above 5 as well as the music videos for "Sugar We're Goin Down" and "Dance, Dance". It also contains a live performance of "Sugar, We're Goin Down".
The limited edition is sometimes sold along with the regular edition under the same name.
The album was re-pressed on vinyl in January 2013. It was on swirled Maroon vinyl, and limited to 1,500 copies, and exclusively sold at Hot Topic.
PersonnelFall Out BoyPatrick Stump – lead vocals, rhythm guitar, piano on "Sugar, We're Goin Down"
Pete Wentz – bass guitar, backing vocals, unclean vocals on tracks 1, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14
Joe Trohman – lead guitar, backing vocals
Andy Hurley – drums, percussionGuest artists William Beckett (of The Academy Is...) – guest vocals on "Sophomore Slump or Comeback of the Year"
Brendon Urie (of Panic! at the Disco) – backing vocals on "7 Minutes in Heaven (Atavan Halen)"
Chad Gilbert (of New Found Glory) – guest vocals on "I Slept With Someone in Fall Out Boy and All I Got Was This Stupid Song Written about Me"ArtworkLouis Marino – Creative Direction
Frank Gargiulo – Art Direction and Album DesignOtherWesley Eisold - "Inspirador"Production Neal Avron – Producer, mixing on tracks: 1, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10,12,13
Tom Lord-Alge – Mixing on tracks: 2, 3, 4, 8, 11
Femio Hernandez – Mixing assistant
Brian "Big Bass" Gardner – Mastering
Travis Huff – Pro Tools Engineer
Mike Fasano – Drum Tech
Dan Suh – Guitar TechManagement'''
Bob Mclynn – Management for Crush Music Media
Andrew Simon – Booking for APA
Mike Mckoy – Legal
Mareia Hyman – Business Management for East Bay Business
Robert Stevenson – A&R for Island Records
John Janick – A&R for Fueled By Ramen Records
Eric Wong – Marketing
Tara Podolsky & Erica Bowen – A&R Administration
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
Certifications
References
Citations
Sources
External links
From Under the Cork Tree at YouTube (streamed copy where licensed)
Absolutepunk.net Interview with Pete Wentz, Part 2
MTV.com Article on From Under the Cork Tree
2005 albums
Island Records albums
Fall Out Boy albums
Emo albums by American artists
Albums produced by Neal Avron
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2143338
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire%20Burlesque
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Empire Burlesque
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Empire Burlesque is the twenty-third studio album by American singer-songwriter Bob Dylan, released on June 10, 1985 on Columbia Records. Self-produced, the album peaked at in the U.S. and in the UK.
Accompanied by multiple session musicians—including members of Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, Mike Campbell, Benmont Tench, and Howie Epstein—the album has a distinct "80s style" aesthetic. Fans and critics continue to debate the album's merits, especially when compared to his 1960s and 1970s output.
Recording
Before embarking on a European tour in the summer of 1984, Dylan had spent a substantial amount of time recording demos of new songs in his Malibu home, accompanied at times by other musicians.
In rehearsals for the tour, Dylan attempted at least three of these new songs, and he occasionally found time to polish their lyrics during the tour.
When the tour was over, Dylan returned to New York and began work on his next studio album. As Clinton Heylin reports, Dylan recorded in sporadic sessions, as had become his norm, rather than "block-booking studio time" and recording in one concentrated period. The result was "an unprecedented expenditure of" time for recording a Dylan album, from July 1984 to March 1985 (although The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan had been recorded over a similarly long period).
To accommodate the casual nature of this process, Dylan chose to produce the sessions himself.
Arthur Baker, who had previously worked with New Order and Afrika Bambaataa, was later recruited for these sessions, but much of the production work would actually be Dylan's.
One of his first decisions was to forgo the use of a stable set of musicians. Instead, Dylan recorded with an eclectic mix of studio professionals. An aborted session with Al Green's band was held at Intergalactic Studios on July 24, 1984. A session with Ronnie Wood (formerly of Faces and currently with The Rolling Stones), Anton Fig (best known as the drummer for David Letterman's house band), and John Paris was held at Delta Sound Studios on July 26.
The Delta session produced two notable tracks: "Driftin' Too Far from Shore" and "Clean Cut Kid". The former was set aside and would not be finished until 1986, when Dylan recorded his next album, Knocked Out Loaded. The latter had originally been recorded during the Infidels sessions in 1983, but was not completed until now.
Wood later described his surprise at Dylan's lack of authority during the mixing process. "[The engineers would] say, 'Hey Bob, we don't need this,' and he'd say, 'Oh, okay.' And they'd make a mix to their ears, and he'd just stand outside and let them do it. And I'd be saying, 'Hey! You can't let these guys...Look!! They've left off the background vocals!' or 'What about the drums?!' But there would be something going on in the back of his head which didn't allow him to interfere. And yet if he'd have gone into the control room with the dominance that he had while we were cutting the stuff, it could have been mind-bending."
During one session between July and September 1984 (at the Power Station), Dylan demoed a song called "Go 'Way Little Boy", with Ron Wood and "cowpunk" rockers Lone Justice. Dylan and Wood also played on Lone Justice's version of "Go 'Way Little Boy", which was recorded at the same session and was ultimately released as a B-side to their single "Sweet Sweet Baby (I'm Falling)". A blues number entitled "Oh Baby" was also recorded with the same lineup but has never surfaced.
In terms of his own album, the New York sessions had so far been fairly unproductive. After six months of work, Dylan had only a few recordings that were deemed acceptable, and only two of these would eventually appear on Empire Burlesque. "Sometimes nothing comes out, and other times I get a lot of stuff that I keep," Dylan said at the time. "I just put down the songs that I felt as I wanted to put them down. Then I'd listen and decide if I liked them. And if I didn't like them I'd either rerecord them or change something about them." In November, Dylan returned to Los Angeles and began recording there.
An early session at Ocean Way Studios produced little if any work that was used for Empire Burlesque. Much time was spent covering other artists’ songs, including “In the Summertime” by Ray Dorset (not to be confused with Dylan's own song of the same name), "Freedom for the Stallion" by Allen Toussaint and “Help Me Make It Through The Night” by Kris Kristofferson.
Work became much more productive when Dylan started recording at Cherokee Studios in Hollywood. Recruiting Lone Justice drummer Don Heffington for the early December sessions, Dylan recorded an ambitious song he had co-written with playwright Sam Shepard, titled "New Danville Girl", as well as another song. Acceptable takes were recorded for both songs, though, despite positive feedback from his peers, Dylan ultimately omitted "New Danville Girl" from Empire Burlesque.
Regardless, he also found success on the next song, "Something's Burning, Baby", recorded at Cherokee on December 14. Benmont Tench, Mike Campbell and Howie Epstein, from Tom Petty's Heartbreakers, joined Heffington for the session.
Over the rest of the winter, Dylan recorded most of the tracks that were ultimately used for Empire Burlesque. On January 28, 1985, another session at Cherokee produced the master take for "Seeing the Real You at Last". This was followed by a brief stop at A&M Studios on January 28 and/or 29 to record his contribution to "We Are the World". On February 5, Dylan recorded master takes for two more tracks: "Trust Yourself" and "I'll Remember You". On February 14—Valentine's Day—Dylan recorded love songs, including Johnny Cash's "Straight A's in Love", but also one of his own, "Emotionally Yours". With the exception of the "We Are the World" session, all of these songs were recorded with Heffington, the three Heartbreakers and a few other session players at Cherokee Studios in Hollywood.
Between February 14 and 19, Dylan returned to New York City, resuming work at the Power Station. On February 19, he held a session with Roy Bittan on piano and Steve Van Zandt on guitar, both members of Bruce Springsteen's E Street Band. They recorded at least one usable take of "When the Night Comes Falling from the Sky", but Bittan and Van Zandt would not return for the remainder of the sessions.
The following day, Sly Dunbar and Robbie Shakespeare, better known as reggae recording artists Sly & Robbie, joined the sessions. They had previously worked with Dylan on Infidels. Along with female vocalists Queen Esther Marrow, Debra Byrd and Carolyn Dennis, the group recorded "Never Gonna Be the Same Again".
On February 23, Dylan returned to the Power Station with Sly & Robbie, his back-up singers and a number of session players, including Al Kooper, who filled in on guitar. The day’s work produced a significantly different version of "When the Night Comes Falling from the Sky", which was ultimately chosen over the "Van Zandt version" from a few days before.
Around this time, Dylan also revived from the Infidels sessions "Someone's Got a Hold of My Heart". "A song about being torn apart by irreconcilable demands," according to Clinton Heylin, in revision it was stripped of "just about every religious allusion from the original." Dylan retitled it "Tight Connection to My Heart" and set it aside for further overdubbing.
One final song was recorded on March 3, a brand-new composition no more than a few days old. Recorded live-to-tape with no editing, overdubbing or embellishment, "Dark Eyes" was also sequenced as the last song of the album.
Some further overdubbing was scheduled, but with recording essentially finished, Arthur Baker was left to mix the album. "I'm not too experienced at having records sound good," said Dylan. "I don't know how to go about doing that. With Arthur Baker...I just went out and recorded a bunch of stuff all over the place, and then when it was time to put this record together, I brought it all to him and he made it sound like a record."
Songs
The opening track, "Tight Connection to My Heart (Has Anybody Seen My Love)", was originally recorded for 1983's Infidels under the title "Someone's Got a Hold of My Heart" (eventually released on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1–3 (Rare & Unreleased) 1961–1991). It was re-written and re-recorded several times before finding its way on to Empire Burlesque. A lushly produced pop song riding a reggae groove courtesy of Robbie Shakespeare and Sly Dunbar (better known as Sly & Robbie), the love song was singled out as the best track on the album by the most recent edition of The Rolling Stone Album Guide. The track, which features Mick Taylor on guitar (from Dylan's 84 Tour), was also chosen as the first single for Empire Burlesque.
Clinton Heylin describes "Seeing the Real You at Last" as "a compendium of images half remembered from Hollywood movies", as many of the lyrics made "allusions to Humphrey Bogart movies, Shane, even Clint Eastwood's Bronco Billy."
The love ballad "I'll Remember You" was still played in concert until 2005, more so than all but one other song from Empire Burlesque. It was also featured, in an acoustic version, in the movie Masked & Anonymous, though not included on the released soundtrack. A Baker-produced version of the song was recorded by Grayson Hugh for the closing credits of the 1991 film Fried Green Tomatoes.
"Clean-Cut Kid" was another song recorded during the Infidels sessions. The lyrics weren't finished until much later, and the finished result was included on Empire Burlesque. In the interim Bob gave the song to Carla Olson of the Textones as a thank you for her appearing in his first-ever video, for Sweetheart Like You. She included it on the Textones' debut album Midnight Mission and Ry Cooder was featured on slide guitar. A novelty song wrapped around sharp political commentary, the 'clean-cut kid' is an average American kid who's radically altered by his experience in the Vietnam War. Village Voice critic Robert Christgau praised it as "the toughest Vietnam-vet song yet."
When members of the press, as well as Dylan's own fans, dubbed Empire Burlesque as 'Disco Dylan', it was mainly for the song "When the Night Comes Falling from the Sky". An evocative song filled with apocalyptic imagery, it was originally an upbeat, piledriving rocker recorded with Steven Van Zandt and Roy Bittan, both members of Bruce Springsteen's E Street Band. Unsatisfied with the recording, Dylan and Baker radically recast the song as a contemporary dance track. (The earlier version was later released on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1-3 (Rare & Unreleased) 1961-1991.)
The penultimate song, "Something's Burning, Baby", is another song filled with apocalyptic imagery. A slow-building march accented with synthesizers, it was singled out by biographer Clinton Heylin as the strongest track on Empire Burlesque: "An ominous tale set to a slow march beat, [it] was a welcome reminder of his ongoing preoccupations with that dreadful day."
"Dark Eyes" features only Dylan on guitar and harmonica. According to earlier interviews and Dylan's autobiography Chronicles, it was written virtually on demand when Arthur Baker suggested something simpler for the album's final track. Dylan liked the idea of closing the album with a stark, acoustic track, particularly when the rest of the album was so heavily produced. However, Dylan didn't have an appropriate song. He returned to his hotel in Manhattan after midnight, and according to Dylan:
"As I stepped out of the elevator, a call girl was coming toward me in the hallway—pale yellow hair wearing a fox coat—high heeled shoes that could pierce your heart. She had blue circles around her eyes, black eyeliner, dark eyes. She looked like she'd been beaten up and was afraid that she'd get beat up again. In her hand, crimson purple wine in a glass. 'I'm just dying for a drink,' she said as she passed me in the hall. She had a beautifulness, but not for this kind of world."
The brief, chance encounter inspired Dylan to write "Dark Eyes", which was quickly recorded without any studio embellishment. It is often quoted for its last chorus: "A million faces at my feet, but all I see are dark eyes."
A number of critics have noted the bizarre sources of inspiration behind some of the songs. As mentioned, some lines were lifted from old Humphrey Bogart pictures, but at least a few were taken from the sci-fi television show Star Trek. Author Clinton Heylin wrote that "one of the best couplets—'I'll go along with the charade / Until I can think my way out' (from "Tight Connection to My Heart")—actually comes verbatim from a Star Trek episode, 'Squire of Gothos'." Some say this line was originally used in the Humphrey Bogart movie Sahara, though this is erroneous.
Reception and legacy
Upon its release, Empire Burlesque received generally positive reviews, most notably a full-page review in Time magazine, but a number of critics demurred on the production, reservations that presaged Empire Burlesque'''s poor reputation in later years.
Members of the press claimed Dylan was trying to achieve a then-contemporary sound on Empire Burlesque; Dylan jokingly replied that he didn't know anything about new music, adding "I still listen to Charley Patton."
In his Consumer Guide column for The Village Voice, critic Robert Christgau wrote, "At best [Dylan]'s achieved the professionalism he's always claimed as his goal...he's certainly talented enough to come up with a good bunch of songs. Hence, his best album since Blood on the Tracks. I wish that was a bigger compliment."
As promotion for Empire Burlesque'', music videos for "Tight Connection to My Heart", "When the Night Comes Falling from the Sky", and "Emotionally Yours" were produced and broadcast on MTV, with Paul Schrader (best known for his work with Martin Scorsese) directing the video for "Tight Connection to My Heart (Has Anybody Seen My Love)". However, album sales remained fairly modest.
Track listing
Personnel
Musicians
Track numbering refers to CD and digital releases of the album.
Production
Bob Dylan – producer
Josh Abbey – recording, engineer
George Tutko – engineer
Judy Feltus – engineer
Arthur Baker – mixing
Artwork
Nick Egan – cover design
Ken Regan – photography
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications and sales
References
1985 albums
Albums produced by Bob Dylan
Bob Dylan albums
Columbia Records albums
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberto%20Aquilani
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Alberto Aquilani
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Alberto Aquilani (born 7 July 1984) is an Italian football manager and former player. Mainly a central midfielder, he usually operated as a deep-lying playmaker but was also capable of playing as an attacking midfielder.
Aquilani began his career with Italian side Roma and, after a brief loan spell at Triestina, returned to the Serie A club where he became a regular in the Roma side during the 2005–06 season, earning the nickname "Il Principino" (The Little Prince), due to his resemblance to former Roma legend Giuseppe Giannini, both in terms of appearance and playing style, who was known as "Il Principe" (The Prince). During the following season, he suffered a thigh injury and was ruled out for several months. In 2007 and 2008 he won consecutive Coppa Italia titles with Roma, as well as the 2007 Supercoppa Italiana.
He moved to English club Liverpool for the start of the 2009–10 season but in August 2010, having received only limited playing time at Anfield due to injury, he returned to Italy and joined Juventus on loan until the end of the 2010–11 season. Aquilani returned to Liverpool at the end of the season as Juventus did not take up their purchase option. He went on loan again in 2011, playing for Italian club Milan for the 2011–12 season, and was subsequently sold to Fiorentina in 2012, where he remained until his transfer to Portuguese club Sporting CP in 2015; he returned to Italy in 2016, joining Pescara, and was later loaned to Sassuolo for the second half the season. In 2017, he joined Spanish club Las Palmas, but was released by the club at the end of the season. After a year without a club, he announced his retirement in 2019.
Internationally, Aquilani has represented Italy at various youth levels, while at senior level, he made his full international début in November 2006 in a 1–1 draw against Turkey. In total, he made 38 appearances for Italy between 2006 and 2014, scoring 5 goals, and also took part at Euro 2008, the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup (winning a bronze medal in the tournament), and the 2014 FIFA World Cup with the Italian senior team.
Club career
Roma
In 2001, when Aquilani was 17, Chelsea and Arsenal offered him contracts, but he declined the offers to continue playing for his youth club Roma.
He made his debut in Serie A at the age of 18 on 10 May 2002 under then manager Fabio Capello against Torino. Roma won that game 3–1. He was loaned to Serie B club Triestina for the 2003–04 season to gain first team experience.
Returning to Roma in the 2004–05 season, Aquilani broke into the starting XI. On 31 March 2005, he signed a new five-year contract with Roma, which worth €1.1 million, €1.25M, €1.48M, €1.61M and €1.79M respectively from 2005 to 2010 in gross annually. In the 2005–06 season, he scored the second goal in the derby victory on 26 February 2006, a victory in which Roma broke the record for the most consecutive wins in Serie A, a record later broken by Inter Milan in the 2006–07 season.
In the following season, Aquilani was expected to be one of Roma's best players. He was given the number 8 shirt previously worn by Matteo Ferrari. Unfortunately, an injury forced him out of the game for several months. Aquilani returned to the field in May 2007 and featured in three games towards the end of the season, including the last two.
He scored two long range goals in the first two matches of the 2007–08 season against Palermo and Siena. Although he was injured in October 2007, he returned to the squad in January 2008.
Aquilani was injured again on 22 October 2008 against Chelsea. He returned to action on 11 January 2009 against Milan but picked up another injury in February. Although he played against Arsenal as a last minute substitute on 11 March 2009, he did not play any part for the rest of the season.
On 26 May 2009, Aquilani signed a new contract with Roma until 2013, adding three more years to previous deal. He was offered an annual gross salary of €3.2 million for 2008–09 season; €3.6 million in 2009–10 season; €3.9 million in 2010–11 season and ultimately €4.2 million in the last two-year of the contract.
Liverpool
On 5 August 2009, Liverpool announced that they had agreed a deal with Roma for the transfer of Aquilani, subject to a medical test. The club subsequently announced that the player had passed the medical test and signed a five-year contract on 7 August 2009. Roma revealed that the fee was €20 million (£17 million) plus sporting bonus. Aquilani was handed the number 4 shirt, last worn by Sami Hyypiä, who joined Bayer Leverkusen at the end of the 2008–09 season.
Aquilani made his Liverpool reserves debut with a 15-minute substitute appearance in a 2–0 win against Sunderland reserves on 21 October 2009. His first game for Liverpool was a 2–1 4th round League Cup defeat to Arsenal, coming on in the 77th minute for Damien Plessis. He made his Premier League debut on 9 November, as a late substitute against Birmingham City in a 2–2 draw. Aquilani made his first start against Fiorentina in a Champions League match on 9 December 2009, where Liverpool lost 2–1. Aquilani made his first Premier League start against Wolves on 26 December 2009 and received a standing ovation from the Kop when he was substituted in the 84th minute for Daniel Pacheco.
Aquilani next started for Liverpool in their 2–0 win over Bolton Wanderers, where he got his second assist for Liverpool, again setting up Dirk Kuyt. He scored his first goal for Liverpool on 15 March 2010 against Portsmouth and he also assisted Fernando Torres for the fourth Liverpool goal. He was voted man of the match by the fans on Liverpool's official website. Aquilani also gained the man of the match award in his next Liverpool league start, against Fulham in a goalless draw at Anfield. In his next start for Liverpool he finished the match with three assists during a 4–0 away win against Burnley On 29 April 2010 he scored a goal against Atlético Madrid in the Europa League, cancelling out Atlético's first leg goal from Diego Forlán by scoring moments before half-time. Despite a great performance from Aquilani on the night, Liverpool eventually went out of the semi-finals on the away goal rule after Yossi Benayoun had put Liverpool 2–0 up, as Forlán scored his second of the tie in extra-time to take the aggregate score to 2–2. Aquilani won the LFC Man of the Match award again after his performance.
Aquilani also played in Liverpool's last 2 games of the season, a 2–0 defeat at the hands of Chelsea at Anfield and a goalless draw away to Hull City at the KC Stadium. In total, Aquilani played 26 times in his debut season for the reds, scoring twice but rarely playing the full 90 minutes.
With the departure of Rafael Benítez in June 2010, new manager Roy Hodgson played him in the pre-season, but stated publicly in mid-August that Aquilani may go back to his native Italy on loan for a full season, where he could gain match fitness through regular appearances.
Loan to Juventus
On 21 August 2010, a deal between Liverpool and Juventus was agreed, to allow Aquilani to go on a one-season loan deal to Juventus with an option of a permanent move. He made his debut for the Bianconeri on 12 September in a 3–3 draw with Sampdoria from coming on as a substitute for Simone Pepe. He came on as a sub again on 23 September in a 3–1 home defeat to Sicilian club Palermo. His first start for the club came on 26 September in a 4–2 win against Cagliari. After that Aquilani played 80 minutes against reigning champions Inter Milan in a goalless draw before he scored his first goal for the club on 17 October in a 4–0 home win against Lecce two weeks later. He played his first full 90 minutes away to Bologna in another 0–0 draw. On 5 February, he played the full 90 minutes in a 3–1 away win over Cagliari with his next match being against Inter in a 1–0 win. On 21 April, Kenny Dalglish claimed Aquilani still had a future at Liverpool, despite claims that he wanted to remain in Italy. Aquilani returned to Liverpool after Juventus decided against making his transfer permanent.
Loan to Milan
On 4 July 2011, Aquilani started pre-season training with Liverpool, though his agent later confirmed that his wish was to stay at Juventus in Serie A. He was included in the squad's pre-season tour of Asia and marked his return to the team in a friendly against Guangdong Sunray Cave on 13 July. He subsequently impressed against a Malaysian XI on 16 July 2011.
On 25 August 2011, Aquilani joined AC Milan on loan for the 2011–12 season with Milan having an option to make the move permanent at the end of the season, despite pulling a string of impressive performances during the pre-season tour in Asia. Liverpool manager Kenny Dalglish paid tribute to Aquilani on his departure, stating that the only reason for the loan was an inability to fit the player into the team's preferred formation. Damien Comolli, Liverpool director of football, said, "I want to pay tribute to the way Alberto has conducted himself during these discussions. Throughout the entire process, his only desire has been to play football and he has put this ahead of any other considerations and at personal cost to himself."
Aquilani made his debut for the Rossoneri in the opening game of the 2011–12 season against Lazio, and had an immediate impact by being involved in the build-up for Milan's first goal with a neat pass to Antonio Cassano, and assisting the second goal himself from a corner-kick. On 13 September 2011, he made his European debut for Milan in the UEFA Champions League against FC Barcelona at the Camp Nou, coming off the bench to help Milan secure a 2–2 draw. On 18 September 2011, Aquilani scored his first goal for Milan in his second Serie A match for the club, heading home a cross from Cassano to open the scoring against Napoli at the San Paolo in Naples.
Fiorentina
Aquilani returned to Liverpool for pre-season training in preparation for their 2012–13 season. He was included in the squad for Liverpool's pre-season tour of North America and played 45 minutes in the opening match against Toronto FC. The club accepted an undisclosed fee for the midfielder from Fiorentina in Italy, and his transfer was completed on 3 August 2012. Following the transfer, Aquilani averred that only an excessive price that Liverpool had placed on him had prevented him completing permanent moves to AC Milan and Juventus following his successful loan spells. Fiorentina revealed that Aquilani had only cost the club €790,000 as other cost. Liverpool allowed Aquilani to leave the club for free thus Roma also received nothing from the bonus clause.
On 26 January 2014, in a match against Genoa, Aquilani scored his first career hat-trick in a thrilling 3–3 draw. Aquilani reached the 2014 Coppa Italia Final with Fiorentina that season, where they were defeated by Napoli. The following season, Fiorentina finished the league in fourth place for a third consecutive season, while also reaching the semi-finals of the 2014–15 UEFA Europa League.
Sporting CP
Following the conclusion of the 2014–15 season with Fiorentina, Aquilani became a free agent after his contract was not renewed. In August 2015, he signed with Portuguese club Sporting CP on a three-year contract, reportedly worth €1 million per season.
Pescara
On 26 August 2016, Aquilani signed with Pescara.
Loan to Sassuolo
On 3 January 2017, Aquilani signed with Sassuolo on loan until the end of the 2016–17 season.
Las Palmas
On 25 August 2017 and following his departure from Pescara, Aquilani signed a two-year contract with Spanish La Liga side Las Palmas. In July 2018, following the club's relegation, Aquilani was released from his contract.
On 28 June 2019, after one season without a club, Aquilani announced his retirement.
International career
At youth level, Aquilani was capped for Italy at 2001 UEFA European Under-16 Championship qualifying. He won 2003 UEFA European Under-19 Championship with Italy and scored one goal, later being named the tournament's best player. He was then promoted to the U21 team and took part in 2006 UEFA European Under-21 Championship qualifying, but missed out on the final tournament due to injury.
Aquilani made his senior debut on 15 November 2006 in a 1–1 friendly against Turkey.
He played as a regular during the 2007 U-21 Championship held in the Netherlands, scoring two goals, and being named in the "UEFA Team of the Tournament". Italy finished 5th and qualified for the 2008 Olympics. He was named to the 23-man roster for Euro 2008, his first major international tournament. He came on as a sub in Italy's third game of the tournament, which was a 2–0 victory over France. He started Italy's quarter-final match against Spain due to the suspensions of Andrea Pirlo and Gennaro Gattuso. Italy lost 4–2 in a penalty shootout after a goalless draw after extra time.
Aquilani scored his first goal for Italy during the 2010 World Cup qualification match against Montenegro on 15 October 2008, a tally he doubled later in the same match. In spite of this, the national team manager Marcello Lippi opted not to include him in the 23-man Italian squad for the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
In Italy's UEFA Euro 2012 qualification campaign, Aquilani played his first game in a 1–0 away win against Slovenia on 25 March 2011, playing for the full 90 minutes. He also started in Italy's next match at home against Estonia on 3 June, but came off in the first half of the 3–0 win due to a head injury. On 10 August 2011, he scored his third international goal with the late winner in a friendly against defending world champions Spain.
Aquilani took part at the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup under manager Cesare Prandelli, where Italy managed a third-place finish; in the victorious bronze medal match against Uruguay, he converted a penalty in the resulting shoot-out.
On 11 October 2013, Aquilani scored the late equalizing goal in Italy's 2–2 away draw against Denmark during the team's 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign; this was his fifth goal for Italy. He was an unused member of Italy's 2014 FIFA World Cup squad, as the Italians suffered a group-stage elimination.
Style of play
Aquilani was a modern, hard-working and versatile playmaker who was capable of functioning in a number of midfield roles, from a holding role as a deep-lying playmaker, to a more advanced trequartista or attacking midfielder. His favoured position was that of an offensive-minded central midfielder or box-to-box midfielder, a position known as the "mezz'ala" role, in Italy, which enabled him to make late attacking runs from behind into the penalty area or create space for team-mates with his movement, despite his lack of notable pace or physicality; he was also used on the wing, or even as a wing-back on occasion. With the Italy national team, he was also deployed in a different role, as a false-attacking midfielder on occasion, under manager Cesare Prandelli. Throughout his career, Aquilani drew praise for his vision, creativity, technique, quick incisive passing, which enabled him to dictate the tempo of his team's plays in midfield, and was also noted for his energy and long-range shooting ability with either foot. Due to his eye for goal, height, and heading accuracy, he was also effective in the air, and was also accurate from set-pieces, which enabled him to contribute to his team's offensive play with additional goals from midfield. Despite his talent in his youth, he was often injury prone throughout his career, which limited his playing time and affected his fitness and consistency, and as a result, he has been accused by some in the sport of not living up to his initial potential.
Managerial career
On 11 July 2019, Aquilani was announced as the head coach of Fiorentina's under-18 team, remaining in that position until December, when he joined the first team staff as an assistant to Giuseppe Iachini. On 19 July 2020, he was appointed as head coach of the Primavera squad. On 26 August 2020, the side successfully defended the Coppa Italia Primavera title, beating Hellas Verona 1–0 in the final.
In 2023, he left Fiorentina's youth system to embark on a career as a first team head coach, taking over at Serie B club SC Pisa. After guiding Pisa to a mid-table place in the league table, Aquilani parted ways with the club in June 2024.
Personal life
Aquilani married Michela Quattrociocche on 4 July 2012. Together, they have two daughters: Aurora (b. 2011) and Diamante (b. 2014). On 11 May 2020, it was announced that the two had separated.
Career statistics
Club
International
Scores and results list Italy's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Aquilani goal.
Managerial statistics
Honours
Player
Roma
Coppa Italia: 2006–07, 2007–08
Supercoppa Italiana: 2007
Italy
FIFA Confederations Cup third place: 2013
Italy U19
UEFA European Under-19 Championship: 2003
Individual
UEFA European Under-19 Championship Player of the Tournament: 2003
UEFA European Under-21 Championship Team of the Tournament: 2007
Manager
Fiorentina Primavera
Coppa Italia Primavera: 2019–20, 2020–21, 2021–22
Supercoppa Primavera: 2021, 2022
References
External links
FIGC National Team Archive
1984 births
Living people
Footballers from Rome
Italian men's footballers
Italy men's youth international footballers
Italy men's under-21 international footballers
Italy men's international footballers
Italian expatriate men's footballers
Italian expatriate sportspeople in Spain
Men's association football midfielders
AS Roma players
US Triestina Calcio 1918 players
Liverpool F.C. players
Juventus FC players
AC Milan players
ACF Fiorentina players
Sporting CP footballers
Delfino Pescara 1936 players
US Sassuolo Calcio players
UD Las Palmas players
Serie A players
Serie B players
Premier League players
Primeira Liga players
La Liga players
Expatriate men's footballers in England
Expatriate men's footballers in Portugal
Italian expatriate sportspeople in England
Italian expatriate sportspeople in Portugal
UEFA Euro 2008 players
2013 FIFA Confederations Cup players
2014 FIFA World Cup players
Italian football managers
Serie B managers
Pisa SC managers
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%20%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%20%D0%93%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87
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Невзоров Олександр Глібович
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Невзоров Олександр Глібович
Олександр Глібович Невзоров (Ленінград, РРФСР, СРСР) — радянський, російський громадський діяч, опозиціонер, блогер, репортер, телеведучий; депутат Державної думи чотирьох скликань, режисер, публіцист, блогер, анатом та фізіолог; член Всеросійської наукової спілки анатомів, гістологів та ембріологів. Атеїст-сцієнтист. Популярність отримав під час перебудови своєю авторською програмою 600 секунд на П'ятому каналі тодішнього Ленінградського телебачення. Довірена особа кандидата в президенти Росії Володимира Путіна на виборах у 2012 році. У липні 2013 року заявив що «історією Росії пишатись не можна» а у 2014 публічно підтримав Україну засудивши
окупацію Криму та назвавши російських бойовиків на Донбасі терористами. У жовтні 2016 року заявив що «не існує ніякої російської нації». З 2022 перебуває в еміграції за антивоєнну позицію. У 2023 був заочно засуджений у Росії до 9 років ув'язнення за «фейки про армію РФ».
Життєпис
Ранні роки
Виховувався бабусею та матір'ю. Дід по матері — генерал МДБ Георгій Володимирович Невзоров — очолював у 1946—1955 роках Управління МДБ СРСР із боротьби з бандитизмом Литовської РСР, що займалося боротьбою з «лісовими братами». Невзоров стверджує, що в дитинстві був присутній разом з ад'ютантом діда на конспіративних квартирах, куди приходили священники РПЦ Московської Патріархії, щоб «настукати» на своїх парафіян.
Мати — Галина Георгіївна Невзорова (1936—2001) — журналістка газети «Зміна», похована на Преображенському єврейському кладовищі в Санкт-Петербурзі.
Невзоров стверджує, що ніколи не бачив свого батька.
З власних слів, закінчив школу з поглибленим вивченням французької мови. Навчався в Московській духовній семінарії, але був відрахований із четвертого курсу.
Навчався в Літературному інституті імені Горького й на філологічному факультеті Ленінградського університету, але жодного вишу не закінчив. Був послушником у монастирі РПЦ, співав у церковному хорі, працював хранителем у музеї, каскадером, вантажником, репортером, літературним секретарем, сценаристом.
Перед самим розпадом СРСР, з 1983 року працював на Ленінградському телебаченні, з 1987 року — як телеведучий, вів програму «600 секунд». Спочатку, з 1990 року підтримував Анатолія Собчака, але вже наприкінці 1991 року посварився з ним, що призвело до закриття «600 секунд» в січні 1992.
Після розпаду СРСР
У період розпаду та децентралізації СРСР прославився, як автор популярного репортажу «Наші» про січневі події 1991 року у Латвії, в якому виправдовувалися збройні дії ОМОНу в республіці. Також підтримував застосування сили радянським режимом 13 січня 1991 року в м. Вільнюс (Литва), про що теж відзняв репортаж.
У 1991 р. з критикою антисемітських статей Невзорова, а також близького до нього політика та публіциста Ігоря Шафаревича, у своїй книзі про радянський антисемітизм виступили Герд Кенен і Карла Хільшер.
Організатору насильства над мирними демонстрантами 1991 року — емігранту з Латвії до Росії командиру Ризького ОМОНу — Чеславу Млинніку, оголошеному владою Латвії у розшук, Невзоров надавав значну підтримку, попри те, що Млиннік пізніше дезертував з органів МВС Росії, та став лідером кримінальної структури, яка контролювала в Ленінградській області автошлях у Гельсінкі.
Як писав демократичний політолог Прибиловський Володимир Валеріанович:«Млиннік 10 січня 1994 р. був арештований на конспіративній квартирі в Санкт-Петербурзі. Під час арешту при ньому був знайдений незареєстрований пістолет Макарова, фальшиві документи на ім'я Ярослава Турбіна, а також документ, згідно з яким він зазначався редактором телекомпанії „Санкт-Петербург — 5-й канал“. Дев'ять місяців провів в ув'язнені в очікуванні суду. Уже під арештом став помічником депутата Державної Думи РФ Олександра Невзорова. Невзоров зробив масу спроб звільнення Млинніка, зокрема надав адвокату Млинніка вкладку в паспорт, що підтверджувала російске громадянство, але була фальшивою». Ці факти підтверджував і дружній Невзорову публіцист В. Козлов.
На думку Леоніда Млєчіна, Невзоров тісно співпрацював у 1990—1991 роках з керівництвом КДБ, отримуючи від останніх оперативні матеріали, та використовувався КДБ з метою певних інформаційно-пропагандистських заходів. Наприклад, у січні 1991 року Невзоров показав у своїй телепрограмі про штурм Вільнюської телевежі оперативні кадри із записом підпільної наради лідерів литовського руху «Саюдіс». Як встановила парламентська слідча комісія Литви, приховане відеознімання цієї наради проводили в одному з підвалів Вільнюса представники КДБ у серпні 1989 року, а через півтора року їх передали Невзорову, щоб звинуватити «Саюдіс» у нелегальній підривній антидержавній діяльності.
У 1990—1994 роках Невзоров очолював незалежну телекомпанію «600 секунд», реорганізовану в 1994 р. у компанію «Творческое объединение Север». Був членом редакційної колегії газети Олександра Проханова «День», членом Думи Російського національного собору, членом організаційного комітету Фронту Національного порятунку.
23 вересня 1993 р. приїжджав до обложеного «Білого дому» РФ, активно виступав проти Єльцина, як опозиційний телекоментатор. 1 жовтня 1993 року Невзоров випустив у ефір останню телепрограму «600 секунд», а вже 4 жовтня 1993 року було оголошено про її закриття під тиском влади.
У цей період Невзоров був нагороджений медаллю СРСР «За зміцнення бойової співдружності» (1991), медаллю Придністровської Молдавської Республіки «Захисник Придністров'я» (1993), орденом Російської Федерації «За особисту мужність» (1995).
У квітні 1993 р. потрапив у скандал після своїх коментарів відносно вбивства двох монахів Оптиної пустині (Калузька область, РФ). Як пише В. Свінцов: «Не встигла слідча бригада вивчити обставини кривавої трагедії в Оптинській пустині, як того ж вечора, 20 квітня (1993 р.), Олександр Невзоров поспішив заявити про ритуальний характерв убийства». Така заява Невзорова дала привід деяким журналістам і представникам єврейських організацій запідозрити його у схильності до антисемітизму.
У 1994—1996 роках під загальним керівництвом Невзорова видавалася зареєстрована 16 травня 1994 року націоналістична газета «Информ — 600 секунд», головним редактором якої став прессекретар і помічник Невзорова, колишній керівник пресгрупи телекомпанії «600 секунд» — публіцист Ігор Ільїн, який, зокрема, висловлював підтримку владі РФ у проведенні Першої чеченської війни.
Як журналіст Невзоров після заворушень у країнах Балтії 1991 року, брав участь у висвітленні бойових дій у Придністров'ї, Югославії, Карабасі, Чечні, Іраку.
Працював головним редактором декількох телепрограм Ленінградського, а потім Санкт-Петербурзького телебачення: «Дни», «Дикое поле», «Политика: петербургский стиль» на каналі «Петербург».
З 1994 до 1998 працював консультантом-аналітиком Бориса Березовського й консультантом уряду Російської Федерації.
У 1993—2007 рр. — депутат Державної думи Росії.
Неодноразово ставав фігурантом судових процесів.
Даючи коментар про поведінку депутатів Держдуми РФ для газети «Советская Россия» (24 листопада 1994), Олександр Невзоров зауважив, що його вражає, як відомий проукраїнський діяч Москви, на той час священнослужитель УПЦ КП — депутат Якунін Гліб Павлович — «таскает» з буфету Держдуми тарілки, ховаючи їх в рясу. Якунін визнав ці трактування своїх дій такими, що «порочать його честь і гідність», звернувся до суду, та домігся виплати йому 50 мільйонів рублів компенсації за завдання моральної шкоди. Суд позов задовольнив.
Предметом судового розгляду став сюжет Невзорова «Ковырялки» з його телепрограми «Дикое поле» (30 червня 1995), у якій ув'язнених жіночої колонії журналіст звинуватив у лесбійстві. Суд визнав дії журналіста Невзорова незаконними й такими, що порушують конституційні та етичні норми.
За даними журналіста-кримінальника Андрія Константінова, у 1990-их роках помічником депутата Держдуми Невзорова була відома у кримінальних колах особа — президент охоронної фірми «Кугуар» Коляк Руслан Артемійович з Санкт-Петербурга («Пучеглазий»), убитий у 2003 р.
У 1999 році серйозного удару по репутації Невзорова завдали опубліковані в пресі та озвучені в електронних ЗМІ матеріали прослуховування його телефонних розмов з Борисом Березовським, в яких йшлося про замовні телепрограми Невзорова на підтримку інтересів Березовського, проплачені останнім, та обумовлений цим же конфлікт Невзорова з Анатолієм Собчаком.
2000—2021
У 2000-х роках Невзоров пішов з політики й політичної журналістики та присвятив себе коням.
Від листопада 2001 до грудня 2002 р. був одним зі співведучих Михайла Леонтьєва в аналітичній програмі «Інший час» на «Першому каналі».
З липня 2007 до січня 2009 р. вів авторську колонку в журналі «Профіль», з вересня 2009 р. вів ту ж колонку (під назвою «Невзоров») в тижневику «Однако»:«Улітку 2007 р. головний редактор „Профілю“ Михайло Леонтьєв умовив Невзорова вести в журналі колонку. Над її назвою головний редактор довго не думав: колонка іменувалася „Невзоров“ тому що до звучання цього прізвища, що стала ім'ям, додати нічого». Останній матеріал Невзорова на сайті «Однако» датується 13 травня 2010 року.
Тоді ж, у 2010 році, Невзоров вперше став заявляти про свій атеїзм та антиклерикалізм, у той час як його колишній медіапартнер Михайло Леонтьєв, навпаки, продовжував заявляти про свій православний патріотизм.
З 2012 року вів інтернет-передачу «Уроки атеїзму», що складалася з випусків із середньою тривалістю 9 хвилин.
У 2012 році на президентських виборах в Росії був довіреною особою та агітував за Володимира Путіна, називав його:«єдиним, хто зможе утримати від катастрофи імперію, яка щомиті розвалюється».Від листопада 2015 р. — ведучий програми «Паноптикум» на телеканалі «Дождь» спільно з Василем Уткіним, із січня 2017 р. — постійний гість щотижневої програми «Невзоровские среды» (раніше, у лютому 2015, — «Персонально ваш») на радіостанції «Ехо Москви».
Після 2022
Невзоров стверджує, що з 2006 р. є радником генерального директора «Першого каналу» Костянтина Ернста, та за гонорар дає медикам за кордоном і в РФ приватні лекції на латині.
20 березня 2022 року виїхав в Ізраїль для виступу з відкритою лекцією. 23 березня того ж року Головне слідче управління Слідчого комітету (СК) Росії порушило кримінальну справу стосовно Олександра Невзорова. У його діях влада РФ угледіла ознаки злочину, пов'язаного з «громадським поширенням фейків про дії збройних сил Російської Федерації». За версією слідства, Невзоров 9 березня в Instagram і 19 березня в YouTube опублікував «свідомо неправдиву» інформацію про навмисний обстріл «ПС РФ пологового будинку в місті Маріуполі» Невзоров вимушено залишився в Ізраїлі й заявив, що має намір повернутись до Росії.
3 червня 2022 року, як повідомив сам Олександр, йому та його дружині Лідії Невзоровій, за указом президента України Володимира Зеленського, надано українське громадянство за визначні заслуги перед країною. Проте секретар РНБО України (в інтерв‘ю 24 каналу) сказав, що поки що Олександр не отримав українського громадянства, бо для набуття статусу громадянина України необхідно пройти відповідну процедуру, передбачену Конституцією та законами України. Окрім того, попередньо Невзорову треба буде відмовитись від громадянства РФ.
Засудження за «фейки про російську армію»
Наприкінці березня 2022 року в Росії на Невзорова завели кримінальну справу за ст. 207.3 через публікацію в Instagram та Youtube інформації про навмисний обстріл російською армією пологового будинку в Маріуполі. Прокуратура запросила покарання у вигляді 9 років ув'язнення. 1 лютого 2023 року Басманний районний суд Москви заочно приговорив журналіста до 8 років колонії за пунктом «д» частини 2 статті 207.3 УК РФ.
Політична діяльність і позиція
У період кампанії з виборів Президента Росії весною-улітку 1991 року Невзоров пропагував кандидатури Володимира Жириновського та Альберта Макашова. Останній у червні 1991 року очолив Всеросійський рух «Отчизна», а Невзоров у липні того ж року брав участь у створенні Ленінградської організації руху «Отчизна», проводив його установчу конференцію разом з колишнім лідером фронту «Память» Ріверовим.
У листопаді 1991 на мітингу в Санкт-Петербурзі Невзоров проголосив створення Народно-визвольного руху «Наші», який, за однією з версій, став предтечею прокремлівського молодіжного руху з однойменною назвою.
У 1992 році зробив наступну заяву щодо СРСР та Російської імперії: «Слово „совєцький“ не замінило слів „грузинський“, „латиський“, „український“, але повністю замінило в офіціозі слово „русскій“. Росію знищили, розчинивши в терміні „Союз“. Імперія, та Росія, яка була колись, будувалася не на штиках і пактах, а на довгому, добровільному або історично необхідному у неминучому зрощенні різних народностей».У грудні 1993 року як висуванець від так званої «Думи Русского Народного Собора» разом зі ще одним висуванцем Віктором Ілюхіним обраний депутатом Держдуми РФ.
За твердженням авторів видання Московського антифашистського центру «Политический экстремизм в России» (Москва, 1996), координовані Невзоровим рух «Наші» та «Русскій народний собор» були націоналістичними та екстремістськими організаціями.
Тогочасна політична ідеологія, декларована Невзоровим, була охарактеризована демократичним політологом Володимиром Прибиловським, як праворадикальна та «етнократична».
Невзоров стверджував, що до Першої чеченської війни був затятим імперцем і патріотом, але потім відбувся злам і він зрозумів, що імперська ідея, цілісність країни та інше не варті «трупів, дикого материнського й удовиного горя». Але таке твердження спростовується його власним визнанням, даним влітку 1998 р. для видання «Российский кто есть кто: журнал биографий». Як пише автор статті «От „Ада“ до „Чистилища“», цитуючи слова Невзорова:«У зв'язку з подіями в Чечні ставлення Невзорова до влади змінилося на краще. Він знімає свій перший фільм про Чечню „Ад“, який вийшов в ефір під завісу 1994 року»… «Те, що я побачив, мене порадувало щиро та серйозно. Я зрозумів, що ця війна героїчна» (процитував далі автор Невзорова).Також у 1995—1996 роках Невзоров закликав до максимальної жорсткості щодо Чеченської Республіки Ічкерія, що було опубліковано на сторінках видаваного ним часопису «Информ 600 секунд».
У 1999 році висловився за авторитаризм. У коментарі для П. Шеремета саме Невзоров закликав тогочасного главу уряду РФ В. Путіна «проявити владолюбство та взяти Росію в ліжко ще до весілля».
У виступі 2019 року Невзоров заявив, що не вважає себе ані російським «державником», ані «православним» та що в питанні російської агресії проти України цілковито стоїть на боці України. Російських професійних військових найманців-диверсантів, засланих на схід України (таких, наприклад, як Гіркін-Стрєлков), називав одночасно й своїми «друзями», і визнавав їх «терористами». Анексію Криму Росією називав мародерством:«Лежала закривавлена, непритомна Україна, а із сумочки у неї стирчав Крим. Росія його забрала. Це називається мародерство».В інтерв'ю 2015 року стверджував, що в російській агресії немає вини Путіна, що він у цьому випадку лише пристосовується під те, чого хоче російський народ.
У ЗМІ виступає з крайніх атеїстичних, антиклерикальних та антимонархічних позицій. Підтримав надання автокефалії Українській Православній Церкві.
Національність
Після російської агресії проти України попросив громадськість більше не називати його росіянином:«У мене немає національності. Після українських подій я написав заяву про вихід з росіян. Я непитущий, небоговірний і на балалайці грати не вмію — який з мене росіянин?»Публічно визнав, що «перехворів на фашизм». Сам заявив, що ніколи не просив про українське громадянство, і що Президент України Зеленський прийняв правильне ідеологічне рішення, адже приклад з ним може стати корисним у боротьбі з російською пропагандою. Надання громадянства Невзорову було розкритиковане опозицією, адже такий вчинок було застосовано до колишнього пропагандиста, тоді як військові добровольці, які захищають Україну і яких вдома чекає переслідування за участь у воєнних діях на території іншої країни, не можуть здобути громадянство довгий час. Окремим пунктом критики надання громадянства був виділений недружній крок щодо відносин України з Литвою: у 1990 році Невзоров робив репортаж про десантників, які були послані придушити протести в Литві щодо виходу з СРСР, за контекстом репортажу, Невзоровим литовці були названі «фашистами».
Творчість
Фільми
1991 — Наші
1995 — Чудотворна (про події жовтня 1993 року)
1995 — Кухар (про людожера Кузікова)
1995 — Пекло (про чеченську війну)
1997 — Чистилище — режисер, сценарист, кінопродюсер
2005 — Кінська енциклопедія — режисер, сценарист
2006 — Методіка Nevzorov Haute École: основні принципи — виробництво «NEVZOROV HAUTE ÉCOLE»
2008 — Кінь розіп'ятий і воскреслий — спектакль, документальний фільм (Росія) режисер, сценарист
2010 — Lectio Equaria Palaestra (Манежне кінське читання) — Росія, режисер
Книги
Невзоров А. Г. Поле чести — СПб.: Международная издательская корпорация, 1995. — 320 с. — 51 000 экз. — ISBN 5-900740-12-9.
Невзоров А. Г. Лошадиная энциклопедия. — СПб.: АСТ, Астрель-СПб, 2005. — 358 с. — 5 000 экз. — ISBN 5-17-033457-2.
Невзоров А. Г. Трактат о Школьной посадке. — СПб.: АСТ, Астрель-СПб, 2008. — 128 с. — ISBN 978-5-17-052660-4.
Леонтьев М. В., Невзоров А. Г. Крепость «Россия». — М.: Эксмо, 2008. — 319 с. — ISBN 978-5-699-25740-9.
Невзоров А. Г. Избранное из публикаций 2007—2009 годов. — СПб.: Nevzorov Haute École, 2009. — 288 с. — ISBN 978-5-7451-0154-7.
Невзоров А. Г. Конский спорт. Секреты «мастерства». — СПб: АСТ, 2009. — 160 с. — 3 000 экз. — ISBN 978-5-17-057820-7.
Невзоров А. Г. Трактат о работе «в руках». — СПб.: АСТ, Астрель-СПб, 2010. — 128 с. — 3 000 экз. — ISBN 978-5-17-068076-4.
Невзоров А. Г. Краткая история цинизма. — М.:: АСТ, Астрель-СПб, Nevzorov Haute École, ВКТ, 2010. — 320 с. — ISBN 978-5-17-069686-4.
Невзоров А. Г. L. E. P. Манежное лошадиное чтение. Киносценарий. — СПб.: Nevzorov Haute École, 2010. — 144 с. — 3 000 экз. — ISBN 978-5-904788-04-9.
Невзоров А. Г. Лошадиная энциклопедия. — АСТ, Астрель-СПб, 2010. — 384 стр. — 1500 экз. — ISBN 5-17-035523-8, 5-9725-0244-5, 5-17-035523-5;
Невзоров А. Г. Происхождение личности и интеллекта человека. Опыт обобщения данных классической нейрофизиологии. — СПб.: Анатомия и Физиология, 2012. — 544 с. — ISBN 978-5-904788-15-5.
Невзоров А. Г. Отставка господа бога. Зачем России православие? — М.: Эксмо, 2015. — 224 с. — 4 000 экз. — ISBN 978-5-699-77727-3; 3 000 экз. — ISBN 978-5-699-78735-7;
Невзоров А. Г. Уроки атеизма: книга + CD (з живим голосом Олександра Невзорова) — М.: Эксмо, 2016. — 352 с. + CD — 4 000 экз. — ISBN 978-5-699-82339-0;
Література про Невзорова
Чеканов Е. 600 секунд и вся жизнь А.Невзорова. М., 1989.
Гордин Я. Большой друг генералов Александр Невзоров. Газета «Русская мысль», № 3868, 1 марта 1991, стр. 8.
Щекатихин Е. Вы не правы, Александр Глебович! // Отечество. — 1992. — N 6. — С.5.
Иванов И. И. Александр Невзоров. — М.: МП «Палея», 1992.
Измайлова И.A. Panoptikum: А. Невзоров и его «Капричос». — СПб.: Внешторгизд. — СПб. отд-е, 1992.
Невзоров и Собчак: записки Санкт-петербургской фрейлины. М.: МП «Палея», 1992.
Прибыловский В. В. Русские националистические и праворадикальные организации (1989—1995). Документы и тексты. 2 тома. Москва, 1995.
Нагороди
Орден «За особисту мужність»
Медаль «За зміцнення бойової співдружності»
Медаль «Захисник Придністров'я»
Медаль «Учасник бойових дій у Чечні»
Козачий хрест «За оборону Придністров'я»
Цікаві факти
У ранні роки своєї журналістської кар'єри в Санкт-Петербурзі мав серед критиків його репортажного стилю прізвисько «Неврозов».
На одній зі своїх творчих зустрічей заявив, що є автором визначення Георгіївської стрічки як «колорадської».
Примітки
Посилання
http://nevzorov.tv/
http://gordonua.com/heroes/aleksandr-nevzorov.html
http://happy-horses.ru/aleksandr-glebovich-nevzorov-biografiya/
https://eksmo.ru/author/nevzorov-aleksandr-glebovich-ID1702846/
http://www.peoples.ru/tv/nevzorov/index1.html
http://zampolit.com/dossier/nevzorov-aleksandr-glebovich/
Невзоров А. Г. Происхождение личности и интеллекта человека. Опыт обобщения данных классической нейрофизиологии. — СПб.: Анатомия и Физиология, 2012. — 544 с (книга)
Невзоров А.Г. Уроки атеизма — ООО «Издательство «Э», 2015 — 352 с. (книга)
Невзоров ' Историей России гордиться нельзя (Особый взгляд) (2013.07.14) на YouTube
Теория и практика кощунства на YouTube
Уроки публицистики . Лекция № 1 Безмозглый мозг на YouTube
Александр Невзоров "Искусство оскорблять". Мухоморы победы на YouTube
Радянські журналісти
Російські журналісти
Телеведучі СРСР
Російські телеведучі
Російські політологи
Російські публіцисти
Російські режисери
Депутати Державної думи Російської Федерації
Кавалери ордена «За особисту мужність»
Критики релігії
Діячі російської культури, що підтримали Україну
Вегетаріанці
Відеоблогери Росії
Телеведучі Першого каналу
Автори неакадемічних досліджень
Конярі
Російські колумністи
Репортери
Російська еміграція 2020-х років
Втікачі з Росії
Натуралізовані громадяни України
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860952
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobart%20Airport
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Hobart Airport
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Hobart Airport is an airport located in Cambridge, north-east of the Hobart CBD. It is the principal airport of Tasmania.
The Federal government owned airport is operated by the Tasmanian Gateway Consortium under a 99-year lease.
The airport maintains a conjoined international and domestic terminal. The major airlines servicing the airport are Qantas, Jetstar, Rex Airlines and Virgin Australia operating domestic flights predominantly to Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane. International flights to Auckland, New Zealand, operate two to three times weekly with Air New Zealand.
Due to the airport's southern location, Skytraders operates regular flights to Antarctica on behalf of the Australian Antarctic Division using an Airbus A319.
Hobart International Airport was opened in 1956 and privatised in 1988. Occupying approximately of land, the airport is situated on a narrow peninsula. Take-offs and landings are inevitably directed over bodies of water regardless of approach or departure direction. The region immediately surrounding the airport remains largely unpopulated, which enables the airport to operate curfew-free services.
In the 2018–19 financial year, the airport handled 2.6m passenger movements, making it the ninth busiest airport in Australia.
History
Prior to the existence of the airport, the region was served by Cambridge Airport, a small airport located close to the existing site. As air travel became more frequent and the number of flights increased, it was clear that Cambridge airport was only suitable for light aircraft. In June 1948, Prime Minister Ben Chifley announced the construction of a new AU£760,000 airport at Llanherne. With Australia's continual interest in Antarctica, it was believed the southernmost airport of Australia would serve as an ideal base for heavy aircraft serving the region. Hobart Airport was commissioned in 1956 as the primary regular public transport airport. It was initially named Llanherne Airport, after the property on which it was built, but the name has since fallen into disuse. In its first full year of operation, the airport processed 120,086 passengers and 11,724 tonnes of freight, ranking fifth in Australia.
By 1957, the airport's infrastructure comprised a small terminal building which remains at the south-eastern end of the current terminal, two freight hangars, a fuel depot, a timber weather station, and the airport administration office and works compound. In 1964, the Federal Government upgraded and lengthened the runway to cater for jet aircraft. The runway was extended again in 1985 to cater for large aircraft such as the Boeing 747 and Antonov 124 (albeit to a limited operating range). The current domestic terminal building was officially opened on 28 July 1976 and the international terminal building in 1986. The Federal Government corporatised the airport in January 1988 with the creation of the Federal Airports Corporation.
Privatisation
On 11 June 1998, Hobart Airport was privatised, with a 99-year lease purchased by Hobart International Airport Pty Ltd, a Tasmanian Government-owned company operated by the Hobart Ports Corporation. In 2004, the domestic terminal was redeveloped for the first time in its 30-year history. This development involved modernising the terminal, moving the retail shops to within the security screening area, realignment of the car park and moving the car rental facilities to a new building in the car park. In 2005, Hobart Airport experienced record annual passenger numbers and it was decided to bring forward plans to upgrade the seating capacity of the airport. This work expanded the domestic terminal building over the tarmac by three metres to provide more departure lounge space.
In December 2007, the Tasmanian Government sold the Tasmanian Ports Corporation-owned subsidiary for A$350 million to the Tasmanian Gateway Consortium, a private consortium made up of Macquarie Capital (one of Macquarie Group's infrastructure funds) and Tasmania's public sector superannuation fund, the Tasplan. The sale was in line with other state capital airport sell-offs, and Hobart airport was the last capital city airport remaining under government control. In October 2019, Macquarie Capital sold its stake to Queensland Investment Corporation and Schiphol Group.
Terminals
Hobart Airport has two passenger terminals. In 2007, the two terminals were connected in a $15 million development to meet new Commonwealth legislation that requires all checked luggage to be X-rayed. In 2008, the airport received a commendation for public architecture at the Tasmanian Chapter of the Australian Institute of Architects, for the new terminal upgrade. The airport currently maintains a combined international, domestic and general aviation apron. Provisions have been made to create a dedicated general aviation apron to the south of the one currently in use. The 2022 draft masterplan confirms that the terminal building will be increasing in size from the current to around in the medium term.
Domestic terminal
The current domestic terminal was opened in 1976 and has been expanded several times since. All airlines share the same check in and departure area towards the south-eastern end of the building. A Qantas Club is located airside within the departures area, with provision for an expanded lounge for both Qantas and Virgin Australia in the master plan. The arrivals hall for all airlines is located at the north-western end of the building and contains two baggage carousels. The easternmost of the baggage carousels can be secured for use by international arrivals. The domestic apron has six parking bays for narrow-body (Boeing 737/Airbus A320-sized) aircraft, with three additional parking bays located toward the northern end of the domestic apron.
International terminal
The international terminal was opened in 1983 to facilitate Trans-Tasman air traffic, although, international flights began at the airport in December 1980 with Ansett and TAA airways offering services to New Zealand. In 1985 the terminal was upgraded, along with the runway, to provide limited 747 operations. Between 1998 and 2020, no regular international flights serviced by the airport after Air New Zealand suspended their operations from Christchurch. Direct international flights recommenced in April, 2021 with Air New Zealand to Auckland operating twice weekly in winter and thrice weekly over summer. The terminal is also used by Skytraders for flights to Antarctica and occasional charter airline flights. The terminal's apron has a single wide-body parking bay overlapping two narrow-body bays. This bay is able to accommodate large wide-body aircraft up to and including Boeing 747-400 and 777–200. The international terminal's apron is used primarily for domestic operations and Skytraders' seasonal Antarctic flights as well as the Air New Zealand flights to Auckland.
Freight
There are two domestic freight areas operating at the airport, catering for Qantas, Toll Air and Virgin Australia. The facility includes two buildings on a total area of approximately , including the freight apron area. Qantas uses dedicated jet freight aircraft. In January 2007, Virgin Blue (now Virgin Australia) and Toll Air opened a dedicated freight facility to the north of the international terminal. This new freight area has no dedicated apron of its own, but rather makes use of the cargo holds of the passenger aircraft already serving the airport.
General aviation
The majority of Hobart's general aviation traffic makes use of the nearby Cambridge Aerodrome, which was sold in 1992 on the condition that it remain an airport until 2004. Since that date, Hobart Airport has made plans for a large expansion catering for general aviation should the owners of Cambridge Aerodrome decide to use the land for other purposes. This expansion would include a new runway and a general aviation apron located south of the existing Domestic Terminal.
Runway
Hobart Airport has one runway, 12/30, which is aligned north–west to south–east and is . The runway was extended in 2017 by 500 metres comprising a 350-metre extension at the southern end, a 150-metre lengthening to the northern end, and the relocation of the approach lights. The high strength flexible runway is constructed with an asphaltic concrete surface and is suitable for all Code E aircraft operations up to and including Boeing 777/747 aircraft. The current runway length is adequate for unrestricted operations on a Boeing 787-9 to China and Japan. The runway conforms to the Civil Aviation Safety Authority's standards.
In 2009, Hobart International Airport Pty Ltd announced detailed plans for the airport with a new 20-year master plan. Currently aircraft have to taxi along the runway and proceed to the parking apron via taxiways in the middle of the runway. This has both capacity and safety implications for the airport, as the runway cannot be used whilst an aircraft is taxiing. The plans provide for a parallel taxiway to the full length of runway. When complete, aircraft landing on the runway would proceed to the end of the runway and exit via the parallel taxiway. This would allow for greater utilisation of the existing runway.
The airport purchased land from the Tasmanian Government in the southern part of the airport for future development of operational facilities. This additional area would allow for a short runway for general aviation aircraft, either parallel to the main runway along the southern end of the eastern boundary of the airport, or a cross runway towards the southern end of the main runway. The alternative second runway would provide an opportunity to improve the operational management of the lighter categories of aircraft. However, the second runway is not likely to be developed any time soon, because the existing runway is under-utilised.
Other facilities
Hotel
In December 2005, prominent Hobart developer Ali Sultan proposed a four star, 60-room hotel/motel for the airport. The hotel, named the Quality Hotel Hobart Airport, was opened on 1 December 2008. The hotel comprises 78 rooms, a restaurant/café and a number of conference and meeting spaces. The hotel employs 25 people.
Big box development
Early in 2006, the airport announced plans to build a Direct Factory Outlet, covering an area of , which would have made it the largest of its kind in Australia. Austexx, a Melbourne-based company was the main investor in the $100 million project.
While the Tasmanian Government supported the project, believing the Direct Factory Outlet would drive retail trade growth, the Hobart City Council and a large amount of retail shop owners in the Hobart Central Business District expressed fears of losing business. Concern was also expressed about the big box being built on commonwealth land and therefore escaping the state planning laws. In 2008, plans for the project were submitted to the Federal Government for assessment. Federal Transport Minister Warren Truss gave approval on condition the outlet centre was cut by almost half to , prompting Austexx to walk away from the proposal. In February 2008, Austexx' chief executive Geoff Porz confirmed the Direct Factory Outlet and Homemaker Hub project was back on, however Austexx went into receivership in 2010, and as of 2023 the site remains undeveloped.
Cold Storage & Warehousing
In December 2018 Link Logistics International started a Cold Storage & Warehousing, at the Hobart Airport. The cool rooms have a height of 8 metres floor to ceiling, which is ideal for block stacking pallets. Since opening the cold store, Link Logistics International Pty Ltd has provided temperature-controlled storage solutions for customers wanting short-term seasonal storage to long term storage. Storage has been provided to the industry from various sectors, including Seafood, Viticulture, stone fruit, berries, Vegetable processors, craft beer, poultry, wine, ice cream, and restaurateurs wanting a larger storage alternative.
Airlines and destinations
Passenger
Cargo
Traffic and statistics
Ground transport
Hobart Airport has a car park that caters for short, medium and long term parking. There is also a well-serviced taxi rank and limousine service operating at the airport.
There are numerous car rental operators.
Public transport has not been a high use alternative to private transport for those travelling to and from the airport. There is a bus service established in 2018, the "Hobart Airporter", which operates between the Hobart Central Business District and the airport. The shuttle departs outside the terminal every 30 minutes transferring passengers to the city. The operator for the bus service is SkyBus.
See also
List of airports in Tasmania
References
External links
Official site
Airports in Tasmania
Airports established in 1956
Transport in Hobart
Landmarks in Hobart
1956 establishments in Australia
City of Clarence
International airports in Australia
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53831129
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17th%20Rifle%20Corps
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17th Rifle Corps
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17th Rifle Corps
The 17th Rifle Corps was a corps of the Red Army and later the Soviet Army, formed three times.
It was first formed in 1922 in the Soviet Far East before relocating to Ukraine two years later. It fought in the Soviet invasion of Poland and was destroyed during Operation Barbarossa in mid-1941. The corps was reformed in late 1942 in the Far East and fought in the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in August 1945 before being disbanded postwar later that year. It was formed for a third time in 1949 at Samarkand in the Turkestan Military District, becoming the 17th Army Corps in 1957. The 17th Army Corps relocated to Frunze in the Central Asian Military District in the late 1960s, serving there for the rest of the Cold War. After the Dissolution of the Soviet Union, it became the headquarters of the Ministry of Defense of Kyrgyzstan.
First formation
The corps was initially first formed as the Primorsky Rifle Corps at Chita on 2 November 1922, part of the 5th Army. On 25 December, the corps became the 17th Primorsky Rifle Corps. In January 1924, the corps was relocated west to Vinnytsia on the other side of the Soviet Union, where it became part of the Ukrainian Military District and dropped the "Primorsky" designation. In May 1935, the 17th became part of the Kiev Military District when the Ukrainian Military District was split. As part of the 6th Army, the corps fought in the Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939, occupying what became western Ukraine. After the end of the campaign in October, the corps headquarters was stationed at Chernivtsi and it became part of the Kiev Special Military District. Assigned to the 12th Army in May 1940, the corps fought against Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, from 22 June 1941. The corps was disbanded in August of that year.
Second formation
It was reformed in December 1942 in the Far East, part of the 25th Army. In August 1945 in the Far East it had the 187th Rifle Division and 366th Rifle Division. For the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in August 1945, the corps was transferred to the 5th Army. At the beginning of the invasion, the corps advanced in the 5th Army's first echelon. Its objective was to cut off the Japanese Northeastern and Eastern (Suifenho) Fortified Regions, alongside the 105th Fortified Area and several border guard battalions.
On the first day of the invasion, 9 August, the 187th Division fought in heavy combat for the control of railroad tunnels east of Suifenho, which were rapidly secured. The corps advanced southwards into the rear of the Suifenho Fortified Region, where they linked up with troops from the 25th Army's 39th Rifle Corps, completing the encirclement of the Tungning Fortified Region. The speedy Soviet advance prevented the Japanese troops from creating new defensive lines and from effectively resisting the attack. At 17:00 on the same day, the corps was transferred to the 25th Army. After clearing the remaining Japanese troops from Tungning on 10 August, the 17th and 39th Corps began advancing southwest along the Tungning road to Wangching, Tumen, Tunhua, and Kirin on the next day. The two corps approached Laoheishan by noon on 12 August after marching between 18.6 and 25 miles .
For the next few days, the 10th Mechanized Corps and the two rifle corps advanced along the narrow road from Laoheishan to Heitosai, which forced the column to become strung out along the road. As a result, only the forward detachments and reconnaissance units met the negligible Japanese resistance before capturing Heitosai. 25th Army commander Ivan Chistyakov split the units in two columns, one of which included the 17th Corps and elements of the 10th Mechanized, advancing west towards the Taipingling Pass. The Soviet troops encountered Japanese defensive positions from the 128th Infantry Division's 284th Infantry Regiment at Lotzokou on 15 August. The 187th Division conducted a frontal attack while the 366th encircled the Japanese from the south. Meanwhile, the 10th Corps' 72nd Mechanized Brigade bypassed the Japanese and advanced east to Taipingling Pass, where they were halted by the 285th Infantry Regiment of the 128th, which had constructed prepared defensive positions.
In the late evening of 16 August, the Soviet forces were able to capture both Lotzokou and Taipingling Pass after breaking through the Japanese defenses, continuing to pursue the remnants of the 128th Division westwards. Two days later, the corps followed behind the 10th Mechanized Corps in linking up with the forward elements of the 5th Army at Tungchingcheng after an advance of . The corps was disbanded in October 1945.
Third formation and 17th Army Corps
In September 1949, the 17th Rifle Corps was reformed at Samarkand in the Turkestan Military District as part of a buildup of the Soviet Army. It initially included the 16th Guards Mechanized Division at Samarkand and the 360th Rifle Division at Termez. The 203rd Rifle Division at Karaganda also became part of the corps in 1949. In 1955, the 360th was renumbered as the 62nd Rifle Division, and the 203rd became the 30th. In 1957, the 62nd became the 108th Motor Rifle Division, the 203rd became the 102nd, and the 16th Guards the 90th Guards Motor Rifle Division.
The corps became the 17th Army Corps in June of that year. In May 1962, the division became a training unit and was directly subordinated to the district headquarters. In the late 1960s, the corps headquarters moved to Frunze in the newly reformed Central Asian Military District, and took control of three motor rifle divisions: the 201st in Dushanbe, the 8th Guards (recently relocated from Tallinn to Frunze), and the 68th (moved from Uryupinsk to Taldykurgan). It also included two separate motor rifle regiments: the 30th at Korday and the 860th at Osh.
In January 1980, the 860th Separate Motor Rifle Regiment was sent to the 40th Army to fight in the Soviet–Afghan War. It was replaced by the 32nd Separate Motor Rifle Regiment, which transferred from Ordzhonikidze and soon became the 68th Separate Motor Rifle Brigade, the only Soviet Army mountain brigade. In February, the 201st Motor Rifle Division was also sent to Afghanistan, and was replaced by the 134th Motor Rifle Division, expanded from the former's 92nd Motor Rifle and 401st Tank Regiments. With three divisions and a brigade, the corps was equal in size to some combined arms armies. In the late 1980s, smaller corps units included the 789th Separate Protection and Security Company, and the 78th Material Support Brigade at Frunze, the 751st Separate Engineer-Sapper Battalion at Kalchagay, and the 13th Machine Gun Artillery Regiment, 179th Separate Reactive Artillery Battalion, and a separate radio-electronic warfare battalion at Sary-Ozek. In January 1989, after the Central Asian Military District was disbanded, the corps became part of the Turkestan Military District again. On 24 August, the 30th Regiment became part of the 8th Guards Division.
After the Dissolution of the Soviet Union, in the summer of 1992, the corps headquarters became the headquarters of the Ministry of Defense of Kyrgyzstan.
Unit listing c1988
Corps Command and Headquarters (Управление корпуса и штаб) – Frunze
789th Separate Staff Security and Support Company (789-я отдельная рота охраны и обеспечения) – Frunze
525th Separate SpetsNaz Company (525-я отдельная рота спецназа) – Frunze (GRU formation operationally attached to the army)
Separate Electronic Warfare Battalion (отдельный батальон РЭБ) – Sary-Ozek (EW Directorate of the General Staff's unit)
342nd Separate Signals Battalion (342-й отдельный батальон связи) – Frunze
303rd Separate Helicopter Squadron (303-я отдельная вертолётная эскадрилья) – Dushanbe
30th Separate Motor Rifle Regiment (30-й отдельный мотострелковый полк) – Rybachye (became part of the 8th MRD on August 24, 1989)
78th Rocket Brigade (78-я ракетная бригада) – Unguras
13th Gun Artillery Regiment (13-й пушечный артиллерийский полк) – Sary-Ozek
179th Separate Multiple Rocket Launcher Artillery Battalion (179-й отдельный реактивный артиллерийский дивизион) – Sary-Ozek
186th Separate Air Defence Missile and Artillery Battalion (186-й отдельный зенитный ракетно-артиллерийский дивизион) – Osh
751st Separate Sapper Engineer Battalion (751-й отдельный инженерно-сапёрный батальон) – Kapchagay
78th Material Supply Brigade (78-я бригада материального обеспечения) – Frunze
Separate Pack Animals Transport Company (отдельная вьючно-транспортная рота) – Osh
8th Guards Rezhitskaya, awarded the Order of Lenin, the Order of the Red Banner and the Order of Suvorov, named after the Hero of the Soviet Union Major-General I. V. Panfilov (8-я гвардейская мотострелковая Режицкая ордена Ленина, Краснознамённая, ордена Суворова дивизия имени Героя Советского Союза генерал-майора И. В. Панфилова) – Frunze
41st Separate Guards Signal Battalion (41-й отдельный гвардейский батальон связи) – Rybachye
282nd Guards Motor Rifle Regiment (282-й гвардейский мотострелковый полк) – Frunze
4th Motor Rifle Regiment (4-й мотострелковый полк) – Rybachye
23rd Guards Motor Rifle Regiment (23-й гвардейский мотострелковый полк) – Korday
50th Guards Tank Regiment (50-й гвардейский танковый полк) – Korday
14th Guards Artillery Regiment (14-й гвардейский артиллерийский полк) – Rybachye
1059th Guards Air Defence Missile Regiment (1059-й гвардейский зенитно-ракетный полк) – Korday
Separate Ballistic Missile Battalion (отдельный ракетный дивизион) – Rybachye
Separate Anti-Tank Battalion (отдельный противотанковый дивизион) – Rybachye
793rd Separate Reconnaissance Battalion (793-й отдельный разведывательный батальон) – Rybachye
32nd Separate Guards Sapper Engineer Battalion (32-й отдельный гвардейский инженерно-сапёрный батальон) – Rybachye
Separate Chemical Defence Company (отдельный рота химической защиты) – Rybachye
300th Separate Repair and Overhaul Battalion (300-й отдельный ремонтно-восстановительный батальон) – Korday
Separate Medical Battalion (отдельный медицинский батальон) – Rybachye
Separate Material Supply Battalion (отдельный батальон материального обеспечения) – Rybachye
68th Red Banner Novgorodskaya Motor Rifle Division (68-я мотострелковая Новгородская Краснознамённая дивизия) – Sary-Ozek
549th Separate Signals Battalion (549-й отдельный батальон связи) – Sary-Ozek
188th Motor Rifle Regiment (188-й мотострелковый полк) – Sary-Ozek
385th Motor Rifle Regiment (385-й мотострелковый полк) – Burunday
517th Motor Rifle Regiment (517-й мотострелковый полк) – Taldıqorğan
310th Tank Regiment (310-й танковый полк) – Sary-Ozek
343rd Artillery Regiment (343-й артиллерийский полк) – Sary-Ozek
1164th Air Defence Artillery Regiment (1164-й зенитный артиллерийский полк) – Sary-Ozek
Separate Ballistic Missile Battalion (отдельный ракетный дивизион) – Sary-Ozek
Separate Anti-Tank Battalion (отдельный противотанковый дивизион) – Sary-Ozek
106th Separate Reconnaissance Battalion (106-й отдельный разведывательный батальон) – Burunday
227th Separate Sapper Engineer Battalion (227-й отдельный инженерно-сапёрный батальон) – Sary-Ozek
81st Separate Chemical Defence Battalion (81-й отдельный батальон химзащиты) – Sary-Ozek
Separate Repair and Overhaul Battalion (отдельный ремонтно-восстановительный батальон) – Sary-Ozek
8th Separate Medical Battalion (8-й отдельный медицинский батальон) – Sary-Ozek
395th Separate Material Supply Battalion (395-й отдельный батальон материального обеспечения) – Sary-Ozek
134th Motor Rifle Division (134-я мотострелковая дивизия) – Dushanbe
Separate Signals Battalion (отдельный батальон связи) – Dushanbe
92nd Motor Rifle Regiment (92-й мотострелковый полк) – Dushanbe
806th Motor Rifle Regiment (806-й мотострелковый полк) – Bokhtar
1208th Motor Rifle Regiment (1208-й мотострелковый полк) – Kulob
401st Tank Regiment (401-й танковый полк) – Dushanbe
Artillery Regiment (артиллерийский полк) – Dushanbe
990th Air Defence Artillery Regiment (990-й зенитный артиллерийский полк) – Dushanbe
Separate Ballistic Missile Battalion (837-й отдельный ракетный дивизион) – Bokhtar
Separate Anti-Tank Battalion (отдельный противотанковый дивизион) – Dushanbe
Separate Reconnaissance Battalion (отдельный разведывательный батальон) – Dushanbe
Separate Sapper Engineer Battalion (отдельный инженерно-сапёрный батальон) – Dushanbe
Separate Chemical Defence Company (отдельная рота химической защиты) – Dushanbe
Separate Repair and Overhaul Battalion (отдельный ремонтно-восстановительный батальон) – Dushanbe
Separate Medical Battalion (отдельный медицинский батальон) – Dushanbe
Separate Material Supply Battalion (отдельный батальон материального обеспечения) – Dushanbe
68th Separate Motor Rifle Brigade (mountain) (68-я отдельная мотострелковая бригада (горная)) – Osh
Organization
1939:
96th Rifle Division
97th Rifle Division
10th Tank Brigade
38th Tank Brigade
1941:
60th Mountain Rifle Division
96th Mountain Rifle Division
164th Mountain Rifle Division
Commanders
The following officer is known to have commanded the corps' first formation:
Major General Ivan Galanin (14 March26 August 1941)
The corps' second formation is known to have been commanded by the following officers:
Major General Afanasy Kopychko (16 December 19425 July 1945)
Lieutenant General Nikolay Nikitin (5 July 1945–July 1946)
The corps' third formation and the 17th Army Corps were commanded by the following officers:
Major General Grigory Belov (19 September 1949 – 23 July 1954)
Major General Nikolay Chunikhin (23 July 1954–June 1955)
Major General (June 1955 – 25 September 1958)
Major General Anatoly Andrushchenko (26 September 1958 – 24 February 1961)
Major General Yegor Kruglov (25 February 1961 – 3 December 1964)
Major General (promoted to Lieutenant General 23 February 1967) Nikolay Silchenko (4 December 1964 – 28 July 1967)
Major General (promoted to Lieutenant General 29 April 1970) Sergey Borisov (29 July 1967 – 6 December 1971)
Major General (promoted to Lieutenant General 4 November 1973) Vladimir Myakushko (6 December 1971–May 1975)
Major General Fyodor Kuzmin (December 1982–September 1984)
Major General Ivan Bizhan (November 1984–June 1987)
Major General Viktor Kazantsev (1988–1990)
References
Citations
Bibliography
Rifle corps of the Soviet Union
Military units and formations established in 1922
Military units and formations disestablished in 1945
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2%20Antonio%20Zingarelli
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Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli
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Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli (4 April 1752 – 5 May 1837) was an Italian composer, chiefly of opera.
Life
Early career
Zingarelli was born in Naples, where he studied (from the age of 7) at the Santa Maria di Loreto conservatory under Fenaroli and Speranza.
In 1789–1790 Zingarelli went to Paris to compose Antigone. He left France hurriedly at the time of the revolution and eventually returned to Italy. He was appointed maestro di cappella at Milan Cathedral in 1793, and remained there until 1794, when he took up the prestigious post of maestro di cappella at the Basilica della Santa Casa, Loreto.
Rome
In 1804, Zingarelli was appointed choir master of the Sistine Chapel in Rome. Seven years later he publicly refused, as an Italian patriot, to conduct a Te Deum for Napoleon's new-born son, known as King of Rome, in St. Peter's Basilica. As a result of this refusal he was captured and taken to Paris. Nevertheless, the Emperor was a great admirer of Zingarelli's music and soon gave the composer his liberty. In addition, Zingarelli was awarded a state pension.
Naples
In 1813, Zingarelli moved to Naples, where he became director of the conservatory. Then in 1816 he replaced Giovanni Paisiello as choir master of Naples Cathedral, a position he held until his death in 1837.
He died at Torre del Greco in 1837. Donizetti wrote a sinfonia funebre for his funeral.
Works
Opera
In his early career, Zingarelli concentrated on writing opera; his debut was with the opera seria Montezuma, given at San Carlo on 13 August 1781, which aroused some interest, although the public in Naples found it too “learned”. Haydn revived it at the Eszterháza theatre in 1785.
Antigone, in which Zingarelli adopted some of the reform principles of French opera, won little favour in Paris; after that he eschewed innovation and contented himself with tried and tested formulae.
Zingarelli wrote 37 mainly comic operas in a prolific career. Between 1785 and 1803 he wrote mainly for La Scala of Milan, the first to be produced here being Alsinda. He achieved immediate success with Il mercato di Monfregoso and La secchia rapita. However Giulietta e Romeo is nowadays often considered his best opera. His last opera, Berenice, achieved considerable success in his lifetime after its initial production in Rome.
Surviving operas include:
Montezuma (1781)
Alsinda (1785)
Ifigenia in Aulide (1787)
Artaserse (1789)
Antigone (1790)
La morte di Cesare (1790)
Pirro re di Epiro (1791)
Annibale in Torino (1792)
L'oracolo sannita (1792)
Il mercato di Monfregoso (1792)
Apelle (1793, revised as Apelle e Campaspe (1795)
Quinto Fabio (1794)
Il conte di Saldagna (1794)
Gli Orazi e i Curiazi (1795)
Giulietta e Romeo (1796)
La morte di Mitridate (1797)
Ines de Castro (1798)
Carolina e Mexicow (1798)
Meleagro (1798)
Il ritratto (1799)
Il ratto delle Sabine (1799)
Clitennestra (1800)
Edipo a Colono (1802)
Il bevitore fortunato (1803)
Berenice regina d'Armenia (1811)
There are 4 doubtful works; and 17 operas were lost including:
La secchia rapita (1793)
Baldovino (1811) (libretto by Jacopo Ferretti)
Sacred music
Being a deeply religious Catholic, Zingarelli devoted most of his attention to masses, oratorios, cantatas, and motets. For Loreto he composed 541 works, including 28 masses.
In 1829, aged 80, he wrote a Cantata Sacra, based on Isaiah chapter 12 for the Birmingham Music Festival. This was the occasion for the memorably inauspicious début of his protégé and representative Michael Costa, aged 19. The intention was that Costa should rehearse and conduct the work, but J. B Cramer and Thomas Greatorex elbowed him out and was instead engaged as a tenor soloist in another concert. Unfortunately both the work and Costa's singing met with ferocious criticism: "[This cantata] is one of the most tame, insipid things we were ever doomed to hear: a heap of common-place trash from the first to the last note. After twaddling in B-flat for half-an-hour, he ventures for a few bars into F, then returns to B, and there is an end." "As a singer [Costa] is far below mediocrity, and he does not compensate for his vocal deficiencies by his personal address, which is abundantly awkward. In the theatre while singing the air "Nel furor delle tempeste" [from Bellini's Il pirata] and accompanying himself, he had a narrow escape. The tempests proved contagious, and were beginning to manifest themselves in the galleries, and had he remained but a few moments longer on the stage, he would have witnessed a storm compared to which the roarings of his own Vesuvius would have seemed but a murmur."
Less than a month before his death he produced an oratorio, The Flight into Egypt, and his requiem mass, composed for his own funeral, is said to embody his most devotional church style.
Educational works
Zingarelli wrote two influential books of partimenti, which are the biggest corpus of partimenti after those of Fedele Fenaroli.
See also
References
Further reading
External links
1752 births
1837 deaths
18th-century Italian male musicians
18th-century Italian composers
19th-century classical composers
19th-century Italian composers
19th-century Italian male musicians
Catholic liturgical composers
Italian opera composers
Italian male opera composers
Composers from Naples
Neapolitan school composers
People from Torre del Greco
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Ред Булл (команда Формули-1)
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Ред Булл (команда Формули-1)
Red Bull Racing — автогоночна команда, що бере участь у чемпіонаті Формули-1. Заснована керівником концерну з виробництва енергетичних напоїв Red Bull — Дітріхом Матешицем. База команди розташована в Мілтон Кейнс, Велика Британія, але команда виступає під австрійською ліцензією. Командою керує Крістіан Горнер — власник команди Arden International, яка здобула дві перемоги в заліку пілотів і три в заліку команд у Міжнародній Формулі-3000, а в цей час виступає в серії GP2 та її підтримуючої категорії GP3.
Команда виграла 5 Кубків конструкторів у 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, та у 2022 роках, і стала першою командою Формули-1 з австрійською ліцензію, якій вдалося виграти цей титул. Також Себастьян Феттель вигравав чемпіонські титули з Red Bull Racing з 2010 по 2013 роки (4 рази). Також Макс Ферстапен виграв три титули разом з Red Bull Racing у 2021, 2022 та 2023 роках. Загалом команда виграла сім кубків водіїв та п'ять кубків конструкторів.
У 2007-2018 роках команда використовувала двигуни Renault. А з 2019 по до 2021 включно постачальником двигунів для Red Bull Racing була Honda. З 2022 року постачальником двигунів є підрозділ RBPT — Red Bull Powertrains.
У 2018-2020 роках титульним спонсором команди була компанія Aston Martin, а команда називалася Aston Martin Red Bull Racing. З 2022 року титульним спонсором є компанія Oracle.
Історія
Походження
Компанія Ford Motor заявила про вихід своєї команди Jaguar Racing з чемпіонату Формули-1 у вересні 2004 року. Рада директорів американської компанії втратила інтерес до формульної програми під торговою маркою Jaguar, через те, що вона практично не впливала на продажі компанії в Сполучених Штатах. За словами члена ради директорів Ford, шеф-директора Jaguar Річарда Перрі-Джонса, тих грошей, які автовиробник витрачав на формульну команду, не вистачало для підтримки команди на конкурентоспроможному рівні, і зважаючи на відсутність хороших результатів у гонках Гран-прі, у Ford ухвалили рішення закрити команду і вкладати гроші в збільшення обсягів продажів дорожніх машин. Також Ford виставив на продаж компанію Cosworth, яка постачала моторами в сезоні 2004 років команди Jaguar, Jordan і Minardi.
Red Bull, виробник енергетичних напоїв, підтвердив покупку Jaguar Racing в останній день подачі заявок на участь в сезоні 2005 — 15 листопада 2004 року. BBC Sport повідомив про те, що Ford продав команду за символічний один долар в обмін на зобов'язання інвестувати в команду 400 мільйонів доларів протягом наступних трьох сезонів. Команда продовжила використання моторів Cosworth, через брак часу на пошук інших варіантів.
2005
Колишній пілот McLaren Девід Култхард був головною надією команди. Култхард був обраний через досвід, який був необхідний новій команді, крім того, на передсезонних тестах Култхард, на незнайомій машині, помітно випереджав молодих напарників. Другий болід Red Bull ділили між собою два пілоти програми підтримки: Крістіан Клін, який був пілотом Jaguar в 2004 році і Вітантоніо Ліуцці — чемпіон сезону 2004 Міжнародної Формули-3000. Спочатку повідомлялося, що Клін і Вітантоніо будуть заміняти один одного кожні чотири гонки, але Вітантоніо провів лише чотири Гран-прі Сан-Марино, Іспанії, Монако і Європи.
У перший рік Red Bull добилася більшого, ніж їх попередники — Jaguar Racing. Велику частину сезону вони були на шостій позиції кубка конструкторів, але програли команді BAR в кінці сезону. За свій єдиний рік команда набрала більше очок, ніж Jaguar за сезони 2003 і 2004.
2006
23 квітня 2005 роки команда оголосила про перехід на мотори Ferrari в 2006 році. Це збіглося зі зміною регламенту, що передбачає обов'язкове використання моторів V8, завдяки цьому Red Bull Racing і Ferrari використовували схожу специфікацію двигуна. Але Red Bull Racing продовжила використання шин Michelin, на відміну від Ferrari, яка використовувала Bridgestone.
15 грудня 2005 вперше на трасі з'явився Red Bull RB2 — другий болід в історії команди. Девід Култхард провів обкатку в британському Сільверстоуні, і визнав, що «нова машина виглядає дуже сексуально». На тестах на початку січня Red Bull переслідували проблеми з системою охолодження.
Команда знову завершила сезон на сьомому місці в кубку конструкторів, з шістнадцятьма очками, випереджаючи на п'ять очок команду Williams. 14 очок Девіда Култхарда дозволили йому зайняти тринадцяте місце в заліку пілотів, а звільнений Клин набрав лише два очки і був класифікований вісімнадцятим. Роберт Дорнбос очок не набирав.
2007
7 серпня 2006 було оголошено про підписання контракту з Марком Веббером, який став партнером Култхарда в сезоні-2007, замінивши Крістіана Кліна, який обірвав всі зв'язки з командою. Роберт Дорнбос залишився на місці запасного гонщика команди в 2007 році.
31 жовтня 2006 роки команда оголосила, що в сезоні 2007 року буде використовувати мотори Renault, а контракт з Ferrari перейшов другій команді Red Bull — Scuderia Toro Rosso. У 2007 відбувся дебют розробленого Едріаном Ньюї шасі — Red Bull RB3.
Незважаючи на гарний сьомий час в кваліфікації домашнього Гран-прі Австралії, Марк Веббер через проблеми зі збереженням швидкості в поворотах фінішував лише тринадцятим. А у Девіда Култхарда справи йшли ще гірше, він врізався в болід Williams Олександра Вурца і буквально перелетів через нього. Схожим чином пройшла гонка в Малайзії для Веббера, а Култхард зійшов через проблеми з гальмами. Однак в Бахрейні команді вдалося підтвердити свій темп, і до появи технічних проблем пілоти йшли сьомим і восьмим. На Гран-прі Іспанії Култхард приніс перші очки команди, незважаючи на проблеми з коробкою передач, а Веббера весь вікенд переслідували проблеми з гідравлікою.
17 липня 2007 року Red Bull Racing найняла Джеффа Вілліса, який став технічним директором команди.
На непередбачуваному і захоплюючому Гран-прі Європи пілотам супроводжувала удача, Марк Веббер вдруге в кар'єрі піднявся на подіум, завдяки фінішу на третій позиції. Култхард же фінішував на непоганий п'ятій позиції, особливо вражаючим фактом є те, що він стартував з двадцятого місця через те, що команда не випустила його на трасу вчасно для додаткового кола.
У Red Bull була сильна кінцівка сезону. Веббер був близький до перемоги в Японії, але потрапив в аварію через помилки Себастьяна Феттеля. А Култхард в тій же гонці фінішував четвертим.
На Гран-прі Китаю у Red Bull була найкраща кваліфікація в сезоні. Култхард стартував п'ятим, а Веббер дев'ятим, але вони не змогли реалізувати потенціал високих позицій і фінішували восьмим і десятим відповідно.
2008
Після сходу в першій гонці сезону у Веббера було п'ять фінішів в очковій зоні поспіль. Култхард слабо почав сезон і часто провалювався в кваліфікаціях (за винятком гонки в Австралії), але він зміг виправити стан справ в Канаді, принісши Red Bull перший подіум з часів Гран-прі Європи 2007 року. До середини сезону команда заробила 24 очка (стільки ж скільки і за весь сезон 2007 року) і боролася за четверте місце в кубку конструкторів з Toyota і Renault. Команда також змогла вирішити проблеми з надійністю болідів.
Однак з ходом сезону Red Bull не змогла підтримувати рівень виступів. В останніх десяти гонках пілоти Red Bull набрали лише п'ять очок, і їх перевершила навіть молодша команда Toro Rosso, а також італійська команда раніше домоглася своєї першої перемоги на Гран-прі Італії. Багато хто стверджує, що причиною була менша потужність моторів Renault в порівнянні з моторами Ferrari. Для сезону 2009 року Renault дозволили допрацювати мотори, для підвищення конкурентоспроможності.
Култхард оголосив про відхід після закінчення сезону з Формули-1 на Гран-прі Великої Британії і сподівався на хороший фініш в домашній гонці, але зійшов на першому колі, таке ж сталося з ним і в Бразилії, де він зійшов у другому повороті.
2009
8 лютого 2009 року Red Bull Racing провела презентацію шасі RB5 віртуально за допомогою відео з тривимірним болідом, яке було озвучено Себастьяном Феттелем. А вживу презентація відбулася наступного дня. Команда завоювала свою першу в історії команди поул-позицію на Гран-прі Китаю 2009 року зі Себастьяном Феттелем, який проїхав всього-лише одне коло в третій частині кваліфікації. Марк Веббер стартував третім. Наступного дня над трасою пішов дощ, але це не завадило німцю перемогти, а Вебберу прийти другим. Перемога Феттеля стала першою в історії команди.
У наступній гонці в Бахрейні німець кваліфікувався третім, а в гонці фінішував другим, позаду Дженсона Баттона і набрав вісім очок.
В Іспанії Веббер і Феттель фінішували третім і четвертим відповідно, після старту з п'ятого і другого місця. На Гран-прі Туреччини пілоти Red Bull фінішували другим і третім. На Гран-прі Великої Британії автомобіль отримав суттєві оновлення і Себастьян Феттель виграв гонку, перервавши серію з чотирьох перемог Дженсона Баттона після Гран-прі Китаю. Команда фінішувала дублем на Гран-прі Німеччини, причому Веббер здобув свою першу перемогу, незважаючи на те, що йому довелося проїхати через піт-лейн через штраф. Друга перемога дісталася австралійцю на Гран-прі Бразилії. А для команди сезон завершився дублем на Гран-прі Абу-Дабі, але на цей раз Феттель випередив Веббера.
2010
На сезон 2010 року команда залишила в своєму складі Марка Веббера і Себастьяна Феттеля. А також продовжила контракт з Renault на поставку двигунів.
Шасі Red Bull RB6 виявилося найшвидшим в історії команди. За загальним визнанням, Едріан Ньюї створив найкращу машину 2010 року.
Проте, Red Bull втратили багато потенційних перемог через поламки техніки і тактичних помилок. У Бахрейні та Австралії поламка техніки вибила Феттеля з боротьби, в Китаї і в Канаді помилка з вибором гуми коштувала обом гонщикам подіуму, а в Валенсії Марк Веббер потрапив в серйозну аварію.
Марк Веббер лідирував від старту до фінішу в Іспанії і Монако, а потім в Туреччині до свого першого піт-стопа, в результаті серія кіл лідирування тривала 647 км, на 11 км менше серії Кімі Райкконена в 2005-му.
У Red Bull з'ясували, що невиразні результати Феттеля в останніх гонках стали наслідком дефектів шасі, і підготували для нього нову машину до Гран-прі Туреччини. На кваліфікації перед Гран-прі Марк Веббер завоював третій поул поспіль. Себастьян Феттель в третій гонці поспіль поступився напарникові по команді.
Перед стартом у Марка і Себастьяна була рівна кількість очок, по 78. На старті Марк Веббер зберіг перевагу поула в першому повороті, Феттель випередив Хемільтона, але потім Льюїс повернув другу позицію. Лідери їхали в щільній групі. Після піт-стопів Марк повернувся на трасу лідером, машини Red Bull виявилися на двох перших позиціях після невеликої затримки Льюїса в боксах. Ситуація в лідируючій групі довго залишалася стабільною, поки на 40-му колі Феттель не наважився атакувати Веббера. З'ясувалося, що в той момент мотори на двох машинах Red Bull працювали в різному режимі. Пілоти стартували з рівною кількістю бензину, але на ранніх стадіях гонки Веббер витратив більше палива, ніж Феттель. Австралієць перевів двигун в режим економії, втративши в швидкості на прямих. Так як Феттелю вдалося заощадити кілограм палива, перебуваючи в повітряному мішку позаду суперників, у нього залишався в запасі ще один круг роботи двигуна в оптимальному режимі, і в команді не хотіли перемикати мотор в режим економії заздалегідь, оскільки Себастьяну потрібно було протистояти пресингу з боку Хемільтона.
Себастьян мав перевагу в максимальній швидкості на прямій і атакував по внутрішній траєкторії. Машини порівнялися. Марк відтіснив Себастьяна на брудну частину траси, залишивши йому мінімум місця, Феттель вийшов вперед, але занадто рано почав зміщуватися всередину, тоді як Марк залишався на своїй траєкторії. У 12-му повороті машини зіткнулися, контакт стався в районі заднього правого колеса машини Себастьяна, німець вибув з боротьби. Після інциденту Себастьян крутив пальцем біля скроні, і цей жест потрапив в об'єктиви телекамер. Марк вирушив в бокси для заміни носового обтічника (була пошкоджена торцева пластина переднього антикрила). Відрив від суперників був досить великий, і австралієць повернувся на трасу позаду гонщиків McLaren на третій позиції. На цьому місці він і фінішував.
Зіткнення Веббера і Феттеля викликало великий інтерес з боку ЗМІ, так як гонщики і боси Red Bull в своїх інтерв'ю давали різну картину того, що сталося, покладаючи велику частину провини на різних учасників аварії. Німецький пілот зізнався, що не вважає себе винуватцем інциденту. Відразу після гонки Марк заявив, що його напарник припустився помилки. Керівник команди Крістіан Горнер поклав провину за подію як на австралійця, так і на німця, тоді як консультант Хельмут Марко вважав винуватцем аварії Веббера. За словами Хельмута Марко, Веббер знав, що в той момент він їхав повільніше Феттеля, і тому повинен поступитися йому позицію. Заяви Хельмута Марко привели до появи в ЗМІ статей про фаворитизм.
У Німеччині виграний Феттелем поул не вдалося перетворити в перемогу. У підсумку німець задовольнявся третім місцем, а його напарник, провівши середню гонку, посів шосте місце.
Наступне Гран-Прі Угорщини принесло пілотам «Ред Булл» подвійний подіум: виграв Веббер, третє місце у Феттеля.
Гран-прі Бельгії і Гран-прі Італії розглядалися як траси, на яких «Ред Булл» не зможе домінувати тому, що висока притискна сила RB6 не знадобиться, а головну роль гратимуть двигуни. Проте, кваліфікацію виграв Веббер, але в гонці, «проспав» старт, пропустив вперед Хемільтона («Макларен») і Кубіцу («Рено»). Австралійцю все ж вдалося відіграти позицію, і він посів друге місце. Феттель в ході гонки зіткнувся з Дженсоном Баттоном і був покараний проїздом по піт-лейн. Його результат: 15-е місце.
В Італії пілоти «Ред Булл» не потрапили на подіум, вони посіли четверте (Феттель) і шосте (Веббер) місця. У Сінгапурі команда знову домоглася подвійного подіуму: другим став Феттель, а третім — Веббер. Японське Гран-прі пройшло при абсолютному домінуванні пілотів «Ред Булл». В результаті німецький пілот виграв гонку, а австралієць зайняв друге місце.
Нове в календарі чемпіонату Гран-прі Кореї теж спочатку віщувало успіх гонщиків «Ред Булл»: за підсумками кваліфікації Феттель і Веббер зайняли перший ряд стартового поля. Але в гонці вже на 19-му колі зійшов Марк Веббер, а у Феттеля, який лідирував 46 кіл, загорівся мотор.
Завоювавши дубль в Бразилії, команда святкувала перемогу в Кубку Конструкторів.
Перед фінальною гонкою сезону, що проходила в Абу-Дабі, четверо гонщиків зберігали шанси на чемпіонський титул. Фернандо Алонсо займав 1 місце в загальному заліку, з перевагою у 8 очок над Марком Dеббером, Себастьян Феттель поступався іспанському гонщику Ferrari 15 очок, а Льюїс Хемільтон (McLaren) — 24.
У підсумку Алонсо не зміг більше піднятися досить високо, щоб стати чемпіоном світу. Для Феттеля гонка склалася набагато вдаліше, ніж для його конкурентів: він впевнено виграв гонку, а з нею і перший чемпіонський титул в своїй кар'єрі, ставши при цьому наймолодшим Чемпіоном світу в історії Формули-1. Також гонщик Red Bull став другим німцем, який виграв чемпіонат світу. Марк Веббер за підсумками сезону посів у підсумковій класифікації лише третє місце, поступившись напарнику по команді і Фернандо Алонсо.
Сезон 2010 року завершився подвійною перемогою Red Bull. Команда Red Bull повторила рекорд з 15-ти поул-позицій в сезоні, встановлений McLaren (1988, 1989) і Williams (1992, 1993). Крім того, Red Bull стала єдиною командою, обидва гонщики якої проходили в фінал кваліфікації в усіх Гран-прі сезону 2010 року.
2011
Болід RB7 був представлений громадськості 1 лютого, перед самим початком передсезонних тестів. Не можна сказати, що тести пройшли при абсолютному домінуванні «Ред Булл», однак багато експертів визнали, що справжню швидкість RB7 можна буде побачити тільки в ході перегонів.
Гонка в Бахрейні скасували через політичну кризу, і перша гонка пройшла в Австралії. Поул-позишн виграв Себастьян Феттель, його напарник Марк Веббер кваліфікувався третім. Гонка завершилася перемогою Феттеля і п'ятим місцем Веббера. В ході вікенду команда зіткнулася з проблемами в роботі KERS і виступала без нього.
Проблеми з KERS продовжилися і в Китаї. Поламка системи укупі з неправильним вибором гуми не дозволили Марку Уебберу пройти у другий сегмент кваліфікації. На відміну від австралійця, Себастьян Феттель завоював поул-позишн. Гонка завершилася перемогою Льюїса Хемілтона і подвійним подіумом «Ред Булл». Феттель став другим, а Веббер, зробивши феноменальний прорив з 18-го місця, фінішував третім.
Перед Гран-прі Туреччини стало відомо, що команда вирішила проблему з KERS. Результати вікенду стали вельми передбачуваними: поул і гонку виграв Феттель, а Веббер, борючись по ходу гонки з Фернандо Алонсо, зайняв друге місце. Це був перший дубль команди в 2011 році.
У Барселоні Себастьян Феттель досяг феноменального результату: чотири виграні гонки з п'яти. Але поул-позишн на цей раз дісталася його напарникові Марку Вебберу, який погано стартував і фінішував четвертим.
По ходу Гран-прі Монако команда допустила серйозну помилку на піт-стопі: після піт-стопа Себастьяна Феттеля в бокси несподівано заїхав Марк Веббер. Механіки довго готували новий комплект гуми, і австралієць повернувся на трасу тільки 14-м. Сам Веббер назвав причиною помилки збій радіозв'язку. Австралієць фінішував четвертим, встановивши найшвидше коло гонки, а німець вперше в кар'єрі виграв в Монако.
У Канаді команда добилася подвійного подіуму: Феттель — друге місце, Веббер — третє. На цей раз перемогу святкував Дженсон Баттон.
Перед Гран-прі Італії Red Bull і Renault Sport F1 офіційно підтвердили інформацію про продовження співпраці протягом 5-ти наступних сезонів, починаючи з 2012 року.
До Гран-прі Італії всі поул-позиції в сезоні 2011 року діставалися пілотам Red Bull, і багато хто вважав, що саме на трасі Монца у суперників з'явиться шанс перервати цю серію, так як характеристики траси традиційно не дуже підходили машинам австрійської команди: до 2011 року найкращим результатом Red Bull в Монці було 3 місце в кваліфікації (Марк Веббер, 2008 рік) і 4 місце на фініші (Себастьян Феттель, 2010 рік).
Незважаючи на подібні прогнози, Феттель показав найкращі результати в другій п'ятничної сесії і суботньому тренуванні. У фіналі кваліфікації Себастьян очолив протокол, однак, за його словами, допустив помилку на своєму швидкому колі, після чого в команді прийняли рішення проїхати ще один. Крім цього, в команді припускали, що на другому колі шини спрацюють краще. Розрахунок команди виправдався, на останніх секундах німецький гонщик поліпшив власний результат, завоювавши 10-ю в сезоні і 25-ю в кар'єрі поул-позицію з перевагою в півсекунди над Льюїсом Хемілтоном.
Марк Веббер програв напарникові близько 0,7 секунди і показав лише 5-й результат. Домогтися більшого не дозволили неполадки з системою KERS. Крім того, Веббер вибрав дещо іншу стратегію, відмінну від стратегії Феттеля, для фінальної сесії, і проїхав лише одне швидке коло, хоча після кваліфікації стало очевидно, що дві серії кіл були більш оптимальним варіантом. Однак тим самим австралійському гонщику вдалося заощадити комплект свіжих шин для перегонів.
Старт Гран-прі став не найвдалішим для команди: Себастьян Феттель пропустив на перше місце Алонсо, Марк Веббер також втратив кілька позицій. Феттель втримався на другому місці. На першому колі на трасу виїхав автомобіль безпеки: в першому повороті трапилася масова аварія за участю Петрова (Renault), Росберга (Mercedes), Баррікелло (Williams) і Вітантоніо (HRT).
Після рестарту перегонів, на п'ятому колі Феттель обігнав Алонсо в повороті Curva Grande і повернув лідерство. Марк Веббер також відразу після рестарту почав прориватися вгору. Гонщик обігнав Дженсона Баттона, а на шостому колі провів атаку на Ferrari Феліпе Масси. Марк прагнув зайняти в першому повороті зовнішній радіус, але Феліпе несподівано для гонщика Red Bull почав зміщуватися в його сторону. Машина Red Bull зачепила високу внутрішню частину поребрика, її підкинуло в повітря, що і призвело до контакту з Феліпе. В результаті контакту машина Марка отримала пошкодження. Веббер спробував втратити якомога менше часу, повертаючись в бокси для заміни переднього антикрила, але не знав, що зламане переднє крило застрягло під передньою частиною машини. На задній прямій антикрило потрапило під днище, після чого гонщик не впорався з керуванням. У Parabolica машина вилетіла з траси, і на цьому гонка для Марка Веббера закінчилася.
Після обгону Алонсо Феттель створив відрив, і до моменту перших піт-стопів лідируючих гонщиків його перевага над Алонсо, який їхав на другій позиції, зросла до десяти секунд, на 21-му гонщик Red Bull відвідав бокси і зміг зберегти лідерство. У фінальній фазі гонки Себастьян знизив обороти двигуна, навантаження на KERS і коробку передач, але, незважаючи на це, здобув 8-ю в сезоні і 18-ю в кар'єрі перемогу на трасі, де в 2008 році виграв свою першу гонку у Формулі-1 , виступаючи за Toro Rosso.
2012—2018
На сезон 2012 року команда залишила в своєму складі Марка Веббера і Себастьяна Феттеля з попередніх трьох років. З Веббером був підписаний однорічний контракт, а Феттель продовжував працювати на Ред Булл через багаторічну угоду, яка закінчувалася наприкінці 2014 року.
Феттель виграв чемпіонат Формули-1 2012 року третій раз поспіль, що робить його наймолодшим потрійним чемпіоном світу, перевершуючи Айртона Сенна.
Команда була перейменована на Infiniti Red Bull Racing для сезону 2013 після оголошення що премія автомобільна марка Infiniti стала їх партнером. Infiniti Red Bull продовжив працювати з водіями Себастьяном Феттелем і Марком Веббером п'ятий сезон поспіль. Як і у 2012 році, Веббер був підписаний на однорічний контракт, а Феттель продовжував виконувати свою нинішню багаторічну угоду.
Infiniti Red Bull почав сезон з пануючим чемпіоном світу Себастіаном Феттелем і Даніелем Ріккардо, який замінив Марка Веббера після того, як він оголосив у 2013 році, що він перейде до Porsche на чемпіонаті світу на сезон 2014 року.
Феттеля у сезоні 2015 року замінив російський пілот Данило Квят.
Результати
В якості конструктора Red Bull Racing досягли наступного:
Відсоток перемог у чемпіонатах конструкторів:
Відсоток перемог у чемпіонатах водіїв:
Відсоток виграшу:
Жирним шрифтом виділено перемоги в чемпіонаті.
* Сезон триває.
Примітки
Посилання
Офіційний вебсайт Red Bull Racing
Red Bull Racing official Picture website
Red Bull Junior Team
Red Bull Driver Search
Команди Формули-1
Мілтон-Кінс
Спортивні команди Ред Булл
Автогоночні команди Австрії
Спортивні клуби, засновані 2004
Ред Булл (команда Формули-1)
Засновані у Великій Британії 2004
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Вільям Крейґ
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Вільям Крейґ
Вільям Лейн Крейг (23 серпня 1949, Атланта) — американський філософ-аналітик, християнський апологет, християнський теолог і письменник. У 2016 році Вільям Лейн Крейґ потрапив у список 50 найвпливовіших нині філософів сучасності.
Крейґ став відомим завдяки своїм п'яти аргументам про існування Бога (включаючи історичний аргумент на користь воскресіння Ісуса Христа).
Вільям Крейґ брав участь у дебатах про існування Бога з такими громадськими діячами та вченими як Крістофер Гітченс, Лоуренс Краусс, Сем Гарріс. Крейґ створив і веде проєкт «Розумна віра», праці якого доступні як англійською мовою, так і російською, зокрема на сайті YouTube. Також Вільям Крейґ є автором багатьох книжок.
Раннє життя
Крейґ є другою дитиною з трьох, які народилися в сім'ї Меллорі та Доріс Крейґів у місті Пеорія (штат Іллінойс). У віці шістнадцяти років, у середній школі, він уперше почув послання християнського Євангелія та повірив в Ісуса Христа. Крейґ навчався в (1971) та в аспірантурі (1975). Здобув ступінь доктора філософії у Бірмінгемському університеті (1977), а також ступінь доктора теології у Мюнхенському університеті (1984).
Кар'єра
У 1980–1986 рр. Вільям Крейґ викладав філософію релігії в . У 1987 році з сім'єю переїхав до Брюсселя (Бельгія), де проводив дослідження в Лувенському католицькому університеті до 1994. Вільям Крейґ є професором філософії в Теологічній семінарії Талбот (Каліфорнія), а також в Університеті Біола та .
Книги
Вільям Крейґ має чимало публікацій та написаних книг, зокрема:
«Початок всього: походження Всесвіту та існування Бога» (1992)
«Класичні дебати на тему існування Бога» (1994) у співавторстві з Майклом Тулі
«Син Божий воскрес: історичні свідчення воскресіння Ісуса» (2000)
«Єдиний Мудрий Бог: Сумісність Божественного передбачення і людської свободи» (2000)
«Час і вічність: дослідження зв'язку Бога з часом» (2001)
«Що знає Бог?: Поєднання Божественного передбачення та людської свободи» (2002)
«Важкі запитання, реальні відповіді» (2003)
«Відповідь кожному: приклад християнського світогляду» (2004)
«Створення з нічого» (2004) у співавторстві з Полом Копаном
«Бог? Дебати між християнином і атеїстом» (2004) у співавторстві з Вальтером Сіннотт-Армстронгом (з редакцією Джеймса П. Стерби)
«Чи реальний Бог?» (2007)
«Запальне переконання: сучасні дискурси про християнську апологетику» (2007) у співавторстві з Полом Копаном
«Розумна віра: Навчальний посібник» (2008)
«Розумна віра: християнська правда і апологетика» (2008)
«Боротьба з критиками християнства: відповіді новим атеїстам та іншим опонентам» (2009) у співавторстві з Полом Копаном
«Бог Великий, Бог добрий: чому вірити в Бога розумно та відповідально» (2009) у співавторстві з Чадом Мейстром
«На варті» (2010)
«Приходьте поміркуємо: нові статті з християнської апологетики» (2012) у співавторстві з Полом Копаном
«Розумна відповідь» (2013) у співавторстві з Джозефом Ґоррою
«Космологічний аргумент» (2014) співавторстві з Девідом Сінклером
«Чи існує Бог?» (2014)
«Чи воскрес Ісус із мертвих?» (2014)
«Бог понад усім» (2016)
«Філософські основи християнського світогляду» (2017) у співавторстві з Джеймсом Портером Мореландом
«Спокута і смерть Христа: теологічне, історичне та філософське дослідження» (2020)
«У пошуках історичного Адама: біблійне та наукове дослідження» (2021)
Поки що книги Вільяма Крейґа не перекладені на українську мову.
Дебати
Вільям Крейґ активно бере участь у публічних дебатах на стороні захисту християнської віри.
У березні 2002 року Вільям Крейґ взяв участь у дебатах з відомим мусульманином Шабіром Аллі. Тема зустрічі: «Розуміння Бога в ісламі та християнстві».
У 2005 році в Університеті штату Каліфорнія (Френсо, Каліфорнія) Крейґ дебатував із американським філософом Остіном Дейсі.
4 квітня 2009 року Вільям Крейґ і відомий атеїст Крістофер Гітченс зустрілися в Університеті Біола, щоб обговорити питання існування Бога. Зокрема вони торкалися таких тем: походження та дизайн Всесвіту, наслідки людської моралі, божественність Ісуса та дійсність воскресіння Христа,.
30 березня 2011 року Вільям Крейґ дебатує з американським фізиком Лоуренсом Крауссом на тему «Чи існують докази на користь Бога?»,.
У 2011 році Вільям Крейґ дебатує з американським публіцистом Семом Гаррісом. Тема публічної розмови: «Природні чи надприродні основи моральних цінностей?»
У 2016 році Вільям Крейґ взяв участь у дебатах з філософом Кевіном Шарпом на тему «Чи існують докази Бога?».
Особисте життя
Вільям Крейґ живе в Атланті (штат Джорджія), разом із дружиною Ян Крейґ. Мають двох дітей.
Примітки
Посилання
Офіційний веб-сайт проекту «Розумна Віра»
Офіційний канал проекту «Розумна Віра» на YouTube
Російськомовний філіал каналу проекту «Розумна Віра» на YouTube
Філософи релігії
Метафізики
Випускники Мюнхенського університету
Випускники університету Біола
Випускники Теологічної семінарії Талбот
Випускники Бірмінгемського університету
Критики атеїзму
Навернені в християнство
Американські християнські письменники
Американські християнські богослови
Автори нехудожньої літератури США XXI століття
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Береґ (комітат)
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Береґ (комітат)
Береґ — історичний комітат в північно-східній частині Угорського королівства, який межував з коронним краєм Королівство Галичини та Володимирії на півночі, комітатом Уж на заході, Саболцьким та Сатмарським комітатами на півдні, а також Мармароським та Угочанським комітатами на сході. Існував до 1919 року.
Географія
Комітат охоплював 3727 км² і його адміністративним центром було м. Берегове. Згідно з сучасними адміністративними кордонами колишній Березький комітат включав Берегівський, Мукачівський, Воловецький, більшість Свалявського і захід Іршавського районів Закарпатської області України, як також малу частину північно-східної Угорщини (Вашарошнаменьський яраш медьє Саболч-Сатмар-Береґ). Найбільшим містом комітату було Мукачево, де русини становили тільки 8 % із загальної кількості 17 200 жителів.
Історія
Угорці, які прийшли на Закарпаття, за повідомленнями давніх хронік, зокрема «Gesta hungarorum», зустріли тут осіле слов'янське населення. За «Історією карпатських русинів» Михайла Лучкая, також багато русинів із Галичини та Волині «розмістила свої поселення на окраїні, щоб охороняти» — ці терени так і назвали Країною. Наприкінці 80-х років XII століття Угорське королівство просуває свої кордони до передгір'я Карпат настільки, що тут поширюється її комітатський державнотериторіальний устрій у вигляді Ужанського, Боржавського та Уґочанського комітатів. За часів короля Бели IV з династії Арпадовичів Боржавський комітат було розформовано і значна його частина увійшла до новоствореного Березького комітату. Після навали Батия 1241–1242 років утворення комітату було викликано необхідністю захисту північно-східних кордонів Угорського королівства від нових можливих загроз. Перша письмова згадка про комітат Береґ з'являється 1248 року.
У другій половині ХІІІ століття ці землі увійшли до складу Королівства Русі — такою була офіційна назва Галицько-Волинської Держави. Це сталося за правління короля Лева Даниловича. На думку Михайла Грушевського та Леонтія Войтовича, король Лев закріпився на цих землях у 1278—1279, бо 1281 він здійснив похід в сусідню Угочанську жупу.
У документі 1299 року берегівський наджупан Григорій (не Георгій) згаданий як «урядник Льва, князя руського»: «Nos Gregorius comes de Bregh officialis Leu ducis Ruthenorum et quotuor iudices nobelium de eodem damus pro memoria». Ранній герб міста Ломпертсас (Берегово) цілковито збігається з гербом столиці Галицько-Волинської держави Львовом, і саме Лев Данилович підтримав німецьких колоністів на Закарпатті, як і в Галичині 1308 претендент на угорський престол баварський герцог Отто утікав у Баварію через закарпатські володіння короля Русі Юрія Даниловича, де його тепло прийняли.
Територія Березького комітату відійшла до Угорського королівства після захоплення теренів Галицько-Волинської держави сусідами. Відтак королівський комітат набув статусу дворянського — місцевій шляхті надали певні привілеї та право на загальних зборах вирішувати важливі питання, зокрема обирати свого лідера — ішпана. Натомість шляхта мала нести королівську службу з охорони кордонів королівства та формувати загони дворянського ополчення.
У XIV столітті розбудовується Мукачівський замок, який стає центром комітату та, фактично, столицею Верхньої Угорщини протягом XV—XVI ст. Початки цієї розбудови традиційно пов'язують з іменем подільського князя Федора Корятовича.
1851–1860 рр. — Березький комітат належить до округу Кошице.
1867–1918 рр. — центром комітату стає м. Берегове.
Після утворення ЗУНР українська етнічна частина комітату повинна була увійти до її складу згідно з «Тимчасовим основним законом» від 13 листопада 1918 року.
Березький комітат існував до 1919 року, коли більшість його території увійшла до складу Чехословацької республіки.
Від XVII до початку XX століття більшість території Березького комітату була частиною великого земельного володіння родини Шенборн-Бухгейм.
Нині більша частина території колишнього комітату — в межах України, західні частини колишніх округів Мезокасонь та Тисахат — в межах Угорщини.
Населення
Як показують переписи до кінця XVIII століття Береґ був заселений ще переважно русинами-українцями. Після переведення в 1791-1792 рр. початкових шкіл з української мови на угорську, як показує таблиця, в результаті шаленої мадяризації угорці в 1910 році обігнали русинів-українців за своєю чисельністю.
1880 рік
1880 жителів Березького комітату було 153,377 тис.осіб у наступних мовних спільнотах:
Русини: 73,797 (48,11 %)
Угорці: 64,880 (42,30 %)
Німці: 8,719 (5,68 %)
Словаки: 931 (0,61 %)
Румуни: 122 (0,08 %)
1900 рік
1900 жителів Березького комітату було 208,589 тис.осіб у наступних мовних спільнотах:
Русини: 95,308 (45,7 %)
Угорці: 93,198 (44,7 %)
Німці: 18,639 (8,9 %)
Словаки: 991 (0,5 %)
Румуни: 72 (0,0 %)
Хорвати: 20 (0,0 %)
Серби: 0 (0,0 %)
Інші або не відповіли: 361 (0,2 %)
За даними перепису 1900 року, комітат складався з наступних релігійних громад:
Греко-католики: 103,261 (49,5 %)
Кальвіністи: 56,289 (27,0 %)
Євреї: 29,052 (13,9 %)
Католики: 19,128 (9,2 %)
Лютерани: 780 (0,4 %)
Православні: 44 (0,0 %)
Унітарії: 26 (0,0 %)
Інші або не відповіли: 9 (0,0 %)
1910 рік
1910 жителів Березького комітату було 236,611 тис.осіб у таких мовних спільнотах:
Угорці: 113,090 (47,8 %)
Русини: 100,918 (42,6 %)
Німці: 20,722 (8,8 %)
Словаки: 1,123 (0,5 %)
Румуни: 215 (0,1 %)
Хорвати: 54 (0,0 %)
Серби: 12 (0,0 %)
Інші або не відповіли: 477 (0,2 %)
Також на території комітату проживала невелика кількість ромів (циган).
За даними перепису 1910 року, комітат складався з таких релігійних громад:
Греко-католики: 117,435 (49,7 %)
Кальвіністи: 61,106 (25,9 %)
Євреї: 33,660 (14,2 %)
Католики: 23,003 (9,7 %)
Лютерани: 992 (0,4 %)
Православні: 349 (0,1 %)
Унітарії: 13 (0,0 %)
Інші або не відповіли: 53 (0,0 %)
Адміністративний поділ
Герб
Старий герб Березького комітату XVI століття не зберігся, нема також його опису. Новий герб, створений у 1836 році, є італійським щитом, розділеним на чотири частини срібним хрестом. В першому синьому полі — срібне гроно винограду на зеленій гілці. В другому полі на червоному тлі зображені три золоті жолуді з листям дуба. У третьому полі — на червоному тлі золотий ведмідь, що стоїть на задніх лапах з піднятими передніми, та дивиться праворуч. В четвертому синьому полі — дві срібні риби одна над другою, що пливуть ліворуч.
Цей герб відображав основне багатство комітату — виноградники, дубові ліси з тваринами та дичиною, а також багаті на рибу ріки.
Примітки
Джерела та література
Csánki Dezső. Magyarország történelmi földrajza a Hunyadiak korában. Bp. 1890
Györffy György. Az Árpád-kori Magyarország történeti földrajza. I. Budapest, 1963
Tivadar Lehoczky. Bereg vármegye monográfiáj. t. 1—3. Ungvar, 1881—82
Адміністративний поділ Угорщини
Історичні області Угорщини
Історія Закарпатської області
Держави і території, засновані в XII столітті
Держави і території, зникли 1920
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Девід Ендрю Сінклер
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Девід Ендрю Сінклер — австралійський біолог і професор генетики, відомий своїми роботами в галузі .
Викладає в Гарвардському університеті з 2003
.
Вивчає роботу епігенома, NAD та
.
Дитинство
Девід Ендрю Сінклер народився в Австралії у 1969 році і ріс у передмісті Сіднея, поселенні Сент-Аївс, Новий Південний Уельс.
Його бабуся по батьківській лінії іммігрувала до Австралії після придушення повстання в Угорщині у 1956 році, а його батько змінив прізвище з Сігеті на Сінклер.
Освіта та кар'єра
Сінклер закінчив Університет Нового Південного Уельсу в Сіднеї зі ступенем бакалавра та здобув премію Австралійської Співдружності.
У 1995 році він здобув ступінь доктора філософії в молекулярній генетиці в тому ж навчальному закладі
,
дослідивши регуляцію генів у складі дріжджів.
У 1993 році він познайомився з Леонардом П. Гуаренте, професором Массачусетського технологічного інституту, який вивчав гени, що беруть участь у регуляції старіння, коли Гуаренте був на лекційному турі в Австралії.
Ця зустріч спонукала Сінклера подати заявку на аспірантську посаду в лабораторії Гуаренте.
Раніше того ж року лабораторія Синтії Кеніон в UCSF виявила, що мутація одного гена (Daf-2) може подвоїти тривалість життя Caenorhabditis elegans
.
У 1999 Сінклер був прийнятий на роботу в Гарвардську медичну школу
.
У 2003 його лабораторія була маленькою і боролася за фінансування
.
2004 року Сінклер зустрівся з філантропом Полом Ф. Гленном, який пожертвував 5 мільйонів доларів Гарварду для створення Лабораторії Пола Ф. Гленна з біологічних механізмів старіння в Гарварді, директором-засновником яких був Сінклер.
На початок 2020-х він є співдиректором разом з Брюса Янкнером.
У 2004 році Сінклер разом із серійним підприємцем Ендрю Перлманом, Крістофом Вестфалом, Річардом Олдрічем, Річардом Попсом та Полом Шіммелем заснували компанію «Sirtris Pharmaceuticals»
.
«Sirtris Pharmaceuticals» сконцентрувався на розвитку досліджень Сінклера про сиртуїн-активуючі сполуки.
Він розпочав свою роботу в лабораторії Гуаренті.
Компанія була спеціально зосереджена на рецептурах резвератрола його похідних як активаторі ферменту SIRT1 (сиртуїн −1);
Сінклер став відомий своїми заявами про ресвератроль, на кшталт: "(Це) якомога ближче до чудової молекули, яку ви можете знайти… Через сто років люди, можливо, прийматимуть ці молекули щодня для запобігання серцевим захворюванням, інсульту та раку". Більшість фахівців, які займалися антивіковою медициною, були обережнішими, особливо щодо інших побічних дій ресвератролу на організм, і його недостатньої біодоступності
.
Початковий продукт компанії називався SRT501 і був рецептурою ресвератролу;
.
Sirtris стала публічною у 2007 році, а потім була придбана та стала дочірньою компанією GlaxoSmithKline у 2008 році за 720 мільйонів доларів
.
У 2006 році «Genocea Biosciences» була створена на основі робіт вченого з Гарварда Даррена Е. Гіггінса над антигенами, що стимулюють Т-клітини, та використанням цих антигенів для створення вакцин;
Сінклер був співзасновником.
2008 року Сінклер здобув звання штатного професора Гарвардської медичної школи.
Він також став професором в Університеті Нового Південного Уельсу
У 2008 році Сінклер приєднався до науково-консультативної наради «Shaklee» та допоміг їм розробити та представити продукт, що містить ресвератрол під назвою «Vivix»; після того, як «Wall Street Journal» запросив інтерв'ю про свою роботу з компанією та її маркетинг, він оскаржив використання свого імені та слів для реклами добавки і подав у відставку
.
У 2011 році Сінклер з Мішель Діпп (яка була пов'язана з Сіртрісом), Олдрічем, Вестфалем та Джонатаном Тіллі стали засновниками біотехнологічної компанії «OvaScience», орієнтованої на жіночу безплідність.
В основу лягли наукові роботи, виконані Тіллі щодо стовбурових клітин ссавців, а також роботи над мітохондріями Сінклера
.
Робота Тіллі була суперечливою, деякі групи не могли повторити її
.
У 2011 році Сінклер був також співзасновником «CohBar» разом із Нір Барзилай та іншими колегами;
CoBar прагнув виявити та розробити нові пептиди, отримані з мітохондрій.
У 2015 році в журналі The Scientist Сінклер розповів про свої зусилля щодо отримання фінансування для своєї лабораторії, про те, як його лабораторія зросла спочатку до 20 осіб, потім скоротилася до 5, а після знову зросла, залучаючи фінансування від благодійних організацій та компаній, в тому числі від компаній, яким він допоміг ґрунтуватися
.
Станом на 2015 рік у його лабораторії працювало 22 особи, і його підтримував один грант R01, і на 75% він фінансувався не федеральними фондами
.
У 2018 році Сінклер був призначений офіцером Ордену Австралії (AO) за "видатну службу для медичних досліджень у галузі біології старіння та продовження життя, як генетика та вченого, за ініціативу в галузі біобезпеки, а також як прихильника вивчення науки"
.
У вересні 2019 року Девід Сінклер разом із журналістом «Matthew LaPlante» опублікували книгу «Життєвий план. Революційна теорія про те, чому ми старіємо і чи можливо цього уникнути».
Дослідження
Коли Сінклер перебував у лабораторії Гуаренте, він виявив, що Sirtuin 1 (званий sir2 у дріжджів) уповільнює старіння дріжджів, зменшуючи накопичення позахромосомних кіл рДНК.
Інші працюючі в лабораторії на той час ідентифікували NAD як важливий кофактор для функції сиртуїну.
У 2002 році, після того, як він поїхав до Гарварду, він зіткнувся з Гуаренте на науковій зустрічі в лабораторії Колд-Спрінг-Харбор, заперечуючи опис гарантії того, що sir2 може брати участь у старінні; це викликало наукове суперництво.
У 2003 році, коли його лабораторія була ще нечисленною, Сінклер дізнався, що вчені з біотехнологічної компанії Пенсільванії під назвою «Biomol Research Laboratories» виявили, що поліфеноли, включаючи ресвератрол, можуть активувати sir2, тому він розпочав співпрацю з ними.
Це призвело до появи публікацій, частково написаних Сінклером у журналах Nature та Science 2003 року.
Відкрита пропаганда Сінклера щодо ресвератролу як антивікового з'єднання започаткувала наукову суперечку про те, чи це було правдою.
Робота в іншій лабораторії, виконана при частковому фінансуванні Sirtris, показала збільшення кількості мітохондрій у клітинах мишей, які отримували високі дози ресвератролу.
Лабораторія Сінклера продовжує працювати над резерватролом та його аналогами, а також над мітохондріями та NAD, дослідження спрямовані на розуміння старіння та способи його запобігання.
Нагороди та визнання
1996: стипендія для аспирантів;
2000: стипендія (AFAR);
2001: ;
2006: Премія «Досконалість у викладанні», Гарвардська медична школа;
2007: ;
2012: ;
2014: Time 100;
2014: Австралійська медаль за медичні дослідження;
2017: ;
2018: TIME 50: Охорона здоров'я
2018: офіцер Ордена Австралії
Примітки
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Скелет людини
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Скелет людини або кістяк людини — це тверда структура, утворена сукупністю кісток. Служить опорою людського тіла. При народженні скелет людини містить близько 300 кісток; до досягнення дорослого віку кількість кісток зменшується приблизно до 206, за рахунок зрощення ряду дрібних кісток. Однак в цілому кількість кісток залежить від анатомічних особливостей, наприклад, в окремих людей наявна більша, ніж звичайно, кількість ребер чи хребців. Маса скелета, в середньому, становить близько 20 % від загальної маси тіла. Остеологія — наука про кістки.
Функції скелета
Скелет виконує такі функції:
опорну;
рухову
захищає м'які та вразливі органи (черепна коробка та грудна клітка);
кровотворну (кістковий мозок бере участь у формуванні еритроцитів (еритропоез), лейкоцитів (лейкопоез) і тромбоцитів (тромбопоез);
депозитарну (накопичує мінеральні солі: солі кальцію, фосфати).
Класифікація кісток
Розрізняють кістки: непарні (розміщені по середній лінії тіла) та парні (розміщені з обох сторін відносно середньої лінії тіла).
За іншою класифікацією, кістки поділяють на:
довгі (Ossa longa), довжина яких переважає над шириною (наприклад, стегнова);
короткі (Ossa brevia);
плоскі (Ossa plana);
неправильні або атипові, мають складну форму, зовнішні чи внутрішні западини й виступи (наприклад, череп);
сесамоподібні (Ossa sesamoidea), приховані у сухожиллях, невеликі за розмірами та завкруглені (наприклад, надколінник);
вормієві, чи шовні, приховані, невеликого розміру та неправильної форми, містяться у черепних швах.
Первинні та вторинні кістки
Первинні кістки — це структури, що утворюються безпосередньо із сполучної тканини. До первинних відносять кістки лицьового відділу черепа та даху черепа.
Вторинні кістки — це структури, що проходять сполучнотканинну, хрящову та кісткову стадії. До них належать кістки основи черепа, корпусу та кінцівок.
Розрізняють два основні типи осифікації (формування кісткової тканини):
Ендесмальна.
Перихондральна.
Енхондральна.
За часом появи в онтогенезі ядра скостеніння поділяють :
Первинні
Вторинні
Додаткові
Будова скелета
Скелет людини складається з 3 частин: скелету голови (черепа), тулуба та кінцівок. До складу скелету тулуба відносяться хребет та грудна клітка. В склад скелету кінцівок входять верхні та нижні кінцівки, а також їхні пояси.
Скелет голови (череп)
Череп людини складається з 2 відділів:
мозковий — утворений 8 кістками (парні скроневі та тім'яні кістки, непарні лобова, потилична, клиноподібна та решітчаста:
Потилична кістка (Os occipitale)
Тім'яна кістка (Os parietale)
Скронева кістка (Os temporale)
Клиноподібна кістка (Os sphenoidale)
Лобова кістка (os frontale)
Решітчаста кістка (Os ethmoidale)
лицьовий — утворений 15 кістками (парні верхньощелепні, носові, слізні, виличні, піднебінні, нижньоносові, а також непарні нижньощелепна, леміш, під'язикова):
Вилична кістка (Os zygomaticum)
Верхня щелепа (Maxilla)
Нижня щелепа (Mandibula)
Носова кістка (Os nasale)
Слізна кістка (Os lacrimale)
Піднебінна кістка (Os palatinum)
Під'язикова кістка (Os hyoideum)
Леміш (Vomer)
Слухові кісточки (молоточок, ковадло, стремено) (Malleus, Incus, Stapes)
Потилична кістка має великий потиличний отвір, через який порожнина черепа з'єднана із спинномозковим каналом. У скроневій кістці є отвір зовнішнього слухового проходу. У кістках основи черепа є також дрібні отвори, через які проходять черепно-мозкові нерви, та кровоносні судини.
Скелет тулуба
Скелет тулуба людини складається з 2 частин — хребет та грудна клітка.
Грудна клітка складається з:
12 пар ребер
Грудинини
Хребет людини утворений 33-34 хребцями, поділеними на 5 відділів:
шийний відділ (7 хребців) — перший хребець (атлант) та другий шийний хребець з'єднують хребет з черепом
грудний відділ (12 хребців) — від кожного хребця відростає пара ребер; (лат. Th 1-12)
поперековий відділ (5 хребців) (лат. L1-L5)
крижовий відділ (4-5 хребців) — хребці зрослись в одну кістку (лат. S1-4/5)
куприковий відділ (4-5 хребців) — рудиментів (лат. Со1-Со4/5)
Кожен хребець складається з тіла (Corpus) та дуги (Arcus), але винятком є Атлант- 1-й хребець шийного відділу, у якого відсутнє тіло (тобто має атипову будову), від якої відходять декілька відростків. Тіло хребців і дуги складають хребцеві отвори, які утворюють хребетний канал (Canalis spinalis), де міститься спинний мозок. Хребці з'єднуються між собою за допомогою волокнистого хряща, що надає хребту гнучкості та еластичності.
Грудна клітка утворена ребрами та грудниною. Людина має 12 пар ребер, з яких перші 7 пар з'єднані безпосередньо з грудниною, наступні 3 прикріплюються до хрящів вищих ребер, а останні 2 пари розташовані вільно. Груднина розташована попереду грудної клітки і виконує важливу функцію — скріплює ребра між собою.
Скелет кінцівок
Людина має 2 пари кінцівок — пару верхніх та пару нижніх. Верхні кінцівки називаються руками, а нижні — ногами.
Скелет верхніх кінцівок складається з 2 частин:
пояс верхніх кінцівок — утворений парними кістками лопаток (Scapula) та з'єднаних з ними ключицями (Clavicula);
вільні верхні кінцівки — утворені з 3 відділів:
плече — утворене плечовою кісткою (Humerus), з'єднаною з лопаткою (Scapula);
передпліччя — утворене ліктьовою (Ulna) та променевою кістками (Radius);
кисть— утворена кістками зап'ястка, п'ястка та фаланг пальців руки (27 кісток).
Зап'ястя (Carpus) складається з восьми кісток (Ossa carpi):
Човноподібна кістка (Os scaphoideum)
Півмісяцева кістка (Os lunatum)
Тригранна кістка (Os triquetrum)
Горохоподібна кістка (Os pisiforme)
Трапеція (Os trapezium)
Трапецієподібна кістка (Os trapezoideum)
Головчаста кістка (Os capitatum)
Гачкувата кістка (Os hamatum)
П'ясток має п'ять метакарпальних кісток (Ossa metacarpi, під номером I—V).
Дві сезамоподібні кістки (ossa sesamoidea) в метакарпофаланговому суглобі великого пальця
Пальці складаються з трьох кісток (phalanx proximalis, phalanx media, phalanx distalis, підрядний номер I—V), великі пальці (I) складаються лише з двох (phalanx proximalis і phalanx distalis)
Скелет нижніх кінцівок складається з 2 частин:
пояс нижніх кінцівок — утворений парними тазовими (зрослі лобкові, сідничні та клубові кістки) та крижовою кістками;
вільні нижні кінцівки — утворені з 3 відділів:
стегно — утворене стегновою кісткою (Os femoris)
гомілка — утворена великою (Tibia) та малою гомілковою кістками (Fibula)
надколінник (Patella)
стопа — утворена кістками заплесна (разом з п'ятковою кісткою), плесна та фаланг пальців ноги.
Заплесно (Ossa tarsi):
Надп'яткова кістка (Talus)
П'яткова кістка (Calcaneus)
Човноподібна кістка (Os naviculare)
Три клиноподібні кістки (Os cuneiforme mediale, intermedium et laterale)
Кубоподібна кістка (Os cuboideum)
П'ять кісток плесна (Ossa metatarsi, пронумеровані I—V)
Дві сесамоподібні кістки (ossa sesamoidea) в плюсно-фаланговому суглобі великого пальця
Кожний палець ноги складається з трьох кісток (phalanx proximalis, media, et distalis, під номером I—V), а великі пальці (I) складаються лише з двох кісток.
Хвороби скелету
Хребет природно має 4 вигини — шийний та поперековий відділи спрямовані вперед, а грудний та крижовий назад. Але в молодому віці хребет має здатність викривлятись. Серед поширених хвороб хребта виділяють:
сколіоз — викривлення вбік;
кіфоз — викривлення назад;
лордоз — викривлення вперед.
До хвороб скелету також відносять:
Плоскостопість — зниження склепіння кісток стопи, що призводить до великої болі, тяжкості ходіння та затискання кровоносних судин
Остеопороз — системне захворювання скелета, яке характеризується зменшенням маси кістки в одиниці об'єму та порушенням мікроархітектури кісткової тканини, що призводить до підвищення крихкості кісток та високого ризику їх переломів.
Пухлини кісток
Рахіт
Вроджені аномалії скелету зумовлені генетичними хворобами, пологовими травмами
Остеомієліт
Остеомаляція
Гіпофосфатазія
Остеопенія
Хвороба Шоермана
Хвороба Педжета
Синдром Тітце
Мієломна хвороба (плазмоцитома)
Періостит
Примітки
Література
Сакевич В. І., Мастеров Ю. І., Сакевич Р. П. Посібник для практичних занять з анатомії та фізіології з основами патології. — К., 2003.
Синельников Р.Д., Синельников А. Я., Синельников Я. Р. : Атлас анатомии человека. В 4-х томах. Том 1. Учение о костях, соединениях костей и мышцах — М.: Новая волна, 2019. — 444 с. — ISBN 978-5-7864-0275-0. (С.14 — 262)
Коцан І. Я., Гринчук В. О., Велемець В. Х. [та ін.] Анатомія людини: підруч. для студ. вищ. навч. закл . — Луцьк: Волин. нац. ун-т ім. Лесі Українки. — 902 с. — ISBN 978-966-600-493-5
Сидоренко П. І. Анатомія та фізіологія людини / П. І. Сидоренко, Г. О. Бондаренко, С. О. Куц. — Вид. 4-е, випр. — Київ: Медицина, 2012. — 199 с. — ISBN 978-617-505-216-7 (С.25 — 41)
Частини скелета
Кістки людини
Системи організму
Анатомія
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43457783
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Toko%20Ekambi
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Karl Toko Ekambi
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Karl Toko Ekambi
Karl Louis Brillant Toko Ekambi (born 14 September 1992) is a professional footballer who plays as a forward for Saudi Pro League club Al-Ettifaq.
Toko Ekambi began his career with Paris FC in the Championnat National and Sochaux in Ligue 2 before joining Angers in Ligue 1. After 18 months at Villarreal in Spain's La Liga, he returned to France's top flight with Lyon.
Born and raised in France, Toko Ekambi represents Cameroon internationally. He made his international debut for Cameroon in 2015. He represented the nation at the Africa Cup of Nations in 2017, 2019, 2021 and 2023, winning the 2017 tournament. He also played at the 2022 FIFA World Cup.
Club career
Sochaux
Born in Paris, Toko Ekambi began his career at Paris FC in the third-tier Championnat National. In June 2014, having been third-top scorer with 13 goals, he transferred to Sochaux. He made his Ligue 2 debut on the opening day of the 2014–15 season against Orléans, as a 57th-minute substitute for Thomas Guerbert in a 1–0 home loss. He ended his first season as joint-fourth top scorer with 14 goals.
Angers
In June 2016, Toko Ekambi joined Angers for €1 million, on a four-year deal. He scored seven times in his first Ligue 1 season, including two in a 3–0 home win over Bastia on 26 February.
In August 2017, Brighton & Hove Albion, newly promoted to the Premier League, reportedly made a bid for him, offering €8 million plus €1 million in possible bonuses to Angers. He began that season in good form, scoring nine goals in 18 Ligue 1 appearances in the first half of the season, attracting interest from England for his services in the January transfer window.
In January 2018 Brighton were again reported to have made a bid for him, which was rejected by Angers. On 24 February, Toko Ekambi scored two-second-half goals, including the winner in the 89th minute, to help Angers move out of the relegation zone in a 2–1 away win over fellow strugglers Lille. He finished the 2017–18 Ligue 1 season with 17 goals, ninth in the league's top scorers. He won the Prix Marc-Vivien Foé for best African in the league. He was the first Cameroonian to win the award named after Marc-Vivien Foé, who died playing for the country in 2003.
On 25 April 2017, late substitute Toko Ekambi scored in a 2–0 home win over Guingamp in the Coupe de France semi-final. In Angers' first final since 1957 on 27 May, he played the entirety of a 1–0 loss to Paris Saint-Germain (PSG).
Villarreal
In June 2018, Toko Ekambi signed with Villarreal in Spain's La Liga, for an estimated €20 million. He was signed to replace Cédric Bakambu, who had left for the Chinese Super League in January. He scored ten goals in his first league season, including two in a 3–1 home win over Rayo Vallecano on 17 March.
With five goals each, Toko Ekambi and Getafe's Ángel were top scorers of the 2018–19 Copa del Rey. This included four in an 8–0 (11–3 aggregate) home win over Almería in the last 32 second leg, followed by a goal in the next stage against Espanyol, who eliminated his team.
Toko Ekambi was the La Liga Player of the Month for October 2019, with three goals including two in a 4–1 win over Alavés on 25 October.
Lyon
On 20 January 2020, Toko Ekambi went back to Ligue 1, on loan to Lyon for the remainder of the season. On 2 June, he moved on a permanent transfer with a four-year contract, for a fee of €11.5 million. He played in the 2020 Coupe de la Ligue Final on 31 July, the last game in the competition's history. On as an 80th-minute substitute for Memphis Depay, he scored in the penalty shootout after a goalless draw, but his team lost to PSG.
With 14 goals in 2020–21, Toko Ekambi was once again joint ninth top scorer in Ligue 1. The following season, he finished joint tenth with 12 goals.
Loan to Rennes
On 26 January 2023, fellow Ligue 1 club Rennes announced the signing of Toko Ekambi on loan from Lyon for the remainder of the season. The fee was €1.5 million, with a further €1 million depending on performances. He scored his first goal for the club on 19 March to open a 2–0 win at PSG, ending a 35-game unbeaten home run for the hosts dating back nearly two years.
Abha
On 24 August 2023, Toko Ekambi joined Saudi Pro League club Abha on a two-year deal.
Al-Ettifaq
On 30 January 2024, Toko Ekambi joined fellow Saudi Pro League club Al-Ettifaq on a one-and-a-half year contract.
International career
Toko Ekambi made his debut for Cameroon on 6 June 2015 in a 3–2 friendly win over Burkina Faso in Colombes, France, as a 66th-minute substitute for Justin Mengolo. He scored his first goal on 3 September the following year in a 2–0 home win over the Gambia in 2017 Africa Cup of Nations qualification. Manager Hugo Broos called him up for the final tournament in Gabon, which the team won.
On 28 March 2017, Toko Ekambi scored and was sent off in a 2–1 friendly loss to Guinea in Brussels. In June, Broos selected him for the 2017 Confederations Cup in Russia. He also went to the 2019 Africa Cup of Nations in Egypt.
At the 2021 Africa Cup of Nations on home soil at the start of the following year, Toko Ekambi scored twice in a 4–1 group win over Ethiopia, and the opening goal of a 2–1 win against Comoros in the last 16. On 29 January, he scored both goals against the Gambia in the quarter-finals.
On 29 March 2022, Toko Ekambi scored a goal in the fourth minute of time added on at the end of extra time against Algeria to send Cameroon to the 2022 FIFA World Cup. At the finals in Qatar, he started the first two games and was a substitute in the 1–0 win over Brazil, as the team exited in the group stage.
At the 2023 Africa Cup of Nations in the Ivory Coast, Toko Ekambi was dropped by manager Rigobert Song in the second group game against Senegal; fellow striker Vincent Aboubakar was injured and the team lost 3–1. He returned and scored the opening goal of a 3–2 win against the Gambia that put Cameroon into the last 16 at their opponents' expense. On February 2, 2024, he announced his retirement from international duty after the tournament.
Career statistics
Club
International
Scores and results list Cameroon's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Toko Ekambi goal.
Honours
Lyon
Coupe de la Ligue runner-up: 2019–20
Cameroon
Africa Cup of Nations: 2017; third place: 2021
Individual
Ligue 2 Team of the Year: 2014–15
Prix Marc-Vivien Foé: 2018
La Liga Player of the Month: October 2019
References
External links
1992 births
Living people
Footballers from Paris
French men's footballers
Cameroonian men's footballers
Men's association football forwards
Paris FC players
FC Sochaux-Montbéliard players
Angers SCO players
Villarreal CF players
Olympique Lyonnais players
Stade Rennais F.C. players
Abha Club players
Al-Ettifaq FC players
Championnat National players
Championnat National 3 players
Ligue 2 players
Ligue 1 players
La Liga players
Saudi Pro League players
Cameroon men's international footballers
2017 Africa Cup of Nations players
2017 FIFA Confederations Cup players
2019 Africa Cup of Nations players
2021 Africa Cup of Nations players
2022 FIFA World Cup players
2023 Africa Cup of Nations players
Africa Cup of Nations-winning players
French expatriate men's footballers
Cameroonian expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in Spain
Cameroonian expatriate sportspeople in Spain
Expatriate men's footballers in Saudi Arabia
Cameroonian expatriate sportspeople in Saudi Arabia
French sportspeople of Cameroonian descent
Cameroonian people of French descent
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1003368
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahabzada%20Yaqub%20Khan
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Sahabzada Yaqub Khan
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Sahabzada Yaqub Khan
Lieutenant General Sahabzada Mohammad Yaqub Ali Khan (23 December 1920 – 26 January 2016) was a Pakistani politician, diplomat, military figure, linguist, and a retired general in the Pakistani Army.
After the Partition of India in 1947, he opted for Pakistan and joined the Pakistan Army where he participated in the Indo-Pakistani war of 1965. He was the commander of the army's Eastern Command in East Pakistan. He was appointed as governor of East Pakistan in 1969 and 1971 but recalled to Pakistan after he submitted his resignation amid civil unrest. In 1973, he joined the foreign service and was appointed as the Pakistan Ambassador to the United States and later ascended as foreign minister, serving under President Zia-ul-Haq in 1982.
His stint as foreign minister played a major role in the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan (1979–89) and he took part in negotiations to end the Contras in Nicaragua (1981–87) on the behalf of the United Nations. In the 1990s, he served as an official of the United Nations for Western Sahara until he was reappointed as foreign minister under Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto. After retiring from diplomatic services in 1997, he spent his remaining years in Islamabad and died in Islamabad in 2016.
Biography
Youth and World war II
Early days
Mohammad Yaqub Ali Khan was born into Indian nobility into the Rohilla branch of the Kheshgi family Pashtuns tribe in Rampur, Uttar Pradesh, British Indian Empire on 23 December 1920. He had also been a close relative of the family of the Nawabs of Kasur, of Punjab. His father, Sir Abdus Samad Khan was an aristocrat and politician who served as chief minister of Rampur, and as British India's representative to the League of Nations.
He was educated at the Rashtriya Indian Military College at Dehradun, then the Indian Military Academy and gained a commission in British Indian Army in 1940 and attached to the 18th King Edward's Own Cavalry.
Participation in WWII and POW
In his military career he saw action during World War II and served in the North African campaign where he was attached to 18th King Edward's Own Cavalry from April 1942. He was taken prisoner of war in North Africa in May 1942. In September 1943 he escaped from the Italian prisoner of war camp P. G. 91 in Avezzano (with two other Indian officers) and was out for four to five months attempting to move south to Allied lines, but they were subsequently re-captured by German forces who put him in a prisoner of war camp in Germany until April 1945 when he was released by the U.S. Army soldiers. During his time in German custody, he learnt languages by interacting with fellow prisoners and reading literature in those languages.
Return to India and Partition
Upon returning to India in 1945, he was selected as an adjutant to Field Marshal Lord Wavell with an army rank of major. After hearing the news of partition of India and creation of Pakistan, he decided to opt for Pakistan, and initially was selected as aide-de-camp (ADC) to Muhammad Ali Jinnah– the first Governor-General of Pakistan. It was then-Lieutenant S.M. Ahsan who was made the ADC at the behest of Lord Mountbatten, and Yaqub was appointed as commandant of the Governor-General's bodyguard for the first governor-general which he led until 1948. In the period 1948–49, he attended the short one-year course at the Command and Staff College at Quetta and graduated with a staff officer's degree.
In 1951, he served in the Military Intelligence (MI) as lieutenant-colonel, and directed initiatives to analytical branch of the ISI for the whereabouts of the Indian Army but he reportedly struggled with providing factual intelligence that was provided to ISI.
He commanded the 11th Prince Albert Victor's Own Cavalry (Frontier Force), Armoured Corps from December 1952 to October 1953.
He was promoted to colonel in 1953 and went to Paris in France to attend the famed École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr where he graduated in 1954.
Upon returning to Pakistan, he was promoted to brigadier in 1955 where he served as a chief instructor at the Command and Staff College.
Staff and war appointments:1960–69
In 1958, he was appointed as the vice chief of general staff at the army GHQ and later becoming the commandant of the Command and Staff College in Quetta in 1960. In 1960 he was promoted to major-general and commanded the 1st Armoured Division of Armoured Corps and was said to have a portrait of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in his office. As an armored commander, he arranged a course on philosophy on the panzer doctrine to educate the armoured division on the tank battles and strategies.
He participated in the war against India in 1965, having command of his 1st Armoured Division. He helped develop the operational planning of the armoured vehicular warfare deployments against the Indian Army advances in Punjab and presented his views at the Army GHQ. Soon after, he was appointed as director-general military operations (DGMO) by General Musa Khan and directed all formats of ground operations during the 1965 war against India.
After the war, he was appointed as chief of general staff at the army GHQ under army chief General Yahya Khan in 1966 and remained until 1969.
East Pakistan: military advisor and governorship (1969–71)
In 1969, Lieutenant-General Yaqub Khan was posted to East Pakistan as the commander of Eastern Command in Dacca by President Yahya Khan and helped evaluate the command rotation of the eastern military. Soon, he was appointed as governor of East Pakistan where he began learning the Bengali language and became accustomed to Bengali culture. He was highly respected by the East Pakistani military officers due to his stance and professionalism and was said to be very well liked and respected in the East.
He was known to be an unusual military officer who knew very well about "limits of force", and did not believe in the use of brute force to settle political disputes. In 1969–71, he worked together with Admiral Ahsan in advising the Yahya administration in an effort to resolve the situation and restricted strictly the proposal of usage of military force in the province.
At the cabinet meeting, he was often fierce and strictly resisted the usage of military option but was respected in the military due to his understanding of Bengali issues and whose colleagues often labeled him as "Bingos." In 1970, he notably coordinated the relief operations when the disastrous cyclone had hit the state and gained prestige for his efforts in the country.{
In 1971, he participated in the area contingency and fact-finding mission, which was known as the Ahsan–Yaqub Mission, to resolve the political deadlock between East Pakistan and Pakistan as both men argued that "military measures would not change the political situations".
In March 1971, he became aware of the rumors of a military action against East Pakistanis and delivered desperate military signals to President Yahya Khan in Islamabad to not use military solution as he feared Indian intervention. After the resignation of Admiral Ahsan, he was ordered to use military force against the civil agitation led by the Awami League but refused to take this order and tendered his resignation to be posted back to Pakistan. His resignation came in the light of resisting the military orders and fiercely maintained to President Yahya that "military solution was not acceptable".
Commenting on the situation, Yaqub maintained that: "[President] Yahya was also keen to impose the "open sword" martial law to roll back the situation as it was in 1969." He lodged a strong protest against the military solution and maintained that the "central government had failed to listen to the voices of their co-citizens in the East." To many authors, Yaqub Khan had become a "conscientious objector" in the military.
He was posted back to Pakistan, joined the Army GHQ staff and participated in winter war against India in 1971 without commanding an assignment and retired from the military after the war, also in 1971.
Foreign service
Ambassadorship to France, United States, and Soviet Union
After seeking the honorable discharge from the army, he joined the foreign service as a career diplomat in 1972, initially taking his first assignment as Pakistan Ambassador to France until 1973. In 1973, Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto appointed him as the Pakistan Ambassador to the United States which he served in this capacity until 1979. He was sent Pakistan's envoy to United States when the foreign relations with the United States were cooling but he gained international prominence when he became involved with Egyptian ambassador Ashraf Ghorbal and Iranian Ambassador to the United States Ardeshir Zahedi to take part in defusing the siege of three federal buildings in the Washington D.C. by the group of American Muslims in 1977.
In 1979, he was sent to Moscow and was appointed as Pakistan Ambassador to the Soviet Union where he worked towards building foreign relations with the Soviet Union by signing an educational accord. In 1980, he was reassigned in France again where he remained until 1982.
Foreign minister and United Nations
Yaqub Ali Khan was brought in to the Zia administration as foreign minister in 1982 when Agha Shahi departed President Zia-ul-Haq's cabinet. He was appointed foreign minister in the conservative-aligned government but Yaqub maintained his composure and his wit in the Zia administration.
As foreign minister, he directed a proactive and keen pro-Islamic policy and supported the U.S. sponsored clandestine program to arm the Afghan mujahideen against Soviet-sponsored Socialist Afghanistan. He advised President Zia-ul-Haq on many key matters and firmly had gripped the country's foreign policy on the track of pro-U.S. foreign policy as many military officers joined his foreign ministry. During this time, the matters were kept out of the sight of the Foreign Office with Yaqub handling matters with the military. He continued his role as foreign minister after the general elections held in 1985 by the Prime Minister Mohammad Junejo.
At foreign fronts, he played a crucial role in providing the support for his country's cover and clandestine nuclear development whilst maintaining a strong policy of deliberate ambiguity. In 1984, he reportedly issued a statement in Washington, D.C., on Pakistan's massive retaliation when observing India's pre-emptive strikes on Pakistan's facilities, and made unsuccessful proposal to United States to put Pakistan under its nuclear umbrella.
In the 1980s, he provided his diplomatic expertise in resolving the Soviet–Afghan War when he explored the possibility of setting-up the interim system of government under former monarch Zahir Shah but this was not authorized by President Zia-ul-Haq. In 1984–85, he paid visits to China, Saudi Arabia, the Soviet Union, France, United States and the United Kingdom to develop framework for the Geneva Accords which was signed in 1988. About the death and state funeral of President Zia-ul-Haq, Yaqub was earlier warned by Soviet Foreign Minister Edward Shevardnadze that Pakistan's support for the Afghan mujahideen "would not go unpunished."
In the 1980s, he also managed to maintain Pakistan's close friendship with Iran and the rich Arab States during the Iran-Iraq war. After the general elections held in 1988 in the country, Yaqub was kept as foreign minister in the first Benazir ministry by Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto in order to engage in negotiation with the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
In 1988–90, he aided Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto to reach agreement to sign an arms control treaty with her Indian counterpart Rajiv Gandhi. In 1990, he met Indian External Minister, I. K. Gujral to deter an active conflict between two countries.
After the 1990 Pakistani general election, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif made him foreign minister, a position he retained until 1991. He once again put country's foreign policy to supporting U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in the Gulf War. After the Gulf War, Yaqub resigned his post as foreign minister on 26 February 1991.
After his resignation, he went on to join the United Nations when he was named the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Western Sahara in 1992 which he remained until 1995. In 1996, he was again re-appointed as foreign minister by Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto but it was short-lived when his tenure was cut-short after President Farooq Leghari dismissed Benazir Bhutto's government.
Although he retired from politics in 1997, Yaqub Ali Khan did provide his support to President Pervez Musharraf to stabilise his writ against the government of Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif in 1999 when he visited United States to provide legitimacy of military martial law.
Post-retirement and death
In 1981, he was appointed as the founding chairman of the board of trustees of the Aga Khan University which he chaired for almost two decades until his retirement in 2001. He was also a commissioner in the now retired Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict in New York City, United States.
Yaqub Ali Khan was married to Begum Tuba Khaleeli of the Iranian Khaleeli family of Calcutta with whom he had two sons, Samad and Najib. He was said to be proficient in seven global languages including English, Russian, French, Urdu, German, Italian, and Bengali. He died of an old age, at 95, in Islamabad where he was laid to rest in Westridge cemetery in Rawalpindi, Punjab, Pakistan. His funeral services were attended by then CJCSC General Rashad Mahmood, then COAS General Raheel Sharif, then Air Chief General Sohail Aman, then Naval Chief Admiral Muhammad Zakaullah and other high-ranking civil and military officials and people from all walks of life.
Awards and decorations
Foreign decorations
Autobiography
See also
Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Western Sahara
Timeline of Afghanistan (1982)
References
Indian Army List (April 1942, April 1945)
Maj Gen Gurcharn Singh Sadu, I serve The Eighteenth Cavalry
External links
Yaqub Khan – the man who reinvented himself by Khaled Ahmed (The Friday Times)
SYK: The Man With Qualities Short biographical article by S. Abbas Raza
Biographical article by M. Zafar in Defence Journal
MAJOR-GENERAL SAHABZADA MOHD YAQUB KHAN (PA 136)
Sahibzada Yaqub and Gul Hassan: A Study in Contrast on The Friday Times
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1920 births
2016 deaths
People from Rampur, Uttar Pradesh
Indian nobility
Rashtriya Indian Military College alumni
British Indian Army officers
Indian Army personnel of World War II
World War II prisoners of war held by Germany
World War II prisoners of war held by Italy
Escapees from Italian detention
Indian escapees
Indian prisoners of war
Indian emigrants to Pakistan
Pakistani people of Afghan descent
German–English translators
Pakistani anti-communists
Pakistani pacifists
Linguists from Pakistan
Member of the Academy of the Kingdom of Morocco
École Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr alumni
People of the Cold War
Pakistani generals
Pakistani military leaders
Military strategists
Pakistan Armoured Corps officers
Translators to Bengali
Governors of East Pakistan
Pakistani conscientious objectors
Generals of the Bangladesh Liberation War
Generals of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
Pakistani civil servants
Pakistani anti-war activists
Ambassadors of Pakistan to France
Ambassadors of Pakistan to the United States
Ambassadors of Pakistan to the Soviet Union
Military government of Pakistan (1977–1988)
Foreign ministers of Pakistan
People of the Soviet–Afghan War
Russian–Urdu translators
Pakistan People's Party politicians
Government of Benazir Bhutto staffers and personnel
Pakistani officials of the United Nations
United Nations experts
Indian Military Academy alumni
Indian expatriates in the United Kingdom
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13038163
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certina
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Certina
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Certina S.A. is a Swiss watch brand, part of the Swatch Group, founded in Grenchen in 1888 by Adolf and Alfred Kurth. All Certina watches bear the "Swiss Made" seal of origin.
Certina watches are not related to German industrial conglomerate Certina Holding.
History of Certina S.A.
Certina S.A. was founded in 1888 when Adolf and Alfred Kurth opened in Grenchen their first movement and supplies factory for the watchmaking industry. At the start Certina's staff consisted of three employees working in a workshop that was connected to the family home. They did not begin producing complete watches and timepieces for a few years which they then did alongside their work producing movements for other companies. By 1938 the company had expanded and 250 employees celebrated the 50th anniversary of the company.
Certina continued to expand and by 1955 the company had 500 employees working between the factory and offices, producing 1,000 timepieces every day. Certina worked up a new business plan that expanded its operations.
By 1972 the company employed 900 people and produced 600,000 watches per year.
1983 Certina became a member of the SMH Group (Swatch).
Affiliation to ASUAG
In 1971, the owning family opted to join General Watch Co, the newly created sub-holding of ASUAG, in order to consolidate their efforts with others. The introduction of cheap and reliable automatics and quartz watches from Japan (under the ideas of their strategic management) stopped Certina's expansion. The restructuring involved the abandonment of their own manufacture of calibres, and by the end of the 1970s, operations were moved to Biel/Bienne and the entity Edox & Technos. Under the new management, the company managed to hold on to some of their properties, especially in the Scandinavian countries. Upon the merger of SSIH and ASUAG companies, Certina S.A. became a member of a new managerial entity, together with Mido and Tissot, which became known as Le Locle, (the newly elected Unesco World Heritage Site in Switzerland).
Wristwatches, world’s first & lines of collection
The first wristwatches : were already produced by the company in 1938 : predominately ladies watches, because men still preferred pocket watches.
Digital Watch: 1936 became the first company to produce a digital watch. It was driven by a spring movement. Rotating disks bearing inscribed numbers were used to display the time, instead of hands.
DS (Double Security) Line: In 1959 Hans and Edwin Kurth set themselves the objective of creating a new marketplace niche based on quality through engineering and technical design. Thus the company created the concept of suspending the watch movement inside a highly reinforced case, which was named DS after "Double Security". These were the first watches to increase shock protection and water resistance to 6 m (previous watches were set at 2.2 metres). The watch was taken up the Himalayas by a team who climbed the Dhaulagiri and the watch withstood all changes in pressure and altitude.
Biostar: In 1971 introduced the Biostar, the world's first watch that displayed human biorhythms.
"Scratchproof" : produced the "unscratchable" DS-DiaMaster in tungsten carbide.
Watch series
Sport Collection
DS-2 : 2013 -
DS Eagle
DS Multi-8
DS Podium
DS Podium Big Size
DS Podium Valgranges
DS Sport
Aqua Collection
DS Action
DS Action Diver
DS First
Urban Collection
DS 4
DS 4 Big Size
DS-8 Chronograph Moon Phase
DS Dream
DS Prime
DS Stella
Heritage Collection
DS Caimano
DS Powermatic 80 : 2014-
DS-1
Advanced Systems and Materials
Recent collection of Certina S.A. include Titanium, 316L high grade stainless steel, sapphire glass, its own DS feature (such as the current "DS Podium", "DS First" or "DS Action") and ETA Swiss made movements are standard features. It currently offers collections, classified under the names "Automatic", "SPORT Classic", "SPORT Elegant" and "SPORT Xtreme", including some models claimed to perform up to 300 m underwater.
Marketing
Certina S.A. has partnered with motoring companies including Colin McRae, Sete Gibernau, Sauber Formula One team.
Certina S.A. was timekeeper of the Motorcycling Grand Prix in the 1990s.
Certina S.A. sponsored the 2014 World Rally Championship.
The Certina brand
In 1906 the Certina brand name was used for the first time, with Adolf and Alfred choosing to call their watches "Grana", the short form of "Granatus", the Latin name for Grenchen.
In 1938 the company adopted the name "Certina", taken from the Latin "certus", meaning "assured", "certain", as their trademark for the export and marketing of their watches.
In 2014 Certina S.A. changed their red logo with a new logo. The new logo uses a turtle symbol, to symbolize protection against water and shocks. The change in logo and brand colours was because Certina S.A. wanted to move to a more expensive and higher quality segment, differentiating it from Tissot, another brand in the Swatch Group family. The impact of the changes in the brand has been the integration of better and more accurate movements like the PreciDrive in new releases.
References
External links
Alliance Horlogère listing of Certina calibres
Swiss watch brands
The Swatch Group
Manufacturing companies established in 1888
Design companies established in 1888
Companies based in the canton of Neuchâtel
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1636200
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dizy%2C%20Switzerland
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Dizy, Switzerland
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Dizy, Switzerland
Dizy is a municipality of the canton of Vaud in Switzerland, located in the district of Morges.
History
Dizy is first mentioned in 961 as in villa Discidis. In 1041 it was mentioned as Dysi.
Geography
Dizy has an area, , of . Of this area, or 71.1% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 23.4% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 7.6% is settled (buildings or roads).
Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 2.0% and transportation infrastructure made up 2.0%. Power and water infrastructure as well as other special developed areas made up 3.6% of the area Out of the forested land, all of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests. Of the agricultural land, 52.0% is used for growing crops and 18.1% is pastures.
The municipality was part of the Cossonay District until it was dissolved on 31 August 2006, and Dizy became part of the new district of Morges.
The municipality is located on a hill between the Venoge and Veyron rivers. It consists of the linear village of Dizy.
Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Per pale Azure and Argent, a Saltire counterchanged.
Demographics
Dizy has a population of . , 11.3% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1999–2009 ) the population has changed at a rate of 38.8%. It has changed at a rate of 26.9% due to migration and at a rate of 11.9% due to births and deaths.
Most of the population speaks French (155 or 91.2%), with Portuguese being second most common (8 or 4.7%) and Albanian being third (3 or 1.8%). There is 1 person who speaks German.
Of the population in the municipality 64 or about 37.6% were born in Dizy and lived there in 2000. There were 65 or 38.2% who were born in the same canton, while 13 or 7.6% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 26 or 15.3% were born outside of Switzerland.
In there were 3 live births to Swiss citizens and 1 birth to non-Swiss citizens, and in same time span there was 1 death of a Swiss citizen. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens increased by 2 while the foreign population increased by 1. At the same time, there was 1 non-Swiss man who emigrated from Switzerland to another country. The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was an increase of 11 and the non-Swiss population decreased by 1 people. This represents a population growth rate of 4.7%.
The age distribution, , in Dizy is; 30 children or 13.5% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 38 teenagers or 17.1% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 27 people or 12.2% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 33 people or 14.9% are between 30 and 39, 36 people or 16.2% are between 40 and 49, and 27 people or 12.2% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 11 people or 5.0% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 13 people or 5.9% are between 70 and 79, there are 7 people or 3.2% who are between 80 and 89.
, there were 81 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 73 married individuals, 7 widows or widowers and 9 individuals who are divorced.
, there were 61 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.8 persons per household. There were 10 households that consist of only one person and 5 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 62 households that answered this question, 16.1% were households made up of just one person. Of the rest of the households, there are 17 married couples without children, 28 married couples with children There were 5 single parents with a child or children. There was 1 household that was made up of unrelated people and 1 household that was made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.
there were 16 single family homes (or 36.4% of the total) out of a total of 44 inhabited buildings. There were 7 multi-family buildings (15.9%), along with 19 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (43.2%) and 2 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (4.5%). Of the single family homes 8 were built before 1919, while 1 was built between 1990 and 2000. The most multi-family homes (4) were built before 1919 and the next most (1) were built between 1981 and 1990. There was 1 multi-family house built between 1996 and 2000.
there were 67 apartments in the municipality. The most common apartment size was 4 rooms of which there were 26. There were 3 single room apartments and 20 apartments with five or more rooms. Of these apartments, a total of 57 apartments (85.1% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 5 apartments (7.5%) were seasonally occupied and 5 apartments (7.5%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 0 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0%.
The historical population is given in the following chart:
Politics
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the Green Party which received 25.36% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (23.21%), the SP (15.05%) and the FDP (12.54%). In the federal election, a total of 64 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 48.9%.
Economy
, Dizy had an unemployment rate of 1.7%. , there were 16 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 5 businesses involved in this sector. 4 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 3 businesses in this sector. 2 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 2 businesses in this sector. There were 76 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 44.7% of the workforce.
the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 19. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 13, all of which were in agriculture. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 4 of which 1 was in manufacturing and 1 was in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 2. In the tertiary sector; 2 or 100.0% were technical professionals or scientists, .
, there were 8 workers who commuted into the municipality and 54 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 6.8 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. Of the working population, 9.2% used public transportation to get to work, and 60.5% used a private car.
Religion
From the , 34 or 20.0% were Roman Catholic, while 102 or 60.0% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. There were5 (or about 2.94% of the population) who were Islamic. There was 1 person who was Buddhist. 26 (or about 15.29% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 2 individuals (or about 1.18% of the population) did not answer the question.
Education
In Dizy about 53 or (31.2%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 25 or (14.7%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 25 who completed tertiary schooling, 56.0% were Swiss men, 44.0% were Swiss women.
In the 2009/2010 school year there were a total of 36 students in the Dizy school district. In the Vaud cantonal school system, two years of non-obligatory pre-school are provided by the political districts. During the school year, the political district provided pre-school care for a total of 631 children of which 203 children (32.2%) received subsidized pre-school care. The canton's primary school program requires students to attend for four years. There were 22 students in the municipal primary school program. The obligatory lower secondary school program lasts for six years and there were 14 students in those schools.
, there were 38 students from Dizy who attended schools outside the municipality.
References
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47506819
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin%20Station%20%28TV%20series%29
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Berlin Station (TV series)
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Berlin Station (TV series)
Berlin Station is an American drama television series created by Olen Steinhauer. The series stars Richard Armitage, Rhys Ifans, Leland Orser, Michelle Forbes, Richard Jenkins, Keke Palmer, Ashley Judd, John Doman, Tamlyn Tomita, and Ismael Cruz Córdova. Bradford Winters had been showrunner for its first two seasons, with Jason Horwitch taking over for season 3.
A ten-episode first season premiered on Epix on October 16, 2016. On November 17, 2016, Epix renewed Berlin Station for a second season, originally planned to contain ten episodes, which premiered on October 15, 2017 and concluded a nine-episode-season-run on December 3, 2017. On December 6, 2017, Epix renewed the series for a third season, which premiered on December 2, 2018.
It was canceled on March 29, 2019 after three seasons.
In 2021, all three seasons were released on DVD from Paramount Home Entertainment.
Plot
The story follows Daniel Miller (Richard Armitage), who has just arrived at the CIA station in Berlin, Germany. In season 1, Miller has a clandestine mission: to uncover the source of a leak who has supplied information to a now-famous whistleblower named Thomas Shaw. Guided by veteran Hector DeJean (Rhys Ifans), Daniel learns to contend with the rough-and-tumble world of the field agent: agent-running, deception, and the dangers and moral compromises. In season 2, four months after Miller was shot at the end of season 1, he recovered from his injuries sufficiently to be given a new clandestine assignment: to infiltrate a far-right German political party believed to be planning an act of terror right before an upcoming election.
Cast
Main
Richard Armitage as Daniel Miller, a cerebral CIA officer who shifts from working as an analyst at Langley headquarters in the US to serving as an undercover officer in Berlin and is tasked with finding a leak in CIA operations
Rhys Ifans as Hector DeJean, a disillusioned veteran CIA officer with dubious tactics and many secrets
Leland Orser as Robert Kirsch, a devoted and successful Deputy Chief who digs intelligence out of the city of Berlin through a mix of force, diligence, and cleverness
Michelle Forbes as Valerie Edwards, the no-nonsense administrator who serves as a Berlin Station Internal Branch Chief, and later Station Chief
Richard Jenkins as Steven Frost (seasons 1–2, guest season 3), a veteran of the Cold War, who serves as the CIA's Chief of the Berlin Station in season 1 and is retired at the start of season 2
Tamlyn Tomita as Sandra Abe (season 1), a quiet presence leading the efficient operation of Berlin Station while having an affair with her boss, Steven
John Doman as Richard Hanes (season 2), the new American ambassador to Germany and an old friend of Steven's
Keke Palmer as April Lewis (seasons 2–3), the new young case officer assigned to Berlin Station
Ashley Judd as BB Yates (season 2, recurring season 3), Berlin's new Chief of Station, nicknamed "The Station Whisperer"
Ismael Cruz Córdova as Rafael Torres (season 3), an officer for the Special Activities Center of the CIA, previously in the military
Recurring
Mina Tander as Esther Krug, a German BfV agent and later the head of the BfV
Mark Moses as Jason Wolfe, Berlin Station's supervisor at the CIA (seasons 1 and 3)
Season 1
as Jemma Moore, Steven's superior at the CIA
Caroline Goodall as Kelly Frost, Steven's wife
as Hans Richter, an old-world spy who has risen to the highest ranks of the BfV
as Ingrid Hollander, a German reporter
Sabin Tambrea as Julian De Vos, a courier funneling information from "Thomas Shaw" to Claudia Gartner
Sylvia Hoeks as Claudia Gartner, the courier between De Vos and Hollander
Claudia Michelsen as Patricia Schwarz, Miller's cousin
Antje Traue as Lana Vogel, aka "Joker", a freelance agent
Zahra Ahmadi as Clare Itani, an American agent and DeJean's girlfriend
Daniela Ziegler as Golda Friedman, a Mossad agent
Season 2
Thomas Kretschmann as Otto Ganz, a German alt-right extremist
Emilia Schüle as Lena Ganz, Otto's daughter
Natalia Wörner as Katerina Gerhardt, head of the far-right party Perspektive für Deutschland (PfD, “Perspective for Germany“)
Heino Ferch as Joseph Emmerich, the #2 leader of the PfD
Jannis Niewöhner as Armando, an undercover agent for the BfV
Scott William Winters as Nick Fischer, a CIA agent
Brandon Spink as Noah Kirsch, Robert Kirsch's son
Season 3
Katarina Čas as Sofia Vesik, a controversial Estonian tech CEO
Mikhail Boutchine as Vassily Krik, a Russian oligarch
Nikolai Kinski as Roman Platov, a Russian extremist working for Krik
Adi Kvetner as Rodion Volkov, a Russian Spetsnaz soldier working for Krik
Julian Kostov as Sergei Basarov, a Russian Spetsnaz sniper aligned with Volkov
Ladi Emeruwa as Dove Adeyemi, an asset that April is cultivating
Robin Weigert as Jamie Hudson, Valerie's friend from college
Anja Antonowicz as Nina Bartek, Kirsch's neighbor
James Cromwell as Gilbert Dorn, a retired CIA agent revealing old secrets via podcast
Robbie Gee as Kayode Adeyemi, Dove's scientist father
Dejan Čukić as Kolya Akulov, the head of Russian Intelligence SVR
Episodes
Series overview
Season 1 (2016)
Season 2 (2017)
Season 3 (2018–19)
Production
Epix announced a ten-episode straight-to-series order on May 21, 2015. Michaël Roskam executive produced the series and directed the first two episodes. Olen Steinhauer wrote and executive produced the series. Production started in November 2015.
Principal photography took place in Potsdam at Studio Babelsberg, which is co-producer of Berlin Station. The whole interior of the CIA Station, which includes a security entrance as well as the big windowless office space within, was built on stages at Babelsberg's studios. Other scenes were shot on locations in Potsdam and Berlin, Germany.
On February 7, 2018, it was announced that Jason Horwitch would be joining the series as showrunner and executive producer. He will be replacing Brad Winters who had served in those positions for the show's first two seasons. For the third season, production moved to Budapest, Hungary.
Broadcast
A 10-episode first season of Berlin Station premiered on Epix on October 16, 2016. The series is exclusive to Netflix in Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Liechtenstein. It is broadcast free-to-air and on-demand in Australia on SBS TV. It also is available in Israel. The series has been licensed to more than 150 territories worldwide.
Reception
Berlin Station has received generally positive reviews from critics. On Metacritic, the show holds a rating of 65 out of 100, based on 12 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". In a season 1 review for Variety, Maureen Ryan attests the series "an outstanding cast that takes its reasonably solid storytelling and raises it a few notches through sheer talent and charisma", praising especially Richard Jenkins, Michelle Forbes and Rhys Ifans. The New York Times''' Mike Hale called season 3 a "well-made but not hugely original mix of spycraft, action and sexy office intrigue" and noticed that "Berlin Station'' is elevated by the surprising, and relatively unnoticed, quality of its core cast", mentioning particularly Leland Orser whose "shifty, nervous energy still carries the show".
References
External links
2016 American television series debuts
2019 American television series endings
2010s American drama television series
Espionage television series
American English-language television shows
MGM+ original programming
Television shows set in Berlin
Television series by Anonymous Content
Television series by Paramount Television
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5478101
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Conolly
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William Conolly
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William Conolly (9 April 1662 – 30 October 1729), also known as Speaker Conolly, was an Irish Whig politician, Commissioner of Revenue, lawyer and landowner. He was an influential figure in Irish politics, serving as Speaker of the Irish House of Commons between 1715 and his death.
Career
William Conolly was born the son of an inn-keeper, Patrick Conolly, in Ballyshannon, County Donegal. Patrick Conolly was a native of County Monaghan, and a descendant of the Ó Conghalaigh clan of Airgíalla. Patrick settled in County Donegal, embraced the Anglican Church, and had children William, Patrick, Hugh, Phelim and Thady. He set aside enough money that he was able to send William to Dublin to study law. William Conolly qualified as an attorney in 1685, aged twenty-three.
He practised as a lawyer in Dublin and in 1694 he married Katherine Conyngham, daughter of General Sir Albert Conyngham. The Conynghams were an Ulster Scots family who were originally from Mountcharles (pronounced 'Mount-char-liss') in County Donegal. The family later settled at Slane Castle in County Meath in the 1780s, where the Conynghams still reside. They had no children, and on Katherine's death in 1752 the estates were inherited by William James Conolly, his nephew by his brother Patrick.
He made his fortune from land transfers, following the confiscations by the Crown of lands belonging to supporters of King James II, in the wake of the Glorious Revolution and the accession of William III and Mary II in 1688–91, known as the "Williamite War in Ireland". About 600,000 Irish acres were confiscated to be sold to pay for the costs of the war, (equivalent to 972,000 statute acres), nearly 5% of the land area of Ireland. Conolly was the largest individual buyer, in particular buying 3,300 acres in County Meath that had been assigned to the Earl of Albemarle.
He built the first winged Palladian house in Ireland, Castletown House in Celbridge, County Kildare, starting in 1722, and specified that every part of it had to be made from Irish materials. His Dublin town house was on Capel Street, then the most fashionable part of the city. He also commissioned the Old Custom House and the Irish Houses of Parliament, the world's first building specifically designed as a bicameral parliament.
Conolly was the most important of the "Undertakers", the managers of Government business in the Irish House of Commons, in the early 18th century. He was associated with the moderate faction of Whigs and was opposed by the Brodrick faction from Cork. He was a Member of Parliament for Donegal Borough from 1692 to 1703 and subsequently for County Londonderry until his death in 1729. In 1703 and 1713, he was also elected for Newtown Limavady and in 1727 for Ballyshannon, but chose each time not to sit.
He was Speaker of the Irish House of Commons and a Commissioner of the Revenue from 1715 to his death in 1729. His name was spelt "Conolly", rather than the more familiar Connolly, deriving ultimately from the Gaelic surname "O Conghaile".
On his death, Archbishop Boulter estimated Conolly's income in 1729 at £17,000 p.a. His widow Katherine continued to live in style at Castletown until her death in 1752. She built the Wonderful Barn and the Conolly Folly in the 1740s. Then their estates passed briefly to William's nephew William junior, and then on to his great-nephew Tom Conolly M.P., known as "Squire Tom", who was married to Lady Louisa Conolly.
A pub in Celbridge, "The Speaker's Bar", was named in his memory. There is also a pub in Firhouse, Dublin, called "The Speaker Conolly" named after him.
Wealth
Conolly was reputed to be the wealthiest man in Ireland at the date of his death. He paid £32,000 and an annuity of £500 p.a., for his 30,586-acre estate at his birthplace in Ballyshannon, County Donegal, in 1718; £62,000 for his 10,360-acre estate in Rathfarnham, County Dublin, in 1723; and £12,000 for 809 acres including Leixlip, County Kildare, in 1728, together with other properties in Dublin. His 2,300-acre property at Celbridge was bought in 1709 from Thomas Dongan, 2nd Earl of Limerick.
By his death he owned 148,487 acres that yielded a gross income of £14,926 p.a.
The Conolly residence "Cliff House" on the banks of the River Erne between Belleek, County Fermanagh and Ballyshannon County Donegal was demolished as part of the Erne Hydroelectric scheme, which constructed the Cliff and Cathleen's Fall hydroelectric power stations. Cliff hydroelectric power station was constructed on the site of "Cliff House" and was commissioned in 1950.
References
Boylan, Lena, The Conollys of Castletown: A Family History, Irish Georgian Society Bulletin, Vol X!.4, Oct – Dec 1968.
Malcomson A.P.W.; Nathaniel Clements, Government and the Governing Elite in Ireland, 1725–1775, 4 Courts Press,2005,
Wilson, Rachel, Elite Women in Ascendancy Ireland, 1690-1745: Imitation and Innovation (Boydell and Brewer, Woodbridge, 2015).
Nelson D. Lankford, ed., An Irishman in Dixie: Thomas Conolly's Diary of the Fall of the Confederacy, University of South Carolina Press, 1988
External links
http://www.turtlebunbury.com/history/history_family/hist_family_conolly.html
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1662 births
1729 deaths
Irish MPs 1692–1693
Irish MPs 1695–1699
Irish MPs 1703–1713
Irish MPs 1713–1714
Irish MPs 1715–1727
Irish MPs 1727–1760
Speakers of the Parliament of Ireland (pre-1801)
People from Ballyshannon
Politicians from County Dublin
Politicians from County Donegal
Members of the Privy Council of Ireland
Members of the Parliament of Ireland (pre-1801) for County Donegal constituencies
Members of the Parliament of Ireland (pre-1801) for County Londonderry constituencies
Whig (British political party) politicians
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F%20%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%83%20%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B8%20%D1%83%20%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D1%96%20%281959-1960%29
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Ліквідація спалаху віспи у Москві (1959-1960)
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Ліквідація спалаху віспи у Москві (1959-1960)
Ліквідація спалаху натуральної віспи у Москві у 1959—1960 році — епідеміологічна операція з оперативної локалізації небезпечного інфекційного захворювання, завезеного в СРСР однією людиною, в результаті якої вдалося запобігти епідемії в країні та її поширенню за межі СРСР, а також провести масову вакцинацію москвичів і жителів Підмосков'я.
Епідеміологічна ситуація по натуральній віспі в Російській імперії та СРСР
У Російській імперії
Перші щеплення проти натуральної віспи в Російській імперії почав робити спеціально запрошений імператрицею Катериною II з Англії лікар Томас Димсдейл, який проводив її методом . Катерина II подала у цьому особистий приклад: у ніч на 12 (23) жовтня 1768 року їй зробили щеплення від натуральної віспи, а потім і членам її сім'ї. У XVIII столітті від натуральної віспи в Російській імперії помирала кожна сьома дитина. Наприкінці XVIII століття варіоляції підлягали всі вступники в кадетські корпуси, якщо вони до того не хворіли на натуральну віспу. Катерина II видала указ про обов'язкову варіоляцію, однак про масове поширення вакцинації можна говорити лише починаючи з жовтня 1801 року, коли в Російській імперії стали застосовувати метод щеплення Едварда Дженнера.
У 1815 році був заснований комітет з щеплення проти натуральної віспи. У поширенні вакцинації допомагало Вільне економічне суспільство, особливо з 1824 року, коли у складі товариства було відкрито відділення під назвою «піклувального про збереження здоров'я людства і всяких домашніх тварин». Товариство розсилало по всій Російській імперії вакцинальний матеріал, інструменти, піклувалося про підготовку досвідчених вакцинаторів, поширювало сотні тисяч брошур російською та іншими мовами. Потім функції вакцинації були передані земським установам. Однак, до Жовтневого перевороту на теренах імперії все ще не була введена обов'язкова вакцинація, що сильно позначалося на статистиці смертності. Наприкінці XIX століття лікар В. В. Святловський писав: «В Англії, де введені обов'язкові щеплення та ревакцинація, помирає в середньому за рік від цієї хвороби 1, і найбільше — 12 осіб. Зауважимо — це у всій Англії; в Австрії ж, не має обов'язкового закону, в найкращі роки помирає від віспи не менш ніж 5 тисяч осіб за рік. В одному Відні, або у нас у Варшаві, помирає від віспи щороку більш, ніж в цілій Англії або навіть цілій Німеччині».
У СРСР
10 квітня 1919 року вийшов декрет РНК РРФСР «Про обов'язкове віспощеплення», який мав загальний характер. У 1924 році був впроваджений новий закон про обов'язкову вакцинацію і ревакцинацію. У 1919 році в країні було зареєстровано 186 000 хворих натуральною віспою, в 1925 році — 25 000, в 1929 році — 6094, в 1935 році — 3177; до 1936 року натуральна віспа в СРСР була ліквідована.
Завезення інфекції
53-річний художник-плакатист, двічі лауреат Сталінської премії Олексій Олексійович Кокорекин в 1959 році готувався до двотижневої поїздки в Індію. За рік до поїздки Кокорекин був щепленний від натуральної віспи. Тому спокійно поїхав у турне по Індії, в ході якого йому довелося бути присутнім на спаленні померлого брамина, а потім взяти участь у розпродажу речей покійного, на якому Кокорекин придбав килим. 23 грудня 1959 року художник прилетів до Москви.
«Набравшись вражень та подарунків для коханки і дружини, він повернувся в Москву на добу раніше, ніж його чекала дружина. Цю добу він провів у коханки, якій віддав подарунки і в обіймах якої не без приємності провів ніч, — розповідає в мемуарах хірург Ю. В. Шапіро. — На наступний день приїхав додому. Віддавши подарунки дружині, він відчув себе погано, підвищилася температура, дружина викликала „Швидку допомогу“, і його відвезли в інфекційне відділення лікарні імені Боткіна…»
Обставини повернення художника з двотижневої поїздки в Індію 23 грудня 1959 року і подальші події його дочка Валерія описувала по-іншому. В аеропорту «Внуково» Кокорекина зустрічали його дружина, дочка від першого шлюбу і знайомий за кермом автомобіля. На самопочуття художник не скаржився, з аеропорту всі разом поїхали до нього додому. Вже ввечері Кокорекин відчув себе погано, у нього піднялася температура, почався сильний кашель, все тіло охопив гострий біль. На наступний день художник побував у поліклініці, де лікар поставив йому діагноз «грип». Стан продовжував погіршуватися, виникла гарячка і з'явився висип по всьому тілу. 27 грудня Кокорекина госпіталізували до Боткінської лікарні. У стаціонарі художника продовжували лікувати від тяжкої форми грипу, вважаючи висип на тілі проявом алергічної реакції.
29 грудня 1959 року Олексій Кокорекин помер у Боткінській лікарні. І оскільки померла не проста людина, а заслужений діяч мистецтв РРФСР, потрібен був кваліфікований висновок про причини смерті. «Патологоанатом, який робив розтин запросив у секційний зал завідувача кафедри академіка М. О. Краєвського, — згадував Ю. Шапіро. — До Миколи Олександровича приїхав у гості патологоанатом з Ленінграда, його запросили до секційного столу. Дідусь подивився на труп і сказав — „Так це, батечку, variola vera — чорна віспа“. Діагноз був підтверджений. Закрутилася машина радянської охорони здоров'я. Наклали карантин на інфекційне відділення, КДБ почав відстежувати контакти Кокорекина. Як з'ясувалося, дружина і коханка повели себе однаковим чином — обидві побігли в комісійні магазини здавати подарунки. Було кілька випадків захворювання віспою в Москві. Лікарню закрили на карантин».
На другу добу після смерті художника хвороба була діагностована у співробітниці приймального покою, яка приймала Кокорекина, його лікуючого лікаря і навіть підлітка, який лікувався в тій же лікарні поверхом нижче: його ліжко стояло прямо біля вентиляційного отвору, пов'язаного з палатою Кокорекина. Лікарняний кочегар заразився віспою, просто проходячи повз цю палату.
За свідченням учасників подій, вірусологів, доктора медичних наук Віктора Зуєва та професора, доктора медичних наук Світлани Маренникової події розвивалися дещо інакше. У документальному фільмі ВГТРК 2013 року стверджується, що Кокорекина госпіталізували не в інфекційне відділення Боткінської, а в палату з грипозними пацієнтами. Смерть настала на третій день від набряку легенів. При патологоанатомічному дослідженні причина смерті не була виявлена. Близько доби тримався посмертний діагноз «чума під питанням». Запрошений на розтин академік Микола Краєвський сказав, що цей випадок «вище його компетенції». На другому тижні 1960 року у декількох пацієнтів Боткінської лікарні з'явилися схожі симптоми: гарячка, сильний кашель, висип по тілу. Біоматеріал шкіри найбільш тяжкого пацієнта Т. направили для аналізу в НДІ вакцин і сироваток. 15 січня 1960 академік М. А. Морозов під мікроскопом виявив в препараті від цього пацієнта тільця Пашена — частинки вірусу натуральної віспи.
Локалізація епідемії
Коли про надзвичайну подію було повідомлено керівництву країни, для локалізації спалаху були задіяні сили КДБ, МВС, Радянської армії, МОЗ та інших відомств. Розслідування контактів Кокорекина показало, що до госпіталізації він встиг поспілкуватися з масою людей. Кожен з них міг стати джерелом поширення інфекції.
Контакти хворого були відслідковані з моменту його попадання на рейс «Аерофлоту» з Делі до останніх днів. Були поіменно встановлені не тільки друзі та знайомі, з якими він був в контакті, а й митники, таксист, який віз його додому, дільничний лікар і працівники поліклініки. Одного зі знайомих Кокорекина, який відправився в Париж, вирішили зняти з рейсу «Аерофлоту», коли літак був в повітрі. Літак розгорнули, а небезпечного пасажира і всіх, хто був на борту, відправили в карантин.
Одна зі знайомих Кокорекина викладала в інституті і приймала іспити у студентів, з цього вузу в карантин відразу відправили сотні людей. Подарунки, привезені з Індії для дружини і коханки, були реалізовані через комісійні магазини на Шаболовці і Ленінському проспекті . Вже через добу всі відвідувачі магазинів і покупці екзотики були встановлені, поміщені в карантин, а продані індійські сувеніри були спалені.
Боткінська лікарня була закрита на суворий карантин разом з усіма хворими і медпрацівниками. Для її постачання з мобілізаційних сховищ Держрезерву були спрямовані вантажівки з необхідними продуктами і матеріалами.
Москву теж закрили на карантин, скасувавши залізничне і авіаційне сполучення, перекривши автодороги.
Цілодобово медичні бригади їздили за адресами виявлених контактів хворого, забираючи в інфекційні лікарні ймовірних хворих на натуральну віспу.
До 15 січня 1960 року натуральна віспа була виявлена у 19 чоловік. А в цілому необачність одного туриста торкнулася 9342 контактних осіб, з яких первинно-контактних було близько 1500. Ці люди з «першої лінії» небезпеки були поміщені на карантин в стаціонари Москви і Московської області, інших лікарі спостерігали на дому, протягом 14 днів обстежуючи двічі в день.
Останній виявлений хворий був зареєстровано 3 лютого 1960 року .
Масова вакцинація
Уряд розпорядився в екстреному порядку доставити віспенну вакцину для тотального щеплення населення Москви і Московської області. Протягом трьох днів в розпорядження Московської міської санітарно-епідеміологічної станції було доставлено літаками 10 млн доз вакцини з Томського і Ташкентського інститутів вакцин і сироваток.
Для вакцинації були мобілізовані 26 963 медпрацівника, був відкритий 3391 прищеплювальний пункт і організовані 8522 прищепні бригади для роботи в організаціях та ЖЕКах
До 25 січня 1960 року було вакциновано 5 559 670 москвичів і понад 4 000 000 жителів Підмосков'я. Це стало безпрецедентною в світі акцією з вакцинації населення як за масштабами, так і за термінами.
З моменту занесення інфекції в Москву до усунення спалаху пройшло 44 дні, причому з початку організованої боротьби зі спалахом хвороби до її повної зупинки — тільки 19 днів .
За підсумками спалаху захворіли на натуральну віспу 45 осіб, з яких померли троє.
Противиспенні вакцини зберігалися в радянській охороні здоров'я до початку 1980-х років.
Відображення в масовій культурі
На основі подій в 1961 році Олександром Мільчаковим була написана повість «У місто прийшла біда», яка послужила сценарієм до однойменного двосерійного телефільму 1966 року режисера Марка Орлова.
Див. також
Натуральна віспа
Примітки
Посилання
Віталій Якушев. Чорна віспа / Документальний фільм, серія Московський детектив, ВГТРК, 2013 р
Епідемії натуральної віспи
Статті з твердженнями без джерел більше 14 днів
1959 в СРСР
1960 в СРСР
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BCppell%27s%20vulture
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Rüppell's vulture
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Rüppell's vulture (Gyps rueppelli), also called Rüppell's griffon vulture, named after Eduard Rüppell, is a large bird of prey, mainly native to the Sahel region and East Africa. The former population of 22,000 has been decreasing due to loss of habitat, incidental poisoning, and other factors. Known also as Rüppell's griffon, Rueppell's griffon, Rüppell's griffin vulture, Rueppell's vulture and other variants, it is not to be confused with a different species, the griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus). Rüppell's vulture is considered to be the highest-flying bird, with confirmed evidence of a flight at an altitude of above sea level.
Distribution
Rüppell's vulture is distributed throughout the Sahel region and East Africa, where it inhabits grasslands, mountains, and woodlands. Once considered common in these habitats, it is experiencing steep declines, especially in the western portion of the range.
Description
The Rüppell's vulture is a large vulture, noticeably outsizing the closely related white-backed vulture, with which they often occur in the wild. Adults are long, with a wingspan of , and a weight that ranges from . Both sexes look alike: mottled brown or black overall with a whitish-brown underbelly and thin, dirty-white fluff covering the head and neck. The base of the neck has a white collar, the eye is yellow or amber, the crop patch deep brown. The head does not have feathers. This is an adaptation that occurred because of the Rüppell vulture's tendency to stick its head inside of its prey when eating. Without the adaptation, feeding would become extremely messy. Silent as a rule, they become vocal at their nest and when at a carcass, squealing a great deal. Rüppell's vultures commonly fly at altitudes as high as . The birds have a specialized variant of the hemoglobin alphaD subunit; this protein has a great affinity for oxygen, which allows the species to absorb oxygen efficiently despite the low partial pressure in the upper troposphere. A Rüppell's vulture was confirmed to have been ingested by a jet engine of an airplane flying over Abidjan, Ivory Coast on 29 November 1973 at an altitude of 11,300 m (37,000 ft).
Behavior and ecology
It cruises at a speed of , but flies for 6–7 hours every day and as far as from a nest site to find food.
Feeding
Strictly a carrion feeder, the Rüppell's vulture has been known to follow game herds on their seasonal migrations and feeds in large numbers at carcasses, usually with other Old World vulture species. Though it might take advantage of the remains of an animal killed by a lion, or other large predator, it can also feed on animals that have died from injuries, disease, or old age. Though they prefer freshly-killed meat, they can eat older carcasses without a problem. Rüppell's vultures have several adaptations to their diet and are specialized feeders even among the Old World vultures of Africa. They have an especially powerful build and, after the most attractive soft parts of a carcass have been consumed, they will continue with the hide, and even the bones, gorging themselves until they can barely fly. They have backward-pointing spikes on the tongue to help remove meat from bone. Despite their size, power and adaptations, they are not the most dominant vulture in their range; the most dominant species is considered to be the larger lappet-faced vulture.
Reproduction
This species of vulture is considered to be monogamous, forming lifelong breeding pairs. After courtship the pair will work together to build a nest using sticks, grass, and leaves that they have gathered or stolen from other nests. Rüppell's vultures build these nests on cliffs, and in key breeding areas they are known to nest in large colonies containing hundreds of breeding pairs. Both parents share in incubation of their egg over a period of 55 days. Once the chick hatches, both parents will feed and tend to it for about 150 days when it fledges. Young remain dependent on their parents after fledging, not reaching independence until the next breeding season. During this time they learn how to find and compete for food.
Conservation
Since first being assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature in 1988, populations of Rüppell's vulture have decreased. The species has been listed with an IUCN Red List status of "near threatened" since 2007, and populations are estimated to decline. From 2012 to 2014 the Rüppell's vulture was listed as Endangered; however, it was reassessed in 2015 as Critically Endangered.
Rüppell's vulture is currently listed as an Appendix II species under CITES, which regulates the international trade of animals and plants. Under this designation, the Rüppell's vulture is defined as not being immediately at risk of extinction, although the current population could become threatened without a careful regulation of trade.
The total population of Rüppell's vulture has been estimated to be somewhere around 22,000 individuals, with specific populations in the following areas: Tanzania (3,000 pairs); Kenya (2,000 pairs); Ethiopia (2,000 pairs); Sudan (2,000 pairs); and West Africa (2,000 pairs).
Since 1992, Rüppell's vulture has been occurring as a vagrant in Spain and Portugal, with annual records since 1997, mainly in the Cádiz and Strait of Gibraltar area, but also further north.
Threats
Rüppell's vulture populations are experiencing declining populations throughout their entire range. These declines can be attributed to loss of habitat related to human-related land use, poisoning, human use for medicine or meat, loss of nesting sites, and declining availability of food sources. Poisoning is currently thought to be the most serious threat to all vulture populations in Africa, although they are not usually the intended target. In events where predators such as lions or hyenas have killed livestock, carbofuran poisons have been placed into carcasses as retaliation against the predators. Vultures utilize carrion as their main food source, and one carcass has the potential to attract hundreds of birds to feed because this species identifies food by sight. One evaluation of 10 poisoning events found that each event caused the death of 37 to 600 individuals.
Killing of Rüppell's vultures for use in medicine has also greatly contributed to the rapid population decline. In many African cultures, vultures are used for medicine and magic related to superstitions that they are clairvoyant and can be used to increase a child's intelligence. Establishing protected wildlife areas is thought to be an effective route to protect the Rüppell's vulture from extinction. The Rüppell's vulture breed and nests in cliffs in northern and southern Kenya, as well as Tanzania. These breeding and nesting grounds amass huge numbers of Rüppell's vultures which will raise young and forage in the surrounding area. Considering that the detection rate of Rüppell's vultures was found to be lower in protected areas than outside of them, extending protection to these key breeding sites could help support their population.
See also
The white-backed vulture, which is slightly smaller and has a shorter neck.
List of birds by flight heights
References
External links
Rüppell's vulture
Rüppell's vulture
Birds of prey of Sub-Saharan Africa
Birds of the Sahel
Birds of East Africa
Critically endangered fauna of Africa
Rüppell's vulture
Taxa named by Alfred Brehm
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5203721
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BA%20%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2%20%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%201351%20%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%83
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Список керівників держав 1351 року
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Список керівників держав 1351 року — це перелік правителів країн світу 1351 року.
Список керівників держав 1350 року — 1351 рік — Список керівників держав 1352 року — Список керівників держав за роками
Європа
Англія
Король Англії — Едуард III (1327—1377)
Балканський півострів
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Албанське королівство — Роберт Тарентський (1336—1364) і Йоанна (1348—1364)
Аргос і Нафпліон (сеньйорія) — Готьє VI де Брієнн (1311—1356)
Аркадія (баронія) — Ерар III Ле Мор (1337? — 1388)
Герцогство Архіпелагу — Джованні I Санудо (1341—1362)
Афінське герцогство — Готьє VI де Брієнн (1311—1356)
Ахейське князівство — Роберт Тарентський (1346/1348-1364)
Друге Болгарське царство — Іван Александр (1331—1371)
Добруджанське князівство — Добротіца (1347—1385)
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Валонський деспотат — Іван Комнін Асень (1346—1363)
Волощина — воєвода (згодом господар) Басараб I (1310—1352)
Епірський деспотат — візантійська влада до 1356
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Перше Сербське королівство; король Стефан Душан (1331—1355)
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Балтія
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Езель-Вікське єпископство — Генріх II Озенбрюгге (1338—1362)
Курляндське єпископство — Йоганн ІІ Йодіс (1332—1353)
Лівонський орден — ландмейстер — Госвін фон Геріке (1345—1359)
Ризьке архієпископство — Фромхольд Фюнфгаузен (1347/1348-1369)
Держава Тевтонського ордену — великий магістр Генріх Дуземер (1345—1351); Вінріх фон Кніпроде (1351—1382)
Білорусь
Вітебське князівство — Ольгерд (1320—1377)
Турово-Пінське князівство| — Михайло Наримунтович (1348—1355)
Князь Новгородський — Семен Гордий (1346—1353)
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Арборейський юдикат — Маріано IV (1347—1375)
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Маркграфство Монферрат — Джованні II (1338—1372)
Неаполітанське королівство — Джованна I (1343—1382)
Салуццо (маркграфство) — Томазо II (1336—1357)
Сардинське королівство — Педро IV (1336—1387)
Королівство Сицилія — Людовік I (1342—1355)
Князівство Таранто — Роберт Тарентський (1332—1364)
Принц-єпископство Тренто — Мейнард ді Нейгауз (1349—1360)
Урбіно (герцогство) — Нольфо да Монтефельтро (1322/1323-1359)
Феррарська сеньйорія — Обіццо III д'Есте (1326—1352)
Маркграфство Фінале — Джорджо дель Карретто (1313—1359)
Кавказ
Грузинське царство — Давид IX (1346—1360)
Самцхе-Саатабаго — Кваркваре I Джакелі (133—1361)
Німеччина
Герцогство Австрія — Альбрехт II (1330—1358)
Князівство Ангальт — Ангальт-Бернбург — Бернгард IV (1348—1354); Ангальт-Цербст (князівство) — Альбрехт II (1316—1362)
Герцогство Баварія — Стефан II (1347—1375)
Баденське маркграфство — Фрідріх III (1348—1353) і Рудольф V (1348—1361)
Берг (герцогство) — Герхард I (1348—1360)
Берхтесгаден (пробство) — Гейнріх IV фон Інцінґ (1333—1351); Рейнхольд Целлер (1351—1355)
Маркграфство Бранденбург — Людвіг I (1323—1351); Людвіг I (1351—1365)
Герцогство Брауншвейг-Люнебург — Оттон ІІІ (1330—1352) і Вільгельм ІІ (1330—1369)
Принц-єпископство Бріксен — Маттеус Андергассен (1336—1368)
Вадуц (графство) — Гартман III (1342—1354)
Верле (сеньйорія) — Ніколаус III (Верле-Гюстров; 1337—1360)
Графство Вюртемберг — граф — Ебергард II (1344—1392) і Ульріх IV (1344—1362)
Вюрцбург (принц-єпископство) — Альбрехт II фон Гогенлое (1350—1372)
Гессен (ландграфство) — Генріх II (1328—1376)
Геттінген (князівство) — Ернст I (1344—1367)
Принц-єпископство Гільдесгайм — Генріх III Брауншвейг-Люнебурзький (1332—1363)
Гольштейн-Піннеберг — Адольф VII Шаумбург (1315—1354)
Гоя (графство) (Grafschaft Hoya) — Гойя-Гойя — Герхард III (1345—1383) і Гойя-Ніенбург — Йрганн II (1345—1377)
Архієпископ Зальцбургу — Ордольф Віссенекський (1343—1365)
Каммін (єпископство) — Йоганн I (1343/1344-1372)
Герцогство Каринтія — Альбрехт II (1339—1358)
Кельнське курфюрство — Вільгельм ван Геннеп (1349—1362)
Кенігсегг (Königsegg) — Ульріх II (? — 1375)
Клеве (герцогство) — Йоганн (1347—1368)
Констанц (князівство-єпископство) — Ульріх Пфефферхард (1344—1351)
Курпфальц — Рудольф II (1329—1353)
Ліппе-Детмольд — Отто (1344—1360)
Лужицька марка — Людвіг II (1323—1351); Людвіг III (1351—1365)
Любекське князівство-єпископство — Бертрам фон Кремон (1350—1377)
Люнебург (князівство) — Оттон III (1330—1352)
Архієпископ Майнца Герлах фон Нассау (1346? — 1371)
Марк (графство) — Енгельберт III (1347—1391)
Маркграфство Мейсен — Фрідріх III (1349—1381)
Нюрнберг (бургграфство) — Йоганн II (1332—1357)
Графство Ольденбург — Йоганн IV (1347—1356)
Падерборнське князівство-єпископство — Балдуїн фон Штайнфурт (1341—1361)
Герцогство Померанія — Богуслав V Великий (1326—1368)
Равенсберг (графство) — Герхард I (1345—1360)
графство Рітберг — Конрад III (1347—1365)
Князівство Руян — Богуслав V Великий (1326—1368)
Герцогство Саксен-Віттенберг — Рудольф I (1298—1356)
Саксен-Лауенбург — Йоган III (1343—1356)
граф Тиролю — Людвіг V (1341—1361)
Фельденц (графство) — Генріх II (1347—1378)
Хахберг-Заузенберг — Отто І (1318—1384)
Шверін (графство) — Отто I (1344—1357)
Герцогство Штирія — Альбрехт II (1326—1358)
Піренейський півострів
Королівство Арагон — Педро IV (1336—1387)
Королівство Леон — Педро I (1350—1366)
Майорканське королівство — Педро IV (1344—1387)
Королівство Португалія — король Афонсу IV (1325—1357)
Королівство Наварра — Карл II (1349—1387)
Гранадський емірат — Юсуф I ібн Ісмаїл (1333—1354)
Польща — Казимир III Великий (1333—1370)
Бжезьке князівство — Болеслав III Розпусник (1311—1352)
Битомське князівство — Владислав Битомський (1316—1353)
Варшавське князівство (середньовічне) — Казимир I Варшавський (1349—1355)
Гливицьке князівство — Земовіт Битомський (1340—1342/1355)
Добжинське князівство — Влодко Горбатий (1343—1351/1352)
Герцогство Заган — Генріх V Залізний (1342—1369)
Зембицьке князівство — Миколай Малий (1341—1358)
Іновроцлавське князівство — Казимир III Великий (1337—1370)
Козленське князівство — Болеслав Битомський (1347—1355)
Ленчицьке князівство — Влодко Горбатий (1327/1328—1349/1352)
Люблінське князівство — Людвік I Бжегський (1347—1398)
Львувецьке князівство — Болеслав II Малий (1346—1368)
Немодлінське князівство — Болеслав Немодлінський (1313—1362/1365)
Олесницьке князівство — Конрад I Олесницький (1321—1366)
Освенцімське князівство — Ян І Схоластик (1324—1372)
Плоцьке князівство — Болеслав III Плоцький (1336—1351); поділ між Польщею і Мазовією.
Свідницьке князівство — Болеслав II Малий (1326—1368)
Сцинавське князівство — Ян Сцинавський (1317—1365)
Легницьке князівство — Вацлав I Легницький (1346—1368; вдруге)
Опольське князівство — Болеслав II Опольський (1313—1356)
Померанія-Щецін — Барнім III Великий (1344—1368)
Прудницьке князівство — Болеслав Немодлінський (1337—1361)
Ратиборське князівство — Мікулаш II Опавський (1336—1365)
Тешинське герцогство — Казимир I Тешинський (1314—1358)
Севезьке князівство — Казимир I Цешинський (1337—1358)
Черське князівство — Земовит III (1349—1373/1374)
Яворське князівство — Болеслав II Малий (1346—1368)
Білозерське князівство — Федір Романович (1339—1380)
Брянське князівство — Дмитро Олександрович (1340—1352)
Велике князівство Владимирське — Семен Гордий (1340—1353)
Молозьке князівство — Михайло Давидович (1321—1362)
Велике князівство Московське — Семен Гордий (1340—1353)
Муромське князівство — Юрій Ярославович (1345—1354)
Велике князівство Нижньогородсько-Суздальське — Костянтин Васильович Суздальський (1341—1355)
Ростовське князівство — Андрій Федорович (1331—1360)
Велике князівство Рязанське — Василь Олександрович (1344—1351); Олег Іванович (1351?-1402)
Смоленське князівство — Іван Олександрович (1313—1359)
Стародубське князівство (Північно-Східна Русь) — Іван Федорович (1335—1363)
Велике князівство Тверське — 'Василь Михайлович (1349—1368)
Кашинське князівство — Василь Васильович (1348—1362)
Холмське князівство (уділ Тверського) — Всеволод Олександрович (1339—1365)
Ярославське князівство — Василь Васильович (1345—1380)
Румунія; Молдова
Молдавське князівство — Драгош I (1351/1352 — 1353)
Скандинавія
король Данії — Вальдемар IV (1340—1375)
Король Норвегії Маґнус IV Ерікссон (1319—1355)
Швеція — Маґнус IV Ерікссон (1319—1364)
Угорське князівство — король Людовик Угорський (1342—1382)
Україна —
Київський князь — Федір (між 1331 і 1362)
Волинське князівство — Любарт (1340—1383)
Галицько-Волинське князівство — Казимир III Великий (1349—1353)
Луцьке князівство — Любарт (1340—1383)
Чернігівське князівство — Ольгерд (1340—1352?)
Кримський улус — Зайн уд-Дін Рамазан (1349—1357)
Список консулів Генуезької Ґазарії — Готтифредо де Зоали (1342—1353)
Королівство Франція — Іоанн II Добрий (1350—1364)
Герцогство Аквітанія — Едуард III (1325—1362)
Арелатське королівство — пфальцграф — Філіпп I (1347—1361)
Герцогство Бар — Едуард II (1344—1352)
Брабант (герцогство) — Жан III (1312—1355)
Графство Булонь — Жанна I Овернська (1332—1360)
Бретонське герцогство — Жан V (1345—1399)
Бурбон (герцогство) — П'єр I (1342—1356)
Гельдерн (графство) — Рейнальд ІІІ (1343—1361)
Голландія — Маргарита II (1345—1354)
Ено (графство) — Маргарита II (1345—1356)
Графство Ла Марш — П'єр I (1342—1356)
Люксембург (графство) — Карл IV (1346—1353)
Льєзьке єпископство — Енгельберт III де ла Марк (1344—1364)
Мен (графство) — Людовік I Анжуйський (1350—1384)
Монбельяр (графство) — Генріх I де Монфокон (1322—1367)
Монако — Карл I (1342—1357)
Намюр (графство) — Гільйом I (1337—1391)
Оранж (князівство) — Раймонд III (1347? — 1393)
Савойське графство — Амадей VI (1343—1383)
Урхельське графство — Сесіль де Комменж (1347—1384)
Фландрія — Людовик II Мальський (1346—1384)
Графство Фуа — Гастон ІІІ де Фуа (1343—1391)
Король Богемії (Чехія) — Карл IV (1346—1378)
Шотландія
Король Шотландії — Давид II (1329—1371)
Святий Престол; Папська держава — папа римський — Климент VI (1342—1352)
Вселенський патріарх — Калліст I (1349/1350-1354)
Азія
Візантійська імперія — Іоанн V Палеолог (1341—1376)
Трапезундська імперія — Олексій III (1349—1390)
Близький Схід
Кілікійське царство — Костандін IV (1344—1362)
Артукіди — правитель Мардіна Саліх Шамс ад-дін (1312—1364)
Мамелюцький султанат — Аль-Хасан ан-Насір (1347—1351); Саліх Салахуддін (1351—1354)
Айдиногуллари — Хизир-бей (1348—1360)
Алайє (бейлик) (Alâiye Beyliği) — Алаеддін (1337? — 1364)
Герміяногулари — Мехмед-бей (1340 — до 1363)
Дулкадір (бейлик) — Зейн ад-Дін Караджа (1337—1353)
Еретнаогуллари — Еретна-бей (1335? — 1352?)
Ерзінджан (емірат) — Агі Айна (1348—1362)
Інанчогуллари — Мурад Арслан (1337? — 1362)
Кандар (династія) — Аділь Бей бін Якуб (1345—1361)
Ментешеогуллари — Ібрагім-бей (1344? — 1354)
Династія Редді — Пролая Вема Редді (1325—1353)
Саруханогуллари — Фахруддін Ільяс-бей (1346—1362)
Таджеддіногуллари — Таджеддін (1348—1386)
Текейський бейлик — Даді (між 1324 і 1360)
Хамідогуллари — Хизир (1335—1358)
Караманіди — Шемс ед-Дін (1350—1352)
Османська імперія — Осман I (1324/1326-1362)
Шаріфат Мекки — Аджлан Абул-Сардж (1346—1372; з перервами)
Зіяриди — Нізарі — Муїзз ад-Дін Хусейн (1332—1370)
Емірат Хасанкейф (Emirate of Hasankeyf) — Газі Мухаммед ібн Абі Бакр (1324/1325–1364)
Персія
Музаффариди — Мубаріз ад-Дін Мухаммед (1314—1358)
Держава Ширваншахів — Кабус (1348—1372)
Расуліди — Аль-Муджахід Алі (1322—1363)
Сербедари — Ходжа Шамс ад-Дін Алі (1348—1351); Ях'я Караві (1351—1355)
володар Фарсу — Шейх Абу Ісхак (1342—1356)
Індія і Шрі-Ланка
Ахом — Сухрангпха (1332—1364)
Бенгальський султанат — Іхтіар ад-Дін Газі-шах (1349—1352) і Шамс ад-дін Ільяс-шах (1342—1358)
Віджаянагарська імперія — Букка I (1343—1379)
Східні Ганги — Нарасімха Дева III (1328—1352)
Делійський султанат — Династія Туґлак — Мухаммад бін Туґлак (1325—1351); Фіроз Шах Туґхлак (1351—1388)
Джайпур (князівство) — Джансі (1317—1367)
Джайсалмер (князівство) — Кегар Сінгх II (1335—1402)
Джодхпур (князівство) — Тіда (1344—1357)
Кашмірський султанат — Ала ад-Дін-шах (1344—1355)
Мадурайський султанат — Насір-ад-дуніа-ва-дін Махмуд Газі (1345—1356)
Династія Малла — Раджаладеві (1347—1385)
Мевар (князівство) — Хамір Сінґх (1326—1364)
Джафна (держава) — Гунабхушана Сінкаярян (1348—1371)
Династія Самма — Джам Джунан (1339—1352)
Індонезія; Південно-Східна Азія
Аюттхая (королівство) — Раматхібоді I (1351/1352-1369)
Гантаваді — Бінья У (1348—1384)
Дайв'єт — Трань Ду Тонг (Trần Dụ Tông; 1341—1369)
Ланна (держава) — Пхаю (1336—1355)
Лемро — Мін Хті (1279—1374)
Пагаруюнг — Адітьяварман (1347—1385)
Маджапагіт — Хаям Вурук (1350—1389)
Муанг Мао — Сі Кефа (1340—1371)
Могн'їн (князівство) — Сі Кефа (1347—1371)
Пінья (царство) — Чавсва II (1350—1359)
Сінгапура — Шрі Вікрама Віра (1347—1362)
Чампа — Махасава (1342—1360)
Сукхотай (королівство) — Літхай (1347—1368)
Сунда — Прабу Магараджа Лінга Буана (1350—1357)
Кедах (султанат) — Ібрагім Шах (1321—1373)
Пасай — Зайн ал-Абідін I (1349—1406)
Сікайн (царство) — Тараб'я II (1349—1352)
Тернатський султанат — колано Кіе Мабіджі (1347—1350)
Чампа — Махасава (1342—1360)
Кхмерська імперія — Лампонг Реатеа (1347—1353)
Накхонситхаммарат (держава) — до 1375 імена наразі невідомі
Китай; Монголія
Золота Орда — Джанібек (1342—1357)
ідикут Кучі — Єлу-Темур (1335—1353)
Чагатайський улус — Казаган (1346—1358)
Тибет — Кюнга Г'ялцен Пелсанпо (1331—1358)
Династія Юань — Тоґон-Темур (1332—1368)
Окінава
Гокудзан — Хандзі (1314—1395)
Нандзан — Шосатто (1314—1398)
Тюдзан — ТСеї (1337—1354)
Корея
Корьо — Чхунджон (1348—1351); Конмин (1351—1374)
Паганське царство — Узана II (1325—1365/1368)
Персія і Середня Азія
Джалаїрський султанат — Тадж ад-дін Хасан Бузург (1135/1336-1355)
Ільхани — Ануширван-хан (1344—1357)
Міхрабаніди — Джалал ад-Дін Махмуд (1350—1352)
Могулістан — Баян-Кулі та Казаган (1348—1358)
Улус Орда-Іхена — Чимтай (1344—1360)
Сигнакський улус — Тенгіз-Буга (1342—1361)
емір Фарсу Шейх Абу Ісхак (1342—1356)
Японія — Імператор Ґо-Муракамі (1339—1368)
Африка
аббасидський халіф Каїра Аль-Хакім II (1341—1352)
Варсангалі (султанат) — гараад Омер (1340—1355)
Імперія Волоф — Ндіадіане Ндіає (1350—1370)
Імператор Ефіопії — Невая Крестос (1344—1372)
Заяніди — Абу-Саїд Усман II (1348—1352)
Іфат — Алі ібн Сабр ад-Дін (1344—1364?)
Кілва (султанат) — Дауд ібн Сулейман III (1333—1356)
Макурія — аль-Амір Абі Абдалла Канз ель-Даула (між 1333 і 1397)
Імперія Малі — Сулейман (1341—1360)
Мариніди — Абу Інан Фаріс (1348? — 1358)
Нрі — Езе Нрі Гіофо (1300—1390)
Мамелюцький султанат — Аль-Хасан ан-Насір (1347—1351); Саліх Салахуддін (1351—1354)
Хафсіди — Абу Ісхак Ібрагім II (1350—1369)
Південна Америка
Королівство Куско — Інка Рока (1350—1380)
Тескоко (держава) — Квінацин (1337—1357)
Північна Америка
Ацкапоцалько — Тезозомок Макуецін (1343? — 1426)
Маяпанська ліга — Кокоми; Ік-ц Коком (1348—1352)
Імперія Пурепеча — Таріакурі (1300—1350/1390)
Тлателолько — Тлакотен (1337 — ?1352)
Керівники держав за роками
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1553303
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%20%D0%A8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%84
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Йоганнес Штайнгофф
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Йоганнес Штайнгофф (15 вересня 1913, Рослебен, Саксонія — 21 лютого 1994, Бонн) — німецький військовий льотчик-ас за часів Третього Рейху. Один з найрезультативніших асів Люфтваффе, здобув 176 перемог у повітряних боях. Оберст (1945) Люфтваффе. Кавалер Лицарського хреста Залізного хреста з Дубовим листям та Мечами (1945). Після створення Бундесверу — один з керівників створення військово-повітряних сил Західної Німеччини, де пройшов шлях до генерала авіації Люфтваффе.
Біографія
В 1932—1934 роках навчався на філологічному факультеті Єнського університету. В 1934 році призваний на службу в рейхсмаріне. Направлений в Морську офіцерську школу, але в 1936 році домігся переводу в школу льотчиків. В 1939 році призначений командиром 10-ї ескадрильї 26-ї винищувальної ескадри, літав на винищувачі Bf 109 D.
18 грудня 1939 року одержав першу перемогу, збивши британський бомбардувальник «Веллінгтон». проявив себе талановитим командиром і організатором. Під час битви за Британію командував 4-ю ескадрильєю 52-ї винищувальної ескадри. Учасник боїв на радянсько-німецькому фронті. 1 березня 1942 року призначений командиром 2-ї групи своєї ескадри.
Після довгих місяців боїв на Східному фронті переведений в Північну Африку. З 1 квітня 1943 року — командир 77-ї винищувальної ескадри, дислокованої в Італії. Учасник боїв у Тунісі. Згодом став літати на реактивному винищувачі Me-262, на якому збив 6 ворожих літаків. З 1 грудня 1944 року — командир 7-ї винищувальної ескадри, оснащеної реактивними літаками. На початку 1945 року переведений в елітне з'єднання 44, яким командував Адольф Галланд. 18 квітня 1945 року при зльоті його винищувач вибухнув і Штайнгофф одержав дуже важкі опіки. Протягом двох років він переніс численні операції і довгі рокини не міг навіть закрити очі, поки в 1969 році йому не зробили нові повіки.
Всього за час бойових дій Штайнгофф здійснив 993 бойових вильоти і збив 176 літаків, з них 148 — на Східному фронті.
В 1947 році виписався з шпиталю і певний час займався бізнесом. В 1955 році одним з перших льотчиків поступив у ВПС ФРН. З 1956 року — заступник начальника штабу ВПС. З 1962 році направлений в НАТО в якості представника Німеччини, був начальником штабу ВПС НАТО в Центральній Європі, а потім інспектором авіації ФРН. 31 березня 1974 року вийшов у відставку.
Нагороди
Медаль «За вислугу років у Вермахті» 4-го класу (4 роки)
Медаль «У пам'ять 13 березня 1938 року»
Медаль «У пам'ять 1 жовтня 1938»
Комбінований Знак Пілот-Спостерігач
Залізний хрест 2-го і 1-го класів
Почесний Кубок Люфтваффе
Лицарський хрест Залізного хреста з дубовим листям і мечами
Лицарський хрест (30 серпня 1941) — за 35 перемог.
Дубове листя (№ 115; 2 вересня 1942) — за 101 перемогу.
Мечі (№ 82; 28 липня 1944) — за 167 перемог.
Медаль «За зимову кампанію на Сході 1941/42»
Кримський щит
Медаль «За італо-німецьку кампанію в Африці» (Італія)
Авіаційна планка винищувача в золоті з підвіскою «900»
Нагрудний знак «За поранення» в золоті
Орден «За заслуги перед Італійською Республікою», командорський хрест (1967)
Орден «За заслуги перед Федеративною Республікою Німеччина», великий хрест із зіркою і плечовою стрічкою (4 липня 1972)
Легіон Заслуг (США)
Вшанування пам'яті
6 жовтня 1994 року берлінські казарми ВПС перейменували на Казарми генерала Штайнгоффа.
18 вересня 1997 року ім'я Штайнгоффа присвоїли 73-й винищувальній ескадрі Люфтваффе.
Див. також
Список асів Люфтваффе Другої світової війни
Список асів-пілотів Другої світової війни
Герберт Ілефельд
Генріх Ерлер
Гюнтер Шак
Теодор Вайссенбергер
Ганс Філіпп
Гельмут Ліпферт
Твори
Wohin treibt die NATO? Probleme der Verteidigung Westeuropas. Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg 1976, ISBN 3-455-08986-0.
In letzter Stunde. Verschwörung der Jagdflieger Vom Widerstand der Jagdflieger gegen Reichsmarschall Göring. Listverlag 1974 (Erstausgabe); Flechsig, 2005, ISBN 3-88189-592-2.
Die Straße von Messina. Tagebuch des Kommodore. Flechsig, 2005, ISBN 3-88189-593-0.
Deutsche im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Zeitzeugen sprechen. (mit Peter Pechel, Dennis Showalter, Geleitwort von Helmut Schmidt) Schneekluth, München, 4. Auflage 1989, ISBN 3-7951-1092-0.
mit Reiner Pommerin: Strategiewechsel: Bundesrepublik und Nuklearstrategie in der Ära Adenauer-Kennedy. Baden-Baden 1992 (Nuclear History Program), ISBN 978-3-7890-2787-1.
Steinhoff, Johannes(2005). In letzter Stunde. Verschwörung der Jagdflieger Vom Widerstand der Jagdflieger gegen Reichsmarschall Göring (in German). Flechsig. ISBN 3-88189-592-2. ISBN 0-09-129620-X.
Література
Залесский К. А. Железный крест. — М.: Яуза-пресс, 2007. — с.626 — 4000 экз. — ISBN 978-5-903339-37-2
Berger, Florian (1999). Mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern. Die höchstdekorierten Soldaten des Zweiten Weltkrieges. Selbstverlag Florian Berger. ISBN 3-9501307-0-5.
Fellgiebel, Walther-Peer (2000). Die Träger des Ritterkreuzes des Eisernen Kreuzes 1939—1945. Podzun-Pallas. ISBN 3-7909-0284-5.
Obermaier, Ernst (1989). Die Ritterkreuzträger der Luftwaffe Jagdflieger 1939—1945. Mainz, Germany: Verlag Dieter Hoffmann. ISBN 3-87341-065-6.
Patzwall, Klaus D. & Scherzer, Veit (2001). Das Deutsche Kreuz 1941—1945 Geschichte und Inhaber Band II (in German). Norderstedt, Germany: Verlag Klaus D. Patzwall. ISBN 3-931533-45-X.
Scherzer, Veit (2007). Die Ritterkreuzträger 1939—1945 Die Inhaber des Ritterkreuzes des Eisernen Kreuzes 1939 von Heer, Luftwaffe, Kriegsmarine, Waffen-SS, Volkssturm sowie mit Deutschland verbündeter Streitkräfte nach den Unterlagen des Bundesarchives. Jena, Germany: Scherzers Miltaer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-938845-17-2.
Schneekluth Munich(with Peter Pechel, Dennis Showalter, foreword by Helmut Schmidt) (4. Edition 1989). Deutsche im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Zeitzeugen sprechen. ISBN 3-7951-1092-0.
Thomas, Franz (1998). Die Eichenlaubträger 1939—1945 Band 2: L-Z. Osnabrück, Germany: Biblio-Verlag. ISBN 3-7648-2300-3.
Залесский К. А. Люфтваффе. Военно-воздушные силы Третьего рейха. — М.: Эксмо, 2005. — 736 с. — 5000 экз. — ISBN 5-699-13768-8
Посилання
Steinhoff, Johannes — нагороди оберста Штейнхоффа
Steinhoff, Johannes «Macky»
Johannes «Macky» Steinhoff
Список известных побед
Johannes Steinhoff
Відео
Adolf Galland and Johannes Steinhoff interview
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! colspan="3" style="background: #C1CDC1;" | Командування військовими формуваннями (установами) Третього Рейху
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! colspan="3" style="background: #6495ED;" | Командування військовими формуваннями (установами) НАТО
Оберсти люфтваффе
Генерали Люфтваффе (Бундесвер)
Німецькі аси Другої світової війни
Померли в Бонні
Люди, на честь яких названо об'єкти
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4736318
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%BE%20%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE/Airspeed%20Consul
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Михайло Копченко/Airspeed Consul
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Михайло Копченко/Airspeed Consul
Airspeed Consul - британський легкий двомоторний пасажирський літак, що випускався після Другої світової війни . Переробка попередньої моделі, навчальних Airspeed Oxford .
Історія
У 1937 році громадянський восьмимісний авіалайнер AS.6 Airspeed Envoy, що випускався з 1934 року, був перероблений в навчальний AS.10 Airspeed Oxford, що масово випускався в наступні роки (8586 штук) і використовувався ВПС кількох країн у рамках т.д. н. Плану з навчання льотного складу в Британській Співдружності (British Commonwealth Air Training Plan).
Починаючи з 1946 року, 162 "Оксфорда", переоснащувалися на заводі в Портсмуті для цивільного використання (другий прототип, G-AEHF залишився у компанії Airspeed). . Нова модель називалася "Consul". Крім того, компанія Airspeed випустила комплект для самостійного перероблення цієї моделі в пасажирські літаки.
"Консул" використовувався для регулярних та чартерних пасажироперевезень невеликими авіакомпаніями Великобританії, а також у Бельгії, Ісландії, Ірландії, Мальті, Східній Африці та Канаді, і був першим типом літака, яким була оснащена Malayan Airways, попередник Singapore Airlines та Malay . Деякі літаки використовувалися великими компаніями як службові.
Однак, на швидкоплинність кар'єри вплинули дерев'яний силовий набір конструкції, інтенсивне використання у воєнний час, не найпростіше обслуговування і невелика місткість (6 місць). Багато громадянських переробок було куплено ВПС різних країн; літак служив як VIP-транспорт у військово-повітряних силах Великобританії, Канади та Нової Зеландії, які раніше мали "Оксфорд". У 1949 році ВПС Ізраїлю придбали низку цивільних літаків і переробили їх у навчальні. Вони використовувалися в 141 ескадрильї до 1957 року, через рік після того, як від "Оксфордів" відмовилися британські Королівські ВПС.
Хоча кілька літаків типу Oxford збереглися, Консулу не настільки пощастило. G-AIKR раніше служив дитячим ігровим майданчиком, належить Канадському музею авіації ; нині його орендує Королівський музей ВПС Нової Зеландії, де його відновлюють у варіанті Оксфорд. Станом на 2003 рік ще один літак Airspeed Consul (VR-SCD) виявлено в Сінгапурі, де зберігався в розібраному вигляді.
Експлуатанти
Громадянські
Міністерство цивільної авіації : авіазагін для іспитів пілотів та калібрування радіообладнання.
Міністерство постачання використовувалися для випробувань двигунів компанією Alvis
Air Charter
Air Enterprises - 7 літаків базувалися на Кройдон .
Air Kruise
Airspan Travel
Atlas Aviation – 4 літаки, Елстрі.
Britavia
British Air Transport
British Aviation Services – 4, Блекбуш.
British Overseas Airways Corporation (навчальна ланка BOAC)
British South American Airways
Cambrian Airways
Chartair
Guernsey Air Charter
Hornton Airways – 3 літаки, аеропорт Геттвік .
International Airways
Lancashire Aircraft Corporation
Mercury Air Services
Morton Air Services
Northern Air Charter
Olley Air Services
Patrick Laing Air Services
Portsmouth Aviation
Pullman Airways
Silver City Airways
Scottish Aviation
Solar Air Services
Southern Airways
Stiener Air Services - 6 літаків, аеропорт Спеке
Transcontinental Air Services
Transair Ltd – 5 літаків, Кройдон.
Westminster Airways – 7 літаків, Елстрі.
Бірма
Union of Burma Airways - 4 (1947)
Flugfedir - 1 (січень 1951), розбився в квітні того ж року
Airways (India) - 2 (1947)
Aer Lingus - 2 (1947)
El Al – 1 літак, отриманий 1953 року, використовувався на навчання екіпажів.
Soc Transports Aerei Mediterranei (STAM) – 3 літаки, 1955–56
Йорданія
Arab Airways Association – 1 орендований, 1951
Air Jordan - 7 літаків, 1950-51
Малайя
Malayan Airways – 3 літаки (1947)
East African Airways – 1 отриманий 1954 р.
Air Malta
Malta Airways
Південно-Африканський Союз
Commercial Air Services – 1 літак (1949).
Natal Airlines – 4 літаки (1955).
Silver Flight - 1 (1947).
Iberia – 3 літаки, перший отриманий у1952 році.
Aero Nord Sweden – 1 (отриманий від Aeropropaganda) у 1953 році.
Aeropropaganda - 2 (1950-51).
Nordisk Air Transport - 1 (1951).
Transair Sweden - 1 (від Nordisk Air Transport), 1951.
Танганьїка
United Air Services – 3 літаки отримані у 1947–48 рр.
ООН
5 орендованих літаків використовувалися Комісією ООН в Ізраїлі у період 1947-49 рр.
Військові
ВПС Аргентини – 10 літаків отримано 1947 року.
Бельгійське Конго
Force Publique – 6 літаків отримано у 1949 році.
Бірма
ВПС Бірманського Союзу – 9 (з 1949–50).
ВПС Ізраїлю – 11 (1949–59).
Королівські ВПС Нової Зеландії – 6 перероблені компанією De Havilland Aircraft of New Zealand на початку 1950-х років. .
ВПС Туреччини – 2 літаки з 1946 р. використовувалися Зв'язковою авіагрупою як VIP-транспорт.
Тактико-технічні характеристики
Технічні характеристики
Екіпаж: 1
Пасажиромісткість: 6 пасажирів
Довжина: 10,77 м
Розмах крила: 16,26 м
Висота: 3,38 м
Площа крила: 32,3 м²
Маса пустого: 2749 кг
Максимальна взлітна масса: 3750 кг
Силова установка: 2 × дизельні Armstrong Siddeley Cheetah 10
Потужність двигунів: 2 × 395 К.С
(2 × 182 кВт)
Льотні характеристики
Максимальна швидкість: 306 км/год
Крейсерська швидкість: 251 км/год
Практична дальність: 1450 км
Практична стеля: 5800 м
Швидкопійомність: 6 м/с
Аварії та катастрофи
(список не повний)
29 квітня 1947 - G-AIOZ (Milburnair Limited) розбився у Ботлі-Хілл, Лімпсфілд, не долетівши до аеродрому Кройдон, загинуло 2 людини.
11 лютого 1949 - орендований ООН у Air Enterprises літак G-AGVY (перший з перероблених), розбився поблизу Джеззіна, Ліван, 2 людини загинуло (пілот і радист).
15 червня 1950 року – біля UB340 (ВПС Бірманського Союзу) під час демонстраційного польоту під крилом вибухнула ракета, загинув начштаб авіації.
12 квітня 1951 року - TF-RPM (Flugferdir H/F) під час польоту з Кройдона до Ісландії розбився у Хоуден-Мур, Йоркшир, загинуло 3.
11 грудня 1951 - NZ1902 новозеландських ВПС врізався в гору Руапеху .
14 червня 1952 року – G-AHFT (Morton Air Services) через відмову двигуна впав у Ла-Манш, 6 людей загинуло.
Див. також
Airspeed AS.6 Envoy
Airspeed AS.8 Viceroy (перегоновий, єдиний екземпляр)
Airspeed Oxford
зіставні літаки
Avro Anson
Примітки
Літаки Airspeed
Літаки Великої Британії
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96356
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bingham%20County%2C%20Idaho
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Bingham County, Idaho
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Bingham County, Idaho
Bingham County is a county in the U.S. state of Idaho. As of the 2020 census, the population was 47,992. The county seat and largest city is Blackfoot.
Bingham County comprises the Blackfoot, ID Micropolitan Statistical Area, which is included in the Idaho Falls-Rexburg-Blackfoot, ID Combined Statistical Area.
History
Bingham County was created January 13, 1885. It was named for Henry H. Bingham, a congressman from Pennsylvania and friend of William Bunn, Idaho's Territorial Governor. The county was formed from Oneida County and was later partitioned itself to form Bannock (1893), Fremont (1893), Bonneville (1911), Power (1913), and Butte (1917) counties.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which is land and (1.2%) is water. The Snake River flows southwest through the middle of Bingham County; at the county's southwest corner the river flows into the American Falls Reservoir. At the SE county corner is the Blackfoot Reservoir and Dam, impounding waters of the Blackfoot River. Outflow from the Blackfoot Dam flows northwesterly through the lower part of Bingham County, discharging into the Snake River.
Smaller buttes called the East Butte and the Middle Butte located in the Snake River Plain are visible south of US Route 20.
Adjacent counties
Jefferson County - north
Bonneville County - east
Caribou County - southeast
Bannock County - south
Power County - southwest
Blaine County - west
Butte County - northwest
Highways
- Interstate 15
- US 20
- US 26
- US 91
- SH-39
Demographics
2010 census
As of the 2010 census, there were 45,607 people, 14,999 households, and 11,731 families in the county. The population density was . There were 16,141 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the county was 80.6% white, 6.5% American Indian, 0.6% Asian, 0.2% black or African American, 0.1% Pacific islander, 9.8% from other races, and 2.1% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 17.2% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 22.3% were English, 12.7% were German, 5.9% were American, and 5.0% were Irish.
Of the 14,999 households, 43.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.4% were married couples living together, 10.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 21.8% were non-families, and 18.5% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 3.02 and the average family size was 3.45. The median age was 31.8 years.
The median income for a household in the county was $44,128 and the median income for a family was $51,750. Males had a median income of $39,703 versus $25,815 for females. The per capita income for the county was $18,633. About 13.2% of families and 14.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.4% of those under age 18 and 10.5% of those age 65 or over.
2000 census
As of the 2000 census, there were 41,735 people, 13,317 households, and 10,706 families in the county. The population density was . There were 14,303 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the county was 82.43% White, 0.17% Black or African American, 6.70% Native American, 0.57% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 7.95% from other races, and 2.14% from two or more races. 13.30% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 23.6% were of English, 12.5% American, 8.9% German and 5.1% Danish ancestry.
There were 13,317 households, out of which 44.60% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 66.70% were married couples living together, 9.80% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19.60% were non-families. 17.10% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.70% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.10 and the average family size was 3.52.
The county population contained 34.90% under the age of 18, 9.70% from 18 to 24, 25.30% from 25 to 44, 19.70% from 45 to 64, and 10.30% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 30 years. For every 100 females there were 100.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.90 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $36,423, and the median income for a family was $40,312. Males had a median income of $31,950 versus $21,591 for females. The per capita income for the county was $14,365. About 9.90% of families and 12.40% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.30% of those under age 18 and 7.20% of those age 65 or over.
Communities
Cities
Aberdeen
Atomic City
Basalt
Blackfoot
Firth
Shelley
Census-designated places
Fort Hall
Groveland
Moreland
Riverside
Rockford
Unincorporated communities
Alridge
Cerro Grande
Clarkson
Coffee Point
Collins
Jameston
Gibson
Goshen
McDonaldville
Morgan
Pingree
Rising River
Rose
Springfield
Sterling
Thomas
Wapello
Wolverine
Woodville
Politics
Bingham County voters are reliably Republican. In no national election since 1948 has the county selected the Democratic Party candidate.
Education
School districts include:
Aberdeen School District 58
Blackfoot School District 55
Bonneville Joint School District 93
Firth School District 59
Shelley Joint School District 60
Snake River School District 52
A portion of Bingham County is in the catchment zone (but not the taxation zone) of College of Eastern Idaho.
See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Bingham County, Idaho
References
External links
Official Bingham County, Idaho website
Idaho counties
Idaho Falls metropolitan area counties
1885 establishments in Idaho Territory
Populated places established in 1885
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl%20Cort
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Carl Cort
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Carl Cort
Carl Edward Richard Cort (born 1 November 1977) is a former professional footballer who played as a forward.
He notably played in the Premier League for Wimbledon, Newcastle United and Wolverhampton Wanderers, also playing in the Football League for Lincoln City, Leicester City, Norwich City and Brentford. He also had a spell with Spanish club UD Marbella and finished his professional career with North American Soccer League side Tampa Bay Rowdies.
Born in England, he represented the England U21 earning 14 caps and scoring 8 goals, before switching his allegiance to Guyana, although not playing for them until 2011 during the final few years of his career. He was capped six times between 2011 and 2012 and failed to score a goal.
Career
Wimbledon
Cort, born in London of Guyanese descent, began his career with Wimbledon as a teenager. He went on a one-month loan to Lincoln City in February 1997, and when he came back to the Dons he made his debut as a substitute against Aston Villa on 9 April 1997. He had to wait until the start of the next season to make his second appearance; on 13 September 1997 Cort started away against Newcastle United and scored in the first minute as Wimbledon went on to win 3–1. Three days later he scored twice against Millwall in the League Cup. A place in the England under-21s soon followed. Another highlight at Wimbledon was scoring a hat trick against Sunderland in the League Cup in October 1999.
Newcastle United
Newcastle boss Bobby Robson paid £7 million to sign Cort on a five-year contract in the summer of 2000, seeing off competition from Tottenham Hotspur and Leicester City. After making his debut against Manchester United at Old Trafford, he scored on his Newcastle home debut, against Derby County, but struggled with hamstring problems and underwent surgery after only a few appearances for his new club. He did eventually return to the first team in March 2001, and went on to score five goals in ten appearances before the season ended.
In the 2001–02 season, injury ruined his season again. Cort was ruled out until March due to injuries to his ankle and knee. He travelled to the United States for specialist treatment and was treated by the same surgeon who treated future teammate Joleon Lescott. The injuries appeared to take their toll, and Cort struggled to make an impact in the Premier League. His only league appearance in the 2002–03 season was a four-minute cameo as a substitute at West Ham.
Wolverhampton Wanderers
Having recovered from injury, he moved to Wolverhampton Wanderers for £2 million during January 2004. He scored five goals for his new club that season but could not prevent relegation from the top flight. In the 2004–05 season, his form improved and he scored 16 goals in 40 appearances. Wolves had an indifferent season in 2005–06. Cort began the season well, scoring nine goals in the first 11 matches. Injury interrupted his season again, and by the end of May, Cort had added only two more to his tally, totalling 11 goals in 24 appearances. After the following campaign was again plagued by injury, he was released by Wolves in May 2007.
Leicester City
On 8 June 2007, Cort signed a two-year contract with Leicester City. He scored his only goal for the club in a 4–3 League Cup defeat to Chelsea on 31 October. Although it won Leicester City's Goal of the Month for October, Cort failed to score a single league goal, and he was transfer listed on 23 December. He was released by the club by mutual consent on 11 January.
Later career
On 30 January 2008, Cort joined Spanish club UD Marbella, who were then playing in the Segunda División B.
Cort returned to England when he signed for Norwich City on 9 December 2008 until the end of the 2008–09 season. He made his debut for Norwich against Reading at the Madejski Stadium and scored his first goal for the club in a 3–3 draw at Wolves on 3 February 2009. This was his first league goal since March 2006, when he netted for Wolves in a Championship fixture at Hull City. Following Norwich's relegation to League One Cort left the club after having his contract terminated by mutual consent.
After leaving Norwich, Cort went on trial with Wycombe Wanderers but was not offered a contract. He later went on to sign for Brentford on a five-month deal, which was then extended to the end of the season. He scored his first goal for Brentford against Swindon Town on 3 October 2009 and added another 5 goals making it 6 goals in 26 appearances. In June 2010, Cort signed a new one-year contract at Brentford, but was later released in January 2011.
Cort had been training with the AFC Wimbledon reserve/development squad. It was reported that he had scored in an appearance for the reserve team towards the end of October 2011.
On 10 August 2012, Tampa Bay Rowdies announced they had signed Cort.
Personal life
He is the elder brother of fellow professional footballer Leon Cort, and the younger brother of non-League footballer Wayne Cort. He is also the half-brother of AC Milan midfielder Ruben Loftus-Cheek.
Career statistics
Club
References
External links
1977 births
Footballers from the London Borough of Southwark
People from Southwark
Living people
Men's association football forwards
Black British sportsmen
English men's footballers
England men's under-21 international footballers
England men's youth international footballers
English expatriate men's footballers
English people of Guyanese descent
Sportspeople of Guyanese descent
Expatriate men's footballers in Spain
Guyanese men's footballers
Guyana men's international footballers
Wimbledon F.C. players
Lincoln City F.C. players
Newcastle United F.C. players
Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. players
Leicester City F.C. players
Norwich City F.C. players
Brentford F.C. players
Marbella FC players
Tampa Bay Rowdies players
Premier League players
English Football League players
North American Soccer League (2011–2017) players
Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States
People educated at Archbishop Tenison's Church of England School, Lambeth
English expatriate sportspeople in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremadura
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Extremadura
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Extremadura (Fala: Extremaúra) is a landlocked autonomous community of Spain. Its capital city is Mérida, and its largest city is Badajoz. Located in the central-western part of the Iberian Peninsula, it is crossed from east to west by the Tagus and Guadiana rivers. The autonomous community is formed by the two largest provinces of Spain: Cáceres and Badajoz. Extremadura is bordered by Portugal to the west and by the autonomous communities of Castile and León (north), Castilla–La Mancha (east), and Andalusia (south).
It is an important area for wildlife, particularly with the major reserve at Monfragüe, which was designated a National Park in 2007, and the International Tagus River Natural Park (Parque Natural Tajo Internacional). The regional government is led by the President of the Regional Government of Extremadura, a post currently held by María Guardiola of the People's Party.
The Day of Extremadura is celebrated on 8 September. It coincides with the Catholic festivity of Our Lady of Guadalupe.
The region, featuring an enormous energy surplus and hosting lithium deposits, is at the forefront of Spain's plans for energy transition and decarbonisation.
Geography
Physical environment
Extremadura is contained between and latitude, and and longitude.
The area of Extremadura is , making it the fifth largest of the Spanish autonomous communities. It is located in the Southern Plateau (a subdivision of the Spanish Central Plateau).
The region is crossed from West to East by two large rivers, the Tagus and the Guadiana, lining up three basic areas from North to South by combining mountain ranges and rivers: the territory spanning from the Sistema Central to the Tagus, the so-called Mesopotamia extremeña in between the Tagus and the Guadiana and the territory from the Guadiana to Sierra Morena. Besides the catchment basins of the Tagus and the Guadiana covering most of the territory by far, fringe areas of the region are drained by the Douro (north) and the Guadalquivir (south). Notable Tagus tributaries include the Tiétar and the Alagón (rightbank) and the Almonte, Ibor, Salor and the Sever (leftbank). Regarding the Guadiana, important leftbank tributaries include Guadarranque and Ruecas and rightbank tributaries include the Zújar River and the Matachel.
The highest point in Extremadura, the high Calvitero (or El Torreón), is located in the Sistema Central, in the northeastern end of the region, bordering with Castile and León. The main subranges of the Sistema Central in Extremadura are the Sierra de Gata and Sierra de Béjar.
The modest heights of Sierra de las Villuercas (topping at on the Pico de las Villuercas) rise in the Mesopotamia extremeña. Other notable ranges include the Sierra de Montánchez and the Sierra de San Pedro, part of the larger Montes de Toledo system.
The Sierra Morena—the limit between Extremadura and Andalusia—and the Sierra de Tentudía (topping at on the Pico Tentudía) rise in the south.
There are four different hydrographic basins:
The basin of the Tagus, with two principal tributaries: on the right, the Tiétar and the Alagón; and on the left, the Almonte, Ibor, Salor and the Sever. The tributaries on the right edge carry a large quantity of water, which feed the gorges of the Sistema Central where the rainfall is abundant and the winter brings a great quantity of snow.
The basin of the Guadiana, which has principal tributaries:
The basin of the Guadalquivir with only in Extremadura (2.45% of total).
The basin of the Douro with only in Extremadura (0.04% of its basin).
Climate
The climate of Extremadura is predominantly hot-summer Mediterranean (Csa in the Köppen climate classification), with some regions being cold semi-arid (BSk in the Köppen climate classification). Extremadura generally presents average annual temperatures somewhat warmer than most of the Iberian Peninsula, featuring nonetheless a north–south gradient. Annual thermal amplitude generally ranges from 16 to 19 °C. Average annual precipitation stands at around 600 mm. Parts of the Sistema Central presents more than 1,500 mm while it barely rains 400 mm in parts of the province of Badajoz. Summers are very hot and dry, with the rain concentrated in the cold months instead, leading to a high degree of water stress during the summer months.
History
During the time of the Roman Empire, the area that is known today as Autonomous Community of Extremadura was part of Lusitania, a Roman province that included most of current day Portugal (except for the northern area today known as Norte Region) and the central western portion of the current day Spain. Mérida (now capital of Extremadura) became the capital of the Roman province of Lusitania, and one of the most important cities in the Roman Empire.
Like the bulk of the Iberian Peninsula, the territory was conquered by the Umayyads in the early 8th century. As part of the Emirate and later Caliphate of Córdoba, it largely constituted a territorial subdivision (kūra) of the former polities centered on Mérida. Following the collapse of the Caliphate in the early 11th century during the so-called Fitna of al-Andalus and its ensuing fragmentation into ephemeral statelets (taifas), the bulk of the territory of current day Extremadura became part of the (First) Taifa of Badajoz (Baṭalyaws), centered around the namesake city and founded by Sapur, a saqaliba previously freed by Al-Hakam II.
Conversely, the kingdoms of León, Castile and Portugal (most notably the first one) made advances in the 11th and 12th centuries across the territory (with for example the successive Leonese conquests of Coria in 1079 and 1142, the Portuguese attempts at expanding across the Guadiana basin in the second half of the 12th century, or the Castilian founding of Plasencia in 1186) not free from setbacks either caused by the Almoravid and Almohad impetus, which also entailed the demise of the first and second taifa of Badajoz in 1094 and 1150, respectively. In the Almohad case, their 1174 offensive removed Leonese control from every fortress south of the Tagus (including Cáceres). After the Almohad disaster at the 1212 Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, the remaining part of current-day Extremadura under Muslim control fell to the troops led by Alfonso IX of León—Alcántara (1214), Cáceres (1227–1229), Mérida (1230), Badajoz (1230)—and later to the military orders of Santiago and Alcántara—Trujillo (1232), Medellín (1234)—on behalf of Ferdinand III of Castile. The last fortresses in the Lower Extremadura were conquered by Christians by 1248.
By the late Middle Ages, the territory of the current-day region consisted of mayorazgos of the military orders of Santiago and Alcántara (about half the territory), nobiliary lordships (about a quarter of the territory) and royal demesne towns (the other quarter of the territory).
In between the 15th and 16th centuries, the concept of the Leonese and Castilian extremaduras diluted and the name eventually came to refer to the territory of the current-day region. The territory lacked nonetheless shared government and administration institutions.
In between 1570 and 1572, the Crown forcibly relocated about 11,000 moriscos into the territory as part of the deportation of Granadans that followed the defeat of the Alpujarras revolt. The distribution was somewhat chaotic although some places with an already "threatening" population of old moriscos (such as Hornachos, Magacela and Benquerencia) were avoided as resettlement locations for the Granadan moriscos.
Two generations later, the expulsion of the moriscos from the region began in 1609, starting with the moriscos of Hornachos, the first expulsion in the Crown of Castile. By September 1610 about two thirds of the moriscos of Extremadura had been already expelled and by 1611 the number amounted to 12,776. Those who avoided the early orders of expulsion abided to reports of being 'good Christians' or claimed a status as 'old moriscos'. At the height of 1612, there were reports of remaining moriscos in Trujillo, Mérida and Plasencia.
Located in the most able path from the Meseta Central to Portugal, the territory suffered greatly due to warfare from the 1640–1668 Portuguese Restoration War, characterised not by the movement of large armies but for pillage, skirmishes, raids, and destruction of economic resources and settlements across both sides of the Raya. The growing role of the fortified place of Badajoz (halfway between Lisbon and Madrid), in the wake of the installment of the Captaincy General of Extremadura consolidated the clout of the military in the region.
By the late 18th century, the Extremaduran countryside languished, experiencing a deep crisis. There was a diminishing share of land dedicated to crops. The growing cattle sector induced the creation of yet more pastures, adding up to the structural problem stemmed from the extraordinary degree of concentration of land ownership. By the end of the Ancien Régime, the clergy, municipal councils and the royal army mattered more than the lesser role of the entitled nobility.
Railways were developed in the second half of the 19th century. In September 1863, a passenger train arrived to Badajoz from Elvas, Portugal. It was the first train in the region and the first international service in the Iberian Peninsula. In 1866, the was completed, enabling the link with Madrid. The Madrid–Valencia de Alcántara line, a new connection passing through the province of Cáceres, was fully completed in 1881.
During the 1936–1939 Spanish Civil War, the Nationalist faction Columna Madrid advanced quickly across the province of Badajoz in August 1936 and left merciless repression and mass casualties behind. Badajoz was the Spanish province where the Francoist repression comparatively took the highest relative toll of victims during the war and the immediate Post-War period; there were around 12,000 executions in the province (out of the 14,000 in the whole region), compared to around 1,600 victims of the Republican repression.
In the mid 20th century, the Francoist dictatorship pursued a policy of colonization and agrarian reform in the region to foster the economy, transforming thousands of hectares of dryland crops into irrigated lands, also favouring the erection of 63 new settlements by the Instituto Nacional de Colonización (INC). The second half of the 20th century saw a massive rural flight out of the region, both to the industrialised areas of Spain (already started in 1955) as well as to richer European countries (such as Germany, France and Switzerland), both of which notably intensified after 1961, in the wake of the 1959 Stabilization Plan (and in the second case also after bilateral agreements reached with destination countries). The region henceforth was handed a demographic blow in the ensuing years, with the effective expulsion of nearly a 40% of the population, particularly young people.
A pre-autonomous government entity in Extremadura (the "Junta Regional de Extremadura") with jurisdiction over the provinces of Badajoz and Cáceres was created by means of a 1978 law. The draft of the regional Statute of Autonomy began in 1980, the first step toward Extremadura becoming one of the Spanish autonomous communities. The text passed its final hurdle as it was enshrined as Organic Law in 1982. The first election to the Assembly of Extremadura took place in May 1983.
Government and administration
Autonomous
The Statute of Autonomy of Extremadura (enacted in 1983) is the fundamental organic law regulating the autonomous government, and it establishes the institutions through which the autonomous community exerts its powers:
Assembly of Extremadura. The following are some of the functions conferred to the legislature: exerting legislative power in the autonomous community, the promotion and control of the Junta of Extremadura, the passing of the regional budget, the designation of senators correspondent to the autonomous community or the control of the media dependent on the regional government. Its members (currently 65) are directly elected through the means of proportional representation and close party lists with an electoral threshold of 5% (the most benign between the total voting percentage and the voting percentage in a particular electoral district) in two electoral districts: Badajoz and Cáceres, corresponding to the two provinces of the region.
Junta of Extremadura. It is the collegiate body comprised by the regional president, the vice-president and the ministers (consejeros) exerting the executive and administrative functions of the regional government.
President of the Junta of Extremadura. The officeholder is charged with directing and coordinating the action of the Junta of Extremadura, being the highest representative of Extremadura while also holding the ordinary representation of the State in the region. The regional president is elected by the legislature from among its members, needing to command an absolute majority of votes in the first round of investiture or a simple majority of positive votes in successive rounds. The president personally selects the ministers of the Junta.
Provincial
The government body for each of the provinces is the deputation (diputación): the Provincial Deputation of Badajoz and the Provincial Deputation of Cáceres. The members of the plenary of the deputation are indirectly elected from among the municipal councillors based on the results of the municipal elections. In turn, the plenary elects the president of the deputation from among its members.
Economy
The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the autonomous community was 20.0 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 1.7% of Spanish economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 20,100 euros or 67% of the EU27 average in the same year. Extremadura was the community with the second lowest GDP per capita in Spain before Melilla.
Export goods (mostly consisting of food and semimanufactures) are primarily sent to the European market, but there has been a growing share of non-EU export destinations throughout the 2010s. Balance of trade is generally positive.
The unemployment rate stood at 17.3% in 2022, significantly lower than the previous ten years.
Agriculture
Wild Black Iberian pigs roam in the area and consume acorns from oak groves. These pigs are caught and used for the cured ham dish jamón ibérico. The higher the percentage of acorns eaten by the pigs, the more valuable the ham. For example, jamón ibérico from pigs whose diet consists of 90% acorns or more can be sold for more than twice as much as ham whose pigs ate on average less than 70% acorns. In the US, jamón ibérico directly from Extremadura, with bone, was illegal until around 2005. At that time, enough US restaurants were in demand for the delicacy that Spain decided to export it as boneless, which the US Department of Agriculture's health codes would approve (and continue to do).
85 Extremaduran municipalities constitute the jurisdiction of the "Dehesa de Extremadura" Protected Designation of Origin (PDO), which protects jamones and paletas (hind and front pig legs) originated from Iberian pigs and mixed Iberian/Duroc-Jersey pigs.
As of 2021, Extremadura produces about 98% of the tobacco produced in Spain, also being the leading European producing region. Tobacco production concentrates in La Vera and Campo Arañuelo.
Tomato production (2,122,000 tonnes in 2017) primarily concentrates in the riverbanks of the Guadiana and the Alagón-Árrago.
A large part of the region falls within the scope of the Ribera del Guadiana PDO, which is further divided in the Ribera Alta, Tierra de Barros, Matanegra, Ribera Baja, Montánchez, and Cañamero wine subregions. The PDO protects the wines made of several varieties of black and white grapes.
As of 2021, Extremadura is the second largest rice producing region in Spain, after Andalusia. Due to drought and high water demands from rice fields, non-irrigated rice fields have been favoured since the late 2010s. Together with Murcia, Extremadura is a major producer of paprika, primarily destined to the Spanish market. Peppers are grown in the , consisting of the comarcas of La Vera, Campo Arañuelo, Valle del Ambroz and Valle del Alagón. The PDO produced 3,860 tonnes in 2020.
Energy
About half the value of the regional industrial production belongs to the energy sector. Extremadura presents a huge energy surplus, producing about four times the energy it consumes. This situation has led to the characterization of Extremadura as a potential "colony" of the private electricity companies, which are not taxed in the region and employ a relatively low share of the industrial workforce. The Tagus is dammed in the reservoirs of Alcántara, Torrejón and Valdecañas whereas the Guadiana is dammed in the reservoirs of Cíjara, Puerto Peña, Orellana and Zújar. Due to the orographic conditions, the Tagus is better suited for hydroelectric use than the Guadiana. As of 2021, the region has around 2,193.84 MW of installed hydroelectric power, primarily controlled by Endesa and Iberdrola, with a lesser role of Grupo Pitarch.
The two reactors of the Almaraz Nuclear Power Plant (which were put in operation in 1981 and 1983, respectively) are jointly operated by Endesa, Iberdrola and Naturgy. They generate a power of 1,048.43 MW and 1,044.45 MW.
The region is at the forefront of Spain's plans for energy transition and a decarbonisation, thanks to the installation of large solar power plants and the granting of lithium mining licenses. Such prospects sparked criticism and concern regarding how to avoid a "third energy colonisation" after those of the construction of reservoirs for hydroelectric use and the building of nuclear power plants. Two of the largest photovoltaic power plants in Europe are located in the region: Francisco Pizarro (590 MW) in Torrecillas de la Tiesa and Núñez de Balboa (500 MW) in Usagre; both are operated by Iberdrola, which is developing another 6 photovoltaic plants collectively amounting to 1,300 MW. The first solar thermal power plant in the region, Alvarado I, (50 MW) opened in 2009.
A project to build a lithium-ion battery factory participated by Envision in Navalmoral de la Mata was announced in June 2022.
Population
As of January 1, 2012, the population of Extremadura is 1,109,367 inhabitants, representing 2.36% of the Spanish population (46,745,807).
The population density is very low——compared to Spain as a whole.
The urban network is dominated by three municipalities between 50,000 and 200,000 inhabitants (Badajoz, Cáceres and Mérida), followed by Plasencia, the Don Benito-Villanueva de la Serena conurbation and Almendralejo. Other municipalities with a population above 10,000 inhabitants include Zafra, Montijo, Villafranca de los Barros, Navalmoral de la Mata and Coria.
The most populous province is that of Badajoz, with a population of 691,715 and a population density of . With an area of , it is the largest province in Spain. 413,766 people live in the province of Cáceres at a density of , having an area of , making it the largest province in Spain after Badajoz.
Foreign
As of 2020, overall foreign population growth stood at 319% year over year, and the largest foreign community is that of Romanian nationals with 8,173 people, followed by Moroccans with 7,400. Portuguese account for 3,188, Chinese for 1,655 and Colombians make up 1,409. There are 23 Liechtensteiners, 1723 Dutch nationals, and 147 Senegalese. There are also 3,188 Portuguese people living within the region. The region had a foreign population of 34,667.
Historical
The Extremaduran population, according to the 1591 census of the provinces of the Kingdom of Castile, was around 540,000 people, making up 8% of the total population of Spain. No other census was performed until 1717, when 326,358 people were counted as living in Extremadura.
From this period, the population grew steadily until the 1960s (1,379,072 people in 1960). After 1960, emigration to more prosperous regions of Spain and Europe drained the population.
Administrative divisions
Extremadura is divided into 383 municipalities. 164 are part of the Province of Badajoz and the other 219 are part of the Province of Cáceres.
List of municipalities in Badajoz
List of municipalities in Cáceres
There are also traditional comarcas in Extremadura, like Las Villuercas and Las Hurdes, but these do not have much official recognition.
Languages
The only official language is Spanish (whose local dialects are collectively called Castúo), but other languages and dialects are also spoken. The Fala, a Galician-Portuguese language, is a specially protected language and is spoken in the valley of Jálama. The Extremaduran language, the collective name for a group of vernacular dialects related to Leonese is endangered. Local variants of Portuguese are native to Cedillo and Herrera de Alcántara. Portuguese has also been accounted to be spoken as well by some people (mainly those born before the 1940s) in Olivenza.
Reported phonological distinctive features of the Spanish dialectal variants spoken in the region include instances of (in some areas of the province of Badajoz), loss of intervocalic /d/, j and word-initial h aspiration, r → l substitution, and .
Sports
In football:
Extremadura UD
Extremadura Femenino CF, also known as CF Puebla Extremadura, the women's team
CF Extremadura, founded in 1924 but folded in 2010
AD Mérida
CD Badajoz
CD Don Benito
See also
Extremaduran cuisine
Extremadura (Vino de la Tierra)
List of presidents of the Extremaduran Assembly
New Extremadura
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Extremadura, Spain - Google Maps
Spanish regions: Extremadura traditional clothing
NUTS 2 statistical regions of the European Union
States and territories established in 1983
Autonomous communities of Spain
1983 establishments in Spain
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory%20van%20der%20Wiel
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Gregory van der Wiel
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Gregory van der Wiel
Gregory Kurtley van der Wiel (born 3 February 1988) is a Dutch former professional footballer who played as a right-back.
Born in Amsterdam, Van der Wiel is a product of the AFC Ajax youth system. In 2010, he was awarded the Johan Cruyff Award for "Young Player of the Year" in the Netherlands. He also played for Paris Saint-Germain, Fenerbahçe, Cagliari and Toronto FC.
Van der Wiel made his debut for the Netherlands national team in February 2009 and participated in the Netherlands' runners-up performance at the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. Dutch teammate John Heitinga has labelled him the spiritual successor of Michael Reiziger for the Netherlands.
Club career
Ajax
Van der Wiel started his playing career at RKSV DCG in Amsterdam. At age seven, the young defender was scouted by AFC Ajax and brought to the Ajax Academy at "De Toekomst". In 2002, Ajax sent the player away to HFC Haarlem due to the player having a "mentality problem". Talking about his period at Haarlem, Van der Wiel has said, "When I was there I realized how spoiled I was. At Ajax everything was always well organized. We received a new kit every season and were picked up with minivans and brought to the club. At Haarlem I arrived in a totally different world. The accommodation was much worse, we played in five-year-old outfits, and had to find our own way to the trainings. The atmosphere was better though, much more relaxed than at Ajax. The period at Haarlem was good for my social development. It was a wake-up call for me." In 2005, Ajax approached him once again and brought him back to the Academy. His second stint at the club proved to be a much more successful experience, resulting in him signing his first professional contract, effectively starting from July 2006. Following the departure of youth captain Donovan Slijngard, Van der Wiel was made captain of Jong Ajax.
Van der Wiel made his professional debut for Ajax on 11 March 2007 in a 4–1 away win against Twente, coming on as a substitute for Jaap Stam. He would play three more matches that season. At the end of the 2006–07 season, Van der Wiel signed a four–year contract with the club, keeping him until 2011.
At the start of the 2007–08 season, Van der Wiel participated in the 1–0 victory over PSV in the battle for the Johan Cruyff Shield, resulting in winning his first career trophy. In a 1–0 win over Dinamo Zagreb in the first round of the UEFA Cup on 20 September 2007, his performance was praised by manager Henk ten Cate. A knee injury kept him out for the most of the 2007–08 season.
In the 2008–09 season, Van der Wiel managed to recovered from the knee injury ahead of the new season and hoped to succeed John Heitinga, who departed for La Liga side Atlético Madrid over the summer. After returning from injury, Van der Wiel regained his first place at the club, playing in the right-back position. At one point, he played in the midfield position due to midfielder crisis. His performances resulted in him signing a contract extension with the club on 28 January 2009, lasting until 2013. He then scored his first goal for the club on 1 March 2009 in a 2–0 win over Utrecht. For his performance in the 2008–09 season, he was awarded AFC Ajax's Talent of the Year.
Ahead of the 2009–10 season, Van der Wiel switched shirt number from 15 to 2. His performance attracted interests from Premier League side Manchester City. On 24 January 2010, he scored his fourth goal of the season in a 1–0 win over AZ. He, once again, helped the club keep six clean sheets between 3 February 2010 and 7 March 2010. Van der Wiel played as a right–back in both legs of the 2009–10 KNVBCup final, as the club beat Feyenoord 4–2 to win the tournament. For his performances during the season, he was awarded the Johan Cruijff Award for "Young Player of the Year."
Following the 2010 World Cup, Van der Wiel was in talks to transfer to Louis van Gaal's Bayern Munich. However, Ajax was not able to agree to a deal. The 2010–11 season was another successful season for Van der Wiel, as he maintained his first-team position under new manager Frank de Boer. Despite some setbacks, Van der Wiel continued to regain his first team place at right-back. After being linked with a move to Manchester City and Barcelona in the January transfer window, he ended the transfer speculation by declaring his intention to stay at the club. In the final of the KNVB Cup against FC Twente, he started the match in the right–back and played 91 minutes before being substituted, as the club lost 3–2.
During the 2011–12 season, Van der Wiel suffered a groin injury on two occasions, which affected his season. He returned to training after two months sidelined.
Ahead of the 2012–13 season, Van der Wiel continued to be linked a move away from Ajax, and he made it clear he was not keen on signing a new contract with Ajax in January 2012. He missed the Johan Cruyff Shield, After a 5–0 win over NAC Breda on 25 August 2012, in what was his last appearance for Ajax, Van der Wiel hinted at his departure from the club. His departure became imminent after Ajax agreed to sell Van der Wiel to French Ligue 1 club Paris Saint-Germain.
Paris Saint-Germain
Van der Wiel moved to Paris Saint-Germain on 1 September 2012 for a reported €6 million transfer fee. The move was confirmed two days later, when he was issued the number 23 shirt and signed a four-year contract lasting until 2016.
Van der Wiel made his PSG debut on 22 September 2012 in an away match against Bastia, a 0–4 victory; Van der Wiel played the full 90 minutes at right-back. For the most part of his debut season in France, Van der Wiel would come off the substitutes' bench for PSG captain Christophe Jallet, the team's first-choice right-back. Van der Wiel made his European debut for Paris in the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League match against Porto, a 1–0 away loss, with Van der Wiel being substituted off for Jallet in the 66th minute. Van der Wiel scored his first PSG goal in the 0–4 away win against Toulouse, the final goal of the match. On 12 May 2013, PSG became champions of France, winning the 2013–14 Ligue 1 title in a 1–0 victory against Lyon at home, marking the club's third ever national championship. Van der Wiel remained on the substitutes' bench for the duration of the title-winning fixture.
At the start of the 2013–14 season, Van der Wiel was linked a move away from the club, as Italian Serie A club Internazionale were interested in signing him. Although a transfer never materialized, he remained at the club and found himself in competition with Christophe Jallet at right-back. As a result, Van der Wiel and Jallet often rotated in the position. Towards the end of the season, he suffered injuries on two occasions. He earned first-team status at PSG and saw him included in the L'Equipe Team of the Year for 2013.
At the start of the 2014–15 season, Van der Wiel played the entire match in the Trophée des Champions, a 2–0 PSG win over Guingamp. After Christophe Jallet's transfer to Lyon, Van der Wiel continued to feature at right-back, although he faced a new competition from new signings Serge Aurier and Jordan Ikoko, which often forced him to the substitutes' bench. By season's end, Van der Wiel helped PSG win the domestic treble: Ligue 1, Coupe de France and the Coupe de la Ligue.
In the 2015–16 season, Van der Wiel regularly found himself on the substitutes' bench, behind Serge Aurier and Marquinhos at right-back. He also faced with his own injury concerns in the first half of the season. For the third time, he helped the club win the domestic Treble: Ligue 1, Coupe de France and the Coupe de la Ligue.
On 15 May 2016, it was officially announced Van der Wiel would be leaving PSG at the end season after his contract expired. This was announced after he acknowledged it would be difficult to stay at the club.
Fenerbahçe
After leaving Paris Saint-Germain, Van der Wiel signed for Turkish team Fenerbahçe, signing a three-year contract with an option to extend for an additional year. Upon joining the club, he was joined up by compatriot Robin van Persie.
Van der Wiel made his official debut for Fenerbahçe on 27 July 2016 in the third qualifying round of UEFA Champions League, where he set up a goal for Emmanuel Emenike in a 2–1 home win over Monaco. However, in the second-leg, the club was eliminated from the competition following a 3–1 away defeat. He then made his Fenerbahçe debut on 21 August 2016 in the opening match of the 2016–17 Süper Lig season, where he started the entire match in a 1–0 loss to İstanbul Başakşehir. His lack of first-team opportunities at the club led manager Dick Advocaat to be keen on selling him in January, although a transfer was never agreed and he remained at the club until the end of the season. For Fenerbahçe, Van der Wiel made 12 league appearances and 17 across all competitions. This was due to injuries and suspension throughout the 2016–17 season.
Cagliari
After only one season with Fenerbahçe, on 25 August 2017, Van der Wiel joined Italian club Cagliari. In so doing, he became the first Dutchman to ever sign for the club. He was issued the number 2 shirt by the Sardinian side. He made his debut in a 3–2 home loss to Genoa on 15 October, having missed the first six matches of the season through injury. However, after returning from injury, he still struggled to earn playing time during the first half of the season, making only six appearances across all competitions.
Toronto FC
On 1 February 2018, Van der Wiel signed with Major League Soccer (MLS) club Toronto FC. Upon joining the club, he was issued the number 9 shirt during an introductory press conference.
He made his club debut on 3 March in the opening match of the MLS season, a 2–0 home defeat to Columbus Crew. Despite suffering from setbacks that saw him on the sidelines, Van der Wiel established himself in the starting eleven for the side. He then played in both legs of 2018 CONCACAF Champions League Final against Chivas Guadalajara, as Toronto eventually lost the final 4–2 in a penalty shoot-out after the series was tied 3–3 on aggregate. During the season, Van der Wiel played in several different positions for the side, such as centre-back, left-back, and right-midfield. But most of the season, he played in the right-back position. During a preseason training session in Los Angeles on 23 January 2019, Van der Wiel was dismissed after an altercation with coach Greg Vanney. On 22 March 2019, he was released by the club by mutual consent.
On 6 August 2020, Van der Wiel began training with Eredivisie club RKC Waalwijk. Shortly after, he reiterated that he wanted to continue playing football, having been a free agent for a year. As a result, Van der Wiel spent months on a trial with the club.
International career
Youth career
After previously representing the Netherlands under-19 national team, Van der Wiel has been capped at the under-21 level and participated at the 2007 Toulon Tournament.
Although he recovered from the knee injury, Van der Wiel did not make the final Dutch squad for the Olympic Games in Beijing, following which he was disappointed and critical of manager Foppe de Haan's decision. Later in 2008, Van der Wiel featured two more times for the under-21 side.
In November 2008, Van der Wiel was initially included in the Netherlands' B-team squad for their match against the Sweden national under-21 team. However, he was replaced by Rens van Eijden due to a groin injury sustained during training.
Senior career
On 6 February 2009, Van der Wiel was called up by the senior Dutch team for the first time. He then made his senior debut on 11 February as a substitute for former Ajax teammate John Heitinga in the friendly match against Tunisia. He made his first competitive debut on 28 March 2009 as a starter in a 3–0 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification victory over Scotland. He again played the entire match for the 4–0 World Cup qualification victory over Macedonia on 1 April 2009.
Twitter incident
In October 2009, Van der Wiel became embroiled in a controversy after he was unable to travel with the Dutch squad to Australia for a friendly match due to a concussion sustained while playing for Ajax. However, Van der Wiel later attended a Lil Wayne concert and posted a picture of himself with the rapper on his Twitter page. Several prominent figures in Dutch football criticised the player for his actions, including Dutch coach Bert van Marwijk, who said, "It's rather strange that he was able to go to a concert, given that he told me that he was not allowed to fly by the Ajax medical staff." Ajax manager Martin Jol defended the player, saying the incident was blown out of proportion by the media and that it should not be seen as a lack of respect on the part of the player for the Netherlands national team. Van Marwijk has since forgiven Van der Wiel for the incident, saying, "[H]e should not expect that this incident will have consequences for his place in the team."
2010 World Cup
Van der Wiel was actively involved in the Netherlands' 2010 World Cup qualification campaign, having competed with John Heitinga for the starting right-back position. After the Netherlands secured qualification to the tournament proper, Van der Wiel was named to the 23-man squad by manager Bert van Marwijk. He previously aimed for his goal to make a selection for the World Cup squad prior to that.
The player was in the starting line-up for their first two matches in the competition, 2–0 victory over Denmark and 1–0 victory over Japan. After missing two matches, Van der Wiel returned to the starting lineup for the match against Slovakia in the round of 16 on 28 June 2010. After the match, Van der Wiel said that although he was concerned at receiving a second yellow card, he was unhappy with his performance, describing it as his "least match so far".
Van der Wiel also started in the quarter-final against Brazil, which saw the Dutch win 2–1 to send them through to the semi-final for the first time since the 1998 World Cup. However, he was once again suspended for the semi-final after he was booked for the second time in the tournament. After the match, he acknowledged his fault in receiving the yellow card.
Van der Wiel returned to the squad for the final against Spain, where he started and played all 120 minutes of the match as the Dutch lost following a late goal by Andrés Iniesta in extra time. In total, Van der Wiel made four appearances during the World Cup campaign. At the end of 2010, Van der Wiel said about the World Cup: "The final was so beautiful, the stadium was very big and you only saw flashes of the cameras in the audience." I feel honored to have played the final. As a young boy, it is of course beautiful. Previously, it was a dream, now I have experienced it myself."
Euro 2012
Van der Wiel was Bert van Marwijk's first-choice right-back for the Netherlands' UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying Group E matches. He started the Oranjes qualifying campaign well when he set up a Ruud van Nistelrooy goal against San Marino, the Netherlands' fifth goal in a 5–0 win on matchday 1. Van der Wiel also set-up two goals for Robin van Persie and Ibrahim Afellay to help the Netherlands defeat Hungary on 25 March 2011. He then made his 25th international appearance on 2 September 2011 in an 11–0 win over San Marino.
In late May 2012, Van der Wiel was named to Van Marjiwk's 23-man squad for the final tournament, held in Poland and Ukraine. However, at Euro 2012, Van der Wiel was widely criticized for his performances, notably a back-pass against Portugal in the first-half which presented Hélder Postiga with a clear sight of goal, though Postiga missed the opportunity.
Later Netherlands career
Following the arrival of new Dutch team manager Louis van Gaal after Euro 2012, Van der Wiel was rarely featured for the remainder of 2012, despite his determination to fight for his place in the squad. One year later, in November 2013, he was recalled for the first time and played his first match since Euro 2012, starting and playing the entire match at right-back in a 0–0 draw against Colombia on 19 November 2013. However, due to an injury sustained at Paris Saint-Germain towards the end of the 2013–14 season, Van der Wiel was omitted from the 23-man Dutch squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil. In response from the World Cup, Van der Wiel said it didn't work out, due to his ongoing injuries.
Playing style
A versatile defender, Van der Wiel usually played as an attacking right-back or wing-back and is known for his speedy runs down the flank, as well as his defensive skills, ability on the ball and distribution. He is also capable of playing as a wide midfielder on either flank, or even as a centre-back.
Personal life
Born in Amsterdam, Van der Wiel has a Dutch-Antillean father from Curaçao and a Dutch mother. He has three younger sisters: Layla, Ambar and Hind. When asked about his religion, he said, "I believe in God, but do not believe in faith. I keep my superstition for myself." Van der Wiel is friends with Hurşut Meriç, having grown up together in Amsterdam, and Jan-Arie van der Heijden, having known each other at their early careers at Ajax.
Van der Wiel has numerous tattoos of which he said, "[I] have two quotes (pronouns), my mother's name, my father's initials, the first letters of the names of my sisters, some decorations and my own name, that was my first tattoo. My parents thought eighteen was a good age for my first tattoo.. But they would rather not see me get a tattoo. Nowadays you see children getting tattooed at an earlier age. I think eighteen is a good age myself." He has also said hip hop is his culture.
In November 2009, Van der Wiel donated money to help Dutch club HFC Haarlem in its financial difficulties. However, his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful as the club declared bankruptcy on 25 January 2010. Later in 2010, the Johan Cruyff Foundation dedicated a "Cruyff Court" in Van der Wiel's name. Van der Wiel had the court built in the Sapaté district in Curaçao—where his family is from—which was officially opened on 15 June 2011.
In August 2015, Van der Wiel was a victim of a robbery after thieves broke into his apartment and stole his luxury watches. In May 2017, he also revealed he was a victim of a scam by businessman Ümit Akbulut after Van der Wiel gave him $4.5 million. Upon joining Toronto FC, Van der Wiel reflected on the incident: "I met somebody there, influential, and I wanted to invest some money, like I'm still doing to this day. I like to do things on the side of football to be smart about my money, but it was not a smart move. I trusted somebody and in the end, I never saw my money back."
Van der Wiel lived with his then girlfriend, Belgian model Rose Bertram in Los Angeles. Their daughter, Naleya Rose, was born on 24 February 2018 in Toronto.
In November 2020, Van der Wiel spoke about mental health, having been dealing with panic attacks and feelings of anxiety for over a year.
Career statistics
Club
International
Honours
Ajax
Eredivisie: 2010–11, 2011–12
KNVB Cup: 2006–07, 2009–10
Johan Cruyff Shield: 2007
Paris Saint-Germain
Ligue 1: 2012–13, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16
Coupe de France: 2014–15, 2015–16
Coupe de la Ligue: 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16
Trophée des Champions: 2013, 2014, 2015
Toronto FC
Canadian Championship: 2018
CONCACAF Champions League runner-up: 2018
Netherlands
FIFA World Cup runner-up: 2010
Individual
Johan Cruyff Trophy: 2009–10
Ajax Talent of the Year (Marco van Basten Award): 2008–09
References
External links
1988 births
Living people
Dutch people of Curaçao descent
Dutch men's footballers
Dutch expatriate men's footballers
Dutch expatriate sportspeople in France
Dutch expatriate sportspeople in Turkey
Dutch expatriate sportspeople in Italy
Men's association football fullbacks
Netherlands men's youth international footballers
Netherlands men's under-21 international footballers
Netherlands men's international footballers
Footballers from Amsterdam
AFC Ajax players
Jong Ajax players
HFC Haarlem players
Paris Saint-Germain F.C. players
Fenerbahçe S.K. footballers
Cagliari Calcio players
Toronto FC players
Eredivisie players
Ligue 1 players
Süper Lig players
Serie A players
Major League Soccer players
Expatriate men's footballers in France
Expatriate men's footballers in Turkey
Expatriate men's footballers in Italy
Expatriate men's soccer players in Canada
2010 FIFA World Cup players
UEFA Euro 2012 players
Dutch expatriate sportspeople in Canada
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%20%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82
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Японський енцефаліт
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Японський енцефаліт — гостре ендемічне арбовірусне інфекційне захворювання вірусної етіології з переважним ураженням нервової системи у вигляді енцефаліту. Є однією з найтяжчих трансмісивних нейроінфекцій людини.
Актуальність
Щорічно в світі реєструють 68 тисяч випадків хвороби, летальність досягає 30 %. Стійкі неврологічні або психіатричні наслідки можуть виникнути у 30-50 % осіб з цим захворюванням. Поширений японський енцефаліт у 24 країнах Південно-Східної Азії та Західного Тихоокеанського регіону (2022 року зафіксовано спалах в Австралії).
Історичні факти
Перший випадок хвороби було задокументовано в Японії 1871 року. Перші публікації, присвячені клінічній картині хвороби, з'явилися в 1924 році, під час епідемії, що охопила 7000 осіб і стала національним лихом для Японії. Близько вісімдесяти відсотків хворих загинули. Японські дослідники описували цю форму нейроінфекцій під назвою «йошиварська застуда», «японський енцефаліт», «літній енцефаліт», «енцефаліт Б», комариний енцефаліт, літньо-осінній комариний енцефаліт тощо. Невдовзі за цією формою нейроінфекцій закріпилося загальноприйнята назва — японський енцефаліт (encephalitis japonica).
Надалі виявилося, що хвороба є природно-осередковим вірусним захворюванням, яке трапляється не тільки в Японії, але і в інших країнах Тихоокеанського регіону.
Етіологія
Збудник хвороби належить до РНК-вмісних вірусів з роду Flavivirus, комплексу японського енцефаліту, який включає 9 антигенно подібних вірусів, зокрема збудники гарячки денге, жовтої гарячки, гарячки Західного Нілу. Вірус інактивується при впливі етеру, дезоксихолату натрію, високих температур (при 56-60°С гине протягом 30 хвилин). Добре зберігається при низьких температурах, у ліофілізованому вигляді. Одноланцюговий геном РНК упакований у капсид, утворений капсидним білком. Зовнішня оболонка утворена білком і є протективним антигеном. Він допомагає ввести вірус у внутрішню частину сприйнятливої клітини. Геном також кодує кілька неструктурних білків (NS1, NS2a, NS2b, NS3, N4a, NS4b, NS5). NS1 виробляється також як секреторна форма. NS3 — це геліказа, а NS5 — вірусна полімераза. Відзначено, що вірус інфікує просвіт ендоплазматичного ретикулуму клітини і швидко накопичує там значні кількості вірусних білків. Має 5 генотипів, які розійшлись від базового вірусу у середині 1500-х років з середньою еволюційною швидкістю 4,35 × 10−4 (діапазон: 3,4906 × 10−4 до 5,303 × 10−4) заміщення нуклеотидів сайту в рік..
Епідеміологічні особливості
Джерела та резервуар інфекції
Крім людини, джерелами та резервуарами вірусу японського енцефаліту є птахи, свині, мавпи, коні, корови, кози, вівці. Сприйнятливими також є лабораторні пацюки, білі миші тощо. Людина, велика рогата худоба та коні є тупиковими джерелами, тому що хвороба в них проявляється смертельним енцефалітом. Свині є резервуаром і відіграють дуже важливу роль в епідеміологічному ланцюгу захворювання. Зараження свиней є безсимптомним, за винятком вагітних свиноматок, коли аборти та аномалії плода є частими. Потужним резервуаром є птахи.
Механізм передачі та переносники
Японський енцефаліт передається за допомогою трансмісивного механізму передачі інфекції, поширюється шляхом укусів комарів роду Culex, найчастіше виду Culex tritaeniorhynchus, який схильний до живлення на людях, рідше інших родів — Aedes, Anopheles, Armigeres, Mansonia. Не виключають також можливість того, що й кліщі Ixodes putus та I. signatus, Haemaphisalis japonica здатні передавати вірус при укусі. Характерна сезонність, пов'язана з часом виплоду комарів, хоча у країнах Південно-Східної Азії хворобу реєструють протягом усього року.
Сприйнятливість
Хворіють переважно люди молодого віку, що працюють в заболочених місцях.
Патогенез
Розвиток хвороби перш за все залежить від стану організму, а також від кількості вірусу, що потрапив, його вірулентності та штамових властивостей. Часто при попаданні в організм людини вірус гине вже в місці його інтродукції. Можливо через те, що в результаті тривалості перебування у епідемічному осередку у людини розвивається резистентність до дії вірусу. Поширення збудника в організмі може відбуватися як гематогенним, так і невральним шляхом. Проникність гематоенцефалічного бар'єра для вірусу залежить від багатьох факторів, у першу чергу, від підвищення температури організму, при якому хвороба розвивається швидше. Вогнищеву неврологічну симптоматику, ймовірно, обумовлюють судинні реакції, які виникають через опосередкований вплив вірусу на кровоносні судини. У результаті їхня проникність підвищується, розвиваються порушення мікроциркуляції, набряк, крововиливи. Ці зміни відбуваються не тільки в нервовій системі, але й у інших органах і тканинах. Подолавши гематоенцефалічний бар'єр, вірус проникає в паренхіму мозку, де загалом і відбувається його розмноження. При тяжкому перебігу захворювання відбувається генералізація збудника в організмі та репродукція вірусу не тільки в нервовій системі, так і поза нею. Проникнення вірусу в район мозку та інтенсивне його розмноження вважається суттєвим патогенетичним моментом. Інтенсивність розвитку і розмноження вірусу в нервовій системі підтверджується патоморфологічними змінами. Розмноження вірусів призводить до пошкодження та загибелі нейронів, що супроводжується набряково-судинними реакціями і проліферацією глії. Хвороба являє собою генералізований капіляротоксикоз, з ексудативно-проліферативним процесом у мозку. Разом з тим, він істотно відрізняється від геморагічних гарячок. При японському енцефаліті найбільші зміни відзначаються в базальних гангліях, крім того, інтенсивно страждає кора великих півкуль головного мозку і вегетативні центри. Манифестна стадія хвороби за часом збігається з термінами максимальної концентрації вірусу в мозку та появою виразних запальних змін там.
Клінічні ознаки
Згідно з Міжнародним класифікатором хвороб 10-го перегляду хворобу класифікують до групи «Вірусні інфекції центральної нервової системи» під кодом A83.0. Інкубаційний період триває від 5 до 15 днів. Клінічний перебіг варіює від безсимптомних (найчастіше) і загальногарячкових форм до енцефаліту.
Захворювання починається з різко нарастаючих загальноінфекційних симптомів. При цьому багато пацієнтів можуть назвати точно час початку своєї хвороби. У той же час, за 1 -2 дня до розвитку маніфестної форми захворювання можуть спостерігатися продромальні явища у вигляді швидкої втомлюваності, загальної слабкості, сонливості, зниження працездатності тощо. У тяжких випадках захворювання починається одразу з появи гарячки, головного болю, блювання, в подальшому можуть приєднатися симптоми ураження центральної нервової системи (менінгеальні симптоми, вогнищеві). Характерні ранні порушення свідомості, розлади психіки (неадекватна поведінка, галюцинації). Часто реєструють запальні зміни в легенях, гепатоспленомегалію (збільшення печінки та селезінки), порушення сну за летаргічним типом. З черепних нервів частіше уражені лицьовий і окоруховий, можливе ураження блукаючого нерва, стовбура мозку, шийного відділу спинного мозку (відбуваються мляві парези м'язів шиї і плечового пояса), пірамідної системи (спастичні парези та паралічі). Розвиток коматозного стану супроводжується якісними та кількісними змінами свідомості. Якісні проявляються сплутаністю свідомості, деліріозними або аментивними станами з маячнею та руховим збудженням. Іноді виникають епілептичні припадки. Для кількісних змін свідомості характерні оглушення із сомноленцією, сопор чи кома. Частими ознаками гострого періоду є міоклонічні фібриллярні та фасцикулярні посмикування у різних м'язових групах, в особливості на обличчі і кінцівках, грубий неритмичний тремор рук, що посилюється при рухах. Іноді спостерігається нерясний петехіальний висип. Гарячка триває протягом 7 -10 днів.
Період реконвалесценції тривалий, приблизно 33-50 % мають серйозні неврологічні та психіатричні наслідки.
Діагностика
Люмбальну пункцію виконують для отримання спинномозкової рідини. Тиск рідини може бути високим, рівень білка підвищений, тоді як рівень глюкози в ній часто є нормальним. У клінічному аналізі крові може бути незначний лейкоцитоз. Магнітно-резонансна томографія та КТ-сканування головного мозку можуть показати двосторонні пошкодження кори з крововиливами там. Електроенцефалографія (ЕЕГ) показує дифузне уповільнення сигналів. Виявлення IgM в імуноферментному аналізі (ІФА) та РНК вірусу в полімеразній ланцюговій реакції (ПЛР) у сироватці крові або спинномозковій рідині є стандартним діагностичним тестом для цієї хвороби. Ізоляція вірусів ускладнена, оскільки вірусемія у людей є тимчасовою та низької інтенсивності. Вірусний антиген може бути виявлено у тканинах за допомогою реакції імунофлюоресценції
Лікування
Етіотропних засобів не винайдено. Терапія в значній мірі патогенетична. Використовують протинабрякові засоби (маннітол, салуретики тощо), 40 % розчин глюкози з аскорбіновою кислотою, вітаміни групи В, ноотропні препарати, засоби, що поліпшують трофіку і кровопостачання головного мозку, антигіпоксанти та антиоксиданти. При психомоторному збудженні застосовують літичні суміші. У періоді реконвалесценції продовжують активне відновлювальне лікування, ГАМКергічні засоби, прозерин, біогенні стимулятори.
Профілактика
Необхідно вживати заходів, спрямованих на запобігання укусів комарів, зменшення їхньої популяції та поширення вірусу. Проводять боротьбу з виплодом комарів у водоймах.
Специфічна профілактика розроблена, розроблені вакцини двох типів — отримані внаслідок культивування у мозку мишей та в клітинній культурі in vitro. Доступні три вакцини: SA14-14-2 (вільна від тіомерсалів), IC51 (має назву JESPECT в Австралії та Новій Зеландії; IXIARO — в інших країнах) та ChimeriVax-JE (відома під назвою IMOJEV). Усі ці вакцини базуються на III генотипі вірусу. Віруснейтралізуючі антитіла з'являються після введення вакцини наприкінці першого тижня і зберігаються у захисному титрі протягом 2-3-х років, через що існує необхідність ревакцинації у тих людей, що продовжують бути на ендемічних територіях.
Примітки
Джерела
Інфекційні хвороби: енциклопедичний довідник / за ред. Крамарьова С. О., Голубовської О. А. — К.: ТОВ «Гармонія», 2-е видання доповнене та перероблене. 2019. — 712 с. ISBN 978-966-2165-52-4 (Крамарьов С. О., Голубовська О. А., Шкурба А. В. та ін.) / С. 654—657.
Возіанова Ж. І. Інфекційні і паразитарні хвороби: У 3 т. — К.: Здоров'я, 2002. — Т. 2. — 658 с. ISBN 5-311-01249
Antonette B Climaco, Katherine Talcott Melhado Japanese Encephalitis. Updated: May 07, 2016 Medscape. Infectious Diseases Sections. Viral Infections (Chief Editor: Burke A Cunha).
WHO. Japanese encephalitis. Fact sheet No 386. December 2015
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Japanese Encephalitis August 5, 2015
Руководство по инфекционным болезням / Военно-мед. акад.; Под ред. Ю. В. Лобзина. — 3-е изд., доп. и перераб. — СПб.: Фолиант, 2003. — часть 2, с. 156-60.
Руководство по инфекционным болезням / Под ред. В. М. Семенова. — М.: МИА, 2008. — 745 с.
Література
Лобан К. М., Лобзин Ю. В., Лукин Е. П. Риккетсиозы человека (руководство для врачей). — СПб.: ЭЛБИ, 2002. — 473 с.
Арбовірусні хвороби
Хвороби, які можна запобігти вакцинацією
Хвороби, які переносять комарі
Вірусні енцефаліти
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highwood%2C%20Illinois
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Highwood, Illinois
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Highwood, Illinois
Highwood is a North Shore suburb of Chicago in Moraine Township, Lake County, Illinois, United States. As of the 2020 census, the population was 5,074. It is known for its entertainment, restaurants, bars, and festivals.
Geography
Highwood is located in southeastern Lake County at , on a ridge above the elevation of Lake Michigan.
According to the 2010 census, Highwood has a total area of , all land.
The city is located next to Highland Park and Fort Sheridan, and south of the Fort Sheridan Forest Preserve.
History
Originally, the land was owned by the Potawatomi until it was ceded to the United States through the 1833 Treaty of Chicago. The first non-Native American settled in the town in 1846. In 1851 Highwood became the headquarter location of the Chicago North Shore and Milwaukee Railroad, which ran parallel to the Chicago and North Western Railway, and is known today as Metra's Union Pacific / North Line. Thomas Curley suggested the name High Woods because the land was the highest ground between Chicago and Milwaukee and was covered with trees.
In 1886 civil and labor unrest in Chicago eventually led to the Haymarket Riot. Chicago businessmen felt that having a military presence near the city would help alleviate tensions within the city and on November 8, 1887 purchased Camp Highwood. This land would come to host members of the Sixth Infantry Regiment. On February 27, 1888 Camp Highwood was officially named Fort Sheridan in honor of General Philip Sheridan for his ability to maintain order after the Chicago Fire of 1871.
Highwood provided several business and employment opportunities and following the fire, many of those who lost their home and a wave of immigrants settled into the town. Highwood can also give credit to much of their economic success to the Chicago and Milwaukee Electric Railway. However, with increased transportation it also caused a sudden rise in gambling dens and illegal "blind-pig" taverns which catered to off duty soldiers. This eventually provoked federal authorities to enact the "Highwood Quadrangle" which prohibited the sale of liquor within 1 1/8th miles of the army base.
Fort Sheridan acted as an entertainment center for the town and on July 18, 1888 the trustees voted to change the name from Highwood to the Village of Fort Sheridan to capitalize on its military glamour. However, 8 years later in 1894 the name was changed back to Highwood due to resident frustration and confusion with postal misrouting. The city's business district became filled with bars and taverns which led Theodore Roosevelt to call the city "one of the toughest towns in America".
In the 1920s a large number of Northern Italian immigrants (originally from Modena) moved to Highwood, many from Dalzell, Illinois, a coal mining town in Bureau County, to seek jobs. The national prohibition of alcohol at the time also attracted bootleggers who smuggled large quantities of liquor into the city. The fight to prevent Highwood from being known as a whisky den largely brought the community together.
Following the start of World War II Fort Sheridan was used as an active training ground. By the end of the war Highwood had experienced another wave of immigration, this time a majority of immigrants coming from Europe and Mexico. Since then Highwood's business have continued to flourish and the city has become the destination for North Shore dining and nightlife. The city frequently hosts festivals for residents known as Celebrate Highwood which is hosted by the city chambers.
Government
Highwood operates an council-manager government.
Transportation
The main highway to Highwood is U.S. Route 41, which connects Chicago to Milwaukee. Commuter rail is available at two different Metra stations locations within the city (Fort Sheridan and Highwood). Highwood is also located near the Highland Park and Lake Forest stations which all located on the Union Pacific North Line which begins in Kenosha and ends in the downtown area of Chicago at Ogilvie Transportation Center.
Pace provides bus service on Route 472 connecting Highwood to Highland Park, Fort Sheridan, and other destinations.
The city is approximately from O'Hare International Airport and from Midway International Airport.
Schools
Highwood residents are served by North Shore School District 112 and Township High School District 113. The majority of Highwood's children attend Oak Terrace School for Kindergarten through fifth grade, Northwood Junior High School for sixth through eighth grade, and Highland Park High School for grades nine through twelve.
St. James School was a private Catholic school located in Highwood, but closed in 2015 due to a lack of funding and low enrollment.
Recreation
The Don Skrinar Recreation Center is a public recreation facility located near downtown Highwood. The city is also a host to the Midwest Young Artists Conservatory and The Performer's School. The Fine Art Studio of ROTBLATT-AMRANY which is owned by Julie Rotblatt Amrany is located within the old village of Fort Sheridan.
Demographics
2020 census
2010 census
At the 2010 census, Highwood's resident population was 5,405. The median resident age was 32.8.
The racial makeup of the city was 69.64% White (38.5% Non-Hispanic White), 1.54% Black or African American, 2.24% Asian, 0.31% Native American, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 22.92% of some other race and 3.33% of two or more races. 56.87% were Hispanic or Latino (of any race).
2000 census
At the 2000 census there were 4,143 people in 1,555 households, including 933 families, in the city. The population density was . There were 1,604 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 43.14% White, 2.15% African American, 0.58% Native American, 2.12% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 17.19% from other races, and 4.78% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 38.23%.
Of the 1,555 households 29.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.2% were married couples living together, 10.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.0% were non-families. 34.1% of households were one person and 13.0% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.60 and the average family size was 3.31.
The age distribution was 23.3% under the age of 18, 10.6% from 18 to 24, 33.8% from 25 to 44, 16.6% from 45 to 64, and 15.7% 65 or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.0 males.
The median household income was $42,993 and the median family income was $53,000. Males had a median income of $30,560 versus $27,560 for females. The per capita income for the city was $24,138. These income statistics are significantly lower than in surrounding towns. About 4.3% of families and 7.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.9% of those under age 18 and 5.2% of those age 65 or over.
Architecture
Highwood was settled in 1887 and was largely developed before the post-World War II building boom that led to much of the suburban development that characterizes Lake County. Therefore, the city has a large collection of pre-war residential and commercial structures that reflect the architecture popular during that period, including neo-classical, Italianate, and arts and crafts bungalow styles. Also common in the business district are brick commercial "store front" structures with commercial businesses on the ground floor and residential apartments above.
Notable people
Frank Bernardi, National Football League defensive back (1955–1960)
Scott Drury, member of the Illinois House of Representatives (2013–2019)
Lowell B. Komie, lawyer and writer
Francis Joseph Magner, prelate of Catholic church; served as Bishop of Marquette (1941–1947)
Settimio Fernando "Terry" Terracina , Light Heavy-Weight Boxing Champion of Italy 1936 to 1939. Owner of The Rainbow (1949 to 1968) and La Lira(1968 to 1974) Born in Rome: January 11, 1917 Died February 10,1985, Buried at Shalom Memorial Park.
References
External links
City of Highwood
Highwood Chamber of Commerce
Highwood Historical Society
Chicago metropolitan area
Cities in Lake County, Illinois
Populated places established in 1887
Cities in Illinois
Illinois populated places on Lake Michigan
Majority-minority cities and towns in Lake County, Illinois
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23082045
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaroslav-the-Wise%20Novgorod%20State%20University
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Yaroslav-the-Wise Novgorod State University
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Yaroslav-the-Wise Novgorod State University
The Yaroslav-the-Wise Novgorod State University (orig. Новгородский Государственный Университет имени Ярослава Мудрого, НовГУ), also known informally as NovSU, was founded in 1993 by merging the two oldest higher education institutions of Veliky Novgorod: the Pedagogical and Polytechnic Institutes. Later, Novgorod Agricultural Academy was included into the structure of the university. At present it comprises seven Institutes and four Colleges of secondary vocational education.
It is unusual that the Novgorod State University has the name of Prince Yaroslav the Wise incorporated into its title. On the eve of the university's first anniversary, the Prince's personal seal was discovered during archaeological excavations. Academician Yanin considered it a remarkable coincidence and suggested awarding the university the name of the Russian prince.
Higher education in Novgorod in the 18th–20th centuries
The first attempt to open a higher educational institution in Novgorod dates back to 1740, when the Novgorodian Archbishop Ambrose (Yushkevich) founded the Novgorod Theological Seminary. As a graduate of the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, Archbishop Ambrose planned to create an exact copy of his alma mater in Novgorod. From the very beginning, the activities of the Novgorod Theological Seminary were thoroughly regulated and properly funded (7859 rubles 37 kopecks per year were allocated for its maintenance). This amount of money was much higher than the financial support of other seminaries in the Russian Empire at that time. On April 12, 1741, he sent a report to the regent Anna Leopoldovna, declaring his intention to build "not a seminary, but a large Academy following the example of the Kiev schools ... [at] the monastery of Anthony of Rome", where "should be 10 schools according to the state, also a stone library for keeping books, and for better order and observation of this Academy... archimandrite and rector ... following the example of the Kiev and Moscow Academies", and also asked "to approve this academy with a privilege (certificate), following the example of Kiev, Kharkov and other foreign academies". The curriculum had the same structure as in the Kiev Academy. The first teachers were invited also from there.
The academies of that time were not only designed to train clergymen. Their graduates became scientists, writers, officials, etc. The formalization of the clergy into a closed class and the reorientation of theological schools exclusively towards people from this class occurred later, during the reign of Catherine II.
Archbishop Ambrose made special efforts to organize the seminary library. In 1740, 300 rubles a year were allocated to equip the library. No seminary in the Russian Empire received such funding. Ambrose handed over the book collection of the Novgorod bishop's house to the seminary library, which included the library of the Novgorod school of Likhud Brothers, and also obtained permission from Empress Elizabeth Petrovna to transfer the library of Theophan (Prokopovich) to the seminary.
Ultimately, however, the main resources were directed to the development of education in St. Petersburg. So in 1788, the upper classes of the Novgorod Theological Seminary, on the initiative of Metropolitan Gabriel (Petrov) of Novgorod and St. Petersburg, were transferred to St. Petersburg for 11 years to raise the level of education in the Alexander Nevsky Seminary, which in 1797 was transformed into the Theological Academy. Thus, for all the subsequent tsarist times, neither a theological academy nor a secular university was opened in Novgorod. In the 19th century, the Novgorod Theological Seminary had few fundamental differences from other theological seminaries in the country. However, even then it possessed unique traditions and a remarkable library.
On September 30, 1918, the Novgorod government department of public education decided to close the Novgorod Theological Seminary, and on October 1, 1919, the Novgorod Institute of Public Education was opened on its basis. The fundamental library of the seminary was transferred to that institute.
In 1934, the Novgorod Institute of Public Education was transformed into the Novgorod State Teachers' Institute, and then, in 1953, into the Novgorod State Pedagogical Institute.
Novgorod State University
On June 30, 1993, the Prime Minister V.S.Chernomyrdin signed the Resolution: "On the formation of the Novgorod State University" on the basis of the Novgorod State Polytechnic Institute and the Novgorod State Pedagogical Institute. The Minister of Education V. G. Kinelyov appointed Vladimir Vasilyevich Soroka as Rector of NovSU. The opening ceremony took place on October 1, 1993.
The purpose of foundation of NovSU was to combine the diverse experience of training specialists by conducting fundamental research and training at all levels of higher, postgraduate and additional education in a wide range of natural sciences, humanities and other areas of science, technology and culture.
On the eve of the celebration of the first university anniversary, at the Troizkiy excavation site in Novgorod, the lead seal of Prince Yaroslav the Wise was found, indicating that he, already being a Kiev prince, retained a direct influence on the development of Novgorod. At the suggestion of the head of the Novgorod archaeological expedition, academician V. L. Yanin, who was supported by the members of the Academic Council of Novgorod State University and the regional administration, the new university was named after Yaroslav the Wise in recognition of his merits.
On January 15, 1997, by order of the Government of the Russian Federation, based on the decision of the Academic Councils of the Novgorod State Agricultural Academy (NSAA) and Novgorod State University, the NSAA was incorporated into the university as a structural unit: the School of Agriculture and Natural Resources. The Faculty of Economics in the summer of the same year merged with the university faculties of economics and management, laying the foundation for the Institute of Economics and Management.
Mission of the University
NovSU continues the political and educational mission of the Novgorod Prince Yaroslav-the-Wise and sees its destination in both the development of Russian education and science as well as in the interest of the individual, society and state, in glorification of Novgorod lands by learning and unity. Its objectives are to translate professional knowledge and experience, to implement humanistic ideals, and to build a social type of the individual adequate to the requirements of contemporary time. NovSU promotes cultural development of the regional community on a national, historical, spiritual and moral basis, while emphasizing the features and dynamics of "a learning university" on the latest organizational and technological basis.
International Relations
Novgorod State University is engaged in a wide spectrum of international activities. NovSU cooperates with international foundations, foreign governmental and nongovernmental organizations, and universities from countries such as Belarus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Serbia, Sweden, Ukraine, and the United States.
Education and institutes
More than 10,000 students study at the Novgorod State University. The academic staff of the NovSU consists of 1080 employees. Among them there are 188 doctors and 566 candidates.
Today 4 specialist degree programs, 42 undergraduate programs and 19 master's degree programs are offered at 20 faculties and 92 departments of the university.
Institute of Electronic and Information Systems
• Software of Computer Engineering and Automated Systems
• Applied Mathematics and Information Science
• Mathematics
• Physics
• Electronics and Micro-Electronics
• Radio Technology, including specialization Medical Electronics
• Design and Technology of Electronic Equipment
• Radio Physics and Electronics
Institute of Humanities
• History and Archivistics
• Theory and Methodology of Foreign Languages
• Translation Methodology
• Philosophy
• Cultural Studies
• Philology
• Journalism
• Law
Institute of Medical education
• General Medicine
• Nursing
• Dentistry
• Pharmacy
Institute of Continuous Pedagogical Education – Psychology
• Technological Education
• Pedagogics
• Foreign Languages
• Technology and Entrepreneurship
• Musical Education
• Fine Arts
• Preschool Pedagogics and Psychology
• Pedagogics and Methodology of Primary Education
• Logopedics
• Special Psychology
• Physical Training
• Management of Organization
Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources
• Biology
• Geography
• Chemistry
• Ecology
• Forestry
• Agronomy
• Agricultural Mechanization
• Agricultural Manufacturing and Processing Technologies
• Veterinary
Institute of Economics and Administration
• Management of Organization
• Marketing
• Human Resources Management
• State and Municipal Management
• Land Resources Management
• Accounting, Analysis and Audit
• Finances and Credit
• Economics and Enterprise Administration
• Commerce
Polytechnic Institute
• Тechnology, Equipment and Automation of Engineering Industry
• Technologies of Engineering Industry
• Automobile Transport
• Industrial Heat-and-Power Engineering
• Industrial and Civil Engineering
• Urban Construction and Municipal Services
• Technology of Art Materials Processing
• Machinery and Metal Pressure Processing Technology
• Architecture
• Design (Industrial, Fashion)
• Architectural Environment Design
Duration of studies
5 years – specialties (except: 6 years – General Medicine and Design; 4 years – Nursing); 4 years – bachelor's degree; 2 years – master's degree; 3 years – postgraduate Studies.
Department of Russian as a Foreign Language
Department of Russian as a Foreign Language offers both short and long-term courses in business and colloquial
Russian for students or anyone who wishes to study the Russian language and culture.
References
External links
Website
Yaroslav The Wise Novgorod State University
Veliky Novgorod
Public universities and colleges in Russia
Universities and colleges in Novgorod Oblast
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