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Today’s post is just to show a quick re-touch on an image. The objective is to give the image some punch and presence, but not to over work the image. My personal image post processing is always kept to a minimum, a bit like a quick mid week supper, something that can be achieved in under 20minutes.
The image that we will be looking is a simple shot that I took in China a few years ago. I really like the playfulness of the scene, as well as the interaction with the girls on this bench, they really moved fast to stop their faces being seen by the lens.
The first part of the process is to work the basic panel, with the objective to just to expand the histogram, open the highlights and shadows and generally tighten up the image as a base for the next adjustments using the white and black points.
The next process is just to apply the Lens Corrections, based on the lens used for this shot. These settings are found under the Lens Corrections tab (marked in red), and is as simple as selecting and enabling the Profile Corrections check box (more details are covered in this post, as well as automating this on an image import). I pretty much always turn on the Chromatic Aberration, just to give the image a once over and remove any simple basic fringing issues.
The image above is slightly slanted on the bricks behind the girls, so i’ve just added an Auto upright to correct this part of the image.
Actually, I really like the image out of the camera, so I don’t think there is a lot of work to get this to it’s final state. A classic technique that can be applied here, is to apply an ‘S’ tone curve. The ‘S’ curve is quite simple, it’s a darkening of the shadows, and a lift on the highlight and maybe a lift in the middle grey area. This ‘S’ curve will give a bit of contrast to the image and give provide punch for the viewer.
For this, i’ll take advantage of the Target Adjustment Tool (TAT) on the Tone Curve. The TAT tool is found on the top left of the Tone Curve panel (marked in red below). The TAT tool below is in the off state. To turn it on, just click it.
Once clicked the TAT tool will highlight white (marked red below) and the mouse pointer will change to the TAT tool. The beauty of using the TAT tool, as opposed to moving the tone curve manually, is that you can hover over an area on the image and it’s tonal value will automatically represent itself on the actual Tone Curve. As the TAT tool is moved around the image, it’s relative point will be represented on the tone curve, showing you where in the image the tone lies. This will allow you to select and see the areas that need to be adjusted.
There are two points that i am looking for which will create the ‘S’ curve. The yellow marked area is a shadow/dark tone and by holding a right click on the mouse (or digital stylus like a Wacom pen) and dragging this downwards with the mouse, will pull the shadow area down on the curve and will affect the image at the same time (increasing contrast). The other part of the image to modify and increase in value is the highlight area, for this i’ve chosen quite a bright white area (marked in purple below), and increased this using the mouse or the pen, as described previously.
Once these two modification points have been applied the curve will look similar to the one below. If a point needs removing, a right click on the curve will bring up the fly out menu which allows you to remove the point (one by one), or to flatten the curve and remove all points.
Previewing the before and after adjustment of the Tone Curve, is done by turning off this panels adjustment. This is done by clicking on the switch marked in yellow below on the Tone Curve panel (this switch is available one most of the panels, and works in the same way).
The majority of the tonal work to the image has been achieved by just applying an ‘S’ curve. There are a few other things to complete which will add some more interest and keep the viewer focused on the picture.
The way my eye works is that it’s attracted to bright areas in the image and repelled from the darker areas. Old master printers would often add an edge burn to the image, as this will repel the eye and move it away back into the light areas. Typically it’s not that obvious on the image, but the eye will recognise the tonal difference, and the transition to the brighter areas will be an automatic reaction. There are a few ways to do this, but the one I’ve decided to use in this image is a Post Crop Vignette. The Vignette will be applied to the outer edges all around the image (about 3/4 inch into the image edges), and by setting the style to Highlight Priority and the amount to negative, will darken or burn the edges.
I’ve also added to some to add a bit of grit to the image by using the grain sliders.
With just a little bit of spotting to remove any oddities, like cigarette ends, rubbish, small bright areas etc with the clone and heal brush (marked red below), this cleans this image up nicely and then the post production is complete, and ready for publishing as part of the series.
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https://blogs.adobe.com/richardcurtis/2015/03/14/creativefriday-lightroom-tone-curve-target-adjustment-tool/
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The first step towards predictable colour is to select a Camera Profile. This introduces the image parameters that would have been applied in-camera had you shot in Jpeg format, producing colours closer to those you saw on the rear LCD, at the time of shooting.
Step 2: One-click white balance
Use the White Balance Tool (I) in Camera Raw to instantly neutralise unwanted colour casts. By clicking the tool in an area of neutral grey (highlighted), ACR will automatically alter the white balance using the grey sample as a reference. Click several times to refine the alteration.
Step 3: Use Split Toning
Once a neutral colour balance has been achieved, customise the tone using the Split Toning Panel. Though often used to tone monochrome shots, these controls are highly useful for altering the colour of highlights and shadows independently, where a slight bias is desirable.
Step4: Correct colour with curves
Curve control is one of the most flexible methods of adjusting colour and tonality. Using the Tone Curve in Camera Raw, it is possible to edit colour balance in the shadows, midtones and highlights separately, offering almost unlimited customisation opportunities and subtle shifts in cast.
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https://news.dphotographer.co.uk/tutorials/create-balanced-colour-in-adobe-camera-raw-or-lightroom/
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Over the following short screen-capture videos, Charlie Davis, a London-based illustrator, covers how to use the Pen tool and brushes to build a peaceful countryside scene. You’ll also learn how to apply masks, and how to use textures from Adobe Stock to add depth and warmth.
Davis took a mental trip to the country to evoke silence and solitude when he was asked to illustrate this scene in Photoshop CC. “This scene is about getting away from the digital noise of modern-day life,” he explains.
Once you’ve mastered the techniques in this Photoshop tutorial, you can apply them to your own artwork.
Get Adobe Creative Cloud now
01. Begin your composition with the Brush tool
After importing your initial sketch into a new Photoshop CC file, you can begin your composition, using the Brush tool (B) to draw in major elements.
Davis works on a Wacom Cintiq – his graphics tablet of choice – and the majority of his brushes were created by Kyle T Webster.
02. Add solid shapes using the Pen tool
Now, switch to Photoshop’s Pen tool (P). You need to draw simple, solid shapes to build up the most distant elements of the illustration.
03. Add midground elements
You can now use a combination of freehand drawing and the Pen tool to introduce the midground elements of your illustration.
05. Focus on the foreground
Next, turn your attention to the foreground elements, which you can colour in dark shades to enhance the composition’s sense of depth. To create the leaves of a plant, draw one leaf with the Pen tool and then duplicate it. You can rotate angles and play with size to introduce more natural-looking variations.
06. Add more plants
At this stage, return to the Brush tool (B) to freehand another plant.
07. Add highlights with colour
Draw the general shape of the foreground bird with the Pen tool (P), and make it one solid colour. In this clip, you can see how to add highlights with a lighter colour.
08. Add texture with masks
Add details to break up the flat expanse of snow in the centre of the illustration. Towards the end of this clip, Davis creates a layer named 'tone ledge' and walks through a technique you can use again and again.
Mask into a shape, then draw up against the mask to give one side a textured edge. This combination of freehand drawing with the more precise vector shapes and masks is a hallmark of the process.
09. Think about the light source
With all the elements of the illustration now in place, add long shadows that indicate the light direction and time of day. These help enhance the mood of the image.
10. Add definition
Now, return to the background. Use the Brush tool to apply shades to the mountain-sides, giving them definition.
11. Make it more organic with brushwork
To give the appearance of a sun that’s low in the sky, brush highlights onto the edges of the forms in the illustration. An added benefit is that the pixel-based brush roughens the too-perfect vector shapes, making everything feel more organic.
The best free Photoshop brushes
12. Create shadows
Add snow and shadows to a rock.
13. Add dimension
To give the foreground more dimension, you can work in a bright ray of sun hitting the rocks. This not only enhances the drama of the lighting, but it also calls attention to the bird – an important element of the composition.
14. Add warmth with Adobe Stock textures
To enhance the organic feel of the illustration, add textures from Adobe Stock using the Creative Cloud Libraries feature inside Photoshop. This clip is a fascinating look into how small details can elevate an artwork.
15. Refine colour with Adjustment layers
Your finishing touches can include adding more textures and refining colour via Adjustment layers.
Related articles:
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https://primarytech.com/use-the-pen-tool-and-textures-to-add-depth-in-photoshop/
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While the current tone mapping module in Photoflow works quite well, I was not entirely satisfied by the shape of the resulting tone mapping curve and the behavior of the available controls. After getting some inspiration from Darktable’s “Filmic RGB v4” code, I went ahead and re-wrote an (hopefully) improved module.
Like DT’s implementation, the new tone mapping curve actually works on log-encoded values. However, this is mostly because working in log space greatly simplifies the math, especially since power conversions in linear space are “mapped” to simple multiplications in log space.
Compared to DT’s implementation, there are some important differences:
- the module can be configured to generate an “identity” mapping, that is an output identical to the input.
- the slope of the tone mapping curve at the black and white points is adjustable; above 1 the values are extrapolated linearly (in log space, which means they are mapped with a power function at constant exponent in linear space) and are still editable by additional modules, if needed. As far as understand, DT’s filmic curve instead flattens at both ends of the output range.
Here is a screenshot of the new module:
The UI shows the tone mapping curve in linear space. The two points correspond to the mid-grey output value and the “diffuse white” input value.
The new tone mapping module is accessible in the “experimental” tools group. This means that the behavior of the tool is not yet finalized, and future versions might not be backward compatible. Therefore I strongly suggest not to use the module for any edit that you would like to keep, at least not for the moment…
Below you can find some plots explaining the meaning of the various parameters.
Any feedback would be very much appreciated!
White level
It defines the input value that gets mapped to output=1. The scale is in EV relative to input=1.
In other words, “white level = 0, 1, 2, …” corresponds respectively to “input = 1, 2, 4, …”
Latitude:
It controls the extent of the linear portion of the tone curve around the mid-grey point (in log space).
Exposure:
It controls the linear slope of the lower end of the curve, up to the latitude upper limit.
Increasing the exposure value allows to rise the brightness of the shadows and mid-tones without changing the white point.
Highlights slope:
It controls the slope of the tone curve at the white point. Negative slope values correspond to a flattened curve when approaching the white level, while positive values correspond to a steep curve.
The transition point from the linear portion to the highlights shoulder is controlled by the latitude value. When latitude = 0 the transition starts just above the mid-grey point.
Mid-tones slope:
Controls the slope of the tone curve at the mid-grey point. Positive values correspond to an increased mid-tones contrast, negative values to a contrast decrease. The linear portion of the curve around the mid-grey point (in log space) is controlled by the latency parameter.
Shadows slope:
It gives fine control over the the shape of the tone curve near the black point. Positive values produce a darker output in deep shadows and a brighter output in the mid-tones range.
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https://discuss.pixls.us/t/new-experimental-version-of-filmic-tone-mapping-in-photoflow/19467
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I remember when I was just starting to use Lightroom. I loaded my photos, hopped over to the "develop" module, and was faced with my first major photo-processing dilemma:
"Um... which setting should I adjust first?"
It seemed natural to start right at the top and work my way down. So that's what I did.
I went through each and every panel, from the "Basic" panel to the "Tone Curve" panel and all the way down to "Camera Calibration" panel.
It quickly became clear that this was not the way to go. I had so many questions. Did I really need to change those "clarity" levels? What about the tone curve? Should I use that even after I had adjusted the "highlights" and "shadows" in the basic panel?
After my "top to bottom" method failed miserably, I tried another method called "just-fix-whatever-looks-wrong." It was basically trial and error.
I would jump around the develop module, adjusting the settings based on whatever changes I felt the photo needed. But every time I "fixed" one issue with my photo, I caused other issues.
Building a Better Process
After I got more experience, two things became clear:
- If I didn't start with a clear idea of how I wanted my image to look, it would be impossible to edit it properly
- Some tools were more fundamental than others. It didn't make sense to fine tune until I got those right.
Based on these insights (and a lot of experimentation) I've honed an order and technique to my Lightroom editing. This is certainly more "art" than "science" but I roughly follow these steps whenever I'm editing my own images or building new presets.
Here are the steps I follow:
1. Visualize The Final Image
– Gather inspiration outside of Lightroom –
– Have a way to reference during editing –
2. Set the Foundation
– Camera Calibration Profile setup –
– Exposure and White Balance (rough) –
3. Tone Curve Magic
– Do as much as you can in the Tone Curve Panel –
– Use the Highlights/Shadows/Whites/Blacks settings sparingly –
4. H/S/L, Repeat
– Hue –
– Saturation –
– Luminance –
– Repeat –
5. Final Touches
Let's look at these steps a little closer...
1. Visualize the Final Image
Whatever you do, don't skip this step! You will be tempted to jump right into your photo and start editing away.
Don't.
If you don't have a clear idea of what you want the finished image to look like, your chances of getting that look are essentially zero. So deep breath. Take a moment. Visualize.
For this particular photo, I had a very specific style in mind. I wanted a look that was warm, moody and dusty – like it belonged in the pages of National Geographic.
I gathered quite a number of reference photos for the look above. It's very important that you find visual inspiration. There are a number of places you can find inspiration:
- You can find photos on the web (like Instagram, Flickr or 500px) that have a look you want.
- You can reference the images of your favorite photographers.
- You can find sets of images taken by a certain film.
- You can find analog examples that you like. It could be the cover of that Anthropologie catalogue, or the pages of your old Nat Geo collection. Anything that inspires you!
Whatever it is, find an inspiration. And make sure to reference it, often. This is your compass, your True North. You need this to avoid getting so caught up in the world of your own image that you forget where you are headed.
2. Set the Foundation
Before we can really capture this look, we need to set the stage and put down a solid foundation.
A. Camera Calibration Profile
Counterintuitively, your first step in Lightroom begins all the way down at the very bottom of the Lightroom develop panel.
It's the Camera Calibration panel.
Camera Calibration Profiles are one of the MOST important components of Lightroom, assuming you shoot RAW (and you should). It is interpreting the RAW data into displayable colors. So if this is screwed up, it can be difficult to recover later.
For this image, I used the NATE Cam custom camera profile. This is something I built to correct for some of the weaknesses of the Adobe Standard profiles (such as it's weak, overly-magenta red tones). This is what my Professional-Grade Lightroom presets are being built on, and there are over 500 different profiles, each calibrated to a different camera model.
But if you don't have any of my preset packs with these profiles, I would recommend trying your "Camera Standard" profile and seeing if you like that better than Adobe Standard.
B. Exposure and White Balance (Rough)
At this stage, you just want to try to get exposure and white balance approximately right. We'll be coming back and fine-tuning this later.
For this image, the exposure and white balance were fine as is. But it's a good idea to just make sure you are in the right ball-park here before you try to make too many edits.
3. Tone Curve Magic Time
After setting the stage, I always go straight over to the tone-curve panel.
There is so much MAGIC crammed into this tiny module. Just when you think you have it figured out, you find more layers and more possibilities with it.
A. Adjusting the tone curve
If you're just starting out in Tone-Curves, you'll want to start first with the "RGB" channel, which applies the tone curve evenly across all primary colors. Once you get more advanced with this, you'll learn how you can manipulate the individual color channels (Red, Green & Blue) to get just the right look (and I'm sure I'll write about this soon).
Want beautiful, warm fade in your shadows? It's easy once you understand tone curves. Want to add contrast just in the lower mid-tones? This is where you do that.
The major problem with this module is that grabbing those little pointy dots are SO... DAMN... HARD!!
I have some of my own super-secret methods for making better tone curves (hint: I do much of the leg-work outside of Lightroom), but you can start to gain more power over your images by getting better with this module.
This is one reason that high-quality presets are so rare (and so useful) – it takes a lot of time and expertise to carefully craft a great, channel-specific tone curve. If you had to do this for every image, you'd go bonkers!
B. Fine-Tuning Highlights, Shadows, Whites & Blacks
This module comes with a warning: be extra careful here!
The #1 mistake I see Lightroom beginners making is trying to do much in this module.
The problem with this module is that (1) it's right there at the top so beginners try it first and (2) it is just way too easy to make your images look over-processed. This module is the origin of bad HDR.
That's why I only use this module to achieve specific effects. And even then I'm super cautious. For this shot, the only thing I adjusted was bringing down the highlights slightly.
OK, trust me with this: we've got this image right where we want it (even though the colors look wacky.) The fade and warmth looks great. It adds some mid-tone contrast and dimensionality to the skin. But the tone-curve has intensified some of our problems with the skin-hues (which is why we did this first!)
A helpful trick while you are working on the tone curve is to switch in and out of Black and White mode by hitting the "V" key on your keyboard. It's much easier to evaluate the contrast and fade this way. You can even see the tinting from your channel-specific curves coming through (which is kind of a cool effect in itself).
4. Hue / Sat / Luminance Fun
Now this is where things get really fun. This is my second favorite panel (besides the Tone Curve panel). Again, it's just packed with so much potential.
A. Hue
The biggest problem with the photo right now (vs what I want it to look like) is in the hues.
Right now, the hues in the face span all the way from magenta (in the sunburn) to greenish yellow (in the shadows and hair). We want that to look more consistent. So we'll push the red hues towards orange, and pull the yellow hues also towards orange.
B. Saturation
The image still looks a bit overly saturated for the look I'm going for. I start by bringing the saturation down globally, then going into the Saturation setting in the H/S/L panel. For this look, I brought down green significantly just to snip out any green tones that may be lingering in the skin.
C. Luminance
Luminance adjustments are one of the most under-rated tools in Lightroom. You can get some really powerful effects in this panel that you might think you would get elsewhere.
Here, I wanted to replicate the "high-fidelity" film look popularized by National Geographic.
By bringing down the luminance of the warm tones (Red, Orange and Yellow), it's almost like we have a polarizing filter just for the skin. It gives the skin a much more "textured" look. You can see all the details you couldn't before, yet it doesn't look fake or HDR.
Then, to make the eyes "pop" just a bit more, I increase the luminance in the blue and aqua channels just enough to make them glow.
D. Repeat
Getting just the right look in the HSL panel isn't easy because there is so much interplay between the three. You'll find that as you adjust the luminance, you'll need to also adjust the saturation (and vice-versa).
That's normal. Take as much time as you need! Keep working it. Getting everything just right for this photo didn't happen overnight. It was years of learning and developing. So keep at it!
5. Final Touches
Now that you've done the hard work, it's time for the last few adjustments.
Exposure & White-Balance
Fine-tune these. See if your image would benefit from a small increase or decrease in exposure.
Split Toning
You probably don't need this
Detail
Avoid the urge to over-sharpen now. You'll want to be sure to add sharpening during your final image output so that your image is sharp at final resolution.
Lens Correction
Go ahead and try the lens correction. If you don't like it, don't feel the need to use it.
Transform
Only use this if you are trying to get a specific geometric effect.
Effects
I like to add a touch of grain to add depth, but just depends on final destination. For instance, in smaller formats (like Instagram) I typically don't add grain.
Your Turn!
Go ahead and try this out on the next set of images you process. There's some learning curve involved (especially with the tone curves), but once you get the hang of this, you'll never be asking yourself which panel you should be adjusting next!
Also, don't feel like you have to follow this recipe rigidly. You can jump between any Lightroom settings you'd like. But this framework helps me get into a healthier and more productive pattern of development, and I hope it will help you, too!
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http://natephotographic.com/missing-guide-lightroom-my-process/
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How to make Basic Tone Curve Adjustments for bird photography shows you how to use the tool and add some contrast to your bird photographs. Using the Tone Curve will help separate the bird from the background of the image too.
2 Processing Tips for Better Photos shows you how to use the Camera Calibration, Profiles, and Tone Curve in Lightroom Classic CC to improve your photos. A rather drab winter photo of a Pied-billed Grebe is changed from boring to beautiful in this short tutorial.
This processing tutorial is an enhancement to my Quick and Efficient Workflow that I published earlier.
Bird Photographers take a lot of images, here's how to sort through them and keep the good ones for processing. The new speed of Lightroom Classic and the use of embedded jpgs makes this part of the work flow faster.
A workflow that’s quick, minimal and doesn’t take too much time. Since I try not to touch the sliders a second or third time, and since Adobe says it doesn’t matter what order we do things in here’s my current Workflow. This minimizes the amount of time I process images. There are other methods, ideas, and opinions and I am not saying this is the only way. I’m simply saying this is quick; it works for me, and since I get most of the image “right” in-camera I don’t need to make a bunch of corrections in Lightroom. Also, this is a basic version of my workflow there are many options in Lightroom I won’t cover them all.
We're only going to talk about the Develop Module in this overview.
A couple of tricks. When I work on an image, I close the Navigation Panel on the left side of Lightroom. This creates more space for the image. I also make the Develop Panel on the right side wider, the wider the Develop Panel is, the most sensitive the sliders are, so it's possible to make a quick adjustment, and not over or under adjust.
Okay let's get started, I start at the bottom of the Develop Module.
Palouse wheat fields at the end of the day with low light filtered through the dusk of the day. The red arrow points to the Remove Color Aberration box to click. This type of image might have a line of Color Aberration since it's backlit.
I click on the Profile tab and then on the Enable Profile Corrections. If my camera and the lens I was using doesn’t automatically show up, I pick the Make, Model, and Profile from the dropdown boxes. Click on the small arrows on the right of the boxes for these.
There might not be any Color Aberration, but you’re already in this pane, and it won't hurt anything if there isn't any aberration. In some backlighting situations, there will be Color Aberration which will show up as a green, purple or red halo or line near the subject.
Use this tap if you’ve taken an image with straight lines say of an abandoned building in the Palouse. Straighten the building by using the vertical and horizontal sliders.
I do the Lens Corrections Panel adjustments first because if you Crop an image then get down to Lens Correction as one of the last things on your workflow, you’ll probably have to go back up and re-Crop.
The second thing I do is sharpen the subject some using the Details Panel.
Peregrine Falcon. By Masking out the blurred background I can touch up the Sharpening on hjust the bird. This method doesn't create anymore Luminance Noise in the background.
Lightroom’s default sharpening is 25 I like to have things a little crisper so I often will push the sharpening to 50 rarely any more then that. By using the Masking Slider first though I can Mask out the background (if you’re using a normal bird photography trick of shooting wide open for a blurred and pleasing background this will almost always work.) Mask out the background by moving the slider to the right. When the background is black, and the subject is white you're done. The white part of the mask will get sharpened. This eliminates sharpening the background as a global adjustment. So if you’re shooting with a smaller sensor camera like the 7D Mark II, an APS-C sensor, this helps to eliminate or add any more Luminance Noise. One trick is to do the Sharpening at 1:1 so you can see what detail is being added, and don’t over sharpen and create artifacts, halos or make the image look to contrasty.
Just after I Sharpen the image a little, I jump up to the Spot Removal Tool, located above the Basic Panel. I do this – mostly because I just used the Detail Sharpening Mask, and this too uses a similar masking. After you active the Tool by clicking on the icon, a Tool Bar will show up below the image. There's a checkbox for Visualize Spots, click on this, and use the slider next to it to see the spots by moving it right and left. More spots will appear as you move the slider to the right. You can also use this tool to clean up and unwanted "natural" spots on the images, like in this beach image some of the white highlights in the foreground.
The Spot Removal Tool is active, and the lower tool bar has the slider.
Since I’m up in the tools area above the Basic Panel, I use the Crop Tool now. I do this before I make and global adjustments using the Black, Whites, Shadows, or Highlights Sliders. I’ve found that sometimes if I make adjustments then crop I have to re-make the adjustments, so in the interest of only doing things once, I Crop first.
I've Cropped this image to a "pano" type size 1:3, and Used the Angle Tool to straighten the horizon.
There are several options here. If the image is well exposed and I got it right in-camera) I start with the Blacks Slider. If not, and I have an under exposed or over exposed image, I start with the Exposure Slider.
I use this when the image is a stop or more under or over exposed. It’s a big global adjustment, so I use it sparingly. Just move the slider right and left until it looks like a good exposure on the image and the Histogram.
I set the Black Point first. There are several ways to tell if you’ve gone too far in clipping the Blacks, Whites, etc. The first is the small triangles in the upper corners of the Histogram box (highlighted in the image below by the red arrow), they’ll light up with the colors being clipped. The another way is to hold down the Option or Alt key. This will show something that looks like a mask and indicates where the clipped areas are. I move the slider (Blacks, Whites, Shadows or Highlights) around until I have just barely clipped a tiny bit of data or not clipped any. Either of these two methods will work. Sometimes I just go by the triangles in the Histogram box because it’s one or two fewer keys to touch.
Moving the Shadows slider darker will mean that you might have to redo the Blacks Slider. But it will also lighten under the wings of birds or bring out details in the shadows, which is what I do most often. Occasionally I will darken the shadows if that’s what is needed in the image.
Same methods as before, but if the Whites Slider isn’t able to pull down any over exposure then try this first. If you have the sun in your image, let’s face it, you’re gonna clipped some data. But it won’t matter; everyone knows the sun is bright.
For this image I adjusted the Exposure, and then adjusted the Black, Whites, Shadows and Hightlights. This is an abandoned house in the Palouse.
Now there are times when there isn’t a definite Black or White Point in the image and pulling the exposure to the ends of the slider bar will make the image look weird. Don’t try to force the dynamic range, by adding Black and White Points that weren't in the original image.
Use the Histogram as a guide to get the best exposure for the image, but look at the image, it sill might need to be adjusted. Maybe you have an image of a Bald Eagle, and the head is still very bright while the Histogram indicates it's not overexposed, but it looks like it is. Adjust for how you want the image to look. That's one of the creative decisions we get to make as artist/photographers.
When I’m adding Vibrance or Saturation, I start with Vibrance since it will ‘saturate” the colors that aren’t overly saturated first. If this doesn’t give me what I need, then I use the more powerful, and global Saturation Slider. If you have people in your image, the Vibrance Slider won’t impact the facial coloration like the Saturation Slider does.
See above, but sometimes I use both sliders to get the impact I want.
I added Vibrance and Saturation to this image of the Pacific Ocean before sunrise in La Jolla.
Since this effects a greater portion of the images, I do it before the most localized adjustments listed below. I use this to darken or lighten the sky or darken and lighten the foreground in landscape images. By using the Exposure Slider or the Blacks Slider in the drop down menu. Occasionally I will use one of the other adjustments available in this tool, Saturation, Noise Reduction, Highlights, etc.
This image of a Palouse Sunset from Steptoe Butte, still have teh Graduated Filter Tool's mask showing. The darker the red mask, the more the exposure will be darken. I darkened the foreground to reduce the blue haze and create more impact in teh image.
Before and after the Graduated Filter Adjsutment.
With the latest version of Lightroom, there’s the Dehaze Filter at the bottom of the Effects Panel. I have been using this with the other global adjustments sometimes using it when I first start with the image – if it has a lot of haze or smoke, but sometimes I’ve used it just a little bit at the end after the Graduated Filter Tool.
Smoke from last summers wildfire spilled over into the Palosue. The quickest way to correct for this(now) is the Dehaze Filter that comes iwtht eh new version of Lightroom.
I use the Brush Tool to lighten or darken small areas that a global adjustment just would work on. The trick is to make the adjustment very light, don’t add too much darken and don’t add too much lightening. It works best as a subtle adjustment.
To use this tool click on the Brush Tool, and then adjust the size of the brush, I typically use it with 100% Flow and Feathering. This helps to make the adjustment appear more natural. In this image, I adjusted the Exposure Slider a little bit.
Brush in any other adjustments you need, a little spot might need some Noise Reduction, which is also one of the options.
The"Pin" is visible from using the Brush Tool to adjust the dark volcanic rock of Haystack Rock on Cannon Beach.
Often the last thing I will do to an image is to add a little saturation to the sky by using the Saturation Panel under HSL.
This has a Target Adjustment Tool, just click on the tool then click on the color you want to saturate in the image. You can slide the mouse up and down to saturate or de-saturate until you get the look you want.
The Palouse at sunrise from Steptoe Butte State Park. I lower the orange and increased the yellow in the sky with the HSL - Saturation Slider by using the Target Adjustment Tool.
Summary of the Order of my adjustments.
Basic Panel Local Adjustments -- Brush Tool, dodge & burn, and other options.
HSL Panel - Adjust sky etc.
I hope you find this useful; I keep trying to streamline my Workflow so I can spend more time creating images then post-processing them. All with the goal of being outdoors more then in front of the computer. Happy shooting!
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https://www.timboyerphotography.com/blog/?category=Post+Processing
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Andrew Williams’ photograph was shot in very low light using a Canon EOS 500D. With a maximum ISO of 3,200, the sensor on this camera is less capable of capturing low-light scenes than those in more recent digital cameras. Therefore, the decision to use ISO 1,600 and shoot at maximum aperture was probably the best option (even though the result is underexposed). These steps show how I was able to lighten the image using the Camera Raw Exposure slider, as well as adjust the tone settings to achieve a soft contrast on the skin tones.
1. Basic panel adjustments
The first step was to lighten the image. I did this by going to the Basic panel and applying a +3.90 Exposure adjustment. I combined this with a -73 Contrast adjustment, a negative Highlights, positive Shadows adjustment and negative Clarity adjustment to soften the skin tones and add a subtle glow. I also converted the image to black & white.
2. Crop and sharpen
I then selected the Crop tool and applied a rotated crop that centred the child’s face and cropped the top more tightly. In the Detail panel, I set the Luminance slider to 30 to reduce the luminance noise. Having done that, I adjusted the Sharpening sliders, adding more Sharpening, setting the Radius to 1.3 and the Masking slider to 70.
3. Add Graduated Filter
I selected the Graduated Filter tool and added a number of filter adjustments in which the Exposure slider was set to -0.65. The idea here was to apply a controlled vignette that darkened the outer areas to black, while preserving the subtle light and shade on the main subject. Finally, I added a cool split-tone colouring effect.
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https://www.amateurphotographer.co.uk/technique/photo_editing/photo-editing-masterclass-lighten-exposure-94008
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How to retouch a portrait.
We’re all aware that celebrities and models are retouched to within an inch of their lives but until I started using Photoshop I didn’t realise just how easy it is to entirely change someone’s features. Good retouching though is an art and a science and one that I’ve not yet mastered, but since I shoot primarily self-portraits I’d be crazy if I didn’t at least know how to pretty myself up a bit.
Everyone’s method for retouching is slightly different but here’s the workflow that currently works for me:
- A quick note on compositing and retouching before we get started. My image this week had fairly bad lighting. My neck has weird shadows and there is an eyelash shadow under my right eye. I could have retouched these areas but I thought it would be easier to find other photos from the shoot where these shadows were less of an issue and mask them over the problem areas in the main image. You can also try mirroring features as covered in last week’s tutorial.
- Make a copy of your background (Ctrl/Cmd J). If your portrait is made up of different layers as mine was, group the layers (Ctrl/Cmd G), make a copy of the group (Ctrl/Cmd J) and merge the layers together (Ctrl/Cmd E).
- Load your healing brush tool which we will use to fix blemishes and wrinkles just as you would with concealer. Hopefully you’ve used either this or the clone stamp tool before and are familiar with how they work, but if not, you need to sample a smooth area of skin that is a similar colour to your problem area by holding down Alt/Opt and clicking the clean spot. Then you paint over your problem spot. If the brush accidentally clones things you don’t want, just undo (Ctrl/Cmd Z) and try again. Paint over all your problem spots this way, remembering to resample often. Use discretion when removing scars and moles because they are part of someone’s appearance. Rename the layer you’ve been working on to ‘healing’.
- Now for frequency separation! Duplicate your healing layer twice. Rename the layer directly above it ‘colour’ and the one above that ‘texture’. Turn off the eyeball next to the texture layer and apply a blur to the colour layer using Filter>Blur>Surface Blur. Adjust the sliders just enough so that the detail starts to smooth out and lose clarity.
- Turn the texture layer back on and highlight it. Go to Image>Apply Image and in the layer drop down box choose the ‘Colour’ layer. Apply the settings from the image below. What this does is analyse the two layers and subtracts out what is different – which is the texture – so you’re left with a layer containing ONLY the texture from your image. When finished with the dialogue box change the blend mode of this layer to ‘linear light’.
- Now for the part I struggle with the most – applying foundation and contouring. Skin generally has blotchy colours so we need to even out the transition between these colours but also be mindful of the areas where the face has contour and enhance these. For example, in this image I want to soften the gradation of dark to light on my cheek, add more highlights to the ridge of my nose to even out the bump, take the redness out of my chest and just generally make the skin look more even. SO, with the colour layer selected choose a soft brush (b) and change the brush’s opacity to 10%. Sample a skin tone colour you wish to paint with (Alt/Opt click) and then paint over the area of colour variation to even it out. Don’t go overboard though because you want to keep the face’s natural shape and not make it look like a flat surface. It took me much experimenting to get this right so take your time with it and resample often. If you’re really struggling I’ve seen another method for this which is to lasso areas of skin, feather the selection A LOT and then add a small Gaussian Blur to smooth out the colour differences. The beauty of doing this technique on the colour layer is that because we have a texture layer, any changes you make to the colour layer only affect the colours and leave the textures intact.
- Add a curves layer and create a very soft S curve to put a little contrast into the skin and even out the skin tones further.
- If you’re noticing that the texture of the skin is still too pronounced (for example, if your subject has quite large pores) you can paint with the blur tool on a low setting to blur these areas a little more. Zoom right in while you do this to ensure that the blur isn’t too obvious.
- Decide if you need to reshape any of your subject’s features and if so head to Filter>Liquify. The main tools to use here are the ‘Forward Warp’ tool which allows you to very gently push and pull features around (good for things like minimising waist lines or smoothing flyaway hair). The bigger the brush size the broader (and more convincing) the change. The ‘Pucker’ tool makes things smaller so with a brush just big enough to cover the area you wish to reduce, tap a couple of times until you’re happy. I use this on my nose. The ‘Bloat’ tool does the opposite to the ‘Pucker’ tool and is good for areas like lips. You can use the undo shortcut in this dialogue box at any time if you go too far. I’m sure there are other useful Liquify tools but I’ve never used them. Press OK when you’re done.
- Make two new layers and label them ‘dodge’ and ‘burn’. Set the blend mode for both to overlay. Load a soft brush tool with white and change its opacity to 10%. Paint over any areas of light to make them even lighter. Areas to concentrate on are: the bridge of the nose, under the eyes and the top of the cheeks, the eyeballs and iris and the middle of the lips.
- On the burn layer change the brush to black and paint over dark areas to make them darker. Concentrate on the cheekbones, the sides of the nose, eyelashes and brows, pupils, on the neck under the chin and around the hairline.
The point of dodging and burning is to further contour the face and add contrast and sharpness. It’s similar to the contouring technique used by makeup artists because it flatters and enhances facial features. In this example photo I’ve used this technique to enhance my shoulder bones, painting black on dark areas and white on light areas to make them more pronounced. If you feel your dodge and burn is making your image look cartoonish lower the opacity of your layers a touch.
- If you wish to add makeup to your subject add a new layer and change the blend mode to colour. Select a colour and paint over the lips, the eyes or the cheeks. Reduce opacity if needed or add a hue/saturation layer to change the colour and intensity.
- If you didn’t capture any catch lights in the subject’s eyes you can add your own with a small, medium hardness, white brush. Just dot in a spot of light on each pupil. Heal any blood vessels on the eyeballs using the healing brush. You can then enhance brows and lashes by drawing in more hair with a very small hard brush if you need. And you’re done!
About ‘Gaia’
I had two goals for this week’s image: to try and recreate the look Paul Apal’kin uses in his portraits, and to create a scene similar to a print I bought a few year’s back off Etsy by TheNebulousKingdom.
I failed at both goals. I did a very rough mock up of Paul’s technique in Lightroom but when adding the animals I discovered that my stock were all shot at different angles in different light and I couldn’t work them into my hair successfully. Eventually I just started throwing images into Photoshop to see if something would stick. I hate this period of experimentation but I love it when an image begins to take shape. In this case I loaded a photo I shot out of the window of a moving train window and I liked the way the mountains followed the shape of her hair. So I started to bring in more shots from the same train journey, building up a mountainous scene and sprinkling some animals throughout for interest. The composited animals are way too large for the scene but when an image is this fanciful you tend to get away with a bit more thankfully!
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https://hayleyrobertsphoto.com/retouch/
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I made several tutorials in Spanish, but ill make translations for each image.
1.- we start our illustration by creating a quick sketch and with little detail, this is done to have an idea on the distribution of the characters and if there's something that needs to be changed you dont loose time correcting them.
2.- Once the sketch is defined we proceed to refine and clean the image and you can see how i added more elements to it that wasnt defined in the quick sketch.
I also modified the pose of the rabbit (“Max”) added a new character and drew a background.
IMPORTANT: to obtain quality results and to add colour really fast is ideal to either ink digitally or scan the work at 600dpi. If its scanned you have to make sure the lines are pure black, to obtain that just adjust the brightness and contrast until your work looks pixelated like in the zoomed circle in this graphic. This isnt a problem since the work is going to be resized down (if its for web) or it wont be seen when printed. The pixelated lines are perfect for colouring.
3.- Once we have the illustration cleaned up and detailed we can begin inking, to create the sensation of depth we can do variation in the ink lines depending on how far they are from the spectator. For example the background has light lines and the foreground has thicker lines and the nearest character has even thicker lines.
4.- if we ink to add colour later then we have to make sure there are no open spaces, this helps when we use the fill tool to apply a colour and the colours keep inside the right shapes.
The colours in this step should be flat, this is only done to define the areas we are going to shade later.
If colour in Photoshop we use the tool “Paint Bucket Tool” and we uncheck the “anti-alias” option (this is very important because this wonk create a grading between the colour and the ink lines.)
5.- Once we have the flat colours defined we can start adding the shading, in this image i wanted to keep the tonal variations at minimum. for example i only used two tones, a base tone and a a slight darker tone for the shadows. I made pale grey shadows for the bunny and bluish grey for the “ghosts”.
6.- once the characters are defined we can define the background, the background not always needs to be highly detailed, you can simulate detail with colours and solid traces.
Backgrounds doesnt need to be graded or smoothed either.
7.- to give more life to the image and make the figures stand, we can add brighter tones like bounced light coming from a light source, in this case it comes from the right side.
Since the ghosts are white there is no need to apply a light tone, though in some cases it can make the image look better.
8.- last step is to add the speech balloons and sound effects, there can be textures applied as well as other details.
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https://www.theduckwebcomics.com/tutorial/310/
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rectangle with a black fill and no stroke, then Copy and Paste in Front a duplicate.
Rotate this duplicate by 90 degrees, holding shift to keep the angle constrained, then
select them both and hit the Unite button from the Pathfinder panel to merge them into
one shape. Click the word George and select Ungroup from
the right click menu, which will allow you to select just the letter O. Add the cross
to the selection, then give the letter an extra click to make it the Key object. Use
the Align panel to centre the shapes up both horizontally and vertically, followed by the
Unite Pathfinder button to blend them all together. In the newer versions of Illustrator, there’s
some cool widgets then allow you to round off the corners. Use the Direct Selection
tool to shift-click all the points around the cross, then subtly adjust the corner radius. Elsewhere on the artboard, draw a small circle.
Use the Direct Selection tool to drag out the left-most point, then select the Pen tool
and hold the Alt key while clicking the point to remove the bezier handles and make a sharp
point. Click the New icon at the bottom of the Brushes
panel and select New Art Brush. Make sure the flow goes in the right direction to go
from thick to thin. Draw another cicle, then select and delete
the top and left points to leave a quarter circle. Remove the fill, then apply the newly
created brush. Go to Object>Expand Appearance to convert
this stroke into a sold shape. Select the Rotate tool and hold the ALT key
while clicking a pivot point to the left of the shape. In the options enter 10 degrees
and hit the Copy button. Press the shortcut for Transform Again, which
is CMD+D to repeat the effect to form a series of aligned shapes. Select the first copy and scale it down by
a small amount. Select the next shape and press CMD+D twice to scale it down twice as
much. Repeat the process with the next one, except press CMD+D an extra time so the shapes
incrementally reduce in size. Select all the shapes and group them together
so they can all be selected and moved at the same time, then begin scaling and rotating
them to fit within the counter (which is the typographer’s term for the hole) of the letter
D. Rotate and align the shapes enough so that
the angle of the curves matches up exactly to create a smooth transition. Hold the ALT key and drag a copy of the shapes,
then scale, rotate and position them somewhere within the next letter. To mix things up, go to Object>Transform
>Reflect to flip the shapes so they can be used on the opposite side of other letters. Keep creating copies and positioning these
scaly shapes somewhere within every remaining letter of the word Dragon. The leg of the letter R also gives us a great
opportunity to turn it into a spiky dragon’s tail. Select the Brush tool and draw a long
flowing path with a few bends. Use the Direct Selection tool to tweak the
points and bezier handles to produce a smooth path. With the Direct Selection tool still active,
select and delete the points that make up the shape of the letter R’s leg so it can
be replaced with the new brush stroke. Bump up the stroke size to roughly match the
weight of the font, then position it roughly in place and tweak the points of the path. Select the Pen tool and hover over the open
point within the letter R shape. You’ll see a little circular icon which means the path
will be extended. Use this to draw a new shape then blends in with the end of the brush stroke. Make any necessary tweaks with the direct
selection tool to ensure everything transitions smoothly, then go to Object>Expand Appearance
to permanently convert the brush stroke into a shape. Continue with the brush tool to draw a series
of spines down the tail. The positioning doesn’t have to be perfect, just plot a few smooth
short paths. Head back and zoom in to position each of
the spine shapes more accurately so they blend smoothly into the tail outline. The overall logo for Saint George and the
Dragon looks pretty cool with the type customisation, but it’s about time we actually got to the
topic of creating a metal effect in this tutorial. Create a new document in Adobe Photoshop.
I’m using a size of 2000x1300px. Fill the background with black using the shortcut Alt+Backspace. Open up a clouds or smoke image, like this
one I found from Unsplash.com. Press CMD+A to Select All, CMD+C to Copy, then switch
to the main working document and press CMD+V to paste. Scale, rotate and position the image to fill
the background, then press CMD+Shift+U to desaturate it. Change the blending mode to Linear Light to
boost the contrast against the black background, then reduce the opacity to around 30%. Create a new layer and fill it with black.
Add a layer mask then set up a large soft brush. Dab a few spots around the centre of the black
layer to erase the centre of the mask, leaving a vignette effect. Switch back to Illustrator for a second to
select and copy all the elements that make up the logo, then paste and scale them to
size to fit the main Photoshop document. Make a duplicate of the logo layer using the
shortcut CMD+J, or drag the layer over the new icon. Reduce the Fill amount of the duplicate
to zero, making it invisible for the time being. Double click the first logo layer to open
the Layer Style options. First Add a Color Overlay using a dark grey such as #313131. Next add a Bevel and Emboss effect. Change
the Technique to Chisel Hard then max out the Depth and Size. Alter the shading angle to somewhere in the
upper left, around 132 degrees and 20 degrees altitude. Change the contour to the preset with the
dip in the middle and check the Anti Aliased option. Change both the highlights and shadows mode
to Overlay, then reduce the highlights opacity to 30. Add a Drop Shadow using the settings black,
100% opacity, zero distance and a size that suits your document to create some soft shading.
For me 70px looked fine. Click OK on these settings, then double click
the duplicate layer to add some more styles. Begin with a Bevel and Emboss, but change
the shading settings so that the angle is from the upper right. You’ll have to turn
off Global Light to avoid also changing the other layer. Change the contour to the spiky preset with
two points. Then change the highlights Linear Light at 60% and the shadows to Linear Burn
at 20%. Edit the Contour option from under the Bevel
and Emboss menu and change the preset to the smooth curve, followed by the Anti Aliased
button. Add a Stroke using the settings White, 1px,
Inside and Overlay with 50% opacity to add a thin little highlight around the edge of
the text. Then add some noise to the effect using an
Inner Shadow. Set it up with the Overlay blending mode using a mid grey, then max out the Noise
slider at the bottom. Alter the Size so the effect covers the whole letter. Add a Satin effect and change the settings
to White and Overlay, then tweak the Distance and Size to produce some nice highlights and
reflections. I ended up with 20px Distance and 68px Size. OK these effects to see the shiny metal effect
in action. The key parts are the two Bevel and Emboss effects. Using two layers instead
of one allows the two different angles and shading settings to interact and create a
deeper shine. Open up a rainy window photograph, like this
one from Unsplash. Copy and paste it into the document, then scale it down so it fits
over a portion of the text. Hold the ALT key and drag out duplicates to
cover all the words and letters. Trim it down to size for the smaller words. For any areas that are too big to cover without
leaving a hard edge, use the Eraser to blend them together. Select all the copies from within the Layers
panel and go to Layer>Merge Layers to blend them into one. Hold the CMD key while clicking the layer
thumbnail of the logo layer to load its selection, then go to Select>Inverse. Hit the delete key to trim this rainy drops
layer to size, then change the blending mode to Overlay. Reduce the opacity to around 60%,
then add a Sharpen filter to bring out the details. To save some time creating a lens flare from
scratch, find a free pack online, like this one from PSDbox. Paste it into the document
and scale it down in size, then change the blending mode to Screen to render the black
background transparent. Move the flare into place over one of the
letters, then drag out a copy while holding the Alt key. Scale and stretch this duplicate
into a slightly different shape and position it elsewhere over the design. Repeat the process with a few more flare copies
to add a range of highlights across the artwork, scaling and stretching each one to make it
unique. Create a new layer and draw a selection around
the smaller words of the logo. Use the eyedropper from the foreground colour picker to select
an orangey colour from the lens flare and fill the selection using the ALT+Backspace
shortcut. Load the selection of the logo text layer,
inverse it then delete the excess. Change this layer’s blending mode to Color and reduce
the opacity to around 50% to give these words a gold appearance. One finishing touch to enhance the St George
theme is to add a red cross to the background. Create a new layer above the clouds layer
and press CMD+A to Select All. With the Marquee tool selected, right click
and press Transform Selection. Hold the ALT key and scale it down to a thin column, then
give it a red fill. Transform the selection again. This time rotate
it by 90 degrees and stretch it to fill the width of the document. Fill it with red and
change the blending mode to Color, reducing the opacity to around 20% to tone down its
impact. The final design captures the style of the
Fantastic Beasts movie artwork to produce a fantasy movie title or book cover design
of our own. It’s interesting to see how Photoshop’s Bevel and Emboss settings work with those
extra bits of type customisation we did in Illustrator to create a realistic 3D effect. So I hope you enjoyed this latest video tutorial.
If you did, be sure to subscribe to my YouTube channel to be the first to see my upcoming
videos. If you want to see more, head over to my website at spoon.graphics and join my
mailing list to receive plenty of cool design related stuff. Hit me up on Twitter or Facebook
if you want to show me your results from this tutorial, otherwise thanks for watching and
I’ll see you in the next one.
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https://yakthungsamaj.com/how-to-create-a-shiny-metal-text-effect-in-photoshop/
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How do you add a filter in Lightroom?
How to install Lightroom 4, 5, 6 & CC 2017 Presets for Windows
- Open Lightroom.
- Go to: Edit • Preferences • Presets.
- Click on the box titled: Show Lightroom Presets Folder.
- Double click on Lightroom.
- Double click on Develop Presets.
- Copy the folder(s) of your presets into the Develop Presets folder.
- Restart Lightroom.
29 янв. 2014 г.
How do you add color overlay in Lightroom?
Easily Add Solid Color Overlays in Lightroom
- Go into the Develop module then into the Tone Curve setting. …
- Scroll down to the Split Toning section then set the highlights color to anything you want. …
- Next add the same color to the shadows color. …
- Go back to the Tone Curve and adjust the curve to increase/decrease the opacity of the color overlay.
How do you add color in Lightroom?
Make sure that you are in Lightroom Classic CC, and go into the Edit Module. From the Edit Module, you can click on the HSL/Color panel. Then you can select the Hue tab, where you will see a list of colors that you can adjust with the corresponding sliders. In this example, the model is wearing a red jacket.
How do I add filters to Lightroom CC?
b. Use the import dialog in Lightroom desktop
- From the menu bar, choose File > Import Profiles & Presets.
- In the Import dialog that appears, browse to the required path and select the presets that you want to import. Check the file location for Lightroom Classic presets on Win and macOS.
- Click Import.
13 июл. 2020 г.
How do I add presets to lightroom 2020?
Once you open Lightroom, go to Develop Module, then find the Show Ligthroom Develop Presets panel on left side of screen or click Show Lightroom Presets Folder on the presets tab. Click import. Exit and relaunch Lightroom.
Where are my filters in Lightroom?
Where to Find your Brush and Filter Tools. The brush and filter tools are located on the right side of the Develop Module just under the Histogram.
How do you color mask in Lightroom?
First, make sure that you have a mask created and visible in your image (use the keyboard shortcut O to view the mask). Then, hold the SHIFT key and press the O key to cycle through the colors (red, green, white, and black).
How do you show overlays in Lightroom?
To enable the grid overlay, go to View > Loupe Overlay > Grid. You’ll also need to make sure that the “Show” option just above it is checked (this is a way you can turn multiple overlays on or off at the same time).
How do I show the selected mask overlay in Lightroom?
Press O to hide or show a mask overlay of the Adjustment Brush tool effect, or use the Show Selected Mask Overlay option in the toolbar. Press Shift+O to cycle through a red, green, or white mask overlay of the Adjustment Brush tool effect.
How do I make one part of a picture a color in Lightroom?
Here’s an overview of the steps it takes to turn an image black and white except one color in Lightroom:
- Import your photo to Lightroom.
- Enter Lightroom’s Develop mode.
- Click on HSL/Color on the right-hand editing panel.
- Select Saturation.
- Decrease the saturation of all colors to -100 except for the color you want to retain.
24 сент. 2020 г.
Can you paint in Lightroom?
If you have used the adjustment brush in Lightroom, you may have noticed that you have the ability to paint color on your image. After clicking on the adjustment brush to make it active, click on the color square next to the word Color to choose your color.
How do I add DNG presets to Lightroom desktop?
How to Install Presets in the Free Lightroom Mobile App
- Step 1: Unzip the Files. The first thing you will need to do is unzip the folder of presets that you downloaded. …
- Step 2: Save the Presets. …
- Step 3: Open the Lightroom Mobile CC App. …
- Step 4: Add the DNG/Preset Files. …
- Step 5: Create Lightroom Presets from the DNG Files.
14 апр. 2019 г.
How do I add presets to Lightroom desktop?
Open, Lightroom CC and navigate to File -> Import Profiles& Presets. Next, select the XMP files you unzipped, and click on Import. And your presets are now installed into Lightroom! To use your presets, just select any photo you want to edit and click on the Edit icon at the top right corner.
How do I add a preset to Lightroom desktop?
Create a preset
- With a photo selected, click the Edit icon.
- Adjust the editing controls to get a look that you like.
- Click the Presets button below the Edit panel.
- Click the three-dot icon on the top right of the Presets panel, and choose Create Preset.
- In the Create Preset window, enter a name for the preset.
4 нояб. 2019 г.
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https://psdpenguin.com/photoshop/how-do-you-add-a-color-filter-in-lightroom.html
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Use clipping masks and blend modes to complete a painterly illustration
Open a new document in Photoshop and create a new layer in the Layers panel. We’re going to start with a simple, rough compositional sketch. Use the Brush tool (B) and a Default brush of your choice to sketch out a portrait similar to the one pictured. Use reference if it helps with your design.
Create a new layer in the Layers panel and use the Pen tool and Ellipse tool in order to better define the shape of the head and jaw. On another new layer refine your original sketch. This may take a few layers of progressively cleaner line art. Once satisfied with your work, merge (Cmd/Ctrl+E) your final line art layers together.
Use a bird silhouette stock photo to copy and paste birds onto new layers over others. Use the Lasso tool to select the area around each bird when copying them into your working document. Use the Magic Wand tool to delete the background of the birds. Collect layers into folders in the Layers panel to keep yourself organised.
Under the line art layer, use the Brush tool, set to a default Hard brush, to fill in your portrait’s skin tone. We’re going to use various tones for this design, but you can deviate from any of the presented colour palette if it works better with your overall design. On a new layer, colour in the eyes with shades of grey-violet. Later we’ll use a clipping mask in order to add stock images to each eye rather than rendering the irises manually.
We’ll draw highlights onto the face on a layer above the skin tone layer. Using a Smooth Hard brush, map out areas of the face that would be hit by light first. Consider the nose, chin, part of the forehead, beneath the eyebrows, and the sides of the mouth as areas to highlight. Use a light brown a few shades lighter than the base skin tone rather than white for this step. We’ll add bright hot spots to the design later.
For the shadows, we’ll use a brown that’s a few shades darker than the skin tone. Paint it into areas where facial features are overlapping and casting shadows onto other parts of the face. Consider under the nose, inside the ear, on the outer edges of the upper eyes, and under the chin to be areas cast in shadow. Reduce the opacity of your brush while painting shadow shapes in order to build the value up. You may also change the lighting completely if you feel it benefits your composition.
Next we’ll go to Filter>Blur>Gaussian Blur to apply a smooth Gaussian blur. The radius applied to the layer will depend on the size of your document. We’re going to apply a radius of 16.9 pixels so the highlights and shadows blend together without extending too far beyond the face within the design. Hit OK and use the Eraser tool to erase the blur effect from outside of the face. This will keep your design and background clean.
Create a new layer above the blurred layer and continue building up values in the same manner as was done before. Vary the opacity of your brush and consider using textured brushes in order for the skin to look more painterly rather than as if it’s been pencel-shaded like a cartoon. You can also use the Blur tool to blend pixels in smaller areas of the portrait rather than blurring an entire layer. Add mauve-coloured blush to the cheeks and warm brown for the lips.
On a new layer, we’ll build the hair. Our subject’s hair is fluffy and cloud-like. In order to create it you’ll need to overlap ellipses with the Ellipse tool. Hold down the Shift key while drawing your ellipses in order to create a singular mass. Fill the shapes in with a bright, easy to see colour in the Properties panel.
Import a galaxy stock image. Place it above the filled-in hair layer in the Layers panel. With the galaxy layer selected, go to Layer>Create Clipping Mask (Cmd/Ctrl+alt+G) to clip that layer to the one below it. Note that you can use the Move tool to change what portion of the galaxy image appears within the boundaries of the hair so long as you’re only moving the galaxy layer.
Repeat the previous step of applying a clipping mask to the portion of hair in the layer behind the back of the head. You can either adjust the stock image so both galaxy layers line up or you can choose a darker portion of the stock image to give the illusion of depth within the hair. Then, you’ll do the same thing to the bird silhouette folder and the eyes. Clipping masks applied to a layer above a folder will clip to the folder’s contents.
On a new layer underneath the base hair layer, paint brown and dark brown to give the illusion of the galaxy cloud casting a shadow onto our subject’s forehead. When you reduce the Opacity of the brush to 40% and the Flow to 60% you can build up the value slowly and use a softer brush to blend those shadows in together. Follow the direction of the shadows we created earlier in the tutorial to remain consistent within our design.
Direct your attention to the eyes. On a new layer, use the same dark purple or dark brown we used in creating the line art to shade the eyes. Reduce the Opacity of your Soft brush to 20% and build the shadows up organically to create depth within the face as well as soften the look of the eyes themselves. We’re not going to add any more detail to the eyes than this, since the second galaxy stock image is detailed enough.
Next we’ll finalise the portrait on a new layer above the rest. Smooth out the values on the face, add additional highlights to the eyelids, and deepen the shadows being cast by the hair. Move down from the face to the neck and shoulders. Add shadow and subtle highlights with a soft, transparent default brush. Switch to a Chalk or Scatter style brush to add texture to the skin on the face and body. Doing so gives the portrait a slightly realistic touch.
Now we’ll work on some fun details within the rest of the design. Notice how our subject’s galaxy cloud is raining in the final image. To make the rain effect use a very small one to four point Round brush and draw a series of dots around the bottom of the hair on a new layer. Go to Filter>Blur>Motion Blur and apply a Distance of 156 pixels at a 90° Angle. Duplicate the layer, repeat, and set the Opacity of the second layer to 41%.
In the Layers panel, select the bird folder, right-click, and hit Blending Options. Choose the Inner Glow option to create a rim lighting effect. Set the blend mode to Color Dodge, Opacity to 53%, and the Color to pink or blue. Set the Technique to Softer, Source to Edge, Choke to 22% and the Size to 49%. The other settings are all at their default. You may find that you adjust these settings to work better with your composition and colour palette.
Once again, select the bird folder in the Layers panel, Cmd/right-click, and hit Blending Options. Choose Outer Glow this time. Under Structure set the blend mode to Color Dodge, Opacity to 56%, and the Color to indigo or purple. Under Elements set the Technique to Softer, Spread to 7%, and Size to 250 px. Finally, in the Quality section, set the Range to 73% and the Jitter to 0%. This and the previous step help the birds pop out from the dark background.
Add additional birds as a sort of necklace or shoulder decoration in order to fill in the composition and finalise the image. Like the other bird folder, make sure each bird silhouette is cut out from its background and a galaxy stock image is clipped to the folder itself. Draw sparkles, highlights, and raindrops with a Small Round brush as was done with the rain effect earlier in this tutorial. Perhaps the rain’s colours mimic those from the galaxy images themselves.
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https://blog.photoshopcreative.co.uk/blog/tutorials/use-clipping-masks-creatively/
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Asking Questions Not all questions are questions can be answered by the scientific method. For an experiment, we need to ask a question about things you can observe or test. An experiment is a scientific investigation that tests a hypothesis. A hypothesis is an idea that can be tested by an experiment or an observation. It is not a guess. A hypothesis is what you believe will happen based on your research and what you already know. Which would make a good scientific question that can be tested? 1. How is the height of a ramp related to the speed of a toy car? 3. How can you make a model of a volcano? NO!! YES!!!! 2. What is your favorite time of day? 4. How much height does a ball lose with each bounce? No!!!! Yes!!
Designing a Fair Test Suppose your class is going to have a race. We want to see who runs faster, the girls or the boys. Here’s the rules for the girls. Here’s the rules for the boys. Each girl will get to run 3 times and use her best time. Girls will wear special tennis shoes. Girls will run in the morning. Girls will run 100 yards. Boys can run only once. Boys must run barefoot. Boys will run in the afternoon. Boys will run 1000 yards. Would this be a fair test??? How would you make it a fair test?
Setting up a good experiment is like making fair rules for a game. To keep an experiment fair, you must try to control all the variables. A variable is something that can change, or vary, in an experiment. You want to only change the variable you are testing. This keeps the test fair. On the next slide, compare a fair race to a fair experiment.
Summarizing In your science notebook write the answer to the question below. How is designing an experiment like making rules for a game?
To make a good plan you will need to… • Make a list of materials you will need. You will also identify the variable, constant and control. • List each step you will take to complete your experiment. Make certain you are specific enough so someone else can replicate the experiment. • In your journal create a place to record and graph the data you collect.
Making Scientific Observations Once we have a good plan, now we are ready to make observations and collect data. Scientists use tools to make observations and collect data. Scientists are trained observers. What is a scientific observation? It is an observation that everyone agrees on. Using specific tools, along with your senses, we make observations. Talk to your shoulder partner…. Is the example below a “good” observation or a “poor” observation? Why? The plant is a weird shape with a lot of leaves. The color is pretty.
Using tools to make observations Tools help you make scientific observations beyond those you could make with just your senses. Talk to your shoulder partner… Let’s see what you know. Discuss several science tools and what they measure.
Data…Data…Data… • Graphing the data collected will sometimes make it easier to identify trends or patterns. • When you analyze data, you are trying to uncover patterns and trends in the data. • A conclusion explains the patterns you see in the data.Our conclusion will either support our hypothesis or not support it. Either way, we have learned important information.
Communicate the results An important part of the Scientific Method is sharing your results with others. One person’s discovery can lead to new discoveries by others. Scientists communicate their results by publishing them in scientific journals. Other scientists can replicate their experiments to confirm they get the same results. If many people get the same results, everyone can be pretty sure the results are correct. What are some ways you can share your results with others?
Ways to share your results… • You can give an oral report. • You can do a written report for others to read. • You can make a display of your results for other students and your parents. • You can post your report on a computer.
Summarizing In your Science notebook, explain why it is important for scientists to share information about their experiments.
Think, Pair, Share As a review from yesterday, discuss the scientific process. Explain why it is important to share the results.
Place these words in the order of the scientific process. Conclusion Communicate Result Observe Ask Questions Analyze Data Purpose/Hypothesis Procedure Design an Experiment Collect Data
1. Shelby wants to know what type of bird comes to the feeder outside her window most often. She observes the bird feeder for an hour at the same time each day. What else should she do to draw an accurate conclusion? A. write down how long each bird stays at the feeder B. put up two more bird feeders C. count and record the number and type of birds she sees D. measure the amount of seeds the birds eat
2. Danielle wants to investigate how high a ball bounces when it is dropped from different heights. What should she do first? create a hypothesis and write it down in a lab book determine what heights the ball will be dropped from record how high the ball bounces when dropped from different heights write in her lab book about possible sources of error in the experiment
Patrick is conducting an investigation to find out how the shape of a seed affects how fast it falls to the ground. Patrick has a question and formed a hypothesis. He has also designed an experiment to test his hypothesis. What should he do next? A. Communicate his findings B. Make observations C. Draw conclusions D. Analyze his data
Check your work… 1. C . count and record the number and type of birds she sees 2. A. create a hypothesis and write it down in a lab book 3. B. Make observations
Summarizing Answer the Essential Question for the lesson in your Science notebook. Essential Question: How do scientists use the scientific method to help them explore the natural world?
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https://www.slideserve.com/wells/elementary-science
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SC.6.N.2.1 Distinguish science from other activities involving thought.
SC.6.N.1.1 Define a problem from the sixth-grade curriculum, use appropriate reference materials to support scientific understanding, plan and carry out scientific investigation of various types, such as systematic observations or experiments, identify variables, collect and organize data, interpret data in charts, tables, and graphics, analyze information, make predictions, and defend conclusions.
SC.6.N.1.5 Recognize that science involves creativity, not just in designing experiments, but also in creating explanations that fit evidence
|Learning Targets and Learning Criteria|
describe science as the study of the natural world
give examples and non-examples of science
plan and carry out various types of scientific investigations
differentiate between an experiment (control group and variables) and other types of scientific investigations
make predictions or form a hypothesis
identify control groups for each experiment
compare and contrast data collected among groups of students conducting a similar experiment.
draw and defend conclusions
|Classroom Activities|
Students will participate in a lab
Students will use creativity to learn how to scientifically sketch an object in nature
Students will practice classroom rules, lab rules, and become familiar with the syllabus through an “Escape Room”
|Assignments Due|
Interactive Science Notebook (ISN) notebook brought to class each day
|Additional Resources|
ESE and 504 accommodations : Teacher will break up tasks into small, manageable pieces. Teacher will use a signal from the students (red or green cup) to help pace the lessons.
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http://ivyhawnschool.org/classroom-connect/sixth-grade/robertson-t/q1w1-august-12-16/
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How is statistics used in the scientific method?
Statistics are used to describe the variability inherent in data in a quantitative fashion, and to quantify relationships between variables. Statistical analysis is used in designing scientific studies to increase consistency, measure uncertainty, and produce robust datasets.
How do you write a scientific method report?
This includes:A title.The aim of the experiment.The hypothesis.An introduction to the relevant background theory.The methods used.The results.A discussion of the results.The conclusion.
How do we apply the scientific method to everyday life?
How to Use the Scientific Method in Everyday LifeLocate or identify a problem to solve. Describe the problem in detail. Form a hypothesis about what the possible cause of the problem might be, or what a potential solution could be.
What are examples of scientific method?
The scientific methodMake an observation.Ask a question.Form a hypothesis, or testable explanation.Make a prediction based on the hypothesis.Test the prediction.Iterate: use the results to make new hypotheses or predictions.
What is a good scientific method question?
A good scientific question is one that can have an answer and be tested. For example: “Why is that a star?” is not as good as “What are stars made of?” 2. A good scientific question can be tested by some experiment or measurement that you can do.
What is a prediction in the scientific method?
In science, a prediction is what you expect to happen if your hypothesis is true. So, based on the hypothesis you’ve created, you can predict the outcome of the experiment.
What is the experiment in the scientific method?
In the scientific method, an experiment is an empirical procedure that arbitrates competing models or hypotheses. Researchers also use experimentation to test existing theories or new hypotheses to support or disprove them.
What is analyze data in the scientific method?
Data Analysis is a process of manipulating data in order to discover information which can be used in decision making. In this blog, I have discussed about a method which includes some steps which if performed in specific order can make data analysis process smooth and efficient.
What are the 5 parts of experimental design?
The five components of the scientific method are: observations, questions, hypothesis, methods and results. Following the scientific method procedure not only ensures that the experiment can be repeated by other researchers, but also that the results garnered can be accepted.
What are the three main parts of the scientific process?
The Scientific MethodPurpose/Question – What do you want to learn? Research – Find out as much as you can. Hypothesis – After doing your research, try to predict the answer to the problem. Experiment – The fun part! Analysis – Record what happened during the experiment.
How do you teach the scientific method?
The steps of the scientific method are:Ask a question.Make a hypothesis.Test the hypothesis with an experiment.Analyze the results of the experiment.Draw a conclusion.Communicate results.
What is the purpose of using scientific method?
When conducting research, scientists use the scientific method to collect measurable, empirical evidence in an experiment related to a hypothesis (often in the form of an if/then statement), the results aiming to support or contradict a theory.
Which of the following is the correct order of steps in the scientific method?
The usual steps include observation, hypothesis, experiment, and conclusion. The steps may not always be completed in the same order. Following the four steps, the results of the experiment will either support the hypothesis or will not support the hypothesis.
What is the correct order of steps in the scientific method Grade 7?
Grade 7 Scientific Method Ask a question, analyze the results, make a hypothesis, test the hypothesis, draw conclusions, communicate results.
Which is the correct order in a scientific investigation?
Steps of a scientific investigation include identifying a research question or problem, forming a hypothesis, gathering evidence, analyzing evidence, deciding whether the evidence supports the hypothesis, drawing conclusions, and communicating the results. Scientific research must be guided by ethical rules.
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https://www.idcafe.net/how-is-statistics-used-in-the-scientific-method/
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Graphic organizers can be used to help formulate and organize a scientific experiment.
Observe, State Experimental Questions - After observing a phenomenon, you may wonder what is happening, and what caused it to happen. Write down your observations and your questions.
Gather Information - Do background investigation on the phenomenon you are interested in. Find out what is known about it already.
Formulate a Hypothesis - Write a statement that predicts what may happen in your experiment based on your knowledge and data from other experiments.
Design an Experiment to Test Your Hypothesis - Determine a logical set of steps to be followed in your experiment.
Independent/Experimental Variable - Determine or guess which factors could affect the phenomenon you are studying. The experimental variable is the one variable the investigator chooses to vary in the experiment.
Collect Data - Record the results of the investigation in a table or chart.
Summarize Results - Analyze the data and note trends in your experimental results.
Draw Conclusions - Determine whether or not the data support the hypothesis of your experiment.
Write an outline of your scientific experiment. A scientific method graphic organizer including: State the problem, Gather information, Formulate a hypothesis, Test the hypotheses, Draw conclusions (either the results support the hypothesis or the results do not support the hypothesis).
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https://www.enchantedlearning.com/graphicorganizers/scientificmethod/
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By April Beck-Friends
In addition to Language Arts and Math, 5th and 8th grade students participating in state testing will also participate in the Science test known as the Washington Comprehensive Assessment of Science – WCAS. This is a one day test.
In the past 12 years as a STEM teacher (Science, Technology, Engineering & Math), I have been pleased with the progression of state Science assessments from primarily fact based questioning to questioning primarily scientific inquiry or engineering application of today.
For example, students may be given an engineering problem and asked to come up with a solution. For example, “Design a lunar landing device”. The best way to do this is to apply one or all of the steps of the ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS. They may also be given a Scientific Question, such as “Does the type of soil affect the growth of a plant?” and are expected to go through one or all of the steps of the SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION PROCESS, also known as the Scientific Method. Students are expected to know what these are.
The best advice I can give parents is to familiarize or reinforce these PROCESSES with your students. Then, I encourage you to allow your students to apply these processes with a variety of activities.
Below I have listed the steps of each process, informative links, and in addition, some application exercises which could be adapted to various grade levels.
I have also included the following information parents may find interesting:
- WCAS Information & Features
- Next Generation Science Standards
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THE ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS
Real Life Learning
- ASK: Students identify the problem, requirements that must be met, and constraints that must be considered.
- IMAGINE: Students brainstorm solutions and research ideas. They also identify what others have done.
- PLAN: Students choose two to three of the best ideas from their brainstormed list and sketch possible designs, ultimately choosing a single design to prototype.
- CREATE: Students build a working model, or prototype that aligns with design requirements and that is within design constraints.
- TEST: Students evaluate the solution through testing; they collect and analyze data; they summarize strengths and weaknesses of their design that were revealed during testing.
- IMPROVE: Based on the results of their tests, students make improvements on their design. They also identify changes they will make and justify their revisions.
A Closer Look: Engineering Design Process – View this informative video series on how NASA applies this process. Watch each short (1 ½ min) video (8 in all). To understand the process. Then go to the Activity page and try one out for yourself, using the Engineering Design Process.
NASA Films on the steps of the Engineering Design Process https://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/best/edp.html
Now you are ready to apply this by choosing one of these fun activities on the following pages:
NASA Student Beginning Engineering Activities
STEM for Kids, 7 Engineering Activities
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SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS
Asking Questions – Seeking Answers
- Ask a Question: The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where? In order for the scientific method to answer the question it must be about something that you can measure, preferably with a number.
- Construct a Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a testable explanation for a specific problem or question based on what has already been learned. Making a forecast of what will happen in the future based on past experience or evidence is called a prediction. A good example: "If we test _____, then I think______, because_____.” You must state your hypothesis in a way that you can easily measure, and of course, your hypothesis should be constructed in a way to help you answer your original question. A hypothesis is not to be confused with a theory. A well-tested or possible explanation for a wide range of observations or experimental results (facts) is called a theory. Some examples: Darwin’s Theory, Continental Drift Theory, Einstein's theory of relativity.
- Determine the variable to be tested: You must start your experiment by first deciding on the variable to be tested. It is important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one variable at a time while keeping all other conditions the same. An independent or manipulated variable is the one whose value you change in order to see the output as a result of such change. The dependent or responding variable responds to the change made to the independent variable. Controlled variables are quantities that a scientist wants to remain constant.
- Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment: Your experiment tests whether your hypothesis is right or wrong. You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first results weren't just an accident.
- Materials List: Make a list of all your materials in the order that you use them. The most important thing to mention is the measuring tool. How are you going to measure your data?
- Experimental Procedure: Write detailed step-by-step directions. Make sure they are numbered and in order. Add all the items from your material list as you write these directions.
- Analyze Your Data: Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements and analyze them to see if your hypothesis is right or wrong. Display your data with illustrations, graphs, etc. Make sure the display proves the results of your experiment.
- Draw a Conclusion: To complete the experiment, communicate your results by answering the investigative question, summarizing the procedure and data, USE THE DATA IN YOUR CONCLUSION. Then state whether your hypothesis was right or wrong. “I accept my hypothesis, because…” or “I reject my hypothesis, because….”Use complete sentences. Take some time on this part. A good conclusion includes every part of the experiment.
What is a Scientific Investigation? https://www.texasgateway.org/resource/types-science-investigations
Kahn Academy - More information about the Scientific Method
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-biology-foundations/hs-biology-and-the-scientific-method/a/the-science-of-biology
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WCAS INFORMATION & FEATURES
The WCAS – The Washington Comprehensive Assessment of Science
- Was administered for the first time in spring 2018. The assessments fulfill the federal requirement that students be tested once in science at each level: elementary, middle, and high school.
- Is online in grades 5, 8, and 11.
- Assesses the Washington State 2013 K-12 Science Learning Standards (Next Generation Science Standards).
- The WCAS requires approximately the same testing times as previous state science assessments: 90 minutes for grade 5, 110 minutes in grade 8, and 120 minutes in grade 11.
- The WCAS is administered like Smarter Balanced assessments so students are allowed to attempt the WCAS over multiple days.
- Students in grade 11 are required to take the WCAS. This is due to the federal requirement (ESSA) that we test and report the results of current state science assessment once each school year in elementary, middle, and high school.
WCAS Features:
- Assesses all three dimensions of the learning standards (Science and Engineering Practices, Disciplinary Core Ideas, Crosscutting Concepts).
- Consists of several item clusters (items associated to common stimuli) and standalone items.
- Requires approximately the same testing time as previous state science assessments.
- Uses the same online engine as the Smarter Balanced assessments. For item clusters, stimuli will appear on left side of screen, with associated items on the right side. Standalone items will occupy the entire screen.
- Has some clusters with more than one stimulus. The first stimulus is collapsed when the second stimulus is provided. Both stimuli are available to the student.
- Has some locking items where the student cannot change their answer once they have moved on to the next item. This allows subsequent items to update the student with correct information. An “attention” box warns the student that they will not be able to change their answer once they move on, and gives the student a chance to return to the item and change their answer.
- Includes a variety of item types:
- Selected Response-multiple choice, multiple select
- Technology Enhanced-ex: drag and drop, drop-down choices, simulations, graphing
- Constructed Response-ex: equation builder, short answer
- Includes multi-part items:
- Parts labeled with letters A, B, and C.
- May have a mix of item types. May ask for evidence to support an answer from a previous part of the item.
Resources:
- Washington State OSPI website for WCAS
- Washington State OSPI State Testing Sample Score Reports
- Washington State OSPI Scale Scores: State Assessments
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NEXT GENERATION SCIENCE STANDARDS – NGSS
Through a collaborative, state-led process, new K–12 science standards have been developed that are rich in content and practice and arranged in a coherent manner across disciplines and grades to provide all students an internationally benchmarked science education.
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https://support.cva.org/hc/en-us/articles/360021387253-State-Science-Assessment-Useful-Information
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Science Content Concepts of Science Process Skills of Science Students use the process skills of science to develop an understanding of the scientific concepts.
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Engage Evaluate Explore 5 E’s Science Lesson Extend Explain
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Engage Activity which will focus student’s attention, stimulate their thinking, and access prior knowledge.
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Explore Activity which gives students time to think and investigate/test/make decisions/problem solve, and collect information.
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Explain Activity which allows students to analyze their exploration. Student’s understanding is clarified and modified through a reflective activity.
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Extend Activity which expands and solidifies student thinking and/or applies it to a real-world situation.
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Evaluate Activity which allows the teacher to assess student performance and/or understandings of concepts, skills, processes, and applications.
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Engage Evaluate Explore 5 E’s Science Lesson Extend Explain
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Engage Suggested Activities
Demonstration Reading Free Write Analyze a Graphic Organizer KWL Brainstorming
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Engage What the Teacher Does
Creates Interest. Generates curiosity. Raises questions. Elicits responses that uncover what the students know or think about the concept/topic.
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Engage What the Student Does
Asks questions such as, Why did this happen? What do I already know about this? What have I found out about this? Shows interest in the topic.
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Explore Suggested Activities
Perform an Investigation Read Authentic Resources to Collect Information Solve a Problem Construct a Model
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Explore What the Teacher Does
Encourages the students to work together without direct instruction from the teacher. Observes and listens to the students as they interact. Asks probing questions to redirect the students’ investigations when necessary. Provides time for students to puzzle through problems.
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Explore What the Student Does
Thinks freely but within the limits of the activity. Tests predictions and hypotheses. Forms new predictions and hypotheses. Tries alternatives and discusses them with others. Records observations and ideas. Suspends judgement.
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Explain Suggested Activities
Student Analysis & Explanation Supporting Ideas with Evidence Structured Questioning Reading and Discussion Teacher Explanation Thinking Skill Activities: compare, classify, error analysis
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Explain What the Teacher Does
Encourages the students to explain concepts and definitions in their own words. Asks for justification (evidence) and clarification from students. Formally provides definitions, explanations, and new labels. Uses students’ previous experiences as basis for explaining concepts.
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Explain What the Student Does
Explains possible solutions or answers to others. Listens officially to others’ explanations. Questions others’ explanations. Listens to and tries to comprehend explanations the teacher offers. Refers to previous activities. Uses recorded observations in explanations.
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Extend Suggested Activities
Problem Solving Decision Making Experimental Inquiry Thinking Skill Activities: compare, classify, apply
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Extend What the Teacher Does
Expects the students to use formal labels, definitions, and explanations provided previously. Encourages the students to apply or extend the concepts and skills in new situations. Reminds the students of alternative explanations. Refers the students to existing data and evidence and asks, What do you already know? Why do you think . . .? Strategies from Explore apply here also.
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Extend What the Student Does
Applies new labels, definitions, explanations, and skills in new, but similar situations. Uses previous information to ask questions, propose solutions, make decisions, and design experiments. Draws reasonable conclusions from evidence. Records observations and explanations. Checks for understandings among peers.
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Evaluate Suggested Activities
Any of the Previous Activities Develop a Scoring Tool or Rubric Test (SR, BCR, ECR) Performance Assessment Produce a Product Journal Entry Portfolio
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Evaluate What the Teacher Does
Observes the students as they apply new concepts and skills. Assesses students’ knowledge and/or skills. Looks for evidence that the students have changed their thinking or behaviors. Allows students to assess their own learning and group-process skills. Asks open-ended questions, such as: Why do you think. . .? What evidence do you have? What do you know about x? How would you explain x?
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Evaluate What the Student Does
Answers open-ended questions by using observations, evidence, and previously accepted explanations. Demonstrates an understanding or knowledge of the concept or skill. Evaluates his or her own progress and knowledge. Asks related questions that would encourage future investigations.
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The 5 E’s Lesson Planner ENGAGE: EVALUATE: EXPLORE: EXTEND: EXPLAIN:
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Science Lesson Planning Sheet
Elementary Science Lesson Planning Sheet Grade: Unit: CONTENT STANDARDS : Earth/Space Science Chemistry Environmental Science Life Science Physics INDICATOR (MLO) : ENDURING UNDERSTANDING : ESSENTIAL QUESTION: SKILLS AND PROCESSES STANDARD: Students will demonstrate the thinking and acting inherent in the practice of science. Scientific Inquiry : Critical Thinking : Demonstrates the ability to employ the Demonstrates the thinking and acting inherent language, instruments, methods, and materials in the practice of science. of science . Indicator : Indicator : Applications of Science : Technology : Demonstrates the ability to apply science Demonstrates the ability to use the principles information in various situations. of technology when exploring scientific concepts. Indicator : Indicator :
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Well-Designed Science Investigation
High School Part 1 Testable Question(s) - A question that can be answered through an investigation. Prediction - A statement about what may happen in the investigation based on prior knowledge and/or evidence from previous investigations. Hypothesis - A testable explanation (if-then statement) based on an observation, experience, or scientific reason including the expected cause and effect in a given circumstance or situation. Well-Designed Procedure Directions - A logical set of steps followed while completing the procedure. Materials - All materials needed for completing the investigation are listed. Variables(s) - Factors in an investigation that could affect the results. The independent variable (horizontal or x-axis) is the one variable the investigator chooses to change. The dependent variable(s) (vertical or y-axis) change(s) as a result or response. Data Collection - The results of the investigation usually recorded on a table, graph, chart, etc. Repeated or Multiple Trials - Repeating the investigation several times and using the collected data for comparing results and creating reliability.
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Well-Designed Science Investigation
High School Part 2 Conclusion 1. A statement about the trend (general drift, tendency, or direction) of a set of data from analyzing the data collected during the investigation ( form a conclusion ). 2. The closing paragraph of a report including at least the investigative question, the hypothesis, and the explanation of the results ( write a conclusion ). Communicate and Discuss Results Share your findings with others for critical analysis (peer review, conference, presentation, etc.) Discuss conclusions with supporting evidence to identify more investigative questions.
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Inquiry-Based Instruction
The 5 E’s Science Lesson Inquiry-Based Instruction
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In the early 1930s, only a small fraction of the farms in America had electrical power like we have today. Rural residents either made do with kerosene lamps for light and ice boxes for refrigeration, or they bought and rigged up elaborate battery systems. Neither solution put out much light. This lesson builds on these facts to explore batteries and electrical power.
Lesson Plan by Kathy Jacobitz, science education consultant, Pawnee City, Nebraska.
Objectives
Suggested grade level – 5th-8th.
- The learner will design an experiment given a problem, collect data, graph results, and make a conclusion based on the data.
- The learner will learn to use controls and a variable in an experiment.
- The learner will recognize rural farms did not all have electricity and only a few batteries were available.
- The learner will explore the history and impact of batteries in our lives today.
- The learner will research how batteries are made, recharged, and safely disposed.
- The learner will learn to perform a cost analysis on three types of batteries..
Introduction
The coming of electrical power to the farm at the end of the 1930s brought vast changes across mid-America. The introduction of power began slowly. Nebraska farm families used Kerosene lamps for light.
Ask your students, “What problems would they encounter today if the power went off for a week?” Record responses in their journal, next ask, “What they think their family would do without power for a week?” “What problems would they need to solve living on a farm or in town?”
Discuss the issues in class and at home, record ideas in their journal. Ask the class to propose ideas on how they could solve these problems.
Resources
Links from within the Wessels Living History Farm site. [Note that clicking on these links will open a new browser window. Just close it and you’ll be back to this page.] Direct the students to these pages to learn about the FSA and to see video segments from some of the individuals in the FSA photographs.
- Bringing Electricity
- Impact of the REA
- Building the Lines
- Other sources include – your local rural electric company.
- Local individuals who have lived through a power outage.
- Nebraska Public Power Company.
- Community individuals who would be in charge of solving problems.
- Local farmers.
- Battery manufacturers.
The Process
Perform a KWL – What We Know / What We Want to Know / What we Learned – in the journal and the class for batteries. The lab works well with groups of 3 or 4 students.
- Rubric for Scientific Research. A science research model sheet should be provided for all investigations. The model will follow the basic scientific inquiry process. I suggest having each student record their forms in the science journal, or perhaps they may cut and paste.
- Journal Assessment Rubric.
- Assessment Checklist for the Scientific Research.
- Venn Diagram.
- Rubric for the Research Paper.
- Rubric for Group Work.
There are many correct ways to set up an investigation (experiment). Encourage your students to think of as many ways as possible to conduct an investigation. Allow time for students to discuss their plans and conduct their investigations. Students need to record their ideas, plans, and research in their journal. Click here for journal activity and rubric. Remember a student’s explanation and the conclusion will provide a good opportunity for assessment. Students describe how they will set up the investigation and what they expect to learn from it. Identify the constants and the variable in the investigation. The controls of an experiment are what you keep the same (constant) in the experiment. A variable is what you change in the experiment. (Should limit variables to one if possible.)
POSSIBLE INVESTIGATION:
Preparatory Set:
Batteries, candles, kerosene and ice are selling out in your community. People either didn’t have enough or are using them up during the power outage. I told my Dad about a battery experiment we did at school to discover which battery provided the most minutes of operation per penny. How did you prove which type of battery was the best? I can purchase a regular, heavy-duty, alkaline or rechargeable battery here at the local hardware store, however, without power we cannot recharge them so that’s out for now.
Question/Problem:
Which type of battery, regular, heavy duty or alkaline, will cost the least to operate per minute?
(The purpose of this investigation is to find the cost of operating different types of dry cell batteries.)
Hypothesis:
Example of a hypothesis:
The heavy-duty battery will cost the least per minute of operation.
Student reasoning:
They label them heavy duty in the store so they must be the strongest. (Journal responses are an excellent way for you to view the thought processes your students are using to reach their explanations.)
Procedure
THE TEACHER MUST APPROVE ALL INVESTIGATIONS BEFORE YOU BEGIN THE EXPERIMENT.
A description of the plan telling how the investigation will be carried out. List step-by-step the way the investigation will be performed, include all controls and the variables to be tested.
I would suggest you need three or four flashlight D batteries. (New flashlights would add an additional control.) Two D batteries for each flashlight used in the test. Three types of batteries, regular, heavy-duty, and alkaline, made by the same manufacturer. Make sure each flashlight has a new bulb.
Controls:
1. The flashlights used in the test.
2. A new bulb for each flashlight.
3. The same size of battery.
4. The location of test.
5. Same brands or manufacturer.
Variable:
The type of battery to be tested.
(Regular; heavy duty; and alkaline)
NOTE: Record the cost of each battery purchased for the test. If you purchase them from different places calculate an average cost in cents.
Procedure
THE TEACHER MUST APPROVE ALL PROCEDURES BEFORE TESTING BEGINS IN ORDER TO PROTECT THE STUDENT AND MAKE SURE THE STUDENTS ARE ON THE CORRECT PATH.
It is a good idea to make your signature a requirement before testing starts.
List step-by-step the way you plan to set up your experiment.
Possible experimental procedure:
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- Place two regular batteries into one of the flashlights, two heavy-duty batteries into the second flashlight, and two alkaline batteries into the third flashlight.
- Place new bulbs into all three flashlights.
- Record the time and turn on the flashlight.
- Check the flashlights every five minutes. As soon as you notice the bulb beginning to dim check the flashlight more often for best results.
- You could add some technology to the project by videotaping the flashlights. The tape would allow continual coverage of the battery investigation (experiment).
Note:
- I performed the above experiment on one brand of battery. The following data was collected:
- regular batteries ran for 10 hours
- heavy-duty batteries ran for 14 hours
- alkaline batteries ran for just over 30 hours.
If you turn the flashlights on and off just make sure you record all the times. Turning them on and off will impact the results but only slightly.
- Record the time the bulb stops glowing and turn the flashlight off. CAUTION: Remove the batteries making sure they are disposed of safely. This is a great place to teach about proper disposal of materials.
- Calculate how many minutes each set of batteries lasted using all starting and stopping times.
- Repeat the experiment or if several groups tested the same batteries you are ready to calculate an average. Ask students “why” we need to retest the batteries or take a class average of the data collected. We hope to make sure the results were not just an accident so more data helps to support the conclusion.
Observations/Sketch/Photo:
Draw and/or write about your experiment telling your observations. Since the observations will be in your journal you should have enough space. Place data in a chart or table and then display it graphically.
NOTE:
Teach graphing skills before you ask the students to graph their results from this experiment.
Data:
Graph all data collected in the experiment and write your conclusion based on what you have discovered.
Table:
|Type of Battery Tested||Minutes of Operation||Cost of Two Batteries|
Make three graphs:
- Operation time on the y-axis in minutes, battery types on the x-axis, title would be average operation time in minutes.
- Cost in cents on the y-axis, battery types on the x-axis, title would be cost of two batteries in cents.
- Minutes of operation with time in cents on the y-axis, battery types on the x-axis, title would be minutes of operation penny. Formula: Minutes of operation per cent = Average operation time in minutes
Cost of two batteries in cents.
Conclusion
Students write a sentence or two telling what they have proved or not proved from their discoveries in the investigation (experiment).
Next, do a post KWL with students going to the pre KWL in their journal. Students should use a different colored marker so you can see the knowledge growth, for assessment, then do a class KWL . Provided you use a different colored marker on the class KWL the students will be able to see what they have learned as a class. Journal a response as to what they want to now know and point out an experiment in the world of a scientist usually leads to more questions.
Assessment Activity
Successful completion of the experiment will focus the student’s ability to apply knowledge they have learned through the process of scientific inquiry.
- KWL Chart pre and post.
- Journal Assessment Rubric.
- Rubric for Scientific Research.
- Assessment Checklist for the Scientific Research.
- Venn Diagram.
- Rubric for the Research Paper.
- Rubric for Group Work.
All assessments provided should be worked through with you and your students before using them for an evaluation process in your classroom.
General Notes
Additional questions and research ideas:
- What is the cost of operation of different size batteries made by the same manufacturer?
- What is the cost of operation with different manufacturers of the same size of battery tested?
- When were flashlights invented?
- How and why do batteries vary by size?
- How are batteries used in a hospital? School? Home? Police? Farm? Personally? Compare and contrast results between the 1930s and now.
- How have batteries changed since they were developed and why?
- Are rechargeable batteries a better investment when compared to the cost of recharging them is included in the study?
- Interview individuals about their experiences resulting from a power outage. Compare and contrast town and farm experience during the power outage.
- How do batteries work?
- Investigate and discover how you need to dispose properly of various types of batteries.
- How do car batteries work?
- Make a sketch and label it for various types of batteries.
- Ask students to research the impact of the REA on Nebraska farmers during the 1930s.
- (A.) Research the life of a scientist who developed the battery or in the batteries development and write a story about their life. (B.) Have students write a story or poem about getting electricity for the first time during the 1930s.
- Explore how electricity works using different types of circuits around the home. NOTE: More investigations will be provided dealing with electricity during the 1940s units.
Get Published.
You can also submit your own lesson plan based on this Web site to us by clicking the button at left. We will review the plan and publish it for you.
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https://livinghistoryfarm.org/lessons-plans/1930s-lessons/science-math-2/no-lights-tonight/
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Did megalodon – the largest shark that ever lived – need to protect their babies?
Students will predict, research, use and analyze data to draw conclusions about the habitat of Megalodon sharks. The important role the Gatun Formation, along the Panama Canal, has provided fossil evidence for scientist Catalina Pimiento and her research on Megalodon sharks.
All times are approximate times and they will largely depend on each teacher and classroom size.
Did the largest predator sharks that ever lived need to protect their babies?
How do scientists collect and use fossils as evidence?
What important role did the Gatun Formation have in scientist Catalina Pimiento’s research on Megalodon sharks?
Explain the conclusion Catalina Pimiento came to and the evidence she used to support it.
Look for patterns in how organisms protect their babies and predict if an apex predator, like a Megalodon shark, would use a nursery to protect its babies.
Collect and analyze data to support or reject your prediction about Megalodon shark’s using nurseries to protect their babies.
Explain the story that the fossils, found in the Gatun formation, told about Megalodon sharks.
Analyze graphed data and use that information to explain Catalina Pimiento’s research about Megalodon shark nurseries and how it supports her conclusions.
Did the largest shark that ever-lived need to protect their babies?
Ask students to: Think of 3 examples of how other species protect their own species or their offspring (babies).
Would you protect someone even it puts your life in danger?
Who would you risk your life for to protect?
Think-Pair-Share: give students time to think, share with a partner, then share with the class.
Have students to research how different species take care of and protect their young.
Use the resources provided as a starting place.
Ask students to make observations and identify patterns they notice about how babies are cared for and protected by different species.
Explain how you came to your prediction.
Use the Investigation Data Tables Teeth sheet: Measuring and recording megalodon teeth data.
Exit Slip: Through the investigation, in what ways do scientists use fossils as evidence?
What are examples of evidence scientists can use?
Why do you think evidence is so important for a scientist’s research?
Pass out Catalina Pimiento’s info sheet and allow students to read together or independently.
Have an open discussion about their impression about who a scientist is.
Does Catalina “look” like a scientist?
In the investigation you went through some of the steps Catalina went through in her research about megalodon sharks.
We will now look more closely at the data she gathered and you will analyze it to determine what it tells us about Megalodon sharks.
Use the link to access the Prezi presentation Gatun Formation and Megalodon. Show students pictures of Gatun before and while the Panama Canal locks were being built. The Prezi will also get students to think about what the connection is between the Gatun formation and Megalodon sharks.
As a lead scientist for a university, what would you want to study if you had unlimited money for research?
As a scientist, you will collect data.
What does it mean to analyze something?
Today, you will be in groups looking at one data piece of evidence that Catalina Pimiento collected.
As a group you will study and analyze that data piece and complete the prompts in the Analyzing Evidence Organizer for your evidence piece only.
Depending on class size, there may be more than one group with each of the data evidences.
Allow time for student groups to complete the organizer for their evidence, encourage each student to share their observation.
Remind students that they are the experts for this piece of evidence and that later, they will need to explain their evidence to a group of peers.
Have students go home and explain their piece of evidence to a parent, sibling, or guardian and return with a question they asked and their response to the question (however, you will need to make additional copies to make this work).
What are three tips you would give someone if they were analyzing data for the first time?
What role does evidence play in a scientist’s research?
What do we know about the Gatun Formation and its connection to megalodon habitat?
Pass out Scientist Research Documentary Notes (2) sheet.
Watch the documentary The Clash of the Americas, with one of the featured scientists being Catalina Pimiento.
Have students focus and listen for how scientists use fossils as well as what important role the Gatun Formation played in Catalina’s research.
Use the organizer and student’s notes to have a discussion after watching the documentary.
Have students go back to their original groups based on type of evidence.
Number each student from each group 15. All the 1’s will make a new group, all the 2 another group, etc. These groups will be larger (depending on the size of your class), and there might be more than one student that is representing the same data evidence. This is OK, as long as each of them shares something.
Their group may have made different observations.
Allow time for students to explain their piece of evidence and for their peers to record their explanation.
Once they explain their piece of evidence to their new group, they can tape or glue it to their poster and will need to write their explanation next to their data evidence.
Have each student use a different color marker and have them write their name with their color on the poster to assure everyone participates.
Allow time for groups to finish glue or tape their evidences and write their explanations.
Data & Graph Analysis students will be looking at graphical data and identifying patterns and inferring its meaning.
Summarize & expand students will analyze evidence and write a summary of what it is saying. They will also be writing their hypothesis, research notes from documentary and expanding on Catalina’s research.
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http://www.paleoteach.org/megalodon-nurseries/
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Visible Proofs: Forensic Views of the Body: Education: Measurable You!
Description: This lesson plan introduces Bertillonage (see the background information below) an anthropometric measurement system developed to identify and track people in the penal system in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Students conduct a guided experiment and discussions while collecting anthropometric measurements, exploring the impact of experimental errors in a scientific system, and explaining their observations/findings in writing.
Some documents linked from this page are in PDF format and require Adobe Acrobat Reader.
evidence consists of observations and data on which to base scientific explanation.
technology and mathematics are used to improve investigation and communication.
scientific inquiry involves collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting gathered data.
scientific evidence is used to analyze, review, and critique scientific explanations.
societal challenges often inspire questions for scientific research.
science is a human endeavor and a part of society.
scientists formulate and test their explanations of nature using observation, experiments, and theoretical and mathematical models.
scientific ideas may change as new evidence becomes available.
scientific inquiry includes evaluation of the procedures and results of scientific investigations.
diverse cultures have contributed scientific knowledge and technological inventions through time.
Alphonse Bertillon, a police department file clerk in Paris, developed a complex method of measuring and categorizing individuals during the second half of the 19th century. Also known as Bertillonage, this system collected numerous body measurements and categorized various facial features of a person, and was used in the United States and in Europe to identify criminals in the penal system from the late 19th to early 20th centuries. In addition to photographs of each individual, a set of complex anthropometric measurements and feature classifications were collected on a card, which was catalogued to serve as a unique identity card for that person. The complexity of the system made it difficult and it gave way to a new identification method—fingerprinting—in early 20th century.
the study of human body measurements especially on a comparative basis, or for use in anthropological classification and comparison.
Assess students' assumptions about what makes each individual unique. Ask students which unique physical characteristics of a person may be measurable. Record students' responses on a blackboard/flip chart.
Show the Bertillonage Measurement diagram transparency on an overhead projector and introduce the story of Alphonse Bertillon and Bertillonage (see Background Information). Explain that this was the first scientific identification system developed before fingerprinting or DNA testing systems became available.
Review the students' responses recorded before (Lesson 1, step 1) and circle the ones obtainable in late 19th and early 20th century—i.e., before the development of the fingerprint and DNA identification methods.
Introduce vocabulary—anthropometry, which is the basis of the Bertillon's system. Ask students how well they think the Bertillonage/anthropometry system would work in identifying an individual correctly. Encourage discussions—why would it work well? why not? etc. Record discussion points on a blackboard/flip chart.
Tell students that the class will conduct an experiment of how well the Bertillonage/anthropometry system works in correctly identifying a person.
[Teacher's Note: If necessary, review the metric system before this step.] Have students work with a partner to get each other's measurements and ask them to complete his or her own measurements sheet. All measurements should be in centimeters. Remind students to leave the "Unique I.D." blank.
After the measurement activity is completed, ask each student to pick out a paper from a box/bag and explain that the number on the paper is his or her secret unique I.D.
Have students (a) fill out the "Unique I.D." section on his or her own Anthropometric Measurement Sheet and (b) write his or her name on the I.D. paper from the box/bag.
Gather both the measurement sheets and I.D. papers from students and tell them that the experiment will continue at the next class.
Review the previous lesson's discussions—e.g., measurable uniqueness of a person, criteria for each measurement—by reviewing appropriate student discussion notes and/or the Anthropometric Measurement Sheet transparency, etc. from Lesson 1.
Have students look at the measurement sheets of all classmates and discuss how the measurements may convey a singular individual trait and any other observations that they have made during last class.
Put students in groups of 3 and ask each group to designate a person to be identified. Provide each group with a new blank Anthropometric Measurement Sheet (259KB, PDF) and ask them to fill out the "Unique I.D." section with the designated student's name.
Tell students that their task is to find the I.D. number of the students whose measurements are being taken today without having the selected students remember their I.D. numbers.
If done previously (Lesson 1, step 6 Note), place the measurement criteria on the overhead so that students can refer to them.
Give students about 10–15 minutes to complete the measurements and look for the matching measurements and corresponding I.D. number.
Have each group present their findings. Ask how they matched their person's measurements to those taken in the previous class. Are all the measurements the same? Why or why not? Verify each group's I.D. number to the master list.
Display the notes from previous discussion of whether the Berillonage would be an effective and easy-to-use identification system (Lesson 1, step 3 above). Why, why not? Ask students whether their previous reasoning has changed after this experiment.
Where there significant differences between the two sets of measurements. If so why? If not, why?
Name two factors that could cause error in the measurements taken.
Would you consider this the best method of human classification? Support your answer with at least two reasons.
compare different sets of data and observe any differences between them.
identify the differences as experimental errors.
list at least two causes of the errors.
describe the effect of experimental errors on the validity of the findings in the scientific process.
Redesign an experiment to minimize or eliminate any experimental errors.
Read about Juan Vucetich, and the Francisca Rojas case, the first successful use of fingerprint identification in a murder investigation, and make a presentation.
Research DNA fingerprinting methods and present at least 2 different DNA analysis methods to the class.
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https://www.nlm.nih.gov/visibleproofs/education/measure/index.html
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Science at Spring Hill High School contributes significantly to Students’ enjoyment and understanding of the world and their place within it. It is made accessible to all pupils meeting their needs. With a focus on practical work, first-hand experience and special events designed to inspire and engage learners. Teaching key skills such as making observations, predictions and evaluation of first hand observations are of equal importance to knowledge and understanding.
Key Stage 3 students’ learning is greatly focused towards building independent and problem solving skills to allow students to develop their own ability to explore and find things out in science. The building of our new science laboratory has made it possible to give student the opportunities to engage in and experiment with high level practical science. The student truly enjoy these opportunities and has allowed for more independent exploration of scientific topics that meet the needs of the students and academically differentiated to allow them to access accreditation in science.
Key stage 4 students study for GCSEs in Biology, Physics and Chemistry.
What key skills will be developed at Key Stage 3?
Students are taught through practical work wherever possible and students develop an understanding of experimental procedures. By the end of KS3 they should be able to:
- Identify the variables in an experiment and control them appropriately (fair testing);
- Manipulate equipment and carry out a practical safely;
- Generate and record accurate data from an experiment;
- Turn their results into an appropriate graph;
- Process results by completing calculations where appropriate;
- Make valid conclusions from data, and justify these conclusions.
What is GCSE Science?
GCSE Science introduces students to fundamental ideas in scientific theory and helps them learn practical skills through topical investigations. Two options are available Single Science and Trilogy. Students can opt for either to achieve a GCSE. Both options allow students to continue their study into the sixth form for all sciences.
Examination Board
AQA Method of Assessment: All courses are Linear: exams in Y11 Single Biology: There are 6 exams of 1 hour 15 minutes (70 marks). Exams are available at Foundation or Higher Tier. GCSE Trilogy: There are 2 exams for each of the sciences (so 6 exams in total) which are 1 hour 45 minutes at Higher or Foundation Tier.
What Key Skills will I develop in GCSE Science?
GCSE Science will encourage students to:
- Use knowledge and understanding to pose scientific questions and define scientific problems;
- Plan and carry out investigative activities, including appropriate risk management, in a range of scientific contexts;
- Collect, select, process, analyse and interpret primary and secondary data to provide evidence and evaluate methodology, evidence and data;
- Understand the relationship between Science and society and develop communications skills in scientific contexts;
- Use mathematical formula and mathematical methods to analyse and interpret data and make predictions.
GCSE Curriculum
Why are individuals different? Can plants save the world from global warming? How can we feed the world? Should we genetically engineer organisms to be more like our “perfect” requirements? Will medicine be able to make us live forever? Biology is the study of living things, both those alive today and those we know about from fossils. It includes Human Biology but goes well beyond this, covering Ecology, Plant Biology and Microbiology.
We aim to encourage an inquisitive and practical approach to the subject. We are a department that values inquiry over mere information and encourage creative thought. In Biology lessons we encourage our students to take risks and make it acceptable for them to try and fail – the best scientists learn from their mistakes!
We hope that through the study of Biology we can open the girls’ eyes to the wonder of the living world from sub-cellular organelles through to whole ecosystems and human impact on the environment.
A wide range of activities are used to make the subject as practical, engaging and challenging as possible from Key stage 3 through to Key Stage 5. Practical work forms the backbone of class activities wherever possible in order to develop analysis and interpretation skills as well as helping the girls to challenge their understanding of the Biological concepts learnt. The emphasis in Biology lessons is to give the girls an opportunity to work things out for themselves to help them to gain a deeper understanding rather than just learning facts. Other class activities such as internet research, peer teaching, role play and field work ensure that lessons are active and engaging whilst also providing challenge.
Possible Careers Having AStudied GCSE Science
In our increasingly technological society, Science is becoming more and more important. Qualifications in Science open up many career opportunities. Opportunities to explore careers in science are integrated into science lessons, visit to the big bang fair and STEM engineering activities. However most of the career opportunities in Science require the continued study of Science at Sixth Form level (i.e. A Level). Students who have studied for Combined Science or the Separate Sciences may opt to continue to study one or more Sciences at KS5.
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https://springhillhighschool.co.uk/curriculum/science
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When I was in school, I was never a “math guy.” However, I know that if I would have had the two math teachers that are at UJHS they may have persuaded me to think otherwise. I am continually impressed when I walk into a math lesson at the way that our teachers make the skills seem so simplistic while challenging them to meet rigorous standards.
Last month, Ms. Todd invited me down to do some observation for an impact cycle. In our initial meeting, I asked her the question that I ask every teacher when we begin an impact cycle, “what don’t you like about how your courses are going right now. What is really hitting you in the gut that you would like to change.”
I have found that when I phrase this question this way, I get more authentic feedback than what I used to get when I asked teachers the question, “so how are things going.” The typical red-blooded American teacher answer is the response, “fine!” At times it seems like this has become just an automatic response, just as one might use “hello,” “goodbye,” or “have a good weekend.” I struggled for some time in the past starting good conversations because I wasn’t asking the right questions. When I asked Ms. Todd this, she thought for a moment and said, “actually would you mind coming into my eighth-hour class. I’m just not sure they are as engaged as I would like them to be.”
In an observation, I found the opposite. It seems that almost all of her students were engaged, but a select few seemed to dominate a lot of the question and answering during whole class problem solving and discussion. After analyzing the data, we also found that there was a small pocket of students in the back that easily became off task because of the learning environment at that table. One student towards the front of the room was on task and thoroughly engaged, but as a teacher, it would be difficult to tell because of her seat. With the setup of the room, she was the only student who had her back to the teacher nearly all the time. A few simple changes to the learning environment went a long way.
We then discussed what other goals she had. She was looking for different ways to engage her students in real-world introductory lessons that exposed students to the last several chapters, a precursor to what they would be exploring in 7th-grade math. Thank you @GHSnmath for your help with a few of these!
Here is what she would like to explore as possible options:
Generating Equivalent Algebraic Expressions:
Focus: Student Agency
- Have students choose a demonstration on how Algebraic Expressions can be used to explain activities in their day-to-day lives.
- Examples
- https://learnzillion.com/lesson_plans/51-represent-real-life-scenarios-by-writing-numerical-and-algebraic-expressions/
- Create a Game
- Like the game headbands. Each student has an expression on their head.
- 3x - y - y; 4x + 12; 2x -2y + x; 4(x+3), etc.
- The teacher calls out “let x = 3 and y = 2.” Evaluate the partners expression and record results. Do this x number of times. At the end, based on your results, find another expression that matches yours.
Collecting data
Students develop a two variable, single day experiment, or find something experimental to collect data on. Perhaps rolling dice?
- Collect data results in a table
- Representing relationships in the table
- Create graphical representations of data using Google sheets
- Highlight Relationships
- Could this be taught in parallel with Unit 16?
Area & Polygons
- Discover total area needed for replacing the carpet in the newly redesigned media center for hardwood floor or newer carpet and what the total cost would be.
- Redesign the media center using 3D modeling
- Identify the appropriate size are conditioning unit for each part of the school (BTU’s and Square Footage) using blueprints provided by Mr. Whitsitt.
Distance and Area in the Coordinate Plane
- Arrange Desks within the class using a coordinate plane. Measure area between desks or the whole room as well as the distance between desks.
- Treasure Hunt
- Modify checkers using the Coordinate Plane
- Modify a game of battleship
- Minecraft, Minecraft Treasure Hunt
- Overlay with an aerial map to locate places within the grid and distance apart--City Map of Monmouth Wards
- Virtual Archeological digs
- Crime Scene Investigation
Surface Area and Volume of Solids
- amount of paint to paint the Media Center
- amount of paint to repaint the entire school.
- amount of water that could fill the school
- Surface area required to create lift on a plane
- The volume of an instrument: Guitar … how does volume affect the sound
Displaying Analyzing and Summarizing Data
- Could this be taught parallel to the 2 variable lessons? In which they design an experiment, collect the data, then display analyze and summarize the data?
- Analyze student selection for school lunches
- Real world examples
- Integration of Technology: PSPP?
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https://www.coachwithit.com/2019/04/impact-cycle-in-math-engaging-real.html?showComment=1594619260134
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On Friday 31st January AIS Skolkovo had its Science Day after a week of Science related activities. The students in each class carried out an investigation of one of the topics from the Cambridge Curriculum: Biology, Physics or Chemistry.
The focus for Science Week was on enhancing the students’ Scientific Enquiry skills. Most classes started with a question or a hypothesis, such as ‘Which fabric makes the best insulator?’ or ‘Can we make our own pH indicator?’. The students then researched the topic and planned an investigation, making predictions and controlling variables to ensure they made a fair test. Students learned how to use apparatus safely and correctly, making observations and taking measurements to collect data. The students then had to choose how to present this data, e.g. using a table or chart or a graph. Based on these results, the students could then make conclusions related to the original question.
In Nursery, Reception and Year 1, students investigated sinking and floating, making predictions, carrying out an investigation with different items and observing what happened. Year 2 made paper helicopters, exploring the concept of forces - air resistance and gravity. Year 3A made kites, exploring the forces of lift using a household fan. Year 3B investigated kinetic energy using a wooden car and an inclined plane. Year 4 made an experiment testing the effectiveness of different fabrics as insulators using cups of snow wrapped in fabric and timing how long it took to melt. Year 5 explored the solar system, researching facts about our neighbouring planets. Year 7 investigated acids and alkalis, looking at chemical reactions, the corrosive effects of soft drinks on egg shells, and making their own pH indicator from red cabbage.
All students enjoyed exploring these concepts and there were many great ideas explaining ‘why?’ on the day. We have many potential Scientists here at AIS!
In the summer of 2022, our students graduated from 13 classes, passed their exams, and graduated...
Our campuses open the doors for everyone who wants to get acquainted with the life of the school and get answers to any questions about admission and education.
During the open day, your child will have a golden opportunity to get acquainted with our school and the daily schedule, interact with their future classmates and much more...
This week at the Skolkovo campus literally expands horizons. Our children will be able not only to "visit" different countries on different continents...
Learn more about the curriculum and school life September 6th at Saint Petersburg campus.
Where are the final exams passed better than in England? In our CIS schools!
August promotion - students who have transferred to us from other international schools will be enrolled WITHOUT Aa. We will be glad to see you in our school!
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https://cisedu.com/en-gb/world-of-cis/news/347-science-day/
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Below are the experiments that we currently perform in our laboratories. We are always developing new experiments for the outreach program, and we are willing to work with teachers to develop curriculum-directed experiments.
We require that school groups have permission slips signed by the student's guardians. These permission slips detail the experiment that the student will be performing, and also grant us permission use photographs from the events for promotional uses. Please contact us for a copy of the permission slip for the experiment you would like to perform.
Toxic Spill Investigation
Two experiments that attempt to identify the cause of an increase in fish deaths in the Saint John River.
The Synthesis of Aso Dyes
Experiments related to the synthesis of highly colored organic molecules.
Frangrant Esters
Versatile synthesis of a variety of related molecules with different scents, ranging from fruit to perfume.
Synthesis of Indigo
A look into the history and synthetic preparation of the dye used in coloring blue jeans, indigo.
Metallic Pigments
Not all useful dyes are organic compounds. This experiment looks at some inorganic pigments based on cobalt.
The Copper Cycle
The Copper Cycle experiment involves a series of reactions that begin and end with copper. The experimental results are based on qualitative observations, involves techniques such as centrification, and covers chemical concepts like simple substitution reactions,formation of solids and gases, and reduction and oxidation reactions. The Copper Cycle can be performed by any high school student.
The Polyprotic Titration
The Polyprotic Titration involves the titration of a sample of dilute phosphoric acid, which is a triprotic acid. The titration uses our commercial software to quantitatively collect and analyze the pH versus titre volume data, involves techniques such as using a burette to perform the titration, and covers chemical concepts like determination of concentration and acid disassociation constant.
Outreach Demonstrations
Several members of our department have gone into the community to perform chemistry demonstrations at schools and other organizations. Please contact the Outreach Committee or James Tait to arange a demonstration.
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http://www.unb.ca/fredericton/science/depts/chemistry/outreach/experiments.html
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- Compare and contrast scientific theories.
- Know that both direct and indirect observations are used by scientists to study the natural world and universe.
- Identify questions and concepts that guide scientific investigations.
- Formulate and revise explanations and models using logic and evidence.
- Recognize and analyze alternative explanations and models.
- Explain the importance of accuracy and precision in making valid measurements.
- Examine the status of existing theories.
- Evaluate experimental information for relevance and adherence to science processes.
- Judge that conclusions are consistent and logical with experimental conditions.
- Interpret results of experimental research to predict new information, propose additional investigable questions, or advance a solution.
- Communicate and defend a scientific argument.
Describe the law of conservation of energy.
Explain the difference between an endothermic process and an exothermic process.
Description
Students will complete an experiment where they predict results, collect and interpret data and make conclusions. Graphic information is java-based, see below, so no special graphing software is needed. Fully customizable via the ITSI-SU (free) site.
Sensor needed: Temperature Probe
Time Needed: 60 - 80 minutes
Lesson Attributes:
Models
Graphing
Simulation
Java
Interactive
Molecular workbench
Student computers
Internet
Rationale
In this activity, the change of temperature is measured when salt and sugar are dissolved in water.
When a material dissolves in water, does it produce heat?
When you dissolve salt in water, what happens to the temperature? Why?
What about when you dissolve sugar in water? Is it the same or different? Why do you think so?
Resource
See the link below for the interactive resource. After creating a free account, you will have access to all ITSI-SU Math and Science interactive resource and lessons.
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https://www.pdesas.org/module/content/resources/14993/view.ashx
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In an answer to another question, librik cited Orin Gensler's observation that Insular Celtic and Semitic share a surprisingly large feature complex. This makes it hard for a layman with ready access to only the "Berlitz" languages (as John McWhorter calls them in ''The Power of Babel'') to become familiar with how a language using verb-subject-object word order behaves without conflating VSO in general with this sort of Celto-Semitic Sprachbund in particular.
I've looked through the University of Konstanz universals archive, and I'm aware of a few features predicted by universals to come along with VO (placing the verb before the object) for branching consistency reasons: noun before adjective or genitive, preposition before noun. But I'm interested in what other features VSO statistically pulls in compared to SVO. For example, VSO makes verb and object no longer form a surface VP constituent, and the need to cope with this in some way might bring in x, y, and z features.
So what other features are associated with VSO across languages?
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https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/questions/6535/what-morphosyntactic-features-are-associated-with-vso/14346
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In the language typology , VSO languages ( verb-subject-object languages ) are those languages in which verb , subject and object normally appear in this order.
Similar sequences exist in German, i. H. Verb first clauses , for certain types of sentences, e.g. B. for yes / no questions: do you have beer there? VSO languages, on the other hand, are characterized by the fact that the VSO sequence is the normal case; H. occurs both in propositional and interrogative clauses and in both main and subordinate clauses. Many VSO languages also allow SVO positions as a common variant.
Examples of natural languages of the VSO type can be found in the group of Western Semitic languages , among others. a. Standard Arabic and Biblical Hebrew , while many modern local variants of Arabic (e.g. Egyptian and Iraqi Arabic), as well as modern Hebrew ( Ivrit ), show an SVO word order . VSO languages are also most of the Island Celtic languages (including Irish , Welsh ) and many Austronesian languages , e.g. B. Hawaiian or Chamorro .
While the word order types SVO and SOV are by far the most common, VSO is considered the most common among the other secondary types. In the database of the World Atlas of Language Structures , 95 of a sample of 1377 languages belong to the VSO type (i.e. 6.9%).
literature
- Harald Haarmann: Elementary word order in the languages of the world. Buske, Hamburg 2004.
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https://de.zxc.wiki/wiki/Verb-Subjekt-Objekt
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Word order in Modern Hebrew is somewhat similar to that in English: as opposed to Biblical Hebrew, where the word order is Verb-Subject-Object, the usual word order in Modern Hebrew is Subject-Verb-Object. … There is an accusative marker, et, only before a definite Object (mostly a definite noun or personal name).
How are Hebrew sentences structured?
In verbal sentences (that is, sentences with a verb), the structure of the sentence in Biblical Hebrew is: (1) the Verb, in first position; (2) the subject, in second position; (3) the object, in third position. Other grammatical elements such as Adverb, prepositional phrases, discourse Particle, etc.
What is the order of the word?
Word order refers to the way words are arranged in a sentence. The standard word order in English is: Subject + Verb + Object. To determine the proper sequence of words, you need to understand what the subject, verb and object(s) are.
What is sentence in Hebrew?
The Hebrew word for sentence – as in “These words form a sentence.” – is מִשְׁפָּט listen and repeat. It comes from the root שׁ. פ. … You may have noticed that the English word sentence refers to both verbal expression as well as the sentence handed down by a judge.
How do I learn Hebrew?
Hebrew is an ancient and beautiful language, and we’re here to help you to begin learning it with a few tips.
- Speaking Before Reading. …
- Reading Hebrew – Start Small. …
- Listening to Music and Watching Movies Can Be Educational. …
- Read Something Familiar (in Hebrew) …
- Use Online Material. …
- Be Consistent.
Is Hebrew difficult to learn?
How hard is it to learn Hebrew? It could be difficult to learn the Hebrew alphabet, which contains 22 characters. Unlike in most European languages, words are written from right to left. … The pronunciation of the R sound in Hebrew is a guttural sound, much like in French.
What is Israel called in Hebrew?
Meaning & History
From the Hebrew name יִשְׂרָאֵל (Yisra’el) meaning “God contends”, from the roots שָׂרָה (sarah) meaning “to contend, to fight” and אֵל (‘el) meaning “God”. In the Old Testament, Israel (who was formerly named Jacob; see Genesis 32:28) wrestles with an angel.
What comes first in a sentence?
In English grammar, the rule of thumb is that the subject comes before the verb which comes before the object. This means that most of the sentences conform to the SVO word order. Note that, this is for the sentences that only have a subject, verb and object.
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https://onejewishasheville.org/tourist-assistance/question-what-is-the-word-order-of-hebrew.html
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In linguistics, word order typology refers to the study of the order of the syntactic constituents of a language, and how different languages can employ different orders. Correlations between orders found in different syntactic subdomains are also of interest. The primary word orders that are of interest are the constituent order of a clause – the relative order of subject, object, and verb; the order of modifiers (adjectives, numerals, demonstratives, possessives, and adjuncts) in a noun phrase; and the order of adverbials.
Some languages have relatively restrictive word orders, often relying on the order of constituents to convey important grammatical information. Others, often those that convey grammatical information through inflection, allow more flexibility which can be used to encode pragmatic information such as topicalisation or focus. Most languages however have some preferred word order which is used most frequently.
For most nominative–accusative languages which have a major word class of nouns and clauses which include subject and object, constituent word order is commonly defined in terms of the finite verb (V) and its arguments, the subject (S) and object (O).
There are six theoretically possible basic word orders for the transitive sentence: subject–verb–object (SVO), subject–object–verb (SOV), verb–subject–object (VSO), verb–object–subject (VOS), object–subject–verb (OSV) and object–verb–subject (OVS). The overwhelming majority of the world's languages are either SVO or SOV, with a much smaller but still significant portion using VSO word order. The remaining three arrangements are exceptionally rare, with VOS being slightly more common than OSV, and OVS being significantly more rare than the two preceding orders.
Read more about Word Order: Finding The Basic Constituent Order, Constituent Word Orders, Functions of Constituent Word Order, Phrase Word Orders and Branching, Pragmatic Word Order, Other Issues
Other articles related to "word order, order, words, word, word orders":
... The standard word order for Franco-Provençal is subject–verb–object (SVO) form in a declarative sentence, for example Vos côsâds anglès ... English.), except when the object is a pronoun, in which case the word order is subject–object–verb (SOV) ... verb–subject–object (VSO) form is standard word order for an interrogative sentence, for example Côsâds-vos anglès ? (Do you speak English?) ...
... show the phenomenon known as pied-piping with inversion, which may change the head-initial order of phrases such as NP, PP, and QP ...
... Differences in word order complicate translation and language education – in addition to changing the individual words, the order must also be changed ... This can be simplified by first translating the individual words, then reordering the sentence, as in interlinear gloss, or by reordering the words prior to translation, as in English-Ordered Japanese ...
... which have to follow the deficient verb(s) in word order ... verb phrase The full(er) picture (The bullets • are used here to join the parts of single words which would have been written separately in the current ... to the final, penult, or antepenultimate syllable of the following word, but only if that word is the verb's object ...
... Scrambling is a common term for pragmatic word order ... In the Chomskyan tradition, word orders of all languages are taken to be derived from a common source with a fundamental word order, so languages which do not follow ... and become a general concept that denotes many non-canonical word orders in numerous languages ...
Famous quotes containing the words order and/or word:
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https://www.primidi.com/word_order
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As you might be aware, Jonathan has been writing a series about the word order of the biblical Hebrew verbal sentence. The significance of that series and what he is arguing might be lost, however. Therefore, I wanted to write a short entry to let you know why I have become a recent convert to Cook and Holmstedt’s proposal for the re-examination of the standard or “unmarked” word order in biblical Hebrew.
Anyone who learned Hebrew through the standard channels will generally tell you that the normal word order in Hebrew is verb-subject-object (VSO). That is, the verb appears first, then the subject, and then whatever other information (the object, adverbs, etc.). Take, for example, the following quote from the popular introductory grammar The Basics of Biblical Hebrew by Gary Pratico and Miles Van Pelt (133 [§12.14]):
In Hebrew, however, normal word order for a verbal sentence is verb-subject-object as the following example illustrates.
בָּרָא אֱלֹהִים אֵת הַשָּׁמַיִם וְאֵת הָאָרֶץ
God created the heavens and the earth (Gen 1:1).
In this example, the verb is in first position (בָּרָא), the subject in second position (אֱלֹהִים) and the two objects follow the subject (הַשָּׁמַיִם and הָאָרֶץ).
This is wholly incorrect for a few reasons, but you cannot blame these authors for making such a statement when even Gesenius, the most famous of biblical Hebrew grammarians, has the following to say (Kautzsch, 456 [§142f]):
According to what has been remarked above, under a, the natural order of words within the verbal sentence is: Verb—Subject, or Verb—Subject—Object. But as in the noun clause (§141l) so also in the verbal-clause, a variation of the usual order of words frequently occurs when any member of the sentence is to be specifically emphasized by priority of position.
So, why has this topic occupied so much of Jonathan’s thoughts here on the blog of The Hebrew Café? Why does any of this matter for students of biblical Hebrew? And, how can we know for sure that the information on word order presented in these grammars is so incorrect?
Why Jonathan Writes on Word Order
The first reason that Jonathan writes about this issue is because he studied under Dr. John Cook, who has partnered with Dr. Robert Holmstedt in the creation of a new method of teaching biblical Hebrew. Included in this method is a novel perspective on the question of unmarked verb position and how the verb happens to move so frequently in Hebrew sentences as to cause confusion among even the most astute of Hebrew scholars. Studying under one of these paradigm-altering giants in the field affected Jonathan’s perspective on the importance of the question and, consequently, on the topics that he finds fascinating enough to write about in a blog.
The fact that so many grammars present this issue incorrectly (in our view) drives Jonathan to call attention to the word order of the verses covered in our online lessons, trying to sort out what might be happening in the structure of the sentence/verse to influence the way that it’s constructed linguistically. He wants to correctly inform new students with regard to this issue, which is attracting more attention in recent years.
Just as I didn’t recognize the relevance of this topic when it was first raised to me a few months ago, so many people involved in Hebrew instruction do not realize that the traditional grammars relate incorrectly to this question. By bringing it up here in the blog, Jonathan is attempting both to provide information for those who are new to the study of the language and to further discussion on this important topic, calling it to the attention of those who have experience with reading Hebrew but haven’t given much thought to word order.
Why You Should Care
When Jonathan first raised the question of word order in our discussions (and then on the blog), I didn’t see the significance of it. I came to Hebrew intuitively, having acquired the language basically naturally as the product of formal and personal study, free reading, involvement in the Israeli ulpan program, and daily living in Israel for the past decade and a half. I’d been reading the Hebrew Bible for twenty years as a regular habit, yet I never considered the word order beyond what “felt right” to me, which is generally how people come to language without analyzing it.
As students (and teachers) of the language, we all are constantly searching for better ways to learn (and teach) it. In the early stages, the amount of information that needs to be learned in order to get to a place where you can begin to really learn the language can be overwhelming. It has been said that the intermediate stage of learning any language involves unlearning things that you learned in the basic stage. It seems counter-intuitive to give bad information in the beginning. Why not do what we can do give a better picture of how the language works even in the first level? At least, to the best of our ability.
By devoting time to the question of word order, there are lots of benefits that will come to your approach to the language generally.
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- You will be better equipped for analyzing the structure of verses in biblical Hebrew.
- You will understand what is happening to create subject-verb inversion (inverted word order), which will help you read more fluently—since you can basically feel the word order and expect what should be written next in the sentence.
- You will be able to compose more natural-sounding Hebrew.
How We Know
The position that Hebrew exhibits the VSO word order comes from a natural reading of the text. The vast majority of sentences in the Bible do indeed take that order. First, the majority of verbs appear as past narrative (vayyiqtol or vav-consecutive) forms, which always appear in the first position of a clause. The concept with which we have to become better acquainted is inversion. There are a lot of linguistic features that cause the subject and the verb to become inverted. One such trigger is the past narrative form of the verb, which skews the statistics. When most of the text is narrative, and the majority of verbs are part of narrative strings, we should not be persuaded by simply looking at how many clauses are verb-subject.
Holmstedt essentially approaches Hebrew from the perspective of generative grammar, with regard to the movement of constituent parts of a clause. In his 2009 article in the Journal of Semitic Studies, he points out the following (p. 124):
When we examine the BH data and ask whether the majority of VS and SV clauses fit a triggered inversion account, the answer is yes. The set of potential triggers in BH includes syntactic members, such as relative words (22), interrogatives (24), causal words (25), as well as semantic members, such as modal operators (whether overt or covert ) and negative operators (28).
Basically, if you assume that the natural order of the language is SVO, you can explain the clause structure by inversion. However, if you assume VSO, it is much more difficult to explain those clauses that flaunt the assumption. With this in mind, Holmstedt argued with the force of numbers and statistics on all the verbal sentences in the book of Genesis to demonstrate the strength of his position. This can be accessed in his 2011 article in the Journal of Hebrew Scriptures, in which he lays down (not for the first time) his challenge to those who reject the SVO position (p. 29).
In closing, I invite Hebraists to defend the VS analysis of Hebrew against my SV challenge by means of an overt linguistic framework (e.g., linguistic typology) and the clear documentation of data (e.g., footnotes with all the examples listed, preferably with some explanation of sub-categories, as I have done in this study). I cannot make the challenge any clearer: someone, preferably many scholars, must take up the VS analysis and defend it scientifically.
His argument is so well documented in the footnotes and examples that this Hebraist has officially been converted to Holmstedt’s position, and I totally get why Jonathan finds this topic engaging. When I teach Hebrew from now on, I will include a session on word order and how it takes shape in the text of the Bible, and that session will give support to the position that Hebrew is essentially an SVO language with lots of triggers that cause inversion.
References
Holmstedt, Robert D. “The Typological Classification of the Hebrew of Genesis: Subject-Verb or Verb-Subject?” Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 11 (2011). doi:10.5508/jhs.2011.v11.a14.
——. “Word Order and Information Structure in Ruth and Jonah: A Generative-Typological Analysis.” Journal of Semitic Studies 54, no. 1 (2009): 111–39. doi:10.1093/jss/fgn042.
Kautzsch, Emil, ed. Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar. Translated by Arthur Cowley. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 2006.
Pratico, Gary D., and Miles V. Van Pelt. Basics of Biblical Hebrew Grammar. Second ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2007.
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https://www.thehebrewcafe.com/main/2020/12/a-recent-convert/
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This map shows the dominant order of lexical (nonpronominal) object and verb. As with Map 81A, the notion of object is defined semantically, as the P or most patient-like argument (see discussion under Map 81A) in a transitive clause. The primary types shown are languages which are OV (in which the object precedes the verb), illustrated by Turkish in (1a), and languages which are VO (in which the verb precedes the object), illustrated in (1b) by Gulf Arabic, the variety of colloquial Arabic spoken in Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and eastern Saudi Arabia.
(1)
a.
Turkish (Underhill 1976: 51)
Mehmed-i
gör-dü-m.
Mehmet-acc
see-pst-1sg
O
V
‘I saw Mehmet.’
b.
Gulf Arabic (Holes 1990: 119)
ʔakalaw
sandwiich-aat
eat.3pl
sandwich-pl
V
O
‘They ate sandwiches.’
|Go to map|
|Value||Representation|
|Object precedes verb (OV)||713|
|Object follows verb (VO)||705|
|Both orders with neither order dominant||101|
|Total:||1519|
The third type is languages with both orders with neither order dominant; see “Determining Dominant Word Order”. A number of different subtypes of this type are discussed below. Note that the map does not distinguish languages in which only one order is possible and languages in which both orders are possible but one is dominant.
The map restricts attention to lexical noun phrases, ones consisting of a noun (plus possible modifiers), rather than objects consisting of just a pronoun. In some languages, pronominal objects occur in a different position from lexical objects. For example, in French, in which lexical objects normally follow the verb, pronominal objects normally precede the verb, as in (2).
(2) French
Je
le
vois.
I
him
see
‘I see him.’
Because lexical objects normally follow the verb in French, it is shown on the map as VO.
To a large extent, the SOV type shown on Map 81A corresponds to the OV type on this map. There are two other types on Map 81A that are OV, namely OVS and OSV, but these types are quite rare. Conversely, there are three types on Map 81A that correspond roughly to VO on this map, namely SVO, VSO, and VOS. There are a number of ways, however, in which these correspondences are not exact.
First, there are a number of languages which are shown as languages lacking a dominant order on Map 81A, but which are classifiable as OV or VO on this map. Some of these are languages in which one order of object and verb is dominant but which lack a dominant order of subject and verb in transitive clauses. The most common subtype of such languages consists of languages in which SVO is a common order in transitive clauses, but where VSO or VOS (or both) is also common. Syrian Arabic is an example of a language of this sort (Cowell 1964: 407, 411).
There are also languages in which OV is the dominant order and in which both SOV and OVS order are common so that they lack a dominant order on Map 81A. Macushi (Cariban; Brazil) is fairly rigidly OV, but SOV and OVS occur with about the same frequency (Abbott 1991: 25). In addition, there are languages in which the frequency of the two orders of object and verb depends on whether there is a lexical subject in the clause. For example, in Tonkawa (isolate; Texas), both SOV and SVO are common in clauses with both a lexical subject and a lexical object; but OV order is much more common in clauses lacking a lexical subject (based on my own text counts of texts in Hoijer 1972). Similarly, Yukulta (Tangkic; Queensland, Australia) is shown as SVO on Map 81A, but as OV on this map, since OV is reported to be preferred if there is no lexical subject while SVO order is preferred when there is a lexical subject (Keen 1983: 229).
There are also languages for which there is a dominant order both for the order of object and verb and for the order of subject and verb, but which do not have a dominant order for subject, object, and verb. Among these are languages where both VSO and VOS order are common but neither can be considered dominant. An example of such a language is Boumaa Fijian (Austronesian), illustrated in (3); only the context will determine which noun phrase is subject in a clause of the form Verb+NP+NP.
(3) Boumaa Fijian (Dixon 1988: 243)
e
rai-ca
a
gone
a
qase
3sg
see-tr
art
child
art
old.person
‘The old person saw the child.’ or
‘The child saw the old person.’
There are also many languages shown on this map that are not shown on Map 81A. These are languages for which it is clear from the available materials that the language is OV or that it is VO, but where the materials do not provide enough information to determine its type for Map 81A. Most languages shown on Map 81A with a specific word order (i.e. those not shown as lacking a dominant order) are shown on this map either as OV or as VO. An example of an exception is Paakantyi (Pama-Nyungan; New South Wales, Australia), which is SVO in clauses containing a lexical subject and a lexical object, but in which both OV and VO are common in clauses lacking a lexical subject (Hercus 1982: 236).
Languages in which neither OV nor VO is dominant fall into two sorts. On the one hand, there are languages with flexible word order where both orders are common and the choice is determined by extragrammatical factors. Many Australian languages, such as Ngandi (Gunwinyguan; Northern Territory, Australia; Heath 1978), are examples of this. A second class of language in which both OV and VO are common are languages in which word order is primarily determined syntactically, but in which there are competing OV and VO constructions. German is an instance of this, in that VO order is used in main clauses in which there is no auxiliary verb, as in (4a), while OV order is used in clauses with an auxiliary verb, as in (4b), and in subordinate clauses introduced by a subordinator, as in (4c).
(4) German
a.
Anna
trink-t
Wasser.
Anna
drink-3sg
water
V
O
‘Anna is drinking water.’
b.
Anna
ha-t
Wasser
getrunken.
Anna
have-3sg
water
drink.pst.ptcp
O
V
‘Anna has drunk water.’
c.
Hans
sag-t,
dass
Anna
Wasser
trink-t.
Hans
say-3sg
that
Anna
water
drink-3sg
O
V
‘Hans says that Anna is drinking water.’
A number of languages in Africa are similar to German in employing OV order in clauses containing auxiliaries, but VO order in clauses lacking an auxiliary. The example in (5) illustrates this for Kisi (Atlantic, Niger-Congo; Guinea): (5a), without an auxiliary verb, is SVO, while in (5b), with the present progressive auxiliary có, the verb follows the object.
(5) Kisi (Childs 1995: 249, 250)
a.
kɛ̀ùwó
lɔ̀wá
sàá
snake
bite
Saa
‘The snake bit Saa.’
b.
Fàlà
có
Lɛ́ɛ́ŋndó
yìkpàá
Fallah
pres.prog
machete
sharpen
‘Fallah is sharpening the machete.’
Other instances in Africa, but far to the east of Kisi, include Nuer (Western Nilotic; Sudan; Crazzolara 1933), Dinka (Western Nilotic; Sudan; Nebel 1948) and Dongo (Ubangian, Niger-Congo; Democratic Republic of Congo; Tucker and Bryan 1966: 131).
Other instances of languages with syntactically determined order of object and verb are a number of Central Sudanic languages in eastern Africa, including the Moru-Ma'di languages, in which there are two constructions which can be broadly characterized as perfective and imperfective (or past and nonpast), in which the perfective construction is SVO, while the imperfective construction is SOV. The examples in (6) from Moru (Central Sudanic, Nilo-Saharan; Sudan) illustrate this.
(6) Moru (Tucker and Bryan 1966: 47)
a.
má=nya
ŋgá
1sg=eat
something
‘I ate something.’
b.
má
ŋgá
ɔ̀nya
1sg
something
eat
‘I am/was eating something.’
This contrast is not purely one of tense or aspect. For example in Avokaya, another Moru-Ma'di language, infinitival phrases are invariably OV while imperative clauses are invariably VO (Kilpatrick 1981: 98).
There are also languages in which the order of object and verb is partly sensitive to speech act type. For example, both Savi (Indic; Afghanistan; Buddruss 1967: 61-62) and Iraqw (Cushitic; Tanzania; Whiteley 1958: 64) are normally rigidly OV, but both allow VO in imperative clauses.
The distribution of OV order is similar to that described for SOV order in Chapter 81. OV predominates over much of Asia, except in the southeast. It also predominates in New Guinea, the exceptions being either languages along the north coast or on islands offshore; many of these exceptions are Austronesian. In Australia, OV predominates over VO but competes with languages in which neither OV nor VO order are dominant; even among those classified here as OV, the order of object and verb is generally relatively flexible. In the Americas, it is the dominant order outside two areas where VO predominates, Mesoamerica and the Pacific Northwest. In Africa, it is found to the west, north and northeast of the large area in which VO order is found, although the map is a bit misleading in that some of the areas in which OV order is found exhibit more genealogical diversity, so that in terms of genealogical groups, VO is less predominant in Africa than the map might suggest.
VO order is found in Europe and North Africa and among Semitic languages of the Middle East. It is the dominant type in Africa, though there are many OV languages around the periphery of the area in which VO is dominant. It is found in a large area stretching from China and Southeast Asia through Indonesia, the Philippines and the Pacific. Although it is the minority type in the Americas, there are two very well-defined areas that are almost exclusively VO, namely the Pacific Northwest (western Canada and the northwestern part of the continental United States) and Mesoamerica. Elsewhere in the Americas, VO order is found in a number of Algonquian languages of eastern Canada, in a number of languages of California, and sprinkled throughout South America, particularly among the languages further south.
Languages in which neither OV nor VO order is dominant are particularly common in Australia, and to a somewhat lesser extent, in North America. The Moru-Ma'di and Western Nilotic languages mentioned above, in which the choice between OV and VO is grammatically determined, form a clearly defined small area in eastern Africa.
The order of object and verb has received considerable attention because of the fact that a large number of other features are predictable from it, at least in a statistical sense (Greenberg 1963, Hawkins 1983, Dryer 1992). See Chapters 95, 96, and 97 for discussion. For example, OV languages tend to be postpositional (see Chapters 85 and 95), genitive before noun (see Chapter 86), adverb before verb, complementizer at end of clause, and standard-marker-adjective order in comparative clauses, while VO languages tend to exhibit the opposite orders. The patterns are sometimes more complex than this. For example, while VO languages almost exclusively place relative clauses after nouns, both orders of relative clause and noun are common among OV languages (see Chapter 96). In addition, there are some word order features which do not correlate with the order of object and verb. For example, contrary to some claims, the order of adjective and noun does not correlate with the order of object and verb (Dryer 1988a, 1992; see Chapter 97).
While it is often assumed in the literature that the order of object and verb has some privileged status among the various pairs of elements which correlate in order with each other, this assumption has not been supported. There is really no other good candidate among the various pairs of elements for such a privileged status. Perhaps the best alternative candidate would be adposition type (prepositions vs. postpositions); but many languages lack adpositions, yet still exhibit correlations among other pairs of elements. An alternative view is that no pair of elements has a privileged status; rather, there are just many pairs that correlate with each other, and the order of object and verb is just one of those pairs of elements.
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https://wals.info/chapter/83
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Subject-verb agreement is an example of a grammatical characteristic of communication. This refers to the agreement between the subject of a sentence and the verb that is used to describe the action of the subject. For example, “The cat purrs” is correct, while “The cat purr” is incorrect.
Subject–verb–object word order
|Linguistic typology|
|Morphological|
|Morphosyntactic|
|
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|Word order|
|Lexicon|
|Word
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order
|English
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equivalent
|Proportion
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of languages
|Example
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languages
|SOV||“She him loves.”||45%||45
||Ancient Greek, Bengali, Hindi, Hungarian, Japanese, Kannada, Korean, Latin, Malayalam, Meitei (Manipuri), Persian, Sanskrit, Urdu, etc|
|SVO||“She loves him.”||42%||42
||Chinese, Dutch, English, French, German, Hausa, Italian, Malay, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, Thai, Vietnamese, etc|
|VSO||“Loves she him.”||9%||9
||Biblical Hebrew, Classical Arabic, Irish, Te Reo Māori, Filipino, Tuareg-Berber, Welsh|
|VOS||“Loves him she.”||3%||3
||Malagasy, Baure, Car|
|OVS||“Him loves she.”||1%||1
||Apalaí, Hixkaryana|
|OSV||“Him she loves.”||0%||Warao|
|Frequency distribution of word order in languages surveyed by Russell S. Tomlin in the 1980s (
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)
In linguistic typology, subject–verb–object (SVO) is a sentence structure where the subject comes first, the verb second, and the object third. Languages may be classified according to the dominant sequence of these elements in unmarked sentences (i.e., sentences in which an unusual word order is not used for emphasis). English is included in this group. An example is “Sam ate yogurt.” The label often includes ergative languages that do not have subjects, but have an agent–verb–object (AVO) order.
SVO is the second-most common order by number of known languages, after SOV. Together, SVO and SOV account for more than 87% of the world’s languages.
Properties
Subject–verb–object languages almost always place relative clauses after the nouns which they modify and adverbial subordinators before the clause modified, with varieties of Chinese being notable exceptions.
Although some subject–verb–object languages in West Africa, the best known being Ewe, use postpositions in noun phrases, the vast majority of them, such as English, have prepositions. Most subject–verb–object languages place genitives after the noun, but a significant minority, including the postpositional SVO languages of West Africa, the Hmong–Mien languages, some Sino-Tibetan languages, and European languages like Swedish, Danish, Lithuanian and Latvian have prenominal genitives (as would be expected in an SOV language).
Non-European SVO languages usually have a strong tendency to place adjectives, demonstratives and numerals after the nouns that they modify, but Chinese, Vietnamese, Malaysian and Indonesian place numerals before nouns, as in English. Some linguists have come to view the numeral as the head in the relationship to fit the rigid right-branching of these languages.
There is a strong tendency, as in English, for main verbs to be preceded by auxiliaries: I am thinking. He should reconsider.
Sample sentences
An example of SVO order in English is:
- Andy ate cereal.
In an analytic language such as English, subject–verb–object order is relatively inflexible because it identifies which part of the sentence is the subject and which one is the object. (“The dog bit Andy” and “Andy bit the dog” mean two completely different things, while, in case of “Bit Andy the dog”, it may be difficult to determine whether it’s a complete sentence or a fragment, with “Andy the dog” the object and an omitted/implied subject.) The situation is more complex in languages that have no word order imposed by their grammar; Russian, Finnish, Ukrainian, and Hungarian have both the VO and OV constructs in their common word order uses.
In some languages, some word orders are considered more “natural” than others. In some, the order is the matter of emphasis. For example, Russian allows the use of subject–verb–object in any order and “shuffles” parts to bring up a slightly different contextual meaning each time. E.g. “любит она его” (loves she him) may be used to point out “she acts this way because she LOVES him”, or “его она любит” (him she loves) is used in the context “if you pay attention, you’ll see that HE is the one she truly loves”, or “его любит она” (him loves she) may appear along the lines “I agree that cat is a disaster, but since my wife adores it and I adore her…”. Regardless of order, it is clear that “его” is the object because it is in the accusative case. In Polish, SVO order is basic in an affirmative sentence, and a different order is used to either emphasize some part of it or to adapt it to a broader context logic. For example, “Roweru ci nie kupię” (I won’t buy you a bicycle), “Od piątej czekam” (I’ve been waiting since five).
In Turkish, it is normal to use SOV, but SVO may be used sometimes to emphasize the verb. For example, “John terketti Mary’yi” (Lit. John/left/Mary: John left Mary) is the answer to the question “What did John do with Mary?” instead of the regular [SOV] sentence “John Mary’yi terketti” (Lit. John/Mary/left).
In German, Dutch, and Kashmiri, SVO with V2 word order in main clauses coexists with SOV in subordinate clauses, as given in Example 1 below; and a change in syntax, such as by bringing an adpositional phrase to the front of the sentence for emphasis, may also dictate the use of VSO, as in Example 2. In Kashmiri, the word order in embedded clauses is conditioned by the category of the subordinating conjunction, as in Example 3.
- “Er weiß, dass ich jeden Sonntag das Auto wasche.”/”Hij weet dat ik elke zondag de auto was.” (German & Dutch respectively: “He knows that I wash the car each Sunday”, lit. “He knows that I each Sunday the car wash”.) Cf. the simple sentence “Ich wasche das Auto jeden Sonntag.”/ “Ik was de auto elke zondag.”, “I wash the car each Sunday.”
- “Jeden Sonntag wasche ich das Auto.”/”Elke zondag was ik de auto.” (German & Dutch respectively: “Each Sunday I wash the car.”, lit. “Each Sunday wash I the car.”). “Ich wasche das Auto jeden Sonntag”/”Ik was de auto elke zondag” translates perfectly into English “I wash the car each Sunday”, but as a result of changing the syntax, inversion SV->VS takes place.
- Kashmiri:
mye
to.me
ees
was
phyikyir
worry
yithi.ni
lest
tsi
you
temyis
to.him
ciThy
letter
dyikh
will.give
mye ees phyikyir yithi.ni tsi temyis ciThy dyikh
to.me was worry lest you to.him letter will.give
“I was afraid you might give him the letter”
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- If the embedded clause is introduced by the transparent conjunction zyi the SOV order changes to SVO. “mye ees phyikyir (zyi) tsi maa dyikh temyis ciThy”.
English developed from such a reordering language and still bears traces of this word order, for example in locative inversion (“In the garden sat a cat.”) and some clauses beginning with negative expressions: “only” (“Only then do we find X.”), “not only” (“Not only did he storm away but also slammed the door.”), “under no circumstances” (“under no circumstances are the students allowed to use a mobile phone”), “never” (“Never have I done that.”), “on no account” and the like. In such cases, do-support is sometimes required, depending on the construction.
See also
- Subject–object–verb
- Object–subject–verb
- Object–verb–subject
- Verb–object–subject
- Verb–subject–object
- V2 word order
- Category:Subject–verb–object languages
References
Source: Subject–verb–object word order
Wikipedia
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https://daotaoladigi.com/subject-verb-agreement-is-an-example-of-which-communication-characteristic/
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- "Kaʻiulani loves ʻawa."
"Kaʻiulani loves ʻawa."
Translation:Puni ʻo Kaʻiulani i ka ʻawa.
13 Comments
It is also the name of the plant which produces the drink. The version we use in English "Kava" comes from Tongan which is a closely related language that often uses k where Hawaiian uses ' and writes v where Hawaiian writes w. So Tongan kava is the exact same word as Hawaiian 'awa. It is a little confusing that the English sentence uses the Hawaiian spelling even though many English speakers use the Tongan word, but I imagine that in Hawai'i the Hawaiian word is often used even in English. In a search engine, you are more likely to find helpful results with the spelling "kava".
- 1503
Kava-a slightly narcotic drink once used in formal ceremonies but now consumed more casually.
In this instance, "puni" is acting as the verb and in Hawaiian the verb comes first. Then following the verb should be the grammatical subject - the one doing the action of the verb. Who is doing the "loving" in this case? Ka‘iulani. So we have, "Puni ‘o Ka‘iulani". Then, finally, you add the grammatical object - the thing the action is done to. What is it that Ka‘iulani loves? Kava. So we get the final sentence above.
Basically, yes, but it is only used with proper nouns, the pronoun ia, and the question word wai. All other nouns and pronouns don't get marked when they are the subject.
- 363
What about ʻO ka mea hea kou makemake? https://forum.duolingo.com/comment/32855118
Why the ʻo there?
That is not really a verb-subject-object sentence, so it's a little different. There the 'O is used to mark that it's an equivalence (copular) sentence which doesn't include an indefinite and it is used to start the sentence regardless of whether the first element of the equation is a general noun, a proper noun, or even a pronoun. When you see a sentence start with that, you know that there are going to be two noun phrases and that the sentence is saying that those two things basically describe the same thing. So in your example, "what thing = your desire?"
Because the ‘okina counts as a letter and not a grammatical mark. Thus the word begins with an ‘okina and not the letter "a". So you use "ka", not "ke".
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https://forum.duolingo.com/comment/29900570/Ka%CA%BBiulani-loves-%CA%BBawa
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This thesis proposes a minimalist analysis that accounts for a number of word-orderrelated issues in Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) and Jordanian Arabic (JA). Assuming Chomsky's (2005) feature inheritance model, the thesis investigates the issues of Case, the interaction between subject positions and verbal agreement in addition to object movement. In verb-subject-object word orders, subjects are invariably nominative; the Case value on the postverbal subject is an outcome of an Agree relation between these subjects and T, the head of Tense Phrase (TP), which inherits its feature from the complementiser. Chapter four argues that the Case variability on the preverbal subject in subject-verb-object structures is dependent on the type of the complementiser. The complementiser which introduces subject-verb-object clauses has a lexical Case feature that is not interpretable on T, hence T does not inherit this feature. Consequently, the lexical Case feature of the complementiser in subjectverb- object structures is discharged under a local Agree relation between the complementiser and the preverbal noun phrase which is raised from a lower position. It is also claimed in chapter four that the structure of zero copula sentences contains a light Noun Phrase (nP) functional projection that compares to the light Verb Phrase (vP) functional projection in verbal sentences. Case on the nominal complements in zero copula sentences is valued under an Agree relation with the features of n, the head of nP. Chapter five deals with verbal agreement and subject positions; it claims that the supposed number marker, which appears as a clitic on the verb in subject-verbobject word orders, is in fact a spell out of the copy that is left behind the fronted subject. In MSA, the fronted subject undergoes topic movement to the specifier position of Topic Phrase (TopP). By contrast, in JA, the fronted subject is located in the specifier position of TP. JA differs from MSA in that it allows the verb to undergo topic movement to the specifier position of TopP across the subject in the specifier position of TP. Finally, the phenomenon of object displacement and pronominal object cliticisation in MSA is investigated in chapter six. It is argued that verb-object-subject word orders are derived by focus movement of the object from its base position across the subject to an outer specifier position of vP. It is claimed that focus movement affects nominal objects as well as pronominal object clitics. In particular, it is claimed that pronominal object cliticisation onto the verb does not take place in Verb Phrase (VP). Rather, object cliticisation takes place after the spell out of vP phase.
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http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.493237
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Chatino is classified under the Zapoteco branch of the Oto-Manguean language family. It is natively spoken by approximately 40,000 Chatino people, whose communities are located in the southern portion of the Mexican state of Oaxaca. Chatinos call their language cha’cña, which means “difficult word.” It is recognized as a national language of Mexico. There are 6 linguistic variants of Chatino.
Náhuatl is a language of the Uto-Aztecan language family. Varieties of Náhuatl are spoken by an estimated 1.5 million Náhual people, most of whom live in Central Mexico. Náhuatl has been spoken in Central Mexico since at least the 7th century AD and was the language of the Aztecs. There are 30 linguistic variants of Náhuatl.
Purépecha is a small language family spoken by more than 100,000 Purépecha people in the highlands of the Mexican state of Michoacán.
Tlapaneco is an Oto-Manguean language of Mexico spoken by more than 98,000 Tlapanec people in the Guerrero and Morelos regions. Like other Oto-Manguean languages, it is tonal and has complex inflectional morphology. There are 9 linguistic variants of Tlapaneco.
Amuzgo is an Oto-Manguean language spoken in the Costa Chica region of the Mexican states of Guerrero and Oaxaca by about 44,000 speakers. Like other Oto-Manguean languages, Amuzgo is a tonal language. A significant percentage of the Amuzgo speakers are monolingual. There are 4 linguistic variants of Amuzgo.
Yucateco Maya is a Mayan language spoken in Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula and northern Belize. In some Mexican states, Yucateco Maya remains many speakers’ first language, and there are approximately 800,000 to 1.2 million speakers. Yucateco does not have the grammatical category of tense. Mayan languages form a language family spoken in Mesoamerica and northern Central America. Modern Mayan languages descend from Proto-Mayan, a language thought to have been spoken at least 5,000 years ago.
Mam is a Mayan language spoken by over half a million people in Guatemala and Mexico. There are also thousands of Mam speakers in California. The Mam languages generally use verb-subject-object (VSO) word order. There is considerable variation in the language from village to village; however Mam speakers are able to understand one another reasonably well. There are 5 linguistic variants of Mam.
Kanjobal (Q’anjob’al) is a Mayan language spoken by about 80,000 people in Guatemala. They have a primarily verb-subject-object (VSO) word order.
K’iché (Quiché) is spoken by more than a million people in the Central highlands of Guatemala. There are 3 linguistic variants.
Mixe belongs to the family of Mixe-Zooquean. There are six different linguistic variants and nearly 90,000 people speak Mixe today.
Tseltal (Tzeltal) is a Mayan language. The four different linguistic variants are spoken by an estimated 200,000 Tseltal people, most of whom live in East Central Chiapas. Tseltal word order is verb-object-subject.
Tsotsil (Tzotzil) is a Mayan language. There are seven different linguistic language variants. Approximately 300,000 speak Tsotsil in Mexico. Tsotsil is a non-tonal and uses subject-verb-object or VOS word order.
Mixteco languages are spoken by over half a million people. They are tonal languages, which means that variations in pitch distinguish different words, similar to Mandarin. They have a primarily verb-subject-object word order. The phonological system of the proto-language has nine consonants, four vowels and four tones. There are 81 linguistic variants.
Triqui is spoken by the Triqui people of the state of Oaxaca and elsewhere due to migration, with about 25,000 speakers total. All varieties of Triqui are tonal and have complex phonologies. There are 4 linguistic variants of Triqui.
About half a million people speak Zapoteco languages in southern Mexico, especially in the states of Oaxaca, Puebla and Guerrero. Zapoteco is a tonal language and has primarily VSO word order. There are 62 linguistic variants of Zapoteco.
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http://interpretnmf.com/languages/
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In linguistics, valency refers to the number of arguments that a verb takes. It is the same as the concept of arity in mathematics and computer science.
- A monovalent or intransitive verb takes one argument: Colin sleeps.
- A divalent or transitive verb takes two arguments: Colin threw the ball.
- A trivalent verb takes three arguments: Bob gave Aerith the ball.
The valency of a clause is said to be that of its verb.
The arguments of a transitive verb are called the subject and object. The subject is often but not always the agent, the participant carrying out an action on the object.
A verb's valency can change: Luina eats a pear is transitive, but Luina eats is intransitive. Some languages mark verbs for changes in valency; others do not.
Alignment
Languages vary in their morphosyntactic alignment, or what arguments in one valency take the same form as parts of a sentence in other valencies. Languages in which the argument of the intransitive verb looks like a subject, such as English, are called nominative-accusative or just accusative after the argument that appears only in divalent and trivalent expressions. Languages in which it looks like an object, such as Basque, are called ergative-absolutive or just ergative. A few languages, called active or "split-S" languages, act like an ergative language (using the object form) with some intransitive verbs, but they act accusative (using the subject form) with other intransitive verbs. In fact, most ergative languages show traces of this behavior based on the tense, aspect, or person of the verb.
Many languages, such as Spanish and Japanese, drop subjects when either the verb form or context implies the subject; this is called null-subject, or pro-drop when object pronouns can also be dropped. Some languages allow dropping pronouns only when the pronoun A. is the subject, B. is definite (that is, has been referred to earlier in discourse), or C. both. Otherwise, the sentence must be flipped into a different voice, in which the underlying roles of arguments change. In an accusative language, removing the subject from a divalent clause requires flipping the sentence into a passive voice, changing the form of the verb and promoting the object to subject: The ball was thrown. Ergative languages flip sentences to antipassive voice when shedding the object.
A few languages have distinct forms for agents, subjects, and objects. Tripartite alignment uses the agent and object forms only with transitive verbs and the subject form with all intransitive verbs. Inuktitut uses agent and subject if the object is definite (the or a proper noun) or subject and object otherwise. In Austronesian alignment, the inflection of the verb dictates which argument takes the subject or "trigger" form, like a more general version of the passive voice system, and speakers use it to place the focus on a particular argument.
Word order
Languages also differ in their word order. Some tend toward verb before object (VO), as in English, Italian, Chinese, Arabic, and Welsh. Others tend toward object before verb, such as Japanese, Korean, Hindi, Latin, and any German sentence with a compound verb or subordinate clause. Verbs tend to come on the same side of the noun as case clitics: VO languages tend to have prepositions before their object, and OV languages tend to have the object before the postposition.
In the vast majority of languages, the subject comes before the object. This reflects the psychological tendency to establish a topic before making a comment about it. Some languages, such as Japanese, even reorder the sentence to move the topic to the front instead of using passive voice.
Monovalency
One alignment not yet encountered by real-world scouts is monovalent alignment. A monovalent language has only intransitive verbs. They express the meanings of other languages' divalent and trivalent clauses with serial verb constructions: each argument has a separate verb for each role in an action. Prepositions are considered verbs too, just as in real-world SVC languages such as Chinese and numerous West African languages. One such coverb in Mandarin is 在 zai. Instead of being pro-drop, these languages are clause-drop: an entire noun-verb pair predicted by context can be left out, and utterances may end up very telegraphic once sentences are cut down to one argument.
Examples:
- Bob gave; ball changed-hands, Aerith received. (Bob gave the ball to Aerith.)
- Bob gave; Aerith received. (Bob gave it to Aerith.)
- Colin threw; ball flew. (Colin threw the ball.)
- Ball flew. (He threw the ball.)
- He said; they heard: (He said to them: in Trique)
Henrik Theiling's constructed language Tesяfkǝm (pronounced roughly TEHS-aff-kerm) and Pete Bleackley's iljena are monovalent constructed languages. Some linguists believe that strict monovalency is impossible in natural languages, that all languages have predicators with one and two referents. But some languages do have features that lead toward monovalent behavior. In Classical Nahuatl, each verb or noun phrase appears to form a separate clause of sorts.
Some languages have suppletion for the active and passive voices of certain verbs, such as Greek. It wouldn't be too much of a leap for this to spread throughout a language and lead to a tendency toward intransitive verbs, given the right pressures. Or instead of suppletion, a language could use animacy cues to determine whether the intransitive verb's subject is an agent or patient. This parallels so-called middle voice constructions in English, such as "Milca is baking" (agent) vs. "the cookies are baking" (patient). It also parallels language acquisition in children under five or six, who were seen in one study to rely more on animacy than on word order. Another study found that in transitive sentences, children acquiring English as a first language appear to use some nouns only as subjects and others only as objects.
Verbs and cases
"I suppose it is tempting, if the only tool you have is a hammer, to treat everything as if it were a nail."
- --Abraham Maslow
"It is also noted that human students tend to overuse the verb pattern 12u3o "undergo" as a quasi-accusative."
"There's no need to fear: 'undergo' is here."
- -- Some stand-up comedian satirizing bad iljena teachers who encourage making sense of a monovalent language by trying to impose familiar European paradigms on it, whose students end up speaking what amounts to Engrish.
Not all languages make an absolute distinction between verbs and case-markers such as prepositions. For example, in Chinese, 到 (dào) means both the preposition to and the verb go; arrive. Likewise, Toki Pona tawa means both to and go; leave. This sort of grammaticalization is seen in several languages, with "give", "leave", and "arrive" have become adpositions with dative, ablative, and allative meanings. And what one language expresses with a verb another may express with some case. For example, a lot of languages such as Russian and Finnish don't have a verb for to have, instead expressing possession with an adessive construction: "Do you have the pencil?" literally translates as "Is the pencil near you?".
Unlike known natural languages, the conlang Kēlen has no grammatical verbs. It therefore has therefore no concept of "valency" to speak of. When faced with a monovalent language such as iljena, a Kēlen-speaking grammarian might analyze it too as having no verbs but instead a multitude of case transfixes. Some English verbs correspond roughly to cases in this way:
- x is
- ergative (e.g. Gnivad is eating, or an orange is eaten by Gnivad)
- x has
- locative (e.g. Acha has an orange, or an orange is near Acha)
- x receives
- dative (e.g. Staisy received a pear; or, A pear was given to Staisy)
Speakers of another language learning iljena for the first time have been seen to overextend this pattern and use generic verbs for arguments other than what they perceive to be the main one, such as "undergo" for an object. Some grammaticalization of verbs is normal. Examples from English include be in passive voice or progressive aspect, have in perfect aspect, and do as intensifier and carrier of not, all of which act either as auxiliary verbs or as main verbs depending on context. But there's use of grammaticalization, and then there's overuse.
References
- ↑ Jogloran. "Answer to How usual is it for languages to have both prepositions and postpositions?". Linguistics Stack Exchange, 2012-04-06. Accessed 2014-02-04.
- ↑ Justin Olbrantz. "Answer to How do isolating VSO languages differentiate the subject and object?". Linguistics Stack Exchange, 2012-07-23. Accessed 2014-02-02.
- ↑ S11 on kunstsprachen.de
- ↑ Predicator defined; universal 1325
- ↑ jlovegren. "Answer to Why do languages with extensive verb cross-referencing morphology require less overt marking for embedding than other languages do?". Linguistics Stack Exchange, 2012-03-18. Accessed 2014-04-16.
- ↑ Coulter H. George. "Review of Daniel Kölligan's 'Suppletion und Defektivität im griechischen Verbum'". Bryn Mawr Classical Review, 2007-08-20. Accessed 2012-09-06.
- ↑ Bates, E., MacWhinney, B., Caselli, C., Devesconi, A., Natale, F., & Venza, V. (1984). "A cross-linguistic study of the development of sentence interpretation strategies". Child Development, 55, 341–354. Via citation in Matthews, D., Lieven, E., Theakston, A., and Tomasello, M. "The role of frequency in the acquisition of English word order". Cognitive Development 20 (2005) 121–136. Accessed 2013-11-19.
- ↑ Pine, J. M., Lieven, E. V. M., & Rowland, C. F. (1998). "Comparing different models of the development of the English verb category". Linguistics, 36, 807–830. Via citation in Matthews et al. (2005).
- ↑ Abraham H. Maslow (1966). The Psychology of Science. p. 15.
- ↑ jlovegren. "Answer to Is there a language known to have developed a case system?" Linguistics Stack Exchange, 2012-07-25. Accessed 2015-03-16. Citing Heine and Kuteva's (2002) World Lexicon of Grammaticalization
- ↑ Thomas E. Payne. Describing Morphosyntax. Cambridge University Press, 1997. ISBN 9780521588058. p. 32.
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https://pineight.com/mw/index.php?title=Valency
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How syntax can help you!
by Juliette Wade
This one’s funny, because it sounds like grammar, or maybe computer programming…
Syntax is the study of how sentences are put together. Part of this is word order. This is the one everyone fears because it often involves diagramming sentences. Actually, one of my most intense and wonderful classes was Syntax 1 at UC Santa Cruz. We put together a set of rules for how to create the sentences of English, based entirely on example sentences given to us by our teacher, Professor Sandy Chung (who totally rocks, by the way). Each time we thought we had it, she’d throw us another sentence that didn’t fit, and the rule set evolved.
So how is this useful for science fiction and fantasy writers?
First, consider Yoda. He doesn’t use typical English syntax. We know this. Yet we can still understand him. I always figured he was a native speaker of some other language and that affected how he could speak the common tongue – but my husband says he never thought of that, and he thought Yoda was just quirky.
Be that as it may, one of the things you can do by altering syntax is give a feeling of dialect, or of a foreign accent. The key here is to keep it all consistent. If it’s inconsistent it will feel quirky, and could be construed as an error.
So how do you keep it consistent? Track your subject/verb/object order, and track your phrase types.
In English we use SVO (subject-verb-object) word order: I hit him: I=S, hit=V, him=O.
In Japanese they use SOV (subject-object-verb) word order. boku ga kare o utta : boku=I (for boys)=S, kare=he=O, utta=hit=V
I don’t personally know any VSO languages (write in a comment if you do!) but I do know that Earth languages don’t actually have all the possible orderings of these elements. For alien languages, who knows? They might not even conceptualize subject and object and verb the way we do – in which case it might be tough to write out their language in the story!
Some languages have freer word order than English. Take for example Latin or Japanese. This is a place where phrase syntax (in the Japanese case) or morphology (in the Latin case) can allow you greater freedom.
In Japanese, the subject and object are marked by particles, special words that come directly after the nouns they apply to and tell you their role in the sentence. With your words marked like that, you can scramble the phrases up a bit and still get meaning out of it.
In Latin, morphology provides case suffixes. Case suffixes essentially play the same role as the Japanese particles, and by labeling the word’s role directly, allow more freedom for altering word order.
Play around with it. Yoda shows us that we can understand a lot of different ways of putting a sentence together, provided that we know enough to track each noun’s role in the action at hand. You might also want to run it by your friends to make sure it’s comprehensible!
At this point you may notice that I’ve been talking about altering English syntax within a story to imply the structure of another language. This is true. The same principles apply if you want to write sentences in a created language – but I’m guessing this is going to happen less often in the story than the use of English for implication. I have written a song in one of my created languages, but I don’t imagine it will do more than sit in an appendix, since putting the entire thing in the story as Tolkien did isn’t quite my style.
Now, go forth and have fun with syntax!
—
How syntax can help you! is reprinted by permission of the author.
Juliette Wade is an author of science fiction and fantasy who loves language and its cultural consequences. Her fiction appears in Analog and other short fiction magazines. She has degrees in Linguistics, Anthropology and Japanese.
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https://www.sfwa.org/2009/09/10/how-syntax-can-help-you/
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When most people write, they tend to forget one very important part of writing – the proper word order and sentence structure. This essential rule of writing is one of the most important due to the effect they have on how sentences portray a message, being correctly or mistakenly, depending on the proper word order and sentence structure used.The best way to correct the sentence that has a word order problem, is to grammar check sentences, looking for little mistakes in the way it was written. However, as soon as you find them, you will realize how improper they make the sentence look and how incorrectly they make a message look.But in order to help you find more problems when you correct grammar sentences, you can use a Free Online English Grammar Check and Correction service for free, making your written messages or text be easier to understand and send a more effective message.
Why Is It important to Learn the Proper Word Order?
In English, the word order and sentence structure rules are of utmost importance, mainly because subject and objects of a sentence have the same form, creating some kind of misunderstanding in many different sentences when his order is not used correctly.
Word order in simple form with subject and object
The subject, for example, is the one who does the action, the person, object or animal that does something or is immersed in the action directly, coming before the verb in almost all cases. On the other hand, the object always comes after the verb and it is the one part of the sentence that gets affected by the action, and just as the subject, it may have the same form.
The example of simple word order [Subject – Verb – Object]:
Susan kisses Bob
As you see, “Susan” is the Subject and “Bob” is the Object. Susan does the action of kissing, thus, she is the one that goes before the verb. Then, we have Bob, which is the object, because he receives the kisses, he is the one affected by the action and makes him the object, going after the verb.
Word order in simple form with subject but not object
This form is even simpler than the last one. When you want to make an action, “You do something”, it means that there’s no object because you are just doing something and no person or object gets affected by it. Some students tend to forget this, and thus make really awful mistakes, especially because they forget the correct verb form.
The example of simple word order [Subject – Verb]:
George runs
As you see, George is the Subject and “runs” is the Verb where it is easy to know that George is making an action without having to affect anyone or anything, making him the Subject without an Object.
To know more about how to correct my essay easily you can here.
Essentials of Proper Word Order and Sentence Use
If you want to know about how to use perfect word order and sentence structure you first need to understand how Transitivity works. When you know this, you will be improving texts and the way you write, making great sentences and avoiding word order problems that can make awful effects on readers.
When we talk about Transitivity, we talk about how verbs can mean that something goes before or after it. There are verbs that can be totally alone without even a subject, these are called “Intransitive Verbs” and there are verbs that need both a subject and an object in order to make sense, these are called “Transitive Verbs”, and if you know how to use them properly you will have no errors when writing, at all.
The Example:
Transitive Verb: Joseph wants a house
Intransitive Verb: Joseph runs
As you can see, both verbs are written the same way but want immediately needs an object, as the verb means that there’s something else there that the subject is referring to. On the other hand, runs refers to an action the subject makes without having to affect anything or anyone, working as just an action and nothing more, without any transitivity.
To know more about rules for semicolons, you can here.
There are actually many other different ways of using word order and sentence structure that are even more difficult than this. If you want to know more about them, you can use our free online English grammar check and correction website and look for the different ways of using this.
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https://www.colonchecker.com/how-to-correct-the-sentence/
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Is SVO Spanish?
The word order in Spanish is not as rigid as it is in English. It is normally SVO (subject – verb – object): Juan comió una manzana (Juan ate an apple)
What is the order of words in Spanish?
You probably remember that basic word order in Spanish is subject + verb + object, don’t you? Well, when a direct or indirect object is substituted by a pronoun, the pronoun is actually found before the verb.
What is the Spanish syntax?
The subject comes first, if expressed; often it is incorporated into or at least suggested by the verb ending. The predicate is the next primary element. This is composed of at least one verb, often accompanied by object pronouns and by a negative or other adverbial expressions.
What are basic words in Spanish?
Basic Spanish Words
- Hola (Hello)
- Adios (Goodbye)
- Gracias (Thank you)
- Por favor (Please)
- Si (Yes)
- Claro (Of course)
- No (No)
- Amor (Love)
What is the Spanish sentence structure?
Spanish word order follows a Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) pattern. Spanish word order is very similar to English word order, as English also follows SVO pattern. The sentence’s subject is the “doer” of the action; the verb is the action, and the object is the person or thing affected by the action.
How many sentence structures are in Spanish?
Three Basic Sentence Types in Spanish. While learning about Spanish sentence structure, it’s good to have a quick look at the three basic types of Spanish sentences: affirmative statements. negative sentences.
What is the subject of a sentence in Spanish?
El sujeto or the subject in Spanish is the person, animal or thing that performs the action expressed by the verb. To understand this more clearly, let’s analyze these two examples of simple sentences: Marcos vive en Taiwán. First, it is really important that you can recognize the main verb or action in a sentence.
What are the basic rules of Spanish?
5 Most Important Grammar Rules in the Spanish Language
- There are several ways of saying “you” (second person).
- Nouns are assigned genders and reflect number.
- The verb form reflects the subject of the sentence.
- Subject pronouns are optional.
- Not all phrases translate word for word.
What is the most used Spanish word?
The 100 Most Common Words in Spoken Spanish
|Rank||Word in Spanish||Meaning in English|
|1||que||that|
|2||de||of, from|
|3||no||no|
|4||a||to|
How do I teach basic Spanish?
To teach Spanish, start by covering basic topics like pronunciation and accent marks before moving into more difficult aspects like verb conjugations. Next, demonstrate informal and formal pronouns, and try to vary your lessons to include teaching techniques like games and role playing.
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https://rattleinnaustin.com/is-svo-spanish/
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Cataphoric & Anaphoric Referencing
Cataphora and anaphora are means of how information is produced in both spoken and written mode. In particular, cataphora and anaphora describe how a certain piece of information is produced and subsequently referred to throughout a text or conversation.
Anaphoric Referencing:
Anaphoric referencing describes how a certain word is referred back to by another word. Generally, this means that a pronoun is being used to refer to an already stated topic or noun.
For example:
Michael had managed to annoy all of London before he had even fully moved there.
In this example sentence, you can see how he refers to Michael. The subject, Michael, is introduced first before we start to use a pronoun. He is therefore an anaphor or an anaphoric pronoun.
Nonetheless, in order to understand how anaphora works linguistically, we must also consult the limitations of practical uses of anaphora. Consider these example sentences.
You can say:
Michael enjoyed his dinner.
But you cannot say without altering the meaning drastically:
He enjoyed Michael’s dinner.
Equally, you cannot say at all:
Himself kicked Michael for losing the game.
In example 2, He cannot refer to Michael because the He is not specified to a specific person. Moreover, in example 3, Himself and Michael are part of a reflexive construction, meaning they refer to the same thing. However, as you can see, words which mean the same things in certain contexts are not interchangeable.
This is called the Binding Condition (or Binding Principle or Binding Constraint – so many names…).
This theory concentrates on the relationship between anaphoric parts of sentences that go together, explaining why certain parts of sentences can go together, but when switched around, are often not possible.
Take, for example, the sentences below. (Green indicates that the construction is easily possible to convey a meaning; red indicates that the construction is impossible without altering the meaning.)
1) Michael helped himself.
1) Michael helped him.
2) Michael asked Aaron to help him.
2) Michael asked Aaron to help himself.
3) His friends annoy Michael.
3) Michael’s friends annoy him.
In the first two sentences, it is clear that you have to use a reflexive pronoun in order to create a sentence where both Michael and himself/him refer to the same thing.
In the second two sentences, you must use the personal pronoun him in order to create a sentence where Michael and himself/him refer to the same thing.
Finally, in the third two sentences, they show how you must place the pronoun after its antecedent.
As a quick side note, an antecedent is the word/expression that gives its related pronoun/phrase meaning. The related pronoun/phrase is referred to as a proform. Therefore, in a nutshell, the antecedent gives a proform meaning; a proform gets its meaning from the antecedent.
All in all, these examples demonstrate how, whilst a reflexive or personal pronoun can relate to the same thing, they are not interchangeable and differ in how they relate to an antecedent. Moreover, the examples suggest how the order in which an anaphor can be introduced is influenced by which pronoun is used.
In the example sentences (below), it is clear that reflexive pronouns and anaphors fit and function there properly because they occur in the same domain (this is a clause*) and thus, the proforms can easily find their antecedents.
Michael thinks that Aaron should praise himself.
The colours separate the domains. Him cannot be easily read as belonging to Michael because Michael is outside of him’s domain. Thus, himself must be used instead.
Personal pronouns, however, have a syntactic distribution that differs from that of reflexive and anaphors. Personal pronouns fund their antecedent in the domain immediately outside of their own domain. For example:
Michael hopes that Aaron will praise him.
In this example, him can be easily read as relating to Michael because the personal pronoun finds its antecedent outside of its domain. This is also the reason for why we rarely read it as referring to Aaron.
*In the last example sentence, the proform is not necessarily separated by a clause, as a clause isn’t necessarily what influences the domain. Consequently, the extent to what linguists can say about a domain is that it’s “clause-like”.
We have now looked at how the type of pronoun determines how they are perceived, but what about the order?
One hypothesis is that linear order, whilst not the only factor, does indeed influence the distribution of anaphors and other pronouns.
For example (the bold suggests that the words refer to the same thing):
1) Michael’s homework annoyed him.
1) His homework annoyed Michael.
2) They spoke to Michael’s mum about him.
2) They spoke to his mum about Michael.
3) Michael said three times that he was tired.
3) That he was tired, Michael said three times.
These three examples, particularly the third ones, demonstrate how word order must indeed play a critical role in communicating the desired meaning.
However, whilst it may sometimes be critical, it’s also important to realise it isn’t always critical. This is where cataphoric referencing comes in.
Cataphoric Referencing:
Cataphoric referencing is simply the opposite to anaphoric referencing. Cataphors refer to a word not yet mentioned.
Take, for example, this sentence:
Because he tried his hardest, Michael passed his driving test.
You can see here that the pronoun (proform) he comes first and refers forward to the antecedent. Unlike in the other examples for anaphors, we can clearly read the intended meaning. So, how does this happen?
One way in which linguists explain this is through configuration or commonly c-command. C-command simply means that in language, where we often say that they have Subject – Verb – Object configurations, this is not strictly accurate. C-command says that the subject is not connected directly to the verb and object. The verb and object are part of a verb phrase. The subject, on the other hand, is set just outside of this. The general principal of c-command is that the subject can command everything that is inside of a verb phrase, whereas anything in side of the verb phrase is incapable of commanding the subject. Therefore, sentences like the second example below cannot occur:
Michael likes himself
Himself likes Michael
As you can see, in the second example, Himself is incapable of commanding the subject, Michael, as it is the object of the sentence. Beyond reflexive pronouns, c-command can also explain personal pronouns.
For example:
Once he ate his dinner, Michael was no longer hungry.
Michael was no longer hungry once he ate his dinner.
In these examples, Michael is still the c-command of the phrase he ate his dinner. He is the c-command of “ate his dinner”. You can see how this creates a hierarchy which determines when cataphoric referencing is possible.
However, other linguists have suggested another hypothesis to explain cataphoric and anaphoric referencing. This theory is simply that the distribution of pronouns is based on function. The order is as follows:
SUBJECT --> 1ST OBJECT --> 2ND OBJECT --> PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT
Therefore, phrases like...
Himself likes Michael
...cannot exist because they go against this order.
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https://www.linguisticsonline.net/post/cataphoric-anaphoric-referencing
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The opening sentence to The Hobbit by J.R.R. Tolkien reads,
In a hole in the ground there lived [verb] a hobbit [subject].
I wonder if there are accepted stylistic purposes for such a structure. When is it natural, and when is it unnatural?
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The opening sentence to The Hobbit by J.R.R. Tolkien reads,
In a hole in the ground there lived [verb] a hobbit [subject].
I wonder if there are accepted stylistic purposes for such a structure. When is it natural, and when is it unnatural?
Tales traditionally begin with a slight delay – usually a formula like “so heisst es” or “Once upon a time” or even “Wance upon a time, an’ ’twas nayther my time nor your time, but ’twas somebody’s time” – which takes a grip on the audience and provides them a cue to become quiet and attentive before the first event or character is introduced. Tolkien knew this as well as anybody: he was famous for the resounding “Hwæt!” with which he opened his Oxford lectures on Beowulf.
He was, moreover, an accomplished poet in traditional metres; and it’s hard to imagine that that crafty decelerando from the urgent anapaests to solemn iambs transforming in mid-flight into trochees was anything but a deliberate device to throw the emphasis onto the final word, hobbit.
˘ ˘ ¯ ˘ ˘ ¯ ˘ ¯ ˘ ¯ ˘
It's an issue of fluidity and aesthetics.
If you rewrite the sentence,
"A hobbit lived in a hole in the ground."
it does not sound nearly as pretty, does it?
This is called subject–verb inversion, and is done for a variety of reasons. The referenced Wikipedia article mentions four sorts:
This one is locative inversion, because the sentences starts with a location specification, a “where” phrase. This is completely common in English.
At the back of the closet stood a secret door.
Down the street came the ice cream truck.
I once made a study of the inversions in Tolkien (whom you have quoted above without attribution), and it is a distinctive style choice in some cases, especially in the copular inversion. Furthermore, the inversions vary in number and type depending on whether you are looking at The Silmarillion, The Hobbit, or The Lord of the Rings.
I think it adds drama or style and is best suited for the stage or page. Could also be used to preserve effect in translation of foreign works, "Thus Spake Zarathustra..." in German: "Also sprach Zarathustra"
English is primarily ordered SVO , Subject Verb Object, or more accurately primarily right branching, -primarily-. English is not as fluid in word order as more inflected languages like Latin (which, whatever your Latin teacher might say, is primarily SOV, just not as primarily as English).
That said, even outside of poetry and other literature, there is some slight room for word order variety. The communicative purpose in English (as I surmise in other languages) is for emphasis. Even if something is grammatically the subject, one mat want to emphasize the object or even give some suspense as to the subject or verb.
Surely 'John gives the book to Mary' means something very different from 'Mary gives John to the book'. But one can introduce things in a different order but maintaining the ostensible roles.
It was given to Mary by John, the book it was.
(yes a bit stilted but there it is)
Whether stylish or not, I've heard such variations are characteristic of Irish English, where the substrate of Irish Gaelic has VSO word order. I don't know if there's a causal relationship but it is an observation.
In a hole in the ground there lived [verb] a hobbit [subject].
The prepositional phrase "in a hole in the ground" functions as adverb of place (where).
This is the normal or usual way of writing this type of sentence: "A hobbit lived in a hole in the ground."
The subject sentence is written in the format adverb-verb-subject. Writers resort to this format, perhaps as a matter of style, to put variety to their work by doing away from the usual subject-verb-adverb. Others do this for emphasis or to direct the attention of their readers to a particular part of the sentence.
The subject sentence is then just an inverted form of the sentence following the format adverb-verb-subject. However, the "there" in the OP may be omitted without adversely affecting the sentence or the thought that it is trying to convey, to wit:
In a hole in the ground lived a hobbit.
If "there" had to be used, there should have been a comma before it. I read here (Commas and Introductory Elements) that "When a prepositional phrase expands to more than three words, say, or becomes connected to yet another prepositional phrase, the use of a comma will depend on the writer's sense of the rhythm and flow of the sentence." [emphasis mine]
My sense of rhythm tells me that it should be written with a comma to separate the phrase from the main clause, "there lived a hobbit." and to prepare the reader to what's to come next. Thus,
In a hole in the ground, there lived a hobbit.
Professor John Lawler said in a comment:
It's a syntactic thing. The rule is called There-Insertion, and it's governed by a lot of verbs. It replaces the subject with a dummy there and moves the former subject to a position after the verb. It's used for subjects that are new information, rather than old, which is the norm with subjects. New information is best placed at the end of a sentence.
And he added in a follow-up comment:
No, this isn't the locative there; this is different. There's a man here to see you. But not the other way round. Also, adverbs don't raise, but dummy there does: There/*Here is said by many to be some truth to it.
06.1 There-Insertion: [verbs which govern]:
accumulate add amble appear arise arrive ascend assemble await awake awaken beat begin belch blaze boom break bubble build burst cascade chatter chime climb cling coexist come confront correspond crawl create creep cross crouch cut dance dangle dart dawn decay depend derive descend develop die disappear discern discover display doze drift drop dwell echo elapse emanate emerge enact engrave ensue enter evolve exist exude fall fester find flap flare flash flee flicker float flow flutter fly follow gallop gleam glimmer glisten glitter glue go grow gush hang happen head hear hide hobble hook hop hover hurtle idle imprint inscribe issue jump kneel labor lay lean leap lie live loom lounge lurk march materialize meander mount occur open overspread paint pass perch persist pile pin place plod plop plunge prance predominate preside prevail project protrude puff radiate reach reign remain reside resound rest reverberate revolve ride ring rise roam roll rumble run rush sail scatter scintillate scrawl see seize settle shelter shimmer shine show shriek shuffle sing sit skip sleep slouch smolder sound sparkle speed spill sprawl spread squat stack stagger stamp stand staple steal stem step straddle straggle strap stray stream stretch stride stroll strut supervene surge survive suspend sweep swim swing take tattoo tick toil tower trot trudge tumble turn twinkle twist understand vanish wait walk wander want weave wind work write writhe
[added as a community wiki as I've found the link John gives above (way above) corrupt].
In 2016 Anna Zoe Hearn wrote a column for the Center for Teaching and Learning titled “The Last Shall Be First”. She cited Roy Peter Clarck’s “Writing Tools”:
“Pay attention to where you put your words in each sentence! A simple rule is to put the words that carry the most meaning at the end of your sentences.
Roy Peter Clark explains why this works in Writing Tools,* where he advises us that “for any sentence, the period acts as a stop sign. That slight pause in reading magnifies the final word.” That means the last word in every sentence stands out because there is a mental pause right after it. When chosen carefully, the last word in a sentence can provide a bridge to the next sentence, emphasize meaning, and even create a liveliness of tone. Clark calls this “emphatic word order,” which is a small edit for a writer, but a huge improvement for the written piece.”
In this question, Tolkien’s first sentence uses all familiar words until that last one, his creation, the characters of his book: Hobbits.
Putting that new word last empowers it.
If we are ignoring the 'in a hole in the ground' part and just discussing
There lived a hobbit.
Then I would say that this is fairly common in English when asking someone to think of something new. It is a way to introduce something new into the conversation. At the start of a book is a perfect example.
The simplest example is when you want to tell me that something exists;
There is a ghost called Caspar.
There are a lot of new gadgets.
In fact, you can't write this;
A ghost called Caspar is.
A lot of new gadgets are.
So 'to be', without an object, always works this way.
Other verbs can do it, too, but it does seem harder to come up with conversational examples. I think verbs which indicate existence suit it best: to be, to live, to appear.
In disagreement with all the other answers.
I would argue that the quote is, in fact, in the correct English word order SVO.
In the OP's analysis the sentence was broken down as follows:
In a hole in the ground there lived [verb] a hobbit [subject].
However, this is wrong. It should be:
In a hole in the ground [PP - subject] there lived [VP - verb] a hobbit [NP - object].
(PP = prepositional phrase, VP = verb phrase, NP = noun phrase)
While a relatively unusual/rare construction, prepositional phrases, especially when referring to time or space, can function as the subject of the sentence. This is what you are seeing here.
It's an example of poetic diction. The specific form here is Inversion (of subject and object). Poetry is usually language that calls attention to itself. In prose, it's often used to call attention to something, for example, heightened emotion.
Here, it is used to call attention to the beginning of the story. Compare this with another famous opening line from Melville's Moby Dick:
Call me Ishmael.
In normal prose this would be:
You can call me Ishmael.
Or
I am called Ishmael.
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https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/96620/can-you-explain-the-sentence-structure-in-a-hole-in-the-ground-there-lived-a-ho
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Osmosis refers to the net movement of water, across a selectively permeable membrane, towards the location of higher osmotic concentration.
Osmolarity
Osmolarity is the term used for describing the concentration of solutes within a fluid. The terms isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic compare the osmolarity of a cell to the osmolarity of the extracellular fluid around it. Hyperosmolarity doesn't always mean hypertonicity because this depends on the solutes. Solutes such as Na+ and glucose, for example, need transporters, they contribute to serum tonicity and are termed effective osmoles (contributing to osmolarity). Meanwhile, urea and ethanol easily pass through cell membranes, contributing to serum osmolality but not tonicity.
Disturbances in tonicity are the major clinical disorders affecting volume, proper function, and survival of cells. It causes water movement into or out of cells, thereby diluting or concentrating intracellular ions. Numerous mechanisms use the movement of water for cells to maintain their homeostatic size and functioning. Hyperosmolality itself alters several intracellular processes, including cell volume regulation, cell cycle, intracellular ion homeostasis, macromolecular and nucleic acid stability, and can induce apoptosis.
When typical mechanisms of homeostasis are unable to regulate tonicity, cell damage can occur secondary to prolonged hypertonicity and from fast onset hypertonicity. Clinically, hyperglycemic and hypernatremic states are the main etiologies for disease-causing hypertonicity. Cell shrinking secondary to hypertonicity can cause severe clinical manifestations and even death.
In a hypertonic environment, cells use membrane proteins called aquaporin channels to take advantage of the osmotic pressure gradient and shift water towards the higher concentration medium. Cells are permeable to water, and thanks to this, they can shrink and elevate the concentration of intracellular solutes. The survival mechanisms used by cells include the accumulation of organic osmolytes and increased expression of proteins through numerous pathways, resulting in osmotolerance. The shrinkage of cells generates stress that is commonly adjusted pathways involving Na+, K+-ATPase (in steady conditions). "Fast" volume regulation due to rapid activation of membrane ion transporters and "slow" adaptation to chronic changes in extracellular osmolarity involving modifications in gene expression and intracellular organic osmolyte content.
In steady-state conditions, a fundamental property of cells is that they contain a significant amount of large-molecular-weight anionic colloids, mostly proteins and organic phosphates, to which the plasma membrane is impermeable. The restriction of these proteins within a compartment that is impermeable to them allows for the Donnann effect. The Donnann effect describes the production of a higher concentration due to the inability of certain particles to cross a semi-permeable membrane, generating osmotic forces between the extracellular and intracellular compartment.
Hypertonicity denotes a relative excess of the solute with extracellular distribution over body water regardless of whether body water is normal, reduced, or excessive. The gain of extracellular solutes leads to the osmotic exit of water from the intracellular compartment to dilute the extracellular solutes. Sodium salts, which include sodium chloride and sodium bicarbonate, are the major extracellular solutes and routinely indicate hypertonicity when elevated.
Under hypertonic conditions, ions such as Na, Cl, and K accumulate in the cytosol and get exchanged for compatible organic osmolytes that do not perturb intracellular protein structure or function. A fast response is driven by the rapid activation of Na+,K+,2Cl- co-transporter, and the Na+/H+ exchanger, which couples to Cl-/H2CO3- anion exchanger.
On the other hand, TonEBP (tonicity-responsive enhancer-binding protein), which is also known as NFAT5 or OREBP, is a transcription factor that can promote the cellular accumulation of organic osmolytes in the hypertonic renal medulla. This is done by stimulating expression of its target genes in the kidneys, but it is also abundantly expressed in the brain, heart, liver, and activated T-cells.
Additionally, there is evidence that osmotic stress elicits a morphological disruption of the transverse tubular system in skeletal muscle fibers. The transverse tubular system is a continuation of the surface membrane that forms a junction with the sarcoplasmic reticulum and is known for its storage of calcium. It is the primary interface between the myoplasm and the extracellular environment, and these arrangements are essential to produce muscle contraction.
Regulation of osmolarity and volume play an essential role in maintaining body water balance and tonicity.
The acute adaptation to hypertonicity consists of ''regulatory volume increase'' (RVI). It requires the activation of the Na+,K+,2Cl- co-transporter, and the Na+/H+ exchanger, which couples to the Cl-/H2CO3- anion exchanger. These last two bring NaCl and KCl into the cell and moves H2CO3 out of it. The H2CO3 is then converted to CO2 and returns to the pool of H+ and HCO3- inside the cells. The thermodynamically obliged movement of water also follows the return of H2CO3. Sodium-ion entering the cells is extruded through Na/K ATPase in exchange for potassium, forming potassium chloride, which is the final salt gained intracellularly in hypertonicity.
Meanwhile, with chronic adaptation, the general response to hypertonicity is the activation of the transcription factor tonicity (TonEBP), leading to increased cellular expression of organic osmolyte transporters and enzymes. Some of the transcriptions of genes that TonEBP produces are aldose reductase (AR), betaine/GABA transporter(BGT1), sodium myoinositol transporter (SMIT), and taurine transporter (TauT). The transcription of Hsp70, urea transporters (UTA1 and -2), and water channel aquaporin-2 (AQP2) increase cell membrane water permeability and is also activated by TonEBP.
Cells that are shrunken by hypertonicity responds initially with RVI. It increases the uptake of inorganic salts and the osmotic influx of water, but this results in high intracellular inorganic salt concentration that can perturb cellular function and structure. In order to counteract this, cells activate TonEBP for the transcription of genes for aldose reductase (for the synthesis of sorbitol) and transporters of betaine, inositol, and taurine. This process accumulates large amounts of organic osmolytes, which provide an osmoprotective effect.
Most cells in mammals are generally not stressed by hypertonicity because of the close control of the concentration of NaCl in virtually all extracellular body fluids. The renal inner medulla is a striking exception. This is because of its urinary concentrating mechanism where it has routine exposure to extremely high concentrations of sodium chloride (NaCl) and urea. The adaptation of medullary cells to hyperosmotic stress involves acute cellular efflux of water, cell shrinkage by NaCl, chronic accumulation of compatible organic osmolytes, and acute activation of immediate-early and heat shock genes. Renal medullary cells do not restrict this mechanism, which also happens to cells in other tissues when exposed to pathologic conditions that produce hypertonic states.
The predominant clinical syndromes of hypertonicity are hypernatremia and hyperglycemia. Rises in tonicity from changes in body water, body solute, or both can be assessed testing osmolarity in serum and urine and correlating it with the level of electrolytes in these two compartments to establish the cause of the impairment. The serum osmolarity normal range is 280 to 295mOsm/ kgH2O and normal urine osmolality is from 50mOsm/kgH2O to 1400mOsm/kgH2O. Normal serum sodium is 135 to 145mmol/L, and the urinary sodium reference range varies with the diet.
Tonicity is under tightly regulation by the equilibrium between water intake and water excretion. Normal conditions where water loss occurs is with respiration, within gastrointestinal fluids, in urine, and through the skin. The problem occurs when patients are unable to replete those losses. When the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus sense the increase in serum tonicity, water intake is suggested by the stimulation of thirst. In addition, the kidney's primary reaction to water loss is through concentrating the urine. Just 1% of the change in tonicity is enough to produce ADH release, but it needs a greater than 10% fall in extracellular volume to be released. ADH acts on the V2 receptors in the principal cells of the collecting tubules within kidneys and causes the expression of aquaporins for water movement from the tubules to the hypertonic interstitium.
One of the cardinal manifestations of a hyperglycemic crisis is hypertonicity. The excess of glucose in the extracellular fluid has a hypertonic effect and produces an osmotic diuresis that can cause water loss to exceed the losses of sodium and potassium. This results in an elevated sodium concentration within the cell and will stimulate thirst.
High-glucose conditions in patients with diabetic microvascular complications, particularly with diabetic nephropathy, have shown TonEBP to upregulate the expression of AR. The production of AR in cells that can produce the enzyme is desired for the enzyme's ability to catalyze the reaction of glucose to sorbitol. The inability of sorbitol to cross cell membranes and its accumulation within the cell aides in counteracting the osmotic stress placed on cells during a hyperglycemic event. AR is present in tissues such as nerve, retina, lens, glomerulus, and within vascular cells.
During acute states of tonicity variability, the brain is also in danger. The primary defensive adaptation occurs through RVI, but astrocytes also play a major role by accepting the movement of water from the cerebrospinal fluid.
Acute hypertonicity most often affects children and the elderly more than other ages. Patients commonly develop fever, nausea, and vomiting. In children, symptoms can range from irritability, restlessness, muscular twitching to hyperreflexia, and seizures. In the elderly, seizures rarely present, but patients can present with lethargy, delirium, and end up in a coma. On the other hand, chronic hypertonicity may manifest with only subtle neurological changes because it has more time to adapt to the medium, even when hypertonicity is severe.
Conditions causing hypernatremia due to inadequate water intake are associated with:
It can also result from excessive water loss, such as in:
Glucose is an osmotically active substance that causes the movement of water out of the cells and, subsequently, a reduction of serum sodium levels by dilution. Therefore it is crucial to correct serum sodium for hyperglycemia, which is calculated by adding to measured [Na] 1.6 mmol/L for every 100 mg/dL (5.55 mmol/L) increment of serum glucose above normal. Under other conditions, uncontrolled hyperglycemic patients produce osmotic diuresis losing water and then causing a hypovolemic state presenting with signs such as orthostatic hypotension, increased pulse rate, decreased skin turgor, flat neck veins, and dry mucous membranes. The osmotic diuresis during uncontrolled hyperglycemia can ultimately lead to hypernatremia if there is not sufficient replacement of this water loss. For that reason, in patients
with diabetes mellitus, sodium concentration can be variable on presentation. This is due to the hyperglycemia-induced water movement out of the cells that lower Na and the glucosuria induced osmotic diuresis.
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https://www.statpearls.com/articlelibrary/viewarticle/23234/
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What Is Osmosis?
Osmosis refers to the movement of molecules across a selectively permeable membrane. The process of osmosis has molecules spread out across a membrane gradient until the concentrations of the molecules are roughly equivalent on both sides of the membrane. Osmosis is a critical process in biological organisms, helping control levels of molecules like lipids, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water, and oxygen. Osmosis is the primary method through which water is transported in and out of cells, and this function is necessary for cells to maintain homeostasis.
That’s the short answer on what osmosis is, but let’s see look closer at how osmosis impacts the movement of molecules across a membrane and how this affects the function of a cell.
Definition Of Osmosis
The process of osmosis is the dispersal of solvent molecules across a semipermeable membrane, moving from an area of higher molecular concentration to an area of lower concentration, or to put that another way the molecules move from more concentrated solutions to more dilute solutions. The movement of the molecules will continue until the concentration gradient – the number of molecules dispersed throughout the area – is roughly equivalently distributed. The most common solvent moved by osmosis is water, although other solvents such as gas and other forms of liquid can sometimes undergo osmosis.
The membranes that solvent molecules move through are semi-permeable in the sense that they only let certain kinds of molecules pass through. Large, polar molecules like polysaccharides, proteins, ions, and similar molecules can’t move across the membrane. However, small non-polar molecules like nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide can move across the membrane.
When there are solutions on both sides of a semi-permeable membrane, the solutes particles cannot move past the membrane by themselves. Rather, the solvent molecules move across the membrane. As the solvent molecules disperse, the system moves closer to a state of equilibrium. The more equally the molecules are dispersed the more stable the system is.
Examples Of OsmosisExamples of osmosis include the reaction of red blood cells when they are inserted into a sample of fresh water. The red blood cells in the body have a semipermeable membrane, which lets water move across the membrane. Because red blood cells have concentrations of solute molecules, such as ions, which are higher than the concentrations found outside the cell, the water outside of the cell will move through the membrane due to osmosis. The effect of this movement is that the red blood cells will swell because the red blood cell’s concentration of molecules cannot reach a state of equilibrium. The cell membrane exerts pressure on the contents of the cell, affecting how much water will move into the cell. The cell frequently takes on more water than it is capable of containing and the cell bursts as a result. Related to this phenomenon is the term osmotic pressure, which refers to the level of external pressure needed to ensure there is no net shift of the molecules across the semi-permeable membrane.
Another example of osmosis is related to how minerals and salts in water are shifted around. The water itself will flow into the cells. Moving across the plasma membrane, and the osmotic process helps maintain the correct concentration of salt, glucose, and water, which is necessary to prevent cell damage. This process can be witnessed in action when looking at saltwater fish. Saltwater fish have evolved to live in bodies of water with high saline concentrations. Because of the high concentrations of salt in the water, the fish’s cell must have a lower concentration of salt. Therefore, the salt in the surrounding environment pulls water from the body of the fish and the osmotic process is regulated like this.
By contrast, freshwater fish have to maintain their homeostasis in a slightly different way. As you might be able to guess, freshwater fish cells have salt concentrations which are higher than the surrounding environment. Thanks to osmosis, they fish don’t need to drink water because the salt in their cells absorbs the water.
Osmosis is critical for the survival of human cells and the human body at large, with osmosis regulating the proper functioning of the kidneys. Kidney cells use osmosis to pull water from the waste products of other organ systems. In fact, kidney dialysis is an example of the osmosis process. Individuals who have kidney diseases undergo kidney dialysis which pulls waste products from the blood, pulling the molecules through a dialyzing membrane. The molecules are then passed into a tank full of dialysis solution. The red blood cells will be maintained in the blood itself because they are too large to pass through the membrane, but the waste products are removed.
It is also thought that the people’s skin becoming wrinkly after being submerged in water for a long time is the result of osmosis, although recent research has challenged this idea.
Variations Of Osmosis
There are variations of osmosis such as reverse osmosis and forward osmosis. Reverse osmosis is a process that has pressure forcing solvents across membranes. In reverse osmosis, one side of the membrane retains the solute while the pure solvent is pushed through to the other side of the membrane. Reverse osmosis pushes the solvent from its default position in a region of high concentration to the low solute concentration region with excess osmotic pressure.
Forward osmosis is used to separate water out of solutions with other solutes in it. The solution of higher osmotic pressure is utilized to push the water through a semi-permeable membrane so that the “feed solution” (the solution with lower osmotic pressure) ends up becoming concentrated as the higher pressure solution dilutes. The newly diluted solution is then either sent through a secondary processing operation or used directly. Forward osmosis is frequently used for things like water treatment, desalination, and water purification.
History Of Osmosis
The process of osmosis was first documented by Jean-Antoine Nollet around 1748. While Jean-Antoine Nollet was the first person to describe the phenomenon, the actual term was coined by René Joachim Henri Dutrochet, a French physician. Dutrochet based the word osmosis on the words “exosomose” and “endosmose”. Moritz Traube developed more sophisticated techniques for measuring osmotic flow in 1867.
Diffusion
Diffusion is another method of mass transport in biology and chemistry, and while it also involves the moving of molecules it differs from osmosis in important ways.
Diffusion occurs when molecules, ions, and water leave or enter cells. Cellular diffusion happens when molecules move from an area of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. This movement will continue to occur until both halves of the region have approximately the same amount of molecules with them until the distribution of molecules is approximately equal. Different cells can have different rates of diffusion.
There are multiple types of diffusion within biology, with two of the most common forms of diffusion being active transport and passive transport. The difference between these two different forms of fiction is that active transport uses energy to push molecules from an area of lower concentration a higher concentration, while in passive transport molecules naturally are dispersed from an area of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
Passive transport occurs naturally with these substances moving across a semipermeable membrane without needing to use energy to do so. The rate the substances are transported at relates to the permeability of the membrane. The membrane of a cell controls what types of substances can move through it, enabling certain substances to move through it while blocking others. The permeability rate affects how easily substances can move across the membrane, with an example being a cell wall. Plant cells have cell walls which surround the inner cell membrane and this structure has very low permeability, keeping most molecules out.
Facilitated diffusion can be thought of as a subtype of passive transport. With facilitated diffusion, special transport proteins enable molecules to move across the cellular membrane more easily. These transport proteins allow larger molecules to penetrate the cell membrane when the men were not able to do so. Molecules like glucose are transported across the membrane and diffuse through facilitated diffusion. In facilitated diffusion, a carrier protein binds itself to the molecule and the molecule is pulled through the cell membrane by this protein.
Active transport is the conceptual opposite of passive transport, moving molecules from a region of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration. Primary active transport utilizes metabolic energy to force molecules through a cellular membrane. However, there is a type of active transport referred to as secondary active transport. While cellular transportation systems are used to move molecules in this secondary form of transport, ATP is not used to do it. Instead, entropy and ion pumps are used to transport the molecules, and a difference in the chemical potential results.
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https://sciencetrends.com/what-is-osmosis/
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Boundaries… • Some organisms have cell walls, whereas ALL CELLS contain a cell membrane. • The cell membrane is usually made up of: • Double-layered Sheet LIPID BILAYER • Phospholipid Bilayer • Flexible structure • Forms a strong barrier between the cell and its surroundings.
What does the cell membrane regulate? What enters and leaves the cell and also protects and supports the cell.
Properties of Lipids • 2 main portions…
When these lipids are mixed with water, their hydrophobic fatty acid tails cluster together while their hydrophilic heads are attracted to water. • A lipid bilayer is the result
In the bilayer, which parts of the phospholipids are exposed to the OUTSIDE of the cell (environment) ? “Heads” Hydrophilic Heads!
What happens to the fatty acid tails? They cluster together AWAY from the water and form an OILY layer INSIDE the membrane
Fluid Mosaic Model • Proteinmolecules are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer of most cell membranes. • Because the protein molecules can move around and "float" among the lipids, and because so many different kinds of molecules make up the cell membrane, scientists describe the membrane as a fluid mosaic.
What are these different molecules doing? PROTEINS CARBOHYDRATES Many act like chemical identification cards, allowing individual cells to identify one another. • Form channels/pumps to help move material across the cell membrane. • Attach directly to the cytoskeleton, enabling cells to respond to their environment by using their membranes to help move/change shape
Some materials are allowed to enter and leave the cell… some are NOT! Selectively Permeable… • All cells need to constantly exchange materials with its environment • Many of these materials/substances can cross biological membranes freely. • HOWEVER • Some are too large or too strongly charged to pass across the cell membrane Also known as… Semipermeable
What does it mean if we say that a membrane is IMPERMEABLE to a substance? The substance CANNOT pass across the membrane.
Most biological membranes are selectively permeable, which means… Some substances can pass across the membrane and others cannot! - aka- SEMIPERMEABLE-
How would the following materials move through the cell membrane? Water • moves easily by osmosis • move easily across membrane because very small • charged particles • may or not move easily - depends on molecule and cell. If the cell needs to move it, it will find a mechanism to do so! Small Molecules (O2, CO2) don't move as easily because of charges Any other particles that the cell must have to survive
Diffusion Facilitated Diffusion Osmosis Passive Transport Section 7.3 The movement of materials across the cell membrane without using cellular energy
One of the most important functions of the cell membrane… • Is to keep the cell’s internal conditions relatively constant • MAINTAIN HOMEOSTASIS • The cell must control the transport of materials into/out of the cell Passive Transport Includes: Diffusion, Facilitated Diffusion, and Osmosis
All matter contains a certain amount of heat • This heat causes molecules to spread out into the available space. • Particles are moving constantly • Due to kinetic energy
How does heating a liquid affect the movement of solutes and solvents • It speeds the movement of the particles • It INCREASES the Kinetic Energy
2 examples of solutions (Solutes in a solvent) • Particles in Air (fast) • Perfume • Food Cooking • Foul Odors • Particles in Liquid (slower) • Tea in water • Sugar in sports drink • Chlorine in pool water Every living cell exists in a liquid environment, therefore we can look at the movement of molecules between the solution INSIDE the cell and the solution OUTSIDE the cell.
Click Me! Passive Transport - Diffusion As a result of molecules movingconstantly, collidingwith one another and spreading out randomly, the particles tend to move from an area where they are MORE concentrated to an area where they are LESS concentrated.
Concentration • The amount of particles in a given area (solution) in relation to other particles • Often expressed as a % • Usually the amount of solute PER unit solvent.
Diffusion • The process by which particles move from an area of HIGH concentration to an area of LOWER concentration • Process of diffusion drives the movement of many molecules which move across the cell membrane
Suppose a substance is present in UNEQUAL amounts on either side of a cell membrane • If the substance can cross the membrane the particles will tend to move toward the area where it is ___________ concentrated until it is ___________ distributed. LESS EVENLY
Concentration Gradient • Condition in which the concentrations of particles in 2 given areas are DIFFERENT • Note: each molecule has its own concentration gradient in any given solution
When a solute is first added to a solvent, the concentration gradient is high. • After the solute spreads out, the concentration gradient is low (or nonexistant). • In diffusion, molecules move "down" or "with" the concentration gradient, from higher concentration to lower concentration.
What will happen to the concentration gradient over time as diffusion continues? high gradient low gradient no gradient
Once the concentration of the substance on both sides of the cell membrane is the same… • Equilibrium is reached • Particles of the solution will continue to move across the membrane in almost equal numbers • So there is no further net change to the concentration of the solutions inside or outside the cell.
Dynamic Equilibrium • condition in which the concentrations of solute particles in a given area is equal throughout the entire area. • NO CONCENTRATION GRADIENT REMAINS. ("no net movement")
When dynamic equilibrium is reached, diffusion is equal in all directions.Do the molecules in the solution stop moving? No – they are moving equally in all directions
Passive Transport the movement of materials across the cell membrane without using cellular energy
Facilitated Diffusion Molecules which pass most easily through the cell membrane tend to be small and uncharged, allowing them to dissolve easily in the membrane's lipid environment. However, some substances seem to pass more quickly through the membrane than they should - as though they have a shortcut through the membrane Examples: Ions like Cl- and the sugar Glucose
How does this happen • Proteinsin the cell membrane act as carriersor channelsmaking it easy for certain molecules to cross.
Facilitated Diffusion • Process in which molecules that cannot directly diffuse across the cell membrane pass through special protein channels • Examples: • Red Blood Cells – have protein carriers to allow glucose to pass in/out of the cell.
CLICK ME! There are hundreds of examples of these special proteins which are very specific (like enzymes) and change shape in order to allow the passage of certain substances into or out of the cell. Although facilitated diffusion is FAST & SPECIFIC it is still diffusion so it does NOT require any energy from the cell. Also the net movement will still tend to be with or along the concentration gradient (high low). ATP is not needed and it will continue until equilibrium is reached.
Osmosis An example of Facilitated Diffusion
Why would water molecules normally have a hard time getting across the cell membrane? • The inside of a cell’s lipid bilayer is hydrophobic (water hating) Click me!
Aquaporins • Most cells have special water channel proteins • Known as – Aquaporins • Allow H2O to pass right through them by facilitated diffusion. • This EXTREMELY important process is = OSMOSIS
Osmosis • The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane. • Deals ONLY with the diffusion of WATER • The molecules (in this case, water - not solute molecules) will tend to move from an area of high (water)concentration to an area of low(water)concentration until equilibrium is reached.
Describing the solution concentration OUTSIDE the cell relative to the solute concentration INSIDE the cell Predicting the Direction of Osmosis in cells The direction of water movement into or out of a cell can have dire consequences on the survival of a cell. By knowing the concentrations of solute and solvent on the inside and outside of a cell, we can predict the direction of osmosis and the result on the cell.
Solutions on the outside of a cell (in its environment) can be described based on how they affect the cell: NOTE: (*tonic = solute. [High] solute means [low] water) "HYPER" = HIGH; "HYPO" = LOW; "ISO" = equal or same.
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https://www.slideserve.com/gerda/cellular-transport
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Key Concepts:
Terms in this set (63)
Cell
Basic unit of life
Homeostasis
A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
8 charecteristics of living things
Reproduce
Grow/Develop
Maintain Homeostasis
Have cells
Require energy
Respond to external environment
DNA
Evolve
Biotic
living things
Abiotic
Non-living things
Nucleus
Control center of the cell, eukaryote
Vacoules and vesicles
store materials
Lysosomes
Break down and recycle macromolecules
Cytoskeleton
maintains cell shape
Centrioles
Organize cell division
Cytoplasm
Protein of cell
Ribosomes
synthesize proteins
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Assembles proteins and lipids
Golgi apparatus
Make, process and package proteins
Chloroplast
Solar energy to chemical energy (photosynthesis)
Mitochondria
Chemical energy to food
Cell wall
shapes, supports, and protects the cell
cell membrane
A cell structure that controls which substances can enter or leave the cell.
pseudopodia
A cellular extension of amoeboid cells used in moving and feeding.
Cilia
Hairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used for locomotion
Flagella
whiplike tails found in one-celled organisms to aid in movement
Prokaryote
A unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane bound organelles
Eukaryote
A cell that contains a nucleus and membrane bound organelles
Osmosis
Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
active transport
Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference
passive transport
the movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell
facilitated diffusion
Movement of specific molecules across cell membranes through protein channels
selectivaly permeable
Some things can enter through membrane but some can't
Isotonic
when the concentration of two solutions is the same
Hypotonic
Having a lower concentration of solute than another solution
Hypertonic
when comparing two solutions, the solution with the greater concentration of solutes
What can go through the cell membrane?
Small and hydrophobic molecules
Endocytosis
process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane
Exocytosis
Process by which a cell releases large amounts of material
Photosynthesis
Light energy to chemical energy
Plants, algae, bacteria
Chloroplast
Photosynthesis equation
6CO2 + 6H2O ------> C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chemosynthesis
process in which chemical energy is used to produce carbohydrates in extreme environments with no light
aerobic cellular respiration
Chemical energy to ATP
All living things
Mitochondria
aerobic respiration equation
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36ATP
anaerobic respiration
Respiration that does not require oxygen and produces 2 ATP
Function of DNA
stores genetic information
Nucleotide
monomer of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base
Watson and Crick
Figured out structure of DNA was a double helix
Chargaff
A=T and C=G
Franklin
Created double helix model
covalent bond
A chemical bond that involves sharing a pair of electrons between atoms in a molecule
hydrogen bond
weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and another atom
Helicase
Breaks bonds between nitrogen
DNA polymerase
Builds new DNA strands
semiconservative replication
One new DNA strand and one original
Chromatin
Loose DNA found in the nucleus when a cell is not in the process of division
Chromosome
The most organized form that DNA can be in. Can be unreplicated or replicated
DNA
A nuclei come acid; Genetic material that contains the instructions for making proteins
Gene
A piece of DNA that codes for one specific protein
Histone protein
DNA wraps around this to become more tightly wound and organized
Coiling/ condensing
the process of DNA becoming organized before cell division
Karyotype
A display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape.
Mitosis
part of eukaryotic cell division during which the cell nucleus divides, diploid cells, and has identical DNA
Diploid
(genetics) an organism or cell having two sets of chromosomes or twice the haploid number
Haploid
(genetics) an organism or cell having only one complete set of chromosomes
Meiosis
Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms
somatic cells
Any cells in the body other than reproductive cells
gamete cells
sex cells
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https://quizlet.com/354557868/biology-semester-exam-flash-cards/
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Homeostasis in ~ the to move level is an essential to preserving homeostasis in the totality organism. Animal cells have actually several ways to aid them remain in equilibrium.
You are watching: What part of the cell maintains homeostasis
Cell Membrane and also Phospholipid Bilayer
The cell membrane attributes as a border separating the internal cellular setting from the exterior environment. That is selectively permeable which means it lets some materials pass through but regulates the passage of various other materials.
The phospholipid bilayer is a two-layered structure that makes up the cabinet membrane the surrounds the cell. That comprises phosphate molecules and lipid molecules v the hydrophobic ends of the lipid molecules encountering inward and also the hydrophilic phosphate ends facing outward. The is around 7.5 nm thick. As well as the phospholipid molecules, the membrane additionally contains carbohydrates, glycoproteins, protein channels, cholesterol, and also filaments that comprise a cytoskeleton and give support.
The two mechanisms whereby molecules space transported throughout the cabinet membrane are energetic transport and passive transport. Energetic transport requires the expenditure of energy while passive results from the random activity of molecules. Osmosis and diffusion room two species of passive transport. In osmosis, water moves from locations of better concentration come a lesser concentration till equilibrium is reached. The is the most important procedure by i m sorry water moves in and out of the cell. Little molecules pass with the cabinet membrane by diffusion, additionally using a concentration gradient.
The image over shows details of the phospholipid bilayer of the cabinet membrane.
Ion carry Mechanisms
There are number of ion deliver mechanisms within the cabinet membrane that duty to maintain proper levels of solutes inside and outside the cell. One of the most important is the sodium-potassium ATPase pump. This mechanism uses the power stored in ATP come pump potassium into the cell and sodium the end of the cell. Another vital pump is the calcium ATPase pump which move calcium the end of the cabinet or pumps it into the endoplasmic reticulum. This transfer of ions ago and forth throughout the membrane creates a membrane potential that drives the ionic currents. Also, water move in and out of the cell based on the distinctions in the ion concentrations. This way, ion carry helps to regulate both the volume the the cell and also the membrane potential.
Cellular Communication
There room three an easy kinds of intercellular interaction used to keep homeostasis. The very first is as soon as direct contact occurs in between the membranes of 2 cells and also they signal to every other. The 2nd is when cells use short variety chemical signal over short distances. The third is long ranged signal that space secreted into the bloodstream and also can be brought anywhere in the body.
Gap junctions room structures that lets cells connect with each various other in a procedure called cell-to-cell recognition. Embryonic advancement and the immune response are two instances of whereby this communication is used. Paracrine signaling refers to chemical signaling that transforms the behavior of nearby cells. An example of this is the neurotransmitter acetylcholine the carries a chemical blog post from one nerve cell to another.
Hormones are how cells communicate over longer distances, well-known as endocrine signaling. An instance is the cheap of insulin by the pancreas into the bloodstream which travel throughout the body to signal cells to take it in glucose. A cabinet can additionally use chemical signaling on chin in a procedure called autocrine signaling. This form of cellular interaction is seen v cytokine interleukin-1 in monocytes in the immune system. An external stimulus produce interleukin-1 which have the right to bind come the receptors of the exact same cell that produced it.
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https://lifwynnfoundation.org/what-part-of-the-cell-maintains-homeostasis/
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Name the 2 different ways to achieve diffusion?
Bilayer or channel
Define "primary active transport"?
Use of ATP to transport a solute against its concentration gradient.
Define "secondary active transport"?
Symport. Use of the energy retrieved from a solute going with its concentration gradient as the energy source for a solute going against its.
Define "symport"?
The solutes are going in the same direction
Define "antiport"?
The solutes are getting transported in different directions
Why is glucose oxidation important?
Represents a major source of energy in mammalian cells.
Why is it important for the glucose oxidation to get into the cells?
In order to utilise the energy from it
Name the two different classes of glucose carriers that is important in transferring glucose across the plasma membrane?
1. Sodium-coupled glucose transporters 2. Facilitative glucose transporters
Where is the sodium- dependent glucose cotransporter expressed?
In absorptive/reabsorptive epithelia such as intestine and kidney.
Define the characteristics of the sodium-coupled glucose transporters?
Glucose transport occurs actively against its concentration gradient by coupling glucose uptake with that of sodium.
Why do cells need energy?
In order to maintain basic function.
Give an example of a primary active transporter that brings in glucose into the cell?
GLUT
Give an example of a secondary active transporter that brings in glucose into the cell?
SGLT. (sodium-glucose linked transporter) Brings in sodium and glucose.
The important of the sodium-potassium pump when thinking of glucose homeostasis?
It actively removes sodium from the cell (therefore making the concentration of sodium low in the cell). This is important as the SGLT brings it in.
Define "stoichiometry"?
Sodium coupling ratio. eg. 2 Na: 1 Glucose for SGLT
Give an example of a tertiary active transporter that brings glucose into the cell?
Proton coupled active transporter (H+)
What is the equilibrium ratio for co-transported solute?
[S]I/[S]O = ([Na]O/[Na]i) ^n . (e^-FE/RT)^n*. =Chemical gradient x electrical gradient
What does the "n" stand for in the equilibrium ratio for co-transported solute?
Coupling ratio
What does the " * " stand for in the equilibrium ratio for co-transported solute?
Charge of the ion. ie. Na^2+ : therefore *= 2
What is the names given to the two members of the SGLT family?
1. SGLT1 2. SGLT2
SGLT1 characteristics?
High affinity. 2 sodium: 1 glucose. seen in the intestines
SGLT2 characteristics?
Low affinity. 1 sodium: 1 glucose. Seen in the kidneys
Name the three types of secondary active transporters: symporters?
1. SGLT family 2. Ion coupled transporters of amino acids 3. NKCC
How many common amino acids are there that can be used in the ion-coupled transporters of AA?
20 AAs
What are the three variables that determine the amino acids transporter that is selected for a specific amino acid substrate?
1. Charge 2. Size 3. Structure
Define the "GAT family"?
Family of sodium chloride coupled transporters
Name the two groups of member in the GAT family?
1. GAT 1-3 (for GABA) 2. GLY1-2 (for glycine)
What is the role of the GAT family?
Roles in inhibitory neurotransmission
Define "hetero-exchange"?
Its when two different solutes are coupled in the active transport
Define "tertiary active transporter"
Use of the energy retrieved by secondary transport as the source of energy to transport new solutes.
Name the primary, secondary and tertiary active transport used to transport amino acids (Gln, Leu)?
Primary: Sodium pump Secondary: System A Tertiary: System L
NKCC cotransporters properties?
1 Na: 1 K: 2 Cl: all solutes come into the cell-> water removed Inhibition by bumetanide > piretanide > furosemide: promotes water loss from the body.
NKCC cotransporter functions?
Cotransport in epithelial NaCl absorption Promotes water loss from cell Cell volume regulation Modulation of neurotransmission
Name the two types of secondary active transporters: anti porters?
1. Na/H exchangers (NHE1-5) 2. Na/Ca exchange (NCX1)
What are the 3 functions of the Na/H exchangers?
1. Epithelial absorption and secretion 2. Cell volume regulation 3. pH regulation
How many members are in the Na/H exchanger family?
NHE 1->5
What does each member do as a function?
NHE 2->4 : Epithelial absorption and secretion NHE1: Cell volume regulation NHE 1,5: pH regulation
How does the Na/H exchanger regulate pH? Additionally what pH?
The activity reacts to low pH levels. ie. if there is a lot of acidic inside the cell there is a need to remove it therefore the activity increases.
What is use to regulate high pH?
Cl/HCO3 antiporter. Activity increases at high pH to reduce the pH to normal. Works beside Na/H exchanger.
What modulates the NHE1 activity?
By phosphorylation.
How does the NHE 1 function as a cell volume regulator?
The ubiquitous NHE1 translocates ions that change the pH and cell volume- regulating cell proliferation and migration.
How does the NHE1 help in cytoskeletal assembly and cell shape determination?
NHE1 binds directly to ERM proteins and acts as a membrane anchor which is critical for these assemblies.
Name the 3 properties of the sodium/ calcium exchanger?
1. Na inwards/ Ca outwards usual, notably in cardiac muscle. 2. Contributes to keeping cell calcium conc low. 3. 3 Na: 1 Ca
Ouabain use during a heart failure?
Reduces calcium gradient. Cell calcium increases due to reduced NXC1 activity. Increases contractile force.
How many transmembrane domains are there in the SGLT?
13 transmembrane domains
Where abouts in the body is SGLT1 found?
In the intestines.
Where in the body is SGLT2 found?
In the kidneys
Describe how the SGL transporter actually works?
See AS2
Describe the 5 properties of the facilitative glucose transporters?
1. Integral membrane proteins. 2. Present on the surface of all cell membranes. 3. Transport glucose down a concentration gradient. 4. Energy independent. 5. Can operate bi-directionally
How does GLUT1 work?
--
Name the 3 properties of the facilitative GLUT family?
1. 13 functional facilitated hexose carriers 2. Saturable, stereoselective 3. 12 Transmembrane domains.
What part of the facilitative GLUT is important for different antibodies to bind?
Unique last 20 AAs which determine what antibodies binds.
How many classes of GLUTs are there?
3. Class 1, 2 and 3
Define the properties of Class 1 GLUT and the different members in it?
Comprises the well-characterised glucose transporters. High affinity: GLUT 1, 3, 4 Low affinity: GLUT 2
Define the properties of Class 2 GLUT and the different members in it?
Very low affinity for glucose (transport fructose). GLUT 5, 7, 9, 11. HMIT1
Define the properties of Class 3 GLUT and the different members in it?
GLUT 6, 8, 10, 12
Characteristics of GLUT 1?
House keeping sugar transporter. Widely expressed.
Characteristics of GLUT 2?
Low affinity glucose transporter. Will never be saturated. Role in sensing glucose concentrations in islets.
Characteristics of GLUT 3?
Important in the foetus. High affinity. Ensures the foetus has enough glucose. Important in the brain also as the brain can metabolise fatty acids therefore needs glucose.
Characteristics of GLUT 4?
Important in insulin targeting tissues ie. skeletal, cardiac muscle and adipose tissue.
What are the Km values for each of the GLUTS?
--
How does GLUT2 affect the islets in the pancreas?
When there is a high level of glucose outside the GLUT2 brings in glucose. Undergoes glycolysis producing ATP. This opens the ATP sensitive K channel causing a depolarisation inside the cell. In turn, opening the calcium channel (sensitive to voltage). This increase in calcium stimulates exocytosis of the vesicles containing insulin.
What is the GLUT4 responsible for?
Mediating insulin-sensitive glucose transport Important for facilitating peripheral glucose disposal after a meal when blood glucose is high
What does cytochalasin B do?
Specifically binds to facilitative glucose transporters in a non-competitive manner. Inhibits cell division
GLUT 4 expression after a meal?
Insulin is produced straight after a meal. Stimulates the movement of GLUT4 from the inner membrane to the plasma membrane and therefore facilitative transport of glucose into the cell. Found in fat cell as well as muscle.
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https://www.brainscape.com/flashcards/facilitative-and-secondary-active-transpo-3319948/packs/5226497
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A well-tested explanation for a wide range of observations or experimental results.
dependent variable
The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested.
independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
qualitative data
Information describing color, odor, shape, or some other physical characteristic
Quantitative data
Data associated with mathematical models and statistical techniques used to analyze spatial location and association.
Hydrolysis
Breaking down complex molecules by the chemical addition of water
Cation
A positively charged ion
Anion
A negatively charged ion
polar molecule
molecule with an unequal distribution of charge, resulting in the molecule having a positive end and a negative end
ionic bond
Formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another
covalent bond
A chemical bond that involves sharing a pair of electrons between atoms in a molecule
Phospholipids
A molecule that is a constituent of the inner bilayer of biological membranes, having a polar, hydrophilic head and a nonpolar, hydrophobic tail.
Protein
A three dimensional polymer made of monomers of amino acids.
Lipids
Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Denatured
loss of an enzyme's normal shape so that it no longer functions; caused by a less than optimal pH and temperature
Nucleotide
monomer of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base
peptide bond
The chemical bond that forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another amino acid
Prokaryote
A unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane bound organelles
Eukaryote
A cell that contains a nucleus and membrane bound organelles
Golgi apparatus
A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell
Vacuole
Cell organelle that stores materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates
Cytoplasm
A jellylike fluid inside the cell in which the organelles are suspended
endosymbiotic theory
a theory that states that certain kinds of prokaryotes began living inside of larger cells and evolved into the organelles of modern-day eukaryotes
isotonic solution
Describes a solution whose solute concentration is equal to the solute concentration inside a cell
hypertonic solution
A solution in which the concentration of solutes is greater than that of the cell that resides in the solution
hypotonic solution
A solution in which the concentration of solutes is less than that of the cell that resides in the solution
passive transport
Requires NO energy, Movement of molecules from high to low concentration, Moves with the concentration gradient
active transport
Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference
Endocytosis
process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane
Exocytosis
Process by which a cell releases large amounts of material
plasma membrane
A selectively-permeable phospholipid bilayer forming the boundary of the cells
Diffusion
Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
Nucleus
A part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction
Endoplasmic Reticulum
A system of membranes that is found in a cell's cytoplasm and that assists in the production, processing, and transport of proteins and in the production of lipids.
Ribosomes
site of protein synthesis
Cytoskeleton
A network of fibers that holds the cell together, helps the cell to keep its shape, and aids in movement
Nuclear membrane/envelope
Surrounds the nucleolus and DNA. Controls what enters and leaves the nucleus.
Metabolism
All of the chemical reactions that occur within an organism
Enzymes
Catalysts for chemical reactions in living things
Catabolic
A process in which large molecules are broken down
Anabolic
A process in which large molecules are built from small molecules
ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work
activation energy
the minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction
substrate
reactant of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction
active site
a region on an enzyme that binds to a protein or other substance during a reaction.
induced fit model
enzyme model where the substrate induces the enzyme to alter its shape slightly so it fits better
allosteric site
The place on an enzyme where a molecule that is not a substrate may bind, thus changing the shape of the enzyme and influencing its ability to be active.
Chloroplast
An organelle found in plant and algae cells where photosynthesis occurs
Mitochondria
Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production
Stroma
fluid portion of the chloroplast; outside of the thylakoids
Photon
a particle of light
Thylakoid
A flattened membrane sac inside the chloroplast, used to convert light energy into chemical energy.
granum (grana)
stacks of thylakoids
Glycolysis
the breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing energy and pyruvic acid.
ATP synthase
Large protein that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP
Chemiosmosis
A process for synthesizing ATP using the energy of an electrochemical gradient and the ATP synthase enzyme.
lactic acid fermentation
the chemical breakdown of carbohydrates that produces lactic acid as the main end product
gap junctions
Points that provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to another with special membrane proteins. Also called communicating junctions.
direct contact signaling
Direct signaling can occur by transferring signaling molecules across gap junctions or plasmodesmata between neighboring cells
Plasmodesmata
An open channel in the cell wall of plants through which strands of cytosol connect from adjacent cells
ligand
Any molecule that bonds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule.
Receptor
protein that detects a signal molecule and performs an action in response
transduction pathway
a series of relay proteins or enzymes that amplify and transform the signal to one understood by the machinery of the cell
response
a reaction to a stimulus
effector cells
Muscle cells or gland cells that carry out the body's response to stimuli.
positive feedback
Feedback that tends to magnify a process or increase its output.
negative feedback
A primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a physiological variable that is being monitored triggers a response that counteracts the initial fluctuation.
Homeostasis
A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
somatic cells
Any cells in the body other than reproductive cells
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid
Chromatin
Substance found in eukaryotic chromosomes that consists of DNA tightly coiled around histones
cell cycle
series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide
Mutation
a random error in gene replication that leads to a change
Apoptosis
programmed cell death
gametic cells
sex cells
growth factors
Regulatory proteins that ensure that the events of cell division occur in the proper sequence and at the correct rate.
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https://quizlet.com/556145412/ap-biology-semester-test-study-guide-flash-cards/
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Our group investigates membrane transport proteins in living organisms and their potential as new biomarkers and drug targets. We identify mechanisms of regulation and dysfunction leading to disease and discover chemical compounds as modulators, characterizing kinetics and pharmacological potential for therapeutics of metabolic disorders, inflammation and cancer.
Membrane transporters and channels mediate the traffic of water, ions, solutes and metabolites across biological membranes and are crucial to homeostasis, assuring cell survival upon intracellular or environmental stresses. These proteins also serve as drug targets and are key players in the phenomenon of drug resistance. Aquaporins are channels with broad importance in health and disease, maintaining the body’s fluid and energy homeostasis and with roles in kidney disease, obesity, diabetes, inflammation and cancer. Aquaporin drug discovery is now an emergent field where the search for physiological mechanisms of regulation and for chemical modulators, present new opportunities for drug development and new therapies.
The Membrane Transporters in Health & Disease group investigates the regulation of membrane transport proteins, with emphasis on aquaporins, exploring their potential as biomarkers and drug targets in metabolic diseases, inflammation and oncology. We study mechanisms of regulation and dysfunction implicated in disease, discover chemical and biological compounds as modulators and characterize their kinetics and pharmacology for novel therapeutic approaches.
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https://imed.ulisboa.pt/labs/membrane-transporters-in-health-and-disease/
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These orbitals describe a rough tetrahedron with a hydrogen atom at each of the two corners and un. Water is lost through the skin through evaporation from the skin surface without overt.
Inside A Protozoan This Photomicrograph Highlights Structures Inside Paramecia That Are Known As Contractile Vacuo Cell Wall Things Under A Microscope Osmosis
Structured water is the water thats found in nature according to groups like Structured Water Technologies.
What structure regulates water. The cell membrane ultimately determineshow much water goes in and out of the cell by aquaporins and otherchannel proteins. The Safe Drinking Water Act external icon SDWA was passed by Congress in 1974 with amendments added in 1986 and 1996 to protect our drinking water. A homeostatic goal for a cell a tissue an organ and an entire organism is to balance water output with water input.
The kidneys can regulate water levels in the body. The Safe Drinking Water Act. D it has not direct role in protein production.
What regulates the movement of molecules into and out of the cytoplasm. Thirst is a sensation created by the hypothalamus the thirst center of the human body. Filtrate at the loop of henle has a high concentration of metabolic waste products such as urea uric acid and creatinine.
Blood is filtered at this site D D D E E E E A a nephron. B it folds the protein into the correct shape. Each stoma is flanked by guard cells.
The osmoregulation of this exchange involves complex communication between the brain kidneys and endocrine system. They conserve water if you are dehydrated and they can make urine more dilute to expel excess water if necessary. This may be what ties glucocorticoid levels to salt intake.
Structured water sometimes called magnetized or hexagonal water refers to water with a structure that has supposedly been altered to form a hexagonal cluster. In most species the endoplasm also contains a waterbubble called the contractile vacuole that regulates the. B DNA contains the same nucleotiedes as RNA.
Guard cells use osmotic pressure to open and close stomata allowing plants to regulate the amount of water and solutes within them. Start studying biology cell structure and function. Body water homeostasis is regulated mainly through ingested fluids which in turn depends on thirst.
Stomata multiple stoma are located on the outermost cellular layer of leaves stems and other plant parts. An open stoma facilitates the process of photosynthesis in. Base your answers to the following questions on the image below.
What is the role of the ribosome in protein production. The plasma membrane is the definitive structure of a cell since it sequesters the molecules of life in the cytoplasm separating it from the outside environment. There are many stomata on each leaf - up to one million per square centimeter and they have two main functions.
Structure of Water molecule. The bacterial membrane freely allows passage of water and a few small. The endoplasmcontains the cell nucleus which controls the amoebas lifeprocesses.
The pressure that water molecules exert against the cell wall. Thirst is the basic instinct or urge that drives an organism to ingest water. Under the SDWA EPA sets the standards for drinking water quality and monitors states local authorities and water suppliers who enforce those standards.
Learn vocabulary terms and more with flashcards games and other study tools. D RNA to DNA is called translation. Stomatal pores in plants regulate the amount of water and solutes within them by opening and closing their guard cells using osmotic pressure.
C it is where proteins are made. The theory is that structured water molecules held within our cells might have a higher level of electrical charges in a specific order that helps our cells functionWhen our cells water molecules are optimally charged this can potentially impact. The ascending limb is not water permeable but reabsorbs sodium chloride and calcium ion.
The researchers found that the kidney conserves or releases water by balancing levels of sodium potassium and the waste product urea. The structure sitting inside of the Bowmans capsule letter A is composed of salts out of the area 15. It regulates the concentration of water and minerals such as sodium by filtering the blood and reabsorbing the important nutrients.
In a water molecule each hydrogen atom shares an electron pair with the oxygen atom. To regulate gas exchange and to help prevent water loss. The geometry of the water molecule is dictated by the shapes of the outer electron orbitals of the oxygen atom which are similar to the bonding orbitals of carbon.
Water is reabsorbed here by osmosis. The descending limb of the loop of henle is highly permeable to water. Its main function is as a permeability barrier that regulates the passage of substances into and out of the cell.
Critical in this process is the stoma. A water reabsorption B mineral reabsorption C urea reabsorption D glomerular filtration E excretory functions 17. What is the basic.
A nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. Water chemical formula H 2 O is an inorganic transparent tasteless odorless and nearly colorless chemical substance which is the main constituent of Earths hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms in which it acts as a solventIt is vital for all known forms of life even though it provides no calories or organic nutrientsIts chemical formula H 2 O indicates. A nephron is the basic structural and functional unit of the kidneys that regulates water and soluble substances in the blood by filtering the blood reabsorbing what is needed and excreting the rest as urine.
In order for plants to produce energy and maintain cellular function their cells undergo the highly intricate process of photosynthesis. A it reads the DNA to make an RNA molecule. A high salt diet increased glucocorticoid levels causing muscle and liver to burn more energy to produce urea which was then used in the kidney for water conservation.
Critical in this process is the stoma. In a day there is an exchange of about 10 liters of water among the bodys organs. Remember the membrane is selectivelypermeable.
The most important structure on a leafs lower epidermis is the mouth-shaped opening called the stoma.
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https://whyis.rest/what-structure-regulates-water/
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Involved many of scientists over hundreds of years .
Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote
No Nucleus
No organelles
Simple structure
Small, unicellular
Bacteria
Nucleus
Membrane bound organelles
Complex structures
Animals, plants, fungi, protists
Prokaryote Eukaryote
Lysosome
Leucoplasts
Chromoplasts
Mitochondria
Chloroplast
Cytoskeleton
Centrioles
Cilia
Flagella
Plasma
Membrane
Cell Wall
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Ribosomes
Rough ER
Smooth ER
Golgi Body
Vacuole
Phospholipid bilayer embedded with protein
“Fluid Mosaic” theory
Regulates movement of molecules into or out of the cell
Rigid structure outside of the plasma membrane
Protects and supports cell
Plants, fungi, bacteria
Made of cellulose
Control center for the cell
Chromatin
DNA “blueprint” for cell’s proteins
Nucleolus
Makes ribisomes
Liquid inside the cell
Water/nutrients
Contains organelles
Site of protein synthesis
Produces and transports molecules
Stores, modifies and packages proteins, hormones etc.
Post office of the cell
Stores food, waste, sugar, water etc.
Storage center of the cell
Digests food molecules or worn-out cell parts
Store starch (in plants)
Contain pigments (in plants)
“Powerhouse of the cell”
Site of cellular respiration
Site of photosynthesis
Internal framework of the cell
Microtubulesprovide support
Microfilamentsenable cells to move
(contractile proteins)
Aid in the division of animal cells
Cilia-short- fibers
Flagella- long fibers
Molecules constantly enter and leave the cell
Requires no energy
Examples:
Diffusion and Osmosis
Facilitated Diffusion
Transport proteins in membrane moves sugar, amino acids etc
Follows concentration gradient
Movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration
Passive transport- requires no energy
Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
Concentration of solutes are equal inside and outside of the cell.
Solution outside the cell has a higher concentration of solutes than the cell.
Less water inside
Solution outside the cell has a lower concentration of solutes than the cell.
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https://studylib.net/doc/9555760/chapter-7-notes
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Cell Structure and Function - Chapter 4
Life is Cellular • Key Concepts • What is the cell theory? • What are the characteristics of prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
Cell Theory • First microscope wasn’t invented until the early 1600’s. (Leeuwenhock, Hooke) • By the 1800’s all the discoveries made by all scientists using the microscope were summarized in the Cell Theory.
The Cell Theory States the Following: • All living things are composed of cells • Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things • New cells are produced from existing cells.
Basic Cell Structure • Structures common to MOST cells • Cell Membrane - that surrounds the cell • Nucleus - containing the cell’s genetic material • Cytoplasm - the material inside the cell membrane but outside the nucleus. Contains organelles.
PRO versus EU • Biologists divide cells into two categories: • Eukaryotes • Prokaryotes • The cells of eukaryotes have a nucleus, but the cells of prokaryotes do not
Prokaryotes • Smaller and simpler but carry out all activities associated with life. • Have cell membrane and cytoplasm but do not contain nuclei (plural of nucleus) • Example: Bacteria
Eukaryotes • Have a nucleus, cell membrane and cytoplasm • Also have organelles that are specialized structures that perform important cellular functions.
Cell Structures • Key Concept: • What are the functions of the major cell structures?
Cell Wall • Main function is to provide support and protection for the cell. • Found in plants, fungi and prokaryotes • Made of carbohydrate and protein.
Nucleus • Controller - directs most cell processes and contains the hereditary information of DNA • Contains structures called chromosomes which are made of DNA • Most contain another organelle: the nucleolus which assembles ribosomes
The Nucleus Nuclear envelope Chromatin Nucleolus Nuclear pore
Cytoskeleton • Network of protein filaments that helps the cell to maintain its shape. • Also involved with movement.
Organelles of the Cytoplasm • Ribosomes: site of protein synthesis • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): components of the cell membrane are assembled here and some proteins are modified. Two types: • Rough (studded with ribosomes and produce proteins) • Smooth( contains enzymes and may produce lipids)
Golgi Apparatus: • a stack of membranes that attach carbohydrates and lipids to proteins. • The modified proteins are then sent to their final destination.
Lysosomes: • small organelles filled with enzymes that digest cell “food” into particles that can be used to build structures for the cell. • Vacuoles: • saclike structures used for storage in cells. In plants they are very large.
Chloroplasts: • Found in plants • Use energy from the sun to make energy-rich food molecules through photosynthesis.
Mitochondria: • organelles that releaseenergy from stored food molecules into high-energy compounds that the cell can use for growth, development, and movement. • Found in all eukaryotic cells.
The Factory Analogy • If the cell is like a factory, then what jobs would each of the organelles do?
Eukaryote Prokaryote Comparing Cells
Unique Features of Plant Cells • Three additional structures: • Cell wall • Central vacuole • Plastids such as choloplasts.
Cell Wall • It is a rigid layer outside of the cell membrane • Composed of cellulose
Central Vacuole • Large fluid filled organelle the stores water, enzymes, metabolic wastes and other materials • Make up 90% of plant cell volume • When water is plentiful, the central vacuole fills up and the plant stands upright. In periods of drought, the plant wilts. • Other vacuoles in plants store toxic materials or pigments.
Plastids • Organelles like mitochondria that are surrounded by a double membrane and contain own DNA • Chloroplasts • Site of photosynthesis, contains chlorophyll. DNA similar to bacteria—endosymbiosis Chromoplasts: contain colorful pigments Other amyloplasts store starch
What Are The Differences Between Animal and Plant Cells? • Let’s practice by making cells. • http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/boyer/0470003790/animations/cell_structure/cell_structure.htm
Movement Through the Membrane • Cell Membrane - regulates what enters and leaves the cell and also provides protection and support. • Made of a double-layered sheet of lipids. • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vh5dhjXzbXc http://www.susanahalpine.com/anim/Life/memb.htm
Lipids • Lipids are large, nonpolar organic molecules. • They do not dissolve in water • Lipids include triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, waxes and pigments. • Lipids are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen molecules
Classes of Lipids • Fatty acids • Are unbranched carbon chains that make up most lipids. • One end has a polar carboxyl group and is hydrophilic or attracted to water molecules and the carbon chain is nonpolar or hydrophobic and does not interact with water molecules.
If the carbon atoms in the fatty acid chain is covalently bonded to four other atoms, the carbon is saturated. • If the carbon is double bonded in the chain, it is unsaturated.
Triglycerides Triglycerides are one of the important types of lipids in living organisms. • composed of three molecules of fatty acid attached to a glycerol molecule. • Saturated triglycerides are solid at room temperature: butter, fats in meat. • Unsaturated triglycerides are liquid at room temperature: oils.
Waxes and Steroids • Waxes are a water-proof structural lipid that form a protective coating on outer surfaces. • Steroid are rings of carbon atoms with functional groups attached to them. Many hormones such as testosterone are steroids.
Phospholipids • Phospholipids have two rather than three fatty acids attached to a molecule of glycerol, also a phosphate molecule attached to one of the carbons in the glycerol molecule. • Not soluble in water, it forms the cell membrane that is the barrier between the inside and outside of the cell.
Homeostasis and Cell Transport • Cell membranes help organisms maintain homeostasis by controlling what substances may enter or leave cells some substances can cross the cell membrane without any input of energy by the cell in a process known as passive transport
Diffusion • As molecules move about, they bang into each other. They move from where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated through diffusion. • Diffusion causes many substances to move across the cell membrane. • http://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/biological%20anamations.html
Osmosis • It is the diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane • Not all substances can pass through the cell membrane--it is selective!! • Water will move across a cell membrane until equilibrium is reached. • http://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/biological%20anamations.html
Cells contain salts, sugars, proteins, and other materials. They are almost always hypertonic (more stuff and less water) to their surroundings. Water wants to diffuse into the cell. http://www.tvdsb.on.ca/westmin/science/Sbi3a1/cells/Osmosis.htm • In large organisms (you), the cells are bathed in fluids that have the same concentration of materials as the inside of the cell: isotonic • Other cells and organisms that live in freshwater have various mechanisms for keeping the water out.
Only a few organisms can survive in water that has a very high concentration of salts or other solutes compared to the concentration inside the cell. • This is called hypertonic. • In the space on your paper, draw the three conditions we have just discussed:Hypotonic, Isotonic, Hypertonic.
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It is often stated that small molecules or nonpolar molecules can diffuse through the plasma membrane because they can pass through the middle nonpolar bit, but why don't the polar sides block these nonpolar molecules. Estrogen is nonpolar and can diffuse across the membrane right? Why don't the polar heads of the phospholipids block it? Or look at H+. H+ can't diffuse across the membrane because it's charged (it's not like nonpolar molecule have a repulsive force against it, neutral objects don't repel charged ones as far as I am aware, I don't get why we say polar and nonpolar repel each other, as I understand they just stick to themselves better than each other). Regardless, H+ a small charged molecule would be able to get past the hydrophilic heads right? Estrogen wouldn't be. Where am I going wrong here? Thanks!
Polar and nonpolar molecules don't actually "repel", it's that polar molecules attract each other much more than nonpolar molecules attract anything. Therefore, to take a polar molecule from the (polar) water on one side of the membrane and bury it in the nonpolar region in the middle of the membrane is difficult because it means breaking its relatively strong interactions with the polar water molecules without forming new strong interactions to compensate.
In the case of a nonpolar molecule passing through the membrane, it is already in water when it approaches the membrane, and transferring it past the polar head groups isn't much "worse" (there's likely a slight effect of the often charged head groups attracting ions that bridge them to one another, but this would be small). The large effect of it being nonpolar, however, is to make it less unfavorable to move it into the middle layer of the membrane where there aren't polar groups for it to interact with.
Why doesn't the polar side of the plasma membrane block nonpolar diffusion? - Biology
Diffusion is a process of passive transport in which molecules move from an area of higher concentration to one of lower concentration.
Learning Objectives
Describe diffusion and the factors that affect how materials move across the cell membrane.
Key Takeaways
Key Points
- Substances diffuse according to their concentration gradient within a system, different substances in the medium will each diffuse at different rates according to their individual gradients.
- After a substance has diffused completely through a space, removing its concentration gradient, molecules will still move around in the space, but there will be no net movement of the number of molecules from one area to another, a state known as dynamic equilibrium.
- Several factors affect the rate of diffusion of a solute including the mass of the solute, the temperature of the environment, the solvent density, and the distance traveled.
Key Terms
- diffusion: The passive movement of a solute across a permeable membrane
- concentration gradient: A concentration gradient is present when a membrane separates two different concentrations of molecules.
Examples
When someone is cooking food in a kitchen, the smell begins to waft through the house, and eventually everyone can tell what’s for dinner! This is due to the diffusion of odor molecules through the air, from an area of high concentration (the kitchen) to areas of low concentration (your upstairs bedroom).
Diffusion is a passive process of transport. A single substance tends to move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until the concentration is equal across a space. You are familiar with diffusion of substances through the air. For example, think about someone opening a bottle of ammonia in a room filled with people. The ammonia gas is at its highest concentration in the bottle its lowest concentration is at the edges of the room. The ammonia vapor will diffuse, or spread away, from the bottle gradually, more and more people will smell the ammonia as it spreads. Materials move within the cell ‘s cytosol by diffusion, and certain materials move through the plasma membrane by diffusion. Diffusion expends no energy. On the contrary, concentration gradients are a form of potential energy, dissipated as the gradient is eliminated.
Diffusion: Diffusion through a permeable membrane moves a substance from an area of high concentration (extracellular fluid, in this case) down its concentration gradient (into the cytoplasm).
Each separate substance in a medium, such as the extracellular fluid, has its own concentration gradient independent of the concentration gradients of other materials. In addition, each substance will diffuse according to that gradient. Within a system, there will be different rates of diffusion of the different substances in the medium.
Factors That Affect Diffusion
Molecules move constantly in a random manner at a rate that depends on their mass, their environment, and the amount of thermal energy they possess, which in turn is a function of temperature. This movement accounts for the diffusion of molecules through whatever medium in which they are localized. A substance will tend to move into any space available to it until it is evenly distributed throughout it. After a substance has diffused completely through a space removing its concentration gradient, molecules will still move around in the space, but there will be no net movement of the number of molecules from one area to another. This lack of a concentration gradient in which there is no net movement of a substance is known as dynamic equilibrium. While diffusion will go forward in the presence of a concentration gradient of a substance, several factors affect the rate of diffusion:
- Extent of the concentration gradient: The greater the difference in concentration, the more rapid the diffusion. The closer the distribution of the material gets to equilibrium, the slower the rate of diffusion becomes.
- Mass of the molecules diffusing: Heavier molecules move more slowly therefore, they diffuse more slowly. The reverse is true for lighter molecules.
- Temperature: Higher temperatures increase the energy and therefore the movement of the molecules, increasing the rate of diffusion. Lower temperatures decrease the energy of the molecules, thus decreasing the rate of diffusion.
- Solvent density: As the density of a solvent increases, the rate of diffusion decreases. The molecules slow down because they have a more difficult time getting through the denser medium. If the medium is less dense, diffusion increases. Because cells primarily use diffusion to move materials within the cytoplasm, any increase in the cytoplasm’s density will inhibit the movement of the materials. An example of this is a person experiencing dehydration. As the body’s cells lose water, the rate of diffusion decreases in the cytoplasm, and the cells’ functions deteriorate. Neurons tend to be very sensitive to this effect. Dehydration frequently leads to unconsciousness and possibly coma because of the decrease in diffusion rate within the cells.
- Solubility: As discussed earlier, nonpolar or lipid-soluble materials pass through plasma membranes more easily than polar materials, allowing a faster rate of diffusion.
- Surface area and thickness of the plasma membrane: Increased surface area increases the rate of diffusion, whereas a thicker membrane reduces it.
- Distance travelled: The greater the distance that a substance must travel, the slower the rate of diffusion. This places an upper limitation on cell size. A large, spherical cell will die because nutrients or waste cannot reach or leave the center of the cell. Therefore, cells must either be small in size, as in the case of many prokaryotes, or be flattened, as with many single-celled eukaryotes.
A variation of diffusion is the process of filtration. In filtration, material moves according to its concentration gradient through a membrane sometimes the rate of diffusion is enhanced by pressure, causing the substances to filter more rapidly. This occurs in the kidney where blood pressure forces large amounts of water and accompanying dissolved substances, or solutes, out of the blood and into the renal tubules. The rate of diffusion in this instance is almost totally dependent on pressure. One of the effects of high blood pressure is the appearance of protein in the urine, which is “squeezed through” by the abnormally high pressure.
Nonpolar Atoms
Atoms consist of an inner core called the nucleus and an outer shell that contains electrons. The most stable atoms, which happen to be the inert or noble gases, carry eight electrons in their outer shells. They do not attract other atoms, which means they are nonpolar, or electropositive. The other form of nonpolar atom is one that has only one electron in its outer shell. This means it is also nonpolar and electropositive. Nonpolar atoms do not mix with polar substances like water, so they are called hydrophobic atoms.
Membrane Proteins Can Be Associated with the Lipid Bilayer in Various Ways
Different membrane proteins are associated with the membranes in different ways, as illustrated in Figure 10-17. Many extend through the lipid bilayer, with part of their mass on either side (examples 1, 2, and 3 in Figure 10-17). Like their lipid neighbors, these transmembrane proteins are amphipathic, having regions that are hydrophobic and regions that are hydrophilic. Their hydrophobic regions pass through the membrane and interact with the hydrophobic tails of the lipid molecules in the interior of the bilayer, where they are sequestered away from water. Their hydrophilic regions are exposed to water on either side of the membrane. The hydrophobicity of some of these transmembrane proteins is increased by the covalent attachment of a fatty acid chain that inserts into the cytosolic monolayer of the lipid bilayer (example 1 in Figure 10-17).
Figure 10-17
Various ways in which membrane proteins associate with the lipid bilayer. Most trans-membrane proteins are thought to extend across the bilayer as (1) a single α helix, (2) as multiple α helices, or (3) as a rolled-up β sheet (a (more. )
Other membrane proteins are located entirely in the cytosol and are associated with the cytosolic monolayer of the lipid bilayer either by an amphipathic α helix exposed on the surface of the protein (example 4 in Figure 10-17) or by one or more covalently attached lipid chains, which can be fatty acid chains or prenyl groups (example 5 in Figure 10-17 and Figure 10-18). Yet other membrane proteins are entirely exposed at the external cell surface, being attached to the lipid bilayer only by a covalent linkage (via a specific oligosaccharide) to phosphatidylinositol in the outer lipid monolayer of the plasma membrane (example 6 in Figure 10-17).
Figure 10-18
Membrane protein attachment by a fatty acid chain or a prenyl group. The covalent attachment of either type of lipid can help localize a water-soluble protein to a membrane after its synthesis in the cytosol. (A) A fatty acid chain (myristic acid) is (more. )
The lipid-linked proteins in example 5 in Figure 10-17 are made as soluble proteins in the cytosol and are subsequently directed to the membrane by the covalent attachment of a lipid group (see Figure 10-18). The proteins in example 6, however, are made as single-pass transmembrane proteins in the ER. While still in the ER, the transmembrane segment of the protein is cleaved off and a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor is added, leaving the protein bound to the noncytosolic surface of the membrane solely by this anchor (discussed in Chapter 12). Proteins bound to the plasma membrane by a GPI anchor can be readily distinguished by the use of an enzyme called phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C. This enzyme cuts these proteins free from their anchors, thereby releasing them from the membrane.
Some membrane proteins do not extend into the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer at all they are instead bound to either face of the membrane by noncovalent interactions with other membrane proteins (examples 7 and 8 in Figure 10-17). Many of the proteins of this type can be released from the membrane by relatively gentle extraction procedures, such as exposure to solutions of very high or low ionic strength or of extreme pH, which interfere with protein-protein interactions but leave the lipid bilayer intact these proteins are referred to as peripheral membrane proteins. Transmembrane proteins, many proteins held in the bilayer by lipid groups, and some proteins held on the membrane by unusually tight binding to other proteins cannot be released in these ways. These proteins are called integral membrane proteins.
How a membrane protein associates with the lipid bilayer reflects the function of the protein. Only transmembrane proteins can function on both sides of the bilayer or transport molecules across it. Cell-surface receptors are transmembrane proteins that bind signal molecules in the extracellular space and generate different intracellular signals on the opposite side of the plasma membrane. Proteins that function on only one side of the lipid bilayer, by contrast, are often associated exclusively with either the lipid monolayer or a protein domain on that side. Some of the proteins involved in intracellular signaling, for example, are bound to the cytosolic half of the plasma membrane by one or more covalently attached lipid groups.
Facilitated Transport
In facilitated transport, also called facilitated diffusion, materials diffuse across the plasma membrane with the help of membrane proteins. A concentration gradient exists that would allow these materials to diffuse into the cell without expending cellular energy. However, these materials are ions or polar molecules that are repelled by the hydrophobic parts of the cell membrane. Facilitated transport proteins shield these materials from the repulsive force of the membrane, allowing them to diffuse into the cell.
The material being transported is first attached to protein or glycoprotein receptors on the exterior surface of the plasma membrane. This allows the material that is needed by the cell to be removed from the extracellular fluid. The substances are then passed to specific integral proteins that facilitate their passage. Some of these integral proteins are collections of beta pleated sheets that form a pore or channel through the phospholipid bilayer. Others are carrier proteins which bind with the substance and aid its diffusion through the membrane.
Channels
Figure 4. Facilitated transport moves substances down their concentration gradients. They may cross the plasma membrane with the aid of channel proteins. (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal)
The integral proteins involved in facilitated transport are collectively referred to as transport proteins, and they function as either channels for the material or carriers. In both cases, they are transmembrane proteins. Channels are specific for the substance that is being transported. Channel proteins have hydrophilic domains exposed to the intracellular and extracellular fluids they additionally have a hydrophilic channel through their core that provides a hydrated opening through the membrane layers (Figure 4). Passage through the channel allows polar compounds to avoid the nonpolar central layer of the plasma membrane that would otherwise slow or prevent their entry into the cell. Aquaporins are channel proteins that allow water to pass through the membrane at a very high rate.
Channel proteins are either open at all times or they are “gated,” which controls the opening of the channel. The attachment of a particular ion to the channel protein may control the opening, or other mechanisms or substances may be involved. In some tissues, sodium and chloride ions pass freely through open channels, whereas in other tissues a gate must be opened to allow passage. An example of this occurs in the kidney, where both forms of channels are found in different parts of the renal tubules. Cells involved in the transmission of electrical impulses, such as nerve and muscle cells, have gated channels for sodium, potassium, and calcium in their membranes. Opening and closing of these channels changes the relative concentrations on opposing sides of the membrane of these ions, resulting in the facilitation of electrical transmission along membranes (in the case of nerve cells) or in muscle contraction (in the case of muscle cells).
Carrier Proteins
Another type of protein embedded in the plasma membrane is a carrier protein. This aptly named protein binds a substance and, in doing so, triggers a change of its own shape, moving the bound molecule from the outside of the cell to its interior (Figure 5) depending on the gradient, the material may move in the opposite direction. Carrier proteins are typically specific for a single substance. This selectivity adds to the overall selectivity of the plasma membrane. The exact mechanism for the change of shape is poorly understood. Proteins can change shape when their hydrogen bonds are affected, but this may not fully explain this mechanism. Each carrier protein is specific to one substance, and there are a finite number of these proteins in any membrane. This can cause problems in transporting enough of the material for the cell to function properly. When all of the proteins are bound to their ligands, they are saturated and the rate of transport is at its maximum. Increasing the concentration gradient at this point will not result in an increased rate of transport.
Figure 5. Some substances are able to move down their concentration gradient across the plasma membrane with the aid of carrier proteins. Carrier proteins change shape as they move molecules across the membrane. (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal)
An example of this process occurs in the kidney. Glucose, water, salts, ions, and amino acids needed by the body are filtered in one part of the kidney. This filtrate, which includes glucose, is then reabsorbed in another part of the kidney. Because there are only a finite number of carrier proteins for glucose, if more glucose is present than the proteins can handle, the excess is not transported and it is excreted from the body in the urine. In a diabetic individual, this is described as “spilling glucose into the urine.” A different group of carrier proteins called glucose transport proteins, or GLUTs, are involved in transporting glucose and other hexose sugars through plasma membranes within the body.
Channel and carrier proteins transport material at different rates. Channel proteins transport much more quickly than do carrier proteins. Channel proteins facilitate diffusion at a rate of tens of millions of molecules per second, whereas carrier proteins work at a rate of a thousand to a million molecules per second.
Why doesn't the polar side of the plasma membrane block nonpolar diffusion? - Biology
One of the great wonders of the cell membrane is its ability to regulate the concentration of substances inside the cell. These substances include ions such as Ca ++ , Na + , K + , and Cl – nutrients including sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids and waste products, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), which must leave the cell. The membrane’s lipid bilayer structure provides the first level of control. The phospholipids are tightly packed together, and the membrane has a hydrophobic interior. This structure causes the membrane to be selectively permeable. A membrane that has selective permeability allows only substances meeting certain criteria to pass through it unaided. In the case of the cell membrane, only relatively small, nonpolar materials can move through the lipid bilayer (remember, the lipid tails of the membrane are nonpolar). Some examples of these are other lipids, oxygen and carbon dioxide gases, and alcohol. However, water-soluble materials—like glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes—need some assistance to cross the membrane because they are repelled by the hydrophobic tails of the phospholipid bilayer.
All substances that move through the membrane do so by one of two general methods, which are categorized based on whether or not energy is required. Passive transport is the movement of substances across the membrane without the expenditure of cellular energy. In contrast, active transport is the movement of substances across the membrane using energy from adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Passive Transport
In order to understand how substances move passively across a cell membrane, it is necessary to understand concentration gradients and diffusion. A concentration gradient is the difference in concentration of a substance across a space. Molecules (or ions) will spread/diffuse from where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated until they are equally distributed in that space. (When molecules move in this way, they are said to move down their concentration gradient.) Three common types of passive transport include simple diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
Simple Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. A couple of common examples will help to illustrate this concept. Imagine being inside a closed bathroom. If a bottle of perfume were sprayed, the scent molecules would naturally diffuse from the spot where they left the bottle to all corners of the bathroom, and this diffusion would go on until no more concentration gradient remains. Another example is a spoonful of sugar placed in a cup of tea. Eventually the sugar will diffuse throughout the tea until no concentration gradient remains. In both cases, if the room is warmer or the tea hotter, diffusion occurs even faster as the molecules are bumping into each other and spreading out faster than at cooler temperatures. Having an internal body temperature around 98.6 ° F thus also aids in diffusion of particles within the body.
Visit this link to see diffusion and how it is propelled by the kinetic energy of molecules in solution. How does temperature affect diffusion rate, and why?
Whenever a substance exists in greater concentration on one side of a semipermeable membrane, such as the plasma membrane, any substance that can move down its concentration gradient across the membrane will do so. Consider substances that can easily diffuse through the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane, such as the gases oxygen (O2) and CO2. O2 generally diffuses into cells because it is more concentrated outside of them, and CO2 typically diffuses out of cells because it is more concentrated inside of them. Neither of these examples requires any energy on the part of the cell, and therefore they use passive transport to move across the membrane. Before moving on, you need to review the gases that can diffuse across a cell membrane. Because cells rapidly use up oxygen during metabolism, there is typically a lower concentration of O2 inside the cell than outside. As a result, oxygen will diffuse from the interstitial fluid directly through the lipid bilayer of the membrane and into the cytoplasm within the cell. On the other hand, because cells produce CO2 as a byproduct of metabolism, CO2 concentrations rise within the cytoplasm therefore, CO2 will move from the cell through the lipid bilayer and into the interstitial fluid, where its concentration is lower. This mechanism of molecules spreading from where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentration is a form of passive transport called simple diffusion (Figure 3.15).
Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane (Figure 3.16). Water can move freely across the cell membrane of all cells, either through protein channels or by slipping between the lipid tails of the membrane itself. However, it is concentration of solutes within the water that determine whether or not water will be moving into the cell, out of the cell, or both.
Solutes within a solution create osmotic pressure , a pressure that pulls water. Osmosis occurs when there is an imbalance of solutes outside of a cell versus inside the cell. The more solute a solution contains, the greater the osmotic pressure that solution will have. A solution that has a higher concentration of solutes than another solution is said to be hypertonic. Water molecules tend to diffuse into a hypertonic solution because the higher osmotic pressure pulls water (Figure 3.17). If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the cells will shrivel or crenate as water leaves the cell via osmosis. In contrast, a solution that has a lower concentration of solutes than another solution is said to be hypotonic. Cells in a hypotonic solution will take on too much water and swell, with the risk of eventually bursting, a process called lysis. A critical aspect of homeostasis in living things is to create an internal environment in which all of the body’s cells are in an isotonic solution, an environment in which two solutions have the same concentration of solutes (equal osmotic pressure). When cells and their extracellular environments are isotonic , the concentration of water molecules is the same outside and inside the cells, so water flows both in and out and the cells maintain their normal shape (and function). Various organ systems, particularly the kidneys, work to maintain this homeostasis.
Facilitated diffusion is the diffusion process used for those substances that cannot cross the lipid bilayer due to their size and/or polarity (Figure 3.18). A common example of facilitated diffusion is the movement of glucose into the cell, where it is used to make ATP. Although glucose can be more concentrated outside of a cell, it cannot cross the lipid bilayer via simple diffusion because it is both large and polar. To resolve this, a specialized carrier protein called the glucose transporter will transfer glucose molecules into the cell to facilitate its inward diffusion. There are many other solutes that must undergo facilitated diffusion to move into a cell, such as amino acids, or to move out of a cell, such as wastes. Because facilitated diffusion is a passive process, it does not require energy expenditure by the cell.
Active Transport
For all of the transport methods described above, the cell expends no energy. Membrane proteins that aid in the passive transport of substances do so without the use of ATP. During active transport, ATP is required to move a substance across a membrane, often with the help of protein carriers, and usually against its concentration gradient. One of the most common types of active transport involves proteins that serve as pumps. The word “pump” probably conjures up thoughts of using energy to pump up the tire of a bicycle or a basketball. Similarly, energy from ATP is required for these membrane proteins to transport substances—molecules or ions—across the membrane, usually against their concentration gradients (from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration). The sodium-potassium pump , which is also called N + /K + ATPase, transports sodium out of a cell while moving potassium into the cell. The Na + /K + pump is an important ion pump found in the membranes of many types of cells. These pumps are particularly abundant in nerve cells, which are constantly pumping out sodium ions and pulling in potassium ions to maintain an electrical gradient across their cell membranes. An electrical gradient is a difference in electrical charge across a space. In the case of nerve cells, for example, the electrical gradient exists between the inside and outside of the cell, with the inside being negatively-charged (at around -70 mV) relative to the outside. The negative electrical gradient is maintained because each Na + /K + pump moves three Na + ions out of the cell and two K + ions into the cell for each ATP molecule that is used (Figure 3.19). This process is so important for nerve cells that it accounts for the majority of their ATP usage.
Other forms of active transport do not involve membrane carriers. Endocytosis (bringing “into the cell”) is the process of a cell ingesting material by enveloping it in a portion of its cell membrane, and then pinching off that portion of membrane (Figure 3.20). Once pinched off, the portion of membrane and its contents becomes an independent, intracellular vesicle. A vesicle is a membranous sac—a spherical and hollow organelle bounded by a lipid bilayer membrane. Endocytosis often brings materials into the cell that must to be broken down or digested. Phagocytosis (“cell eating”) is the endocytosis of large particles. Many immune cells engage in phagocytosis of invading pathogens. Like little Pac-men, their job is to patrol body tissues for unwanted matter, such as invading bacterial cells, phagocytize them, and digest them. In contrast to phagocytosis, pinocytosis (“cell drinking”) brings fluid containing dissolved substances into a cell through membrane vesicles. Phagocytosis and pinocytosis take in large portions of extracellular material, and they are typically not highly selective in the substances they bring in. Cells regulate the endocytosis of specific substances via receptor-mediated endocytosis.Receptor-mediated endocytosis is endocytosis by a portion of the cell membrane that contains many receptors that are specific for a certain substance. Once the surface receptors have bound sufficient amounts of the specific substance (the receptor’s ligand), the cell will endocytose the part of the cell membrane containing the receptor-ligand complexes. Iron, a required component of hemoglobin, is endocytosed by red blood cells in this way.
In contrast with endocytosis, exocytosis (taking “out of the cell”) is the process of a cell exporting material using vesicular transport (Figure 3.21). Many cells manufacture substances that must be secreted, like a factory manufacturing a product for export. These substances are typically packaged into membrane-bound vesicles within the cell. When the vesicle membrane fuses with the cell membrane, the vesicle releases it contents into the interstitial fluid. The vesicle membrane then becomes part of the cell membrane. Cells of the stomach and pancreas produce and secrete digestive enzymes through exocytosis (Figure 3.22). Endocrine cells produce and secrete hormones that are sent throughout the body, and certain immune cells produce and secrete large amounts of histamine, a chemical important for immune responses.
Why doesn't the polar side of the plasma membrane block nonpolar diffusion? - Biology
Review of Membrane Structure
- The plasma membrane plays a crucial role in the function of cells and in the life processes of organisms.
form a hydrophobic barrier at the the periphery.
- How do phospholipids react in an aqueous environment to form a bilayer membrane?
- Why are membrane proteins so important and how are they positioned within a membrane?
How Do Molecules Cross the Plasma Membrane?
- The plasma membrane is selectively permeable hydrophobic molecules and small polar molecules can diffuse through the lipid layer, but ions and large polar molecules cannot.
- Proteins which form channels may be utilized to enable the transport of water and other hydrophilic molecules these channels are often gated to regulate transport rate.
- The process of exocytosis expels large molecules from the cell and is used for cell secretion.
The plasma membrane has different types of proteins. Some are on the surface of this barrier, while others are embedded inside. Proteins can act as channels or receptors for the cell.
Integral membrane proteins are located inside the phospholipid bilayer. Most of them are transmembrane proteins, which means parts of them are visible on both sides of the bilayer because they stick out.
In general, integral proteins help transport larger molecules such as glucose. Other integral proteins act as channels for ions.
These proteins have polar and nonpolar regions similar to the ones found in phospholipids. On the other hand, peripheral proteins are located on the surface of the phospholipid bilayer. Sometimes they are attached to integral proteins.
4.3: Membrane Transport Proteins
- Contributed by E. V. Wong
- Axolotl Academica Publishing (Biology) at Axolotl Academica Publishing
Membrane proteins come in two basic types: integral membrane proteins (sometimes called intrinsic), which are directly inserted within the phospholipid bilayer, and peripheral membrane proteins (sometimes called extrinsic), which are located very close or even in contact with one face of the membrane, but do not extend into the hydrophobic core of the bilayer. Integral membrane proteins may extend completely through the membrane contacting both the extracellular environment and the cytoplasm, or they may only insert partially into the membrane (on either side) and contact only the cytoplasm or extracellular environment. There are no known proteins that are completely buried within the membrane core.
Integral membrane proteins (Figure (PageIndex<9>)) are held tightly in place by hydrophobic forces, and purification of them from the lipids requires membrane-disrupting agents such as organic solvents (e.g. methanol) or detergents (e.g. SDS, Triton X-100). Due to the nature of the bilayer, the portion of integral membrane proteins that lie within the hydrophobic core of the membrane are usually very hydrophobic in character, or have outward-facing hydrophobic residues to interact with the membrane core. These transmembrane domains usually take one of the two forms depicted in Figures 8 and 14: alpha helices - either individually or in a set with other alpha helices, or barrel-shaped insertions in which the barrel walls are constructed of beta-pleated sheets. The hydrophobic insertions are bounded by a short series of polar or charged residues that interact with the aqueous environment and polar head groups to prevent the hydrophobic portion of the protein from sliding out of place. Furthermore, proteins can have multiple membrane- spanning domains.
Figure (PageIndex<9>). Integral (orange) and peripheral (blue) membrane proteins embedded in a phospholipid bilayer.
Peripheral membrane proteins (also shown in Figure (PageIndex<9>)) are less predictable in their structure, but may be attached to the membrane either by interaction with integral membrane proteins or by covalently attached lipids. The most common such modifications to peripheral membrane proteins are fatty acylation, prenylation, and linkage to glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors. Fatty acylation is most often a myristoylation (a 14:0 acyl chain) and palmitoylation (a 16:0 chain) of the protein. A protein may be acylated with more than one chain, although one or two acyl groups is most common. These fatty acyl chains stably insert into the core of the phospholipid bilayer. While myristoylated proteins are found in a variety of compartments, almost all palmitoylated proteins are located on the cytoplasmic face of the plasma membrane. Prenylated proteins, on the other hand, are primarily found attached to intracellular membranes. Prenylation is the covalent attachment of isoprenoids to the protein - most commonly isoprene (a C5 hydrocarbon), farnesyl (C15), or geranylgeranyl (C20) groups (Figure (PageIndex<10>)). GPI anchors (Figure (PageIndex<11>)) are found exclusively on proteins on the outer surface of the cell, but there does not appear to be any other commonality in their structures or functions.
Figure (PageIndex<10>). Prenylation Figure (PageIndex<11>). GPI-linked proteins are connected by the C-terminal carboxyl group to phosphoethanolamine, which is linked to a core tetrasaccharide of three mannose residues and one N-acetylglucoasmine, the latter of which is bound by glycosidic linkage to a phosphatidylinositol.
Of course, not all membrane proteins, or even all transmembrane proteins, are transporters, and the many other functions of membrane proteins - as receptors, adhesion molecules, signaling molecules, and structural molecules - will be discussed in subsequent chapers. The focus here is on the role of membrane proteins in facilitating transport of molecules across the cell membrane.
Transport across the membrane may be either passive, requiring no external source of energy as solute travels from high to low concentration, or active, requiring energy expenditure as solute travels from low to high concentration (Figure (PageIndex<12>)).
Figure (PageIndex<12>). For Na ions and animal cells, passive transport is inward, sending Na+ from the high concentration outside the cell to the low concentration inside. Active transport requires energy such as ATP hydrolysis to push a Na + ion from the low concentration inside the cell to the higher concentration outside.
Passive transport can also be divided into nonmediated transport, in which the movement of solutes is determined solely by diffusion, and the solute does not require a transport protein, and mediated passive transport (aka facilitated diffusion) in which a transport protein is required to help a solute go from high to low concentration. Even though this may sometimes involve a change in conformation, no external energy is required for this process. Nonmediated passive transport applies only to membrane-soluble small nonpolar molecules, and the kinetics of the movement is ruled by diffusion, thickness of the membrane, and the electro-chemical membrane potential. Active transport is always a mediated transport process.
Figure (PageIndex<13>). Non-mediated and Mediated transport: flux vs concentration.
Comparing the solute flux vs initial concentration in Figure (PageIndex<13>), we see that there is a linear relationship for nonmediated transport, while mediated passive transport (and for that matter, active transport) shows a saturation effect due to the limiting factor of the number of available proteins to allow the solute through. Once there is enough solute to constantly occupy all transporters or channels, maximal ux will be reached, and increases in concentration cannot overcome this limit. This holds true regardless of the type of transporter protein involved, even though some are more intimately involved in the transport than others.
In addition to protein transporters, there are other ways to facilitate the movement of ions through membranes. Ionophores are small organic molecules, often (but not exclusively) made by bacteria, that help ions move through membranes. Many ionophores are antibiotics that act by causing the membranes to become leaky to particular ions, altering the electrochemical potential of the membrane and the chemical composition inside the cell. Ionophores are exclusively passive-transport mechanism, and fall into two types.
The first type of ionophore is a small mostly-hydrophobic carrier almost completely embedded in the membrane, that binds to and envelopes a speci c ion, shielding it from the lipid, and then moves it through the cell membrane. The most studied carrier-type ionophore is valinomycin, which binds to K+. Valinomycin is a 12-residue cyclic depsipeptide (contains amide and ester bonds) with alternating d- and l- amino acids. The carbonyl groups all face inward to interact with the ion, while the hydrophobic side chains face outward to the lipid of the membrane. Carrier ionophores are not necessarily peptides: the industrial chemical 2,4-dinitrophenol is an H + carrier and important environmental waste concern, and nystatin, an antifungal used to treat Candida albicans infections in humans, is a K + carrier.
The second type of carrier forms channels in the target membrane, but again, is not a protein. Gramicidin is a prototypical example, an anti-gram-positive antibacterial (except for the source of gramicidins, the gram-positive Bacillus brevis) and ionophore channel for monovalent cations such as Na + , K + , and H + . It is im- permeable to anions, and can be blocked by the divalent cation Ca 2+ . Like valinomycin, gramicidin A is also a made of alternating d- and l- amino acids, all of which are hydrophobic (l-Val/ Ile-Gly-l-Ala-d-Leu-l-Ala-d-Val-l-Val-d-Val-l-Trp-d-Leu-l-Trp-d-Leu- l-Trp-d-Leu-l-Trp). Gramicidin A dimerizes in the membrane to form a compressed b-sheet structure known as a b-helix. The dimerization forms N-terminal to N-terminal, placing the Trp res- idues towards the outer edges of the membrane, with the polar NH groups towards the extracellular and cytoplasmic surfaces, anchoring the pore in place.
Channels are essentially hands-off transport systems that, as the name implies, provides a passage from one side of the cell to another. Though channels may be gated - able to open and close in response to changes in membrane potential or ligand binding, for example - they allow solutes through at a high rate without tightly binding them and without changes in conformation. The solute can only move through channels from high to low concentration. The potassium channel depicted below (Figure (PageIndex<14>)A) is an example: there is a selectivity lter (14B) of aligned carbonyl oxygens that transiently positions the K+ ions for rapid passage through the channel, but it does not bind the K + for any significant period, nor does the channel undergo any conformational changes as a result of the interaction. Smaller Na + ions could (and on rare occasion do) make it through the K+ channel, but because they are too small to be properly positioned by the K + filter, they usually pop back out. It should be noted that this channel is a tetramer (14C) and the cutaway diagram in (14A) only shows half of the channel for clarity.
Figure (PageIndex<14>). (A) Half of the tetrameric K + channel showing two subunits. (B) Detail of the selectivity lter boxed in A. (C) Top-down image generated from data from the RCSB Protein Data Bank.
While most proteins called &ldquochannels&rdquo are formed by multiple alpha-helices, the porins are formed by a cylindrical beta sheet. In both cases, solutes can only move down the concentration gradient from high to low, and in both cases, the solutes do not make signi cant contact with the pore or channel. The interior of the pore is usually hydrophilic due to alternating hydrophilic/hydrophobic residues along the beta ribbon, which places the hydrophobic side chains on the outside, interacting with the membrane core.
Figure (PageIndex<15>).
Porins are primarily found in gram-negative bacteria, some gram-positive bacteria, and in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotes. They are not generally found in the plasma membrane of eukaryotes. Also, despite the similarity in name, they are structurally unrelated to aquaporins, which are channels that facilitate the diffusion of water in and out of cells.
Transport proteins work very differently from channels or pores. Instead of allowing a relatively fast ow of solutes through the membrane, transport proteins move solutes across the membrane in discrete quanta by binding to the solute on one side of the membrane, changing conformation so as to bring the solute to the other side of the membrane, and then releasing the solute. These transport proteins may work with individual solute molecules like the glucose transporters, or they may move multiple solutes. The glucose transporters are passive transport proteins, so they only move glucose from higher to lower concentrations, and do not require an external energy source. The four isoforms are very similar structurally but differ in their tissue distribution within the animal: for example, GLUT2 is found primarily in pancreatic b cells, while GLUT4 is found mostly in muscle and fat cells.
On the other hand, the classic example of an active transport protein, the Na + /K + ATPase, also known as the Na + /K + antiport, utilizes the energy from ATP hydrolysis to power the conformational changes needed to move both Na + and K + ions against the gradient. Referring to the Figure (PageIndex<16>), in its resting state, the Na + /K + ATPase is open to the cytoplasm and can bind three Na + ions (1). Once the three Na + have bound, the transporter can catalyze the hydrolysis of an ATP molecule, removing a phosphate group and transferring it onto the ATPase itself (2). This triggers a conformational change that opens the protein to the extracellular space and also changes the ion binding site so that Na + no longer binds with high affinity and drops off (3). However, the ion binding site specificity is also altered in this conformational change, and these new sites have a high affinity for K + ions (4). Once the two K + bind, the attached phosphate group is released (5) and another conformational shift puts the transporter protein back into its original conformation, altering the K + binding sites to allow release of the K + into the cytoplasm (6), and revealing Na + affinity once again.
Figure (PageIndex<16>). Active Transport by Na + /K + ATPase. This enzyme pushes three Na + ions out of the cell and two K + ions into the cell, going against the gradient in both directions and using energy from ATP hydrolysis. [Note: some texts diagram this enzyme activity with separate binding sites for Na + and K + , but recent crystallographic evidence shows that there is only one ion binding site that changes conformation and specificity.]
The Na + /K + ATPase is a member of the P-type family of ATPases. They are named because of the autophosphorylation that occurs when ATP is hydrolyzed to drive the transport. Other prominent members of this family of ATPases are the Ca 2+ -ATPase that pumps Ca 2+ out of the cytoplasm into organelles or out of the cell, and the H + /K + ATPase, though there are also P-type H + pumps in fungal and plant plasma membranes, and in bacteria.
Cardiac glycosides (also cardiac steroids) inhibit the Na + /K + ATPase by binding to the extracellular side of the enzyme. These drugs, including digitalis (extracted from the purple foxglove plant) and ouabain (extracted from ouabio tree) are commonly prescribed cardiac medications that increase the intensity of heart contractions. The inhibition of Na + /K + ATPase causes a rise in [Na + ]in which then activates cardiac Na + /Ca 2+ antiports, pumping excess sodium out and Ca 2+ in. The increased [Ca 2+ ]cytoplasm is taken up by the sarcoplasmic reticulum, leading to extra Ca 2+ when it is released to trigger muscle contraction, causing stronger contractions.
Unlike Na + or K + , the Ca 2+ gradient is not very important with respect to the electro- chemical membrane potential or the use of its energy. However, tight regulation of Ca 2+ is important in a different way: it is used as an intracellular signal. To optimize the effectiveness of Ca 2+ as a signal, its cytoplasmic levels are kept extremely low, with Ca 2+ pumps pushing the ion into the ER (SR in muscles), Golgi, and out of the cell. These pumps are themselves regulated by Ca 2+ levels through the protein calmodulin. At low Ca 2+ levels, the pump is inactive, and an inhibitory domain of the pump itself prevents its activity. However, as Ca 2+ levels rise, the ions bind to calmodulin, and the Ca 2+ -calmodulin complex can bind to the inhibitory region of the Ca 2+ pump, relieving the inhibition and allowing the excess Ca 2+ to be pumped out of the cytoplasm.
There are three other families of ATPases: the F-type ATPases are proton pumps in bacteria and mitochondria and chloroplasts that can also function to form ATP by running &ldquobackwards&rdquo with protons owing through them down the concentration gradient. They will be discussed in the next chapter (Metabolism). Also, there are V-type ATPases that regulate pH in acidic vesicles and plant vacuoles, and finally, there are anion-transporting ATPases.
Figure (PageIndex<17>). Symport and Antiport. The terms refer only to direction of solutes in or out of cell, not to energetics. In this symport, the energy release from passive transport of Na + into the cell is used to actively transport glucose in also. In the antiport example, Na + transport is again used, this time to provide energy for active transport of H + out of the cell.
Hydrolysis of ATP, while a common source of energy for many biological processes, is not the only source of energy for transport. The active transport of one solute against its gradient can be coupled with the energy from passive transport of another solute down its gradient. Two examples are shown in Figure (PageIndex<17>): even though one is a symport (both solutes crossing the membrane in the same physical direction) and one is an antiport (the two solutes cross the membrane in opposite physical directions), they both have one solute traveling down its gradient, and one solute traveling up against its concentration gradient. As it happens, we have used Na + movement as the driving force behind both of these examples. In fact, the Na + gradient across the membrane is an extremely important source of energy for most animal cells. However this is not universal for all cells, or even all eukaryotic cells. In most plant cells and unicellular organisms, the H + (proton) gradient plays the role that Na + does in animals.
Acetylcholine receptors (AchR), which are found in some neurons and on the muscle cells at neuromuscular junctions, are ligand-gated ion channels. When the neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) or an agonist such as nicotine (for nicotinic type receptors) or muscarine (for muscarinic type receptors) binds to the receptor, it opens a channel that allows the ow of small cations, primarily Na + and K + , in opposite directions, of course. The Na + rush is much stronger and leads to the initial depolarization of the membrane that either initiates an action potential in a neuron, or in muscle, initiates contraction.
Charged Ions
An ion is a molecule that is charged because it has lost or gained an electron. The cell membrane is made of a bilayer of phospholipids, with an inner and outer layer of charged,hydrophilic "heads" and a middle layer of fatty acid chains, which are hydrophobic, or uncharged. Charged ions cannot permeate the cell membrane for the same reason that oil and water don't mix: uncharged molecules repel charged molecules. Even the smallest of ions -- hydrogen ions -- are unable to permeate through the fatty acids that make up the membrane. If ions "want" to enter the cell due to a high concentration of that type of ion on one side of the cell, they can do so by entering through the protein channels that are embedded between the lipids.
2.6 Membrane Transport Overview
This section of the AP Biology curriculum – 2.6 Membrane Transport – covers the basics of how cells import and export the substances they need. We’ll start by looking at the differences between active and passive transport. Then, we’ll take a specific look at both passive transport (including diffusion and facilitated diffusion), and the energy-dependent modes of active transport. We’ll also take a look at how cells can take in large amounts of material via endocytosis and how cells can export large amounts of material via exocytosis.
The difference between active transport and passive transport is simple – active transport requires energy. As we will see, active transport can get this energy from ATP or it can utilize the potential energy stored in a concentration gradient. Active transport requires energy because it is moving a substance against the concentration gradient. In other words, the molecules are moving from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration.
By contrast, passive transport does not require energy. No energy is needed because all forms of passive transport are moving molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Passive transport includes simple diffusion through the plasma membrane as well as facilitated diffusion through ion channels and carrier proteins. Let’s take a closer look at each of these modes of transport.
Passive transport does not require energy simply because molecules are moving in the direction they would be moving anyway – from high concentration to low concentration. There are two basic types of passive transport: simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. Let’s take a closer look at simple diffusion.
Some molecules (like oxygen, water, and carbon dioxide) are small enough that they can pass right through the plasma membrane. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are nonpolar, uncharged molecules. This means that the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer does not effectively block them from passing through. While water is a polar molecule, it does not carry a charge. So, water can still slip through the plasma membrane when concentration gradients or pressure changes force it to move. When water moves across the membrane it is called osmosis, and we will take a closer look at this phenomenon in section 2.8. Now, let’s take a look at Facilitated Transport.
Facilitated transport is required for ions and large molecules. Ions cannot pass through the plasma membrane because they carry a charge and are blocked by the hydrophobic core. So, they must pass through hollow proteins known as channel proteins. Large molecules, such as glucose, are simply too large and polar to pass through the small gaps in the plasma membrane. These molecules are also too large for channel proteins, so they require a special carrier protein. These large molecules enter the carrier protein and bind to the active site – which changes the conformation of the protein. This change causes the protein to open on the other side of the membrane, releasing the molecule and resetting the process. We will cover both of these transport proteins further in section 2.7.
Active Transport requires energy because it is moving molecules from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration. Unlike most forms of passive transport, active transport is directional – that is, it transports a specific substance in only one direction. There are three main types of proteins that engage in active transport.
A uniport (or sometimes uniporter) uses energy to actively pump 1 type of substance against its concentration gradient.
A symport (or symporter) moves two substances at the same time, in the same direction across the cell membrane. Some symporters are moving both molecules against their gradient, while others use the energy from one substance’s gradient to power the movement of another molecule against a gradient.
An antiport (or antiporter) moves two substances across the membrane but in opposite directions. Antiporters can also use one molecule’s gradient to power the movement of another molecule against the gradient.
There are two types of energy that can be used to power active transport: primary and secondary.
Primary active transport requires chemical energy from ATP or other energy-transporting molecules. The ATP molecule reacts with the transporter protein, removing a phosphate group and releasing energy into the protein’s molecular structure. This allows the protein to grab onto a substrate molecule and move it through the membrane against the concentration gradient.
By contrast, secondary active transport does not rely on chemical energy molecules like ATP. Instead, secondary active transport relies on the potential energy stored in a concentration gradient. For example, a sodium/calcium antiporter is using the energy stored in the sodium concentration gradient to move calcium against its concentration gradient. Three sodium molecules move into the antiporter, pushed by the concentration gradient. The antiporter then takes up one calcium ion. The energy from the sodium gradient forces a conformational change, forcing the calcium ion out of the cell against its concentration gradient!
Cells use a wide variety of integral membrane proteins to build up these chemical gradients and use them to power the movement of other substances across their cell membranes!
Next up, let’s look at some forms of membrane transport that are on a much larger scale than individual membrane proteins. Endocytosis and exocytosis are how the cell can import or export large amounts of material at the same time using large folds of the plasma membrane. The difference is simple to remember if you break down the words.
“Endo” means within or into, whereas cytosis refers to cells. So, Endocytosis means “into the cell”. Cells use endocytosis to take in large molecules, create food vesicles, and even “eat” smaller cells.
By contrast, “exo” means external or out of. So, Exocytosis means out of the cell. Cells use exocytosis to dump entire vesicles into the external environment.
Endocytosis and exocytosis are both forms of active transport because it takes a lot of energy to form vesicles and move them around the cell using the cytoskeleton. Let’s take a look at the different kinds of endocytosis and exocytosis.
There are three main types of endocytosis that cells use to intake large quantities of material: phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis.
Phagocytosis is how cells take in very large macromolecules and even smaller cells. For instance, entire bacterial cells can be eaten by white blood cells. The cell membrane wraps itself around the large object, then pinches off into a food vacuole. A lysosome will merge with the food vacuole, digesting its contents so the cell can use them.
Similarly, pinocytosis takes in a large quantity of water and substances by creating an inward fold of the cell membrane. The folds are generally much smaller than with phagocytosis. In this case, the cell simply sucks in water and smaller substances that are dissolved in water. This is a good way for a cell to take in a large quantity of water and nutrients at the same time.
But, cells can use receptor-mediated endocytosis to take in a large quantity of very specific substances. For instance, this is how your body transfers and recycles molecules like cholesterol, which would otherwise get stuck in the plasma membrane. Cholesterol is bonded to protein molecules, making lipoproteins. These lipoproteins can bind to specific receptors on the cell’s surface. When enough receptors have been activated, this entire portion of the cell membrane undergoes endocytosis. The vacuole merges with a liposome, it is digested completely, and the components of the original cholesterol can be recycled.
For the same reason that cells need to use entire portions of the cell membrane to intake substances, there are many uses for expelling substances with a similar process. This process is exocytosis. For instance, this is exactly what happens in your neurons every time they transfer a signal to the next neuron.
The nerve impulse comes through the presynaptic neuron, ending at the axon terminal. This causes vesicles full of neurotransmitters to bind with the cell membrane. These neurotransmitters are dumped into the synaptic space via exocytosis. The neurotransmitters quickly reach the next neuron and open ion channels. This disrupts the electrical balance of the cell membrane, causing a new nervous impulse to travel through the post-synaptic neuron.
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https://au.standardtoday.co.uk/10208-why-doesnt-the-polar-side-of-the-plasma-membrane-blo.html
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Cell membrane •Cells are highly dynamic and integrated (Phospholipid…
Cell membrane
•Cells are highly dynamic and integrated
Cytoskeleton
:
•Organize structure
•Activity in cell
•a network of protein fibers
•highly dynamic
supports and maintain cell shape
transport material
cell movement
microtubules (cell division in metaphrase)
< intermediate filaments
< microfilaments
not total random movement
Graph
Phospholipid bilayer
:
highly dynamic
• Form cell’s boundary and intracellular compartments
• Provide a place of communication and transport between compartments
• Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins
Integral protein can absorb water faster in kidney cells rather than diffusion(too slow)
Selective permeability:
O2, CO2,N2(non-polar) >
H2O, glycerol(small uncharged polar) >
Glucose, sucrose(large uncharged polar) >
Cl- , K+, Na+(Ions)
(can use specialize protein to pass trough)
Integral protein - larger
a) Transport
b) Enzymatic activity
c) Signal transduction
d) cell-cell recognition
e) intercellular joining
f) Atachement to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
Membrane fluidity - Factors
1) Saturated HC tails is well packed - more fluid
2) Cholesterol within cell membrane - black ramdom movement
3) Protein avoids movement
Peripheral protein -smaller
Mechanism of membrane transport
Passive transport
no energy investment
Diffusion
• Substances diffuse down their concentration gradient
• At dynamic equilibrium, molecules cross the membrane in one direction as in the other
Facilitated diffusion
• Speeds the transport of a solute by providing efficient passage
• Channel proteins, have a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or ions can use as a tunnel
• Carrier proteins, bind to molecules and change shape to
shuttle them across the membrane
Active transport
use energy to move solutes against their gradients
allows cells to maintain concentration gradients that differ from their surroundings
e.g. Na+/K+ - ATPase in animal cell
protein change its shape and gate is opened, release all Na+ ion
ATP hydrolysis
ATP => ADP + P
(graph)
Na+ / K+ ATPase
• Transport of 3 Na+ out of the cell and 2 K+ into the cell creates membrane potential o outside the membrane: more positive o Inside the cell: more negative
• When ions build up on one side of a plasma membrane, they establish both a concentration gradient and a charge gradient, collectively called the electrochemical gradient.
• Electrochemical gradients store energy for cellular work
e.g. drives movement of ions involved in nerve impulse transmission
Toxin and ion channels
Scorpion venom
interfere Na+-, K+- and Ca2+- channels of excitable cells, causing muscle paralysis麻痺(no breath) and death.
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https://coggle.it/diagram/WK2wRzfUJAABi2yT/t/cell-membrane-%E2%80%A2cells-are-highly-dynamic-and-integrated
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Writing a personal budget is a process of determining how much money you have available on a regular basis, and deciding the best things to spend it on. By creating a specific plan that shows how much money you'll spend in a given area of your budget, and sticking to that spending plan, you can free up funds to use for other expenses or bills.
Step 1
Write down the total amount of money you earn from all sources each month. For budgeting purposes, only write down funds you actually received (take-home pay), because that's all you're able to actually spend.
Step 2
Subtract each major household and personal bill you have, listing the name and amount of each individually. Create estimates for any bills you don't have a specific total for. According to New Mexico State University, American households generally spend an average of 30 to 35 percent of their take-home pay for household expenses such as rent, utilities and furnishings. If in doubt, try starting with those percentages for your first budget.
Step 3
Subtract remaining necessary expenses, such as groceries. List each item by name, and assign a dollar total estimate for how much you normally spend on that item each month. While household spending priorities vary, if you're not sure how much to budget, you can begin with averages. Americans spend 15 to 20 percent of their income on food, and 17 to 19 percent on transportation.
Step 4
List and subtract additional non-essential items that you want to spend money on each month, such as clothing and entertainment. Clothing averages three to seven percent of take-home pay across the country, while entertainment averages five to six.
Step 5
Distribute any remaining funds to spending areas that are underfunded, or assign them to an extra savings category. Use surplus savings for special events and purchases, or to cover emergencies.
References
- Dave Ramsey: Do Your Dollars Have Names?
- The Total Money Makeover: A Proven Plan for Financial Fitness; Dave Ramsey; 2007
- New Mexico State University: Managing Your Money: Developing a Spending Plan
Tips
- When paying bills and making purchases, note the relevant budget category for each. At the end of the month, review how much you spent in each area to determine whether you're on track with your budgeting goals.
- A variety of computer and Internet programs exist that can help with setting up and managing a budget as well. Most cost money to use, but some, such as Mint.com or Mvelopes, offer a free trial.
Writer Bio
Kathy Burns-Millyard has been a professional writer since 1997. Originally specializing in business, technology, environment and health topics, Burns now focuses on home, garden and hobby interest articles. Her garden work has appeared on GardenGuides.com and other publications. She enjoys practicing Permaculture in her home garden near Tucson, Ariz.
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https://budgeting.thenest.com/writing-personal-budget-3139.html
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Bank accounts often have two balances, one known as the ledger balance and the other as the available balance. A ledger balance is updated every day and incorporates previously cleared deposits and withdrawals. An available balance can be updated more often and can contain partially cleared checks and other deposits. While a bank may allow you to withdraw if there is sufficient money in your ledger balance, it is essential to ensure that they are also in your available balance to avoid overdrawing your account if certain deposits do not go through completely.
What is ledger balance?
A bank computes a ledger balance at the end of each business day. It incorporates all withdrawals and deposits to determine the total amount of money in a bank account. The ledger balance is the opening amount in the bank account the next morning and remains constant throughout the day. The ledger balance may contain money that is not accessible for withdrawal, such as check deposits that are being verified. For example, if you have a ledger balance of $300 but $200 of it is a freshly deposited check that is still on hold, you may only take $100 from the bank.
When will the ledger balance be available?
If there is no bank holiday, it may take up to 20-24 hours for the ledger balance to become available since the ledger balance is computed and updated at the end of the business hour. As a result, the ledger balance will be the opening balance of your specific bank account the following morning, and for the rest of the day until the ledger balance is not computed at the last bank working hour.
Can anyone withdraw from the ledger balance?
No, one can only accept what is offered. Some products, such as debit cards used as “charge cards,” are not instantly displayed, and as a result, one may only withdraw and spend the amount accessible in their bank account. Keep in mind that if somebody withdraws money from their account, it is referred to as a debit. Although the withdrawal amount will be reflected in the ledger balance, you won’t notice any changes in the balance in your account until it has been deducted. For example, A has a ledger balance of $5,000, but his available balance is just $3,000. It indicates that A can withdraw any amount up to and including $3,000.
How to withdraw the ledger balance?
Yes, you can use an ATM to withdraw the ledger balance. But first, you must make sure the funds or balance are available in your account. The reason for this is that the ledger balance is determined at the conclusion of each business hour. It comprises the total of all payments or transactions made during the day. The ledger balance is updated earlier than the accessible balance, though. The ledger balance is typically more than or equal to the actual amount.
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https://iaskfinance.com/how-to-withdraw-ledger-balance/
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What Are Net Operating Assets?
Net operating assets (NOA) are the assets a business has for operating minus the liabilities is has in operating. The formula used to determine NOA helps businesses determine how much money they have for operating costs. Many businesses get extra funding through financial instruments, such as stocks, and this often has to be removed from the asset pool for one to get a realistic view of net operating assets without outside help. Calculating net assets is easy, because it is a single-step subtraction problem. Businesses use this number to understand how much money they have left for additional investing or new operations. It often is used to calculate return on investment (ROI), being balanced against revenue.
Before someone performs a calculation of NOA, he may have to accurately balance the asset pool. This is the total amount of money the business has that can be spent on supplies, equipment and employees. The total asset amount generally is inflated by funding from people or financial instruments, and the business includes these as assets. Many financial experts believe that, to get a picture of how the business would do if left alone, this money should be subtracted from the asset pool. For example, if the total asset pool is $10,000 US Dollars (USD), but $3,000 USD is from stocks and bonds, then the asset pool for this calculation is $7,000 USD.
To determine net operating assets, total operational liabilities must be removed from the asset pool. Operational liabilities are costs associated with running the business, or when costs are offset to a financial institution, as with a credit card. If the liabilities are $5,000 USD, and the asset pool is $7,000 USD, then the net operating assets are $2,000 USD.
One use for this calculation is so the business knows how much more it can spend on operations without owing money. For example, if the net operating assets total is $2,000 USD, then this means the business has $2,000 USD to spend on extra employees, upgrading equipment or performing other operational activities. While the business can spend more than the NOA amount, this is usually not advised because resources may have to be pulled out of other sectors and used to pay for operations.
Another way net operating assets is used is to calculate ROI. The typical ROI formula divides revenue against costs, and this can be used to represent costs. If there is a negative ROI, then the business usually has to scramble to make more money, because a poor return can eventually lead to bankruptcy.
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https://www.smartcapitalmind.com/what-are-net-operating-assets.htm
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Money for Life Applied Principle #10 Part I – Create a Spending Plan
Once you have determined that you want to use the principles of envelope budgeting, you need to develop a spending plan. Let’s get started with the first step of defining your net monthly income.
Step 1: Define your net monthly income
The first step in developing your detailed spending plan is to determine how much money you have available to spend. In other words, you need to determine your net income.
“For fixed income sources, this can usually be calculated very easily. Most of you receive a paycheck that represents your net pay. This net amount is what’s left after taxes and employee benefits like insurance have been subtracted from your gross pay. Next, you need to look at how often you receive your paycheck. If you receive one paycheck each month, your monthly income is simply the net amount of that check. If you receive a paycheck twice each month, your net monthly income is the net amount of your check multiplied by two. If you receive a paycheck every other week, you need to multiply the amount of your paycheck by 26 (the number of paychecks you receive in a year) and then divide this amount by 12. Finally, if you receive a paycheck once each week, you need to multiply the amount of your paycheck by 52 and then divide this number by 12.”
“Let’s move now to calculating your net income from variable income sources. Variable income sources include commissions, bonuses, and other sources of income that may vary in amount and frequency. Because of these variations, you need to be cautious with respect to your approach to calculating the amount of net monthly income. If you receive a commission payment every month, you can use either the smallest monthly commission received over the past several months, or you can calculate the average amount received each month. The same is true for bonuses.”
“Financially fit people whose sole source of income is variable find ways to set money aside when they receive it, so they can use it appropriately until they receive their next paycheck. Generally, these people determine their total monthly spending requirements and then use this number as their calculation of the amount of income they need to allocate to monthly spending. This way, they do not spend more than they have allotted, and they will have the appropriate amount of money set aside for future spending requirements.”
Once you have completed your calculations for both fixed and variable income source, add those numbers together. This total represents your monthly net income. For more information on calculating your net income from fixed or variable income sources, please read Money for Life, Applied Principle 10.
Join us again soon for Step 2 of creating your spending plan.
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https://www.mvelopes.com/money-for-life-applied-principle-10-part-i-create-a-spending-plan/
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Committee purpose:
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Finances
Apr 15, 2019 quarterly report
Amount
Funds available
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Contributions since Apr 15, 2019
$0.00
Cash on Hand*
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* This figure represents a committee's total available funds to spend this quarter. While committees are able to spend money continuously, they are only required to report spending figures once every three months. As soon as spending figures are available, they are reflected in the "Cash on Hand" amount for each candidate.
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Donations & Expenditures
Top 25 donors
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All donations
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Title
Jose Luis Torrez
Chairperson
Joel Zuniga
Treasurer
Founded
Aug 20, 2018
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is a 501(c)3 nonpartisan nonprofit, and
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http://illinoissunshine.org/committees/jose-for-change-34732/
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Lesson 6: Is There Life After Chapter 7 Bankruptcy?
Part 4: Additional Resources
Your Rights Under The FCRA
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Personal Financial Choices
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PART 2: THE BASICS OF MONEY MANAGEMENT
At the conclusion of this lesson you should be able to:
Now that you have determined exactly how you want to spend your money and you’ve designed your plan for achieving your financial goals, this section will help you identify all your sources of income and find ways to get the most out of the money that you make. It will help you identify past and present spending patterns and find where the “leaks” are in your budget. Then you will develop a workable spending plan. You will find it both interesting and helpful to do some of the exercises which will help you work through this process.
INTRODUCTION
Have you ever noticed how much better you feel when you aren’t worried about how you’re going to pay your bills? Most people wonder when they look at their bank statement each month exactly where their hard-earned money is going. This lesson will help you develop new habits for managing your money.
First, you will learn how to accurately calculate your average monthly income. Next, you will estimate how much you think you spend each month to compare with what you actually spend. Finally, you will gather past financial records and track your current spending to get an accurate picture of how much you are actually spending each month.
This lesson contains many exercises that will help you develop the daily spending skills you need so you can stick with your financial plan. Using the exercises, you can look at the past to get a better understanding of the way you used to spend your money. Using the tracking methods described later in this lesson, you will get a better understanding of your present (current) spending habits. This will help you answer the question about where your money is going each month. Lastly, you will look at the future by using all of this information to project short-term and long-term financial goals.
MONEY: MAKING YOUR MONEY
WHAT IS A SPENDING PLAN?
Spending money is a process, not just a laundry list of who you owe and when you need to pay. Therefore, you should consider your spending plan to be a living document with a past, a present, and a future — a spending plan that improves as you learn new and better ways to manage your money, and that can change when your circumstances change. For instance, when you have achieved one of your financial goals, you may have more money each month to spend on your next goal.
Let’s look at the origin of the word “budget.” The word comes from the French word “bougette” which is a small bag with a drawstring. French women adopted this handy bag method of money management from ancient Roman women who used little leather pouches to divide their household coins into different categories of spending.
Today we may not keep our money in small bags, but we still divide our money into categories of expenses. Many people today use envelopes for each item of expense they know they will have to pay at the end of the week, month, or quarter (e.g., food, rent, insurance, child care, etc.). These categories and a spending plan based upon each of these categories make up a budget.
COMPONENTS OF A SPENDING PLAN
AVERAGE MONTHLY INCOME
Any budget discussion must begin with an honest determination of how much money you actually have to work with each month. Do you know what your real average monthly income is?
There are two ways to look at your “monthly income.” There is “gross income” and“net income.” Your “gross income” is the total you actually earned (for example, $1,000/month). Your “net income” is what is left after your employer takes out deductions for taxes, social security, Medicare, etc. This is also called your “takehome pay.” In order to know how much you can actually spend, you must accurately determine your net (take-home) pay.
TRACK YOUR ACTUAL MONTHLY SPENDING
The objective in tracking your actual spending is to get a very clear picture of exactly where you have been spending your money. To do this, you need to gather your records from the past year and organize them into expense categories: fixed expenses, periodic expenses, and variable expenses. Here are some of the kinds of records and reminders you might collect and examine to help you determine the exact figures for your past spending habits:
• Canceled checks
After you have collected these records, set up a folder for each of your expense categories. Gather these receipts and statements and put each of them into the appropriate folder, depending on whether they are for fixed, periodic, or variable expenses.
It is a good idea while you are organizing your records to start a financial calendar. This is a calendar that you use only to keep track of when your bills are due, how much is due, and to keep other notes (such as what you may still owe). By keeping a financial calendar in the same place with your other financial records, you will have all of your financial information in one place.
Remember to track cash payments or money orders. If you didn’t keep a record of payments you made in cash, spend a few minutes to try to remember them and write this information in the appropriate folder. Don’t forget to use your memory!
Accurately looking into the past is a way to discover how you’ve spent your money so you can decide if you need to spend it differently in the future.
These are the major, set expenses you must pay every month like rent, mortgage, car or truck payments, child support, etc. These payments are the same each month. Record your fixed expenses on the MONTHLY MONEY TRACKER WORKSHEET. Fixed expenses such as utilities often vary from month to month depending upon the weather. To get an average, look back at your utility bills for at least one year, add up the total you have spent, and then divide that number by 12 to get the average amount you spend per month.
Periodic expenses are expenses you pay regularly, but not necessarily every month. These include medical expenses, house and car insurance, property and income taxes, car repairs, etc. To determine how much you spend on a specific periodic expense on a monthly basis, gather all of your receipts for that category during the past year and divide the total by 12.
Many people forget to include their periodic expenses when they prepare their budgets because these are usually payments they don’t make every month. Remember that they are still “regular” payments because they must be made in certain amounts at certain times. The best way to make sure you stay current on your periodic expenses is to follow these steps:
1. Include them in your spending category.
The example on the below illustrates the impact of periodic expenses.
Example: Monthly Expense for Car Insurance
Dee’s car insurance costs $1,200/year. She can’t afford to pay the entire premium at once, so she has been making quarterly payments of $300 each. How much should Dee budget each month for her car insurance, even though she doesn’t have to pay it each month?
$1,200 / 12 = $100/month
How does Dee make sure she has $300 each time her quarterly payment is due?
She puts $100 each month into her savings account (where it will earn interest), or into her “car insurance” envelope. Every three months Dee will have $300 to send to her insurance company.
You can go through the same exercise for all of your other periodic expenses, and then enter the average amount spent on each of them each month on your MONTHLY MONEY TRACKER WORKSHEET.
Your variable expenses may or may not be necessary to your basic needs, but they show how much you actually consume. These are usually the best areas to cut back spending. They include clothing, eating out, long distance phone calls, cable, newspapers, entertainment, etc. You will find a list of these kinds of expenses on the WEEKLY MONEY TRACKER SPENDING WORKSHEET. You can use this worksheet to track variable expenses over the next month.
To determine how much you spend in each category, you need to track these expenses day by day, week by week, for at least a month. Make at least four copies of the sheet, and better yet, make extra copies for all family members to use when they spend money on these items or you could underestimate these expenses. Write down every dime, nickel, and penny you spend for the next few weeks.
It may seem silly to you now to write down every penny you (and even the other members of your family) spend on every little thing, especially for four weeks. However, if you think about it, you will probably see that some weeks you tend to spend more than other weeks, and some weeks you will have expenses that you don’t have in other weeks.
For instance, you may find that you spend more on eating lunches out during particularly busy weeks when you are too busy to pack a lunch. Even though that particular expense doesn’t happen all the time , you do need to pick it up on your tracking worksheet because it still reflects one of your spending habits.
OTHER TOOLS YOU CAN USE TO TRACK YOUR SPENDING
If you can’t imagine carrying a sheet of paper with you, then think about using one of these techniques:
• A 3 x 5 card to record what you spend.
You can also record your every expense on your financial calendar. If you record your spending here, you will always be reminded of the fixed and periodic expenses that you have coming up before you spend money unnecessarily on a variable expense.
The important thing is to write down any amount of money you spend. At the end of every day, add up all you spent in each category.
At the end of the week, total each category. After a month, total each week to get a monthly total and record this amount on the MONTHLY MONEY TRACKER WORKSHEET.
After you have recorded your actual daily expenditures on your Weekly Money Tracker Spending Worksheet and you have transferred the total to your Monthly Money Tracker Worksheet, your Monthly worksheet will now have all of the actual dollar amounts you spend plus all of your monthly fixed and average monthly periodic expenses you pay over the course of a year.
Now, compare this chart with the estimates you recorded at the beginning of this lesson (Exercise #1). How close were the two? Are you surprised? Does the difference between what you thought you spend and what you really spend now tell you where all the money goes?
MONEY: SAVING YOUR MONEY
Any good financial plan includes two types of savings plans:
The first type of savings account is the “set-aside” account that we discussed earlier when we described Dee’s method for "saving" to make her quarterly car insurance payment (see example). A set-aside account serves two purposes:
1. It provides a safe place to set the money aside
that you know you will need for future payments.
The second type of savings plan is that which you decide to start for the purpose of accumulating the money you need to achieve your financial goals — whether you want to retire, buy a house, buy a car or take a luxury vacation. This type of account is also a “nest egg” account. It provides a certain degree of comfort that money will be available if some unexpected expense should occur in the future.
You may think that you can’t possibly save any money, especially now. But any successful financial plan includes a regular savings plan, no matter how small. Getting into the habit of saving is just as important as how much you save. You may only be able to save a small amount at first — even if that’s the difference between eating lunch out every day or packing your lunch.
If you develop the habit of finding those small ways to save now and put those savings into a separate account for a “rainy day,” you will find that after your financial situation is more stable — and you are able to save a little bit more each week, you will be in the habit of saving. You will already have an account with a savings history. (We will talk more about the importance of “savings history” in Lesson 6.)
Remember, if you can just find a way to save just $20 per week, every week for a year, you will have saved $1,040 after one year!
After five years you will have saved $5,200!
MONEY: SPENDING YOUR MONEY — WISELY
YOUR REAL AVERAGE MONTHLY SPENDING AND YOUR
To establish your own custom spending plan, you should have the following information: your initial estimates and records of fixed, periodic, and variable expenses. Remember, your plan should allow for you to save the right amount of money each month in anticipation of those periodic expenses which you know you will have to pay. The average monthly amount of these expenses is the amount which should be put into your set-aside savings plan.
Now that you have an accurate picture of your spending, ask yourself if the amount you spend is greater or less than your average monthly income. If you spend more than you make, you must look at those categories where you can spend less on the same item or eliminate it altogether. If you make more than you spend, save the extra money and invest it for your future!
At this point, you are ready to examine your spending record carefully for the holes and leaks. You may be surprised at the amount of money you have put in a“miscellaneous” category. These are expenses which you could not categorize. Since they didn’t fit into your fixed or periodic expenses which tend to be those that are most critical, you should examine these miscellaneous expenditures to determine whether they are even necessary. If these are expenses which you anticipate having every month and you can’t eliminate them, then you should create a category specifically for these expenses in your “fixed expenses” spending plan. Once your spending plan is established, make it your own. Make it a habit to follow this plan and stick with it.
CONCLUSION
Searching through old financial records, tracking every cent you spend, planning a budget, and working with a budget are not easy to do. If you have worked through these steps and have made a commitment to a life of financial responsibility, you will be rewarded when you achieve your financial goals. It may take a couple of months or years, but if you really put your mind to it, you will find a way to save money and use it for things that are most important to you.
Just hang in there. Worthwhile things take time to achieve.
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http://savvyconsumer.org/help/money/personalfin/lesson3.htm
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There are few things as important to your financial security as creating a household budget. After all, a person's wealth is not truly defined by their income, but by how they spend, save and invest the money they earn. By understanding your current spending habits, household expenses and income, you may devise a successful budget that allocates a specific amount of funds to every area of your life — from your mortgage to your morning cup of coffee.
Track your total expenses for one or two months to get a clear picture as to where your money is going. Seemingly insignificant expenses add up quickly, so don't leave anything out.
Determine your total monthly household income. This process is easy for employees who earn a set amount of money each week. If you are self-employed or are paid in tips, track income over a few months to determine an average.
Enter your income and expenses into a budget management program, a spreadsheet, or onto a piece of paper. Your goal is to determine the current allocation of money in your household for each category in your expenses. Expenses should include: housing and debt, taxes, insurance, living expenses and savings and investments.
Divide the total amount in each category by the total monthly household income to determine the percentage you're currently spending in each category. For example, if your total monthly spending is $5,000 and your housing and debt expenditure is $2,000, then the current total allocation for this category is 40 percent.
Compare the allocation amount for each category with your ideal allocation amounts for each category on your worksheet. Financial experts recommend allocating 30 percent of your income for housing and debt, 25 percent of your income for taxes, 4 percent for insurance, 15 percent for savings and investments and 26 percent for living expenses.
Evaluate the data to see where expenses may be reduced or eliminated in categories where too much income is being allocated. Keep your monthly expenditures within the allocated amounts to stay on budget and meet your financial goals.
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https://pocketsense.com/allocate-money-budgeting-1374.html
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StudentAid BC money differs in accordance with your financial predicament, status, pennsylvania payday loans online same day no credit check duration of study system, amount of dependants as well as other facets.
How much money you obtain from StudentAid BC depends upon your monetary need, which will be determined applying this formula:
Academic costs- pupil Resources= Financial need
We subtract your total resources from your own total educational expenses to determine your evaluated monetary need.
Your examined need will be weighed against the utmost weekly money limitation permitted for the research duration. The lower among these two quantities is exactly what you will be entitled to get.
Pupil residing Allowances
The month-to-month pupil residing allowances for every single category of pupil are designed to protect prices for shelter, food, regional transport, and miscellaneous costs. They’ve been standard allowances for a moderate quality lifestyle founded by the authorities. The allowances differ centered on a pupil’s residing situation as well as the province or territory where they’ll certainly be learning.
The 2019/20 allowances for pupils moving into B.C. Are below. Allowances for any other living circumstances are available in the SABC Policy handbook.
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https://selud.id/category/american-payday-loans/
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A startup company’s burn rate refers to how quickly it can spend its money. You can also think of burn rate as the amount of time a company can continue operating until it has no more money left to spend. Entrepreneurs use it to measure the sustainability of a business venture. Burn rates are usually expressed in months but may also be estimated in weeks or even days.
If you literally get all your money, set it all on fire, and watch until everything burns away, you’ll get a sense of what burn rate is.
Other interesting terms…
Read More about “Burn Rate”
There are two types of burn rate—gross and net burn rate. These differ in terms of computation. Still, both types help startup companies keep their spending in check, especially since some tend to overspend after securing funding from investors. Overspending is dangerous, as there is no guarantee as to when a company will become profitable.
Both gross and net burn rates are crucial since investors make it a point to examine burn rates to decide if the company is worth investing in. Below are the two types of burn rate.
Type #1: Gross Burn Rate
The gross burn rate is simply a measure of how much a company spends per month. You can obtain this by adding all of your operating expenses, which include salaries, bills for electricity and other utilities, and rental and additional overhead costs. You then divide your cash or venture capital by the total amount of operating expenses.
This formula sums up the computation for the gross burn rate:
Gross Burn Rate = Venture Capital Cash ÷ Total Operating Expense per Month
So, if a company has US$100,000 in its account, and its monthly operating expenses is US$10,000, its gross burn rate is 10 months. That means that it will take 10 months of operation before its cash runs out.
Type #2: Net Burn Rate
The net burn rate, meanwhile, measures the sustainability of a business and answers the question, “How long can a business continue operating until revenue picks up?” You can determine it using the following formula:
Net Burn Rate = Venture Capital Cash ÷ Monthly Operating Loss
You get the monthly operating loss by subtracting the total operating expenses from the revenue. So, if the company in our example has an average income of US$5,000 per month and an overhead of US$10,000, its monthly operating loss is US$5,000. Using the formula above, that gives it a net burn rate of 20 months. It will take 20 months before the company runs out of money.
How to Set Your Burn Rate
Your company can use either the gross or net burn rate formula shown above to predict how long it will stay in operation, given its available resources. It’s just a matter of what data is available to its owner.
How to Control Your Burn Rate
Startups often have to struggle in the beginning. And if they don’t want to fold, they can do the following if worse comes to worst:
- Layoffs and pay cuts: In many cases, investors negotiate a clause in a financing deal to reduce staff or compensation if the startup experiences a high burn rate. Layoffs are often done by larger startups that wish to become leaner or just agreed to new financing deals.
- Growth: Companies can project growth to investors. That should let it cover its fixed expenses (e.g., overhead and research and development [R&D]) to improve its finances. Growth forecasts encourage financers to further fund startups to achieve future profitability.
- Marketing: Organizations can also opt to spend on marketing to grow their user base. But since they don’t have the budget, they can employ “growth hacking” or use a growth strategy that doesn’t rely on costly advertising.
Objectives of Reducing Burn Rate
Of course, businesses wouldn’t want their burn rate to consume them. So they should employ different strategies to meet the following goals:
- Increase revenue: An increase in income will improve the net burn rate since the company’s cash won’t run out at a faster pace.
- Decrease overhead costs: Looking for ways to decrease operating expenses will affect both the gross and net burn rates. This strategy is the reason why some employees get laid off, so their companies can save on salary expenses.
Ideally, companies should strive to increase their revenue and decrease overhead expenses without sacrificing the quality of their products or services. That is where keeping track of burn rate comes into play. Knowing their burn rate can keep them from sinking.
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https://www.techslang.com/definition/what-is-burn-rate/
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Your available balance is the amount you can spend right now. ... Current balances include all of your money, including all available funds PLUS funds...
Available Balance. The ledger balance differs from the customer's available balance, which is the aggregate funds accessible for withdrawal at any one...
Available balance: Your funds available for immediate use. ... Posted balance: The amount of money that is actually in your account. It'll always be e...
Your account balance is the total amount of money that is currently in your account, including any pending transactions (e.g., debit card purchases th...
If you think balance and stability are the same thing, you aren't the only one. Balance is your ability to control your body without movement against ...
The key difference of bank balance sheet and company balance sheet is that line items in a bank balance sheet show an average balance whereas line ite...
BOT is a statement which records a country's imports and exports of goods with other countries in a period. Whereas BOP records all the economic trans...
Balance Sheet vs Income Statement: The Key Differences Timing: The balance sheet shows what a company owns (assets) and owes (liabilities) at a specif...
Your available balance is the amount of money in your account to which you have immediate access. Your available balance will be different from your c...
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https://en.differbetween.com/category/balance
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What is its purpose?
The indicator enables aid agencies to measure the extent to which beneficiaries used the provided cash-based assistance (CBA) for addressing the specific needs (e.g. food, hygiene items, etc. as relevant) that the project aimed to cover.
How to Collect and Analyse the Required Data
To determine the indicator's value, use the following methodology:
1) Define the types of goods (or services) that count as “basic needs”, such as food, hygiene items and other goods depending on the context and focus of the assistance. Do not quantify them – there is no need. Always consult the target groups on what they consider as “basic needs” and use their opinions accordingly. Be very careful about this – if you exclude good/services that many people at the time of your survey see as absolutely essential, it will (incorrectly) appear as if a larger part of your assistance was not used to meet basic needs.
2) Collect the data on how much CBA was spent on meeting “basic needs” in line with the criteria above. This can be done through several different methods, including:
A. If the used technology (e.g. electronic cards, mobile application, or scannable paper vouchers) allows, gain the required data by analyzing the electronic records of beneficiaries’ spending. In the case of electronic/scannable vouchers, this can be done by:
- requiring vendors to manually enter items;
- requiring vendors to select them from drop-down/searchable menus of items on a mobile device or terminal; or
- in certain circumstances through scanning item barcodes (either on the item itself of a pre-printed list provided to each vendor)
Ideally, the mobile app or terminal should then require entry of the quantity (using pre-defined units) and price per unit for each item.
In the case of multiple multi-purpose cash transfers, it is possible to require beneficiaries to submit receipts from previous expenditures as a condition for receipt of subsequent transfers. However, 1) verify whether the participating vendors issue receipts; and 2) consider the significant administrative burden related to this method).
B. Conducting a quantitative post-distribution monitoring (PDM) survey among a representative sample of the CBA recipients (those who represent the target households), asking them how they spent the provided assistance. In the case of multi-purpose cash transfers, you can prepare questions covering the various categories of needs, such as:
- How much of the money you received did you spend on food?
- How much of the money you received did you spend on rent?
- How much of the money you received did you spend on repaying debt?
- etc.
Before you conduct the survey, consider the following:
- Pre-test whether it is easier for people to report 1) specific amounts spent on the given needs (e.g. 20 USD spent on food) or 2) approximate proportion of the money that was spent on the given needs (e.g. half of the money was spend on food). If you decide to record the proportion, you will later have to recalculate it into actual amounts (see step 3).
- If the respondents say that they used the cash to repay debts, always enquire what the loan money was used for.
- Encourage the enumerators to verify whether the sum of the expenses for individual categories is not higher than the total value of the assistance (for example, the sum is 130 USD but the CBA’s value was only 100 USD). In such a case, the enumerator should ask the respondent to clarify her/his answers to gain information that is more precise.
- If many of the respondents have very limited financial literacy, consider using participatory methods to estimate the use of the provided assistance. For example, using 10 beans representing the money received and asking the respondent to divide them according to how the total amount was spent (e.g. if half of the money was spent on food, then half of the beans should be indicated as ‘spent on food’). If you use this method, ensure that the data collectors are able to explain to the respondents the meaning and the value of the beans (or whatever other material you use). Test this method in your target area before you use it.
- It is important that the PDM is conducted only when it is reasonable to expect that people spent the provided money / vouchers; however, not too late, so that they still correctly remember what they did spend it on (for example, a PDM conducted two months after they spent the money is likely to generate imprecise results).
C. In the case of paper vouchers, you might consider asking (in advance) the participating vendors to record, on provided forms, how much money people spend on various categories of goods (in addition to giving you the physical vouchers).
D. Alternatively, you might ask the vendors to provide you with receipts of the beneficiaries’ purchases. However, in both cases, consider the administrative burden these methods might pose to the vendors as well as your M&E/admin teams – always verify their capacity as well as willingness.
3) Count the total amount spent on meeting basic needs.
4) Calculate the indicator’s value by dividing the amount of CBA the recipients spent on meeting basic needs by the total amount of provided CBA and multiply the result by 100.
Disaggregate by
Disaggregate the data by the type of basic needs (e.g. amount of money spent on food, on hygiene items, etc.). Report also on:
- % spent on addressing non-basic needs
- % of the provided CBA that was stolen, lost, etc.
- % of the provided CBA that – at the time of the monitoring – was not spent at all (e.g. due to the beneficiaries not yet using the full amount of the CBA they received)
Important Comments
1) In order to understand why beneficiaries are spending the funds on items not intended within the project, you can conduct focus group discussions. There may be a good justification for this different use of funds – for example, that certain needs were overlooked, or that households have a higher income than first calculated – so this qualitative data can help to inform improvements in targeting of assistance.
2) If you conduct cash transfers / voucher distributions in several phases (or in several locations), do not wait to conduct the PDM until all distributions are over. Starting with the PDM after the distributions in the first phase / location will help you identify potential weaknesses and address them in the remaining distributions.
3) It is very likely that the respondents will know what the “correct” answers should be and might be reluctant to admit that they spent part of the CBA on something that you consider as non-basic needs. If you want the respondents to provide truthful data, the enumerators need to have the respondents’ trust. Ensure that before the interview the enumerators carefully explain why your agency needs the data; that the answers will have no impact on whether the household receives any further assistance; how the data will (not) be used; and why it is important that the information the respondent provides is correct. They should also mention that they know that some people use cash to repay debts and the respondents can feel free to talk about this openly.
4) If you are primarily interested in “sector-specific” spending, replace the indicator by the following one: average proportion of the [specify: cash transfer / voucher] spent on [specify the types of goods, e.g. “food items”]. If you are interested in the proportion of CBA recipients who spent a certain percentage (or more) of cash on meeting their basic needs, you can rephrase the indicator to: % of cash recipients who spent at least [specify the percentage] of the provided cash on meeting their basic needs. In such a case, you will only be able to use the first two data collection methods.
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https://www.indikit.net/indicator/44-cash-and-voucher-assistance/1742-use-of-the-provided-cash-based-assistance
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All businesses should devote money and resources to cybersecurity, in order to protect their operations and ensure a profitable future. But how much should they actually spend?
Most organizations spend too much or less on cybersecurity solutions, according to a new analyst report from Nucleus Research. The report offers a formula that businesses can use to determine exactly how much money they should spend on cybersecurity.
Nucleus says companies shouldn’t spend money on cybersecurity “based on fear or perceived threats.” Instead, they should consider their value, the value of the usefulness of cybersecurity, the risk of a cyber attack, and the potential cost of the breach.
“Even if an organization has a high risk of a cyber attack, it is not effective to invest in cybersecurity more than what the organization is worth,” the report explains. “By viewing cybersecurity investments as an insurance issue, organizations can justify the optimal amount to spend.
So, for an organization worth $ 20 million, which is at risk of losing $ 2 million in a data breach and has a 50% chance of being breached, no more than $ 1 million should be spent on cybersecurity, the report says. This figure includes IT staff time, software subscriptions, software maintenance and lost productivity.
“Considering a triple revenue model, the organization should not spend more than 15% of its revenue,” the report concludes.
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https://infogima.com/2021/08/24/many-companies-spend-too-much-or-too-little-on-security/
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Election spending is concentrated in highly contested races, so to get the best picture of the Supreme Court’s impact where it matters most we analyzed the proportion of spending that can be directly attributed to Supreme Court rulings in the 22 congressional races (17 House and 5 Senate) won by 5 percentage points or fewer, as well as the highly competitive presidential race.
Figure 2 shows the amount of total direct spending on the 2016 presidential election that would have been blocked by election laws had the Supreme Court not struck down several key protections against big money. Figure 3 shows the proportion of money tied to Supreme Court rulings. Table 2 breaks the amount and proportion down by relevant Supreme Court decision.
Supreme Court rulings have led to a total of more than $3 billion in spending on the 2016 elections.
Even this significant amount—45 percent of the total cost of the elections—does not capture the true importance of the Court’s interventions, because the money the Court allowed into the system comes largely from a tiny segment of elite donors.5 The source of the funds is even more important than the raw amount, as we explain below.
Figure 4 shows the system-wide total direct spending on the 2016 federal elections that would have been blocked by election laws had the Supreme Court not struck down several key protections against big money.
Figure 5 shows the proportion of 2016 election spending tied to Supreme Court rulings. Table 3 breaks the amount and proportion down by relevant Supreme Court decision.
Although Citizens United is much more well-known, Buckley v. Valeo is actually responsible for more of the money in the system overall. Table 4 shows the relative contribution of each Supreme Court decision in the competitive races, the presidential election, and system-wide.
Struck down a $5,000 (in 2016 dollars) limit on independent expenditures by any person or political committee except for political parties.
We did not include the $5,000 (in 2016 dollars) limit on independent expenditures by people or political organizations in our analysis because a) the amount of individual independent expenditures is negligible in the era of Super PACs; and b) the Court was correct to strike that limit on political committees, since people should be able to pool limited contributions together through organizations in order to raise their collective voices.
As noted above, Buckley itself was responsible for $201 million in additional money in the 22 most competitive congressional elections, $607 million in additional money in the presidential election, and $1.5 billion in additional money system-wide in 2016. This represents election spending above and beyond the (inflation-adjusted) caps struck by Buckley.
Colorado Republican I (as it is known) extended Buckley’s logic by striking down limits on independent spending by political parties. The Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) included limits on party spending on behalf of certain candidates. These were not addressed in Buckley, in part because people assumed that spending by a party to help its own candidates would be done in cooperation with those candidates, and therefore subject to limits.
The elimination of party spending limits was responsible for $124 million in the 22 most competitive congressional elections, $3 million in the presidential election, and $255 million system-wide in 2016.
In the infamous Citizens United case, the Supreme Court overturned a century of settled law to allow direct corporate spending on elections. Since nonprofit “social welfare” corporations and trade associations are not required to disclose their donors, this opened the door for secret money in our elections. Citizens United also led to Super PACs, which can accept unlimited contributions from any source except foreign nationals and then spend that money directly on elections, as long as they do not contribute to candidates or parties or spend money in direct cooperation with candidates or parties.10 Most Super PAC money has come from wealthy individuals.
As noted above, Citizens United was responsible for $324 million in additional money in the 22 most competitive congressional elections, $690 million in the presidential election, and $1.3 billion in additional money system-wide in 2016.
In McCutcheon, the Court struck down a limit of $124,900 in 2016 dollars on the total amount that any single wealthy donor can contribute to all federal candidates, parties and political action committees (PACs).
While it’s impossible to determine exactly how much of the McCutcheon money went to specific competitive races, we calculated that just 1,499 elite McCutcheon donors contributed a total of $23.4 million to the 22 most competitive congressional races.
We did not include McCutcheon money in our system-wide calculations above because McCutcheon affected contributions, whereas Buckley, Colorado Republican I, and Citizens United related to spending.
Critically, the vast majority of the money spent on elections as a result of the Supreme Court is big money—coming in large checks well beyond what the average person can afford to give or spend.13 By striking key laws, the Court opened the door for wealthy donors to spend and contribute billions of dollars, shifting the balance of power towards a moneyed elite and away from ordinary voters.
Further, elite donors hold different policy preferences than the general public. They are more supportive of domestic spending cuts, more likely to oppose taking action to mitigate climate change and less supportive of the Affordable Care Act.17 The Supreme Court’s decisions have thus benefited a small class of wealthy, white conservative men.
With the Supreme Court currently deadlocked four to four on money in politics and many other key issues, the stakes for our democracy could not be higher. Whoever is confirmed to the ninth seat will determine whether the Court continues down the same damaging path of opening the floodgates to big money in politics, or begins to transform its approach so we can end Super PACs, get corporations out of our elections, and ensure that Americans of all incomes, races, and backgrounds can run for office and make our voices heard.
As this report shows, the Court’s future path will have a significant impact on whether wealthy donors continue to drive our major policy decisions or whether we can instead finally build a democracy where the size of our wallets no longer determines the strength of our voices.
Unless otherwise noted, all 2016 election spending data comes from the Center for Responsive Politics (CRP). Most of the data is publicly available on CRP’s website at www.opensecrets.org. CRP provided some data directly to us, which is on file with the authors and noted below.
In the 2016 election cycle, 123 candidates who exceeded what would have been their self-funding limits spent $178 million on their own campaigns. These same candidates would have been permitted to spend $17 million under FECA’s limits, adjusted for inflation. This leaves approximately $161 million in self-funding attributed to Buckley.
We then took each candidate’s total 2016 election spending and subtracted his/her would-be spending cap. We considered any positive value left over to be spending attributable to Buckley.
Buckley also struck a $1,000 limit on “independent expenditures” by individuals and political committees ($5,000 in 2016 dollars). We have not factored these policies into our analysis for separate reasons. In the age of Super PACs there are now relatively few independent expenditures from individuals (the Center for Responsive Politics lists $1.12 billion in Super PAC spending for the cycle but only $160 million from corporations, individual people, or other groups).18 The Court was actually correct to strike the $1,000 limit on independent expenditures by political committees, as people should be able to aggregate their voices to speak more loudly collectively, and political committees are a tool to do so.
FECA limited party committee spending for or against House candidates to $10,000, which we adjusted for inflation to $49,000. FECA limited spending for or against Senate candidates according to a state-by-state formula based upon voting age population, with an alternative minimum of $20,000 (or $97,000 in 2016). We calculated the inflation-adjusted limit for each state, which ranged from the $97,000 minimum to $593,000 in California. We then doubled these limits, since FECA Section 441(a)(d) (3) allowed both national and state parties to spend on behalf of particular candidates, and prior to the Colorado Republican I decision it had been common practice for state parties to assign their federal spending limit to the national party committees. This assumption results in attributing $17.9 million less to Colorado Republican I than if we had simply used the statutory limits.
We summed together party independent and coordinated expenditures on behalf of specific candidates, since Congress clearly intended the FECA limits to capture all party spending on behalf of a candidate (independent spending by political parties was not yet a legally cognizable concept when the FECA amendments passed in 1974). We assumed that all of the spending came from the party committee typically associated with this type of spending (DNC or RNC for president; DSCC or NRSC for Senate; DCCC or NRCC for House), and then we spot-checked this assumption to confirm its validity.
To determine the spending attributable to Colorado Republican I, we took party spending on behalf of each candidate, subtracted the would-be FECA spending limit, and summed the difference for all candidates that benefited from party spending. Of the more than 1,675 federal candidates in our database, the parties spent money on behalf of only around 160 candidates— 35 of whom were in our top 22 competitive races.
One important note is that to calculate party spending beyond FECA’s caps, we only looked at spending associated with a particular candidate or race, which leaves out $929 million that CRP told us was spending by parties not on behalf of any particular candidate. We left this money in our total calculations as “party overhead,” which we understand to be spending on infrastructure (such as fundraising, voter files, staff, buildings, etc.) and other miscellaneous items that do not include express advocacy on behalf of candidates. We did not attribute any of this money to Colorado Republican I or any Supreme Court decision.
It is likely that much of the $274 million in excess McCutcheon money identified in this report found its way to the political parties and gave them more resources for overhead or other non-candidate-based expenditures, but we do not have a reliable way of calculating a precise total so have not attempted an estimate. Therefore, leaving the party overhead figures in our overall total and not attributing any of it to Supreme Court decisions makes our reported figures quite conservative.
According to Center for Responsive Politics, Super PACs spent $1.12 billion influencing 2016 federal elections. Outside spending from 501(c) (4), 501(c)(5) and 501(c)(6) organizations accounted for another $199 million. Note, this estimate is conservative in that it does not include any direct corporate independent expenditures, which CRP does not break out. These are likely minimal, however, as the entire category of expenditures by corporations, individual people, or other groups contains only $160 million, as noted above.
Based upon inflation, Demos estimates that a $124,900 aggregate contribution limit would have been in place in 2016 without the McCutcheon decision.19 According to data collected and analyzed by the Center for Responsive Politics, 1,724 donors in the 2016 election cycle contributed more than this to federal candidates, parties, and political action committees (PACs) (not including any contributions to Super PACs). These elite donors contributed $494,163,117 in total. Pre-McCutcheon, these donors would have been limited to contributing $215,327,600. The differential of $278,835,517 is the total new money that can be traced to the Court’s decision.
The McCutcheon aggregate limit, however, did not apply to contributions to recount committees. According to CRP data on file with the authors, individuals contributed a total of $29,640,790 to recount committees in 2016. To decide how much of this recount money likely came from McCutcheon donors (and therefore should be removed from our McCutcheon excess estimate), we performed the following calculations. First, we divided the total amount given by McCutcheon donors ($490 million) by the total amount given by individuals to all parties, candidates and PACs ($6.02 billion) to determine that McCutcheon donors were responsible for approximately 8 percent of all individual contributions. We then doubled this to be conservative, assuming that McCutcheon donors are likely targets for recount funds, and assumed that 16 percent of the $29.6 million in recount funds came from McCutcheon donors. We therefore removed approximately $4.7 million from the McCutcheon excess, for a final McCutcheon money figure of $274 million.
As noted, we used CRP’s estimate of $6.917 billion as the total cost of the election. We also got from CRP or calculated from their data the following figures: candidate committee spending ($3.217 billion); party spending (sum of $929 million in party overhead and $292 million spent on candidates); and non-party independent spending ($1.436 billion). The remaining $1.043 billion we considered general PAC overhead and other miscellaneous spending. We did not attempt to attribute any of this money to any Supreme Court case.
We were able to divide the total spending between presidential and congressional races for all categories except for the PAC overhead and miscellaneous category. We divided the miscellaneous total between the presidential and the congressional elections by allocating it so that our ratio between total presidential and congressional spending would match CRP’s ratio as closely as possible ($2.651 billion for president and $4.267 billion for congressional). This caused us to put $92 million into the presidential category and $951 million in the congressional category.
The inclusion of these miscellaneous funds is conservative because it is all allocated against the Supreme Court money total. The division of these funds between presidential and congressional is essentially neutral for our purposes, since putting more money in the presidential category will tend to make our percentage of Supreme Court money lower there but higher in the competitive congressional races, and vice versa.
We define competitive races as those where the victor won by less than 5 percentage points. In 2016 there were 22 of these races, 17 in the House of Representatives and 5 in the U.S. Senate. These 22 races account for 5 percent of all congressional races in the 2016 elections.
To calculate the effect of Buckley v. Valeo in these races we used the amount of money that exceeded the total per-candidate spending caps. We estimate that 55 candidates in these races exceeded their would-be spending caps in 2016 by $201,370,974. These candidates spent $274,471,914, and their spending would have been limited to $73,100,940 under the FECA caps.
To calculate the effect of Citizens United in our 22 competitive races, we calculated total non-party independent spending in these races from CRP data ($356,042,799), multiplied this by the proportion of independent spending attributable to Citizens United throughout the entire system (91%), and considered the resulting total ($323,998,947) to be the amount attributable to Citizens United in our competitive race pool. This assumption is slightly conservative because any independent expenditures by for-profit corporations (which are in fact attributable to Citizens United) appear in a catch-all “other” category in CRP’s data (along with individual and regular PAC spending), which shows up in the 9% on the other side of the equation. In addition, while all types of spenders on both sides of the equation (Super PACs and (c)(4), (c)(5), (c)(6) nonprofits on the Citizens United side and regular PACs and individuals on the other side) are likely to spend more money in competitive races, we were unable to identify any reason why the ratio of this spending would be different in competitive races than throughout the system.
We did not attempt to assign McCutcheon money to specific competitive races, since it is impossible to determine if McCutcheon donors would have given to one race or another (or given as much to any given race) had they been subject to an overall cap on their total contributions. Center for Responsive Politics did, however, provide us with a list of McCutcheon donors (those who gave more than the would-be aggregate limit) who contributed to candidates in the competitive races. In total, 1,499 elite donors contributed $23.4 million to the candidates in the 22 most competitive congressional races.
We allocated 5 percent of the cost of party overhead, PAC overhead, and miscellaneous expenditures to our 22 competitive races, since these constituted 5 percent of the overall number of races and we assumed that overhead costs are spread evenly across parties, unlike candidate-specific expenditures, which are concentrated in competitive races. One reason we believe this estimate to be conservative and reasonable is that although there may be some additional staffing costs associated with competitive races, other infrastructure costs such as office rent will tend to be higher in large cities where races tend to be less competitive.
Adam Lioz, Breaking the Vicious Cycle: Rescuing Our Democracy and Our Economy by Transforming the Supreme Court’s Flawed Approach to Money in Politics, Demos, 2015, http://www.demos.org/publication/breaking-vicious-cycle-rescuing-our-democracy-and-our-economy-transforming-supreme-court.
Citizens United v. Federal Election Com’n, 558 U.S 310 (2010).
Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1 (1976); Colorado Republican Federal Campaign Committee v. Federal Election Com’n, 518 U.S. 604 (1996); Citizens United v. Federal Election Com’n, 558 U.S. 310 (2010); McCutcheon v. Federal Election Com’n, 134 S.Ct. 1434 (2014).
We did not factor McCutcheon v. FEC into these calculations because in this section we are analyzing election spending and McCutcheon was about contributions, and also because it is not possible to say precisely how much McCutcheon money went to specific competitive races. We discuss the impact of McCutcheon in more detail below.
424 U.S. 1 (1976). For an accessible but thorough analysis of Buckley’s impact, see Adam Lioz, Buckley v. Valeo at 40, Demos, 2016, http://www.demos.org/publication/buckley-v-valeo-40. Buckley also struck a $1,000 limit on “independent expenditures” by individuals and political committees. We have not factored these policies into our analysis for reasons explained in our Methodology.
The Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) did not provide for these limits to be adjusted for inflation, but we have done so in our analysis for reasons explained in our Methodology.
As noted in our Methodology, Congress did not adjust these self-funding caps for inflation but we chose to do so in our analysis to be conservative.
These limits were doubled in practice due to agreements between state and national party committees. See the Methodology for further explanation.
A D.C. Circuit Court decision called Speech Now v. FEC technically empowered Super PACs to accept unlimited contributions, but this was a unanimous decision that came closely on the heels of Citizens United and closely followed its logic. SpeechNow.org v. Federal Election Com’n, 599 F.3d 686 (D.C. Cir. 2010).
Bernadette D. Proctor, Jessica L. Semega, and Melissa A. Kollar, Current Population Reports: Income and Poverty in the United States: 2015, United States Census Bureau, September 2016, https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2016/demo/p60-256.html.
The vast majority of Super PAC money comes in very large checks; according to Center for Responsive Politics (CRP) data, the top 100 donors to Super PACs gave 60.8% of the money, or $1.09 billion. McCutcheon money by definition comes from donors who gave more than $124,900. It would be extremely difficult to exceed Buckley’s spending limits by raising only small donor money of $200 or less; this would require a general election congressional candidate to raise money from more than 3,400 separate donors. This is significantly more donors than congressional candidates typically raise money from, even in highly competitive races.
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https://www.demos.org/research/court-cash-2016-election-money-resulting-directly-supreme-court-rulings
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If you're a Florida state employee, you may be entitled to retirement benefits under the Florida Retirement System (FRS). FRS retirement benefits are available through regular pension plan disbursements, which provide a fixed monthly benefit based on your years of service and salary history, and through the FRS investment plan. The FRS investment plan allows you to contribute to a regular IRA. Similar to regular retirement accounts, your contributions are invested into funds you select.
Multiply your years of service by the percentage value of your career position. As a Florida state employee, you are assigned a percentage value to your position based on its complexity. High-risk positions are assigned higher percentage values. For example, if you work 20 years in a position that has a 2 percent value, multiply 20 by .02. The result is your percentage value equation (.40).
Total your five highest annual salaries. Use the fiscal year method when you determine your salary year. Florida's fiscal year runs from July 1 through June 30. Divide your total by five to determine your average final compensation.
Multiply your result from the percentage value equation by your average final salary. For example, if your average final salary equals $40,000 and your percentage value equation result is .40, multiply $40,000 by .40. The result is your annual retirement benefit amount ($16,000).
Divide your annual benefit amount by 12 to determine your monthly benefit payment.
Navigate to the My FRS Calculators web page (see Resources).
Select the calculator tool you want to use. You can use your retirement plan balance information to see how much you withdraw each month and for how long; find out how much money you need in your account to start retirement; and compare how investing into a Roth IRA differs from regular IRA investing.
Input the financial information that your selected calculator requires. Use your result to make investment or withdrawal decisions. If you have questions regarding your retirement planning, contact a My FRS financial planner for guidance (see Resources). You can meet with the planner by phone, online or in person.
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https://www.sapling.com/7867136/calculate-frs-retirement-benefits
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Creating a personal budget is an effective way to take control of your spending. When you figure out where you spend money and take comprehensive steps to not spend more than you plan to, you'll have extra funds available for other areas that need it. Your personal budget can even help you save to take a much-needed vacation or to buy a new car. Creating a personal budget begins with identifying where you spend money, making a plan for where you want to spend the money instead and sticking to that plan once it is made.
Gather recent household bills, credit card statements or sales receipts, bank statements and paycheck stubs. Three to 12 months worth of paperwork to reference helps the most, but even the most recent ones give you a starting place for your budget.
List each regular bill you have and write down the average monthly amount you pay. Regular bills include rent or mortgage, insurance and electricity.
List all other things you've regularly spent money on recently. Use your credit card statements, bank statements or checkbook ledger and any sales receipts to make sure you don't miss any expenditures. Groceries, clothing, household goods and restaurants are likely to be in this list. Put dollar amounts next to each item showing how much money you've spent on each on average in a given month.
Rearrange, organize and combine the items in each list to create general spending categories, such as "household," "entertainment," and "utilities." You can also create subcategories to keep budget sections organized. Household could be broken down into "household-rent," "household-utilities," and "household-goods," for example.
Add the total monthly dollar amounts from each small spending item into the broader category you've added it to. If you had a separate entry for restaurants and you merged that with groceries into a general food category, add the total spending estimates from both restaurants and groceries to the food category.
Adjust the total dollar amounts listed for each category as needed or desired, making sure that the total of all your spending categories is not more than the total amount of take home pay you receive in income. The final dollar amounts listed for each category or subcategory are your new personal budget amounts for those areas. Your goal is to track and control spending to ensure you do not spend more in a given category than you have budgeted for it. So if you budgeted $25 a month for restaurants, once your budget shows you have spent that amount for the month already, you'll know that you need to cook dinner instead of ordering a pizza.
Tip
- Be flexible for the first few months of using a personal budget, particularly if you had to estimate some of your expenses. Once you've tracked your spending and tried to stay within budget for several months, you may find you need to make adjustments for it to work best.
References
- Dave Ramsey: Do Your Dollars Have Names?
- "The Total Money Makeover: A Proven Plan for Financial Fitness"; Dave Ramsey; 2007
- The Digirati Life: How To Make A Budget In 10 Easy Steps
Photo Credits
- Christine Balderas/Photodisc/Getty Images
MORE MUST-CLICKS:
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https://budgeting.thenest.com/create-personal-budgets-3430.html
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To see how this is calculated in practice, here’s an example of what a hypothetical company’s balance sheet might look like, including assets, liabilities, and stockholders’ equity. Why is it important for a company to have enough stockholders’ equity? Basically, stockholders’ equity is an indication of how much money shareholders would receive if a company were to be dissolved, all its assets sold, and all debts paid off.
- Negative equity can arise if the company has negative retained earnings, meaning that their profits were not strong enough to cover expenses.
- All these things affect stockholders’ equity, as do the assets and liabilities a company accrues over time.
- Looking at the same period one year earlier, we can see that the year-on-year change in equity was a decrease of $25.15 billion.
- The total assets value is calculated by finding the sum of the current and non-current assets.
- The par value of a share of stock is sometimes defined as the legal capital of a corporation.
- I/we have no stock, option or similar derivative position in any of the companies mentioned, and no plans to initiate any such positions within the next 72 hours.
Preferred stock, common stock, additional paid‐in‐capital, retained earnings, and treasury stock are all reported on the balance sheet in the stockholders’ equity section. Information regarding the par value, authorized shares, how to calculate stockholders equity issued shares, and outstanding shares must be disclosed for each type of stock. If a company has preferred stock, it is listed first in the stockholders’ equity section due to its preference in dividends and during liquidation.
المحتويات
For example, imagine a company with $200,000 raised from common stock and $100,000 from preferred stock. The figure you use to calculate share capital is the selling price of the stock, not its current market value. This is because share capital represents the money that the corporation actually received from the sale of stock. Continuing with the previous example, simply subtract the company’s total liabilities https://www.bookstime.com/ ($470,000) from total assets ($610,000) to get shareholders’ equity, which would be $140,000. The formula to compute this figure is long-term assets plus current assets. How does the balance sheet show the amount of stockholders’ equity? In most cases, a company’s total assets will be listed on one side of the balance sheet and its liabilities and stockholders’ equity will be listed on the other.
- For a publicly-held company, this information will be available either on their website or on the Securities and Exchange Commission’s website.
- The people who run the plan let her pick how she wants her retirement money invested.
- To begin investing on Stash, you must be approved from an account verification perspective and open a brokerage account.
- Net income, also known as net profit, is found on the income statement.
If a corporation has issued only one type, or class, of stock it will be common stock. This information is not intended as a recommendation to invest in any particular asset class or strategy or as a promise of future performance.
What Is the Stockholders’ Equity Equation?
Equation may be used on its own, with a negative value being seen as a portent of looming bankruptcy. However, it’s more commonly used in conjunction with figures like total debt to give an overall assessment of how well a business manages its finances.
How much does a Starbucks owner make?
According to a study ,the average Starbucks store earns $250,000 to $300,000 in annual revenue. Another study estimates that the average franchisee makes between $200,000 and $300,000 in pretax income annually.
You will also add in all long-term assets such as patents, buildings, equipment and notes receivable, which the company does not expect to convert to cash during the next 12 months. Combine both current assets and long-term assets to determine the company’s total assets. Like the total asset calculation, the formula for total liabilities is long-term liabilities plus current liabilities. Liabilities include any money that the company is required to pay to creditors, like bank loans, dividends payable, and accounts payable. Stockholders’ equity is the value of a firm’s assets after all liabilities are subtracted.
Total Liabilities on a Balance Sheet
Beyond that, we can take a look at a company’s balance sheet to see their liabilities and stockholder’s equity to determine how they are performing as a business and where they spend their money. There are numerous ways to use the information on a balance sheet to gain further information on a company’s financial management, and stockholder’s equity is but one in a long list. A Statement of Stockholders’ Equity is a required financial document issued by a company as part of its balance sheet that reports changes in the value of stockholders’ equity in a company during a year. The statement provides shareholders with a summary view of how the company is doing.
Stockholders’ Equity: What It Is, How To Calculate It, Examples – Investopedia
Stockholders’ Equity: What It Is, How To Calculate It, Examples.
Posted: Sat, 25 Mar 2017 20:31:40 GMT [source]
The stockholders’ equity subtotal is located in the bottom half of the balance sheet. If it’s in positive territory, the company has sufficient assets to cover its liabilities. If it’s negative, its liabilities exceed assets, which may deter investors, who view such companies as risky investments. But shareholders’ equity isn’t the sole indicator of a company’s financial health. Hence, it should be paired with other metrics to obtain a more holistic picture of an organization’s standing.
He currently researches and teaches economic sociology and the social studies of finance at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. For a publicly-held company, this information will be available either on their website or on the Securities and Exchange Commission’s website. If it is a publicly-traded company, the company’s financial reported are publicly available online.
Dividend policy by showing its decision to pay profits earned as dividends to shareholders or reinvest the profits back into the company. On the balance sheet, shareholders’ equity is broken up into three items – common shares, preferred shares, and retained earnings. All the information required to compute shareholders’ equity is available on a company’sbalance sheet.
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https://ma3in.com/stockholder-definition-formula-calculate/
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Here's Where Rising Food Prices Will Hit The Hardest/
Rising food prices won't affect everyone the same. In certain countries, people spend a disproportionately greater share of their income on food. For instance, Americans use about seven percent of their total spending for buying food. Yet, in Indonesia, the average citizen uses 43 percent! If the price of rice doubles in the U.S., Americans will simply reallocate some of their spending. Indonesians face a much graver problem. To determine how much a country will be impacted by the food price crisis, you can use this interactive map. Click on a country's percentage to see household spending and the relative amount spent on food. Total household expenditures in America were $32,051, and the amount spent on food per person was $2,208. But in Algeria, total household expenditures were $1,305 and the amount spent on food per person was $571. That's a difference of about 37% between the United States and Algeria. These discrepancies reveal where food prices will hit hardest.
As rising food prices continue to rise, people living in areas where more money is spent on food will suffer more. To learn more about why food prices are going up, click here.
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https://marcussamuelsson.com/posts/news/heres-where-rising-food-prices-will-hit-the-hardest
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Every year a very committed group of people wrestle with an extraordinarily difficult job: that of allocating a defined pool of money to more than 20 beneficiary agencies and programs across Jewish Hamilton. Our mandate is to ensure that all the needs of the community are equitably balanced against the four pillars of the Federation: Assisting the vulnerable; Strengthening Jewish identity through Jewish education; Supporting Israel; and Supporting the Jewish community through ongoing community development.
Each pillar is crucial to our community’s well-being, but when funds are sparse we have to prioritize the needs. We give highest priority to assisting the vulnerable among us and the next priority to Jewish education.
Every year, each beneficiary agency is visited by one of our committee members to discuss challenges and opportunities in the past and coming year. The agency then makes a presentation to the whole committee as to the work of their agency and we review their financial statements as well.We do this because we consider it a fiduciary duty in managing the community’s finances. After hearing from all of the beneficiaries we get down to the work of deciding how much money to recommend to the board of directors that each beneficiary should receive. It is the Board who makes the final decision based on our recommendations.
It is a task that the Committee does with dedication to the community. This year was no different. The total amount available for allocations was again based on a combination of pledges and cash received plus “reasonably assured” collections. I must say how difficult it is when beneficiaries are telling us that their need is great and the community just hasn’t raised enough money. In fact, the amount of money raised by the community is virtually the same as that raised in the 1980s, which just isn’t sufficient in 2017. Our agencies are suffering. Our community is suffering.
This year the allocations committee also discussed a number of issues including how we define Jewish education; how we determine the amount available for allocations; the relationship between Federation and the beneficiaries and at a very fundamental level, even what and how we should be funding. All of these conversations are on-going. In the coming year, the committee will continue to discuss these issues with the goal of making our process and mandate, and consequently Jewish Hamilton, even stronger.
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https://www.hamiltonjewishnews.com/news/allocations-committee-faces-tough-choices
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More than 70 percent of app users spend “nothing or very little,” while the top 3 percent account for nearly 20 percent of the total spend, according to a survey by ABI Research.
According to the company, about two-thirds of app users have spent money on an application on at least one occasion. Among these paying users, the mean spend was US$14 per month.
However, the company also noted that the median amount customers spent is lower than this, at US$7.50 per month. This reflects “the disproportionate role of big spenders as a revenue source,” it said.
ABI said that so far, the releases which have best succeeded in making money have typically been utility apps often used for business purposes, or iOS games monetised through in-app purchases. In both cases, “the money comes from a remarkably small base of customers,” it said.
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https://www.mobileworldlive.com/apps/news-apps/most-app-users-spending-nothing-or-very-little-abi/
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Cook County Pension Fund: This is the defined benefit pension fund that administers pension and healthcare benefits for 15,000 Cook County Retirees.
Cook County Pension Fund Board of Trustees: The pension fund is governed by its own board of directors consisting of 9 members: 3 retirees, 4 current employees, and two appointees of the Cook County Treasurer and Cook County Comptroller.
Pension Benefit/Annuity Benefit: This is the annual amount a retiree will receive when they retire.
Current Employee/Active Employee: Any employee of Cook County that is currently employed and participating in the Cook County Pension Fund.
Retiree/Annuitants: Any former Cook County employee that has retired from service and is now collecting a pension.
Retirement Age: The age at which a current employee can retire.
COLA: Cost of living adjustment, abbreviated as COLA. This is an amount of money that a retiree receives annually in addition to their pension benefit.
Vesting: The number of years an employee must work before they are granted the right to a pension.
Funded Status: This percentage represents the amount of money available today to pay for promised pension benefits. The figure is calculated by dividing the total actuarial value of assets by the actuarial liability of the fund.
Actuarial Value of Assets: The value assigned by the actuary to the assets of the pension fund.
Actuarial Accrued Liability: This is the actuarially determined value of benefits already promised to employees and retirees.
Actuarial Present Value: The value of an amount or series of amounts payable at various times, determined as of a given date by the application of a particular set of actuarial assumptions.
Unfunded Actuarial Liability: The unfunded liability is the difference between the total cost of promised pension benefits and the current value of pension fund assets. Unfunded liability does not account for the future accrual of benefits.
Actuarial Assumption: This is an assumption used by the actuary to determine the future cost of benefits. The actuary calculates these assumptions by conducting studies of past experience.
Property Tax Levy: This is the dollar amount that a governmental unit collects from a taxing district. The dollar amount is divided by the total value of property in the taxing district to determine the tax rate percentage (%).
Benefit Multiplier: This percentage multiplied by the years of service equals the amount of final average salary a retiree receives as a pension annuity.
Final Average Salary: The salary amount used to determine pension benefits.
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http://www.openpensions.org/definitions/
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The Story of a Bubble – and its Aftermath
By definition, a market bubble is not a very obvious affair. If the man on the street begins to see what by all accounts is a bubbly market, he will act rationally, or so the academics believe, and find a safer haven for his savings. Which means that in principle, if markets were truly rational and relied on tried and trusted measures of investment value, then bubbles could never develop.
Yet we find that commentators on Wall Street and on the Nasdaq market, as well as the people who play these markets, can be divided into two distinct camps.
One of the camps, currently having much the smaller population, believes we might be witnessing the market Bubble of The Millenium. To these people it looks like a bubble, smells like a bubble and even tastes like a bubble. Therefore it has to be a market bubble, and sooner or later – so far, mostly later – some piece of economic or financial news or some event will come along to act like the proverbial pin and the bubble will be no more.
It will not deflate slowly, ending with a whimper, but go the way all bubbles depart for bubble heaven – with a bang! (Apologies to TSE). This bubble perceiving camp as a rule refers to the very high PE ratios in historical terms that are reflected by current and recent stock prices as a major reason for their belief that a market bubble really exists.
The other camp have their eyes firmly fixed on recent the past – in particular the history of ever rising earnings reported by US companies, supported by strong and sustained growth in the US GDP. They say, "We are living in Goldilocks land. Its even better than the magic land of OZ. Inflation has gone away for ever and labour is content not to push for higher wages – they don't have to, because they are making a fortune on their investments on Wall Street. Mark our words; today's apparently sky-high PE ratios will tomorrow prove to have been outright bargains."
The question of who is right cannot be resolved by one camp merely repeating, "It is a bubble" to be answered by, "You are only jealous, because you went short of the market and got burnt, while we are coining money!" In this first part of what at the moment seems to a two or three-part series, I will hazard my way onto the field of economics and try to present evidence that could in a later part be used to justify the presence or not of a genuine bubble on Wall Street and, if this happens to be true, enable some exploration of what is likely to happen later.
My approach will be much as in 'A Japanese Tale", published by GOLD-EAGLE under the following link: https://www.gold-eagle.com/asian_corner 99/joubert011899.html
In that analysis I tried a systems method, looking at the situation more as an ex-physicist, to determine what the key forces in the market are likely to be. My objective is to identify any major imbalances that might be developing and, if they happen to get out of control, could later exert a strong influence on market behaviour.
I also do not consider the markets to be adequately – perhaps not even remotely – rational. People are largely driven by emotion and their respective world views determine how they cope with and react to news that are fundamentally positive or negative for the market. Irrespective of their own world view, they have little difficulty in disregarding news that do not conform to what they believe, while supportive news is seen to vindicate and reinforce their viewpoint. And remembered long after any negative news has been disregarded and forgotten.
Driving forces in the economy
It is axiomatic to say that consumer spending lies at the bottom of the economic food-chain. If consumers fail to spend on anything except essentials, then the economy takes a nose dive. If consumers spend freely to acquire luxuries and durable goods in addition to their purchases of essentials, the economy booms.
Japan has first hand experience of this basic law over the past decade. With their banking system in shreds and tatters and savings that have all but literally disappeared from reality, subject to the guarantees of the Japanese Government – which may or may not materialise when push comes to shove – Japanese consumers have pulled in the belt and are spending as little as possible on anything that is not essential.
While various ambitious programs to kick-start the economy have been announced and some already implemented, their effect has been negligible, despite recent excitement that the Japanese economy has bottomed and is ready to start improving. The bottoming part one could begin to believe – after almost 10 years of decreasing spending, the Japanese are now likely to be at the level where any further decrease in consumer spending will mean they have to forego necessities and essentials. That does not, however, mean they are now ready to replace the family car or splurge on the latest model TV or Hi-Fi, or a holiday at a fancy and expensive resort.
When consumers spend, the economy booms; when they effectively restrict spending to the purchase of essentials, the economy bleeds. Very basic. Equally basic is the fact that the amount of money they have available to spend plays a major role in their decision to look for an item that is not an essential. If the consumer has no money for anything except necessities, then it is no good for your sales target to throw the latest model car or the most fancy holiday destination or a faster PC at him via the internet, the glossy magazine or the TV. He might have his tongue hanging out and be drooling at the nice pictures, but his purse will remain shut.
And it does not matter whether the decision not to spend has its origin in a strong drive to save whatever can be found to save, or whether it is forced on the consumer by the fact that he has made commitments that leave him with little left to spend on non-essentials.
Money to spend comes from mainly two sources – income earned as wages or salaries and through making new debt. Income of course is subject to primary deductions, which leaves the wage or salary earner with what the economists call 'disposable income' – whatever remains after primary deductions have been made. It is this amount that has to pay the rent or the mortgage, the installment on the car and/or the furniture and also buy the food. After paying for these essentials, the consumer is free to spend as he/she sees fit on what the heart desires – things that are not intended to fill the stomach or keep the roof from leaking.. Even to save a little if they are so inclined.
Of course, debt increases purchasing power while the amount of debt is growing, but at the same time the need to service that debt later acts as an inhibiting factor on disposable income – the greater the amount of debt and the higher the interest rate, the wider and deeper is the hole it makes in disposable income. This means that an increase in overall debt at first acts as a boost to consumer spending, but once the ceiling is reached where consumers find it difficult to afford any further increase in debt, the cost to service the existing debt reduces the amount of money that can be spent on non-essentials.
Particularly if at this point in the cycle interest rates happen to move higher.
If, after feeling the pinch of too high a level of debt for some time, the consumer decides to repay some of his obligations to reach a more comfortable level, ready cash available for non-essentials is reduced even further. Should this action become widespread, overall spending is bound to decrease, with a cooling effect on the whole economy.
This is all nice basic theory, with a focus on just a few of the factors that determine the degree of economic activity in a country – disposable income, the amount of household debt and interest rates. Yet, from the perspective of the consumer these are the more important factors that affect his decisions to spend or not, either to ask for credit or to go to the bank for another loan or, alternatively, to repay at least part of current loans and reduce outstanding credit.
What does the real world out there tell us is happening with respect to these factors? In the following charts, based on data obtained from the website of the St. Louis Federal Reserve Board at www.stls.frb.org/fred/ total US disposable income was used as the reference against which trends in other variables are measured.
The absolute growth in US total disposable income is what releases the primary driving force of the economy. Increases in this variable enables American consumers to spend more on goods and services, thus adding to the GDP. Any increase in consumer debt, in absolute terms, also adds to the funds available to the consumer and thus further boosts growth in GDP, which helps to increase company earnings and thus also justifies higher than usual PE ratios on Wall Street.
And if part of the new debt is funneled to investments on Wall Street, already high PE ratios advance that little bit more.
However, once consumer debt reaches its maximum affordable level, in comparison to disposable income, it no longer serves as a source of funds to fuel the kind of spending that keeps the economy in overdrive. The effective contribution to GDP growth made by new debt is reduced or falls away completely. When that happens, even without an increase in interest rates, a high level of outstanding debt starts to act as a brake on any consumer spending that might otherwise have been funded by sustained increases in disposable income.
Under those conditions, when the requirements of servicing the debt reaches painful proportions, consumers can be expected to rather use available funds for a reduction in their exposure to debt – the more so if they had already had opportunity to purchase most of the luxuries and non-essentials that had ignited their desires initially.
The validity of these speculations is tested against the data presented in the sections that follow. The results are interesting.
Disposable income and consumer expenditure
The chart below shows the growth in total disposable personal income in the US together with the amount of that income that finds its way into the markets for goods and services as consumer expenditure. The third line on the chart, relative to the scale on the right hand side, is the ratio of consumer expenditure to disposable income.
Figure 1
Data are monthly values from the beginning of 1959, so that the history spans 40 years. During this time the US had its periods of growth and stagflation and, since about 1982, Wall Street enjoyed one of the greatest bull markets ever – a bull market that accelerated since 1993 when the US economy set off on a period of rapid and sustained growth. This extended bull market made up for the 16 years from 1966 to 1982 when the Dow Jones moved essentially sideways just below the level of 1000 points, including the bear market of 1973-74 when the Dow declined by 40%.
Sustained growth in total disposable income and expenditure of course goes hand in hand with an expanding economy as well as a growing working population. While the two main variables present a view of this growth, the graph of their ratio is much more interesting. It tells us how comfortable the population of the US have been at different times with different levels of consumer spending, relative to the amount of money they have in their pockets. The degree to which American consumers are keen to spend, or not, are of course a major determinant of US economic growth.
Observe for example that during the first half of the chart, from 1959 through to 1982, the fraction of disposable income spent on consumer goods and services showed a persistent if volatile decline. Consumers were not spending as much as before from their incomes during this period of rising and high inflation. Then, from 1982 onwards, the ratio starts to increase showing that consumers were more keen to own some of the newfangled goods that started to come on the market.
This was the time when the Dow Jones languished below 1000 points as company performance was nothing to get excited about. The cause-effect relationship may not be the dominant one for the lack of interest in Wall Street over this period, but a reduced propensity to spend surely must have had some effect, even if indirect, on the poor performance of the Dow Jones.
Note also the sideways trend in the US total disposable income from the late 80's to the early 90's. This was when the US experienced a period of recession – of low growth in the GDP and an uncomfortably high rate of unemployment, two factors that have an effect on total disposable income.
The decline in the fraction of income spent on consumer goods over the first half of the chart reached about 89% by the early 80's, where it leveled off until the early 90's. Starting in about 1993, the ratio rockets upward in a sustained rise that has consumers at the moment spending 94% of their incomes on goods and services.
Now 94% may not sound like much of an increase compared to 89%, but the chart shows the increase relative to traditional levels of spending is sustained and quite substantial.
In fact, when people spend 94% of their disposable income on consumer goods and services one could think there is not much left over for other purposes, such as repaying loans or servicing debt. One could even ask the question how households are balancing their books at all if they are on such a major and historical spending spree.
The role of consumer credit in feeding the spending spree
Consumer credit is one of the easiest ways of using debt to fund spending. It is the one avenue open to fund extra spending for people who have insufficient financial standing to request and be granted anything but a minimal loan from a bank and is therefore often and widely used by a significant proportion of the population.
However, this practice also finds favour with middle income households and is not limited to the less affluent part of the population.
As before, the chart shows the rate of growth in disposable income in combination, this time, with the increase in consumer credit. As is to be expected, the amount of relatively short term credit someone can obtain before becoming a risk to the issuer of the credit is quite small compared to the amount of income, but with total consumer credit now over $1,3 trillion, the amount is not to be sneezed at.
Figure 2
Here too the ratio of credit to income tells the more interesting story. Firstly, the relative steep increase in the use of credit, from near 14% of income to at times over 18%, during the early 60's, can perhaps be explained by more widespread use of credit and also the various options for purchasing durable good on time that became very popular then.
Note that whenever credit started to exceed 18% of income, households would apparently feel the stress of servicing what is typically quite expensive short-medium term debt. In response they soon begin to reduce the amount of credit relative to income to a more comfortable level. The spike in the ratio that shows a historically high level of credit in early 1987, may bear no relationship to the run up into the Wall Street crash of October 1987. However, it does point to reduced ability of consumers to spend themselves out of trouble at that time. The reduction in relative credit levels in the years following 1987 may well have played a role in the recession that set in during this period.
This reduction in credit may be a reaction firstly to the pain of having to service a high level of credit, as speculated earlier, but secondly also to increased uncertainty felt in the wake of the events of October 1987.
By 1993 consumers had set off on an explosion in credit, reaching a fraction of income not seen before. Then, suddenly, during the first half of 1997 the relatively steep growth in new credit reached a plateau and settled down to increase from there on at the same rate of increase in disposable income. It would seem that households had found their ceiling of comfort at that level, beyond which the amount of credit relative to income becomes too painful to contemplate.
This increase in the relative credit level coincides with the steep rise in consumer spending, also in relative terms, seen in Figure 1. Households were suddenly inclined to make greater use of consumer credit, almost as if they had other, more urgent destinations or applications for their income. We know that 1993/94 was also the start of the big boom on Wall Street and it does not require much pondering to realise that two things were going on.
Firstly, people were more confident of their improving wealth and thus also more comfortable with a higher level of credit than before. Secondly, they were becoming ever more keen to be fully invested on Wall Street and the use of credit – up to a limit – was probably perceived as one way to free a greater amount of funds for investment.
Yet in Figure 1 we see the proportion of income being spent on consumer items continuing to rise well beyond the time when the expansion of credit had already leveled off, relative to income.
Where is that additional money coming from? Given that disposable income seems stretched to a greater extent than ever before, there must be some other source of funds that now find their way into the shops.
Other forms of debt
For all but the less affluent, bank loans or a mortgage is a cheaper way of obtaining funds than to ask for credit. A bank loan against some collateral, or a real estate loan against a house, are typically much cheaper than credit and has the advantage that a greater amount of money can be obtained on a much longer term arrangement.
In Figure 3 below, the chart of the disposable income is joined by a chart of what may well be the total debt load of the typical household – a bank real estate loan against the house, other bank loans against some other form of collateral and thirdly, consumer credit. We now see that total debt is a significant, even large, proportion of disposable income and this might be the reason why a ceiling on consumer credit is reached rather quickly – it is only a relatively small portion of the total debt of an average household.
Figure 3
It is not clear from the data source whether these three factors indeed account for the total debt load of all households or whether there are categories of debt not included here, for example, mortgages at other places than banks and margin debt at brokers.
However, unless the proportion contributed to household debt by these unaccounted for categories vary greatly over time, they are of little consequence. We are interested in how the ratio of debt to income varies, and not so much the absolute values. This third chart of the ratio of debt to income therefore should be little affected by unaccounted for types of debt provided their contribution to total debt has been quite stable over time.
Note that this chart only covers the period form 1973 onwards.
Debt as a proportion of income rises substantially from 1985. Whereas the chart shows a limit of about 78% prior to 1985, the level soon rose to well over 85% of income. While levels of consumer credit relative to income declined quite rapidly and steeply after 1987, as shown in Figure 2, total debt relative to income declined much less markedly and then bottomed out by the early 90's at an historically high level. Yet this decline, too, even though less marked than that of consumer credit, must have contributed significantly to the slower economic growth of the late 80's and early 90's.
Total debt as fraction of total income increased substantially along with the steep rise in credit as from about 1993 – just when Wall Street also found its second wind in what became a very steep and sustained bull market.
However, distinct from consumer credit, which seems to have found its ceiling quite early on, as seen in Figure 2, total debt just kept on increasing right to the end of the chart (October values). Since consumer credit is included in the total debt used here, this means that loans and real estate loans from banks have continued to increase markedly right through the first half of 1999, after the growth in consumer credit had slowed to merely keep pace with the increase in disposable income.
Conclusions
The first important conclusion is that households seem to go through cycles of increasing amounts of credit and debt, relative to income, until a level is reached where the pain and discomfort of servicing the debt load triggers a reaction that is followed by a substantial period of time during which effort is made to reduce the amount of debt, again relative to household disposable income.
In principle, given the steep rise in disposable income, this objective might even be achieved by merely keeping the level of debt static and thus allowing its proportion of income to decrease over time.
The second observation is perhaps more pertinent to economic activity. Without doing a really detailed analysis, it still seems that the periods when households are reducing their debt are also periods when the economy moves mostly sideways with a low rate of growth. On the other hand, when the proportion of debt increases at its typically quite steep rate, the economy does very well indeed.
The creation of new credit and debt therefore appears to play a significant role in the boom periods of the US economy, while times when households scale down their relative exposure to debt coincide with less robust economic growth or even recessions.
Since 1993 America experienced a sustained rise in debt relative to disposable income and total household debt is now at historical record levels, substantially higher than ever before during the past 40 years or so. This recent increase in debt levels coincide almost exactly with the often referred to "Goldilocks years", that also saw the US economy in a major growth phase.
It was also the period of the Big Bull Market on Wall Street and there can be little or no doubt that the rising levels of debt had at least a small part to play in that development.
Looking back, it all seems so rosy. The question though is how long can the American household continue to increase levels of household debt – something that seems to be a prerequisite for good growth in the economy and perhaps even for the sustained performance of Wall Street. While the answer to that question might be difficult to find in the analyses presented here, it is evident that the end of the line for the debt-funded spending spree cannot be far off. And also the boom period for the NYSE and Nasdaq.
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https://www.gold-eagle.com/article/story-bubble-%E2%80%93-and-its-aftermath
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# Rotation of axes
In mathematics, a rotation of axes in two dimensions is a mapping from an xy-Cartesian coordinate system to an x′y′-Cartesian coordinate system in which the origin is kept fixed and the x′ and y′ axes are obtained by rotating the x and y axes counterclockwise through an angle θ {\displaystyle \theta } . A point P has coordinates (x, y) with respect to the original system and coordinates (x′, y′) with respect to the new system. In the new coordinate system, the point P will appear to have been rotated in the opposite direction, that is, clockwise through the angle θ {\displaystyle \theta } . A rotation of axes in more than two dimensions is defined similarly. A rotation of axes is a linear map and a rigid transformation.
## Motivation
Coordinate systems are essential for studying the equations of curves using the methods of analytic geometry. To use the method of coordinate geometry, the axes are placed at a convenient position with respect to the curve under consideration. For example, to study the equations of ellipses and hyperbolas, the foci are usually located on one of the axes and are situated symmetrically with respect to the origin. If the curve (hyperbola, parabola, ellipse, etc.) is not situated conveniently with respect to the axes, the coordinate system should be changed to place the curve at a convenient and familiar location and orientation. The process of making this change is called a transformation of coordinates.
The solutions to many problems can be simplified by rotating the coordinate axes to obtain new axes through the same origin.
## Derivation
The equations defining the transformation in two dimensions, which rotates the xy axes counterclockwise through an angle θ {\displaystyle \theta } into the x′y′ axes, are derived as follows.
In the xy system, let the point P have polar coordinates ( r , α ) {\displaystyle (r,\alpha )} . Then, in the x′y′ system, P will have polar coordinates ( r , α − θ ) {\displaystyle (r,\alpha -\theta )} .
Using trigonometric functions, we have
and using the standard trigonometric formulae for differences, we have
Substituting equations (1) and (2) into equations (3) and (4), we obtain
Equations (5) and (6) can be represented in matrix form as
which is the standard matrix equation of a rotation of axes in two dimensions.
The inverse transformation is
or
## Examples in two dimensions
### Example 1
Find the coordinates of the point P 1 = ( x , y ) = ( 3 , 1 ) {\displaystyle P_{1}=(x,y)=({\sqrt {3}},1)} after the axes have been rotated through the angle θ 1 = π / 6 {\displaystyle \theta _{1}=\pi /6} , or 30°.
Solution:
The axes have been rotated counterclockwise through an angle of θ 1 = π / 6 {\displaystyle \theta _{1}=\pi /6} and the new coordinates are P 1 = ( x ′ , y ′ ) = ( 2 , 0 ) {\displaystyle P_{1}=(x',y')=(2,0)} . Note that the point appears to have been rotated clockwise through π / 6 {\displaystyle \pi /6} with respect to fixed axes so it now coincides with the (new) x′ axis.
### Example 2
Find the coordinates of the point P 2 = ( x , y ) = ( 7 , 7 ) {\displaystyle P_{2}=(x,y)=(7,7)} after the axes have been rotated clockwise 90°, that is, through the angle θ 2 = − π / 2 {\displaystyle \theta _{2}=-\pi /2} , or −90°.
Solution:
The axes have been rotated through an angle of θ 2 = − π / 2 {\displaystyle \theta _{2}=-\pi /2} , which is in the clockwise direction and the new coordinates are P 2 = ( x ′ , y ′ ) = ( − 7 , 7 ) {\displaystyle P_{2}=(x',y')=(-7,7)} . Again, note that the point appears to have been rotated counterclockwise through π / 2 {\displaystyle \pi /2} with respect to fixed axes.
## Rotation of conic sections
The most general equation of the second degree has the form
Through a change of coordinates (a rotation of axes and a translation of axes), equation (9) can be put into a standard form, which is usually easier to work with. It is always possible to rotate the coordinates at a specific angle so as to eliminate the x′y′ term. Substituting equations (7) and (8) into equation (9), we obtain
where
If θ {\displaystyle \theta } is selected so that cot 2 θ = ( A − C ) / B {\displaystyle \cot 2\theta =(A-C)/B} we will have B ′ = 0 {\displaystyle B'=0} and the x′y′ term in equation (10) will vanish.
When a problem arises with B, D and E all different from zero, they can be eliminated by performing in succession a rotation (eliminating B) and a translation (eliminating the D and E terms).
### Identifying rotated conic sections
A non-degenerate conic section given by equation (9) can be identified by evaluating B 2 − 4 A C {\displaystyle B^{2}-4AC} . The conic section is:
an ellipse or a circle, if B 2 − 4 A C < 0 {\displaystyle B^{2}-4AC<0} ; a parabola, if B 2 − 4 A C = 0 {\displaystyle B^{2}-4AC=0} ; a hyperbola, if B 2 − 4 A C > 0 {\displaystyle B^{2}-4AC>0} .
## Generalization to several dimensions
Suppose a rectangular xyz-coordinate system is rotated around its z axis counterclockwise (looking down the positive z axis) through an angle θ {\displaystyle \theta } , that is, the positive x axis is rotated immediately into the positive y axis. The z coordinate of each point is unchanged and the x and y coordinates transform as above. The old coordinates (x, y, z) of a point Q are related to its new coordinates (x′, y′, z′) by
Generalizing to any finite number of dimensions, a rotation matrix A {\displaystyle A} is an orthogonal matrix that differs from the identity matrix in at most four elements. These four elements are of the form
for some θ {\displaystyle \theta } and some i ≠ j.
## Example in several dimensions
### Example 3
Find the coordinates of the point P 3 = ( w , x , y , z ) = ( 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 ) {\displaystyle P_{3}=(w,x,y,z)=(1,1,1,1)} after the positive w axis has been rotated through the angle θ 3 = π / 12 {\displaystyle \theta _{3}=\pi /12} , or 15°, into the positive z axis.
Solution:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_rotation_method
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What happens to the graph of y = a(x + b)3 + c as a.
a changes while b and c remain fixed?
b. b changes (a and c fixed, a ≠ 0)?
c. c changes (a and b fixed, a ≠ 0)?
The given equation is
Fix b=1, c=1. Graph the given equation by substituting different values for a as shown below:
From the above graph it can be observed that as the values of a increases (keeping the values of b and c fixe...
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https://www.bartleby.com/questions-and-answers/what-happens-to-the-graph-of-y-ax-b3-c-as-a.-a-changes-while-b-and-c-remain-fixed-b.-b-changes-a-and/0a0d07ba-e83e-408c-a773-ce2ca5525980
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Towards Automated Verification of Smart Contract Fairness
Smart contracts are computer programs allowing users to define and execute transactions automatically on top of the blockchain platform. Many of such smart contracts can be viewed as games. A game-like contract accepts inputs from multiple participants, and upon ending, automatically derives an outcome while distributing assets according to some predefined rules. Without clear understanding of the game rules, participants may suffer from fraudulent advertisements and financial losses. In this paper, we present a framework to perform (semi-)automated verification of smart contract fairness, whose results can be used to refute false claims with concrete examples or certify contract implementations with respect to desired fairness properties. We implement FairCon, which is able to check fairness properties including truthfulness, efficiency, optimality, and collusion-freeness for Ethereum smart contracts. We evaluate FairCon on a set of real-world benchmarks and the experiment result indicates that FairCon is effective in detecting property violations and able to prove fairness for common types of contracts.
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https://2020.esec-fse.org/details/fse-2020-papers/166/Towards-Automated-Verification-of-Smart-Contract-Fairness
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Autoverification is a process for automatically verifying test results based on a predetermined set of rules established by the laboratory. Autoverification improves operational efficiency by eliminating the need for a medical laboratory scientist to approve each test result before they are released to the laboratory information system for reporting. Besides more effective use of personnel, autoverification improves turnaround time and reduces reporting errors.
In autoverification, patient results generated by an instrument interfaced to a laboratory information system are compared by computer software against laboratory-defined acceptance parameters. If results fall within these parameters, they are automatically released for reporting with no additional human intervention. Results that fall outside of these defined parameters are reviewed by a medical laboratory scientist prior to reporting.
Software rules for autoverification may reside in either the laboratory information system or in middleware. Several parameters are included in autoverification rules including instrument flags, serum interference indices, delta check, need for manual dilution, analytical measurement range (AMR), reference range, and critical range.
The following criteria must be met before a result is autoverified:
- quality control is acceptable
- Results fall within the specified autoverification range
- Results pass delta check limits
- No instrument flags are present
Common reasons that a result is not autoverified include specimen error (clot, bubble, short sample), need for manual dilution, instrument error, interference index flag, and value outside the AMR.
One issue that complicates chemistry autoverification is the presence of method interferences. The LIS must be able to capture all instrument error flags and use them to prevent autoverification.
College of American Pathologist’s general lab checklist has several questions regarding autoverification. These concern monitoring quality control, suspension of autoverification, rules-based checking, rules validation, and medical director oversight. CAP requires that the medical director sign a policy approving the use of autoverification procedures.
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http://www.clinlabnavigator.com/autoverification.html
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With thousands of procurement processes taking place every month, and hundreds of spending transactions by governments every day, it is effectively impossible to audit every one of them manually for signs of corruption. But with structured open datasets, large-scale analysis can be carried out on a rolling basis
A common approach is ‘Red Flag Analysis’. Here, a set of indicators are designed, that can be assessed either using a single dataset (e.g. procurement data), or a collection of joined-up-datasets (e.g. company registers, asset registers and spending data). Software is created or configured to then read through incoming data, and analyse activities against potential indicators of corruption. When a certain threshold is hit, users of the system will be notified by alerts, or through a dashboard, that there are cases in need for deeper investigation. This red flags approach does not prove corruption is taking place - but they highlight areas which may, statistically, be subject to higher corruption risk. This can help in targeting scarce investigatory and enforcement resources.
The Open Contracting Partnership has been leading work to develop a common framework of red flags, and to assess which fields from the Open Contracting Data Standard (OCDS) are required in order to be able to detect certain corruption risks.
Case study: Open Contracting Red Flags Framework
In “Red Flags for integrity: Giving the green light to open data solutions”, the Open Contracting Partnership have identified a range of metrics that can be calculated from Open Contracting Data Standard (OCDS) data on public procurement processes in order to surface corruption risks. The study identifies “a set of over 150 suspicious behavior indicators, or “red flags” [that] occur at all points along the entire chain of public procurement-from planning to tender to award to the contract, itself, to implementation-and not just during the award phase, which tends to be the main focus in many procurement processes. “By building on standardised open data, tools built around these metrics can be more easily applied to datasets from different countries.
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https://open-data-charter.gitbook.io/open-up-guide-using-open-data-to-combat-corruption/section-3-making-use-of-open-data/detection
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Ocean Systems, Inc. (OSI) is a software development company specializing in Compliance and Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) applications for the financial and banking industry. OSI’s core software products include the FedLink Wire Automation product, the OFAC EDD Server, and the Enhanced Compliance Solution (ECS). Since it was founded in 1991, OSI has played a leadership role in software engagements in compliance solutions related to bank payment systems concerning ACH, Wire Transfers, ATM, and POS.
Operating from its offices in Miami, Florida, OSI is a certified vendor of the Federal Reserve Bank and of MasterCard. Its software products are installed both domestically and internationally in more than 220 installations in the United States, Central and South America, the Caribbean and Europe.
ECS Enhanced Compliance Solution is a comprehensive monitoring system, designed to assist Financial Institutions with the detection and proper documentation of fraudulent behavior and with the compliance of the corresponding sections of the US PATRIOT Act. These include Sections 312, 313, 314 A & B, 319, and 326 (CIP) of the PATRIOT Act. Alerts are generated when abnormal behavior is detected for research, follow-up, and compliance reporting.
ECS offers a unique relationship functionality that monitors activity or patterns of behavior between persons and groups of customers. Signatories, beneficiaries and even non-customers can be related to customer relationships, allowing the system to analyze and track suspicious transactions amongst persons that are not related to the same customer.
The OFAC EDD Server scans lists published by the US Office of Assets Control (OFAC) and other sources. It is designed to scan lists of blocked entities and also to assist banks in the process of Enhanced Due Diligence (EDD) by searching through other databases such as lists of Politically Exposed Persons (PEP). Its Search History functionality is specifically designed to comply with FinCEN requests and subpoenas by scanning client databases and transaction history. Most any type of data can be processed, depending on the options procured and configured.
OSI’s premier wire transfer product, FedLink, is composed of various modules that automate the wire transfer operation. The FedLink core module receives and repairs wire transfers from the Federal Reserve and automatically posts entries to client accounts providing full disclosure on customer statements. The FedLink Anywhere module provides a web based front-end for remote branches and bank customers. Customer requests are authenticated using electronic signatures to eliminate the need for call-back with a fax image option that processes requests via tested faxes. Officers and CSRs may review client requests prior to submitting to the wire room.
Our group shares one common goal: to apply our experience, creativity and use of technology to provide and implement solutions that automate operations within the banking and financial industries. Our solutions are a balance between the need to solve problems in the short term while providing for future growth, an equilibrium between proven systems and new technologies.
Check our location for more details.
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http://oceansys.com/aboutus
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This master project helps to generalize research on face biometrics by increasing the pool of possible face detection and -recognition systems in our Rust implementation. Your task would be to research state-of-the-art systems and implement a subset of those in Rust.
Contact: Philipp Hofer
[FIDO2](https://fidoalliance.org/fido2/, opens an external URL in a new window) is a standard for secure privacy-preserving cryptographic login to websites. FIDO2 tokens (or security keys) can be used as second-factor in addition to password-based login or as a standalone authentication token for [passwordless login](https://www.yubico.com/authentication-standards/fido2/, opens an external URL in a new window). In order for a website to determine if a user's FIDO token is sufficiently trustworthy, tokens implement an [attestation mechanism](https://fidoalliance.org/fido-technotes-the-truth-about-attestation/, opens an external URL in a new window). The goal of this thesis project is to analyze the capabilities (e.g. supported cryptographic algorithms) of current FIDO2 hardware (and software) tokens and to analyze their attestation mechanisms (particularly in terms of certificate chains).
Contact: Michael Roland
Can the Tor client experience be improved by limiting a Tor client to a subset of the available Tor relays? What criteria would be best suited to select a high-performance subset?
The goal of this thesis is to answer these questions by analyzing the performance differences between Tor relays based on grouping them by publicly available attributes. Possible criteria could include (but are not limited to) the flags they have obtained (e.g. only using stable or fast relays for all connections), the port number they accept connections on, their age, their advertised bandwidth, etc.
Contact: Michael Roland
In the CDL Digidow (digidow.eu) sensors can identify participating individuals based on different biometric factors. This master thesis will compare different state-of-the-art vein recognition models and extend our real-life prototype with vein recognition.
Contact: Philipp Hofer
Protecting privacy on smartphones has been recognized as a vital factor because portable devices operate nowadays with more and more sensitive personal data (location/geotags, contacts, call history, text messages, photos, physical health, etc.). The goal of this work is to extend the Android Device Security Database (which is more focused on security, see https://www.android-device-security.org/, opens an external URL in a new window) to privacy attributes and indicators (e.g. privacy policies, user profiling, network traffic analysis, company resolution) for various OEMs/models.
Contact: Jan Horacek
Abstract: Anomaly detection systems (such as ones implemented in EDR or IDS) are very useful tools that help blue teams, e.g., to identify exploitation of zero-day vulnerabilities. They are designed to detect (unusual) malicious activity based on events. The techniques used to find anomalies are very broad - ranging from predefined rules to deep learning methods. Furthermore, the scenarios that are relevant to this topic are quite extensive (LAN security, DDoS, UEBA, DLP, etc.). The thesis should address at least the first three points:
1. Scope: pick a scenario, explain the use cases and create appropriate test data/benchmarks (if they do not exist)
2. Methods: describe detection techniques including the underlying theory that suit the scope defined in 1.
3. Implementation: implement the techniques mentioned in 2. (preferably in python) and compare the performance, discuss the usability
4. Visualization: how to visualize events and anomalies in a system?
5. Research: improve some published results
Contact: Jan Horacek
Abstract: The goal of this project is to create an open source implementation of an Android app to read and verify data from machine readable ID documents via NFC (such as eMRTD/electronic passport).
Contact: Michael Roland
Abstract: The goal of this project is to implement the current standard for mobile driving licenses (ISO/IEC 18013-5) on Android.
Contact: Michael Roland
Abstract: Smart environments are increasing in popularity. In the CDL Digidow (digidow.eu) users can interact with various sensors in the physical world. In order to enhance the sensors ability to rapidly fulfill the users request(s), it could predict the users location and thus infer the most probable action in the future. The goal of this project is to create a prediction about the user location in the immediate future, based on various inputs, such as videos and smartphone sensors (IMU), by e.g. calculating movement vectors.
Contact: Philipp Hofer
Abstract: Mikrotik RouterOS is a Linux kernel based embedded operating system for network routers, switches, access points, etc. While the userspace components are closed source, patches and configuration options for the used Linux kernel are available. The goal of this project is to analyze which security vulnerabilities - especially remotely exploitable ones - are publicly known for the user kernel version and if/how they have been patched. Necessary skills for this project include reading/writing C, reading and applying patches to source code, and compiling and testing native C code.
Contact: Rene Mayrhofer
TIER, Arolla, Wind, Lime, voi. ... after only two month e-scooters are all over Linz. The idea has been picked up pretty well and even the StVO (traffic rules) is going to be updated to bring (legal) clarity for the use of them. Besides all the positive voices, there is also quite some criticism, mainly about cityscape and safety. Above that, pushing to the market in such a short time frame also has the potential that security considerations have been left behind. Therefore, we are interested in various aspects of e-scooter security and have a few topics for master theses/projects to work on.
Contact: Michael Roland
The goal of this project is to passively collect and analyze Wi-Fi (802.11) packets with regard to information that could be used to track or even identify an individual person. In particular, 802.11 management frames, opens an external URL in a new window such as probe requests seem to broadcast usable information.
As a first step, you need to build an environment to passively collect (sniff) Wi-Fi communication and to extract the relevant data (possibly based on existing open source projects). Using that environment, you will collect and analyze data emitted from various mobile devices (particularly different smartphones, typically carried around in everyones pockets). Finally, you should be able to evaluate if that data could be used to track someone's movements around a building.
Contact: Michael Roland
The Institute of Networks and Security has software defined radio hardware that should be suitable to create and inject DVB-T signals into receivers such as Smart TVs. The aim of this thesis is to reproduce and potentially extend the work shown in https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bOJ_8QHX6OA, opens an external URL in a new window on how injected HbbTV URLs are automatically opened/executed on some Smart TVs to allow a remote code execution.
This project aims to investigate the two communication channels (Wi-Fi and a custom RF) of a commercial drone (http://www.dji.com/mavic?from=v3_landing_page, opens an external URL in a new window) and analyze the used communication protocol. Using a software defined network and state-of-the-art reverse engineering tools, your goal is to find potential security weaknesses and make suggestions on how to improve the existing protocols.
Contact: Rene Mayrhofer
Beispiels-Suchaufgaben mit Beobachtung des Benutzers (Eingabe, Mausbewegungen etc.) und adaptiven Reaktionen darauf (Verbesserungsvorschläge, Vorzeigen mit Maus&Eingabe + Audio-Kommentar); Zwei Varianten (ca. 10 Min. für Laien, ca. 90 Minuten für Profis)
Contact: Michael Sonntag
Unter Hype-V kann man den Ressourcenverbrauch einer VM genau messen. Kann man Software so ändern, dass sie regelmäßig Logging an Drittmaschinen ausgibt, wie viel Arbeit sie verrichtet hat? Kann man dies dann mit den Hyper-V-Messungen vergleichen? Kann man daraus feststellen, ob zusätzliche Software (= Malware) in der Maschine läuft bzw die Abrechnung zumindest ungefähr korrekt ist? Implementierung eines Beispiels an einem Webserver (plus Datenbank intern oder separat sowie Zugriff auf externe Webressourcen). Relevant: CPU-Last/Nutzung, Disk-Nutzung, Bandbreite – nicht unbedingt absolut aber z.B. nach einer Kalibrierungsphase.
Contact: Michael Sonntag
Alice&Bob notation has been widely used to describe security protocols. However, protocol verification tools such as ProVerif, Scyther, and Tamarin have their own specification language. We are therefore interested in developing a tool that allows translating an Alice&Bob specification to other languages that can then be used as input to different verification tools. The goal of this particular task is to build a tool that translates an Alice&Bob specification to Scyther specification. As Scyther does not support equational theories that are often used to model for instance Diffie-Hellman exponentiation, not all Alice&Bob specifications are convertible to Scyther's language. Nevertheless, many protocols such as Kerberos and Needham-Schroeder variants are translatable.
Contact: Michael Sonntag
JPLAG: https://jplag.ipd.kit.edu/, opens an external URL in a new window
Ideally in a generic way, so Gnu/Intel syntax is both possible (perhaps even interchangeable!), and also different processor architectures.
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https://www.jku.at/en/institute-of-networks-and-security/teaching/scientific-works/masters-theses/
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The insolvency and bankruptcy process will be driven by a qualified Insolvency Professional who must possess the necessary investigative skills to do justice to the spirit of the code.
The Indian banking system is on the brink of facing a crisis in the form of burgeoning gross non-performing assets (GNPA) which account for ~14 per cent in public sector bank assets, 4 per cent in private sector bank assets along with a staggering 79 per cent year on year growth as of March 2016 (Source: The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code, 2016 – Game Changer, Confederation of Indian Industry, March 2017). The newly introduced Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code, 2016 (“IBC”/“Code”) comes at a time when previous court and debt restructuring processes have had poor outcomes; supported by an alarming fact that in India the average time required to resolve an insolvency case has been around five years, with an average recovery rate of 26 per cent. Contrast this with OECD high income countries, with an average time of 1.7 years and a recovery rate of 73 per cent or with China, which has an average time of 1.7 years and a recovery rate of 36.9 per cent. The Code, therefore, could be a game changer – looking to consolidate the existing framework by creating a single law for insolvency and bankruptcy.
The Code seeks to deal with insolvency and liquidation proceedings in a timebound and efficient manner in order to maximise value of assets, and enhance investor confidence by providing an efficient framework to deal with business failures. Further, the Code also brings about a paradigm shift from “Debtor in Possession” to “Creditors in Control” regime with creditors exercising timely control in the event of a default in the repayment of any debt (including interest). The new Code along with changes in the RBI Act gives lenders the ability to roll out the resolution process without any discrimination or fear of being questioned, which could also change the behaviour of borrowers by severely limiting their ability to withdraw from the resolution process.
Historically, it has been noted that any default by a debtor can occur due to a variety of circumstances such as bad business decisions, poor long term strategy, over-leveraging of the business, economic environment/ circumstances etc., however, one of the most pernicious ways in which a default can occur is when the borrowed funds are fraudulently either misused or diverted. Some innovative fraud schemes to divert/siphon funds that we have seen, have involved repaying loans from connected parties or banks where there are personal guarantees, clearing balances with preferred suppliers, or sorting out directors’ loan accounts, etc.
|S.N||IP/NCLT RESPONSIBILITY UNDER THE CODE||FORENSIC SKILLS REQUIRED|
|1.||Verification of claims (Sections 18, 39)||
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Forensic review of creditors’ claim to identify any potential inflated or fictitious claims including background checks
|2.||
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Monitor the assets of the corporate debtor and manage its operations (Sections 18, 35)
|Forensic review of business transactions during the insolvency phase to ensure objectivity and fairness and identify potential indicators of diversion or siphoning of funds|
|3.||Committee of creditors (Section 18)||Identify potential conflict of interest situations in constitution of CoC with conducting background checks|
|4.||Related parties (Section 21)||Background checks, forensic review of transactions to identify the disclosed/undisclosed related parties|
|5.||Preference transactions (Section 43)||Data analytics, forensic review of transactions to identify potential preferential transactions and quantify the financial impact|
|6.||Undervalued transactions (Section 45)||Forensic review of transactions to identify potential undervalued transactions and quantify the financial impact including independent assessment of comparative prices/value|
|7.||Extortionate credit transactions (Section 50)||Forensic review of banking facilities to identify potential extortionate credit transactions and quantify the financial impact|
|8.||Fraudulent or malicious initiation of proceedings (Section 65)||
• Assistance to National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) to identify indicators of malicious or fraudulent transactions through forensic review of books of accounts to establish potential diversion or siphoning of funds to defraud creditors
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• Assistance in dispute advisory
Under the new Code, the entire insolvency and bankruptcy process will be driven by a qualified Insolvency Professional (IP) i.e. a licensed professional who is appointed by Insolvency Professional Agencies and certified by the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India (IBBI) to act as a Resolution Professional or Liquidator. As a result, an IP has onerous responsibilities and drives/ oversees the entire insolvency and bankruptcy process. This is evident from the fact that the board of directors are suspended during the insolvency process and the IP practically becomes akin to the CEO of the entity for all decision-making purposes. The IBBI has been mindful of the past behaviour of Indian borrowers while drafting responsibilities of an IP under the Code and has specifically included clauses to ensure that the insolvency resolution process is able to protect the interest of the creditors. By including several provisions on potential fraudulent transactions, IPs are expected to unearth such transactions and report them to the adjudicating authority. A snapshot of some of the specific provisions of the Code related to fraud and responsibility of the IP is in the table below.
In order to do justice, with the spirit of the Code, an IP has to be equipped with investigative skills or be supported by forensic accounting experts. Such experts can add tremendous value to the entire insolvency process by ensuring that the involved parties don’t operate in bad faith. Forensic/investigative techniques such as data analytics, computer and mobile analysis, market intelligence, social media filtering can help provide qualitative information to IPs, which could help them proactively identify some of the potential issues/ red flags, thereby protecting the interest of the relevant stakeholders. Be it, by tracing the end use of funds, identifying undisclosed conflicts of interest, inflating financial statements through round tripping, creating preferential interest of the borrower through fraudulent transactions etc., forensic accountants are best placed to help insolvency professionals and other stakeholders, including the NCLT, to build greater confidence in the fairness of the entire process.
While erstwhile laws and processes dealing with insolvency and bankruptcy proceedings may be perceived to be fragmented and therefore perhaps not as successful, however, the IBC is considered to be a milestone in a positive direction. Its success or failure will, however, depend a lot on how effectively the relevant stakeholders (government., banks, NCLT, IPs, etc) implement the law in spirit. In particular, since the IP will steer the entire process of insolvency, they will be instrumental in driving effectiveness of the ultimate objectives of the law. The road ahead for IPs are laden with responsibilities and challenges which demand requisite skill sets including forensic/investigative skills to do justice to the role in entirety. The expectations are high from what is believed to be a step towards ease of doing business in India.
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http://www.cfo-india.in/article/2017/09/29/viewing-insolvency-code-through-forensic-lens
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One of the biggest issues the world faces today is noise pollution. It is a plight that contributes to about a million deaths each year, and affects the lives of an even greater number of people1.
Despite this glaring problem, people continue to mindlessly honk the horns of their vehicles, and yell at increasingly high volumes, furthering the destructive power of noise pollution. On top of that, loud music pervades restaurants and bars2, while hospitals regularly suffer from noise levels above 100dB3, well above the recommended levels of less than 30dB.
So, what should governments do about this?
The truth is, steps have already been taken by governments around the world to control noise pollution.
One example revolves around planning policy and building regulations. In the UK, The National Planning Policy Framework incorporates provisions on noise, demanding that local planning policies should protect against noise giving rise to “significant adverse impacts on health and quality of life,” and recognising that planning policies should adequately identify and protect existing tranquil environments4.
Furthermore, the Building Regulations Approved Document E (Part E) requires all residential buildings (which encompass hotels, hostels, student accommodation, and nursing homes) to ensure a minimum level of sound reduction in specific aspects of a building. These aspects include sound mitigation of 43-45dB for airborne noise in walls, floors, and stairs (depending on building type); and 62-64dB for impact noise in floors and stairs. For reference, 50dB is the sound equivalent of a large office, while 60dB is comparable to a sewing machine.
Limiting excessive noise in public spaces
In addition to noise from internal spaces, a few more requirements are in place to limit noise entering buildings from the external environment. This is crucial in urban areas where residential buildings are frequently subject to a deluge of noise from the surroundings — whether it is traffic roaring through the neighbourhood, or the cacophony of human chatter on the streets.
Other parts of the world have adopted similar approaches to dealing with noise pollution. In the United States, research and noise control programs are conducted in order to tackle the impact and complexities of the noise problem. Furthermore, information and educational materials are distributed to the public regarding the adverse effects of noise on health, along with the benefits of low-noise products and the most effective means for noise control5.
Meanwhile, Guangzhou — the noisiest city in the world6 — also has significant laws and provisions in place to prevent and control noise pollution. These measures include the supervision and management of the prevention and control of environmental noise pollution throughout the country by local authorities.
Other actions outlined in the aforementioned Chinese laws include taking into consideration the impact of noise in construction projects, bestowing an obligation to the public to protect the acoustic environment, encouraging scientific research relating to the prevention and control of environmental noise pollution, and promoting the adoption of technology that can aid in curbing noise pollution7.
> Wanna learn more about noise in public spaces? Check out our article "Rethink noise in public spaces"
There is still room for improvement
Despite these efforts, schools and hospitals tend to be overlooked when it comes to minimising external noise intrusion. Lax regulation in schools result simply in upper limits being set for indoor ambient noise levels, and limits to the noise caused by rain on roofs. In hospitals, acoustic requirements are set for noise intrusion from external sources, yet the noise pollution stems mostly from medical equipment, alarms, phones, the opening and closing of doors, staff activities, and visitors3.
This sees a dire impact on two groups of people who are in desperate need of a more nurturing environment — children, who are in the growing stages of life; and patients, who are undergoing a recovery process in hospitals. More needs to be done to combat noise pollution so that people can enjoy safe and healthy environments.
An effective method of safeguarding buildings from the threat of external noise is to make use of stone wool products. After all, stone wool structure can be engineered to withstand and reduce the detrimental impact of noise on people and buildings. This means that stone wool products form excellent insulation and acoustics tiles, making them effective solutions to mitigating noise pollution in buildings.
At the end of the day, governments need to recognise noise pollution as a serious problem, and implement strict regulations and practices to ensure a quieter, more peaceful environment for everyone to live in.
As governments continue to develop and enforce noise standards and guidelines, we should not forget that we also need to do our part in abiding by these measures to limit noise.
Source(s):
1. World Health Organization, 2011, “Burden of Disease from Environmental Noise: Quantification of Healthy Life Years Lost in Europe”
2. Belluz, Julia, 2018, “Why restaurants became so loud — and how to fight back”
3. King's College London, 2018, “Noise pollution in hospitals – a rising problem”
4. Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government UK, 2019, “National Planning Policy Framework”
5. United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2017.
6. Gray, Alex, 2017, “These are the cities with the worst noise pollution”
7. Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, 1996.
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https://www.rockwoolgroup.com/our-thinking/blog/government-solutions-to-noise-pollution/
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Noise and Health working group
The purpose of the 'Noise and Health in Barcelona' working group is to discuss noise in the city and its direct impact on the health of city residents, as well as contribute to solving the problems detected.
The city’s strategic noise map, now being updated, was drawn up in 2012 and shows that traffic is the main source of noise in the city, although the main source of public complaints is people concentrating in public spaces, which is often linked to evening and night-time leisure activities.
Current studies show that current noise levels have a direct and significant impact on the health of large segments of the population. Action therefore needs to be taken, by noise generators and receivers, to ensure the right to health. The overall perception of noise being a problem in the city is stable, but is very different depending on the neighbourhood. It is perceived as being a much bigger problem in neighbourhoods with lots of night-time leisure activities and that is where the most complaints are received from the public.
This is the context in which Barcelona City Council has set up the 'Noise and Health in Barcelona' working group to discuss noise in the city and its direct impact on the health of city residents, as well as contribute to solving the problems detected. The idea is to outline the situation, share what is being done and decide what more can be done, globally and across the board, by all those involved, in order to adopt measures and take specific action for each activity sector that can reduce noise levels in the city.
The working group first met on 19 December 2017 with Barcelona City Council represented by the Deputy Mayor for Ecology, Urban Planning and Mobility, Janet Sanz, the Commissioner for Ecology, Frederic Ximeno, and the Commissioner for Health, Gemma Tarafa, as well as social players linked to the political, economic and social area, mobility, the academic sector and professional associations, among others.
Sound Pollution Reduction Plan and Noise Map
Barcelona City Council has a Sound Pollution Reduction Plan, and a Noise Map, which follows the EU directive on assessing and managing environmental noise with the aim of outlining a common policy to combat noise. This year the Noise Map is being updated, which it will be every five years as stipulated in the current regulations, along with the new action plan for reducing noise pollution. The last one was drawn up in 2012 and the data obtained includes noise levels in different time bands and by sound source (traffic and leisure), the people exposed to different noise levels, comparative data with previous maps and so on.
The new map and the conclusions reached by the working group will enable the Measures Plan to be updated.
Traffic and night-time leisure are two factors that generate high levels of noise pollution in the city. Apart from the steps to reduce traffic envisaged in the new urban definition of the city, a series of actions are being implemented:
– Noise pollution controls and supervision network: 92 measuring devices placed in different public locations that measure noise levels continuously. These enable us to monitor noise levels in various city leisure areas, carry out mobility studies (vehicles, buses, trains, etc.), update the noise map, monitor implementation of the superblock scheme, evaluate activities that cause conflict and so on.
– Installing noise limiters at concerts in festivals organised by the City Council: at 2,166 concerts between 2015 and 2017.
– Carrying out acoustic characterisation studies in different places to find out the best location and distribution of concert stages, bar terraces and/or the acoustic feasibility of holding these types of activity in such spaces.
– Carrying out sonometric inspection of premises: 350 a year.
– Remote management of limiters installed in different city establishments open to the public, as well as sealing off TVs and Hi-Fi systems. Currently 577 activities are monitored and another 150-200 are added every year.
– Producing reports on acoustic conditioning projects, measures to check event sound levels, etc.: 2,407 reports between 2015 and 2017.
Public complaints are dealt with through the districts and around 1,500 annual inspections are carried out, while events planned for public spaces require the corresponding noise reports.
Apart from all this, the City Council also conducts awareness campaigns among the general public. It promotes the 'Sssplau' or 'Shhhplease' campaign, targeted at the public and schools as well. As an educational programme, it encourages Barcelona school students to be aware of and help to improve sustainable management of their surroundings by identifying problem spaces in schools with high noise indices: dining rooms, playgrounds, multipurpose rooms and gyms, for example, where action is required and measures need to be taken.
Sessions:
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https://ajuntament.barcelona.cat/ecologiaurbana/en/bodies-involved/noise-health-working-group
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Last summer I spent a week in the Faroe Islands, a remote Danish archipelago wedged between Iceland and Norway. Some towns have as little as 14 year-round inhabitants, and mass tourism still hasn’t arrived there. At the end of a day hike, sitting on the edge of a high, craggy cliff with my partner, I watched violent, steel-blue waves strike an emerald shoreline. I marveled at how we had this moment all to ourselves—then I heard it. The grating, mosquito-like hum of a drone.
The world is getting louder, and it’s increasingly harder to escape the noise, even in nature. The cacophony of cars on highways and the sonic boom of air traffic has been joined by drones and ever-multiplying personal devices to create a perpetual blanket of disruptive man-made noise. Silent spas, hushed cafés, and quiet beaches have offered an antidote, but they often come with a steep price tag, making silence the ultimate luxury.
Mounting concerns about noise pollution, including its detrimental impact on human health and wildlife, are now being discussed on par with air and light pollution. “There are very few quiet places left,” says acoustic ecologist Gordon Hempton. “The sound of a jet can travel 20 miles in every direction—that’s an area of a thousand square miles—and more than 80 percent of the United States’ land surface is within a half mile of a road.”
To highlight the urgency of noise pollution and protect the world’s remaining quiet places, Hempton founded Quiet Parks International. The non-profit is committed to the preservation of silence (or at least, the absence of human-caused sound) and aims to establish a network of quiet wilderness and urban parks around the world, as well as quiet hotels. With its set of testing methods and standards, QPI designates certain places around the world as quiet reserves. To qualify as a wilderness quiet park, the area has to have a noise-free interval (the time between man-made noise events) of 15 minutes or longer. The Zabalo River, deep within the lush Amazon jungle in Ecuador, has a healthy balance of bioacoustics activity and an average noise-free interval of several hours. QPI declared it the world’s first designated quiet park in 2019. Their alliance with the Zabalo River’s indigenous Cofan Nation helps them defend their lands as well, by creating ecotourism revenue in the area for people who wish to responsibly experience true quiet.
The impact of noise
The World Health Organization’s latest Environmental Noise Guidelines for Europe analyzed the impact of noise pollution—including the sound of road traffic, aircraft, wind turbines, and leisure noise—on human health and found that long-term exposure increases the risk for cardiovascular disease, tinnitus, and cognitive impairment, and decreases life expectancy. “Research shows that spending time in quiet spaces is good for your cognitive ability and your mood, and it decreases your blood pressure and heart rate,” says Rachel Buxton, a biologist and researcher at Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada.
Hempton has dedicated his life to studying, recording, and protecting silence and natural sounds in ecosystems across the globe. In some of the quietest places in North America, noise levels get down to 20-24 decibels (a jet engine produces 150 decibels at takeoff, for comparison). These places include the Hoh Rain Forest in Washington’s Olympic National Park, where the staccato of rain falls onto the arms of giant spruce trees, the yawning moonscape of Haleakala National Park in Hawaii, or Grasslands National Park in Saskatchewan, Canada, where sound is limited to the whisper of the wind as it carves through golden prairies. But even in some of these spaces, Hempton has seen noise levels increase dramatically over the past decade. “The Hoh Rainforest was the quietest, least noise-polluted place in the entire lower 48 states, but in the last 10 years air traffic has grown by 30 percent,” says Hempton.
Man-made noise has also had a negative impact on wildlife. Hearing natural sounds in the environment can mean life or death for many species. At the very least, if human-caused noise impedes their necessary survival tactics, they will desert their habitat, resulting in biodiversity loss. A study by Boise State University simulated the sound of traffic noise in a wilderness ecosystem and found a significant decline in the area’s bird species, despite an abundance of food, shelter, and other necessities. “Even sounds from people's voices can influence animal behavior,” says Buxton.
Organizations like the Natural Park Service’s Natural Sounds and Night Skies Division and Parks Canada are taking steps to reduce noise in national parks. These measures include limiting drone usage, monitoring mechanical sounds, introducing quieter technologies for park maintenance, and restricting motor traffic and aircraft flying routes. “Quiet is always a priority,” says Laura Colson, a representative from Jasper National Park in Alberta, Canada. “We regulate quiet spaces, set quiet times in campgrounds, and limit generator use.”
How travelers can help
Travelers can also play a role in preserving silence when visiting a quiet place, whether it’s a national park close to home or one of QPI’s upcoming urban quiet parks in Taiwan or Sweden. “Something as simple as appreciating wild areas quietly can have some pretty serious reduction in your own sound output,” says Buxton. A study conducted at Muir Woods National Monument in California showed a substantial drop in sound levels when visitors heeded “quiet zone” signs in the park’s Cathedral Grove. Reducing our contribution to traffic noise in national parks also helps, such as taking a shuttle instead of your own car.
Silence can also have a profound effect on us as human beings. Many of us seek out the outdoors because it’s one of the few places that gets quiet enough to reconnect with ourselves on a deeper level. “There’s a reason that the common denominator between all spiritual and religious practices is silence,” says Hempton.
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https://www.cntraveler.com/story/why-quiet-is-so-important-in-travel
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Well-being has been suggested as another indicator of social development level besides income and economic prosperity. Traveler emotional well-being as a specific domain of subjective well-being has attracted attention across the field of transportation.
Good rest and health have a significant impact on improving travel-related EWB. Good rest requires a good living environment; furthermore, living environment is closely related to the selection of residential land and the planning and design specifications of the residential area. Unfortunately, the “Urban” Residential Area Planning and Design Standards” (GB50180-2018) of China does not have any corresponding clauses on how to reduce the impact of urban road noise on residential areas. Therefore, it is recommended to build green spaces and reduce the impact of urban road noise on residential areas.
In addition, it is more cost-effective to invest in the construction of rest areas on the expressway to increase the travel-related EWB of individuals. Strengthening management to release travelers from experiencing travel fatigue is also an effective strategy to improve travel happiness. At the same time, urban environmental quality has a significant impact on the health of residents. Since the main sources of urban environmental pollution are traffic noise and automobile exhausts, this can be reduced by using electric environmentally protective vehicles and green fuel substitutes. Regular inspection and maintenance of vehicles can directly reduce emissions pollution as well.
What is more, urban transport structure can be optimized with the guidance of comprehensive public transport, which can effectively alleviate the exhaust of urban road vehicles’ pollution. The measures are as follows: improvement of urban public transport infrastructure; renewal and transformation of public transport vehicles; rational planning of urban public transport lines and density; setting bus lanes on roads with certain conditions; and improvement of urban public transport coverage and share rate. Taking a series of traffic-calming measures in streets and residential areas, such as adjustment of road network structure, community entrance design, parking planning, construction of slow traffic facilities, planting arbors, etc., can effectively reduce traffic noise pollution and provide environmental protection for resident′s good rest and health.
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https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/21989
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Noise Pollution in Ottawa: Impacts of LRT Construction on the Golden Triangle Neighbourhood
This project aims to document and discuss our (the project members) shared experience of invasive noise pollution, focusing on the summer months (May-August) of 2016. It was over the course of that summer in Ottawa, Ontario that construction on the city’s new light rail system began to intensify, and its intrusiveness into the lives of the local population grew. The majority of our interaction with this phenomena occurred in relation to the Campus Station construction, on the western edge of the University of Ottawa Campus, next to Nicholas Street. The reason this construction impacted our lives as much as it did was due to the fact that we live in the Golden Triangle neighbourhood, immediately across the Rideau Canal from the construction. As the construction continued into the summer months, during the day as well as late at night, its presence became invasive and adversely affected our health in a variety of ways. This noise pollution due to construction and other urban phenomena directly impacts the physical and mental health of the city’s residents, and needs to be given proper weight and consideration in the planning of future construction and infrastructural expansion projects.
External Link with Fullscreen Option
External Link with Fullscreen Option
As can be seen in the above images and audio files, the impact of the construction noise was significant. It interfered with the sleep and the mental state of the residents of the neighbourhood, adversely impacting their physical and mental health. The major health impacts of prolonged noise pollution in a soundscape can be seen below.
Effects of Noise Pollution on Health
These health effects were heavily researched and discussed by Schafer himself in Tuning of the World, and because of his findings he became an influential figure on promoting healthy soundscapes. The lives of the people subject to these noises are directly impacted, and as such something must be done to regulate and control the severity of damage.
Unfortunately, there will always be a baseline level of noise found within urban environments. The very nature of a city, with dense numbers of people that is constantly growing, necessitating constant construction for repairs and for growth, means that noise will always be present. All we can do is look to reduce the impact that this noise has on the residents of the city. This can done in a number of ways, but some of the most effective involve properly reducing unnecessary noise from construction and cars unless necessary, such as researching for quieter cars and properly considering how noise from roadways carries into residential areas. Additionaly, architecture and urban planning can significantly impact the severity of noise, as the layout of a city can help prevent the noise from reflecting between buildings and echoing, and can change the perceived decibel levels of noise. Which type of noise reduction used will vary from situation to situation, and from city to city as need be, and the chart featured below is just one example of how we can go about assessing what type of soundscape is being dealth with. But what remains most important is that the health effects of noise pollution are properly acknowledged. The health of the residents of a city must be given proper consideration when deciding on locations, durations, and types of construction and noise. These healthier methods of dealing with noise must be adopted moving forward, as there is no visible end to the need for construction in urban areas, so all we can do is work to mitigate its impact on our health to the best of our abilities.
Proposed Method of Analysing Soundscapes
Going forward, it is important that the impact of noise pollution on the local soundscape and on the residents of the area be given proper consideration. Construction projects, infrastructure extensions, and more all need to have the health and wellbeing of the residents included in the process. Through analysing soundscapes, intelligent urban planning, and preventative measures against noise production, we can help improve the health and happiness of the people residing within urban environments.
Authors
- Josh Hill
- Justin Munger
- Dana Wiesbrock
Bibliography
Aspuru, Itziar. 2011. "Understanding Soundscape as a Specific Environmental Experience: Highlighting the Importance of Context Relevance." Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics 14.
Bahali, Sercan, and Nurgun Tamer-Bayazit. 2017. “Soundscape Research on the Gezi Park – Tunel Square Route.” Applied Acoustics 116: 260-270.
Cerwén, Gunnar, Eja Pedersen, Anna María Pálsdóttir, William C. Sullivan, Chun-Yen Chang. 2016. "The Role of Soundscape in Nature-Based Rehabilitation: A Patient Perspective." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 13 (12).
Chan, Amy, and Alistair Noble. 2009. Sounds in Translation: Intersections of Music, Technology and Society. Acton, A.C.T.: ANU E Press.
Dumyahn, Sarah Lynn. 2013. “Theory and Application of Soundscape Conservation and Management: Lessons Learned from the U.S. National Park Service.” PhD diss., Purdue University. ProQuest (AAT 3604813).
Farina, Almo. 2014. Soundscape Ecology: Principles, Patterns, Methods and Applications. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Fong, Jack. 2016. "Making Operative Concepts from Murray Schafer's Soundscapes Typology: A Qualitative and Comparative Analysis of Noise Pollution in Bangkok, Thailand and Los Angeles, California." Urban Studies 53 (1): 173-192.
Grace, Sherrill, and Stefan Haag. 1998. “From Landscape to Soundscape: The Northern Arts of Canada.” Mosaic 31 (2): 101-22.
Iglesias Merchand, Carlos, Luis Diaz-Balteiro, and Mario Soliño. 2014. “Noise Pollution in National Parks: Soundscapes and Economic Valuation.” Landscape and Urban Planning 123: 1-9.
Lin, Hui and Kin-che Lam. 2010. "Soundscape of Urban Open Spaces in Hong Kong." Asian Geographer 27, no.1-2 (2010): 29-42.
Murphy, Edna, and Eoin King. 2014. Environmental Noise Pollution: Noise Mapping, Public Health, and Policy. Burlington: Elsevier.
Noble, Alistair, and Amy Chan. 2009. Sounds in Translation: Intersections of Music, Technology and Society. Canberra, Australia: ANU Press.
Schafer, R. Murray. 1977. The Tuning of the World. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Limited.
Schafer, R. Murray. The Tuning of the World. MS, 1971. The R. Murray Schafer Papers, Library and Archives Canada.
Schulte-Fortkamp, Bridgitte, and Kay Voigt. 2012. “Why Soundscape? The New Approach to “Measure” Quality of Life.” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 131 (4): 3437.
Torigoe, Keiko. 1982. “A Study of the World Soundscape Project.” Master’s thesis, York University. ProQuest (AAT MM96802).
Truax, Barry. 1978. Handbook for Acoustic Ecology. Vancouver: ARC Publications.
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https://biblio.uottawa.ca/omeka2/schafer360/urban-soundscape
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A noise barrier (also called a soundwall, sound berm, sound barrier, or acoustical barrier) is an exterior structure designed to protect sensitive land uses from noise pollution. Noise barriers are the most effective method of mitigating roadway, railway, and industrial noise sources – other than cessation of the source activity or use of source controls.
In the case of surface transportation noise, other methods of reducing the source noise intensity include encouraging the use of hybrid and electric vehicles, improving automobile aerodynamics and tire design, and choosing low-noise paving material. Extensive use of noise barriers began in the United States after noise regulations were introduced in the early 1970s.
Contents
History
Noise barriers have been built in the United States since the mid-20th century, when vehicular traffic burgeoned. In the late 1960s, acoustical science technology emerged to mathematically evaluate the efficacy of a noise barrier design adjacent to a specific roadway. By the 1991s, noise barriers that included use of transparent materials were being designed in Denmark and other western European countries.Below, a researcher collects data to calibrate a roadway noise model for Foothill Expressway.
The best of these early computer models considered the effects of roadway geometry, topography, vehicle volumes, vehicle speeds, truck mix, roadway surface type, and micro-meteorology. Several U.S. research groups developed variations of the computer modeling techniques: Caltrans Headquarters in Sacramento, California; the ESL Inc. group in Palo Alto, California; the Bolt, Beranek and Newman group in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and a research team at the University of Florida. Possibly the earliest published work that scientifically designed a specific noise barrier was the study for the Foothill Expressway in Los Altos, California.
Numerous case studies across the U.S. soon addressed dozens of different existing and planned highways. Most were commissioned by state highway departments and conducted by one of the four research groups mentioned above. The U.S. National Environmental Policy Act effectively mandated the quantitative analysis of noise pollution from every Federal-Aid Highway Act Project in the country, propelling noise barrier model development and application. With passage of the Noise Control Act of 1972, demand for noise barrier design soared from a host of noise regulation spinoff.
By the late 1970s, over a dozen research groups in the U.S. were applying similar computer modeling technology and addressing at least 200 different locations for noise barriers each year. In 1973 Sound Fighter® Systems (SFS), a company based out of Shreveport, LA, started designing, engineering and manufacturing high-performance absorptive sound walls. Sound Fighter® Systems is the oldest established manufacturer of absorptive outdoor noise barriers in America. As of 2006, this technology is considered a standard in the evaluation of noise pollution from highways. The nature and accuracy of the computer models used is nearly identical to the original 1970s versions of the technology.
Theory of design
The acoustical science of noise barrier design is based upon treating a roadway or railway as a line source. The theory is based upon blockage of sound ray travel toward a particular receptor; however, diffraction of sound must be addressed. Sound waves bend (downward) when they pass an edge, such as the apex of a noise barrier. Further complicating matters is the phenomenon of refraction, the bending of sound rays in the presence of an inhomogeneous atmosphere. Wind shear and thermocline produce such inhomogeneities.
The sound sources modeled must include engine noise, tire noise, and aerodynamic noise, all of which vary by vehicle type and speed. The resulting computer model is based upon dozens of physics equations translated into thousands of lines of computer code. Software applications are available which are able to model these situations and assist in the design of such noise barriers.
Some noise barriers consist of a masonry wall or earthwork, or a combination thereof (such as a wall atop an earth berm). Sound abatement walls are commonly constructed using steel, concrete, masonry, wood, plastics, insulating wool, or composites. In the most extreme cases, the entire roadway is surrounded by a noise abatement structure, or dug into a tunnel using the cut-and-cover method. The noise barrier may be constructed on private land, on a public right-of-way, or on other public land. Because sound levels are measured using a logarithmic scale, a reduction of nine decibels is equivalent to elimination of about 80 percent of the unwanted sound.
Noise barriers can be extremely effective tools for noise pollution abatement, but theory calculates that certain locations and topographies are not suitable for use of any reasonable noise barrier. Cost and aesthetics play a role in the final choice of any noise barrier.
Tradeoffs
Disadvantages of noise barriers include:
- Aesthetic impacts for motorists and neighbors, particularly if scenic vistas are blocked.
- Costs of design, construction, and maintenance.
- Necessity to design custom drainage that the barrier may interrupt.
Normally, the benefits of noise reduction far outweigh aesthetic impacts for residents protected from unwanted sound. These benefits include lessened sleep disturbance, improved ability to enjoy outdoor life, reduced speech interference, stress reduction, reduced risk of hearing impairment, and reduction in blood pressure (improved cardiovascular health).
With regard to construction costs, a major factor is the availability of excess soil in the immediate area which could be used for berm construction. If the soil is present, it is often cheaper to construct an earth berm noise barrier than to haul away the excess dirt, provided there is sufficient land area available for berm construction. Generally a four-to-one ratio of berm cross sectional width to height is required. Thus, for example, to build a 6-foot-high (1.8 m) berm, one needs an available width of 24 feet (7.3 m).
Earth berm noise barriers can be constructed solely of excess earth from grading pads for a residential development it will protect. Thus its entire construction cost is negligible; arguably, it may pay into the project, since offhaul of earth may have been needed. A further nuance of this particular project is that the residential side of the berm is over-excavated, which gives more privacy between highway and homes and also enhances noise benefit. Finally, note the aesthetics of the earth berm which blends with scenic elements of the natural hills of Annadel State Park in the background. It may be a surprise to find out this berm is over six feet in height, since the aesthetics of earth mounding reduce the visual impact of the structure, compared to a soundwall.
As a minor embellishment to noise barrier design, one may note the concept of constructing a louver or cap atop the wall that is directed back toward the noise source. This concept follows the theory that such a design should inhibit shadow zone diffraction filling in sound behind the noise barrier. In actual experience the benefits are slight compared to the benefits of a higher barrier and the costly construction techniques necessary to create and maintain such a device. Variation of the louver design can be found in Denmark, where the designs are also intended to minimize reflected sound. Furthermore, some of the Danish soundwalls are made of transparent materials to minimize the visual impact; such material use, however, compromises the efficacy by reducing mass.
See also
References
Categories:
- ^ Benz Kotzen and Colin English (1999) Environmental Noise Barriers: A Guide to Their Acoustic and Visual Design, Published by Taylor & Francis, ISBN 0419231803, 165 pages
- ^ John Shadely, Acoustical analysis of the New Jersey Turnpike widening project between Raritan and East Brunswick, Bolt Beranek and Newman, 1973
- ^ C.M. Hogan and Harry Seidman, Design of Noise Abatement Structures along Foothill Expressway, Los Altos, California, Santa Clara County Department of Public Works, ESL Inc., Sunnyvale, California, October, 1970
- ^ * U.S. National Environmental Policy Act, enacted January 1, 1970
- ^ Public Law No. 92-574, 86 Stat. 1234 (1972)Noise Pollution and Abatement Act of 1972, codification amended at 42 U.S.C. 4901-4918 (1988)
- ^ Sound Fighter® Systems is the oldest established manufacturer of absorptive outdoor noise barriers in America.
- Environmental engineering
- Noise pollution
- Noise reduction
- Road infrastructure
- Acoustics
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Noise is one of the most significant pollutants in modern cities.
Still, this risk is often overlooked despite being linked to an increased risk of premature death.
Noise pollution can cause health problems for humans and wildlife on land and in the sea.
From traffic noise to rock concerts, loud or unavoidable sounds can cause hearing loss, high blood pressure, and stress.
Noise from ships and human activities in the ocean harms whales and dolphins that survive on echolocation.
Cities provide something for everyone: employment and entertainment opportunities, diversity and density, social benefits, and social tensions.
Yet the world’s largest metropolises – from Bangkok to Barcelona, Karachi to Calcutta, and New York to Nairobi – also threaten the environment because of the noise they produce, which makes life difficult for their residents.
In this post, we’ve shared with you a list of the Top 10 Noisiest Cities in the world.
1) Karachi, Pakistan
With a population of 15 million, it’s no wonder this Pakistani city is one of the noisiest cities in the world.
Most of the noise comes from Karachi’s traffic, which regularly produces sound at 90 decibels, well above the healthy range.
The primary noise production sources are traffic, human activities, industrial and construction work, and engineering workshops.
Karachi’s most prominent sources of noise pollution are auto rickshaws, road bikes, and public transport horns.
2) Mumbai, India
India weighs in with another city on our list. It’s the most famous city with a population of nearly 13 million.
Due to heavy traffic and severe overcrowding, this city is considered the noisiest city in the world, with sound levels exceeding 100 decibels.
Motor vehicles are the most common source of noise that affects most people.
Aircraft and industrial machinery are also significant sources, while office machines, sirens, power tools, and other equipment are other noise sources.
Studies show that the city is the noisiest in the world, poses a severe threat to the ears, brain, and heart, and causes many other health issues.
Almost every area in Mumbai has a high sound level.
The administration should have a strong will to implement a strict enforcement mechanism.
3) Shanghai, China
Shanghai’s local environmental protection department receives an average of 100,000 noise pollution complaints yearly, accounting for nearly half of all environmental pollution complaints.
With Shanghai being such a congested city, with a population of 23 million, the authorities undoubtedly face difficulties in successfully implementing noise control measures.
Traffic sound in Shanghai only reaches about 71 decibels, but overall, noise can reach 85 decibels or more.
With a whopping 23 million people in the city and China’s affinity for firecrackers, it’s no wonder noise is such a big problem.
The exact nature of the measures has not yet been announced, but reports suggest they will focus on controlling the use of loudspeakers in parks and residential streets, banning construction work on residential buildings during specified hours, and limiting noise in schools.
The so-called noise from social life (general street noise) is the most unpleasant form of noise and represents about half of the complaints.
This category includes noise from loudspeakers outside shops, pets and barking dogs, public dances, outdoor karaoke and music, teahouses, and sports fans.
4) Kolkata, India
Kolkata is heavily burdened with a factory environment, which is why it is one of the noisiest cities in the world.
Another reason is the extremely loud firecracker celebrations, which can shoot the noise to over 100 decibels.
According to reports by the United Nations, Kolkata’s traffic is the second noisiest in India and the 11th in the world.
Noise is a silent killer which affects a person’s nervous system badly.
Strict measures should be taken immediately to avoid more health issues.
5) Buenos Aires, Argentina
Buenos Aires is on the list primarily because its economy is centered mainly on motor vehicle construction and includes extremely loud metalworking.
Many areas in the city routinely exceed the 85-decibel mark.
As Argentina’s capital, it is one of the main places where noise is being produced.
As the second largest city in South America, Buenos Aires is a center for both agricultural exports and the metalworking industry for the production of motor vehicles.
While they are great for their economy, the increase in construction, cars, and people has given them the gold medal for being the noisiest city in Latin America.
With such a hot climate, many people are forced to leave their windows open, leaving behind little protection from outside sound pollution.
6) New York, USA
A city that has more than eight million inhabitants and more than 50 million tourists a year is also one of the noisiest cities in the world.
While the decibel level in New York is often around 70 decibels, high traffic times with loud cabs, car alarms, construction projects, car alarms, and the like can push the decibel level up to 90 dB and above.
New York City is getting louder and louder over time.
From March 1, 2021, to June 14, 2021, the city recorded 242,141 noise complaints, a 21.5% increase over the previous year.
7) Cairo, Egypt
Cairo is a city that never sleeps, and the noise pollution is so harmful that itis linked to many deaths.
Imagine waking up at 7:30 AM to 90 decibels of sound.
It can cause high blood pressure and other stress-related illnesses.
It can disrupt sleep, which almost always makes people more irritable.
People need a chance to sleep so they can live a healthy life.
In general, the noise is a symptom of an increasingly unmanageable city, crowded far beyond its original capacity.
The main culprit is the two million cars and drivers that clog city roads daily.
8) Delhi, India
Delhi is also one of the noisiest cities in the world.
It is an area where a high population leads to severe noise pollution.
Again, traffic is the big culprit, and the government seems to have few answers for a city that can routinely reach up to 85 decibels.
All the noise can cause significant damage.
First, constant exposure to loud noise, such as regular honking, damages hearing, with children and the elderly particularly vulnerable.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), South Asia already has the highest hearing loss incidence among children and the elderly.
A red light at a traffic intersection is the universal signal for vehicles to stop, but in India, it’s also the signal to start something else, relentless honking.
To deal with this menace and punish impatient drivers, the Mumbai Police has launched a new program, ‘Honk More, Wait for more.’
If impatient drivers honk their horns, they add to the waiting time.
9) Tokyo, Japan
With 35 million inhabitants, the Tokyo metropolitan area is the most populous in the world.
Most of the extreme noise in Tokyo comes from construction work. The decibel level in some areas can reach 90 dB or more.
When the noise level exceeds 55 dB, more than 50% of the population feels uncomfortable.
The standard outdoor noise level in residential areas is 60 dB during the day and 50 dB at night.
In areas where quiet is particularly important, such as near hospitals, it must be 5 dB lowering than above.
Noise regulation can only be addressed through the cooperation of industry and residents under the supervision of the Tokyo Metropolitan Government.
10) Madrid, Spain
Madrid isn’t as giant as some other cities, but it makes up for its loud nightlife, which produces a tremendous amount of loud noise that the crowds don’t seem to feel the need to temper.
It is one of the noisiest cities in the world.
Conclusion
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that noise is the second most significant driver of health problems.
In addition to stress, high noise levels are associated with cognitive impairment, sleep disorders, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and even premature death.
The Autonomous University of Madrid concluded that in people aged 65 or older, one decibel (dB) increase in regular noise exposure could lead to death from conditions such as myocardial infarction, coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or diabetes.
Cities can take practical steps, including installing road or rail noise barriers, managing flights around airports, and reducing noise at the source.
More green spaces in cities also minimize the impact of noise.
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https://soundproofland.com/noisiest-cities/
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Noise pollution, also known as environmental noise or sound pollution, is the propagation of noise with harmful impact on the activity of human or animal life. The source of outdoor noise worldwide is mainly caused by machines, transport and propagation systems. Poor urban planning may give rise to noise pollution, side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can result in noise pollution in the residential areas. Some of the main sources of noise in residential areas include loud music, transportation noise, lawn care maintenance, nearby construction, or young people yelling (sports games). Noise pollution associated with household electricity generators is an emerging environmental degradation in many developing nations. The average noise level of 97. 60 dB obtained exceeded the WHO value of 50 dB allowed for residential areas. Research suggests that noise pollution is the highest in low-income and racial minority neighborhoods. Documented problems associated with urban environment noise go back as far as ancient Rome.
We choose the best for you, photos and description to them!
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http://vimfox.info/1/05672-noise-pollution-poster-for-kids.html
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Multiplication table (natural numbers up to 20) View source. History Talk (3) Share. This multiplication table lists the products of pairs of natural numbers up to 20. Note that the product of zero and any number is zero.
www.intmath.com/numbers/1-integers.php
We can represent the natural numbers on a one-dimensional number line. Here is a graph of the first 4 natural numbers 0, 1, 2, and 3: We put a dot on those numbers that are included. In this case, we have graphed 0, 1, 2, and 3, but we have not included 4 to illustrate the point.
www.rapidtables.com/math/algebra/Ln.html
Natural logarithms (ln) table; Natural logarithm calculator; Definition of natural logarithm. When. e y = x. Then base e logarithm of x is. ln(x) = log e (x) = y . The e constant or Euler's number is: e ≈ 2.71828183. Ln as inverse function of exponential function. The natural logarithm function ln(x) is the inverse function of the exponential ...
byjus.com/maths/number-system
Number system helps to represent numbers in a small symbol set. Computers, in general, use binary numbers 0 and 1 to keep the calculations simple and to keep the amount of necessary circuitry less, which results in the least amount of space, energy consumption and cost.
www.apple.com/mac/numbers/compatibility/functions.html
Returns the least common multiple of the specified numbers. LN. Returns the natural logarithm of a number, the power to which e must be raised to result in the number. LOG. Returns the logarithm of a number using a specified base. LOG10. Returns the base‑10 logarithm of a number. MOD. Returns the remainder from a division. MROUND
bjlkeng.github.io/posts/gamblers-fallacy-and-the-law-of-small-numbers
[The law of small numbers] is an informal fallacy of faulty generalization by reaching an inductive generalization based on insufficient evidence—essentially making a hasty conclusion without considering all of the variables. In statistics, it may involve basing broad conclusions regarding the statistics of a survey from a small sample group ...
miniwebtool.com/sort-numbers
Enter numbers separated by comma, space or line break: If your text contains other extraneous content, you can use our Number Extractor to extract numbers before calculation. Ascending order (from small to large)
www.muscleandstrength.com/articles/strong-strength-standards-raw-natural-lifters
It's safe to say that if you hit these numbers, you're well into Elite territory for a raw, natural lifter. It should also be noted that it is darn near impossible to hit a 2000 raw, natural powerlifting total. Only a small handful of natural lifters have performed this amazing feat. The lifting standards I am about to present are merely ...
www.cdc.gov/smallpox
Thousands of years ago, variola virus (smallpox virus) emerged and began causing illness and deaths in human populations, with smallpox outbreaks occurring from time to time. Thanks to the success of vaccination, the last natural outbreak of smallpox in the United States occurred in 1949.
www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1044171.pdf
Natural Resources Conservation Service Conservation Engineering Division Technical Release 55 June 1986 Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds TR-55 To show bookmarks which navigate through the document. Click the show/hide navigation pane button , and then click the bookmarks tab. It will navigate you to the contents,
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https://www.reference.com/web?q=small%20natural%20numbers&qo=pagination&o=600605&l=dir&sga=1&qsrc=998&page=3
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Description:
The argument draws a conclusion from a sample that is too small, i.e. that is made up of too few cases.
Examples:
"In both of the murder mysteries I have read, the District Attorney was the culprit. All mystery writers like to make lawyers out to be villains."
"We have now had five dates together. It is clear we are well matched. Let's get married." (With apologies to Max Schulman)
Discussion:
The size of the sample needed to draw a valid conclusion depends, in part, upon the size of the class from which the sample is drawn. The larger the size of the population, the larger the size of the necessary sample. However, the needed sample size does not increase at the same rate as the population size, so the proportion of a very large class that must be sampled is much smaller than the proportion of a very small class. For example, political opinion polls can be very accurate (over a population of over 300 million citizens of the United States) with a sample size of less than a thousand respondants. That is a tiny proportion of the population: less than .00001%. But at the other end--very small populations--it takes a huge proportion of the population to make up a statistically significant sample. A small population of 10 would require a sample of 7 to be statistically significant! That's 70% of the population.
What that means, is that there is no (reasonably diverse) population so small that a sample of one or two could be considered sufficient. Hence, any inductive argument using a sample of one (or two) instances commits the fallacy of Hasty Generalization, regardless of the size of the population to which the generalization is made.
Source: I first became aware of this fallacy from W. Ward Fearnside and William B. Holther, Fallacy: the Counterfeit of Argument (1959). This is surely not the earliest source for this fallacy.
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https://www2.palomar.edu/users/bthompson/Hasty%20Generalization.html
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Flashcards in Chapter 4-Logic, Ethics, and Decision-Making Deck (38)
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1
The ability to reason or present a strong argument in favor of or against a position.
Logic
2
When a person is faced with making a decision, it is essential to apply logic in the form of _____ to arrive at a decision.
reasoning
3
_______ is the process that arrives at a general conclusion based on a foundation of specific examples or data.
Inductive reasoning
4
_______ is the process that is based on the relationship between two or more events in such a way that it is obvious one caused the other to occur.
Causal reasoning
5
________ is the process of reaching a specific conclusion based on a general statement or principle.
Deductive reasoning
6
_________ is based on a comparison between two similar cases.
Analogical reasoning
7
________ is essential to the inductive reasoning approach to decision-making.
Documentation
8
Deductive reasoning is usually developed in the form of a?
Syllogism
9
The key to effective causal arguments.
Is to establish a factual, direct link between the cause and the effect.
10
Analogical reasoning is usually found in the ______ type of speech.
persuasive
11
A fallacy is:
false or fallacious reasoning without sufficient supporting evidence.
12
What type of fallacy makes a faulty connection between the cause and the effect?
Causal
13
A proponent of a new library says that "There are those who don't care if children read." This is an example of which type of fallacy?
Straw man
14
Which type of fallacy makes an argument or conclusion that is based on a insufficient or non-existent evidence?
Hasty Generalization
15
The statement, "Everyone is going, so you should let me ho too," is an example of which type of fallacy?
Bandwagon
16
The term ethics means?
The principle that is used to determine correct and proper behavior.
17
Where ethical conduct is concerned, company officers must remember that:
society expects higher level of ethical conduct from members of the fire and emergency services.
18
Ethics and ethical behavior are _____ traits.
learned
19
______ is the primary source of ethics and ethical behavior.
Family
20
Creating an ethical culture requires the creation of an ethics program that includes:
a written code of ethics or ethics policy
21
When dealing with an ethical dilemma, a company officer must first:
recognize and define the situation.
22
The responsibility for the development of an ethical culture within the organization belongs to:
everyone in the organization
23
In order to apply the decision-making process, a company officer must gauge the ______ of the unit.
morale
24
Decisions are usually:
generic or exceptional
25
______ decisions will have both risk and uncertainty
Exceptional
26
The _____ decision-making model is usually applied to decisions that have the potential for high risk or uncertain outcomes.
rational
27
The first step in the decision making process?
classify the problem
28
After the problem has been classified and defined?
Various responses must be determined.
29
The best response to a decision?
Fully and completely corrects the problem
30
After determine the best responses, the decision should be?
Acted upon.
31
Making decisions can be difficult because of?
Personal barriers
32
Fear is a _____ barrier.
psychological
33
The barrier of ego or self-esteem can be controlled through?
seeking professional counseling
34
Why members of a group may go along with a decision even when they believe it to be a bad one.
The Abilene Paradox
35
Why does the Abilene Paradox exist?
Members fear their opinion is flawed
36
Symptoms of the Abilene Paradox include? (3)
-Group members become frustrated by poor decisions
-Group members agree in private, but fail to communicate
-Group members fail to communicate and make counterproductive decisions
37
The Abilene Paradox can be overcome by?
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https://www.brainscape.com/flashcards/chapter-4-logic-ethics-and-decision-maki-4632641/packs/6842907
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Writing is about more than slapping words onto a page or screen. It’s about creating logically connected content that’s not victimized by logic errors.
One logic error that can befall text is overgeneralization, the expansion of too few instances to many in a manner difficult to justify. For example: If, after eating a Red Delicious apple for the first time, someone said, “All apples are red,” he would be making an overgeneralization. The statement was made based on insufficient evidence to support it. In contrast, if a high school baseball player who hit below .200 for three straight years says that “I’m not a very good hitter,” he is not making an overgeneralization. He’s reached a conclusion based on sufficient, factual evidence. He’s made a generalization.
Here’s another example of an overgeneralization. This season, the Mets have won only four of their first eleven games. If, based on that, someone states that in 2011 the Mets will lose more games than they’ll win, he’s making an generalization. The evidence is insufficient to support that claim.
A key factor in determining whether a statement is a generalization or an overgeneralization is the validity and sufficiency of the supporting evidence.
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https://batsandstats.com/2011/04/13/one-logic-error-in-writing/
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The main difference between inductive and deductive reasoning is that inductive reasoning aims at developing a theory while deductive reasoning aims at testing an existing theory.
How do you know if its deductive or inductive?
If the arguer believes that the truth of the premises definitely establishes the truth of the conclusion, then the argument is deductive. If the arguer believes that the truth of the premises provides only good reasons to believe the conclusion is probably true, then the argument is inductive.
How do you know if a statement is inductive?
If there is a general statement in the premises, the argument will always be inductive. If the conclusion of an argument is a generalization (all) from evidence in the premises (some), the argument will be inductive.
What is an example of inductive and deductive reasoning?
Inductive Reasoning: Most of our snowstorms come from the north. It’s starting to snow. This snowstorm must be coming from the north. Deductive Reasoning: All of our snowstorms come from the north.
What are the 5 differences between deductive and inductive methods of reasoning?
Deductive reasoning moves from generalized statement to a valid conclusion, whereas Inductive reasoning moves from specific observation to a generalization.
Difference between Inductive and Deductive reasoning.
|Basis for comparison||Deductive Reasoning||Inductive Reasoning|
|Starts from||Deductive reasoning starts from Premises.||Inductive reasoning starts from the Conclusion.|
What are examples of inductive reasoning?
Inductive reasoning examples
Here are some examples of inductive reasoning: Data: I see fireflies in my backyard every summer. Hypothesis: This summer, I will probably see fireflies in my backyard. Data: Every dog I meet is friendly.
What makes an argument inductive?
An inductive argument is the use of collected instances of evidence of something specific to support a general conclusion. Inductive reasoning is used to show the likelihood that an argument will prove true in the future.
What are some examples of deductive reasoning?
With this type of reasoning, if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true. Logically Sound Deductive Reasoning Examples: All dogs have ears; golden retrievers are dogs, therefore they have ears. All racing cars must go over 80MPH; the Dodge Charger is a racing car, therefore it can go over 80MPH.
What is the difference between induction and deduction?
Deductive reasoning, or deduction, is making an inference based on widely accepted facts or premises. If a beverage is defined as “drinkable through a straw,” one could use deduction to determine soup to be a beverage. Inductive reasoning, or induction, is making an inference based on an observation, often of a sample.
What makes an argument deductive?
A deductive argument is the presentation of statements that are assumed or known to be true as premises for a conclusion that necessarily follows from those statements. Deductive reasoning relies on what is assumed to be known to infer truths about similarly related conclusions.
What are the 2 types of inductive arguments?
Inductive generalization: You use observations about a sample to come to a conclusion about the population it came from. Statistical generalization: You use specific numbers about samples to make statements about populations.
What are the 4 types of reasoning?
Four types of reasoning will be our focus here: deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, abductive reasoning and reasoning by analogy.
What is another word for inductive?
In this page you can discover 23 synonyms, antonyms, idiomatic expressions, and related words for inductive, like: inductive, empiricism, analytic, introductory, preparatory, prolegomenous, start, inducive, deductive, preparative and baconian.
What is an inductive form?
Inductive Argument Forms (arguments whose premises are intended to offer compelling evidence, but not conclusive proof, for their conclusion) 1. Categorical Induction (or simply, a generalization) Form: All (Most, Some, Few, None) of the sample of a group is/has/does X.
What is inductive in research?
Inductive research “involves the search for pattern from observation and the development of explanations – theories – for those patterns through series of hypotheses”.
What is a deductive thinker?
Deductive reasoning is a type of logical thinking that starts with a general idea and reaches a specific conclusion. It’s sometimes is referred to as top-down thinking or moving from the general to the specific.
Does Sherlock Holmes use inductive reasoning?
While Sherlock Holmes does use other types of reasoning, he mostly uses inductive reasoning in which he can observe a crime scene or other scenario, then use his observations to come to a likely conclusion about events that have not been observed.
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https://goodmancoaching.nl/is-this-inductive-or-deductive/
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A general manager is a wide-ranging term that refers to anyone who has overall responsibility for the running of a business (or an autonomous division of a larger business). General managers tend to have a relatively wide experience and a broad knowledge of the business. This career tends to have salaries in the range £25-80k (based on research in the UK). Typically, therefore, it has a high earnings potential.
When people in the job described what they liked about it, the common themes that emerged were: variety, outdoor activities, new directions, internet development & marketing, limited supervision, making a difference, driving/managing change, being challenged, good team members, developing people, customer service, fast-pace of job.
When people described what they disliked about the job, the themes were: stress, workload, insufficient resources, tight finances, long hours, can be repetitive, limited salary, unmotivated people, team conflict, taking disciplinary action.
When we asked people in each career to rate their job for enjoyment, on a scale between 1 (low) and 6 (high), the average rating for all jobs was just over 3.5. The average score for this career - general manager - was 4, making it slightly more enjoyable than the average job. This is only one part of what makes a job enjoyable. You can find out how well your unique personality fits the job by completing our personality questionnaire.
Lighter/redder segments show the types of behaviour you will need to use more of, i.e.: strategic thinking; thinking about what motivates people.
Any dark segments would indicate styles where there is less demand than normal. However, there aren't any - which suggests that you have to be able to use all the styles (at different times).
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http://www.teamtechnology.co.uk/career/enjoyment/general+manager/
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Audit sampling involves the application of substantive or compliance procedures to less than 100% of items within an account balance or class of transactions to be enable the auditor obtain and evaluate some characteristics of the balance and form a conclusion concerning that characteristic.
This refers to the entire set of data from which a sample is selected and about which the auditor wishes to draw conclusions. E.g. all items in an account balance or class of transactions constitute a population. The individual items that make up the population are known as sampling units.
This arises from the possibility that the auditor’s conclusion based on the tests performed on the selected sample may be different from the conclusion reached if the entire population was subjected to the same procedure.
Arises from factors that cause the auditor to reach an erroneous conclusion for any reason not related to the size of the sample e.g. use of inappropriate audit procedures leading to failure to identify an error.
Refers to the maximum error in the population that the auditor is willing to accept and still conclude that the results from the sample have achieved the audit objective. Tolerable error is considered during the planning stage and is related to the auditor’s judgment on materiality. The smaller the tolerable error the larger the sample size.
Refers to the degree of confidence that the auditor requires that the results of the sample are indicative of the actual error in the population.
This is the process of dividing the population into sub-populations so that items within each sub population are expected to have similar characteristics in certain aspects e.g. same monetary value.
a. Economic - The cost in terms of expensive audit resources would be prohibitive.
b. Time - The complete check would take too long such that financial accounts would be of no use by the time the audit is completed.
c. Practical - Users of accounts do not expect or require 100% accuracy. Materiality is important in auditing as well as in accounting.
d. Psychological - A complete check would so bore the audit staff and their work would end up being ineffective.
e. Fruitfulness: A complete check would not add much to the worth of figures if, as would be normal, a few errors are discovered. The emphasis of audits should be on completeness of record and their true and fair view.
The objective of auditing sampling is to enable the auditor carry out procedures designed to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to determine with reasonable confidence whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement.
ed. This is because detailed testing is carried out on the sample units.use of sampling enables the auditor to give more precise information to the client in the management letter.
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https://www.businesswritingservices.org/auditingwritingservices/685-audit-sampling
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Deductive inference — A deductive inference is a conclusion drawn from premises in which there are rational grounds to believe that the premises necessitate the conclusion. That is, it would be impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false. Deductive reasoning — Deductive reasoning is a process when new information is derived from a set of premises via a chain of deductive inferences.
- Deductive Reasoning Examples
- Geometry: Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
- Students’ understanding of the structure of deductive proof
During the scientific process, deductive reasoning is used to reach a logical true conclusion. Another type of reasoning, inductive, is also used. Often, people confuse deductive reasoning with inductive reasoning, and vice versa.
Deductive reasoning , also deductive logic , is the process of reasoning from one or more statements premises to reach a logical conclusion. Deductive reasoning goes in the same direction as that of the conditionals, and links premises with conclusions. If all premises are true, the terms are clear , and the rules of deductive logic are followed, then the conclusion reached is necessarily true. Deductive reasoning "top-down logic" contrasts with inductive reasoning "bottom-up logic" : in deductive reasoning, a conclusion is reached reductively by applying general rules which hold over the entirety of a closed domain of discourse , narrowing the range under consideration until only the conclusion s remains. In deductive reasoning there is no epistemic uncertainty.
Deductive Reasoning Examples
While proof is central to mathematics, difficulties in the teaching and learning of proof are well-recognised internationally. Within the research literature, a number of theoretical frameworks relating to the teaching of different aspects of proof and proving are evident. In our work, we are focusing on secondary school students learning the structure of deductive proofs and, in this paper, we propose a theoretical framework based on this aspect of proof education. In this paper, we apply the framework to data from our classroom research in which secondary school students aged 14 tackled a series of lessons that provided an introduction to proof problems involving congruent triangles. Using data from the transcribed lessons, we focus in particular on students who displayed the tendency to accept a proof that contained logical circularity. From the perspective of our framework, we illustrate what we argue are two independent aspects of Relational understanding of the Partial-structural level, those of universal instantiation and hypothetical syllogism, and contend that accepting logical circularity can be an indicator of lack of understanding of syllogism.
Some would argue deductive reasoning is an important life skill. It allows you to take information from two or more statements and draw a logically sound conclusion. Deductive reasoning moves from generalities to specific conclusions. Perhaps the biggest stipulation is that the statements upon which the conclusion is drawn need to be true. If they're accurate, then the conclusion stands to be sound and accurate.
Inductive reasoning is a method of reasoning in which the premises are viewed as supplying some evidence, but not full assurance, of the truth of the conclusion. Inductive reasoning is distinct from deductive reasoning. While, if the premises are correct, the conclusion of a deductive argument is certain , the truth of the conclusion of an inductive argument is probable , based upon the evidence given. The three principal types of inductive reasoning are generalization , analogy , and causal inference. Each of these, while similar, has a different form. A generalization more accurately, an inductive generalization proceeds from a premise about a sample to a conclusion about the population.
Geometry: Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Published on April 18, by Raimo Streefkerk. Revised on November 11, The main difference between inductive and deductive reasoning is that inductive reasoning aims at developing a theory while deductive reasoning aims at testing an existing theory. Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broad generalizations, and deductive reasoning the other way around. Table of contents Inductive research approach Deductive research approach Combining inductive and deductive research. When there is little to no existing literature on a topic, it is common to perform inductive research because there is no theory to test.
In this chapter we try to give a better answer to the objection by examining ways that induction could play a role in mathematics. Deduction, in contrast, is a kind of "top-down" reasoning in He began with hypotheses, designed experiments and tried to find conclusive answers to add Generally speaking, inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning are a circular process and. The deductive approach involves beginning with a theory, developing hypotheses from that theory, and then collecting and analyzing data to test those hypotheses. This article lists three solution for users to delete pictures from Sony phone. You can post a link to this review game using the orange game information button below. Quantitative research is a crucial part of academic study and a fundamental scholarly research methodology. When selecting a problem-solving skill.
Students’ understanding of the structure of deductive proof
In problem solving, we organize information, analyze it, compare it to previous problems and come to some method for solving it. Deductive reasoning is the process of applying a general rule or idea to a specific case. This equation is a quadratic equation highest degree is 2, a squared variable. We know that all quadratic equations can be solved using the quadratic formula general rule.
Он долго смотрел ей вслед. И снова покачал головой, когда она скрылась из виду. Дойдя до конца туннеля, Сьюзан уткнулась в круглую сейфовую дверь с надписью СЕКРЕТНО - огромными буквами. Вздохнув, она просунула руку в углубление с цифровым замком и ввела свой личный код из пяти цифр.
Она взглянула на работающий монитор. Он по-прежнему показывал время, превышающее пятнадцать часов. Даже если файл Танкадо будет прочитан прямо сейчас, это все равно будет означать, что АНБ идет ко дну. С такими темпами шифровалка сумеет вскрывать не больше двух шифров в сутки. В то время как даже при нынешнем рекорде - сто пятьдесят вскрытых шифров в день - они не успевают расшифровывать всю перехватываемую информацию.
Мидж. - Он постарался ее успокоить, входя вслед за ней в комнату заседаний к закрытому жалюзи окну. - Пусть директор разбирается. Она посмотрела ему в. - Ты представляешь, что произойдет, если выйдет из строя система охлаждения ТРАНСТЕКСТА.
- Меган. Беккер подошел и громко постучал в дверцу. Тишина. Он тихонько толкнул дверь, и та отворилась.
И ради этого стоило убивать. Когда Беккер наконец вышел из Гиральды в Апельсиновый сад, утреннее солнце уже нещадно пекло. Боль в боку немного утихла, да и глаза как будто обрели прежнюю зоркость. Он немного постоял, наслаждаясь ярким солнцем и тонким ароматом цветущих апельсиновых деревьев, а потом медленно зашагал к выходу на площадь. В этот момент рядом резко притормозил мини-автобус.
Девушка высвободилась из его рук, и тут он снова увидел ее локоть. Она проследила за его взглядом, прикованным к синеватой сыпи. - Ужас, правда.
Чатрукьян это чувствовал. У него не было сомнений относительно того, что произошло: Стратмор совершил ошибку, обойдя фильтры, и теперь пытался скрыть этот факт глупой версией о диагностике.
ГЛАВА 68 - Ну видишь, это совсем не трудно, - презрительно сказала Мидж, когда Бринкерхофф с видом побитой собаки протянул ей ключ от кабинета Фонтейна. - Я все сотру перед уходом, - пообещала. - Если только вы с женой не захотите сохранить этот фильм для своей частной коллекции. - Делай свою распечатку и выметайся! - зарычал. - Si, senor, - засмеявшись, ответила Мидж с подчеркнутым пуэрто-риканским акцентом и, подмигнув Бринкерхоффу, направилась к двойной двери директорского кабинета.
Это все равно что изучать иностранный язык. Сначала текст воспринимается как полная бессмыслица, но по мере постижения законов построения его структуры начинает появляться смысл. Беккер понимающе кивнул, но ему хотелось знать. Используя вместо классной доски салфетки ресторана Мерлутти или концертные программы, Сьюзан дала этому популярному и очень привлекательному преподавателю первые уроки криптографии.
Немного рано для алкогольных напитков, подумал Беккер, наклоняясь. Когда серебряный кубок оказался на уровне его глаз, возникло какое-то движение, и в полированной поверхности смутно отразилась приближающаяся фигура. Беккер заметил металлический блеск в тот самый миг, когда убийца поднимал пистолет, и, как спринтер, срывающийся с места при звуке стартового выстрела, рванулся. Насмерть перепуганный священник упал, чаша взлетела вверх, и красное вино разлилось по белому мрамору пола.
Советую исчезнуть, пока он тебя не засек.
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