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Hertz | Hertz | The hertz (symbol: Hz) is the derived unit of frequency in the International System of Units (SI) and is defined as one cycle per second. It is named after Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, the first person to provide conclusive proof of the existence of electromagnetic waves. Hertz are commonly expressed in multiples: kilohertz (10 Hz, kHz), megahertz (10 Hz, MHz), gigahertz (10 Hz, GHz), terahertz (10 Hz, THz), petahertz (10 Hz, PHz), exahertz (10 Hz, EHz), and zettahertz (10 Hz, ZHz). | Le hertz (symbole : Hz) est l’unité dérivée de fréquence du Système international (SI). Un hertz est la mesure de la fréquence de répétition d'un événement qui se répète une fois par seconde (s ou ). | [
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Harry S. Truman | Harry S. Truman | Harry S. Truman (May 8, 1884 – December 26, 1972) was the 33rd president of the United States from 1945 to 1953, succeeding upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt after serving as vice president. He implemented the Marshall Plan to rebuild the economy of Western Europe, and established the Truman Doctrine and NATO. | Harry S. Truman, né le à Lamar (Missouri) et mort le à Kansas City (Missouri), est un homme d'État américain, président des États-Unis en fonction de 1945 à 1953. | [
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Civil disobedience | Désobéissance civile | Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal of a citizen to obey certain laws, demands, orders or commands of a government. By some definitions, civil disobedience has to be nonviolent to be called 'civil'. Hence, civil disobedience is sometimes equated with peaceful protests or nonviolent resistance. | La désobéissance civile est le refus assumé et public de se soumettre à une loi, un règlement, une organisation ou un pouvoir jugé inique par ceux qui le contestent, tout en faisant de ce refus une arme de combat pacifique. Le terme fut créé par l'américain Henry David Thoreau dans son essai "La Désobéissance civile", publié en 1849, à la suite de son refus de payer une taxe destinée à financer la guerre contre le Mexique. Si la désobéissance civile est une forme de révolte ou de résistance, elle se distingue pourtant de la révolte au sens classique. La révolte classique oppose la violence à la violence. La désobéissance civile est plus subtile refuse d'être complice d'un pouvoir jugé illégitime et de nourrir ce pouvoir par sa propre coopération. Le principe même du pouvoir politique pourrait rendre possible l'efficacité de cette action. | [
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Writer | Écrivain | A writer is a person who uses written words in different styles and techniques to communicate ideas. Writers produce different forms of literary art and creative writing such as novels, short stories, books, poetry, plays, screenplays, teleplays, songs, and essays as well as other reports and news articles that may be of interest to the public. Writers' texts are published across a range of media. Skilled writers who are able to use language to express ideas well, often contribute significantly to the cultural content of a society. | Un écrivain est une personne qui est habile dans l'art d'écrire ou, dans une acception plus restreinte du terme, une personne qui rédige des ouvrages littéraires. Dans ce dernier cas, cet individu peut aussi être désigné par l'expression « homme de lettres » ou « femme de lettres ». | [
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Distance measuring equipment | Distance measuring equipment | Distance measuring equipment (DME) is a radio navigation technology that measures the slant range (distance) between an aircraft and a ground station by timing the propagation delay of radio signals in the frequency band between 960 and 1215 megahertz (MHz). Line-of-visibility between the aircraft and ground station is required. An interrogator (airborne) initiates an exchange by transmitting a pulse pair, on an assigned 'channel', to the transponder ground station. The channel assignment specifies the carrier frequency and the spacing between the pulses. After a known delay, the transponder replies by transmitting a pulse pair on a frequency that is offset from the interrogation frequency by 63 MHz and having specified separation. | Un distance measuring equipment ou DME (en français, dispositif de mesure de distance) est un radio-transpondeur qui permet de connaître la distance qui sépare un avion d'une station au sol en mesurant le temps que met une impulsion radioélectrique UHF (Ultra Haute Fréquence) pour faire un aller-retour. Le DME fut inventé par le britannique Edward George "Taffy" Bowen et V.D. Burgmann. Le DME est fonctionnellement identique au composant distance du TACAN. | [
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Nuevo León | Nuevo León | Nuevo León (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Nuevo León (), is one of the 32 states which comprise the Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 51 municipalities and its capital city is Monterrey. | Le Nuevo León (« Nouveau León », en français) est un État du nord-est du Mexique, bordé au nord par le Texas, à l'ouest par le Coahuila, à l'est par l'État de Tamaulipas et au sud par l'État de Zacatecas et l'État de San Luis Potosí. La capitale est Monterrey et sa devise est "Semper Ascendens" (latin pour « Toujours montant »). | [
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Robert Escarpit | Robert Escarpit | Robert Escarpit, born on 24 April 1918 in Saint-Macaire (Gironde, France) - 19 November 2000 in Langon (Gironde), was a French academic, writer and journalist. He is most known to the public for his satiric articles in newspapers such as "Le Monde" in which he wrote around twenty columns per month from 1949 to 1979. | Robert Escarpit, né le à Saint-Macaire en Gironde et mort le à Langon dans le même département, était un universitaire, écrivain et journaliste français. Il est connu du grand public en tant que billettiste du journal "Le Monde" pour lequel il écrit de 1949 à 1979 à raison d'une vingtaine de billets par mois. | [
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Henry David Thoreau | Henry David Thoreau | Henry David Thoreau (see name pronunciation; July 12, 1817 – May 6, 1862) was an American essayist, poet, and philosopher. A leading transcendentalist, he is best known for his book "Walden", a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay "Civil Disobedience" (originally published as "Resistance to Civil Government"), an argument for disobedience to an unjust state. | Henry David Thoreau (de son vrai nom David Henry Thoreau) est un philosophe, naturaliste et poète américain, né le à Concord (Massachusetts), où il est mort le. | [
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Limburg (Netherlands) | Province de Limbourg (Pays-Bas) | Limburg (, ; Dutch and Limburgish: "(Nederlands-)Limburg") is the southernmost of the 12 provinces of the Netherlands. The province is in the southeastern part of the country, stretched out from the north, where it touches the province of Gelderland. Its northern part has the province of North Brabant to its west. Its long eastern boundary is the international border with the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia. Much of the west border runs along the River Maas, bordering the Flemish province which is also named Limburg. On the south end it borders the Walloon province of Liège. The Vaalserberg is on the extreme south-eastern point, marking the tripoint of the Netherlands, Germany and Belgium. | Le Limbourg () est l'une des douze provinces des Pays-Bas. Il se trouve dans le Sud-Est du pays et compte une population de au. La capitale du Limbourg est Maastricht. Les principales villes incluent Heerlen, Maastricht, Ruremonde (Roermond), Sittard-Geleen, Vaals, Fauquemont-sur-Gueule (Valkenburg aan de Geul), Venlo et Weert. | [
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Jean-Jacques Sempé | Jean-Jacques Sempé | Jean-Jacques Sempé, usually known as Sempé (; born 17 August 1932), is a French cartoonist. He is known for the series of children's books he created with René Goscinny, "Le petit Nicolas", and also for his poster-like illustrations, usually drawn from a distant or high viewpoint depicting detailed countrysides or cities. | Jean-Jacques Sempé, dit Sempé, né le à Pessac (France), près de Bordeaux, est un dessinateur humoriste français. Il est notamment l'illustrateur des aventures du "Petit Nicolas" dont l'auteur est René Goscinny. | [
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Glenn Gould | Glenn Gould | Glenn Herbert Gould (; 25 September 19324 October 1982) was a Canadian pianist who became one of the best-known and most-celebrated classical pianists of the 20th century. He was renowned as an interpreter of the keyboard works of Johann Sebastian Bach. Gould's playing was distinguished by a remarkable technical proficiency and a capacity to articulate the contrapuntal texture of Bach's music. | Glenn Gould, né le à Toronto au Canada et mort le dans la même ville, est un pianiste, compositeur, écrivain, homme de radio et réalisateur canadien. Il est connu pour ses interprétations pianistiques du répertoire baroque, en particulier pour deux enregistrements des "Variations Goldberg" de Jean-Sébastien Bach (1955 et 1981). Célèbre pour son style analytique et chantant, ainsi qu'une certaine excentricité, Glenn Gould abandonne rapidement sa carrière de concertiste en 1964 et ne se produira plus jamais en public afin de se consacrer aux enregistrements en studio et à la production d'émissions de radio pour Radio-Canada. | [
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66902,
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25,
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613,
11627,
509,
98816,
47,
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52366,
152701,
538,
10932,
34578,
47,
71864,
8035,
121742,
19,
100,
845,
114686,
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34475,
70,
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4205,
90915,
136,
70,
845,
114686,
151747,
111,
70,
18217,
613,
11627,
5,
2016,
52366,
1902,
110,
845,
114686,
6,
7154,
38904,
4,
21208,
764,
68018,
7228,
122122,
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237,
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1631,
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105719,
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52366,
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29041,
143082,
3432,
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151552,
23,
25171,
44462,
237,
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88322,
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297,
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2016,
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3430,
1506,
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52366,
2804,
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1176,
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26206,
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André Hossein | André Hossein | André Hossein, born Aminulla Huseynov, also known as Aminollah Hossein (; 1905, in Samarkand – 9 August 1983, in Paris) was a French composer of Persian or Azerbaijani origin and a tar soloist. Hossein was the first Persian composer who was able to present his works in international concerts. | André Hossein (né Aminoullah Hosseinoff) est un compositeur français, d'origine iranienne ou azérie, né sujet de l'Empire russe en 1905 à Samarcande (aujourd'hui en Ouzbékistan), mort le. Il est le père de Robert Hossein. | [
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António Lobo Antunes | António Lobo Antunes | António Lobo Antunes, GCSE, MD (; born 1 September 1942) is a Portuguese novelist and medical doctor. He has been named as a contender for the Nobel Prize in Literature. | António Lobo Antunes, né le à Benfica, Lisbonne, est un écrivain et psychiatre portugais. Il a obtenu le prix Camões en 2007. | [
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Programming language | Langage de programmation | A programming language is a formal language comprising a set of instructions that produce various kinds of output. Programming languages are used in computer programming to implement algorithms. | Un langage de programmation est une notation conventionnelle destinée à formuler des algorithmes et produire des programmes informatiques qui les appliquent. D'une manière similaire à une langue naturelle, un langage de programmation est composé d'un alphabet, d'un vocabulaire, de règles de grammaire et de significations. | [
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VHF omnidirectional range | VOR (navigation aérienne) | Very High Frequency (VHF) Omni-Directional Range (VOR) is a type of short-range radio navigation system for aircraft, enabling aircraft with a receiving unit to determine its position and stay on course by receiving radio signals transmitted by a network of fixed ground radio beacons. It uses frequencies in the very high frequency (VHF) band from 108.00 to 117.95 MHz. Developed in the United States beginning in 1937 and deployed by 1946, VOR is the standard air navigational system in the world, used by both commercial and general aviation. In the year 2000 there were about 3,000 VOR stations operating around the world including 1,033 in the US, reduced to 967 by 2013 (stations are being decommissioned with widespread adoption of GPS). | Le VOR (abréviation de ) est un système de positionnement radioélectrique utilisé en navigation aérienne et fonctionnant avec les fréquences VHF (ou UHF pour les militaires). | [
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Veracruz | Veracruz (État) | Veracruz (), formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave (), is one of the 32 states which comprise the Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 212 municipalities and its capital city is Xalapa-Enríquez. | L'État de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave est un État du Mexique situé dans l'Est du pays. Plusieurs îles du golfe du Mexique sont rattachées à l'État de Veracruz. La partie continentale s'étend sur et les îles occupent une surface de. Il est entouré par sept autres États : au nord se trouve Tamaulipas, au sud Oaxaca et Chiapas, au sud-est Tabasco, à l'ouest Puebla, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí. À l'est se trouve le golfe du Mexique. | [
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José Saramago | José Saramago | José de Sousa Saramago, (; 16 November 1922 – 18 June 2010), was a Portuguese writer and recipient of the 1998 Nobel Prize in Literature. His works, some of which can be seen as allegories, commonly present subversive perspectives on historic events, emphasizing the theopoetic human factor. In 2003 Harold Bloom described Saramago as "the most gifted novelist alive in the world today" and in 2010 said he considers Saramago to be "a permanent part of the Western canon", while James Wood praises "the distinctive tone to his fiction because he narrates his novels as if he were someone both wise and ignorant." Bloom and Saramago met when Saramago presented Bloom with an honorary degree from the University of Coimbra; according to Bloom: "A warm acquaintanceship ensued, marked by an exegetical disagreement concerning "The Gospel According to Jesus Christ", which continued in correspondence and at a later meeting in New York City". | José de Sousa Saramago est un écrivain et journaliste portugais, né le à Azinhaga (Portugal) et mort le à Lanzarote (îles Canaries, Espagne). Il est le seul Portugais décoré du grand-collier de l'ordre de Sant'Iago de l'Épée et reste à ce jour l'unique auteur lusophone à avoir reçu le prix Nobel de littérature, en 1998. | [
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Smalltalk | Smalltalk | Smalltalk is an object-oriented, dynamically typed reflective programming language. Smalltalk was created as the language underpinning the "new world" of computing exemplified by "human–computer symbiosis". It was designed and created in part for educational use, specifically for constructionist learning, at the Learning Research Group (LRG) of Xerox PARC by Alan Kay, Dan Ingalls, Adele Goldberg, Ted Kaehler, Diana Merry, Scott Wallace, and others during the 1970s. | Smalltalk a été d'une grande influence dans le développement de nombreux langages de programmation, dont : Objective-C,, Java et Ruby. | [
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Baccalauréat | Baccalauréat en France | The baccalauréat (), often known in France colloquially as the bac, is a French national academic qualification that students can obtain at the completion of their secondary education (at the end of the "lycée") by meeting certain requirements. It was introduced by Napoleon I in 1808. | En France, le baccalauréat, souvent appelé bac, est un diplôme national sanctionnant la fin des études secondaires générales, technologiques ou professionnelles. Il correspond au niveau international CITE/ISCED 3 et au niveau 4 de la nomenclature des niveaux de formation en France. | [
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Chatbot | Chatbot | A chatbot is a software application used to conduct an on-line chat conversation via text or text-to-speech, in lieu of providing direct contact with a live human agent. Designed to convincingly simulate the way a human would behave as a conversational partner, chatbot systems typically require continuous tuning and testing, and many in production remain unable to adequately converse or pass the industry standard Turing test. The term "ChatterBot" was originally coined by Michael Mauldin (creator of the first Verbot) in 1994 to describe these conversational programs. | Un aussi nommé dialogueur ou agent conversationnel, est un agent qui dialogue avec un utilisateur. La recherche sur cette interface personne-machine est influencée par la compétition sur le test de Turing (1950) : donner l'illusion qu'un programme pense par un dialogue sensé. Un utilisateur est invité à formuler sa demande en langage naturel, elle est affinée par un échange convivial, dont le logiciel interprète une requête opérationnelle pour son système d'information. Les " débordent donc la recherche ou le divertissement, ils mettent en œuvre des connaissances linguistiques, psychologiques, et bien sûr des bases de programmation. | [
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] | null | null | null | null | null | null |
Timothy Findley | Timothy Findley | Timothy Irving Frederick Findley, (October 30, 1930 – June 20, 2002) was a Canadian novelist and playwright. He was also informally known by the nickname Tiff or Tiffy, an acronym of his initials. | Timothy Findley, né le à Toronto, et mort le en France, à Brignoles, dans le Var, en Provence, est un homme de théâtre, un scénariste et un écrivain canadien de langue anglaise. | [
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Robert Hossein | Robert Hossein | Robert Hossein (born 30 December 1927) is a French film actor, director, and writer. He directed the 1982 adaptation of "Les Misérables", and appeared in "Vice and Virtue", "Le Casse", "Les Uns et les Autres" and "Venus Beauty Institute". His other roles include Michèle Mercier's husband in the "Angélique" series, a gunfighter in the Spaghetti Western "Cemetery Without Crosses" (which he also directed and co-wrote), and a Catholic priest who falls in love with Claude Jade and becomes a communist in "Forbidden Priests". | Robert Hossein, de son vrai nom Abraham Hosseinoff, né le à Paris 12, (Seine), est un réalisateur, acteur, scénariste, dialoguiste et metteur en scène français. | [
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Spell checker | Correcteur (informatique) | In software, a spell checker (or spell check) is a software feature that checks for misspellings in a text. Spell-checking features are often embedded in software or services, such as a word processor, email client, electronic dictionary, or search engine. | Un correcteur est, en informatique, un outil logiciel permettant d'analyser un texte afin de détecter, et éventuellement de corriger, les fautes d'orthographe et les coquilles qu'il contient. | [
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Geography of Egypt | Géographie de l'Égypte | The geography of Egypt relates to two regions: North Africa and Southwest Asia. Egypt has coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea, the River Nile, and the Red Sea. Egypt borders Libya to the west, the Gaza Strip to the northeast, and Sudan to the south. Egypt has an area of which makes it the 31st largest country in the world. | La géographie de l'Égypte est principalement marquée par un climat désertique régnant sur son territoire situé en Afrique et en Asie de l'Ouest (Sinaï). | [
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Nonviolence | Non-violence | Nonviolence is the personal practice of being harmless to one's self and others under every condition. It comes from the belief that hurting people, animals and/or the environment is unnecessary to achieve an outcome and it also refers to a general philosophy of abstention from violence. This may be based on moral, religious or spiritual principles, or the reasons for it may be purely strategic or pragmatic. | La non-violence est un principe du christianisme, des religions de l'Inde, de l'islam et de la philosophie qui se définit comme une « opposition à la violence sans nuire ou causer du tort à autrui ». | [
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Artificial neural network | Réseau de neurones artificiels | Artificial neural networks (ANN) or connectionist systems are computing systems vaguely inspired by the biological neural networks that constitute animal brains. Such systems "learn" to perform tasks by considering examples, generally without being programmed with task-specific rules. For example, in image recognition, they might learn to identify images that contain cats by analyzing example images that have been manually labeled as "cat" or "no cat" and using the results to identify cats in other images. They do this without any prior knowledge of cats, for example, that they have fur, tails, whiskers and cat-like faces. Instead, they automatically generate identifying characteristics from the examples that they process. | Un réseau de neurones artificiels, ou réseau neuronal artificiel, est un système dont la conception est à l'origine schématiquement inspirée du fonctionnement des neurones biologiques, et qui par la suite s'est rapproché des méthodes statistiques. | [
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] | null | null | null | null | null | null |
Dalai Lama | Dalaï-lama | Dalai Lama (, ; Standard Tibetan:,, ) is a title given by the Tibetan people for the foremost spiritual leader of the Gelug or "Yellow Hat" school of Tibetan Buddhism, the newest of the classical schools of Tibetan Buddhism. The 14th and current Dalai Lama is Tenzin Gyatso, who lives as a refugee in India. The Dalai Lama is also considered to be the successor in a line of tulkus who are believed to be incarnations of Avalokiteśvara, a Bodhisattva of Compassion. | La lignée des dalaï-lamas (ou du Dalaï-Lama) est la plus importante lignée de réincarnation ("tulkou") postulée dans le bouddhisme tibétain et dans l'histoire du Tibet. | [
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Political science | Science politique | Political science, occasionally called politology, is a social science which deals with systems of governance, and the analysis of political activities, political thoughts, associated constitutions and political behavior. | La science politique ou politologie consiste à étudier les processus politiques mettant en jeu des rapports de pouvoir entre les individus, les groupes, et au sein de l'État, mais pas seulement. Des tendances contemporaines tentent de saisir les rapports de force sur une base transnationale (par exemple, entre diasporas ou entre firmes multinationales) ainsi que certains courants postmodernes qui mettent l'accent sur le langage (philosophie du langage), sur la biopolitique, ou encore sur les conceptions genrées des individus. | [
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Lanza del Vasto | Lanza del Vasto | Lanza del Vasto (born Giuseppe Giovanni Luigi Maria Enrico Lanza di Trabia-Branciforte; 29 September 1901 – 6 January 1981) was an Italian philosopher, poet, artist, Catholic and nonviolent activist. | Giuseppe Lanza di Trabia-Branciforte, connu sous son nom d'auteur Lanza del Vasto, est un philosophe italien né le à San Vito dei Normanni, province de Brindisi, dans les Pouilles et mort le à Murcie, dans le sud-est de l'Espagne. Disciple chrétien de Gandhi, il est le fondateur des Communautés de l'Arche, axées sur la vie intérieure et la non-violence active. Écrivain et poète de langue française, il fut aussi sculpteur, dessinateur et musicien. Conférencier international, il s'engagea dans de nombreuses actions en faveur de la paix. | [
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Noir fiction | Roman noir | Noir fiction (or roman noir) is a subgenre of crime fiction. In this subgenre, right and wrong are not clearly defined, while the protagonists are seriously and often tragically flawed. | Le roman noir peut être à la fois considéré comme un sous-genre ou une sous-catégorie appartenant au roman policier qui regrouperait le roman d'énigme et le roman à suspense, mais aussi comme un genre à part entière possédant ses propres critères génériques. Les racines du roman noir sont donc parfois liées à celles du roman policier qui débuteraient au. Mais il ne faut pas oublier le roman gothique anglais du, qui est un précurseur du roman noir. Le genre du roman noir naît cependant véritablement aux États-Unis dans les années 1920, avec pour ambition de rendre compte de la réalité sociétale du pays : crime organisé et terreau mafieux. Mais le roman noir connaît véritablement son essor après la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Dès lors, le roman noir désigne aujourd'hui un roman policier inscrit dans une réalité sociale précise, porteur d'un discours critique, voire contestataire. Le roman noir, tout en étant un roman détective, se fixe ses propres frontières en s'opposant au roman d'énigme, car le drame se situe dans un univers moins conventionnel, et moins ludique. | [
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Théophile Gautier | Théophile Gautier | Pierre Jules Théophile Gautier (; ; 30 August 1811 – 23 October 1872) was a French poet, dramatist, novelist, journalist, and art and literary critic. | Jules Pierre Théophile Gautier, né à Tarbes le et mort à Neuilly-sur-Seine le, est un poète, romancier et critique d'art français. | [
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Sud Aviation Caravelle | Sud-Aviation SE 210 Caravelle | The Sud Aviation SE 210 Caravelle is a French short/medium-range jet airliner. It holds the distinction of being the world's first jet-powered airliner to be developed for the short/medium-range market. | La Sud-Aviation SE 210 "Caravelle" est un avion de ligne biréacteur, destiné aux itinéraires court et moyen-courriers, produit entre 1958 et 1973 par la société française Sud-Aviation qui devient Aérospatiale en 1970. Premier biréacteur civil au monde produit en série, il présente la caractéristique, innovante pour l'époque, d'avoir les moteurs placés à l'arrière du fuselage et non dans les ailes comme pour le "Comet", ou dans des nacelles subalaires comme c'est le cas pour le 707 de Boeing. Conçue pour remplacer les avions à moteurs à pistons tels que le Douglas DC-6, la "Caravelle" peut emporter, selon les versions, de 80 à plus de sur une distance maximale comprise entre et. | [
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Fernando Pessoa | Fernando Pessoa | Fernando António Nogueira Pessoa (; 13 June 1888 – 30 November 1935) was a Portuguese poet, writer, literary critic, translator, publisher and philosopher, described as one of the most significant literary figures of the 20th century and one of the greatest poets in the Portuguese language. He also wrote in and translated from English and French. | Fernando António Nogueira Pessoa est un écrivain, critique, polémiste et poète portugais trilingue (principalement portugais, mais aussi anglais et, dans une moindre mesure, français). Né le à Lisbonne, ville où il meurt des suites de son alcoolisme le, il a vécu une partie de son enfance à Durban en Afrique du Sud. | [
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Server (computing) | Serveur informatique | In computing, a server is a computer program or a device that provides functionality for other programs or devices, called "clients". This architecture is called the client–server model. Servers can provide various functionalities, often called "services", such as sharing data or resources among multiple clients, or performing computation for a client. A single server can serve multiple clients, and a single client can use multiple servers. A client process may run on the same device or may connect over a network to a server on a different device. Typical servers are database servers, file servers, mail servers, print servers, web servers, game servers, and application servers. | Un serveur informatique est un dispositif informatique (matériel et logiciel) qui offre des services à un ou plusieurs clients (parfois des milliers). Les services les plus courants sont : | [
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Pierre de Fermat | Pierre de Fermat | Pierre de Fermat () (between 20 August 1601 – 12 January 1665) was a French lawyer at the "Parlement" of Toulouse, France, and a mathematician who is given credit for early developments that led to infinitesimal calculus, including his technique of adequality. In particular, he is recognized for his discovery of an original method of finding the greatest and the smallest ordinates of curved lines, which is analogous to that of differential calculus, then unknown, and his research into number theory. He made notable contributions to analytic geometry, probability, and optics. He is best known for his Fermat's principle for light propagation and his Fermat's Last Theorem in number theory, which he described in a note at the margin of a copy of Diophantus' "Arithmetica". | Pierre de Fermat, né dans la première décennie du, à Beaumont-de-Lomagne (département actuel de Tarn-et-Garonne), près de Montauban, et mort le à Castres (département actuel du Tarn), est un magistrat, polymathe et surtout mathématicien français, surnommé « le prince des amateurs ». Il est aussi poète, habile latiniste et helléniste, et s'est intéressé aux sciences et en particulier à la physique ; on lui doit notamment le principe de Fermat en optique. Il est particulièrement connu pour avoir énoncé le dernier théorème de Fermat, dont la démonstration n'a été établie que plus de 300 ans plus tard par le mathématicien britannique Andrew Wiles en 1994. | [
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] | null | null | null | null | null | null |
1990s | Années 1990 | The 1990s (pronounced "nineteen-nineties"; shortened to "the 90s") was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on 1 January 1990, and ended on 31 December 1999. | Les années 1990 couvrent la période du au. Elles furent marquées par plusieurs guerres telles que les guerres de Yougoslavie, les, le début de la deuxième guerre du Congo, la dislocation de l'URSS ainsi que différentes guerres civiles. Le génocide des Tutsis au Rwanda ( assassinées en trois mois en 1994) fut un des évènements les plus atroces du. | [
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1980s | Années 1980 | The 1980s (pronounced "nineteen-eighties", shortened to "the 80s") was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1, 1980, and ended on December 31, 1989. | Les années 1980 couvrent la période du au. Au niveau géopolitique, elles sont marquées dans un premier temps par la continuité de la guerre froide ainsi que par une vague néo-libérale qui porte le coup de grâce au communisme dans les pays de l'Est. Dans le monde anglo-saxon, elle est incarnée par Ronald Reagan aux États-Unis et Margaret Thatcher au Royaume-Uni. En Europe de l'Ouest, la Communauté économique européenne s'unit autour du marché unique, permis, en France, par un Parti socialiste arrivé au pouvoir dans une société en pleine mutation idéologique et sociologique. En Asie, le miracle économique japonais fait du Japon le fleuron mondial de l'électronique et de l'automobile, pendant que la Chine bénéficie des premières réformes de Deng Xiaoping. | [
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White dwarf | Naine blanche | A white dwarf, also called a degenerate dwarf, is a stellar core remnant composed mostly of electron-degenerate matter. A white dwarf is very dense: its mass is comparable to that of the Sun, while its volume is comparable to that of Earth. A white dwarf's faint luminosity comes from the emission of stored thermal energy; no fusion takes place in a white dwarf. The nearest known white dwarf is Sirius B, at 8.6 light years, the smaller component of the Sirius binary star. There are currently thought to be eight white dwarfs among the hundred star systems nearest the Sun. The unusual faintness of white dwarfs was first recognized in 1910. The name "white dwarf" was coined by Willem Luyten in 1922. | Une naine blanche est un objet céleste de forte densité, issu de l'évolution d'une étoile de masse modérée (de 3 à 4 masses solaires au maximum) après la phase où se produisent des réactions thermonucléaires. Cet objet a alors une taille très petite comparativement à une étoile, et conserve longtemps une température de surface élevée, d'où son nom de « naine blanche ». | [
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Amazon rainforest | Forêt amazonienne | The Amazon rainforest, alternatively, the Amazon Jungle, also known in English as Amazonia, is a moist broadleaf tropical rainforest in the Amazon biome that covers most of the Amazon basin of South America. This basin encompasses, of which are covered by the rainforest. This region includes territory belonging to nine nations. | La forêt amazonienne (en portugais ; en espagnol ; en anglais ), également connue sous le nom d'« Amazonie » ou « jungle amazonienne », est une forêt équatoriale d'Amérique du Sud couvrant la totalité du bassin versant du fleuve Amazone ainsi que des zones périphériques comme le plateau des Guyanes. Elle s'étend sur 9 Pays, principalement au Brésil (63%). | [
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Mary, mother of Jesus | Marie (mère de Jésus) | Mary was a first-century Galilean Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Joseph, and the mother of Jesus, according to the canonical gospels and the Quran. | Marie (en araméen ܡܪܝܡ, "Maryam" ; en hébreu, "Myriam" ; en grec, "María" ; en arabe, "Maryam"), également connue sous les noms de "Marie de Nazareth", "Sainte Vierge", "Sainte Marie", "Vierge Marie", "Immaculée Conception", "Notre Dame", "Mère de Jesus", "Mère de Dieu" (principalement chez les orthodoxes et catholiques, voir consubstantialité) est une fille juive de Judée, et la mère de Jésus de Nazareth. Marie est une figure importante et proéminente au sein du christianisme (notamment dans les dénominations orthodoxe et catholique) ainsi que dans l'islam. | [
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Somatic cell nuclear transfer | Clonage thérapeutique | In genetics and developmental biology, somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) is a laboratory strategy for creating a viable embryo from a body cell and an egg cell. The technique consists of taking an enucleated oocyte (egg cell) and implanting a donor nucleus from a somatic (body) cell. It is used in both therapeutic and reproductive cloning. In 1996, Dolly the sheep became famous for being the first successful case of the reproductive cloning of a mammal. In January 2018, a team of scientists in Shanghai announced the successful cloning of two female crab-eating macaques (named Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua) from fetal nuclei. | Le clonage thérapeutique, ou transfert de noyau de cellules somatiques, est une technique de production de matériel vivant "via" l'injection de cellules souches de la moelle osseuse, pour remplacer un organe détruit, et dont la compatibilité avec le malade est garantie par la parenté génétique assurée par le clonage. À la terminologie « clonage thérapeutique » on préfère parfois l'expression « clonage à visée thérapeutique ». | [
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Algebra | Algèbre | Algebra (from ("al-jabr", meaning "reunion of broken parts" and "bonesetting") is one of the broad parts of mathematics, together with number theory, geometry and analysis. In its most general form, algebra is the study of mathematical symbols and the rules for manipulating these symbols; it is a unifying thread of almost all of mathematics. It includes everything from elementary equation solving to the study of abstractions such as groups, rings, and fields. The more basic parts of algebra are called elementary algebra; the more abstract parts are called abstract algebra or modern algebra. Elementary algebra is generally considered to be essential for any study of mathematics, science, or engineering, as well as such applications as medicine and economics. Abstract algebra is a major area in advanced mathematics, studied primarily by professional mathematicians. | L'algèbre est une branche des mathématiques qui permet d'exprimer les propriétés des opérations et le traitement des équations et aboutit à l'étude des structures algébriques. Selon l’époque et le niveau d’études considérés, elle peut être décrite comme : | [
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Étienne de La Boétie | Étienne de La Boétie | Étienne or Estienne de La Boétie ( ; ; 1 November 1530 – 18 August 1563) was a French judge, writer and "a founder of modern political philosophy in France". He is best remembered as the great and close friend of the eminent essayist Michel de Montaigne "in one of history's most notable friendships", as well as an earlier influence for anarchist thought. | Étienne de La Boétie ([] ou []) est un écrivain humaniste et un poète français, né le à Sarlat et mort le à Germignan, dans la commune du Taillan-Médoc, près de Bordeaux. La Boétie est célèbre pour son "Discours de la servitude volontaire". À partir de 1558, il fut l’ami intime de Montaigne, qui lui rendit un hommage posthume dans ses "Essais". | [
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Preimplantation genetic diagnosis | Diagnostic préimplantatoire | Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD or PIGD) is the genetic profiling of embryos prior to implantation (as a form of embryo profiling), and sometimes even of oocytes prior to fertilization. PGD is considered in a similar fashion to prenatal diagnosis. When used to screen for a specific genetic disease, its main advantage is that it avoids selective abortion, as the method makes it highly likely that the baby will be free of the disease under consideration. PGD thus is an adjunct to assisted reproductive technology, and requires in vitro fertilization (IVF) to obtain oocytes or embryos for evaluation. Embryos are generally obtained through blastomere or blastocyst biopsy. The latter technique has proved to be less deleterious for the embryo, therefore it is advisable to perform the biopsy around day 5 or 6 of development. | Le diagnostic préimplantatoire (DPI) permet de détecter la présence d'éventuelles anomalies génétiques ou chromosomiques dans les embryons conçus après fécondation "in vitro". Le but étant de différencier les embryons atteints d'une maladie génétique de ceux porteurs sains ou indemnes. Pour cela une à deux cellules (blastomères) sont prélevées sur l'embryon au troisième jour de développement. Le matériel génétique de ces blastomères est ensuite analysé par des techniques de PCR ou d'hybridation in situ en fluorescence afin de sélectionner les embryons dépourvus d'affection génétique qui seront transférés dans l’utérus de la future mère. | [
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Silicon | Silicium | Silicon is a chemical element with the symbol Si and atomic number 14. It is a hard, brittle crystalline solid with a blue-grey metallic lustre, and is a tetravalent metalloid and semiconductor. It is a member of group 14 in the periodic table: carbon is above it; and germanium, tin, and lead are below it. It is relatively unreactive. Because of its high chemical affinity for oxygen, it was not until 1823 that Jöns Jakob Berzelius was first able to prepare it and characterize it in pure form. Its oxides form a family of anions known as silicates. Its melting and boiling points of 1414 °C and 3265 °C respectively are the second-highest among all the metalloids and nonmetals, being only surpassed by boron. Silicon is the eighth most common element in the universe by mass, but very rarely occurs as the pure element in the Earth's crust. It is most widely distributed in dusts, sands, planetoids, and planets as various forms of silicon dioxide (silica) or silicates. More than 90% of the Earth's crust is composed of silicate minerals, making silicon the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust (about 28% by mass) after oxygen. | Le silicium est l'élément chimique de numéro atomique 14, de symbole Si. Ce métalloïde tétravalent appartient au groupe 14 du tableau périodique. C'est l'élément le plus abondant dans la croûte terrestre après l'oxygène, soit 25,7 % de sa masse, mais il n'est comparativement présent qu'en relativement faible quantité dans la matière constituant le vivant. Il n'existe pas dans la nature à l'état de corps simple, mais sous forme de composés : sous forme de dioxyde de silicium (SiO), d'origine biogène (fabriqué par un organisme vivant comme les diatomées ou les radiolaires), on le trouve sous forme de silice amorphe (dans le sable), ou d'origine lithogénique lorsqu'il est sous la forme de silice minérale (le quartz, la cristobalite) ou d'autres silicates (dans les feldspaths, la kaolinite...). | [
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Cloning | Clonage | Cloning is the process of producing individuals with identical or virtually identical DNA, either naturally or artificially. In nature, many organisms produce clones through asexual reproduction. Cloning in biotechnology refers to the process of creating clones of organisms or copies of cells or DNA fragments (molecular cloning). | Le clonage désigne principalement deux processus. C'est d'une part la multiplication naturelle ou artificielle à l'identique d'un être vivant, c'est-à-dire avec conservation exacte du même génome pour tous les descendants (les clones). C'est donc un synonyme de certaines formes de multiplication asexuée telles que le bouturage. C'est d'autre part la multiplication provoquée d'un fragment d'ADN par l'intermédiaire d'un micro-organisme. Ainsi, en biologie, le mot clonage désigne plusieurs choses : | [
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Prenatal testing | Diagnostic prénatal | Prenatal testing consists of prenatal screening and prenatal diagnosis, which are aspects of prenatal care that focus on detecting problems with the pregnancy as early as possible. These may be anatomic and physiologic problems with the health of the zygote, embryo, or fetus, either before gestation even starts (as in preimplantation genetic diagnosis) or as early in gestation as practicable. Screening can detect problems such as neural tube defects, chromosome abnormalities, and gene mutations that would lead to genetic disorders and birth defects, such as spina bifida, cleft palate, Downs Syndrome, Tay–Sachs disease, sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, and fragile X syndrome. Some tests are designed to discover problems which primarily affect the health of the mother, such as PAPP-A to detect pre-eclampsia or glucose tolerance tests to diagnose gestational diabetes. Screening can also detect anatomical defects such as hydrocephalus, anencephaly, heart defects, and amniotic band syndrome. | Le diagnostic prénatal (DPN) ou diagnostic anténatal (DAN) est l'ensemble des pratiques médicales ayant pour but de détecter "in utero" chez l'embryon ou le fœtus une affection grave (anomalie génétique ou malformation congénitale, par exemple), afin de donner aux futurs parents le choix d'interrompre ou non la grossesse et de permettre une meilleure prise en charge médicale de la pathologie si la grossesse est poursuivie. | [
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Library (computing) | Bibliothèque logicielle | In computer science, a library is a collection of non-volatile resources used by computer programs, often for software development. These may include configuration data, documentation, help data, message templates, pre-written code and subroutines, classes, values or type specifications. In IBM's OS/360 and its successors they are referred to as partitioned data sets. | En informatique, une bibliothèque logicielle est une collection de routines, qui peuvent être déjà compilées et prêtes à être utilisées par des programmes. Les bibliothèques sont enregistrées dans des fichiers semblables, voire identiques aux fichiers de programmes, sous la forme d'une collection de fichiers de code objet rassemblés accompagnée d'un index permettant de retrouver facilement chaque routine. Le mot « librairie » est souvent utilisé à tort pour désigner une bibliothèque logicielle. Il s'agit d'un anglicisme fautif dû à un faux-ami ("library"). | [
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Morality | Morale | Morality (from ) is the differentiation of intentions, decisions and actions between those that are distinguished as proper and those that are improper. Morality can be a body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from a particular philosophy, religion or culture, or it can derive from a standard that a person believes should be universal. Morality may also be specifically synonymous with "goodness" or "rightness". | La morale (du latin "moralis" « relatif aux mœurs ») est une notion qui désigne l'ensemble des règles ou préceptes, obligations ou interdictions relatifs à la conformation de l'action humaine aux mœurs et aux usages d'une société donnée. Éthique et morale sont étymologiquement proches puisque certains traducteurs de philosophes antiques ont utilisé ces deux termes sans nette distinction selon les époques pour traduire le mot grec "ethikos". Néanmoins pour certains philosophes modernes, la morale se distingue de l'éthique qui se définit telle une réflexion fondamentale sur laquelle la morale établira ses normes, ses limites et ses devoirs. De la morale est née la philosophie morale qui se distingue de la métaphysique de par son aspect pratique. Une action immorale est parfois une action nuisible comme le vol. La morale ne doit pas être confondue ni avec la casuistique ni avec l'idéologie. | [
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Inorganic chemistry | Chimie minérale | Inorganic chemistry deals with synthesis and behavior of inorganic and organometallic compounds. This field covers all chemical compounds except the myriad of organic compounds (carbon-based compounds, usually containing C-H bonds), which are the subjects of organic chemistry. The distinction between the two disciplines is far from absolute, as there is much overlap in the subdiscipline of organometallic chemistry. It has applications in every aspect of the chemical industry, including catalysis, materials science, pigments, surfactants, coatings, medications, fuels, and agriculture. | La chimie minérale, aussi appelée chimie inorganique (par traduction littérale de l'anglais), est la branche la plus ancienne de la chimie. Elle comporte l'étude des divers corps simples existant dans la nature ou obtenus artificiellement et celle des composés qu'ils engendrent en réagissant les uns sur les autres, à l'exception des combinaisons avec le carbone qui sont étudiées à part et font l'objet de la chimie organique. Cependant quelques composés simples du carbone (certains oxydes de carbone, les carbonates, bicarbonates et cyanures ioniques, les carbures, excepté les hydrocarbures) sont classés parmi les composés inorganiques. Une étude particulière est celle des propriétés et de la synthèse des composés inorganiques artificiels, laquelle inclut les composés organométalliques. Ce domaine couvre tous les composés chimiques à l'exception des myriades de composés organiques qui sont basés sur un squelette carboné et comportent habituellement des liaisons C-H. À l'origine basée sur des arguments historiques, cette distinction est de nos jours loin d'être absolue, et de nombreux recouvrements existent en particulier dans le domaine de la chimie organométallique. La chimie inorganique est un domaine de recherche actif actuellement et possède des applications dans la plupart des aspects de l'industrie chimique, en particulier en catalyse, science des matériaux, pigments, surfactants, chimie médicinale, carburants, chimie de l'environnement et agriculture. | [
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Constitution of Mexico | Constitution mexicaine de 1917 | The Constitution of Mexico, formally the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States (), is the current constitution of Mexico. It was drafted in Santiago de Querétaro, in the State of Querétaro, by a constituent convention, during the Mexican Revolution. It was approved by the Constituent Congress on 5 February 1917. It is the successor to the Constitution of 1857, and earlier Mexican constitutions. | La Constitution politique des États-Unis mexicains de 1917 (en espagnol "Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos de 1917"). Le Mexique a eu plusieurs constitutions. La première date de 1824, la seconde de 1843, la troisième de 1857 et la dernière de 1917. Cette dernière version a été promulguée à la suite du congrès de Querétaro le et modifiée plusieurs fois par la suite. | [
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Liberal Democratic Party (Japan) | Parti libéral-démocrate (Japon) | The, frequently abbreviated to LDP or, is a conservative political party in Japan. The LDP has almost continuously been in power since its foundation in 1955—a period called the 1955 System—with the exception of a period between 1993 and 1994, and again from 2009 to 2012. In the 2012 election it regained control of the government. It holds 285 seats in the lower house and 113 seats in the upper house, and in coalition with the Komeito, the governing coalition has a supermajority in both houses. Prime Minister Shinzō Abe and many present and former LDP ministers are also known members of Nippon Kaigi, an ultranationalist and monarchist organization. | Le, souvent abrégé en au Japon et PLD en français, a longtemps été le plus grand parti politique japonais, et reste la principale force de droite et conservatrice du pays. Il a pratiquement toujours gouverné le pays depuis sa création en 1955, sauf pendant un intermède de dix mois entre 1993 et 1994, et pendant trois ans après sa défaite aux élections législatives du. Il ne doit pas être confondu avec le Parti libéral fondé en 1998, qui a fusionné avec le Parti démocrate du Japon, principal adversaire politique du PLD, en. | [
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Anabolism | Anabolisme | Anabolism () is the set of metabolic pathways that construct molecules from smaller units. These reactions require energy, known also as an endergonic process. Anabolism is the building-up aspect of metabolism, whereas catabolism is the breaking-down aspect. Anabolism is usually synonymous with biosynthesis. | L'anabolisme est l'ensemble des réactions chimiques de synthèse moléculaire de l'organisme considéré. Il est le contraire du catabolisme, ensemble des réactions de dégradation. Le catabolisme et l'anabolisme sont les deux composantes du métabolisme. L'anabolisme est plus particulièrement une phase du métabolisme au cours de laquelle des molécules grosses et complexes sont synthétisées à partir de molécules relativement simples. Pour se faire, de l'énergie est utilisée au cours de cette phase. L'anabolisme est constituée de plusieurs voies analogiques. | [
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Blood sugar level | Glycémie | The blood sugar level, blood sugar concentration, or blood glucose level is the concentration of glucose present in the blood of humans and other animals. Glucose is a simple sugar and approximately 4 grams of glucose are present in the blood of a human at all times. The body tightly regulates blood glucose levels as a part of metabolic homeostasis. Glucose is stored in skeletal muscle and liver cells in the form of glycogen; in fasted individuals, blood glucose is maintained at a constant level at the expense of glycogen stores in the liver and skeletal muscle. | La glycémie est le taux de glucose dans le sang, ou plus exactement dans le plasma sanguin. Elle est mesurée en général en millimoles de glucose par litre de sang, en milligramme de glucose par décilitre de sang, ou encore en gramme de glucose par litre de sang. | [
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Word play | Jeu de mots | Word play or wordplay (also: play-on-words) is a literary technique and a form of wit in which words used become the main subject of the work, primarily for the purpose of intended effect or amusement. Examples of word play include puns, phonetic mix-ups such as spoonerisms, obscure words and meanings, clever rhetorical excursions, oddly formed sentences, double entendres, and telling character names (such as in the play "The Importance of Being Earnest", "Ernest" being a given name that sounds exactly like the adjective "earnest"). | Un jeu de mots est en général n’importe quel jeu de langue qui manipule les mots ou des sonorités, et en particulier celui qui consiste à créer deux mots ou deux phrases homophones (le plus souvent humoristique) ayant un sens différent. | [
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Epiphany (holiday) | Épiphanie | Epiphany ( ) is a Christian feast day that celebrates the revelation (theophany) of God incarnate as Jesus Christ. In Western Christianity, the feast commemorates principally (but not solely) the visit of the Magi to the Christ Child, and thus Jesus' physical manifestation to the Gentiles. It is sometimes called Three Kings' Day, and in some traditions celebrated as Little Christmas. Moreover, the feast of the Epiphany, in some denominations, also initiates the liturgical season of Epiphanytide. | L'Épiphanie est une fête chrétienne qui célèbre le Messie venu et incarné dans le monde et qui reçoit la visite et l'hommage de mages. Elle a lieu le 6 janvier. | [
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Assisted reproductive technology | Procréation médicalement assistée | Assisted reproductive technology (ART) includes medical procedures used primarily to address infertility. This subject involves procedures such as in vitro fertilization, intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), cryopreservation of gametes or embryos, and/or the use of fertility medication. When used to address infertility, ART may also be referred to as fertility treatment. ART mainly belongs to the field of reproductive endocrinology and infertility. Some forms of ART may be used with regard to fertile couples for genetic purpose (see preimplantation genetic diagnosis). ART may also be used in surrogacy arrangements, although not all surrogacy arrangements involve ART. | La procréation médicalement assistée (PMA) est un ensemble de pratiques cliniques et biologiques où la médecine intervient dans la procréation. | [
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] | null | null | null | null | null | null |
Cyanide | Cyanure | A cyanide is a chemical compound that contains the group C≡N. This group, known as the cyano group, consists of a carbon atom triple-bonded to a nitrogen atom. | En chimie, le terme cyanure — du mot grec κυανός ("kyanos") qui signifie bleu — désigne : Dans le langage courant, le terme cyanure désigne généralement une des formes impliquées dans les intoxications au cyanure : cyanure d'hydrogène gazeux, cyanure de potassium ou cyanure de sodium. | [
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Ion | Ion | An ion () is an atom or molecule that has a net electrical charge. Since the charge of the electron (considered negative by convention) is equal and opposite to that of the proton (considered positive by convention), the net charge of an ion is non-zero due to its total number of electrons being unequal to its total number of protons. A cation is a positively charged ion, with fewer electrons than protons, while an anion is negatively charged, with more electrons than protons. Because of their opposite electric charges, cations and anions attract each other and readily form ionic compounds. | Un ion est un atome ou une molécule portant une charge électrique, parce que son nombre d'électrons est différent de son nombre de protons. On distingue deux grandes catégories d'ions : les cations chargés positivement, et les anions chargés négativement. Le signe et la valeur de cette charge électrique sont indiqués en exposant à la fin de la formule chimique de l'ion, en multiple de la charge élémentaire "e" (quand l'ion ne porte qu'une charge, on n'indique que le signe). Exemples : Cu représente l'ion cuivre (II) de charge 2"e", Na l'ion sodium de charge "e", Cl l'ion chlore de charge −"e". | [
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Deflation | Déflation | In economics, deflation is a decrease in the general price level of goods and services. Deflation occurs when the inflation rate falls below 0% (a negative inflation rate). Inflation reduces the value of currency over time, but sudden deflation increases it. This allows more goods and services to be bought than before with the same amount of currency. Deflation is distinct from disinflation, a slow-down in the inflation rate, i.e. when inflation declines to a lower rate but is still positive. | La déflation est un gain de pouvoir d'achat de la monnaie qui se traduit par une baisse durable du niveau général des prix. Ce phénomène ne doit pas être confondu avec la désinflation qui est un ralentissement de l'inflation, soit une diminution du taux d'inflation. Sans mention explicite, il ne s'agit pas de la baisse du prix d'un bien ou même des prix d'un secteur d'activité, mais du niveau moyen de l'ensemble des prix. On parle néanmoins de déflation sectorielle, pour les prix d'un secteur particulier (par exemple, le secteur informatique a connu au cours des années 1990 et 2000 une déflation sectorielle). La déflation n'est pas une symétrie négative de l'inflation, car les processus et les conséquences qu'elle implique sont différents. Cette dernière prend trois formes : monétaire (réduction des moyens de paiement en circulation), financière (contraction du crédit), réelle (diminution de la production). La déflation est une conséquence normale de l'évolution des structures économiques quand les marchés sont saturés ou à la suite d'innovations qui permettent des gains de productivité. D'un point de vue historique la déflation a pu être régulatrice (comme au ), voire volontaire comme dans les années 1920 et 1930, avant que cette politique soit dénoncée comme dangereuse. La déflation est encore aujourd'hui considérée comme un risque à éviter par les Banques centrales. | [
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Homer | Homère | Homer (;, "Hómēros") is the semi-legendary author of the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey", two epic poems that are the central works of ancient Greek literature. The "Iliad" is set during the Trojan War, the ten-year siege of the city of Troy by a coalition of Greek kingdoms. It focuses on a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles lasting a few weeks during the last year of the war. The "Odyssey" focuses on the ten-year journey home of Odysseus, king of Ithaca, after the fall of Troy. Many accounts of Homer's life circulated in classical antiquity, the most widespread being that he was a blind bard from Ionia, a region of central coastal Anatolia in present-day Turkey. Modern scholars consider these accounts legendary. | Homère (en grec ancien, « otage » ou « celui qui est obligé de suivre ») est réputé avoir été un aède (poète) de la fin du Il était simplement surnommé « le Poète » () par les Anciens. Les deux premières œuvres de la littérature occidentale que sont l"Iliade" et l"Odyssée" lui sont attribuées. | [
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Thebes, Egypt | Thèbes (Égypte) | Thebes (, "Thēbai"), known to the ancient Egyptians as Waset, was an ancient Egyptian city located along the Nile about south of the Mediterranean. Its ruins lie within the modern Egyptian city of Luxor. Thebes was the main city of the fourth Upper Egyptian nome (Sceptre nome) and was the capital of Egypt for long periods during the Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom eras. It was close to Nubia and the Eastern Desert, with its valuable mineral resources and trade routes. It was a cult center and the most venerated city of ancient Egypt during its heyday. The site of Thebes includes areas on both the eastern bank of the Nile, where the temples of Karnak and Luxor stand and where the city proper was situated; and the western bank, where a necropolis of large private and royal cemeteries and funerary complexes can be found. | Thèbes (aujourd'hui Louxor) est le nom grec ("Thebai") de la ville d'Égypte antique "Ouaset" (« Le sceptre » ou « La Puissante »), appartenant au quatrième nome de Haute-Égypte, sur la rive orientale du Nil, la Vallée des Rois lui faisant face sur l'autre rive. | [
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Clonaid | Clonaid | Clonaid is a Canadian-based human cloning organization, registered as a company in the Bahamas. Founded in 1997, it has philosophical ties with the UFO religion Raëlism, which sees cloning as the first step in achieving immortality. On December 27, 2002, Clonaid's chief executive, Brigitte Boisselier, claimed that a baby clone, named Eve, was born. Media coverage of the claim sparked serious criticism and ethical debate that lasted more than a year. Florida attorney Bernard Siegel tried to appoint a special guardian for Eve and threatened to sue Clonaid, because he was afraid that the child might be treated like a lab rat. Siegel, who heard the company's actual name was not Clonaid, decided that the Clonaid project was a sham. Bioethicist Clara Alto condemned Clonaid for premature human experimentation and noted the high incidence of malformations and thousands of fetal deaths in animal cloning. | Clonaid se décrit comme une « société de clonage humain ». Elle est ouvertement associée au mouvement raëlien, qui voit dans le clonage reproductif la première étape scientifique annoncée depuis 30 ans, qui préfigurerait le chemin vers l'immortalité scientifique de l'homme. | [
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Table tennis | Tennis de table | Table tennis, also known as ping-pong and whiff-whaff, is a sport in which two or four players hit a lightweight ball back and forth across a table using small rackets. The game takes place on a hard table divided by a net. Except for the initial serve, the rules are generally as follows: players must allow a ball played toward them to bounce one time on their side of the table, and must return it so that it bounces on the opposite side at least once. A point is scored when a player fails to return the ball within the rules. Play is fast and demands quick reactions. Spinning the ball alters its trajectory and limits an opponent's options, giving the hitter a great advantage. | Le tennis de table, aussi appelé « ping-pong », est un sport de raquette opposant deux ou quatre joueurs autour d'une table. Le tennis de table est une activité de loisir, mais c'est également un sport olympique depuis 1988. | [
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] | null | null | null | null | null | null |
Benzene | Benzène | Benzene is an organic chemical compound with the molecular formula CH. The benzene molecule is composed of six carbon atoms joined in a planar ring with one hydrogen atom attached to each. As it contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms, benzene is classed as a hydrocarbon. | Le benzène est un composé organique de formule brute CH, également noté Ph-H, φ-H, ou encore φ-H. Il appartient à la famille des hydrocarbures aromatiques monocycliques, car le cycle formé par les six atomes de carbone est plan et comporte six électrons délocalisés. Dans les conditions usuelles, le benzène est un liquide incolore, d'odeur caractéristique, volatil, très inflammable et cancérogène. | [
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Lysergic acid diethylamide | LSD | Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), also known colloquially as acid, is a hallucinogenic drug. Effects typically include altered thoughts, feelings, and awareness of one's surroundings. Many users see or hear things that do not exist. Dilated pupils, increased blood pressure, and increased body temperature are typical. Effects typically begin within half an hour and can last for up to 12 hours. It is used mainly as a recreational drug or for spiritual reasons. LSD does not appear to be addictive, although tolerance may occur with use of increasing doses. Adverse psychiatric reactions are possible, such as anxiety, paranoia, and delusions. Distressing flashbacks might occur in spite of no further use, a condition called hallucinogen persisting perception disorder. Death is very rare as a direct result of LSD, though it occasionally occurs as the result of accidents or reckless behavior. The effects of LSD are believed to occur as a result of alterations in the serotonin system. As little as 20 micrograms can produce a noticeable effect. In pure form, LSD is clear or white in color, has no smell, and is crystalline. It breaks down with exposure to ultraviolet light. About 10 percent of people in the United States have used LSD at some point in their lives as of 2017, while 0.7 percent have used it in the last year. It was most popular in the 1960s to 1980s. LSD is typically either swallowed or held under the tongue. It is most often sold on blotter paper and less commonly as tablets or in gelatin squares. There are no known treatments for LSD addiction, though behavioral therapy is being studied. LSD was first made by Albert Hofmann in 1938 from lysergic acid, a chemical from the fungus ergot. Hofmann discovered its hallucinogenic properties in 1943. In the 1950s, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) believed that the drug might be useful for mind control, so they tested it on people, some without their knowledge, in a program called MKUltra. LSD was sold as a medication for research purposes under the trade-name Delysid in the 1950s and 1960s. It was listed as a schedule 1 controlled substance by the United Nations in 1971. It currently has no approved medical use. In Europe, as of 2011, the typical cost of a dose was between 4.50 and 25. | Le diéthyllysergamide (LSD, LSD-25, de l'allemand "" ) est un psychédélique hallucinogène et psychostimulant d'origine hémisynthétique. C'est un composé de la famille des lysergamides, dérivé de composés issus de l'ergot du seigle ("Claviceps purpurea"), un champignon qui pousse sur les céréales du genre Poaceae comme le seigle ou le blé. | [
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SHA-1 | SHA-1 | In cryptography, SHA-1 (Secure Hash Algorithm 1) is a cryptographic hash function which takes an input and produces a 160-bit (20-byte) hash value known as a message digest – typically rendered as a hexadecimal number, 40 digits long. It was designed by the United States National Security Agency, and is a U.S. Federal Information Processing Standard. | SHA-1 (, prononcé ) est une fonction de hachage cryptographique conçue par la des États-Unis (NSA), et publiée par le gouvernement des États-Unis comme un standard fédéral de traitement de l'information ( du (NIST)). Elle produit un résultat (appelé « » ou "condensat") de (20 octets), habituellement représenté par un nombre hexadécimal de 40 caractères. | [
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Berlin | Berlin | Berlin (; ) is the capital and largest city of Germany by both area and population. Its 3,769,495 (2019) inhabitants make it the most populous city proper of the European Union. The city is one of Germany's 16 federal states. It is surrounded by the state of Brandenburg, and contiguous with Potsdam, Brandenburg's capital. The two cities are at the center of the Berlin-Brandenburg capital region, which is, with about six million inhabitants and an area of more than 30,000 km2, Germany's third-largest metropolitan region after the Rhine-Ruhr and Rhine-Main regions. | Berlin ( ) est la capitale et la plus grande ville d'Allemagne. Institutionnellement, c’est une ville-État nommée "Land de Berlin". | [
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Fungicide | Fongicide | Fungicides are biocidal chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill parasitic fungi or their spores. A fungistatic inhibits their growth. Fungi can cause serious damage in agriculture, resulting in critical losses of yield, quality, and profit. Fungicides are used both in agriculture and to fight fungal infections in animals. Chemicals used to control oomycetes, which are not fungi, are also referred to as fungicides, as oomycetes use the same mechanisms as fungi to infect plants. | Un fongicide est une substance, appelée produit phytosanitaire ou pesticide, conçue pour éliminer ou limiter (fongistatique) le développement des champignons parasites des végétaux. Les produits à usages médicaux sont dénommés des antimycosiques. Les fongicides sont également produits à l'état naturel par certains végétaux pour lutter naturellement contre les parasites (ex : l'épervière piloselle, "Hieracium pilosella") ou comme défense contre les herbivores. Les racines du manioc ou encore les graines de lin contiennent du cyanure très toxique. Le cyanure bloque la respiration des cellules au niveau du complexe IV de la chaire respiratoire mitochondriale. Autre exemple, la roténone, un inhibiteur du complexe I de la respiration cellulaire, présente dans des plantes en Amazonie. En Polynésie, les pêcheurs en faisaient des boules qu'ils lançaient dans l'eau pour asphyxier les poissons, cette pêche a provoqué de nombreux cas de maladies de Parkinson. Les plantes étaient aussi utilisées lors de tentatives de suicide. | [
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Humus | Humus | In soil science, humus (derived in 1790–1800 from the Latin "humus" for earth, ground) denominates the fraction of soil organic matter that is amorphous and without the "cellular cake structure characteristic of plants, micro-organisms or animals". Humus significantly affects the bulk density of soil and contributes to its retention of moisture and nutrients. | L’humus est la couche supérieure du sol créée, entretenue et modifiée par la décomposition de la matière organique, principalement par l'action combinée des animaux, des bactéries et des champignons du sol. L’humus est une matière souple et aérée, qui absorbe et retient bien l'eau, de pH variable selon que la matière organique est liée ou non à des minéraux, d'aspect foncé (brunâtre à noir), à l’odeur caractéristique, variable selon qu'il s'agit d'une des nombreuses formes d'humus forestier, de prairie, ou de sol cultivé. | [
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Socrates | Socrate | Socrates (; "Sōkrátēs" ; – 399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, and as being the first moral philosopher of the Western ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, he made no writings, and is known chiefly through the accounts of classical writers writing after his lifetime, particularly his students Plato and Xenophon. Other sources include the contemporaneous Antisthenes, Aristippus, and Aeschines of Sphettos. Aristophanes, a playwright, is the main contemporary author to have written plays mentioning Socrates during Socrates' lifetime, though a fragment of Ion of Chios' "Travel Journal" provides important information about Socrates' youth. | Socrate (en / ) est un philosophe grec du (né vers -470/469, mort en -399). Il est connu comme l’un des créateurs de la philosophie morale. Socrate n’a laissé aucun écrit, sa pensée et sa réputation se sont transmises par des témoignages indirects. Ses disciples, Platon et Xénophon, ont notablement œuvré à maintenir l'image de leur maître, qui est mis en scène dans leurs œuvres respectives. | [
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Flower | Fleur | A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also called angiosperms). The biological function of a flower is to affect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs. Flowers may facilitate outcrossing (fusion of sperm and eggs from different individuals in a population) resulting from cross pollination or allow selfing (fusion of sperm and egg from the same flower) when self pollination occurs. Some flowers produce diaspores without fertilization (parthenocarpy). Flowers contain sporangia and are the site where gametophytes develop. Many flowers have evolved to be attractive to animals, so as to cause them to be vectors for the transfer of pollen. After fertilization, the ovary of the flower develops into fruit containing seeds. | En biologie, chez toutes sortes de "plantes à fleurs" (angiospermes), la fleur constitue l'organe de la reproduction sexuée et l'ensemble des « enveloppes » qui l'entourent. Après la pollinisation, la fleur est fécondée et se transforme en fruit contenant les graines. Les fleurs peuvent être solitaires, mais elles sont le plus souvent regroupées en inflorescences. | [
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Chess | Échecs | Chess is a two-player strategy board game played on a checkered board with 64 squares arranged in an 8×8 grid. Played by millions of people worldwide, chess is believed to be derived from the Indian game "chaturanga" sometime before the 7th century. Chaturanga is also the likely ancestor of the Eastern strategy games "xiangqi" (Chinese chess), "janggi" (Korean chess), and shogi (Japanese chess). Chess reached Europe by the 9th century, due to the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. The pieces assumed their current properties in Spain in the late 15th century, and the modern rules were standardized in the 19th century. | Le jeu d’échecs (prononcer ) oppose deux joueurs de part et d’autre d’un tablier appelé "échiquier" composé de soixante-quatre cases claires et sombres nommées les cases blanches et les cases noires. Les joueurs jouent à tour de rôle en déplaçant l'une de leurs seize pièces (ou deux pièces en cas de roque), claires pour le camp des blancs, sombres pour le camp des noirs. Chaque joueur possède au départ un roi, une dame, deux tours, deux fous, deux cavaliers et huit pions. Le but du jeu est d'infliger à son adversaire un échec et mat, une situation dans laquelle le roi d'un joueur est en prise sans qu'il soit possible d'y remédier. | [
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Maxis | Maxis | Maxis is an American video game developer and a division of Electronic Arts (EA). The studio was founded in 1987 by Will Wright and Jeff Braun, and acquired by EA in 1997. Maxis is best known for its simulation games, including "The Sims", "Spore" and "SimCity". | Maxis est une société américaine de création de jeux vidéo fondée par Jeff Braun et Will Wright en 1987 et qui appartient à Electronic Arts. | [
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Light-year | Année-lumière | The light-year is a unit of length used to express astronomical distances and measures about 9.46 trillion kilometres (9.46 x 10 km) or 5.88 trillion miles (5.88 x 10 mi). As defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), a light-year is the distance that light travels in vacuum in one Julian year (365.25 days). Because it includes the word "year", the term light-year may be misinterpreted as a unit of time. | L’année-lumière est une unité de longueur utilisée en astronomie. Son symbole est al, bien qu'on rencontre aussi AL, A.L. ou a.l. Au pluriel, on écrit « des années-lumière ». On rencontre aussi couramment le symbole anglophone ly, pour "light year". Anciennement, on pouvait utiliser « année de lumière ». | [
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KOffice | KOffice | KOffice is an unmaintained free and open source office suite and graphics suite by KDE for Unix-like systems and Windows. KOffice contains a word processor (KWord), a spreadsheet (KSpread), a presentation program (KPresenter), and a number of other components that varied over the course of KOffice’s development. | KOffice était le nom de la suite bureautique officielle de l'environnement KDE. Suite à un conflit entre les développeurs, l'ensemble du projet est devenu Calligra Suite en 2010. Elle contient un logiciel de traitement de texte (KWord), un tableur (KCells), un logiciel de présentation (Showcase), un logiciel pour faire des diagrammes (Kivio) et un logiciel de dessin (Artwork). Ces logiciels peuvent être utilisés en tant qu'applications indépendantes ou intégrés dans une interface unique. | [
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Will Wright (game designer) | Will Wright | William Ralph Wright (born January 20, 1960) is an American video game designer and co-founder of the former game development company Maxis, and then part of Electronic Arts (EA). In April 2009, he left EA to run Stupid Fun Club Camp, an entertainment think tank in which Wright and EA are principal shareholders. | Will Wright, né en 1960 à Atlanta, est le cofondateur (en 1987) de la société de création de jeu vidéo américaine Maxis. Il est, entre autres, le concepteur de la série des "SimCity" et des "Sims". | [
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SimCity | SimCity | SimCity is an open-ended city-building video game series originally designed by Will Wright. The first game in the series, "SimCity", was published by Maxis in 1989. The success of "SimCity" sparked the creation of several sequels and many other spin-off ""Sim"" titles, including 2000's "The Sims", which itself became a best-selling computer game and franchise. | Alors que Will Wright développe un jeu d'hélicoptère, il prend tellement de plaisir à imaginer les villes en arrière fond qu'il a l'idée de développer "SimCity", ce jeu révolutionnaire à l'époque. En effet, il s'agit du premier jeu vidéo « sans fin », ce qui a posé des problèmes au concepteur pour le produire. | [
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Maginot Line | Ligne Maginot | The Maginot Line (, ), named after the French Minister of War André Maginot, is a line of concrete fortifications, obstacles, and weapon installations built by France in the 1930s to deter invasion by Germany and force them to move around the fortifications. | La ligne Maginot, du nom du ministre de la Guerre André Maginot, est une ligne de fortifications construite par la France le long de sa frontière avec la Belgique, le Luxembourg, l'Allemagne, la Suisse et l'Italie de 1928 à 1940. | [
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Alan Turing | Alan Turing | Alan Mathison Turing (; 23 June 1912 – 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician, computer scientist, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher, and theoretical biologist. Turing was highly influential in the development of theoretical computer science, providing a formalisation of the concepts of algorithm and computation with the Turing machine, which can be considered a model of a general-purpose computer. Turing is widely considered to be the father of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence. Despite these accomplishments, he was never fully recognised in his home country during his lifetime due to his homosexuality and because much of his work was covered by the Official Secrets Act. | Alan Mathison Turing, né le à Londres et mort le à Wilmslow, est un mathématicien et cryptologue britannique, auteur de travaux qui fondent scientifiquement l'informatique. | [
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Monoamine oxidase | Monoamine oxydase | Monoamine oxidases (MAO) () are a family of enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of monoamines, employing oxygen to clip off their amine group. They are found bound to the outer membrane of mitochondria in most cell types of the body. The first such enzyme was discovered in 1928 by Mary Bernheim in the liver and was named tyramine oxidase. The MAOs belong to the protein family of flavin-containing amine oxidoreductases. | Les monoamines oxydases (MAO) () sont un groupe d'oxydoréductases intervenant dans le catabolisme des monoamines, notamment de la sérotonine. On les trouve dans la membrane mitochondriale externe de la plupart des types de cellules du corps et dans le cerveau au niveau des synapses. Elles catalysent des réactions du type : | [
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Renin | Rénine | Renin (etymology and pronunciation), also known as an angiotensinogenase, is an aspartic protease protein and enzyme secreted by the kidneys that participates in the body's renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS)—also known as the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone axis—that mediates the volume of extracellular fluid (blood plasma, lymph and interstitial fluid) and arterial vasoconstriction. Thus, it regulates the body's mean arterial blood pressure. | La rénine (également appelée angiotensinogénase) est une enzyme du système rénine-angiotensine-aldostérone. Elle a été découverte par Robert Tigerstedt en 1898. Chez l'Homme, elle est codée par le gène "REN", situé sur le chromosome 1. | [
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] | null | null | null | null | null | null |
Plato | Platon | Plato ( ; "Plátōn", in Classical Attic; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was an Athenian philosopher during the Classical period in Ancient Greece, founder of the Platonist school of thought, and the Academy, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. | Platon (en grec ancien / ), né en 428 / 427 av. J.-C. et mort en 348 / 347 av. J.-C. à Athènes, est un philosophe antique de la Grèce classique, contemporain de la démocratie athénienne et des sophistes qu'il critiqua vigoureusement. Il reprit le travail philosophique de certains de ses prédécesseurs, notamment Socrate dont il fut l'élève, ainsi que Parménide, Héraclite et Pythagore, afin d'élaborer sa propre pensée. Celle-ci explore la plupart des champs importants, c'est-à-dire la métaphysique et l'éthique, l'esthétique et la politique. | [
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Ondes Martenot | Ondes Martenot | The ondes Martenot ( ;, "Martenot waves") or ondes musicales ("musical waves") is an early electronic musical instrument. It is played with a keyboard or by moving a ring along a wire, creating "wavering" sounds similar to a theremin. A player of the ondes martenot is called an ondist. | Les ondes Martenot sont un instrument de musique électronique, inventé par Maurice Martenot et présenté au public en 1928. Un joueur d'ondes Martenot est appelé un ondiste. | [
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Pythagorean theorem | Théorème de Pythagore | In mathematics, the Pythagorean theorem, also known as Pythagoras' theorem, is a fundamental relation in Euclidean geometry among the three sides of a right triangle. It states that the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares on the other two sides. This theorem can be written as an equation relating the lengths of the sides "a", "b" and "c", often called the "Pythagorean equation": where "c" represents the length of the hypotenuse and "a" and "b" the lengths of the triangle's other two sides. The theorem, whose history is the subject of much debate, is named for the ancient Greek thinker Pythagoras. | Le théorème de Pythagore est un théorème de géométrie euclidienne qui met en relation les longueurs des côtés dans un triangle rectangle : le carré de la longueur de l’hypoténuse, qui est le côté opposé à l'angle droit, est égal à la somme des carrés des longueurs des deux autres côtés. | [
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Mediterranean Sea | Mer Méditerranée | The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant. Although the sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, it is usually referred to as a separate body of water. Geological evidence indicates that around 5.9 million years ago, the Mediterranean was cut off from the Atlantic and was partly or completely desiccated over a period of some 600,000 years during the Messinian salinity crisis before being refilled by the Zanclean flood about 5.3 million years ago. | La mer Méditerranée ( ) est une mer intercontinentale presque entièrement fermée, bordée par les côtes d'Europe du sud, d’Afrique du Nord et d’Asie de l'Ouest, depuis le détroit de Gibraltar à l'ouest aux entrées des Dardanelles et du canal de Suez à l'est. Elle s’étend sur une superficie d’environ 2,5 millions de kilomètres carrés. Son ouverture vers l’océan Atlantique par le détroit de Gibraltar est large de. | [
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Joe Strummer | Joe Strummer | John Graham Mellor (21 August 1952 – 22 December 2002), known from May 1975 as Joe Strummer, was a British musician, singer, composer, actor and songwriter who was the co-founder, lyricist, rhythm guitarist and co-lead vocalist of the Clash, a rock band formed in 1976 as part of the original wave of British punk rock. | John Graham Mellor, dit Joe Strummer, né le à Ankara et mort le à Broomfield, est un musicien britannique connu principalement pour avoir été le leader du groupe The Clash, l'un des groupes les plus emblématiques du courant punk. Il a également été chanteur (par ordre chronologique) de "The Vultures", "The 101'ers", et "The Mescaleros". | [
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Blaise Pascal | Blaise Pascal | Blaise Pascal (,,, ; 19 June 1623 – 19 August 1662) was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and Catholic theologian. He was a child prodigy who was educated by his father, a tax collector in Rouen. Pascal's earliest work was in the natural and applied sciences, where he made important contributions to the study of fluids, and clarified the concepts of pressure and vacuum by generalising the work of Evangelista Torricelli. Pascal also wrote in defence of the scientific method. | Blaise Pascal, né le à Clermont (aujourd'hui Clermont-Ferrand) en Auvergne et mort le à Paris, est un mathématicien, physicien, inventeur, philosophe, moraliste et théologien français. | [
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Meuse | Meuse (fleuve) | The Meuse (,, ; ) or Maas (, ; or ) is a major European river, rising in France and flowing through Belgium and the Netherlands before draining into the North Sea from the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta. It has a total length of. | La Meuse () (néerlandais : "Maas", wallon : "Moûse") est un fleuve européen de de long dont le bassin, relativement étroit, est orienté sud-nord. Elle traverse la France, la Belgique et les Pays-Bas et se jette dans la mer du Nord. Elle prend sa source à d’altitude à Pouilly-en-Bassigny. | [
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Warsaw Convention | Convention de Varsovie | The Convention for the Unification of certain rules relating to international carriage by air, commonly known as the Warsaw Convention, is an international convention which regulates liability for international carriage of persons, luggage, or goods performed by aircraft for reward. | La Convention de Varsovie est une convention internationale qui régit tout transport international de personnes, bagages ou marchandises, effectué par aéronef contre rémunération. La Convention de Montréal, Convention pour l’unification de certaines règles relatives au transport aérien international a été mise en place dans le but de la remplacer, cependant de nombreux états n'ont pas signé la Convention de Montréal et restent soumis au système varsovien. | [
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Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation | Convention de Chicago | The Convention on International Civil Aviation, also known as the Chicago Convention, established the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a specialized agency of the UN charged with coordinating international air travel. The Convention establishes rules of airspace, aircraft registration and safety, security, and sustainability, and details the rights of the signatories in relation to air travel. The Convention also contains provisions pertaining to taxation. | La Convention relative à l'aviation civile internationale, connue aussi sous le nom de Convention de Chicago, a instauré l'Organisation de l'aviation civile internationale (OACI), une agence spécialisée des Nations unies qui est chargée de la coordination et de la régulation du transport aérien international. | [
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Pierre Boulez | Pierre Boulez | Pierre Louis Joseph Boulez CBE (; 26 March 1925 – 5 January 2016) was a French composer, conductor, writer and founder of several musical institutions. He was one of the dominant figures of the post-war classical music world. | Pierre Boulez, né le à Montbrison et mort le à Baden-Baden, est un compositeur et chef d'orchestre français. Fondateur, puis directeur de l'Institut de recherche et coordination acoustique/musique (IRCAM) et de l'Ensemble intercontemporain, il est également professeur au Collège de France, chaire « Invention, technique et langage en musique », de 1978 à 1995. | [
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Subsets and Splits