Datasets:

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StivenLancheros

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Subdivisions.", "Climate.", "Etymology.", "History.", "Pre- and early history.", "Early modern era.", "Governorate of Potsdam.", "20th century.", "Demography.", "International residents.", "Governance.", "City government.", "Brandenburg state government.", "Twin towns - sister cities.", "Infrastructure.", "Transport.", "Rail transport.", "Road transport.", "Education and research.", "Culture.", "Parks." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The area was formed from a series of large moraines left after the last glacial period. Today, only one quarter of the city is built up, the rest remaining as green space. There are about 20 lakes and rivers in and around Potsdam, such as the Havel, the Griebnitzsee, Templiner See, Tiefer See, Jungfernsee, Teltowkanal, Heiliger See, and Sacrower See. The highest point is the high \"Kleiner Ravensberg\".", "Potsdam is divided into seven historic city \"Bezirke\" and nine new \"Stadtteile\" (villages), which joined the city in 2003. The appearance of the city quarters is quite different. Those in the north and in the centre consist mainly of historical buildings, the south of the city is dominated by larger areas of newer buildings. The city of Potsdam is divided into 34 \"Stadtteile\" (or quarters), which are divided further into 84 statistical \"Bezirke\". Today one distinguishes between the older parts of the city (areas of the historic city and places suburbanized at the latest in 1939) - these are the city center, the western and northern suburbs, Bornim, Bornstedt, Nedlitz, Potsdam South, Babelsberg, Drewitz, Stern and Kirchsteigfeld - and those communities incorporated after 1990 which have since 2003 become \"Stadtteile\" - these are Eiche, Fahrland, Golm, Groß Glienicke, Grube, Marquardt, Neu Fahrland, Satzkorn and Uetz-Paaren. The new \"Stadtteile\" are located mainly in the north of the city. For the history of all incorporations, see the relevant section on incorporation and spin-offs. \"Structure with statistical numbering:\"", "Officially the climate is oceanic - more degraded by being far from the coast and to the east (Köppen: \"Cfb\"), but using the 1961-1990 normal and the 0 °C isotherm the city has a humid continental climate (\"Dfb\"), which also shows a slight influence of the continent different from the climates predominantly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Low averages below freezing for almost all winter causing snows that are frequent and winters are cold, but not as stringent as inland locations or with greater influence from the same. Summer is also relatively warm with temperatures between 23 and 24 °C, the heat waves being influenced by the UHI of Potsdam. The average winter high temperature is, with a low of. Snow is common in the winter. Spring and autumn are short. Summers are mild, with a high of and a low of.", "The name \"Potsdam\" originally seems to have been \"Poztupimi\". A common theory is that it derives from an old West Slavonic term meaning \"beneath the oaks\", i.e., the corrupted \"pod dubmi/dubimi\" (\"pod\" \"beneath\", \"dub\" \"oak\"). However some question this explanation.", "", "The area around Potsdam shows signs of occupancy since the Bronze Age and was part of \"Magna Germania\" as described by Tacitus. After the great migrations of the Germanic peoples, Slavs moved in and Potsdam was probably founded after the 7th century as a settlement of the Hevelli tribe centred on a castle. It was first mentioned in a document in 993 as \"Poztupimi\", when Emperor Otto III gifted the territory to the Quedlinburg Abbey, then led by his aunt Matilda. By 1317, it was mentioned as a small town. It gained its town charter in 1345. In 1573, it was still a small market town of 2,000 inhabitants.", "Potsdam lost nearly half of its population due to the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). A continuous Hohenzollern possession since 1415, Potsdam became prominent, when it was chosen in 1660 as the hunting residence of Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg, the core of the powerful state that later became the Kingdom of Prussia. It also housed Prussian barracks. After the Edict of Potsdam in 1685, Potsdam became a centre of European immigration. Its religious freedom attracted people from France (Huguenots), Russia, the Netherlands and Bohemia. The edict accelerated population growth and economic recovery. Later, the city became a full residence of the Prussian royal family. The buildings of the royal residences were built mainly during the reign of Frederick the Great. One of these is the Sanssouci Palace (French: \"without cares\", by Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff, 1744), famed for its formal gardens and Rococo interiors. Other royal residences include the New Palace and the Orangery. In 1815, at the formation of the Province of Brandenburg, Potsdam became the provincial capital until 1918, except for a period between 1827 and 1843 when Berlin was the provincial capital (as it became once again after 1918). The province comprised two governorates named after their capitals Potsdam and Frankfurt (Oder).", "Between 1815 and 1945, the city of Potsdam served as capital of the governorate of Potsdam (). The \"Regierungsbezirk\" encompassed the former districts of Uckermark, the Mark of Priegnitz, and the greater part of the Middle March. It was situated between Mecklenburg and the Province of Pomerania on the north, and the Province of Saxony on the south and west (Berlin, with a small surrounding district, was an urban governorate and enclave within the governorate of Potsdam between 1815 and 1822, then it merged as urban district into the governorate only to be disentangled again from Potsdam governorate in 1875, becoming a distinct province-like entity on 1 April 1881). Towards the north west the governorate was bounded by the rivers Elbe and the Havel, and on the north east by the Oder. The south eastern boundary was to the neighbouring governorate of Frankfurt (Oder). About 500,000 inhabitants lived in the Potsdam governorate, which covered an area of about, divided into thirteen rural districts, partially named after their capitals: The traditional towns in the governorate were small, however, in the course of the industrial labour migration some reached the rank of urban districts. The principal towns were Brandenburg upon Havel, Köpenick, Potsdam, Prenzlau, Spandau and Ruppin. Until 1875 Berlin also was a town within the governorate. After its disentanglement a number of its suburbs outside Berlin's municipal borders grew to towns, many forming urban \"Bezirke\" within the governorate of Potsdam such as Charlottenburg, Lichtenberg, Rixdorf (after 1912 Neukölln), and Schöneberg (all of which, as well as Köpenick and Spandau, incorporated into Greater Berlin in 1920). The urban \"Bezirke\" were (years indicating the elevation to rank of urban \"Bezirk\"or affiliation with Potsdam governorate, respectively):", "Berlin was the capital of Prussia and later of the German Empire, but the court remained in Potsdam, where many government officials settled. In 1914, Emperor Wilhelm II signed the Declaration of War in the \"Neues Palais\" (New Palace). The city lost its status as a \"second capital\" in 1918, when Wilhelm II abdicated and Germany became a Republic at the end of World War I. At the start of the Third Reich in 1933 there was a ceremonial handshake between President Paul von Hindenburg and the new Chancellor Adolf Hitler on 21 March 1933 in Potsdam's Garrison Church in what became known as the \"Day of Potsdam\". This symbolised a coalition of the military (\"Reichswehr\") and Nazism. Potsdam was severely damaged by Allied bombing raids during World War II. The Cecilienhof Palace was the scene of the Potsdam Conference from 17 July to 2 August 1945, at which the victorious Allied leaders (Harry S. Truman; Winston Churchill and his successor, Clement Attlee; and Joseph Stalin) met to decide the future of Germany and postwar Europe in general. The conference ended with the Potsdam Agreement and the Potsdam Declaration. The government of East Germany (formally known as the German Democratic Republic (German: \"Deutsche Demokratische Republik\", DDR)) tried to remove symbols of \"Prussian militarism\". Many historic buildings, some of them badly damaged in the war, were demolished. When in 1946 the remainder of the Province of Brandenburg west of the Oder-Neiße line was constituted as the state of Brandenburg, Potsdam became its capital. In 1952 the GDR disestablished its federal states and replaced them by smaller new East German administrative districts known as \"Bezirke\". Potsdam became the capital of the new \"Bezirk Potsdam\" until 1990. Potsdam, south-west of Berlin, lay just outside West Berlin after the construction of the Berlin Wall. The walling off of West Berlin not only isolated Potsdam from West Berlin, but also doubled commuting times to East Berlin. The Glienicke Bridge across the Havel connected the city to West Berlin and was the scene of some Cold War exchanges of spies. After German reunification, Potsdam became the capital of the newly re-established state of Brandenburg. Since then there have been many ideas and efforts to reconstruct the original appearance of the city, including the Potsdam City Palace and the Garrison Church.", "Since 2000 Potsdam has been one of the fastest growing cities in Germany.", "Largest groups of foreign residents:", "", "Potsdam has had a mayor (\"Bürgermeister\") and city council since the 15th century. From 1809 the city council was elected, with a mayor (\"Oberbürgermeister\") at its head. During the Third Reich the mayor was selected by the NSDAP and the city council was dissolved; it was reconstituted in token form after 1945, but free elections did not take place until after reunification. Today, the city council is the city's central administrative authority. Local elections took place on 26 October 2003 and again in 2008. Between 1990 and 1999, the Chairman of the City Council was known as the \"Town President\" but today the post is the \"Chairman of the City Council\". The mayor is elected directly by the population.", "The Landtag Brandenburg, the parliament of the federal state of Brandenburg is in Potsdam. It has been housed in the Potsdam City Palace since 2014.", "Potsdam is twinned with:", "", "", "Potsdam, included in the fare zone \"C\" (\"Tarifbereich C\") of Berlin's public transport area and fare zones A and B of its own public transport area, is served by the S7 \"S-Bahn\" line. The stations served are Griebnitzsee, Babelsberg and the Central Station (\"Hauptbahnhof\"), the main and long-distance station of the city. Other DB stations in Potsdam are Charlottenhof, Park Sanssouci (including the monumental \"Kaiserbahnhof\"), Medienstadt Babelsberg, Rehbrücke, Pirschheide and Marquardt. The city also possesses a 27 km-long tramway network.", "Potsdam is served by several motorways: the A 10, a beltway better known as \"Berliner Ring\", the A 115 (using part of the AVUS) and is closely linked to the A 2 and A 9. The B 1 and B 2 federal roads cross the city. Potsdam features a network of urban and suburban buses.", "Potsdam is a university town. The University of Potsdam was founded in 1991 as a university of the State of Brandenburg. Its predecessor was the \"Akademie für Staats- und Rechtswissenschaften der DDR \"Walter Ulbricht\"\", a college of education founded in 1948 which was one of the GDR's most important colleges. There are about 20,000 students enrolled at the university. In 1991 the \"Fachhochschule Potsdam\" was founded as the second college. It had 3,518 students as of 2017. Konrad Wolf Film University of Babelsberg (HFF), founded in 1954 in Babelsberg, is the foremost centre of the German film industry since its birth, with over 600 students. There are also several research foundations, including Fraunhofer Institutes for Applied Polymer Research and Biomedical Engineering, Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics (\"Albert Einstein Institute\"), Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, and Max Planck Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology, the GFZ - German Research Centre for Geosciences, the Potsdam Astrophysical Institute, the Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies, The Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy and the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, which employs 340 people in researching climate change. As well as universities, Potsdam is home to reputable secondary schools. Montessori Gesamtschule Potsdam, in western Potsdam, attracts 400 students from the Brandenburg and Berlin region.", "Potsdam was historically a centre of European immigration. Its religious tolerance attracted people from France, Russia, the Netherlands and Bohemia. This is still visible in the culture and architecture of the city. The most popular attraction in Potsdam is Sanssouci Park, west of the city centre. In 1744 King Frederick the Great ordered the construction of a residence here, where he could live \"sans souci\" (\"without worries\", in the French spoken at the court). The park hosts a botanical garden (Botanical Garden, Potsdam) and many buildings: Three gates from the original city wall remain today. The oldest is the Hunters' Gate (\"Jägertor\"), built in 1733. The Nauener Tor was built in 1755 and close to the historic Dutch Quarter. The ornate Brandenburg Gate (built in 1770, not to be confused with the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin) is situated on the Luisenplatz at the western entrance to the old town. The Old Market Square (\"Alter Markt\") is Potsdam's historical city centre. For three centuries this was the site of the City Palace (\"Stadtschloß\"), a royal palace built in 1662. Under Frederick the Great, the palace became the winter residence of the Prussian kings. The palace was severely damaged by Allied bombing in 1945 and demolished in 1961 by the Communist authorities. In 2002 the Fortuna Gate (\"Fortunaportal\") was rebuilt in its original historic position which was followed by a complete reconstruction of the palace as the Brandenburg Landtag building inaugurated in 2014. Nearby the square in the Humboldtstraße block, which also was demolished after getting damaged in 1945, reconstructions of several representative residential palaces including Palazzo Pompei and Palazzo Barberini housing an arts museum were completed in 2016-2017 alongside buildings with modernized facades to restore the historical proportions of the block. The Old Market Square is dominated today by the dome of St. Nicholas' Church (\"Nikolaikirche\"), built in 1837 in the Neoclassical style. It was the last work of Karl Friedrich Schinkel, who designed the building but did not live to see its completion. It was finished by his disciples Friedrich August Stüler and Ludwig Persius. The eastern side of the Market Square is dominated by the Old City Hall (\"Altes Rathaus\"), built in 1755 by the Dutch architect Jan Bouman (1706–1776). It has a characteristic circular tower, crowned with a gilded Atlas bearing the world on his shoulders. North of the Old Market Square is the oval French Church (\"Französische Kirche\"), erected in the 1750s by Boumann for the Huguenot community. To the south lies the Museum Barberini, a copy of the previous building, the Barberini Palace. The museum was funded by the German billionaire Hasso Plattner. The former Baroque building was built by Carl von Gontard in 1771–1772, inspired by the Renaissance palace Palazzo Barberini in Rome. The newly built museum was scheduled to open in spring 2017. Another landmark of Potsdam is the two-street Dutch Quarter (\"Holländisches Viertel\"), an ensemble of buildings that is unique in Europe, with about 150 houses built of red bricks in the Dutch style. It was built between 1734 and 1742 under the direction of Jan Bouman to be used by Dutch artisans and craftsmen who had been invited to settle here by King Frederick Wilhelm I. Today, this area is one of Potsdam's most visited quarters. North of the city centre is the Russian colony of Alexandrowka, a small enclave of Russian architecture (including an Orthodox chapel) built in 1825 for a group of Russian immigrants. Since 1999, the colony has been part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and Berlin. East of the Alexandrowka colony is a large park, the New Garden (\"Neuer Garten\"), which was laid out from 1786 in the English style. The site contains two palaces; one of them, the Cecilienhof, was where the Potsdam Conference was held in July and August 1945. The \"Marmorpalais\" (Marble Palace) was built in 1789 in Neoclassical style. Nearby is the \"Biosphäre Potsdam\", a tropical botanical garden. Babelsberg, a quarter south-east of the centre, houses the UFA film studios (Babelsberg Studios), and an extensive park with some historical buildings, including the Babelsberg Palace (Schloß Babelsberg, a Gothic revival palace designed by Schinkel). The Einstein Tower is located within the Albert Einstein Science Park, which is on the top of the \"Telegraphenberg\" within an astronomy compound. Potsdam also features a memorial centre in the former KGB prison in Leistikowstraße. In the Volkspark to the north, there is one of the last monuments dedicated to Lenin in Germany. Potsdam joined UNESCO's Network of Creative Cities as a Design City on October 31, 2019 on the occasion of World Cities’ Day.", "There are many parks in Potsdam, most of them UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Among their attractions are:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "History.", "Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.", "Russian Empire.", "During the Holocaust.", "Post-War.", "Geographic distribution.", "Lithuania.", "Religion.", "Genetics.", "Culture.", "Language.", "Cuisine." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Turkic-speaking Karaites (in the Crimean Tatar language, \"Qaraylar\") have lived in Crimea for centuries. Their origin is a matter of great controversy. Some modern scientists regard them as descendants of Karaite Jews who settled in Crimea and adopted a form of the Kypchak tongue (see Karaim language). Others view them as descendants of Khazar or Cuman, Kipchak converts to Karaite Judaism. Today many Crimean Karaites reject ethnic Semitic origins theories and identify as descendants of the Khazars. Some specialists in Khazar history question the Khazar theory of Karaim origins, noting the following: In 19th century Crimea, Karaites began to distinguish themselves from other Jewish groups, sending envoys to the czars to plead for exemptions from harsh anti-Jewish legislation. These entreaties were successful, in large part due to the czars’ wariness of the Talmud, and in 1863 Karaites were granted the same rights as their Christian and Tatar neighbors. Exempted from the Pale of Settlement, later they were considered non Jews by Nazis. This left the community untouched by Holocaust, unlike other Turkic-speaking Jews, like the Krymchak Jews that were almost wiped out. Modern Karaim resist being identified as Jews, emphasizing their Turkic heritage and claiming they are Turkic practitioners of a \"Mosaic religion\" separate and distinct from Judaism. Miller says that Crimean Karaites did not start claiming a distinct identity apart from the Jewish people before the 19th century, and that such leaders as Avraham Firkovich and Sima Babovich encouraged this position to avoid the strong anti-Semitism of the period. From the time of the Golden Horde onward, Karaites were present in many towns and villages throughout Crimea and around the Black Sea. During the period of the Crimean Khanate, they had major communities in the towns of Çufut Qale, Sudak, Kefe, and Bakhchisaray.", "", "According to Karaite tradition, Grand Duke Vytautas of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania relocated one branch of the Crimean Karaites to Lithuania ordering to build them a town, called today Trakai. There they continued to speak their own language. This legend originally referring to 1218 as the date of relocation contradicts the fact that the Lithuanian dialect of the Karaim language differs significantly from the Crimean one. The Lithuanian Karaites settled primarily in Vilnius and Trakai, as well as in Biržai, Pasvalys, Naujamiestis and Upytė – smaller settlements throughout Lithuania proper. The Lithuanian Karaites also settled in lands of modern Belarus and Ukraine, which were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Karaite communities emerged in Halych and Kukeziv (near Lviv) in Galicia, as well as in Lutsk and Derazhne in Volhynia. Jews (Rabbinites and Karaites) in Lithuanian territory were granted a measure of autonomy under Michel Ezofovich Senior's management. The Trakai Karaim refused to comply, citing differences in faith. Later all Jews, including Karaites, were submitted to Rabbinite \"Council of Four Lands\" (Vaad) and \"Council of the Land of Lithuania\" taxation (1580–1646). The Yiddish-speaking Rabbinites considered the Turkic-speaking Karaites to be apostates, and kept them in a subordinate and depressed position. The Karaites resented this treatment. In 1646 the Karaites gained expulsion of the Rabbinites from Trakai. Despite such tensions, in 1680 Rabbinite community leaders defended the Karaites of Shaty (near Trakai) against blood accusation. Representatives of both groups signed an agreement in 1714 to respect the mutual privileges and resolve disputes without involving the Gentile administration. According to Crimean Karaite tradition, which developed in the 20th century inter-war Poland their forefathers were mainly farmers and members of the community who served in the military forces of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, as well as in the Crimean Khanate.But according to the historical documents of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the chief occupation of the Crimean Karaites was usury. They were granted special privileges, including exemption from the military service. In the Crimean Khanate, the Karaites were repressed like other Jews, with prohibitions on behavior extended to riding horses. Some famous Karaim scholars in Lithuania included Isaac b. Abraham of Troki (1543–1598), Joseph ben Mordecai Malinovski, Zera ben Nathan of Trakai, Salomon ben Aharon of Trakai, Ezra ben Nissan (died in 1666) and Josiah ben Judah (died after 1658). Some of the Karaim became quite wealthy. During the times of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Karaim suffered severely during the Chmielnicki Uprising of 1648 and the wars between Russia and Commonwealth in the years 1654–1667. The many towns plundered and burnt included Derazhne and Trakai, where only 30 families were left in 1680. The destruction of the Karaite community in Derazhne in 1649 is described in a poem (both in Hebrew and Karaim language) by a leader of the congregation, Hazzan Joseph ben Yesh'uah Ha-Mashbir. Catholic missionaries worked to convert the local Karaim to Christianity, but were largely unsuccessful.", "19th century leaders of the Karaim, such as Sima Babovich and Avraham Firkovich, were driving forces behind a concerted effort to alter the status of the Karaite community in eyes of the Russian legal system. Firkovich in particular was adamant in his attempts to connect the Karaim with the Khazars, and has been accused of forging documents and inscriptions to back up his claims. Ultimately, the Tsarist government officially recognized the Karaim as being innocent of the death of Jesus. So they were exempt from many of the harsh restrictions placed on other Jews. They were, in essence, placed on equal legal footing with Crimean Tatars. The related Krymchak community, which was of similar ethnolinguistic background but which practiced rabbinical Judaism, continued to suffer under Tsarist anti-Jewish laws. Solomon Krym (1864–1936), a Crimean Karaite agronomist, was elected in 1906 to the First Duma (1906–1907) as a \"Kadet\" (National Democratic Party). On November 16, 1918 he became the Prime Minister of a short-lived Crimean Russian liberal, anti-separatist and anti-Soviet government also supported by the German army. Since the incorporation of Crimea into the Russian Empire the main center of the Qarays is the city of Yevpatoria. Their status under Russian imperial rule bore beneficial fruits for the Karaites decades later.", "In 1934, the heads of the Karaite community in Berlin asked the Nazi authorities to exempt Karaites from the anti-Semitic regulations based on their legal status as Russians in Russia. The Reich Agency for the Investigation of Families determined that, from the standpoint of German law, the Karaites were not to be considered Jews. The letter from the Reichsstelle für Sippenforschung officially ruled: This ruling set the tone for how the Nazis dealt with the Karaite community in Eastern Europe. At the same time, the Nazis had serious reservations about the Karaites. SS Obergruppenfuhrer Gottlob Berger wrote on November 24, 1944: \"Their Mosaic religion is unwelcome. However, on grounds of race, language and religious dogma... Discrimination against the Karaites is unacceptable, in consideration of their racial kinsmen [Berger was here referring to the Crimean Tatars]. However, so as not to infringe the unified anti-Jewish orientation of the nations led by Germany, it is suggested that this small group be given the opportunity of a separate existence (for example, as a closed construction or labor battalion)...\" Despite having exempt status, groups of Karaites were massacred in the early phases of the war. German soldiers who came across Karaites in Russia during the invasion of Operation Barbarossa, unaware of their legal status under German law, attacked them; 200 were killed at Babi Yar alone. German allies such as Vichy France began to require the Karaites to register as Jews, but eventually granted them non-Jewish status after getting orders by Berlin. When interrogated, Ashkenazi rabbis in Crimea told the Germans that Karaites were not Jews, in an effort to spare the Karaite community the fate of their Rabbanite neighbors. Many Karaites risked their lives to hide Jews, and in some cases claimed that Jews were members of their community. The Nazis impressed many Karaites into labor battalions. In Vilnius and Trakai, the Nazis forced Karaite Hakham Seraya Shapshal to produce a list of the members of the community. Though he did his best, not every Karaite was saved by Shapshal's list.", "After the Soviet recapture of Crimea from Nazi forces in 1944, the Soviet authorities counted 6,357 remaining Karaites. Karaites were not subject to mass deportation, unlike the Crimean Tatars, Greeks, Armenians and others the Soviet authorities alleged had collaborated during the Nazi German occupation. Some individual Karaites were deported. Assimilation and emigration greatly reduced the ranks of the Karaite community. A few thousand Karaites remain in Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Russia and Poland. Other minor communities exist in Israel, Turkey, the United States, and Great Britain. In the 1990s, about 500 Crimean Karaites, mainly from Ukraine, emigrated to Israel under the Law of Return. The Israeli Chief Rabbinate has ruled that Karaites are Jews under Jewish law.", "The name \"Crimean Karaites\" has often been considered as something of a misnomer, as many branches of this community found their way to locations throughout Europe. As time went on, some of these communities spread throughout the region, including to Crimea. According to Karaite tradition, all the Eastern European Karaite communities were derived from those in the Crimea, but some modern historians doubt the Crimean origin of Lithuanian Karaites. Nevertheless, this name, \"Crimean Karaites\" is used for the Turkic-speaking Karaites community supposed to have originated in Crimea, distinguishing it from the historically Aramaic, Hebrew, and Arabic-speaking Karaites of the Middle East. For the purposes of this article, the terms \"Crimean Karaites\", \"Karaim\", and \"Qarays\" are used interchangeably, while \"Karaites\" alone refers to the general Karaite branch of Judaism.", "The local Karaim communities still exist in Lithuania (where they live mostly in Panevėžys and Trakai regions) and Poland. The 1979 census in the USSR showed 3,300 Karaim. \"Lithuanian Karaim Culture Community\" was founded in 1988. According to the Lithuanian Karaim website the Statistics Department of Lithuania carried out an ethno-statistic research entitled \"Karaim in Lithuania\" in 1997. It was decided to question all adult Karaim and mixed families, where one of the members is a Karaim. During the survey, for the beginning of 1997, there were 257 people of Karaim nationality, 32 of whom were children under 16.", "Until the 20th century, Karaite Judaism was the only religion of the Karaim, During the Russian Civil War a significant number of Karaim emigrated to Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Hungary and then France and Germany. Most of them converted to Christianity. The Karaim's modern national movement philanthropist M.S. Sarach was one of them. The Crimean Karaites' emancipation in the Russian Empire caused cultural assimilation followed by secularization. This process continued in the USSR when most of the kenesas were closed. In 1928 secular Karaim philologist Seraya Shapshal was elected as Hacham of Polish and Lithuanian Karaim. Being a strong adopter of Russian orientalist V. Grigorjev's theory about the Khazarian origin of the Crimean Karaites, Shapshal developed the Karaim's religion and \"historical dejudaization\" doctrine. In the mid 1930s, he began to create a theory describing the Altai-Turkic origin of the Karaim and the pagan roots of Karaite religious teaching (worship of sacred oaks, polytheism, led by the god Tengri, the Sacrifice). Shapshal's doctrine is still a topic of critical research and public debate. He made a number of other changes aimed at the Karaim's Turkification and at erasing the Karaite Jewish elements of their culture and language. He issued an order canceling the teaching of Hebrew in Karaite schools and replaced the names of the Jewish holidays and months with Turkic equivalents (see the table below). According to Shapshal, Crimean Karaites were pagans who adopted the law of Moses, but continued to adhere to their ancient Turkic beliefs. In addition, he claimed that the Karaites had revered Jesus and Mohammed as prophets for centuries. In the Post-Soviet period, Shapshal's theory was further developed in modern Karaylar publications (e.g. \"Crimean Karaite legends\") and was officially adopted by the Crimean Karaim Association \"Krymkaraylar\" (Ассоциация крымских караимов “Крымкарайлар”) as the only correct view of the Karaim's past in 2000.", "Leon Kull and Kevin Alan Brook led the first scientific study of Crimean Karaites using genetic testing of both Y chromosomal and mitochondrial DNA and their results showed that, the Crimean Karaites are indeed partially of Middle Eastern origin and closely related to other Jewish communities (Ashkenazi, Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews), while finding that the Crimean Karaites are genetically unrelated to non-Jewish Turkic-speaking peoples of the region.", "", "Karaim is a Kypchak Turkic language being closely related to Crimean Tatar, Armeno-Kipchak etc. Among the many different influences exerted on Karaim, those of Arabic, Hebrew, and Persian were the first to change the outlook of the Karaim lexicon. Later, due to considerable Polish, Russian, and Ukrainian influence, many Slavic and Baltic words entered the language of Polish, Lithuanian, Ukrainian, and Russian Karaim. Hebrew remained in use for liturgical purposes. Following the Ottoman occupation of Crimea, Turkish was used for business and government purposes among Karaim living on the Crimean peninsula. Three different dialects developed: the Trakai dialect, used in Trakai and Vilnius (Lithuania), the Lutsk or Halych dialect spoken in Lutsk (until World War II), and Halych, and the Crimean dialect. The last forms the Eastern group, while Trakai and Halych Karaim belong to the Western group. Currently only small minority of Karaim can speak the Karaim language (72 Crimean dialect speakers, 118 Trakai dialect speakers, and about 20 Halych dialect speakers).", "The most famous Crimean Karaite food is \"Kybyn\" ( pl., Karaim: \"kybyn\" pl. \"kybynlar\", ). Kybynlar are half moon shaped pies of leavened dough with a stuffing of chopped beef or mutton, baked in dutch oven or baking sheet. Other meals common for Crimean Karaites and Tatars are \"Chiburekki\", \"Pelmeni\", \"Shishlik\" (These are most often made from mutton). Ceremony dishes, cooked for religious holidays and weddings are:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "The Jewish Community of Heřmanův Městec.", "The Beginnings of a Jewish Community in Heřmanův Městec.", "Repression and Emancipation 1726–1939.", "German Occupation 1939–1945.", "Postwar and Restoration.", "The Jewish Cemetery.", "Jewish Population in Heřmanův Městec.", "The Rabbis of Heřmanův Městec.", "Jews Deported by the Germans." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Jews were living in Heřmanův Městec as early as the first half of the 15th century and it represents one of the oldest documented Jewish communities in the Chrudim District. A minyan (10 adult Jewish males) was recorded as early as 1570. The Jewish community continued to grow and thrive over the years. Eventually, Heřmanův Městec became the seat of the district rabbi. The Jewish population peaked in 1849 at 840 and began to decline as both Jews and non-Jews left rural areas to pursue employment in cities as part of the industrial revolution. During the occupation by Nazi Germany during World War II, most of the approximately 60 remaining Jews were deported to the Tereźin concentration camp in December 1942. Few survived the war and the Jewish community was effectively destroyed. In 2001, through the efforts of the local inhabitants, the Jewish cemetery was restored along with the Synagogue and rabbi's home which now serve as a cultural center.", "The town was the property of a series of aristocratic landowners who enjoyed a mostly positive relationship with the Jewish community. The Jewish community paid a fixed annual sum of money to the landowning gentry. During the 16 17th, and 18th centuries, Jews living in the town were mainly engaged in trade (linen, wool, hides, or feathers) and money-lending. The location of the town along the road connecting Prague with Moravia brought a great number of merchants into the area. A Jewish settlement grew up on single street (now Havlickova Street) which eventually had its own mayor, police, and other officials. According to oral tradition, the Jewish cemetery in town dates back to the 1430. Usually, when Jews move into an area, one of their first community actions is to purchase land for a cemetery. There is documentation from 1667 that additional land was purchased for the purpose of enlarging the Jewish cemetery. There are records of additional extensions that took place in 1685, 1709, 1723 and 1838. The cemetery eventually reached almost 4,000 square meters. In 1643, the Jewish community united to form a Chevra Kadisha (or burial society). The date of the construction of the first synagogue is unclear, but it was destroyed in a large town fire in 1623.In 1661 the Count Jan Karel Špork became the owner of the estate which included the town. Under his administration, the local Jewish community flourished. The Count encouraged Jews to move into houses that were abandoned during the Thirty Years' War along a single street leading to the Jewish cemetery (now called Havlickova Street). He allowed the Jews to rebuild their synagogue, which was destroyed in the 1623 fire. In 1680 the town was visited by a plague that claimed many lives, leaving a large number of dilapidated houses behind. In 1686, Count Ferdinand Leopold Špork called upon the Jews from the region to inhabit the abandoned houses. At the turn of the 17th century the town became the seat of the regional rabbi.", "The ruling Habsburgs introduced restrictions on Jewish movement, residence, marriage, and other matters of everyday life. In 1727 the vice regent's office in Prague confirmed a regulation concerning the distance between Jewish dwellings and Christian churches that led to the synagogue of Heřmanův Městec being torn down because it was too close to the town's Catholic church. Eventually, Jewish self-government was abolished, and the Jewish settlement was surrounded by an enclosure with three gates. All Jews were required to live in this part of town, effectively establishing a Jewish ghetto in Heřmanův Městec. Until construction of a new synagogue in the Baroque style in 1760, the Jewish community used a private home as a house of prayer. Count Jan Václav Špork, who then owned the town's land, is said to have financially supported construction and laid the foundation stone for the new synagogue, which is in the same location as the current synagogue. For over a century the Jews of Bohemia including the Jews living in Heřmanův Městec had to endure a number of restrictions with regard to employment, where they could live, what they could study, and limitations on marriage. For a period only the first-born sons were allowed to marry. Despite the restrictions of the ruling Habsburgs, the relationship with the local gentry (i.e., the Špork family) was generally positive. In 1848 serfdom was abolished, and the Jews living in Heřmanův Městec were emancipated and allowed freedom of movement. As a result, many Jews left the town for employment opportunities in industrialized cities such as Prague or emigrated abroad.In 1870 construction of new synagogue, with the backing of the aristocratic landowner, on the same site as the 1760 building was started. This building was in the Neo-Romanesque style by the architect Frantisek Schmoranz. The architect had some lofty plans which had to be abandoned because the Catholic clergy feared that the synagogue might outshine the nearby St. Bartholomew's church. The original design had a tower with a stairway leading to the women's gallery. After design changes, the synagogue provided access to the women's gallery via a covered passageway from the school building next door. A stone-hewn image of the Ten Commandants adorned the top of the building. Due to the reduction in size, the building was not really sufficient to support the large crowds which attended worship services especially on holidays. As the Jewish population declined toward the latter part of the 19th century, the building became sufficient. With the relaxation of restrictions on Jews, by the late 1800s the town and its Jewish inhabitants had a thriving role in the production of shoes. There were several Jewish-owned handmade and machine-made shoe production companies. The Falk family owned a handmade shoe factory; and the Löwit family production company had a shoe factory in town that employed 300 workers. Most of these companies had international exports. As Jews were now permitted to study without restriction, many of them also pursued opportunities as attorneys, physicians, and other professions. In 1891, Heřmanův Městec became the seat of a district rabbi, with the dependent communities being Chrudim, Hroubovice, and Drevikov. This was a logical decision given that the Heřmanův Městec Jewish community had a long established protected status, a positive relationship with the landowning gentry of the town, and had a rabbi in residence. While the town itself had less than a 100 Jewish inhabitants, it served a broader Jewish community of 500 Jews in the region including Chrast, Chrudim, Hroubovice, Přestavlky, Slatiňany, Hlinsko, Svratká, Trhova Kamenice, Nasvrky, and Seč.", "On March 16, 1939, Nazi Germany established the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. The Heřmanův Městec Jewish community was now under the rule of Nazi Germany and the Nuremberg Laws restricting Jewish rights were the law of the land. In 1940, Jews living in the Protectorate were deprived of the ability to do business, they were dismissed from government service, Jewish children were denied the right to attend school, and worship and assembly were forbidden. In Heřmanův Městec the Ten Commandants on the synagogue were removed, and the building was used by the German army for storage. Local residents planted vegetation around the Jewish cemetery in an attempt to hide it from the view of the German occupiers. On December 3, 1942, most of the Jews of Heřmanův Městec (approximately 60) were ordered to assemble at a meeting point in the nearby town of Pardubice and transported to the Tereźin concentration camp two days later. Many of those were eventually transported to Auschwitz. During the occupation by Nazi Germany, Jewish ritual objects, including over a dozen Torah scrolls, were transported to the Jewish Museum in Prague. These eventually became part of the Memorial Scrolls Trust collection housed at the Westminster Synagogue in London. It is likely that so many Torah scrolls were attributed to Heřmanův Městec because it was the seat of the district rabbi. As the Jewish community in the area shrank during the late 1800s and early 1900s and other synagogues closed their doors, their Torah scrolls probably were sent to the synagogue in Heřmanův Městec. Thus, by 1940, Heřmanův Městec had a large inventory of Torah scrolls.", "In 1945 at the end of World War II, only two members of the Jewish community returned to Heřmanův Městec. The once thriving Jewish community in the town was now effectively gone. After World War II the synagogue was used mainly as a warehouse. The synagogue, rabbi's house, and cemetery received little maintenance or care and deteriorated. At one point, the Bohemian Brethren Evangelic Church purchased the synagogue and adjacent rabbi's house which were used as a storeroom and a prayer house, respectively.[6-] Many of the former homes of the Jewish community were razed between 1980 and 1982 as part of a redevelopment effort. In 1986 the Town of Heřmanův Městec purchased the synagogue. The Jewish Culture Preservation Society was established in Heřmanův Městec at the suggestion of Ladislav Mareš, a son of Hermína Marešová, a Jewish woman who had married a non-Jew prior to World War II. Ladislav Mareš was not deported during the Nazi occupation because he was not registered as part of the Jewish community. Hermína Marešová was liberated from Bergen-Belsen and returned to Heřmanův Městec after the war. The Jewish Culture Preservation Society raised funds and coordinated efforts to restore important Jewish sites in Heřmanův Městec. In the early 1990s much of the cemetery was restored. Wild vegetation was cleared, gravestones were reset and inventoried, the surrounding walls were repaired, and the Chevra Kadisha building (aka mortuary) and caretaker's home were restored. In 1991, the synagogue and the Jewish cemetery of Heřmanův Městec were declared national cultural monuments. Using plans from 1870, the synagogue building and adjacent rabbi's house were restored in 2001. The synagogue was furnished with replicas of the original benches, and the painting and stained glass windows were restored. The only major architectural change is the size of the bimah (area where the Torah is read). It was enlarged to better serve as a stage in support of its new role as a concert hall. The rabbi's house is now the home of the Cyrany art gallery.", "The Jewish cemetery, which dates from the 15th Century, is among the oldest and best preserved Jewish cemeteries in the Czech Republic. It is almost 4,000 square meters, and contains over 1,000 tombstones. It is owned by the Jewish community of Prague and maintained by a local caretaker. The oldest preserved and legible gravestone is from 1647. The tombstones, especially the older ones, are mostly made from sandstone; the newer stones are made from marble. Inscriptions are in Czech, German, Hebrew, and various combinations. A restored mortuary building, which dates from 1838, is situated in the middle of the cemetery. This building was used by the Chevra Kadisha (burial society) to prepare the deceased for burial. Today the mortuary building contains a restored hearse that came from the Jewish cemetery in Hořice.", "1570 – 10 Jewish families 1724 – 277 63 families 1826 – 492 1849 – 840 1859 – 721 (1/5 of the town's population) 1880 – 434 [2]; (9.3% of the town's population) 1893 – 300 plus another 785 in the surrounding villages 1900 – 240 1903 – 300 1921 – 87 1939 – 60", "The following people served as the Rabbi of Heřmanův Městec: Judah Löb Borges (died 1872), a member of the community distinguished for his Talmudic and literary attainments, officiated temporarily when there was a vacancy in the rabbinate.", "The list below depicts Jewish citizens of Heřmanův Městec that were deported by the Germans in 1942. The list is mainly based upon material compiled by Ladislav Mareš (dated 14 February 1992) and was cross-checked against other sources. These are the people who boarded the train from Pardubice to Terezín on December 5, 1942. These are the people who boarded the train from Pardubice to Tereźin on December 9, 1942. Other trains to Tereźin and incomplete data" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mode of operation.", "History of development.", "Accomplishments." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "To descend, a bathyscaphe floods air tanks with sea water, but unlike a submarine the water in the flooded tanks cannot be displaced with compressed air to ascend, because the water pressures at the depths for which the craft was designed to operate are too great. For example, the pressure at the bottom of the Challenger Deep is more than seven times that in a standard \"H-type\" compressed gas cylinder. Instead, ballast in the form of iron shot is released to ascend, the shot being lost to the ocean floor. The iron shot containers are in the form of one or more hoppers which are open at the bottom throughout the dive, the iron shot being held in place by an electromagnet at the neck. This is a fail-safe device as it requires no power to ascend; in fact, in the event of a power failure, shot runs out by gravity and ascent is automatic.", "The first bathyscaphe was dubbed \"FNRS-2\", named after the Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique, and built in Belgium from 1946 to 1948 by Auguste Piccard. (\"FNRS-1\" had been the balloon used for Piccard's ascent into the stratosphere in 1938). Propulsion was provided by battery-driven electric motors. The float held of aviation gasoline. There was no access tunnel; the sphere had to be loaded and unloaded while on deck. The first journeys were detailed in the Jacques Cousteau book \"The Silent World\". As described in the book, \"the vessel had serenely endured the pressure of the depths, but had been destroyed in a minor squall\". \"FNRS-3\" was a new submersible, using the crew sphere from the damaged \"FNRS-2\", and a new larger float. Piccard's second bathyscaphe was actually a third vessel \"Trieste\", which was purchased by the United States Navy from Italy in 1957. It had two water ballast tanks and eleven buoyancy tanks holding of gasoline.", "In 1960 \"Trieste\", carrying Piccard's son Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh, reached the deepest known point on the Earth's surface, the Challenger Deep, in the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean. The onboard systems indicated a depth of 37,800 ft (11,521 m) but this was later corrected to 35,813 ft (10,916 m) by taking into account variations arising from salinity and temperature. Later and more accurate measurements made in 1995 have found the Challenger Deep to be slightly shallower at 35,798 ft (10,911 m). The bathyscaphe was equipped with a powerful light, which illuminated a small flounder-like fish, putting to rest the question of whether or not there was life at such a depth in the complete absence of light. The crew of the \"Trieste\" noted that the floor consisted of diatomaceous ooze and reported observing \"some type of flatfish, resembling a sole, about 1 foot long and 6 inches across\" lying on the seabed." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins.", "Challenges during and after World War II.", "Technological innovation.", "Radial tires and overseas expansion.", "Firestone purchase.", "Fined $425 million for price fixing.", "Bridgestone's global locations.", "Australia.", "Europe.", "North America.", "Sports sponsorships.", "Formula racing.", "Sports car and touring car racing.", "Motorcycling.", "Other sports.", "Diversified products.", "Industrial products.", "Bridgestone Commercial Services Group (Bandag).", "Bicycles.", "Bridgestone Aircraft Tyre.", "Golf Products.", "Bridgestone e-Reporter." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The history of Bridgestone America dates back to the two separate companies that merged to form Bridgestone Tire company. The first one is Firestone Tire & Rubber Company, that was founded in August 1900 by Harvey Firestone and was headquartered in Akron, Ohio. The second one is Bridgestone Tire Company Ltd., founded in 1931 by Shojiro Ishibashi in Japan. The first Bridgestone tyre was produced on 9 April 1930, by the Japanese \"Tabi\" Socks Tyre Division (actually made jika-tabi). One year later on 1 March 1931, the founder, Shojiro Ishibashi, made the \"Tabi\" Socks Tyre Division independent and established the Bridgestone Tyre Co., Ltd. in the city of Kurume, Fukuoka Prefecture. \"Bridgestone\" was named after the name of the founder, Shojiro Ishibashi (\"Ishi\" = Stone, \"Bashi\" = Bridge). Foregoing dependence on European and North American technology, the Bridgestone Tyre Co., Ltd. set its eyes on manufacturing tyres based largely on Japanese technology. The fledgling company experienced many difficulties in the areas of technology, production, and sales in the early days. Eventually, improvements were achieved in quality and manufacturing processes which led to the business rapidly expanding in domestic and overseas markets.", "Wartime regulations were in effect throughout Japan, and tyres also came under the jurisdiction of these regulations. This resulted in nearly all of the company's output being used to satisfy military demand. 1945 saw the end of armed conflict, but the company was devastated by the war. The Tokyo headquarters was destroyed during an aerial bombing raid, and all overseas assets were lost. The plants in Kurume and Yokohama escaped unscathed, and production was able to resume immediately after the war ended. Brushing aside the problems caused by a labour union strike that lasted for forty-six days, the foundations of the company were further reinforced after this. After World War II Bridgestone started manufacturing motorcycles, but its main income was from supplying tyres to its rival motorcycle makers such as Honda, Suzuki and Yamaha and it was later decided to cease motorcycle manufacturing.", "In 1951, Bridgestone was the first company in Japan to begin selling rayon cord tyres, and a five-year project to modernize production facilities was started. This year also saw another Bridgestone building opened in Kyōbashi, Tokyo, which contained the Bridgestone Museum. Sales surpassed ten billion yen in 1953, placing Bridgestone at the top of the tyre industry in Japan, and celebrations were held to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the company's foundation in Kurume. The sale of nylon tyres was started in 1959, and work forged ahead with the construction of the new Tokyo plant, which was opened in 1960, in order to cope with the fast-expanding market for motorization.", "The company issued stock shares and was listed on the stock exchange in 1961. A new system of administration was ushered in by Shojiro Ishibashi as the chairman, and Kanichiro Ishibashi as the president. As part of the transition across to administrative reform, the Deming Plan in honour of W. Edwards Deming, which involves overall quality control activities, was adopted, and the company was awarded the prestigious Deming Prize in 1968. Also, additions were built onto the Tokyo plant in 1962 to house the new Technical Centre, and a progressive system of research and development was established. On the product front, 1967 saw the sale of the company's first ever radial tire, the RD10. Bridgestone's first overseas plant since the end of the war was opened in Singapore in 1965, and production was also commenced in Thailand in 1969. The 1960s for Bridgestone was an era of overseas expansion that also included the establishment of Bridgestone America in the United States in 1967 to act as Bridgestone's USA representative sales branch. At the start of the period of Japan's economic stagnation, brought about by the first oil shock, the company was placing even more emphasis on establishing its own technology for the manufacture of radial tires, and it was also at this time that further domestic plants were constructed and fitted out. Its Super Filler Radial was placed on the market in 1978, and in 1979 the company introduced the high-performance POTENZA radial tire, from an Italian word for power. The company was actively engaged in overseas expansion activities at this time. In addition to starting up production in Indonesia and Iran in 1976, it also invested in a Taiwan tire manufacturer and purchased a tire plant and a plant for diversified products in Australia in 1980. The founder, Shojiro Ishibashi, died on 11 September 1976. On 1 March 1981, the company celebrated its 50th anniversary. At the same time, the company initiated activities to strengthen its home base that supported overseas expansion strategy with the aim of being ranked as one of the world's top three manufacturers of rubber products. New production facilities were also established in Thailand, India, Poland, China, the United States and other countries. The company changed the name from Bridgestone Tyre Co., Ltd. to Bridgestone Corporation in 1984.", "In 1988, Bridgestone purchased the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company of Akron, Ohio. Placing considerable financial and personnel resources into rebuilding Firestone after the purchase, Bridgestone achieved surplus annual profits for the year 1992 with BFE (\"Bridgestone Firestone Europe\") and again in 1993 with BFS (\"Bridgestone Firestone USA\"). The Firestone Tire and Rubber Company and Bridgestone Tire Company Ltd. USA were amalgamated in 1990 and became \"\"Bridgestone Firestone North American Holdings Ltd\"\". The North American subsidiary of Bridgestone Corporation is now named Bridgestone Americas, Inc. The tire division is Bridgestone Americas Tire Operations, LLC. Bridgestone Americas opened a $100 million technical center in Akron in 2012.", "In February 2014 Bridgestone agreed to a $425 million fine imposed by the United States Department of Justice for price fixing and bid rigging in the automotive parts industry. The company said it regretted the actions that led to the plea deal and said it would take disciplinary action against certain employees.", "Bridgestone has major manufacturing plants in many countries around the world. As of 1 April 2011, Bridgestone has 47 tyre plants, 29 tyre-related plants, 19 raw materials plants, 89 diversified product plants, 4 technical centers, and 11 proving grounds globally. Some of the major plants are located in:", "Bridgestone Australia began as the SA Rubber Mills in 1939. In 1980 Bridgestone took over the Australian plants which were at that time operated by the Uniroyal Tyre Company. Bridgestone Australia had a major manufacturing tyre factory in Australia: located in Salisbury, South Australia (this plant was eventually decommissioned in April 2011). Bridgestone has State Offices in all states of Australia, and has a large number of retail outlets across the country. In 2000 Bridgestone Australia Ltd. purchased the BANDAG Retreading plant and its operations in Australia. Bandag Manufacturing Pty Limited has 35 franchised dealers across Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Nouméa. Bandag Manufacturing Pty Limited is a wholly owned subsidiary of Bridgestone Australia Limited, and operates under license to Bandag Incorporated. In 2006 Bridgestone purchased Bandag Incorporated, which is now a subsidiary of Bridgestone Corporation. From the purchase in 1981, the Australian operations of Bridgestone have been run as a publicly listed company on the Australian Stock exchange. Bridgestone Corporation has maintained a majority share holding. As of mid-2007 the Australian operation was delisted from the Australian Stock exchange and became a solely owned Division of Bridgestone Corporation (pending minority shareholder approval as per Australian Corporate Law). Following the cancellation on Friday, 11 May 2007, of all shares held by minority shareholders, Bridgestone Australia Ltd. became a wholly owned subsidiary of Bridgestone Corporation of Japan. The selective capital reduction and subsequent privatisation which cost $49 million was approved and completed. Bridgestone Australia Ltd. was delisted from the ASX on 30 May 2007.", "Bridgestone EU has its head office in Brussels, Belgium, and was set up in 1990 as Bridgestone/Firestone Europe SA. Before that, a representative office in Belgium set up in 1972 and sales subsidiary companies and importers in each countries were selling products imported from Japan. There are 7 production plants in the region and a 32 hectare research and development centre near Rome, Italy. The company distributes more than 25 million tyres a year through 17 national sales subsidiaries and 2 distributors. They directly employ over 12,000 people with Mr. Tsuda as the CEO. At present there are national headquarters in the following locations: Vienna, Austria; Prague, Czech Republic; Hinnerup, Denmark; Vantaa, Finland; Fresnes, France; Bad Homburg, Germany; Athens, Greece; Budapest, Hungary; Dublin, Ireland; Milan, Italy; Moerdijk, Netherlands; Oslo, Norway; Warsaw, Poland; Alcochete, Portugal; Madrid, Spain; Sundsvall, Sweden; Spreitenbach, Switzerland; Istanbul, Turkey and Warwick, UK; Ulyanovsk, Russia. Bridgestone EU runs a continent-wide scheme called Truckpoint wherein fleets can take their vehicles to any Bridgestone approved garage throughout Europe and get Bridgestone specialist work carried out on their tyres. There are no Bridgestone factories in the UK but there is a technical bay at which tyres returned by dissatisfied customers are inspected in Coventry.", "As part of reinforcement plans, the company purchased a plant in Tennessee from the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company, its first manufacturing plant in North America, and started the production of radial tyres for trucks and buses in 1983. Bridgestone also has a steel cord plant in Clarksville, Tennessee, named Bridgestone Metalpha. Metalpha is currently ranked as the top provider in the global steel cord market. In May 1988, a takeover bid of America's No. 2 tyre manufacturer, Akron, Ohio-based Firestone, was successful, and Firestone was placed under the Bridgestone umbrella as a subsidiary company. This purchase brought a large number of Firestone global production sites into the Bridgestone organization. These sites included North America, Central and South America, Europe, New Zealand and other locations. Bridgestone also commenced production in Turkey. In 1992, the company established regional corporate offices in Europe and the Americas. Nashville-based Bridgestone Americas, Inc. (BSA) is the U.S. subsidiary of the Bridgestone Corporation. BSA and its subsidiaries develop, manufacture and market Bridgestone, Firestone, and associate brand tyres for consumers, automotive and commercial vehicle original equipment manufacturers, and those in the agricultural, forestry and mining industries. The companies also produce air springs, roofing materials, synthetic rubber and industrial fibres and textiles and operate the world's largest chain of automotive tyre and service centers. In November 2010, ASA Automotive Systems Inc. was selected by the Consumer Tire Sales division of Bridgestone Americas Tire Operations, LLC (BATO) as the software provider for their North American consumer dealers to supply the industry's leading 'All-in-One' Point-of-Sale, Accounting and Inventory shop management software. In 2014 Bridgestone Americas Tire OpAmerations (BATO) unveiled its newly rebranded GCR Tires & Service division. With one of the largest network of commercial stores across the country, GCR's reach extends nationwide. The letters of GCR reflect the last names of the original company founders Balie Griffith, Harold Crawford and Perry Rose. In 2015, Bridgestone Americas Inc. signed a deal giving its dealers the option to install digital air calibration machines from Excel Tire Gauge Inc. in their stores. The digital air calibration machines streamline the tyre inflation process by automatically inflating or deflating tyres. In 2017, Bridgestone Americas consolidated many of their business units into a single building in downtown Nashville, Bridgestone Tower. Nearly 2,000 employees work in the new skyscraper, nestled between the Country Music Hall of Fame and the Schermerhorn Symphony Center. In April 2020, due to demand by essential service providers during COVID-19 pandemic, Bridgestone Americas announced plans to restart its North American commercial tire plants as well as its North American Firestone Industrial Products and Firestone Building Products manufacturing facilities.", "", "Bridgestone started to invest in motorsport in the 1980s by developing race tyres for feeder series like Formula 2, Formula 3, Formula Ford, Formula Opel Lotus and karting. In order to increase the Firestone subsidiary's brand awareness, \"Bridgestone Firestone NAH Ltd\", re-entered the Firestone brand into CART IndyCar open-wheel racing in 1995 to challenge Goodyear. The tyres proved better and Goodyear retired for 2000. Since then, Firestone has been the single tyre provider for the renamed and disappeared Champ Car, the IndyCar Series and its feeder series Firestone Indy Lights until 2013. Bridgestone has supplied tyres in Formula One since, although the company one-off produced Formula One tyres at the 1976 and 1977 Japanese Grand Prix for Japanese entrants such as Kazuyoshi Hoshino's Heros Racing and Kojima. The Japanese company decided to supply tyres for Formula One in 1995, backed-up by the CEO Yoichiro Kaizaki, aiming to improve Bridgestone's name value in the European market which was greatly inferior compared with their archrivals, Michelin. Though it was scheduled to enter the championship in the 1998 season at first, this was brought forward to because the engineering section led by Hirohide Hamashima had quickly advanced development. Thus, Hiroshi Yasukawa, the general manager of Motorsport Department, also made the best use of the experience and networks in Europe since the Bridgestone's European F2 era (1981–1984) and constructed logistics for Formula One at once. The first title was acquired right away in the second year, 1998 by Mika Häkkinen and McLaren-Mercedes. And Bridgestone users took five Drivers' Championship titles and five Constructors' Championship titles (, –) for the period that competed with Goodyear (–) and Michelin (–). Especially, cooperation with Scuderia Ferrari and Michael Schumacher functioned well in this period. From 2008 to 2010 Bridgestone was due to be the sole tyre supplier to the FIA Formula One World Championship. However, because Michelin chose to conclude its Formula One tyre programme at the end of the 2006 season, all teams used Bridgestone tyres from the 2007 season to the 2010 Formula One season. On 2 November 2009 Bridgestone announced that they will not be renewing their contract to supply tyres to Formula One teams after 2010. The company said it was \"addressing the impact of the continuing evolution of the business environment\". Pirelli announced in June 2010 that it would serve as sole supplier for tyres in the 2011 season.", "In the 1980s and 1990s, Bridgestone provided tyres to the Le Mans sport prototypes of teams Nismo and TOM's, backed by Japanese automobile manufacturers Nissan and Toyota respectively. In the early 1990s, Bridgestone expanded to Mercedes-AMG, which entered the DTM and later Le Mans and the FIA GT Championship. The brand left international sports car racing in 2000, but remains as one of the main suppliers in the Japanese Super GT championship.", "In 2002, Bridgestone entered the Grand Prix motorcycle racing's main class MotoGP. From 2009 to 2015, it was the exclusive tyre supplier of the championship and reached the milestone of 100 MotoGP victories in 2012. Nine-time World Champion Valentino Rossi was 'Bridgestone Tyre Adviser' having won two MotoGP titles on Bridgestone tyres in 2008 and 2009. In May 2014, Bridgestone announced they would leave Moto GP at the end of the 2015 season.", "Bridgestone is the official tyre of the National Football League, National Hockey League and the Olympic Games. In addition, it is the title sponsor of the NHL's flagship event, the Winter Classic outdoor game. In 2010, Bridgestone acquired the naming rights to the home venue of the NHL's Nashville Predators calling it Bridgestone Arena. They are also the title sponsor of the Copa Libertadores, the top competition for South American club football.", "The predecessors of Bridgestone began making diversified products in the 1930s, soon after they started making tyres. Today, Bridgestone diversified operations encompass automotive components, industrial products, polyurethane foam products, construction materials, parts and materials for electronic equipment, bicycles and sporting goods. Diversified business generates about one-fourth of total sales in the Bridgestone Group. Automotive parts are an especially large line of business for Bridgestone in diversified operations. Bridgestone supplies automakers with vibration-isolating components, such as engine mounts. Bridgestone also supplies air springs for trucks, automobiles and train carriages. Bridgestone market aluminium wheels and other automotive accessories, too.", "Bridgestone's industrial products span a vast range, including polyurethane foam for automotive seats and interiors, for bedding and furniture and for insulation and sealing in appliances and buildings; water hoses; marine hoses for loading and unloading oil tankers; specialty precision hose products, such as wire-blade hose for construction equipment and machine tools; conveyor belts; and rubber tracks for crawler tractors. Additionally, they make retreaded tyres for aircraft. Their corporate headquarters for the Bridgestone Aircraft tyre division is located in Miami in the United States. The Bridgestone product line in construction and civil engineering materials is similarly broad. Bridgestone supply Multi-Rubber Bearings for installing in foundations to protect buildings from earthquakes, inflatable rubber dams for managing waterways (no longer manufactured – 2008), marine fenders for protecting wharves, additives for pavement, waterproofing sheet, rubberized ceiling and roofing materials, panel tanks for storing water, bath fixtures and residential flooring, air and water systems. Bridgestone's line of products for electronic equipment includes precision rollers for office machines and functional films for solar cells and plasma displays. In sporting goods, Bridgestone market golf balls and clubs and tennis balls and rackets. Bridgestone's line of bicycles is Japan's most extensive – see above information re. Anchor Cycles.", "On 5 December 2006, Bridgestone Americas and Bandag Inc. announced a merger agreement whereby Bridgestone would acquire Muscatine, Iowa-based Bandag, Inc., a leading truck tyre re-treader that was founded in 1957 and had over 900 franchised dealers worldwide at the time. In announcing the merger, Bridgestone's president in Tokyo explained: The transaction was valued at approximately US$1.05 billion. On 31 May 2007, the agreement was consummated and Bridgestone Americas acquired the outstanding shares of Bandag stock for US$50.75 per share. The unit was renamed Bridgestone Bandag, LLC and Saul Solomon was appointed to the position of chairman, CEO and President. Previously, Solomon served as Vice President and General Counsel of BSAH. In the four years following the acquisition, Bandag's headquarters remained in Muscatine, although some processes and functions were consolidated and/or transferred to other facilities. In November 2010, corporate headquarters were moved to Nashville. In May 2011, the unit was renamed Bridgestone Commercial Services Group, eliminating the name \"Bandag.\"", "The Bridgestone Cycle Co Ltd originated in 1949. It offers bicycles under its own brand and under the Anchor brand. At one time, Bridgestone marketed bicycles under the name Kabuki. The U.S. marketing director of the Bicycle division, Grant Petersen, developed a reputation for resisting popular trends in the bicycle industry and instead followed his own personal philosophy of building dependable and comfortable bicycles. Peterson applied this approach to Rivendell Bicycle Works after Bridgestone stopped marketing bicycles in the U.S. The company was an innovator in the nascent mountain bike scene, designing mountain bikes with shorter chain-stays and steeper frame angles than then popular. This made it more nimble and a better climber. Until 1986, Bridgestone models were numbered in multiples of 100, with the higher numbers indicating a higher end bike. The entry level road bike in 1986, for example, may have been the Bridgestone 100, while the Bridgestone 700 would have been a competition level race bike. Beginning in 1987 there was a change, with model designations consisting of two letters followed by a numeral. The letters indicated the type of bike, and the number indicated the position in the product lineup. The numbering was also reversed, with the smaller numbers indicating a higher position in the product line. For example, the RB-1 would have been the top of the line road bike, followed by the RB-2, RB-3, etc. Bridgestone is currently building frames in Japan for keirin track racing under Nihon Jitensha Shinkokai approved standards. It is currently producing non-NJS frames for the Japanese market as well. In Japan, it is known as a manufacturer of utility, mountain and (under the brand name Anchor) road racing bikes. Bridgestone has also collaborated with Dr. Alex Moulton to produce the Bridgestone Moulton Bicycle and marketed its own folding bicycle, the Bridgestone Picnica. Bridgestone also released a range of BMX Bicycles in 1981–1982 known as the MKI & MKII.", "Bridgestone Aircraft Tyre (USA) is a manufacturer of aircraft tyres as well as retread servicing. Bridgestone America's Holdings announced in May 2006 that it would be moving its Miami, Florida aviation operation to its new facility located in Mayodan, North Carolina, this move is expected to be completed by mid-2007 and will create approximately 95 new jobs. CEO and President of Bridgestone Aircraft Tyre (USA) Joe Rayna is quoted as saying; \"\"This move allows us to continue to prepare for a changing market, both in demand and in product mix, New modern aircraft, such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner and Airbus A380, arrive fitted with new Bridgestone technology aircraft tyres, and this new facility will complement that technology\"\". Bridgestone Aircraft Tyre (USA) has been a major supplier of aircraft tyres and retreads to the aircraft industry for over 70 years and has sister aviation facilities in Tokyo, Hong Kong and Belgium.", "Bridgestone Golf is a division of Bridgestone, and is the brand name under which Bridgestone's Golfing Products are marketed. Bridgestone has been producing golf-related products since 1935. The Golf division of Bridgestone currently produces both clubs, balls and accessories. Along with technical developments in tyre technology came breakthroughs in golf ball technology that have led Bridgestone to be the number one golf ball producer in Japan. Design and production of golf clubs followed in 1972. Bridgestone has global coverage of its golfing products with major divisions in USA (Bridgestone Golf USA), Australia (Bridgestone Golf Australia) and Korea (Sokio Corporation).", "Bridgestone e-reporter is a pan-European competition for aspiring young sports journalists, open to all students aged 18–30, who are in full-time education. Now in its fifth year, Bridgestone e-reporter continues to provide up-and-coming writers with first hand experience, interviewing GP2 drivers and issuing race reports from a European GP2 race weekend. The 2008 competition was officially launched on 1 February 2008 with the deadline for entries at 12.00 GMT on 31 March 2008. As of 2009, Bridgestone has not held further editions of the eReporter competition. However it may return in a different form in the future. Bridgestone was the sole tyre supplier for the GP2 series, an open-wheeled racing championship that is widely regarded as the feeder series for Formula One." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Nagios agents.", "NRPE.", "NRDP.", "NSClient++.", "NCPA.", "Nagios XI.", "2014 controversy over plugins website." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Nagios Core is open source software licensed under the GNU GPL V2. Currently it provides:", "", "Nagios Remote Plugin Executor (NRPE) is a Nagios agent that allows remote system monitoring using scripts that are hosted on the remote systems. It allows for monitoring of resources such as disk usage, system load or the number of users currently logged in. Nagios periodically polls the agent on remote system using the codice_1 plugin. NRPE allows you to remotely execute Nagios plugins on other Linux/Unix machines. This allows you to monitor remote machine metrics (disk usage, CPU load, etc.). NRPE can also communicate with some of the Windows agent add-ons, so you can execute scripts and check metrics on remote Windows machines, as well.", "Nagios Remote Data Processor (NRDP) is a Nagios agent with a flexible data transport mechanism and processor. It is designed with an architecture that allows it to be easily extended and customized. NRDP uses standard ports and protocols (HTTP and XML) and can be implemented as a replacement for Nagios Service Check Acceptor (NSCA).", "This program is mainly used to monitor Windows machines. Being installed on a remote system NSClient++ listens to port TCP 12489. The Nagios plugin that is used to collect information from this addon is called codice_2. As NRPE, NSClient++ allows to monitor the so-called 'private services' (memory usage, CPU load, disk usage, running processes, etc.) Nagios is a host and service monitor which is designed to inform you of network problems.", "The Nagios Cross Platform Agent is an open source project maintained by Nagios Enterprises. NCPA installs on Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X. Created as a scale-able API that allows flexibility and simplicity in monitoring hosts. NCPA allows multiple checks such as memory usage, CPU usage, disk usage, processes, services, and network usage. Active checks are queried through the API of the \"NCPA Listener\" service while passive checks are sent via the \"NCPA Passive\" service.", "Nagios XI is an extended interface, config manager, and toolkit using Nagios Core as the back-end, written and maintained by the original author, Ethan Galstad, and Nagios Enterprises. It is an enterprise-class application that monitors systems, networks and infrastructure. It offers an extensive user interface, configuration editor, advanced reporting, monitoring wizards, an extensible front-end and back-end, along with many other additions over Nagios Core. CentOS and RHEL are the currently supported operating systems. It combines Nagios Core with other technologies. Its main database and the ndoutils module that is used alongside Nagios Core use MySQL. Prior to XI 5, PostgreSQL was used for one of the three databases it uses, and is no longer used on new installs of Nagios XI. While the front-end of Nagios Core is mainly CGI with some PHP, most of the Nagios XI front-end and back-end are written in PHP including the subsystem, event handlers, and notifications, and Python is used to create capacity planning reports and other reports. RRDtool and Highcharts are included to create customizable graphs that can be displayed in dashboards.", "On 16 January 2014, Nagios Enterprises redirected the nagios-plugins.org domain to a web server controlled by Nagios Enterprises without explicitly notifying the Nagios Plugins community team the consequences of their actions. Nagios Enterprises replaced the nagios-plugins team with a group of new, different members. The community team members who were replaced continued their work under the name Monitoring Plugins along with a new website with the new domain of monitoring-plugins.org." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "\"Organt\".", "Early revolutionary career.", "\"L'Esprit de la Revolution\".", "Deputy to the Convention.", "Constitution of 1793.", "Arrest of the Girondins.", "Military commissar.", "President of the Convention.", "Arrest of the Hébertists.", "Arrest of the Dantonists.", "Last days.", "Legacy.", "Other writings.", "\"De la Nature\".", "Character." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "Louis Antoine de Saint-Just was born at Decize in the former Nivernais province of central France. He was the eldest child of Louis Jean de Saint-Just de Richebourg (1716–1777), a retired French cavalry officer (and knight of the Order of Saint Louis), and Marie-Anne Robinot (1736–1811), the daughter of a notary. He had two younger sisters, born in 1768 and 1769. The family later moved north and in 1776 settled in the village of Blérancourt in the former Picardy province, establishing themselves as a countryside noble family living off the rents from their land. A year after the move, Louis Antoine's father died leaving his mother with their three children. She saved diligently for her only son's education, and in 1779 he was sent to the Oratorian school at Soissons. After a promising start, his teachers soon viewed Saint-Just as a troublemaker—a reputation later compounded by infamous stories (almost certainly apocryphal) of how he led a students' rebellion and tried to burn down the school. Nonetheless, he graduated in 1786. His restive nature, however, did not diminish. As a young man, Saint-Just was \"wild, handsome [and] transgressive\". Well-connected and popular, he showed a special affection toward a young woman of Blérancourt, Thérèse Gellé. She was the daughter of a wealthy notary, a powerful and autocratic figure in the town; he was still an undistinguished adolescent. He is said to have proposed marriage to her, which she is said to have desired. Though no evidence of their relationship exists, official records show that on 25 July 1786, Thérèse was married to Emmanuel Thorin, the scion of a prominent local family. Saint-Just was out of town and unaware of the event, and tradition portrays him as brokenhearted. Whatever his true state, it is known that a few weeks after the marriage he abruptly left home for Paris unannounced having gathered up a pair of pistols and a good quantity of his mother's silver. His venture ended when his mother had him seized by police and sent to a reformatory (\"maison de correction\") where he stayed from September 1786 to March 1787. Chastened, Saint-Just attempted to begin anew: he enrolled as a student at Reims University's School of Law. After a year, however, he drifted away from law school and returned to his mother's home in Blérancourt penniless, without any occupational prospects.", "At a young age Saint-Just had shown a fascination with literature, and he wrote works of his own including a one-act play \"Arlequin Diogène\". During his stay at the reformatory, he began writing a lengthy poem that he published anonymously more than two years later in May 1789 at the very outbreak of the Revolution. The 21-year-old Saint-Just thereby added his own touch to the social tumult of the times with \"Organt, poem in twenty cantos\". The poem, a medieval epic fantasy relaying the quest of young Antoine Organt, extols the virtues of primitive man, praising his libertinism and independence while blaming all", "The rapid development of the Revolution in 1789 upended Blérancourt's traditional power structure. The notary Gellé, previously an undisputed town leader, was challenged by a group of reformists who were led by several of Saint-Just's friends, including the husband of his sister Louise. Their attempts were unsuccessful until 1790 when Blérancourt held its first open municipal elections. Mandated by the National Constituent Assembly, the new electoral structure allowed Saint-Just's friends to assume authority in the village as mayor, secretary, and, in the case of his brother-in-law, head of the local National Guard. Despite not meeting the legal age and tax qualifications, the jobless Saint-Just was allowed to join the Guard. He immediately exhibited the ruthless disciplinarianism for which he would be famous. Within a few months he was the commanding officer, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. At local meetings he moved attendees with his patriotic zeal and flair: in one much-repeated story, Saint-Just brought the town council to tears by thrusting his hand into the flame of a burning anti-revolutionary pamphlet, swearing his devotion to the Republic. He had powerful allies when he sought to become a member of his district’s electoral assembly. He initiated correspondence with well-known leaders of the Revolution like Camille Desmoulins. In late 1790, he wrote to Robespierre for the first time, asking him to consider a local petition. The letter was filled with the highest of praise, beginning: \"You, who uphold our tottering country against the torrent of despotism and intrigue; you whom I know, as I know God, only through his miracles...\". Through their correspondence, the two developed \"a deep and mysterious friendship that would last until the day [they] died\".", "While Saint-Just waited for the next election, he composed an extensive work, \"L'Esprit de la Revolution et de la constitution de France\", published in the spring of 1791. His writing style had shed all satire and now reflected the stern and moralizing tone of classical Romans so adored by French revolutionaries. It presented a set of principles deeply influenced by Montesquieu, and remained fully confined to a paradigm of constitutional monarchy. He expressed abhorrence at the violence in the Revolution thus far, and he disdained the character of those who partook in it as little more than \"riotous slaves\". Instead, he heaped his praise upon the people's representatives in the Legislative Assembly, whose sober virtue would guide the Revolution best. Spread out over five books, \"L'Esprit de la Revolution\" is inconsistent in", "Among the deputies, Saint-Just was watchful but interacted little at first. He joined the Parisian Jacobin Club, but he remained aloof from Girondins and Montagnards alike. He waited until 13 November 1792 to give his first speech to the Convention, but when he did the effect was spectacular. What brought him to the lectern was the discussion over how to treat the King after Varennes. In dramatic contrast to the earlier speakers, Saint-Just delivered a blazing condemnation of him. He demanded \"Louis Capet\" should be judged not as a king or even a citizen, but as a traitor,", "Because the first French Constitution had included a role for the king, it was long since invalid and needed to be updated for the Republic. Many drafts had circulated within the Convention since Louis XVI's execution, and Saint-Just submitted his own lengthy proposal on 24 April 1793. His draft incorporated the most common assertions of the others: the right to vote, the right to petition, and equal eligibility for employment were among the basic principles that made his draft tenable. He stood out from the pack, however, on the issue of elections: Saint-Just argued against all complex voting systems, and supported only the classical style of a simple majority of citizens in a nationwide vote. Amid a flurry of proposals by other deputies, Saint-Just held inflexibly to his \"one man one vote\" plan, and this conspicuous homage to Greco-Roman traditions (which were particularly prized and idealized in French culture during", "During the time that Saint-Just was working on the constitution, dramatic political warfare was taking place. The \"sans-culottes\"—deemed \"the people\" by many radicals, and represented by the Paris Commune—had grown antipathetic to the moderate Girondins. On 2 June 1793, in a mass action supported by National Guardsmen, they surrounded the Convention and arrested the Girondin deputies. The other deputies—even the Montagnards, who had long enjoyed an informal alliance with the \"sans-culottes\"—resented the action but felt compelled politically to permit it. The Girondin leader, Jacques Pierre Brissot, was indicted for treason and scheduled for trial, but the other \"Brissotins\" were imprisoned (or pursued) without formal charges. The Convention debated their fate and the political disorder lasted for weeks. Saint-Just had previously", "Saint-Just proposed that deputies from the Convention should directly oversee all military efforts, which was approved on 10 October 1793. Amid worsening conditions at the front in the fall of that year, several deputies were designated \"représentant en mission\" and sent to the critical area of Alsace to shore up the disintegrating Army of the Rhine. Results were not sufficiently forthcoming, so at the end of the month Saint-Just was sent there along with an ally from the Convention, Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas. The mission lasted from November through December 1793. The two men were charged with \"extraordinary powers\" to impose discipline and reorganize the troops. From the start, Saint-Just dominated the mission. He was relentless in demanding results from the commanders as well as sympathetic to the complaints of common soldiers. On his first day at the front, he issued a proclamation promising \"examples of justice and severity as the Army has", "With the republican army advancing and the Girondins destroyed, the left-wing Montagnards, led by the Jacobins and Robespierre, controlled the Convention. In these circumstances, on the first day of Ventôse in Year II of the Revolution (19 February 1794), Saint-Just was elected President of the National Convention. With this new power he persuaded the chamber to pass the radical Ventôse Decrees, under which the régime would confiscate aristocratic \"émigré\" property and distribute it to needy \"sans-culottes\" (commoners). But these acts of wealth redistribution, arguably", "As the spring of 1794 approached, the Committee of Public Safety, led by Robespierre, Saint-Just and Georges Couthon, exercised near complete control over the government. Despite the vast reach of their powers, however, rivals and enemies remained. One of the thorniest problems, at least to Robespierre, was populist agitator Jacques Hébert, who discharged torrents of criticism against bourgeois Jacobinism in his newspaper, \"Le Père Duchesne\". Ultra-radical Hébertists in the Cordeliers Club undermined Jacobin efforts to court and manage the \"sans-culottes\", and the most extreme Hébertists even", "The ongoing political combat—bloody enough since at least the time of the arrest of the Girondins to be known as the Reign of Terror— spread inexorably. When the Hébertists fell, Robespierre felt compelled to eliminate his other rivals in the Cordeliers, starting with Fabre d'Églantine and his close friend Georges Danton. Danton was among the most vocal of the moderates who opposed the Committee. He was especially opposed to Saint Just’s fanaticism and \"extravagant\" use of violence. Danton’s criticism of the Terror won him some support, but a financial scandal involving the French East India Company provided a \"convenient pretext\" for his downfall. Robespierre again sent Saint-Just to the Convention to deliver a Committee \"report\" (31 March 1794) in which he announced the arrest of Danton and \"the last partisans of royalism\". In addition to charges of corruption related to the trading company, Saint-Just accused Danton", "The Revolutionary army was still in a defensive posture, and Saint-Just was sent back to Belgium to help prepare for the coming conflict. From April through June 1794, he again took supreme oversight of the Army of the North and contributed to the victory at Fleurus. This hotly contested battle on 26 June 1794 saw Saint-Just apply his most draconian measures, ordering all French soldiers who turned away from the enemy to be summarily shot. He felt vindicated when the victory sent the Austrians and their allies into a full retreat from all the Southern Netherlands. Fleurus marked the turning point in the War of the First Coalition: France remained on the offensive until its eventual victory in 1797. After his return from the battle, Saint-Just was treated as a hero and \"cheered from all sides\". After returning to Paris, Saint-Just discovered that Robespierre's political position had degraded significantly. As the Terror reached its apogee – the so-called \"Great Terror\"—the danger of a counterstrike by his enemies became almost inevitable. Saint-Just, however, remained unshakable in his alliance with Robespierre. The French victory at Fleurus and others which followed, reduced the need for national security during the war, which originally had been predicated as a justification for the Terror. \"The excuse for the Terror was at an end.\" Opponents of the Terror used Saint-Just's own words against him by demanding a full implementation of the constitution of 1793. With political combat reaching a fever pitch, the Committee introduced a bill to establish a newer version of the \"Law of Suspects\"—the Law of 22 Prairial. The law established a new category of \"enemies of the people\" in terms so vague that virtually anyone could be accused and convicted. Defendants were not permitted legal counsel, and the Revolutionary Tribunal was instructed to impose no sentence other than death. Robespierre swiftly shepherded the bill into law, and although Saint-Just was not directly involved in its composition, he was certainly supportive. Vastly expanding the Tribunal’s power, the new statutes catalyzed the Great Terror: in the first month they were in effect, the number of executions in Paris rose from an average of five daily to seventeen daily, soaring in the following month to twenty-six. The Law of Prairial was the breaking point for opponents of Robespierre. Resistance to the Terror spread throughout the Convention, and Saint-Just was compelled to address the division. Bertrand Barère and other Thermidorians claimed that he was trying to propose that Robespierre have dictatorial authority. However, for a time some of the Thermidorians nevertheless considered Saint-Just to be redeemable, or at the very least useful for their own ambitions. Their attitude toward him shifted later when he delivered an uncompromising public defence of Robespierre on 9 Thermidor (27 July 1794).", "", "Throughout his political career, Saint-Just continued to work on books and essays about the meaning of the Revolution, but he did not survive to see any of them published. In later years, these drafts and notes were put together in various collections along with \"Organt\", \"Arlequin Diogène\", \"L'Esprit de la Revolution\", public speeches, military orders, and private correspondence. Many of Saint-Just's legislative proposals were compiled after his death to form an outline for a communal and egalitarian society. They were published as a single volume, \"Fragments sur les institutions républicaines.\" The proposals were far more radical than the Constitution of 1793, and identify closely with the legendarily fearsome traditions of ancient Sparta. Many of them are interpreted as proto-socialist precepts: the overarching theme is equality, which Saint-Just at one point summarizes as: \"Man must be independent... There should be neither rich nor poor\".", "Saint-Just also composed a lengthy draft of his philosophical views, \"De la Nature\", which remained hidden in obscurity until its transcription by Albert Soboul in 1951. He first published this work in 1951 under the title \"Un manuscrit oublié de Saint-Just\" in the \"Annales historiques de la révolution française\", No. 124. Alain Liénard's \"Saint-Just, théorie politique\" and later collections include an expanded version. \"De la Nature\" outlines Saint-Just's ideas on the nature of society; the actual date it was written is disputed, but the most agreed upon range is between 1791 and 1792. Based on the", "Ambitious and active-minded, Saint-Just worked urgently and tirelessly towards his goals: \"For Revolutionists there is no rest but in the tomb\". He was repeatedly described by contemporaries as arrogant, believing himself to be a skilled leader and orator as well as having proper revolutionary character. This self-assurance manifested itself in a superiority complex, and he always \"made it clear... that he considered himself to be in charge and that his will was law\". Camille Desmoulins wrote of Saint-Just, \"He carries his head like a sacred host\". Saint-Just's rise to power wrought a remarkable change in his personality. Freewheeling and passionate in his youth, Saint-Just quickly became focused, \"tyrannical and pitilessly thorough\". He became \"the ice-cold ideologist of republican purity\", \"as inaccessible as stone to all the warm passions\". A measure of his change can be inferred from the experience of his former love interest Thérèse, who is known to have left her husband and taken up residence in a Parisian neighborhood near Saint-Just in late 1793. Saint-Just—who had already developed something of a relationship, tepid but potentially expedient, with the sister of his colleague Lebas—refused to see her. Thérèse stayed there for over a year, returning to Blérancourt only after Saint-Just was dead. No record exists of any exchanges they might have had, but Saint-Just is known to have written to a friend complaining impatiently about the rumors connecting him to \"citizen Thorin\". In his public speaking, Saint-Just was even more daring and outspoken than his mentor Robespierre. Regarding France's internal strife, he spared few: \"You have to punish not only the traitors, but even those who are indifferent; you have to punish whoever is passive in the republic, and who does nothing for it\". He thought the only way to create a true republic was to rid it of enemies, to enforce the \"complete destruction of its opposite\". Regarding the war, he declared without regret to the Convention, \"The vessel of the Revolution can arrive in port only on a sea reddened with torrents of blood\". He urged the deputies to embrace the notion that \"a nation generates itself only upon heaps of corpses\". Despite his flaws, Saint-Just is often accorded respect for the strength of his convictions. Although his words and actions may be viewed as reprehensible, his commitment to them is rarely questioned: he was \"implacable but sincere\". Like Robespierre, he was incorruptible in the sense that he exhibited no attraction to material benefits but devoted himself entirely to the advancement of a political agenda." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Classification.", "Signs and symptoms.", "Mild.", "Moderate.", "Severe.", "Paradoxical undressing.", "Terminal burrowing.", "Causes.", "Alcohol.", "Poverty.", "Water immersion.", "Pathophysiology.", "Diagnosis.", "Prevention.", "Management.", "Rewarming.", "Fluids.", "Cardiac arrest.", "Prognosis.", "Epidemiology.", "History.", "Medical use.", "Other animals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hypothermia is often defined as any body temperature below. With this method it is divided into degrees of severity based on the core temperature. Another classification system, the Swiss staging system, divides hypothermia based on the presenting symptoms which is preferred when it is not possible to determine an accurate core temperature. Other cold-related injuries that can be present either alone or in combination with hypothermia include: The normal human body temperature is often stated as. Hyperthermia and fever, are defined as a temperature of greater than.", "Signs and symptoms vary depending on the degree of hypothermia, and may be divided by the three stages of severity. Infants with hypothermia may feel cold when touched, with bright red skin and an unusual lack of energy.", "Symptoms of mild hypothermia may be vague, with sympathetic nervous system excitation (shivering, high blood pressure, fast heart rate, fast respiratory rate, and contraction of blood vessels). These are all physiological responses to preserve heat. Increased urine production due to cold, mental confusion, and liver dysfunction may also be present. Hyperglycemia may be present, as glucose consumption by cells and insulin secretion both decrease, and tissue sensitivity to insulin may be blunted. Sympathetic activation also releases glucose from the liver. In many cases, however, especially in people with alcoholic intoxication, hypoglycemia appears to be a more common cause. Hypoglycemia is also found in many people with hypothermia, as hypothermia may be a result of hypoglycemia.", "As hypothermia progresses, symptoms include: mental status changes such as amnesia, confusion, slurred speech, decreased reflexes, and loss of fine motor skills.", "As the temperature decreases, further physiological systems falter and heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure all decrease. This results in an expected heart rate in the 30s at a temperature of. There is often cold, inflamed skin, hallucinations, lack of reflexes, fixed dilated pupils, low blood pressure, pulmonary edema, and shivering is often absent. Pulse and respiration rates decrease significantly, but fast heart rates (ventricular tachycardia, atrial fibrillation) can also occur. Atrial fibrillation is not typically a concern in and of itself.", "Twenty to fifty percent of hypothermia deaths are associated with paradoxical undressing. This typically occurs during moderate and severe hypothermia, as the person becomes disoriented, confused, and combative. They may begin discarding their clothing, which, in turn, increases the rate of heat loss. Rescuers who are trained in mountain survival techniques are taught to expect this; however, people who die from hypothermia in urban environments are sometimes incorrectly assumed to have been subjected to sexual assault. One explanation for the effect is a cold-induced malfunction of the hypothalamus, the part of the brain that regulates body temperature. Another explanation is that the muscles contracting peripheral blood vessels become exhausted (known as a loss of vasomotor tone) and relax, leading to a sudden surge of blood (and heat) to the extremities, causing the person to feel overheated.", "An apparent self-protective behaviour, known as \"terminal burrowing\", or \"hide-and-die syndrome\", occurs in the final stages of hypothermia. The afflicted will enter small, enclosed spaces, such as underneath beds or behind wardrobes. It is often associated with paradoxical undressing. Researchers in Germany claim this is \"obviously an autonomous process of the brain stem, which is triggered in the final state of hypothermia and produces a primitive and burrowing-like behavior of protection, as seen in hibernating animals\". This happens mostly in cases where temperature drops slowly.", "Hypothermia usually occurs from exposure to low temperatures, and is frequently complicated by alcohol consumption. Any condition that decreases heat production, increases heat loss, or impairs thermoregulation, however, may contribute. Thus, hypothermia risk factors include: substance abuse (including alcohol abuse), homelessness, any condition that affects judgment (such as hypoglycemia), the extremes of age, poor clothing, chronic medical conditions (such as hypothyroidism and sepsis), and living in a cold environment. Hypothermia occurs frequently in major trauma, and is also observed in severe cases of anorexia nervosa. Hypothermia is also associated with worse outcomes in people with sepsis. While most people with sepsis develop fevers (elevated body temperature), some develop hypothermia. In urban areas, hypothermia frequently occurs with chronic cold exposure, such as in cases of homelessness, as well as with immersion accidents involving drugs, alcohol or mental illness. While studies have shown that homeless people are at risk of premature death from hypothermia, the true incidence of hypothermia-related deaths in this population is difficult to determine. In more rural environments, the incidence of hypothermia is higher among people with significant comorbidities and less able to move independently. With rising interest in wilderness exploration, and outdoor and water sports, the incidence of hypothermia secondary to accidental exposure may become more frequent in the general population.", "Alcohol consumption increases the risk of hypothermia in two ways: vasodilation and temperature controlling systems in the brain. Vasodilation increases blood flow to the skin, resulting in heat being lost to the environment. This produces the effect of feeling warm, when one is actually losing heat. Alcohol also affects the temperature-regulating system in the brain, decreasing the body's ability to shiver and use energy that would normally aid the body in generating heat. The overall effects of alcohol lead to a decrease in body temperature and a decreased ability to generate body heat in response to cold environments. Alcohol is a common risk factor for death due to hypothermia. Between 33% and 73% of hypothermia cases are complicated by alcohol.", "In the UK, 28,354 cases of hypothermia were treated in 2012–13 – an increase of 25% from the previous year. Some cases of hypothermia death, as well as other preventable deaths, happen because poor people cannot easily afford to keep warm. Rising fuel bills have increased the numbers who have difficulty paying for adequate heating in the UK. Some pensioners and disabled people are at risk because they do not work and cannot easily leave their homes. Better heat insulation can help.", "Hypothermia continues to be a major limitation to swimming or diving in cold water. The reduction in finger dexterity due to pain or numbness decreases general safety and work capacity, which consequently increases the risk of other injuries. Other factors predisposing to immersion hypothermia include dehydration, inadequate rewarming between repetitive dives, starting a dive while wearing cold, wet dry suit undergarments, sweating with work, inadequate thermal insulation (for example, thin dry suit undergarment), and poor physical conditioning. Heat is lost much more quickly in water than in air. Thus, water temperatures that would be quite reasonable as outdoor air temperatures can lead to hypothermia in survivors, although this is not usually the direct clinical cause of death for those who are not rescued. A water temperature of can lead to death in as little as one hour, and water temperatures near freezing can cause death in as little as 15 minutes. During the sinking of the \"Titanic\", most people who entered the water died in 15–30 minutes. The actual cause of death in cold water is usually the bodily reactions to heat loss and to freezing water, rather than hypothermia (loss of core temperature) itself. For example, plunged into freezing seas, around 20% of victims die within two minutes from cold shock (uncontrolled rapid breathing, and gasping, causing water inhalation, massive increase in blood pressure and cardiac strain leading to cardiac arrest, and panic); another 50% die within 15–30 minutes from cold incapacitation (inability to use or control limbs and hands for swimming or gripping, as the body \"protectively\" shuts down the peripheral muscles of the limbs to protect its core). Exhaustion and unconsciousness cause drowning, claiming the rest within a similar time.", "Heat is primarily generated in muscle tissue, including the heart, and in the liver, while it is lost through the skin (90%) and lungs (10%). Heat production may be increased two- to four-fold through muscle contractions (i.e. exercise and shivering). The rate of heat loss is determined, as with any object, by convection, conduction, and radiation. The rates of these can be affected by body mass index, body surface area to volume ratios, clothing and other environmental conditions. Many changes to physiology occur as body temperatures decrease. These occur in the cardiovascular system leading to the Osborn J wave and other dysrhythmias, decreased central nervous system electrical activity, cold diuresis, and non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema. Research has shown that glomerular filtration rates (GFR) decrease as a result of hypothermia. In essence, hypothermia increases preglomerular vasoconstriction, thus decreasing both renal blood flow (RBF) and GFR.", "Accurate determination of core temperature often requires a special low temperature thermometer, as most clinical thermometers do not measure accurately below. A low temperature thermometer can be placed in the rectum, esophagus or bladder. Esophageal measurements are the most accurate and are recommended once a person is intubated. Other methods of measurement such as in the mouth, under the arm, or using an infrared ear thermometer are often not accurate. As a hypothermic person's heart rate may be very slow, prolonged feeling for a pulse could be required before detecting. In 2005, the American Heart Association recommended at least 30–45 seconds to verify the absence of a pulse before initiating CPR. Others recommend a 60-second check. The classical ECG finding of hypothermia is the Osborn J wave. Also, ventricular fibrillation frequently occurs below and asystole below. The Osborn J may look very similar to those of an acute ST elevation myocardial infarction. Thrombolysis as a reaction to the presence of Osborn J waves is not indicated, as it would only worsen the underlying coagulopathy caused by hypothermia.", "Appropriate clothing helps to prevent hypothermia. Synthetic and wool fabrics are superior to cotton as they provide better insulation when wet and dry. Some synthetic fabrics, such as polypropylene and polyester, are used in clothing designed to wick perspiration away from the body, such as liner socks and moisture-wicking undergarments. Clothing should be loose fitting, as tight clothing reduces the circulation of warm blood. In planning outdoor activity, prepare appropriately for possible cold weather. Those who drink alcohol before or during outdoor activity should ensure at least one sober person is present responsible for safety. Covering the head is effective, but no more effective than covering any other part of the body. While common folklore says that people lose most of their heat through their heads, heat loss from the head is no more significant than that from other uncovered parts of the body. However, heat loss from the head is significant in infants, whose head is larger relative to the rest of the body than in adults. Several studies have shown that for uncovered infants, lined hats significantly reduce heat loss and thermal stress. Children have a larger surface area per unit mass, and other things being equal should have one more layer of clothing than adults in similar conditions, and the time they spend in cold environments should be limited. However children are often more active than adults, and may generate more heat. In both adults and children, overexertion causes sweating and thus increases heat loss. Building a shelter can aid survival where there is danger of death from exposure. Shelters can be of many different types, metal can conduct heat away from the occupants and is sometimes best avoided. The shelter should not be too big so body warmth stays near the occupants. Good ventilation is essential especially if a fire will be lit in the shelter. Fires should be put out before the occupants sleep to prevent carbon monoxide poisoning. People caught in very cold, snowy conditions can build an igloo or snow cave to shelter. The United States Coast Guard promotes using life vests to protect against hypothermia through the 50/50/50 rule: If someone is in water for 50 minutes, he/she has a 50 percent better chance of survival if wearing a life jacket. A heat escape lessening position can be used to increase survival in cold water. Babies should sleep at 16-20 °C (61-68 °F) and housebound people should be checked regularly to make sure the temperature of the home is at least 18 °C (64 °F).", "Aggressiveness of treatment is matched to the degree of hypothermia. Treatment ranges from noninvasive, passive external warming to active external rewarming, to active core rewarming. In severe cases resuscitation begins with simultaneous removal from the cold environment and management of the airway, breathing, and circulation. Rapid rewarming is then commenced. Moving the person as little and as gently as possible is recommended as aggressive handling may increase risks of a dysrhythmia. Hypoglycemia is a frequent complication and needs to be tested for and treated. Intravenous thiamine and glucose is often recommended, as many causes of hypothermia are complicated by Wernicke's encephalopathy. The UK National Health Service advises against putting a person in a hot bath, massaging their arms and legs, using a heating pad, or giving them alcohol. These measures can cause a rapid fall in blood pressure and potential cardiac arrest.", "Rewarming can be done with a number of methods including passive external rewarming, active external rewarming, and active internal rewarming. Passive external rewarming involves the use of a person's own ability to generate heat by providing properly insulated dry clothing and moving to a warm environment. Passive external rewarming is recommended for those with mild hypothermia. Active external rewarming involves applying warming devices externally, such as a heating blanket. These may function by warmed forced air (Bair Hugger is a commonly used device), chemical reactions, or electricity. In wilderness environments, hypothermia may be helped by placing hot water bottles in both armpits and in the groin. Active external rewarming is recommended for moderate hypothermia. Active core rewarming involves the use of intravenous warmed fluids, irrigation of body cavities with warmed fluids (the chest or abdomen), use of warm humidified inhaled air, or use of extracorporeal rewarming such as via a heart lung machine or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). Extracorporeal rewarming is the fastest method for those with severe hypothermia. When severe hypothermia has led to cardiac arrest, effective extracorporeal warming results in survival with normal mental function about 50% of the time. Chest irrigation is recommended if bypass or ECMO is not possible. Rewarming shock (or rewarming collapse) is a sudden drop in blood pressure in combination with a low cardiac output which may occur during active treatment of a severely hypothermic person. There was a theoretical concern that external rewarming rather than internal rewarming may increase the risk. These concerns were partly believed to be due to afterdrop, a situation detected during laboratory experiments where there is a continued decrease in core temperature after rewarming has been started. Recent studies have not supported these concerns, and problems are not found with active external rewarming.", "For people who are alert and able to swallow, drinking warm sweetened liquids can help raise the temperature. Many recommend alcohol and caffeinated drinks be avoided. As most people are moderately dehydrated due to cold-induced diuresis, warmed intravenous fluids to a temperature of are often recommended.", "In those without signs of life, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) should be continued during active rewarming. For ventricular fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia, a single defibrillation should be attempted. However, people with severe hypothermia may not respond to pacing or defibrillation. It is not known if further defibrillation should be withheld until the core temperature reaches. In Europe, epinephrine is not recommended until the person's core temperature reaches, while the American Heart Association recommends up to three doses of epinephrine before a core temperature of is reached. Once a temperature of has been reached, normal ACLS protocols should be followed.", "It is usually recommended not to declare a person dead until their body is warmed to a near normal body temperature of greater than, since extreme hypothermia can suppress heart and brain function. Exceptions include if there are obvious fatal injuries or the chest is frozen so that it cannot be compressed. If a person was buried in an avalanche for more than 35 minutes and is found with a mouth packed full of snow without a pulse, stopping early may also be reasonable. This is also the case if a person's blood potassium is greater than 12 mmol/l. Those who are stiff with pupils that do not move may survive if treated aggressively. Survival with good function also occasionally occurs even after the need for hours of CPR. Children who have near-drowning accidents in water near can occasionally be revived, even over an hour after losing consciousness. The cold water lowers the metabolism, allowing the brain to withstand a much longer period of hypoxia. While survival is possible, mortality from severe or profound hypothermia remains high despite optimal treatment. Studies estimate mortality at between 38% and 75%. In those who have hypothermia due to another underlying health problem, when death occurs it is frequently from that underlying health problem.", "Between 1995 and 2004 in the United States, an average of 1560 cold-related emergency department visits occurred per year and in the years 1999 to 2004, an average of 647 people died per year due to hypothermia. Of deaths reported between 1999 and 2002 in the US, 49% of those affected were 65 years or older and two-thirds were male. Most deaths were not work related (63%) and 23% of affected people were at home. Hypothermia was most common during the autumn and winter months of October through March. In the United Kingdom, an estimated 300 deaths per year are due to hypothermia, whereas the annual incidence of hypothermia-related deaths in Canada is 8000.", "Hypothermia has played a major role in the success or failure of many military campaigns, from Hannibal's loss of nearly half his men in the Second Punic War (218 B.C.) to the near destruction of Napoleon's armies in Russia in 1812. Men wandered around confused by hypothermia, some lost consciousness and died, others shivered, later developed torpor, and tended to sleep. Others too weak to walk fell on their knees; some stayed that way for some time resisting death. The pulse of some was weak and hard to detect; others groaned; yet others had eyes open and wild with quiet delirium. Loss of life to hypothermia in Russian regions continued through the first and second world wars, especially in the Battle of Stalingrad. Civilian examples of deaths caused by hypothermia occurred during the sinkings of the RMS \"Titanic\" and RMS \"Lusitania\", and more recently of the MS \"Estonia\". Antarctic explorers developed hypothermia; Ernest Shackleton and his team measured body temperatures \"below 94.2°, which spells death at home\", though this probably referred to oral temperatures rather than core temperature and corresponded to mild hypothermia. One of Scott's team, Atkinson, became confused through hypothermia. Nazi human experimentation during World War II amounting to medical torture included hypothermia experiments, which killed many victims. There were 360 to 400 experiments and 280 to 300 subjects, indicating some had more than one experiment performed on them. Various methods of rewarming were attempted, \"One assistant later testified that some victims were thrown into boiling water for rewarming\".", "Various degrees of hypothermia may be deliberately induced in medicine for purposes of treatment of brain injury, or lowering metabolism so that total brain ischemia can be tolerated for a short time. Deep hypothermic circulatory arrest is a medical technique in which the brain is cooled as low as 10 °C, which allows the heart to be stopped and blood pressure to be lowered to zero, for the treatment of aneurysms and other circulatory problems that do not tolerate arterial pressure or blood flow. The time limit for this technique, as also for accidental arrest in ice water (which internal temperatures may drop to as low as 15 °C), is about one hour.", "Many animals other than humans often induce hypothermia during hibernation or torpor. Water bears (Tardigrade), microscopic multicellular organisms, can survive freezing at low temperatures by replacing most of their internal water with the sugar trehalose, preventing the crystallization that otherwise damages cell membranes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gameplay.", "Players and units.", "Playable equipment and damage model.", "Strategic layer (High Command).", "History.", "Initial release.", "Re-release.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "There are two sides: Axis vs. Allied. The Axis consists of the German forces and the Allies are the combined British (UK), French and U.S. forces. The rest of Europe, the rest of the British Commonwealth, Soviet Union, China or Japan have not been introduced into the World War II simulation yet. Players can choose to play Axis or Allies and may switch sides after waiting a mandatory period of fifteen minutes that begins when they resign from their current side. Gameplay takes place in a single game world, which is a 1/2 scale map of Western Europe. It is the largest MMOG game world map, at over, with most play occurring in a central area in which most capturable cities, airfields and ports have been placed. The general organization of the forces is historical. SS units are excluded, along with all political elements (for example, the Nazi Party, the Gestapo and swastika). The game takes skill, teamwork, tactics, strategy, planning, patience and perseverance to win battles, make progress and individually rank upward.", "\"WWIIOL\" is team-oriented. Players are various troops, pilots, gunners, tank commanders, naval destroyer captains, mission leaders, high commanders and are organized into brigades. Everyone plays in the brigade of their choice. Smaller military units of heavily-themed squads are independently managed by players and can use their own tactics but follow the brigade and strategic rules set by the high command players and cooperate with other squads and non-squad players. Being a squad member is optional but encouraged. Some squads have vigorous membership rites. Anyone that has a paid account can, however, form their own squad, solicit members and register the squad with the high command for brigade assignment. Each player holds a title of rank, based on the military ranks of the time. Ranks are gained through a performance-based scoring system. Rank is never lost as a result of an unsuccessful mission or death. Detailed statistics are tracked by the server, and made available through a web interface, known as 'Combat Statistics and Records', or CSR. Statistics are very detailed, recording a history of every mission the player has attempted over the campaign. Summary statistics are available to compare player performance to those of other players. Statistics include elements such as number of kills, damages, deaths, time spent on each mission, and depot captures. The top 100 players for several categories are updated regularly. Communication between players via text is supported by a variety of communication channels for messages exchanged between players. Default channels are Target (players will communicate with others whose missions target a town and its linked facilities), Mission (all players who chose a mission created by the same person), squad (a voluntary group similar to a clan in other online games), Brigade (not commonly used), Operations (for Tactical/Strategic information and discussions) and Side (for more general and sometimes off-topic chat). There is also a Help channel which is tuned by default for new players. Numbered text channels can also be manually connected to. Each side's Air Force and Navy have designated numbered channels, some squads who often play together use specific channels for intersquad communication, and a particular coordinated effort between many the side's High Command, players, various squads and/or various military branches may decide to use a specific numbered channel, as their Target channels may be quite different. Additionally, it is common for players to communicate via Discord since cooperation with other players can be critical for success.", "\"WWIIOL\" has a variety of playable equipment, each modeled with data from historical references. In total, there are currently 130 different playable weapons. Like in many other RPGs, more equipment that becomes available as the player gains more experience. New recruits start with a limited equipment selection. As the player progresses in rank, better vehicles and more infantry classes become available. The damage model in \"WWIIOL \"is realism based, within the limits of modern technology, it simulates real world kinetic damage to the game world. Vehicles are modeled with their essential critical components, such as engine, fuel tanks, etc. The components interact as if they were the real machine. For example, a punctured fuel tank will cause loss of fuel which will eventually cause the engine to run out of fuel causing the engine to stop. Leaking fuel within the vehicle can be set on fire by subsequent or existing damage to other parts of the vehicle, resulting in the tank \"brewing up\" and possibly exploding. Damaged components also provide feedback into the simulation model; For example, for aircraft, damage to flight surfaces will result in increased drag and reduced performance of the vehicle. Vehicles are modeled, within reasonable technical limits, to historically accurate detail. The ballistic model is also detailed, taking into account drag coefficient properties, muzzle velocity, and mass of each individual type of ammunition. The game engine considers the physical details of all rounds in flight and at point of impact, calculating the angle of impact and energy of the round, and the thickness and slope of the target vehicle's armor. Rounds which manage to penetrate may go on to cause damage to components or crew members in the path of penetration. High energy rounds that do not fully penetrate may still cause spall (high velocity metal fragments) within the vehicle, if close enough to penetration. Rounds that penetrate a vehicle will usually leave a visible hole on the outside, while rounds that don't penetrate may leave a scuff mark where the round bounced off. Small arms fire will also often leave bullet holes or scuff marks on buildings or vehicles.", "Both sides in Battleground Europe have player-run groups, known as the High Command (HC), responsible for strategic management of the side's forces. High Command players have their own avatar and when they broadcast on the Ops channel a small \"HC\" symbol is displayed rather than the British/French/German side's symbol. An in-game list of all currently logged in HC players is available. HC players have abilities that are not available to the rest of the playerbase, namely in the placing of Attack Objectives (AOs). When an AO is placed on a town, the other side gets an automatic Defence Objective (DO) on that town allowing all players to know that it is under attack. 10 minutes after an AO is first placed on a town, the town's Depot Office building, City Office building, and Rail Road Office buildings all become capturable. These capturable buildings are collectively known as Capture Points (CPs). Entering the Flag building linked to an Office building (marked with a large flag) will show an attacker how long it will take for the building to become capturable. To capture a building, attackers must remain inside the Flag Building until the capture bar has hit 100%. If more than one player (up to eight) are inside the flag building, the bar will move faster. Additional attackers past the eighth have no effect on the capture speed. Defenders must kill all attackers in the flag building to start liberating the facility. Any attackers who enter the building (even if it is currently being liberated) start the capture bar moving up again. Capturing a flag gives the attacking side control of the corresponding building linked to the Office. If the Office links to a Depot that has a link to a friendly town, the Depot is referred to as \"Spawnable\" and players may spawn from new missions there, making them an important objective. Players may also despawn near a friendly depot and respawn inside it, called \"Warping\". This allows attackers to set up a Mobile Spawn Point near a non-spawnable depot and warp directly into it, avoiding any heavy defenses around the spawnable depots. Ten minutes after an Office is captured, the town's Army Bunkers, Airfield Bunkers, Docks and Factories become capturable. The attacking side must continuously hold one flag in the town for this to happen. It does not have to be the same flag, they may capture two, lose one, capture another, lose the first, in any combination as long as they continue to hold at least one flag for ten minutes. Once all the town's Office buildings, Army Bunkers, Airfield Bunkers, Docks and Factories are captured, the AO and DO are lifted and the town changes ownership to the attacking side. All towns have an Army Base, some on rivers have Docks, some with large historical airfields have Airfields with a command bunker, and some important industrial towns have Factories. AOs can also be placed on bridges. An AO on a bridge enables that side to destroy it, while a DO allows it to be repaired. Bombers and Naval Destroyers are usually tasked with blowing up bridges, while sapper (engineer) units must repair them. Bridges repair slowly if left alone. High Command players are able to move their side's \"brigades\" along road links between friendly towns. Each brigade can be moved once every Hour if in a frontline town, or every half an hour if in a non-frontline town. A friendly brigade in a town allows players to spawn in that town to either defend or attack. Naval and Air Force brigades are considered \"Self-Deployable\" and can move directly from any town to another with the right Docks or Air Field facilities, as long as the destination town is held by friend forces and is not cut off from the main friendly-held area. Each army division has a headquarters (HQ) unit and three combat brigades. Two of the brigades are Infantry brigades (with a high proportion of infantry and artillery, with only light tanks) and one brigade is classified as Armoured (with a high proportion of heavy and medium tanks and fewer infantry and artillery). The HQ unit is mostly used to resupply the other three brigades, and is vulnerable when placed on the front line by itself. It is common practice to attach the armoured brigade to one of the infantry brigades and use the HQ unit to resupply both. The game's movement rules only allow the brigades to be moved to a friendly town that is no more than 1 town away from another brigade or the HQ in its own Division. The rule though does not apply in the case that the brigade is the only one left in its division and if this occurs it is free to move to any surrounding town. This occurs through the routing of brigades. Routing removes brigades from the game map for 6 hours and can happen in a few ways. Brigades in a division will normally \"fallback\" if the AB is captured, but only if the game's movement rules allow it, that is, move to within 1 link of a brigade or HQ in its own division. If none of the surrounding friendly towns are within 1 link of a brigade within its own division when the AB is captured, then the brigade will be routed off the game map for 6 hours. High Command players that are Commanding Officers (CO) of a Brigade or higher can give out side wide messages known as dot Axis or dot Allied messages. They are named thus as the command to type one out is, \".axis\" or \".allied\". These messages are seen by all players on a side and are used for a number of purposes. The usual purpose of the message is to inform players of important battles. The message will tell players what town is being attacked or defended, what brigade or brigades are involved, who the Officer in Command (OIC) of the attack or defence is and what chat and possibly Team Speak channels are being used. Most high command players liven their messages up beyond just the generic and quite humorous messages can often be seen. These messages can also be used to boost the \"morale\" of the troops by telling them how well they have been fighting and to announce future Operations that are being planned.", "", "The game is commonly recognized as the first MMOFPS. Following the purchase of Interactive Creations of Grapevine's \"WarBirds\" by IEntertainment Network in 1999, several of the developers departed the company and formed new gaming companies. Some went to form Hitech Creations, others went with John \"Killer\" MacQueen, Jonathon \"Hoof\" Hoof, Chris \"Mo\" Sherland to leverage their experience on \"WarBirds\" and \"Raider Wars\" to develop an online gaming network (G2 Network) with a massively-multiplayer first-person WWII simulation for both PC and Mac as the showpiece. After a lengthy closed beta stage, \"WWIIOL\" went live on June 6, 2001 under the campaign title \"Blitzkrieg\". The release was timed to coincide with the anniversary of the D-Day. Like most online games, \"WWIIOL\" is a continual work in progress, and so has a history of updates that are frequently released to add new features, fix problems and improve existing features. Updates, or patches to the game code, were released every 6 weeks, on average; but recently have moved to a less frequent but larger content format of 3 or 4 times a year. These patches generally include a wide range of features and problem fixes. Everything from new weapons and vehicles to audits of the performances of existing weapons and vehicles are part of the patching process as well as terrain, structure, game play and performance improvements. The initial launch had a number of technical difficulties. The game required that players download a 70 MB update before they could play online. At the time, the majority of users had 56k modems, requiring around three hours to update the game. As the developers worked feverishly behind the scenes to complete other promised features and fix the software bugs on the gold CD, even more updates became necessary. Three days prior to release, the colocation network facility had a bad fiber optic cable. This failure reduced the player capacity of the server cluster, from 10,000 players down to only 1200 players. As a temporary workaround, Playnet set up multiple copies of the game-world on different servers, distributing the network load, but at some cost in game play. This solution lasted for several months while the developers resolved the server-side issues, after which all servers were merged into a single game-world. Some features advertised on the game box were partially implemented, or missing, such as rank and high-command strategic features. The combination of the above problems resulted in game returns, complaints from customers, and a drop-off in sales as word spread of the game's state. Subscription fees for the first several months were waived, until the major problems with the game were resolved. This helped to retain many of the players, especially the long-term fans of the project, but it was not long before Playnet had financial problems. They filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in late 2001, and cut costs, resulting in a number of lay-offs within the company. Statements from both the developer (CRS), and publisher (Strategy First), indicated that CRS wanted a longer open beta, but the game was launched anyway, due to financial reasons.", "\"WWIIOL\" completed a third retail release in 2005 under the new campaign title \"Battleground Europe\". This new title was chosen because of legal considerations with the old title of \"Blitzkrieg\", whose trademark was owned by another game. The Battleground Europe re-release was distributed across Europe in late 2005 and in the United States in early 2006 by the game's new publishers GMX Media (Europe) and Matrix Games (USA). \"World War II Online: Battleground Europe\" was largely a compilation of fixes already available through patches to the original game. However, compared to the initial 2001 release, the game was drastically different due to these changes.", "Kevin Rice reviewed the PC version of the game for \"Next Generation\", rating it two stars out of five, and stated that \"A huge learning curve coupled with low gratification and zero organization make this a title only for those with the patience of a saint.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Motorsport.", "MotoGP.", "Formula One.", "Endurance racing.", "Rallying.", "Recent developments.", "Active Wheel.", "Other products.", "Tyre retailer.", "Tour guides.", "Maps.", "Online mapping.", "Michelin Challenge Bibendum / Movin'On (since 2017).", "Michelin Truck and Bus.", "Management.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1889 two brothers, Édouard Michelin and André Michelin, ran a rubber factory in Clermont-Ferrand, France. One day, a cyclist whose pneumatic tyre needed repair turned up at the factory. The tyre was glued to the rim, and it took over three hours to remove and repair the tyre, which then needed to be left overnight to dry. The next day, Édouard Michelin took the repaired bicycle into the factory yard to test. After only a few hundred metres, the tyre failed. Despite the setback, Édouard was enthusiastic about the pneumatic tyre, and he and his brother worked on creating their own version, one that did not need to be glued to the rim. Michelin was incorporated on 28 May 1889. In 1891 Michelin took out its first patent for a removable pneumatic tyre which was used by Charles Terront to win the world's first long-distance cycle race, the 1891 Paris–Brest–Paris. In the 1920s and 1930s, Michelin operated large rubber plantations in Vietnam. Conditions at these plantations led to the famous labour movement Phu Rieng Do. In 1934, Michelin introduced a tyre which, if punctured, would run on a special foam lining, a design now known as a run-flat tyre (self-supporting type). Michelin developed and patented a key innovation in tyre history, the 1946 radial tyre, and successfully exploited this technological innovation to become one of the world's leading tyre manufacturers. The radial was initially marketed as the \"X\" tyre. It was developed with the front-wheel-drive Citroën Traction Avant and Citroën 2CV in mind. Michelin had bought the then-bankrupt Citroën in the 1930s. Because of its superiority in handling and fuel economy, use of this tyre quickly spread throughout Europe and Asia. In the U.S., the outdated bias-ply tyre persisted, with market share of 87% in 1967. In 1966, Michelin partnered with Sears to produce radial tyres under the Allstate brand and was selling 1 million units annually by 1970. In 1968, Michelin opened its first North American sales office, and was able to grow that market for its products rapidly; by 1989 the company had 10% market share for OEM tyres purchased by American automobile makers. Also in 1968, Consumer Reports, an influential American magazine, acknowledged the superiority of the radial construction, setting off a rapid decline in Michelin's competitor technology. In the U.S., the radial tyre now has a market share of 100%. In addition to the private label and replacement tyre market, Michelin scored an early OEM tyre win in North America, when it received the contract for the 1970 Continental Mark III, the first American car with radial tyres fitted as standard. In 1989, Michelin acquired the recently merged tyre and rubber manufacturing divisions of the American firms B.F. Goodrich Company (founded in 1870) and Uniroyal, Inc. (founded in 1892 as the United States Rubber Company) from Clayton, Dubilier & Rice. Uniroyal Australia had already been bought by Bridgestone in 1980. This purchase included the Norwood, North Carolina manufacturing plant which supplied tyres to the U.S. Space Shuttle Program. In December 2018, Michelin acquired Camso, a manufacturer of off-the-road tyres, tracks, and accessories for power sports, agriculture, material handling and construction markets. Michelin also controls 90% of Taurus Tyre in Hungary, as well as Kormoran, a Polish brand. As of 1 September 2008, Michelin is again the world's largest tyre manufacturer after spending two years as number two behind Bridgestone. Michelin produces tyres in France, Serbia, Poland, Spain, Germany, the US, the UK, Canada, Brazil, Thailand, Japan, India, Italy and several other countries. On 15 January 2010, Michelin announced the closing of its Ota, Japan plant, which employs 380 workers and makes the Michelin X-Ice tyre. Production of the X-Ice will be moved to Europe, North America, and elsewhere in Asia. In 2019, Michelin announced that plants in Germany and France are to be closed soon.", "", "Michelin participated in MotoGP from 1972 to 2008. They introduced radial construction to MotoGP in 1984, and multi-compound tyres in 1994. They achieved 360 victories in 36 years, and from 1993 to 2006, the world championship had gone to a rider on Michelins. In 2007, Casey Stoner on Bridgestone tyres won the world championship in dominating fashion, and Valentino Rossi and other top riders complained that Michelins were inferior. Rossi wanted Bridgestones for the 2008 season, but Bridgestone was reluctant to provide them; Dorna threatened to impose a control tyre on the series, after which Bridgestone relented. In 2008, Michelin committed errors of judgment in allocating adequate tyres for some of the race weekends. Dani Pedrosa's team switched to Bridgestones in the midst of the season, a highly unusual move that caused friction between Honda Racing Corporation and their sponsor Repsol YPF. Other riders also expressed concerns and it seemed that Michelin might not have any factory riders for the 2009 season, leading to rumours that Michelin would withdraw from the series altogether. Dorna and the FIM announced that a control tyre would be imposed on MotoGP for the 2009 season and Michelin did not enter a bid, effectively ending its participation in the series at the end of 2008. Michelin returned to MotoGP in 2016 as official tyre supplier after Bridgestone's withdrawal from the series at the end of 2015.", "Michelin first competed in the 1977 Formula One season, when Renault started development of their turbocharged F1 car. Michelin introduced radial tyre technology to Formula One and won the Formula One Drivers' Championship with Brabham and McLaren, before withdrawing at the end of 1984. The company returned to Formula One in 2001, supplying the Williams, Jaguar, Benetton (renamed Renault in 2002), Prost and Minardi teams. Toyota joined F1 in 2002 with Michelin tyres, and McLaren also signed up with the company. Michelin tyres were initially uncompetitive but by the 2005 season were totally dominant. This was partly because the new regulations stated that tyres must last the whole race distance (and qualifying), and partly because only one top team (Ferrari) was running Bridgestones, and so had to do much of the development work. Michelin in contrast had much more testing and race data provided by the larger number of teams running their tyres. Following the debacle of the 2005 United States Grand Prix where, because of safety concerns, Michelin would not allow the teams it supplies to race, Michelin's share price fell by 2.5% (though it recovered later the same day). On 28 June, Michelin announced that it would offer compensation to all race fans who had bought tickets for the Grand Prix. The company committed to refunding the price of all tickets for the race. Additionally, it announced that it would provide 20,000 complimentary tickets for the 2006 race to spectators who had attended the 2005 event. Michelin has had a difficult relationship with the sport's governing body (the FIA) since around 2003, and this escalated to apparent disdain between the two parties during the 2005 season. The most high-profile disagreement was at the United States Grand Prix and the acrimony afterwards. Michelin criticised the FIA's intention to move to a single source (i.e. one brand) tyre from 2008, and threatened to withdraw from the sport. In a public rebuke FIA President Max Mosley wrote \"\"There are simple arguments for a single tyre, and if [Michelin boss Édouard Michelin] is not aware of this, he shows an almost comical lack of knowledge of modern Formula One\"\". Another bone of contention has been the reintroduction of tyre changes during pit-stops from 2006. Michelin criticised the move claiming \"\"this event illustrates F1's problems of incoherent decision-making and lack of transparency\".\" In December 2005, and as a result of the difficult relationship with the sport's governing body, Michelin announced that it would not extend its involvement in Formula One beyond the 2006 season. Bridgestone was then the sole supplier of tyres to Formula One until the end of the 2010 season, with Pirelli providing tyres for 2011. The last race won on Michelin tyres in Formula One was the 2006 Japanese Grand Prix, Fernando Alonso benefitting after the Ferrari engine of Michael Schumacher failed during the race. This gave Michelin a second consecutive Constructors' Championship win, with the 2005 and 2006, after Bridgestone's seven-year winning streak, and brought to a total of four the number of titles for Michelin since this championship's inception back in the 1958 Formula One season; Michelin's other titles were in the 1979, and 1984 seasons.", "Michelin is involved in endurance races such as the 24 Hours of Le Mans and the American Le Mans Series. Involvement in Le Mans began with supplying tyres for the winner of the inaugural 1923 24 Hours of Le Mans as well as nine others of the 33 entrants. In 2009 Michelin supplied tyres for 41 of the 55 cars entered in Le Mans. In 2016 they provide the Audi, Porsche and Toyota LMP1 teams, as well as the AF Corse, BMW, Corvette, Ford Ganassi, Porsche and Risi teams in GTE-Pro / GTLM. Beginning in 2019, Michelin will replace Continental as the official tyre of the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship. Along with supplying tyres for IMSA's top three series, the partnership includes naming rights for the Sports Car Challenge series and the North American Endurance Cup. Michelin has also supplied tyres in the European Le Mans Series. The company is exclusive supplier of LMP3 since 2015.", "In the World Rally Championship, Michelin has been supplier of the Audi, Citroën, Ford, Lancia, Mitsubishi, Peugeot, Toyota and Volkswagen factory teams. Michelin Group brand BFGoodrich represented the brand in 2006 and 2007. The company was absent from 2008 to 2010, when Pirelli was signed as exclusive supplier, after which they returned to the series.", "", "Active Wheel from Michelin includes in-wheel electric motors and a motorised suspension to free up space in the front or rear of the vehicle. This model also eliminates the need for other notorious space hogs like transmissions and exhaust systems. The wheels already have a vehicle ready to receive them, the Heuliez Will from Opel, and are also expected to come standard on the Venturi Volage sometime in 2012. The project was interrupted in 2014.", "", "Tyre retail in Europe with Euromaster and in the US with its wholly owned subsidiary TCI Tyre Centers.", "Michelin has long published two guidebook series, the Red Guides to hotels and restaurants, and the Green Guides for tourism. It now publishes several additional guides, as well as digital map and guide products. The city maps in both the Red and the Green guides are of high quality, and are linked to the smaller-scale road maps.", "Michelin publishes a variety of road maps, mostly of France but also of other European countries, countries in Africa, Thailand and the United States. They have recently embarked in e-commerce selling Michelin maps and guides directly to the public through, for example, their UK website. The Michelin roadmaps were reproduced in England for the Allied invasion during World War II. The Germans also reproduced in 1940 the 1938 edition Michelin maps for the invasion.", "ViaMichelin is a wholly owned subsidiary of Michelin Group, and was started in 2001, to represent Michelin's digital mapping services. As of August 2008, ViaMichelin generates 400 million maps and routes per month on its main website. ViaMichelin provides mapping and travel solutions for internet, mobile and satellite navigation products with street level coverage of Europe, USA, Australia, and parts of Asia and South America.", "The Michelin Challenge Bibendum is a major sustainable mobility event.", "In 1952, 6 years after Michelin patented its Radial Casing, Michelin adapted the radial technology to truck tyres.", "From 1999, the company was headed by CEO Édouard Michelin. On 26 May 2006, Édouard drowned while fishing near the island of Sein, off the coast of Brittany. His death brought Michel Rollier, a 2nd cousin of Édouard Michelin, to the head of the company. Rollier was replaced in May 2012 by Jean-Dominique Senard. In 2018, Jean-Dominique Senard announced he would not seek re-election at the shareholders' meeting in 2019. As a result, the shareholders elected Florent Menegaux to succeed Senard starting in 2019.", "Michelin Maps Italy List Details of Michelin Maps Italy" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Methods of sliding.", "Reasons for sliding.", "Avoiding a tag out.", "Avoiding overrunning the base.", "Interfering with the defensive player (take-out slide).", "Avoiding collision or injury from errant throw.", "Speed impact of sliding.", "Risks associated with sliding." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There are many different ways to slide, involving different ways of attempting to avoid the tag, reaching to touch the base, or trying to contact or avoid collision with the defensive player. Since the defense generally expects a slide, sometimes a baserunner trying to avoid being tagged out will not slide directly towards the base, but rather to a side away from where the ball is coming, and then reach back to touch the base. Players generally slide feet-first but sometimes also use a head-first technique. Strictly speaking, going headfirst into a base constitutes more of a dive than a slide, but the term \"slide\" is still commonly used. This alternate method has been used in Major League Baseball at least since the middle-1880s when the innovation was popularized by the St. Louis Browns of the American Association. Yet even in the majors, it remained relatively uncommon until it became popularized by Pete Rose in the 1960s. Headfirst sliding has since become a common practice for various players on all levels of professional baseball, but it is often restricted on the amateur level.", "", "On plays in which the baserunner may be tagged out by the opposing defensive player covering the base, the baserunner's body being down on the ground presents the lowest-profile target for the defensive player to tag. This makes it slightly more difficult for the defensive player to apply the tag in time to put out the baserunner.", "In most cases, it is important that a baserunner's momentum from running is not so great at the time of reaching the base that it would cause the baserunner subsequently to overrun the base, placing him in jeopardy of being tagged out once contact with the base is lost. This need to reduce the momentum from running is directly at odds with the need to reach the base as quickly as possible in the first place. Sliding addresses this problem by providing, through the body's friction with the ground, the most rapid means of slowing a baserunner's momentum. This, in turn, allows the baserunner to remain at top speed for as long as possible before needing to initiate slowing.", "Sliding can sometimes be used as a means of interfering with the play of the opposing defensive player who is covering the base being approached. For example, when it is possible that a double play might occur, and the baserunner approaching second base has already been put out, he might still try to slide toward the defensive player who intends to throw the ball to first base. If the defensive player moves away from second base as he prepares to throw the ball toward first, the baserunner may still slide directly toward the defensive player, even though that means sliding \"away\" from second base itself. This has the effect of hampering that defensive player's ability to complete the play, either directly by making physical contact with him, or indirectly by distracting him by making him fearful of such contact. A slide performed exclusively for the purpose of hampering the play of the defense is called a \"take-out slide\". Whether a particular instance of a take-out slide is legal within the rules of baseball is a judgement call made by the umpire, usually based upon how close the baserunner comes to the base they are approaching during the slide. If a baserunner strays too far from the base when attempting a take-out slide, the umpire may declare the slide to be an example of illegal interference and call an extra out. As a general (but not absolute) guideline, even if the baserunner clearly slides toward the defensive player and away from the base, so long as the baserunner comes close enough to the base that he is able to touch it with some part of his body during the slide, the slide will be ruled to be legal. On the flip side, the fielder will often be granted the neighborhood play under such circumstances.", "Particularly for younger players, proper sliding technique has been shown to protect the runner and fielder from colliding and can prevent the runner from being hit by an errant throw. For this reason, most youth baseball leagues now advise teaching proper sliding technique at a young age and urge kids to slide feet-first into any base (except first base) whenever there is a potentially close play. This concept is somewhat more controversial in adult amateur baseball/softball leagues since the risk of injury from sliding increases with age.", "The television series \"MythBusters\" tested participants' baserunning speed with and without sliding, and found that in cases where the runner needs to stop on the base, sliding into that base instead of staying upright provided a split second of advantage, suggesting the more rapid deceleration as the key. However, when removing the need to stop, the general belief within baseball circles is that remaining upright and running all the way to the base at top speed allows a baserunner to reach the base faster than sliding. Consequently, on plays during which neither being tagged out nor being put in jeopardy by overrunning the base is at issue (e.g., when approaching first base after having batted the ball and nobody is trying to make a tag play), players are usually advised not to slide. Nonetheless, this conventional wisdom is not universally accepted, and as such, some players may feel that sliding will get them to the base more quickly and will thus choose to do so despite advice to the contrary.", "One study in the American Journal of Sports Medicine followed seven softball and three baseball teams in Division I of the NCAA, and found the overall incidence of injuries sustained while sliding was 9.51 per 1000 slides. Softball players had about twice the incidence of sliding injuries as baseball players in the study. 11% (four out of 37) of the injuries caused the player to miss more than 7 days of participation. Because baseball shoes are spiked on the bottom, sliding with the spikes up increases the probability of injury to the defensive player covering the base. Knowledge of this fact can often increase the defensive player's fear of the possible contact from an impending slide and thus increase his distraction while attempting to make a play. Ty Cobb developed nine different ways to slide into a base." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Origin.", "History.", "Geographic distribution.", "Official status.", "Dialects.", "Spoken and literary varieties.", "Writing system.", "Latin transliteration.", "Dictionary.", "Phonology.", "Intonation.", "Consonant clusters.", "Grammar.", "Letters.", "Morphology.", "Nouns.", "Nominal morphology.", "Numerals.", "Verbal morphology.", "Word order.", "Loan words.", "Words referring to persons.", "Words referring to things.", "Words referring to actions.", "Levels of speech.", "Vocabulary.", "Word origins.", "Sample.", "Information technology.", "Typography.", "Fonts.", "Text editors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The origin of the word \"Divehi\" is \"div\"+\"vehi\" meaning \"islanders\" (from Sanskrit \"dvīpa\"). \"Bas\" means \"language\" (from Sanskrit \"bhāṣā\"), so \"\" means \"Islanders' language\". Harry Charles Purvis Bell, one of the first Dhivehi linguists, called it \"Dives\". This was consistent with \"Maldives\", the name of the country, for the \"-dives\" of \"Maldives\" and the word \"Divehi\" have the same root, Old Indo-Aryan \"dvīpa\" \"island\". Wilhelm Geiger, a German linguist who undertook the first research on Maldivian linguistics in the early 20th century, also called the language \"Divehi\". An \"h\" was added to the name of the language— \"Dhivehi\"— in 1976, when the semi-official transliteration called Malé Latin was developed. Today the spelling with \"Dh\" is both common and official usage in the Maldives.", "Maldivian is an Indo-Aryan language closely related to the Sinhalese language of Sri Lanka. Maldivian represents the southernmost Indo-Aryan language. Maldivian and Sinhalese together constitute a subgroup within the modern Indo-Aryan languages, called Insular Indo-Aryan. However, they are not mutually intelligible. Maldivian and Sinhalese are descended from the Elu Prakrit of ancient and medieval India. These Prakrits were originally derived from Old Indo-Aryan vernaculars related to Vedic Sanskrit. Whereas formerly Maldivian was thought to be a descendant of Sinhalese, in 1969 Sinhalese philologist M. W. S. de Silva for the first time proposed that Maldivian and Sinhalese had branched off from a common mother language.", "The earliest writings were on the \" (copper-plate grants) of the 12th and 13th centuries. Early inscriptions on coral stone have also been found. The oldest inscription found to date is an inscription on a coral stone, which is estimated to be from around the 7th or 8th century. Maldivian is an Indo-Aryan language of the Sinhalese-Maldivian subfamily. It developed in relative isolation from other languages until the 12th century. Since the 16th century, Maldivian has been written in a unique script called Thaana which is written from right to left, like those of Aramaic and Arabic (with which it shares several common diacritics for vowel sounds). The foundation of the historical linguistic analysis of both Maldivian and Sinhalese was laid by Wilhelm Geiger (1856–1943). In Geiger's comparative study of Maldivian and Sinhalese, he assumes that Maldivian is a dialectal offspring of Sinhalese and therefore is a \"daughter language\" of Sinhalese. However, the material he collected was not sufficient to judge the \"degree of relationship\" of Maldivian and Sinhalese. Geiger concludes that Maldivian must have split from Sinhalese not earlier that=n the 10th century CE. However, there is nothing in the history of these islands or Sinhalese chronicles, even in legendary form, that alludes to a migration of Sinhalese people which would result in such a connection. Maldives is completely absent in the pre-12th century records of Sri Lanka. Vitharana suggests that Maldivian did not evolve as a separate language from Sinhalese until the 12th century CE. A rare Maliku Thaana primer written in Maldivian, published by Lakshadweep's administration during the time of Rajiv Gandhi's rule, was reprinted by Spanish researcher Xavier Romero-Frias in 2003. There is a holiday, the \"Dhivehi Language Day\", which is celebrated in the Maldives on 14 April, the birthday of the writer Husain Salaahuddin.", "Maldivian is spoken in the Maldives and a variation of it in Minicoy.", "Maldivian is the official language of the Maldives and a semi-official language in the Union Territory of Lakshadweep, India.", "Due to the wide distribution of the islands, differences in pronunciation and vocabulary have developed during the centuries. The mainstream Maldivian dialect (bahuruva) is known as \"Malé dialect\" and is based on the dialect spoken in the capital of the Maldives, Malé. The most divergent dialects of the language are to be found in the southern atolls, namely Huvadhu, Fuvahmulah and Addu. Slighter variants are spoken in Haddhunmathi and in Minicoy (Maliku) where \"Haddhunmathee dialect\" and \"Maliku dialect\" (\"Mahl\") are spoken respectively. The dialect spoken in Minicoy has fewer differences from the standard Maldivian than other dialects. Among the dialects, \"Malé dialect\" and \"Maliku dialect\" are most similar. The other variants show much difference, including the dialects spoken in a few islands in Kolhumadulu, which are hardly recognised and known. \"Mulaku dialect\" is a dialect of Maldivian spoken by the people of Fuvahmulah. \"Mulaku dialect\" has word-final 'l' (\"laamu sukun\" ), which is absent from the other dialects of Maldivian. Another characteristic is the 'o' sound at the end of words, instead of the final 'u' common in all other forms of Maldivian; e.g. 'fanno' instead of 'fannu'. Regarding pronunciation, the retroflex 'ṣ' (IPA [ʂ]), which has almost a slight 'r' sound in mainstream Maldivian, becomes 'š' (IPA [ʃ]) in \"Mulaku dialect\", sounding like \"shīn\". One of the most unusual features of \"Mulaku dialect\" is that, unlike other dialects, it distinguishes gender. Also, there are many remarkable differences in the dialect in place of the \"sukun\" system as well as the vowel or diacritical system following a distinctive set of rules. \"Huvadhu dialect\", spoken by the inhabitants of the large atoll of Huvadhu, is another distinctive form of Maldivian. Because of the isolation from the Northern Atolls, and the capital of Malé, \"Huvadhu dialect\" makes more use of the retroflex /ʈ/ than other variants. \"Huvadhu dialect\" also retains old Sinhalese words and is sometimes considered to be linguistically closer to Sinhalese than the other dialects of Maldivian. \"Addu dialect\" is also quite different from the official form of Maldivian and has some affinities with \"Mulaku dialect\". In the past, Addu Atoll being a centre of education, the islanders from the three atolls of the south who acquired education there used \"Addu dialect\" as their lingua franca. Hence, when for example one of these islanders of any of the Huvadhu islands met with someone from Fuvahmulah, they would use \"Addu dialect\" to talk to each other. \"Addu dialect\" is the most widespread of the dialects of Maldivian. However, the secessionist government of the Suvadives (1959–1963) used \"Malé dialect\" in its official correspondence. The lesser known dialect in the Madifushi island of Kolhumadulu locally known as \"Madifushi dialect\" has some similarities with \"Huvadhu dialect\". Word-final 'a' is often replaced with 'e' or 'o', and some final consonants also differ. The letter Ṇaviyani (different from the letter Ñaviyani), which represented the retroflex \"n\" sound common to many Indic languages (Gujarati, Hindi, etc.), was abolished from official documents in 1950 by Muhammad Amin, the ruler of Maldives. It is not known why this particular letter representing a retroflex sound was abolished while others, like Ḷaviyani, Ḍaviyani, and Ṭaviyani, were not. Ṇaviyani's former position in the Thaana alphabet, between the letters Gaafu and Seenu, is today occupied by the palatal nasal Ñ or Ñyaviyani ޏ. It is still seen in reprints of traditional old books like the \"Bodu Tarutheebu\" and official documents like \"Rādavaḷi\". It is also used by people of southern atolls when writing songs or poetry in their language variant. According to Sonja Fritz, \"the dialects of Maldivian represent different diachronial stages in the development of the language. Especially in the field of morphology, the amount of archaic features steadily increase from the north to the south. Within the three southernmost atolls (of the Maldives), the dialect of the Addu islands which form the southern tip of the whole archipelago is characterized by the highest degree of archaicity\". Fritz puts forward this theory based on research into the dialects of Addu and Fuvahmulah. She is yet to do research on the dialect of Huvadhu Atoll, and has to do more research on both Addu and Fuvahmulah dialect. Only then can she determine whether the dialects Fuvahmulah and Huvadhu or that of Addu is more archaic. However, from Malé to the south up to Huvadhu Atoll the number of archaic features increases, but from Huvadhu Atoll the archaic features decrease towards the south. And the dialect of Huvadhu is characterized by the highest degree of archaicity. Fritz also adds that \"the different classes of verb conjugation and nominal inflection are best preserved there, morphological simplifications and, as a consequence increasing from atoll to atoll towards north (in the Maldives)\".", "Maldivian presents another aspect with which English speakers are not too familiar: the distinction between what is spoken and what is written. Every language that has a written form has this distinction to a greater or lesser degree. But Asian languages such as Maldivian seem to exhibit major differences between the two varieties of language. Malé dialect and Maliku dialect are the only dialects commonly used in writing. Spoken Maldivian, for instance, has twenty-seven consonants. In contrast, written or literary Maldivian includes some Arabic sounds as well. Though these sounds are also used in speaking, their phonetics are not strictly observed. This results in pronunciation as close as possible to spoken Maldivian. Regarding syntax, it may be said that every sentence in written Maldivian ends with the addition of ‘ve’, which is never used to end a sentence in spoken Maldivian. In using ‘ve’ a strict word-order also has to be maintained. But in spoken Maldivian word-order is not considered to be very rigid. One of the very important things one has to take into account in written Maldivian which is not so important in spoken Maldivian is the ‘sukun’ on the letters ‘alif’ and ‘shaviyani’. ‘Sukun’ in general is a mark to indicate an abrupt stop on the sound of the letter on which it is placed. However, if it comes within the word, the letter is repeated; if it comes on a ‘shaviyani’ or ‘alif’ at the end of a word, it signifies the sound ‘h’; if it comes on a ‘thaa’, the sound is replaced by ‘iy’.", "The Maldivian language has had its own script since very ancient times, most likely over two millennia, when Maldivian Buddhist monks translated and copied the Buddhist scriptures. It used to be written in the earlier form (Evēla) of the Dhives Akuru (\"Dhivehi/Maldivian letters\") which are written from left to right. Dhives Akuru were used in all of the islands between the conversion to Islam and until the 18th century. These ancient Maldivian letters were also used in official correspondence with Addu Atoll until the early 20th century. Perhaps they were used in some isolated islands and rural communities until the 1960s, but the last remaining native user died in the 1990s. Today Maldivians rarely learn the Dhives Akuru alphabet, for Arabic is being favoured as second script. Maldivian is now written using a different script, called Taana or Thaana, written from right to left. This script is relatively recent. The literacy rate of the Maldives is very high (98%) compared to other South Asian countries. Since the 1960s English has become the medium of education in most schools although they still have Maldivian language classes, but Maldivian is still the language used for the overall administration. Maldivian uses mainly the Thaana script for writing. It is an alphabet, with obligatory vowels derived from the vowel diacritics of the Arabic abjad. It is a largely phonemic script: With a few minor exceptions, spelling can be predicted from pronunciation, and pronunciation from spelling. The origins of Thaana are unique among the world's alphabets: The first nine letters (h–v) are derived from the Arabic numerals, whereas the next nine (m–d) were the local Indic numerals. (See Hindu-Arabic numerals.) The remaining letters for loanwords (t–z) and Arabic transliteration are derived from phonetically similar native consonants by means of diacritics, with the exception of y (ޔ), which is derived from combining an alifu (އ) and a vaavu (ވ). This means that Thaana is one of the few alphabets not derived graphically from the original Semitic alphabet – unless the Indic numerals were (see Brahmi numerals). The Thaana alphabet (hā, shaviyani, nūnu, rā, bā,...) does not follow the ancient order of the other Indic scripts (like or Tamil) or the order of the Arabic alphabet. Thaana, like Hebrew and Arabic, is written right to left. It indicates vowels with diacritic marks derived from Arabic. Each letter must carry either a vowel or a \"sukun\", which indicates \"no vowel\". The only exception to this rule is \"noonu\" which, when written without a diacritic, indicates prenasalisation of a following stop. The vowels are written with diacritical signs called \"fili\". There are five \"fili\" for short vowels (a, i, u, e, o), where the first three look identical to the Arabic vowel signs (\"fatha\", \"kasra\" and \"damma\"). Long vowels (aa, ee, oo, ey, oa) are denoted by doubled \"fili\", except oa, which is a modification of the short \"obofili\". The letter \"alifu\" has no sound value of its own and is used for three different purposes: It can act as a carrier for a vowel with no preceding consonant, that is, a word-initial vowel or the second part of a diphthong; when it carries a \"sukun\", it indicates gemination (lengthening) of the following consonant; and if \"alifu\"+\"sukun\" occurs at the end of a word, it indicates that the word ends in /eh/. Gemination of nasals, however, is indicated by \"noonu\"+sukun preceding the nasal to be geminated. Maldivian is also written in Roman script and Devanāgarī script.", "Towards the mid-1970s, during President Ibrahim Nasir's tenure, the Maldivian government introduced telex machines in the local administration. This was viewed as great progress, but the local Thaana script was deemed to be an obstacle because messages on the telex machines could only be written in the Latin script. Following this, in 1976 the government approved a new official Latin transliteration, Dhivehi Latin, which was quickly implemented by the administration. Booklets were printed and dispatched to all Atoll and Island Offices, as well as schools and merchant liners. This was seen by many as the effective demise of the Thaana script. Clarence Maloney, an American anthropologist who was in the Maldives at the time of the change, lamented the inconsistencies of the \"Dhivehi Latin\" which ignored all previous linguistic research on the Maldivian language done by H.C.P. Bell and Wilhelm Geiger. He wondered why the modern Standard Indic transliteration had not been considered. Standard Indic is a consistent script system that is well adapted to writing practically all languages of South Asia. The government reinstated the Thaana script shortly after President Maumoon took power in 1978. There was widespread relief in certain places, especially rural areas, where the introduction of Latin had been regarded with suspicion. However, the Latin transcription of 1976 continues to be widely used.", "The 412-page hard-back English-Maldivian dictionary, \"A Maldivian Dictionary\", written by Christopher Hanby Baillie Reynolds, was published on 22 July 2003 by Routledge and contains about 5000 individual entries.", "The sound system of Maldivian is similar to that of Dravidian languages. Like other modern Indo-Aryan languages the Maldivian phonemic inventory shows an opposition of long and short vowels, of dental and retroflex consonants, and of single and geminate consonants. 1 ‘Abafili’ is the vowel sign denoting “a”. 2. ‘Ibifili’ is the vowel sign denoting “i”. 3. ‘Ubufili’ is the vowel sign denoting “u”. 4. ‘Sukun’ is the signdenoting absence of a vowel. The short open back vowel is phonetically central.", "Maldivian, like English, has intonation, but its patterns are very different from those of English. In Maldivian, the general tendency is to stress the first syllable of a word. Maldivian has geminate consonants. For example, the two's' sounds in \"vissaara\" (rain) fall into adjoining syllables: \"vis-saa-ra\". Similarly \"feth-thun\" (to swim), \"dhek-kun\" (to show).", "Native Maldivian (\"mabbas\") words do not allow initial consonant clusters; the maximum syllabic structure is CVC (i.e. one vowel flanked by a consonant on each side). Many speakers of Maldivian restrict their phonology to this pattern, even when using loan words, thus \"iskūl\" (VC.CVC) for \"skūl\" (CCVC) \"school\".", "", "The sequence of letters used to be: The letters are now ordered: The letter was replaced by, and the letter was regarded as a letter from the set of \"\" (pointed Thaana) during the rule of Mohamed Ameen Didi.", "", "Nouns in Maldivian inflect for definiteness, number and case. Definiteness may be one of \"definite\", \"indefinite\" or \"unspecified\". Number may be \"singular\" or \"plural\". Case may be one of \"nominative\", \"dative\", \"ablative\", \"genitive\", \"locative\", \"instrumental\" or \"emphatic\".", "The nominal system of Maldivian comprises nouns, pronouns, adjectives and numerals as parts of speech.", "Maldivian uses two numeral systems. Both of them are identical up to 30. After 30, however, one system places the unit numeral stem before the decade, for example, \"eh-thirees\" '31' ( \"one and thirty\") while the other combines the stem of the decade with the unit numeral, for example, \"thirees-ekeh\" '31' (\"thirty + one\"). The latter system also has numerals multiplied by ten for decades 70, 80 and 90. The decade \"fas dholhas\" '60' (\"five twelves\"), comes from a much older duodecimal, or dozen-based, system which has nearly disappeared.", "The Maldivian verbal system is characterised by a derivational relationship between active, causative and involitive/intransitive verb forms.", "The word order in Maldivian is not as rigid as in English, though changes in the order of words in a sentence may convey subtle differences in meaning. To ask for some fish in a market, one uses the following words: ‘mashah’ (to me) ‘mas’ (fish) ‘vikkaa’ (sell), which may be put in any of the following orders without a change in meaning: The word ‘mashah’ (to me) may be dropped wherever the context makes it obvious.", "Speakers of Maldivian use a great many loan words from many languages in their everyday conversation (see § Vocabulary). The extent to which loan words are used varies between speakers, depending on their contacts with that language. Thus, those who have had an English education will tend to use a larger number of English words, while an average speaker with little or no contact with English will tend to use just a few. Some of these adopted words have now become so much part of the Maldivian language that there seem to be no other words that could replace them. There are different ways by which loan words are naturalised in Maldivian. This depends on whether the loan word refers to a person, a thing, or some kind of action.", "If the loan word refers to a person, the following suffixes can be used: Among some of the most common words of this kind are the following: actor (ektaru), agent (ejentu), ambassador (embesedaru), architect (aakitektu), bodyguard (bodeegaadu), cashier (keyshiyaru), director (direktaru, dairektaru), doctor (daktaru), driver (duraivaru), guard (gaadu), inspector (inispektaru), manager (meneyjaru), minister (ministaru), operator (opareytaru), producer (purodiusaru), sergeant (saajentu), servant (saaventu)", "If the loan word refers to a thing, the suffixes are Some of the most commonly used words of this kind are the following: bicycle (baisikalu), bill (bilu), cable (keybalu), cake (keyku), coat (koatu), counter (kauntaru), parcel (paarisalu/paarusalu), ticket (tiketu)", "If the loan word refers to some kind of action, the Maldivian word 'kure' (present), ‘kuranee’ (present continuous), ‘koffi’ (present perfect), \"kuri\" (past) or ‘kuraane’ (future) is added after it, if it is done intentionally, and've' (present),‘vanee’ (present continuous), ‘vejje’ (present perfect), 'vi' (past) and ‘vaane’ (future) is added after it, if it happens to be unintentional or passive. For example, using 'kensal' \"cancel\": Some examples:", "Inherent in the Maldivian language is a form of elaborate class distinction expressed through three levels: The highest level, the \"maaiy bas\", formerly used to address members of the royal family, is now commonly used to show respect. People use the second \"reethi bas\" and third level \"aadhaige bas\" in everyday life.", "Maldivian contains many loan words from other languages.", "After the arrival of Islam in South Asia, Persian and Arabic made a significant impact on Maldivian. It borrowed extensively from both languages, especially terms related to Islam and the judiciary. Some examples follow: French origin Portuguese influence in the language can be seen from the period of Portuguese colonial power in the region. Some examples follow: Maldivian has also borrowed words from Urdu, Hindi and more recently, English (in particular many scientific and technological terms). English words are also commonly used in the spoken language, for example \"phone\", \"note\", \"radio\", and \" (\"shorts\").", "The following is a sample text in Maldivian, Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (by the United Nations): Transliteration (SAMT): Gloss (word-for-word): Translation (grammatical):", "", "Founded in 1984, the Mahal Unit Press at Minicoy prints texts in Maldivian, among other languages. The press also publishes the \"Lakshadweep Times\" in three languages on a regular basis: Maldivian, English and Malayalam. This unit is based in the main building, constructed in 1998. For the first time in the history of Lakshadweep, Maldivian was brought into the field of typography. Activities:", "Freely downloadable open-source Unicode typefaces featuring Thaana letters include FreeSerif and MPH 2B Damase.", "Variety of word processors are used to write Maldivian. Among them the most popular one is MS Word" ] }

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{ "title": [ "In motors.", "Fluid devices." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Depending on the configuration of a spinning electromotive device the stator may act as the \"field magnet\", interacting with the armature to create motion, or it may act as the \"armature\", receiving its influence from moving field coils on the rotor. The first DC generators (known as dynamos) and DC motors put the field coils on the stator, and the power generation or motive reaction coils on the rotor. This is necessary because a continuously moving power switch known as the commutator is needed to keep the field correctly aligned across the spinning rotor. The commutator must become larger and more robust as the current increases. The stator of these devices may be either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. Where the stator is an electromagnet, the coil which energizes it is known as the \"field coil\" or \"field winding\". The coil can be either iron core or aluminum. To reduce loading losses in motors, manufacturers invariably use copper as the conducting material in windings. Aluminum, because of its lower electrical conductivity, may be an alternate material in fractional horsepower motors, especially when the motors are used for very short durations. An AC alternator is able to produce power across multiple high-current power generation coils connected in parallel, eliminating the need for the commutator. Placing the field coils on the rotor allows for an inexpensive slip ring mechanism to transfer high-voltage, low current power to the rotating field coil. It consists of a steel frame enclosing a hollow cylindrical core (made up of laminations of silicon steel). The laminations are to reduce hysteresis and eddy current losses.", "In a turbine, the stator element contains blades or ports used to redirect the flow of fluid. Such devices include the steam turbine and the torque converter. In a mechanical siren, the stator contains one or more rows of holes that admit air into the rotor; by controlling the flow of air through the holes, the sound of the siren can be altered. A stator can be used to great effect to reduce the turbulence and rotational energy introduced by an axial turbine fan, creating a steady column of air with a lower Reynolds number." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Ecology.", "Uses.", "Impacts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The plant is an annual herb with spreading stems up to about 80 centimeters long. The oppositely arranged ovate leaves have blades up to 30 centimeters wide. The herbage is coated in glandular hairs carrying tiny oil droplets, making the plant feel oily to the touch and giving it a strong scent. The essential oil vaporizes into the air, and gives the landscape a \"distinct acrid odor\". The lobed flower corolla is lavender, \"purple-cream\", yellowish with purple spots, or \"dull white to somewhat pinkish purple\" with yellowish nectar guides and with or without purple blotches. One plant can produce up to 80 fruits. The fruit is a dehiscent capsule up to 10 centimeters long with a long, narrow, curving beak. As the fruit dries and the flesh falls away, the hard beak splits into two horns. The horns can be up to 30 centimeters long. The fruit can contain black or white seeds; white-seeded plants are more common in cultivation. The seeds can be over 43% oil.", "The plant rarely self-pollinates. It is pollinated by bees; species noted on the plant include \"Melissodes communis\", \"Svastra obliqua\", \"Anthophora occidentalis\", \"Augochlorella striata\", \"Bombus fervidus\", \"Bombus pensylvanicus\", and \"Lasioglossum\" species.", "The young green fruits are edible and can be pickled. The seeds were used as food by Native Americans. Like those of other \"Proboscidea\" species, the dry fruits were very useful in Native American basketry. The dry horns could be incorporated into the baskets to form patterns, or used as sewing implements. They provided a black dye, especially when mixed with ash. Use of this species in basketry has been recorded among the Hopi, Apache, Havasupai, and Kawaiisu. The Tohono O'odham domesticated the species and used the dark dry fruit for the black-colored patterning in basketry designs. Many other groups probably cultivated and used it, but records of use rarely distinguish between the particular \"Proboscidea\" species utilized. The plant is grown as an ornamental plant and a garden novelty, and it is used in floral arrangements. It is cultivated in a similar manner as okra.", "The dry, hooked fruits attach to animals, and it has been suggested that the plant was introduced to South Africa by this means. The fruits are particularly suited for catching on \"the fetlocks of ungulates\". The plant can be weedy, easily taking hold in disturbed habitat types and displaying a \"preference for waste places\". It occurs in pastures, cultivated fields, and feedlots. It is a weed of cotton crops known to cause drastic loss of fiber yields. Its strong essential oil appears to have an allelopathic effect on cotton plants, causing necrosis of the foliage. The weed is resistant to many herbicides used in cotton, and control options include hoeing by hand." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Population.", "Economy.", "Transport.", "Saue Manor." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Saue is located at a very favourable position near Tallinn, the capital of Estonia. It lures a lot of moderately wealthy people who like the balance between the small town and big city atmosphere. While Saue is close to nature, it still provides the kinds of entertainment, jobs, and other big city amenities that Tallinn has to offer.", "93% of the people living in Saue are ethnic Estonians. The average age of people is 35. Over the years, the census of the population has shown that the population is slowly growing. In 1959 there were 1,088 people living in Saue, by 1970 it had increased to 1,979. In 1979 it was 3,293, in 1989 the population was 4,395, in 1995 it was 4,492 and finally, by 2000, the population was 4,996.", "In Saue there is of private plots (average size of a plot is about ) – 1015 plots, about of communal buildings, garages etc., of industrial areas, Streets and roads about (there are 62 streets in Saue – about ), about of forests, parks etc. and about of fields.", "Saue has a stop on the Tallinn-Keila railway line (serviced by Elron), as well as bus connections and fixed-route taxis.", "Saue Manor () traces its origins to at least the 17th century. The current building was erected when the estate was owned by Friedrich Hermann von Fersen. The architect was very probably Johann Schultz, who was also the architect behind the baroque extension of Toompea Castle, Tallinn. The manor house complex is one of the finest examples of baroque manor house architecture in Estonia. The exterior of the main house is characterised by a ground storey with rustications and a pilastered main floor. Wings (a stable-coach house and a granary) are linked to the main building via arched walls. The remains of a baroque park surrounds the manor, with noteworthy details such as sculptures of Heracles and Hera, and baroque sculptured reliefs. The interior is noteworthy for its very rich display of stucco decorations of high quality in late baroque-early neoclassicist style. Stucco decorations adorn all the main rooms of the manor. Additionally, there are fine baroque cocklestoves in the manor." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Project history.", "Technological background.", "Discovery Program selection.", "Cancellation and reinstatement.", "Scientific background.", "Objectives.", "Instruments.", "Specifications.", "Dimensions.", "Propulsion system.", "Outreach microchip.", "Mission summary.", "Launch preparations.", "Launch.", "Transit (Earth to Vesta).", "Vesta approach.", "Vesta orbit.", "Transit (Vesta to Ceres).", "Ceres approach.", "Ceres orbit.", "Mission conclusion." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The first working ion thruster in the US was built by Harold R. Kaufman in 1959 at NASA's Glenn Research Center in Ohio. The thruster was similar to the general design of a gridded electrostatic ion thruster with mercury as its propellant. Suborbital tests of the engine followed during the 1960s, and in 1964 the engine was tested on a suborbital flight aboard the Space Electric Rocket Test 1 (SERT 1). It successfully operated for the planned 31 minutes before falling back to Earth. This test was followed by an orbital test, SERT-2, in 1970. Deep Space 1 (DS1), which NASA launched in 1998, demonstrated the long-duration use of a xenon-propelled ion thruster on a science mission, and validated a number of technologies, including the NSTAR electrostatic ion thruster, as well as performing a flyby of an asteroid and a comet. In addition to the ion thruster, among the other technologies validated by the DS1 was the Small Deep Space Transponder, which is used on \"Dawn\" for long-range communication.", "26 proposals were submitted to the Discovery Program solicitation, with budget initially targeted at US$300 million. Three semi-finalists were downselected in January 2001 for a phase-A design study: Dawn, Kepler, and INSIDE Jupiter. In December 2001 NASA selected the Kepler and the Dawn mission for the Discovery program. Both missions were initially selected for a launch in 2006.", "The status of the \"Dawn\" mission changed several times. The project was cancelled in December 2003, and then reinstated in February 2004. In October 2005, work on \"Dawn\" was placed in \"stand down\" mode, and in January 2006, the mission was discussed in the press as \"indefinitely postponed\", even though NASA had made no new announcements regarding its status. On March 2, 2006, \"Dawn\" was again cancelled by NASA. The spacecraft's manufacturer, Orbital Sciences Corporation, appealed NASA's decision, offering to build the spacecraft at cost, forgoing any profit in order to gain experience in a new market field. NASA then put the cancellation under review, and on March 27, 2006, it was announced that the mission would not be cancelled after all. In the last week of September 2006, the \"Dawn\" mission's instrument payload integration reached full functionality. Although originally projected to cost US$373 million, cost overruns inflated the final cost of the mission to US$446 million in 2007. Christopher T. Russell was chosen to lead the \"Dawn\" mission team.", "The \"Dawn\" mission was designed to study two large bodies in the asteroid belt in order to answer questions about the formation of the Solar System, as well as to test the performance of its ion thrusters in deep space. Ceres and Vesta were chosen as two contrasting protoplanets, the first one apparently \"wet\" (i.e. icy and cold) and the other \"dry\" (i.e. rocky), whose accretion was terminated by the formation of Jupiter. The two bodies provide a bridge in scientific understanding between the formation of rocky planets and the icy bodies of the Solar System, and under what conditions a rocky planet can hold water. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted a new definition of planet on August 24, 2006, which introduced the term \"dwarf planet\" for ellipsoidal worlds that were too small to qualify for planetary status by \"clearing their orbital neighborhood\" of other orbiting matter. \"Dawn\" is the first mission to study a dwarf planet, arriving at Ceres a few months before the arrival of the \"New Horizons\" probe at Pluto in July 2015. Ceres comprises a third of the total mass of the asteroid belt. Its spectral characteristics suggest a composition similar to that of a water-rich carbonaceous chondrite. Vesta, a smaller, water-poor achondritic asteroid comprising a tenth of the mass of the asteroid belt, has experienced significant heating and differentiation. It shows signs of a metallic core, a Mars-like density and lunar-like basaltic flows. Available evidence indicates that both bodies formed very early in the history of the Solar System, thereby retaining a record of events and processes from the time of the formation of the terrestrial planets. Radionuclide dating of pieces of meteorites thought to come from Vesta suggests that Vesta differentiated quickly, in three million years or less. Thermal evolution studies suggest that Ceres must have formed some time later, more than three million years after the formation of CAIs (the oldest known objects of Solar System origin). Moreover, Vesta appears to be the source of many smaller objects in the Solar System. Most (but not all) V-type near-Earth asteroids, and some outer main-belt asteroids, have spectra similar to Vesta, and are thus known as \"vestoids\". Five percent of the meteoritic samples found on Earth, the howardite–eucrite–diogenite (HED) meteorites, are thought to be the result of a collision or collisions with Vesta. It is thought that Ceres may have a differentiated interior; its oblateness appears too small for an undifferentiated body, which indicates that it consists of a rocky core overlain with an icy mantle. There is a large collection of potential samples from Vesta accessible to scientists, in the form of over 1,400 HED meteorites, giving insight into Vesta geologic history and structure. Vesta is thought to consist of a metallic iron–nickel core, an overlying rocky olivine mantle and crust.", "The \"Dawn\" mission's goal was to characterize the conditions and processes of the Solar System's earliest eon by investigating in detail two of the largest protoplanets remaining intact since their formation. Although the mission has finished, the data analyses and interpretations will continue for many years. The primary question that the mission addresses is the role of size and water in determining the evolution of the planets. Ceres and Vesta are highly suitable bodies with which to address this question, as they are two of the most massive of the protoplanets. Ceres is geologically very primitive and icy, while Vesta is evolved and rocky. Their contrasting characteristics are thought to have resulted from them forming in two different regions of the early Solar System. There are three principal scientific drivers for the mission. First, the \"Dawn\" mission can capture the earliest moments in the origin of the Solar System, granting an insight into the conditions under which these objects formed. Second, \"Dawn\" determines the nature of the building blocks from which the terrestrial planets formed, improving scientific understanding of this formation. Finally, it contrasts the formation and evolution of two small planets that followed very different evolutionary paths, allowing scientists to determine what factors control that evolution.", "NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory provided overall planning and management of the mission, the flight system and scientific payload development, and provided the ion propulsion system. Orbital Sciences Corporation provided the spacecraft, which constituted the company's first interplanetary mission. The Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research and the German Aerospace Center (DLR) provided the framing cameras, the Italian Space Agency provided the mapping spectrometer, and the Los Alamos National Laboratory provided the gamma ray and neutron spectrometer. A magnetometer and laser altimeter were considered for the mission, but were not ultimately flown.", "", "With its solar array in the retracted launch position, the \"Dawn\" spacecraft is wide. With its solar arrays fully extended, \"Dawn\" is wide. The solar arrays have a total area of. The main antenna is five feet in diameter.", "The \"Dawn\" spacecraft was propelled by three xenon ion thrusters derived from NSTAR technology used by the \"Deep Space 1\" spacecraft, using one at a time. They have a specific impulse of 3,100 s and produce a thrust of 90 mN. The whole spacecraft, including the ion propulsion thrusters, was powered by a 10 kW (at 1 AU) triple-junction gallium arsenide photovoltaic solar array manufactured by Dutch Space. \"Dawn\" was allocated of xenon for its Vesta approach, and carried another to reach Ceres, out of a total capacity of of on-board propellant. With the propellant it carried, \"Dawn\" was able to perform a velocity change of approximately 11 km/s over the course of its mission, far more than any previous spacecraft achieved with onboard propellant after separation from its launch rocket. However, the thrust was very gentle; it took four days at full throttle to accelerate \"Dawn\" from zero to 60 mph (96 km/h). \"Dawn\" is NASA's first purely exploratory mission to use ion propulsion engines. The spacecraft also has twelve 0.9 N hydrazine thrusters for attitude control (orientation), which were also used to assist in orbital insertion. The Dawn spacecraft was able to achieve a record-breaking level of propulsion from its ion engine. NASA noted three specific areas of excellence:", "\"Dawn\" carries a memory chip bearing the names of more than 360,000 space enthusiasts. The names were submitted online as part of a public outreach effort between September 2005 and November 4, 2006. The microchip, which is two centimetres in diameter, was installed on May 17, 2007, above the spacecraft's forward ion thruster, underneath its high-gain antenna. More than one microchip was made, with a back-up copy put on display at the 2007 Open House event at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California.", "", "On April 10, 2007, the spacecraft arrived at the Astrotech Space Operations subsidiary of SPACEHAB, Inc. in Titusville, Florida, where it was prepared for launch. The launch was originally scheduled for June 20, but was delayed until June 30 due to delays with part deliveries. A broken crane at the launch pad, used to raise the solid rocket boosters, further delayed the launch for a week, until July 7; prior to this, on June 15, the second stage was successfully hoisted into position. A mishap at the Astrotech Space Operations facility, involving slight damage to one of the solar arrays, did not have an effect on the launch date; however, bad weather caused the launch to slip to July 8. Range tracking problems then delayed the launch to July 9, and then July 15. Launch planning was then suspended in order to avoid conflicts with the \"Phoenix\" mission to Mars, which was successfully launched on August 4.", "The launch of \"Dawn\" was rescheduled for September 26, 2007, then September 27, due to bad weather delaying fueling of the second stage, the same problem that delayed the July 7 launch attempt. The launch window extended from 07:20–07:49 EDT (11:20–11:49 GMT). During the final built-in hold at T−4 minutes, a ship entered the exclusion area offshore, the strip of ocean where the rocket boosters were likely to fall after separation. After commanding the ship to leave the area, the launch was required to wait for the end of a collision avoidance window with the International Space Station. \"Dawn\" finally launched from pad 17-B at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station on a Delta 7925-H rocket at 07:34 EDT, reaching escape velocity with the help of a spin-stabilized solid-fueled third stage. Thereafter, \"Dawn's\" ion thrusters took over.", "After initial testing, during which the ion thrusters accumulated more than 11 days 14 hours of thrust, \"Dawn\" began long-term cruise propulsion on December 17, 2007. On October 31, 2008, \"Dawn\" completed its first thrusting phase to send it on to Mars for a gravity assist flyby in February 2009. During this first interplanetary cruise phase, \"Dawn\" spent 270 days, or 85% of this phase, using its thrusters. It expended less than 72 kilograms of xenon propellant for a total change in velocity of 1.81 km/s. On November 20, 2008, \"Dawn\" performed its first trajectory correction maneuver (TCM1), firing its number 1 thruster for 2 hours, 11 minutes. \"Dawn\" made its closest approach (549 km) to Mars on February 17, 2009 during a successful gravity assist. This flyby slowed Mars' orbital velocity by about per 180 million years. On this day, the spacecraft placed itself in safe mode, resulting in some data acquisition loss. The spacecraft was reported to be back in full operation two days later, with no impact on the subsequent mission identified. The root cause of the event was reported to be a software programming error. To cruise from Earth to its targets, \"Dawn\" traveled in an elongated outward spiral trajectory. The actual Vesta chronology and estimated Ceres chronology are as follows:", "As \"Dawn\" approached Vesta, the Framing Camera instrument took progressively higher-resolution images, which were published online and at news conferences by NASA and MPI. On May 3, 2011, \"Dawn\" acquired its first targeting image, 1,200,000 km from Vesta, and began its approach phase to the asteroid. On June 12, \"Dawn's\" speed relative to Vesta was slowed in preparation for its orbital insertion 34 days later. \"Dawn\" was scheduled to be inserted into orbit at 05:00 UTC on July 16 after a period of thrusting with its ion engines. Because its antenna was pointed away from the Earth during thrusting, scientists were not able to immediately confirm whether or not \"Dawn\" successfully made the maneuver. The spacecraft would then reorient itself, and was scheduled to check in at 06:30 UTC on July 17. NASA later confirmed that it received telemetry from \"Dawn\" indicating that the spacecraft successfully entered orbit around Vesta, making it the first spacecraft to orbit an object in the asteroid belt. The exact time of insertion could not be confirmed, since it depended on Vesta's mass distribution, which was not precisely known and at that time had only been estimated.", "After being captured by Vesta's gravity and entering its orbit on July 16, 2011, \"Dawn\" moved to a lower, closer orbit by running its xenon-ion engine using solar power. On August 2, it paused its spiralling approach to enter a 69-hour survey orbit at an altitude of. It assumed a 12.3-hour high-altitude mapping orbit at on September 27, and finally entered a 4.3-hour low-altitude mapping orbit at on December 8. In May 2012, the \"Dawn\" team published preliminary results of their study of Vesta, including estimates of the size of Vesta's metal-rich core, which is theorized to be across. The scientists stated that they think that Vesta is the \"last of its kind\" – the only remaining example of the large planetoids that came together to form the rocky planets during the formation of the Solar System. In October 2012, further \"Dawn\" results were published, on the origin of anomalous dark spots and streaks on Vesta's surface, which were likely deposited by ancient asteroid impacts. In December 2012, it was reported that \"Dawn\" had observed gullies on the surface of Vesta that were interpreted to have been eroded by transiently flowing liquid water. More details about the \"Dawn\" mission's scientific discoveries at Vesta are included on the Vesta page. \"Dawn\" was originally scheduled to depart Vesta and begin its two and a half year journey to Ceres on August 26, 2012. However, a problem with one of the spacecraft's reaction wheels forced \"Dawn\" to delay its departure from Vesta's gravity until September 5, 2012.", "During its time in orbit around Vesta, the probe experienced several failures of its reaction wheels. Investigators planned to modify their activities upon arrival at Ceres for close range geographical survey mapping. The \"Dawn\" team stated that they would orient the probe using a \"hybrid\" mode utilizing both reaction wheels and ion thrusters. Engineers determined that this hybrid mode would conserve fuel. On November 13, 2013, during the transit, in a test preparation, \"Dawn\" engineers completed a 27-hour-long series of exercises of said hybrid mode. On September 11, 2014, \"Dawn\" ion thruster unexpectedly ceased firing and the probe began operating in a triggered safe mode. To avoid a lapse in propulsion, the mission team hastily exchanged the active ion engine and electrical controller with another. The team stated that they had a plan in place to revive this disabled component later in 2014. The controller in the ion propulsion system may have been damaged by a high-energy particle. Upon exiting the safe mode on September 15, 2014, the probe's ion thruster resumed normal operation. Furthermore, the \"Dawn\" investigators also found that, after the propulsion issue, \"Dawn\" could not aim its main communications antenna towards Earth. Another antenna of weaker capacity was instead temporarily retasked. To correct the problem, the probe's computer was reset and the aiming mechanism of the main antenna was restored.", "\"Dawn\" began photographing an extended disk of Ceres on December 1, 2014, with images of partial rotations on January 13 and 25, 2015 released as animations. Images taken from \"Dawn\" of Ceres after January 26, 2015, exceeded the resolution of comparable images from the Hubble Space Telescope. Because of the failure of two reaction wheels, \"Dawn\" made fewer camera observations of Ceres during its approach phase than it did during its Vesta approach. Camera observations required turning the spacecraft, which consumed precious hydrazine fuel. Seven optical navigation photo sessions (OpNav 1–7, on January 13 and 25, February 3 and 25, March 1, and April 10 and 15) and two full rotation observation sessions (RC1–2, on February 12 and 19) were planned before full observation begins with orbital capture. The gap in March and early April was due to a period when Ceres appears too close to the Sun from \"Dawn\" vantage point to take pictures safely.", "\"Dawn\" entered Ceres orbit on March 6, 2015, four months prior to the arrival of \"New Horizons\" at Pluto. \"Dawn\" thus became the first mission to study a dwarf planet at close range. \"Dawn\" initially entered a polar orbit around Ceres, and continued to refine its orbit. It obtained its first full topographic map of Ceres during this period. From April 23 to May 9, 2015, \"Dawn\" entered an RC3 orbit (Rotation Characterization 3) at an altitude of. The RC3 orbit lasted 15 days, during which \"Dawn\" alternated taking pictures and sensor measurements and then relayed the resulting data back to Earth. On May 9, 2015, \"Dawn\" powered its ion engines and began a month-long spiral descent down to its second mapping point, a Survey orbit, three times closer to Ceres than the previous orbit. The spacecraft stopped twice to take images of Ceres during its spiral descent into the new orbit. On June 6, 2015, \"Dawn\" entered the new Survey orbit at an altitude of. In the new Survey orbit, \"Dawn\" circled Ceres every three Earth days. The Survey phase lasted 22 days (7 orbits), and was designed to obtain a global view of Ceres with \"Dawn\" framing camera, and generate detailed global maps with the visible and infrared mapping spectrometer (VIR). On June 30, 2015, \"Dawn\" experienced a software glitch when an anomaly in its orientation system occurred. It responded by going into safe mode and sending a signal to engineers, who fixed the error on July 2, 2015. Engineers determined the cause of the anomaly to be related to the mechanical gimbal system associated with one of \"Dawn's\" ion engines. After switching to a separate ion engine and conducting tests from July 14 through July 16, 2015, engineers certified the ability to continue the mission. On August 17, 2015, \"Dawn\" entered the HAMO orbit (High-Altitude Mapping Orbit). \"Dawn\" descended to an altitude of, where in August 2015 it began the two-month HAMO phase. During this phase, \"Dawn\" continued to acquire near-global maps with the VIR and framing camera at higher resolution than in the Survey phase. It also imaged in stereo to resolve the surface in 3D. On October 23, 2015, \"Dawn\" began a two-month spiral toward Ceres to achieve a LAMO orbit (Low-Altitude Mapping Orbit) at a distance of. Since reaching this fourth orbit in December 2015, \"Dawn\" was scheduled to acquire data for the next three months with its gamma-ray and neutron detector (GRaND) and other instruments that identified the composition at the surface. Having surpassed its mapping objectives, \"Dawn\" climbed to its fifth science orbit of beginning on September 2, 2016, to complete additional observations from a different angle. \"Dawn\" began raising its altitude to its sixth science orbit of on November 4, 2016, with a goal of reaching it by December 2016. The return to a higher altitude allowed for a second set of data at this altitude, which improves the overall science quality when added to the first batch. However, this time the spacecraft was placed where it was not spiraling and was orbiting in the same direction as Ceres, which reduced propellant consumption.", "A flyby of the asteroid 2 Pallas after the completion of the Ceres mission was suggested but never formally considered; orbiting Pallas would not have been possible for \"Dawn\", due to the high inclination of Pallas' orbit relative to Ceres. In April 2016, the \"Dawn\" project team submitted a proposal to NASA for an extended mission that would have seen the spacecraft break orbit from Ceres and perform a flyby of the asteroid 145 Adeona in May 2019, arguing that the science gained from visiting a third asteroid might outweigh the returns from staying at Ceres. NASA's Planetary Mission Senior Review Panel, however, declined the proposal in May 2016. A one-year mission extension was approved, but the review panel ordered that \"Dawn\" remain at Ceres, stating that the long-term observations of the dwarf planet, particularly as it approached perihelion, would potentially yield better science. The one-year extension expired on June 30, 2017. The spacecraft was placed in an uncontrolled but relatively stable orbit around Ceres, where it ran out of hydrazine propellant by October 31, 2018, and where it will remain as a \"monument\" for at least 20 years." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "Operation.", "Arc interruption.", "Short-circuit.", "Standard current ratings.", "Types.", "Low-voltage.", "Solid state.", "Magnetic.", "Thermal-magnetic.", "Magnetic-hydraulic.", "Common trip (ganged) breakers.", "Shunt-trip units.", "Medium-voltage.", "High-voltage.", "Sulfur hexafluoride (SF) high-voltage.", "Disconnecting circuit breaker (DCB).", "Carbon dioxide (CO) high-voltage.", "\"Smart\" circuit breakers.", "Other breakers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "An early form of circuit breaker was described by Thomas Edison in an 1879 patent application, although his commercial power distribution system used fuses. Its purpose was to protect lighting circuit wiring from accidental short circuits and overloads. A modern miniature circuit breaker similar to the ones now in use was patented by Brown, Boveri & Cie in 1924. Hugo Stotz, an engineer who had sold his company to BBC, was credited as the inventor on DRP (\"Deutsches Reichspatent\") 458392. Stotz's invention was the forerunner of the modern thermal-magnetic breaker commonly used in household load centers to this day. Interconnection of multiple generator sources into an electrical grid required the development of circuit breakers with increasing voltage ratings and increased ability to safely interrupt the increasing short-circuit currents produced by networks. Simple air-break manual switches produced hazardous arcs when interrupting high voltages; these gave way to oil-enclosed contacts, and various forms using the directed flow of pressurized air, or of pressurized oil, to cool and interrupt the arc. By 1935, the specially constructed circuit breakers used at the Boulder Dam project use eight series breaks and pressurized oil flow to interrupt faults of up to 2,500 MVA, in three cycles of the AC power frequency.", "All circuit breaker systems have common features in their operation, but details vary substantially depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker must first detect a fault condition. In small mains and low voltage circuit breakers, this is usually done within the device itself. Typically, the heating or magnetic effects of electric current are employed. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged with protective relay pilot devices to sense a fault condition and to operate the opening mechanism. These typically require a separate power source, such as a battery, although some high-voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with current transformers, protective relays, and an internal control power source. Once a fault is detected, the circuit breaker contacts must open to interrupt the circuit; this is commonly done using mechanically stored energy contained within the breaker, such as a spring or compressed air to separate the contacts. Circuit breakers may also use the higher current caused by the fault to separate the contacts, such as thermal expansion or a magnetic field. Small circuit breakers typically have a manual control lever to switch off the load or reset a tripped breaker, while larger units use solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs. The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and must also withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting (opening) the circuit. Contacts are made of copper or copper alloys, silver alloys and other highly conductive materials. Service life of the contacts is limited by the erosion of contact material due to arcing while interrupting the current. Miniature and molded-case circuit breakers are usually discarded when the contacts have worn, but power circuit breakers and high-voltage circuit breakers have replaceable contacts. When a high current or voltage is interrupted, an arc is generated. The length of the arc is generally proportional to the voltage while the intensity (or heat) is proportional to the current. This arc must be contained, cooled and extinguished in a controlled way, so that the gap between the contacts can again withstand the voltage in the circuit. Different circuit breakers use vacuum, air, insulating gas, or oil as the medium the arc forms in. Different techniques are used to extinguish the arc including: Finally, once the fault condition has been cleared, the contacts must again be closed to restore power to the interrupted circuit.", "Low-voltage miniature circuit breakers (MCB) use air alone to extinguish the arc. These circuit breakers contain so-called arc chutes, a stack of mutually insulated parallel metal plates that divide and cool the arc. By splitting the arc into smaller arcs the arc is cooled down while the arc voltage is increased and serves as an additional impedance that limits the current through the circuit breaker. The current-carrying parts near the contacts provide easy deflection of the arc into the arc chutes by a magnetic force of a current path, although magnetic blowout coils or permanent magnets could also deflect the arc into the arc chute (used on circuit breakers for higher ratings). The number of plates in the arc chute is dependent on the short-circuit rating and nominal voltage of the circuit breaker. In larger ratings, oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil through the arc. Gas (usually sulfur hexafluoride) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, and then rely upon the dielectric strength of the sulfur hexafluoride (SF) to quench the stretched arc. Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize other than the contact material). The arc quenches when it is stretched a very small amount (less than ). Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern medium-voltage switchgear to 38,000 volts. Air circuit breakers may use compressed air to blow out the arc, or alternatively, the contacts are rapidly swung into a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the displaced air thus blowing out the arc. Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current very quickly: typically the arc is extinguished between 30 ms and 150 ms after the mechanism has been tripped, depending upon age and construction of the device. The maximum current value and let-through energy determine the quality of the circuit breakers.", "Circuit breakers are rated both by the normal current that they are expected to carry, and the maximum short-circuit current that they can safely interrupt. This latter figure is the ampere interrupting capacity (AIC) of the breaker. Under short-circuit conditions, the calculated or measured maximum prospective short-circuit current may be many times the normal, rated current of the circuit. When electrical contacts open to interrupt a large current, there is a tendency for an arc to form between the opened contacts, which would allow the current to continue. This condition can create conductive ionized gases and molten or vaporized metal, which can cause the further continuation of the arc, or creation of additional short circuits, potentially resulting in the explosion of the circuit breaker and the equipment that it is installed in. Therefore, circuit breakers must incorporate various features to divide and extinguish the arc. The maximum short-circuit current that a breaker can interrupt is determined by testing. Application of a breaker in a circuit with a prospective short-circuits current higher than the breaker's interrupting capacity rating may result in failure of the breaker to safely interrupt a fault. In a worst-case scenario, the breaker may successfully interrupt the fault, only to explode when reset. Typical domestic panel circuit breakers are rated to interrupt () short-circuit current. Miniature circuit breakers used to protect control circuits or small appliances may not have sufficient interrupting capacity to use at a panel board; these circuit breakers are called \"supplemental circuit protectors\" to distinguish them from distribution-type circuit breakers.", "Circuit breakers are manufactured in standard sizes, using a system of preferred numbers to cover a range of ratings. Miniature circuit breakers have a fixed trip setting; changing the operating current value requires changing the whole circuit breaker. Larger circuit breakers can have adjustable trip settings, allowing standardized elements to be applied but with a setting intended to improve protection. For example, a circuit breaker with a 400 ampere \"frame size\" might have its overcurrent detection set to operate at only 300 amperes, to protect a feeder cable. International Standards, IEC 60898-1 and European Standard EN 60898-1, define the \"rated current\" \"I\" of a circuit breaker for low voltage distribution applications as the maximum current that the breaker is designed to carry continuously (at an ambient air temperature of 30 °C). The commonly available preferred values for the rated current are 1A, 2A, 4A, 6 A, 10 A, 13 A, 16 A, 20 A, 25 A, 32 A, 40 A, 50 A, 63 A, 80 A, 100 A, and 125 A (similar to the R10 Renard series, but using 6, 13, and 32 instead of 6.3, 12.5, and 31.5 – it includes the 13 A current limit of British BS 1363 sockets). The circuit breaker is labeled with the rated current in amperes, but excluding the unit symbol, A. Instead, the ampere figure is preceded by a letter, \"B\", \"C\", or \"D\", which indicates the \"instantaneous tripping current\" — that is, the minimum value of current that causes the circuit breaker to trip without intentional time delay (i.e., in less than 100 ms), expressed in terms of \"I\": Circuit breakers are also rated by the maximum fault current that they can interrupt; this allows use of more economical devices on systems unlikely to develop the high short-circuit current found on, for example, a large commercial building distribution system. In the United States, Underwriters Laboratories (UL) certifies equipment ratings, called Series Ratings (or \"integrated equipment ratings\") for circuit breaker equipment used for buildings. Power circuit breakers and medium- and high-voltage circuit breakers used for industrial or electric power systems are designed and tested to ANSI or IEEE standards in the C37 series.", "Many classifications of circuit breakers can be made, based on their features such as voltage class, construction type, interrupting type, and structural features.", "Low-voltage (less than 1,000 V) types are common in domestic, commercial and industrial application, and include: The characteristics of low-voltage circuit breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 947. These circuit breakers are often installed in draw-out enclosures that allow removal and interchange without dismantling the switchgear. Large low-voltage molded case and power circuit breakers may have electric motor operators so they can open and close under remote control. These may form part of an automatic transfer switch system for standby power. Low-voltage circuit breakers are also made for direct-current (DC) applications, such as DC for subway lines. Direct current requires special breakers because the arc is continuous—unlike an AC arc, which tends to go out on each half cycle, direct current circuit breaker has blow-out coils that generate a magnetic field that rapidly stretches the arc. Small circuit breakers are either installed directly in equipment, or are arranged in a breaker panel. The DIN rail-mounted thermal-magnetic miniature circuit breaker is the most common style in modern domestic consumer units and commercial electrical distribution boards throughout Europe. The design includes the following components:", "\"Solid-state circuit breakers\", also known as \"digital circuit breakers\" are a technological innovation which promises advance circuit breaker technology out of the mechanical level, into the electrical. This promises several advantages, such as cutting the circuit in fractions of microseconds, better monitoring of circuit loads and longer lifetimes.", "\"Magnetic circuit breakers\" use a solenoid (electromagnet) whose pulling force increases with the current. Certain designs utilize electromagnetic forces in addition to those of the solenoid. The circuit breaker contacts are held closed by a latch. As the current in the solenoid increases beyond the rating of the circuit breaker, the solenoid's pull releases the latch, which lets the contacts open by spring action. They are the most commonly used circuit breakers in the USA.", "\"Thermal magnetic circuit breakers\", which are the type found in most distribution boards in Europe and countries with a similar wiring arrangements, incorporate both techniques with the electromagnet responding instantaneously to large surges in current (short circuits) and the bimetallic strip responding to less extreme but longer-term over-current conditions. The thermal portion of the circuit breaker provides a time response feature, that trips the circuit breaker sooner for larger over currents but allows smaller overloads to persist for a longer time. This allows short current spikes such as are produced when a motor or other non-resistive load is switched on. With very large over-currents during a short-circuit, the magnetic element trips the circuit breaker with no intentional additional delay.", "A \"magnetic-hydraulic\" circuit breaker uses a solenoid coil to provide operating force to open the contacts. Magnetic-hydraulic breakers incorporate a hydraulic time delay feature using a viscous fluid. A spring restrains the core until the current exceeds the breaker rating. During an overload, the speed of the solenoid motion is restricted by the fluid. The delay permits brief current surges beyond normal running current for motor starting, energizing equipment, etc. Short-circuit currents provide sufficient solenoid force to release the latch regardless of core position thus bypassing the delay feature. Ambient temperature affects the time delay but does not affect the current rating of a magnetic breaker. Large power circuit breakers, applied in circuits of more than 1000 volts, may incorporate hydraulic elements in the contact operating mechanism. Hydraulic energy may be supplied by a pump, or stored in accumulators. These form a distinct type from oil-filled circuit breakers where oil is the arc extinguishing medium.", "To provide simultaneous breaking on multiple circuits from a fault on any one, circuit breakers may be made as a ganged assembly. This is a very common requirement for 3 phase systems, where breaking may be either 3 or 4 pole (solid or switched neutral). Some makers make ganging kits to allow groups of single phase breakers to be interlinked as required. In the US, where split phase supplies are common, in branch circuits with more than one live conductor, each live conductor must be protected by a breaker pole. To ensure that all live conductors are interrupted when any pole trips, a \"common trip\" breaker must be used. These may either contain two or three tripping mechanisms within one case, or for small breakers, may externally tie the poles together via their operating handles. Two-pole common trip breakers are common on 120/240-volt systems where 240 volt loads (including major appliances or further distribution boards) span the two live wires. Three-pole common trip breakers are typically used to supply three-phase electric power to large motors or further distribution boards. Separate circuit breakers must never be used for live and neutral, because if the neutral is disconnected while the live conductor stays connected, a very dangerous condition arises: the circuit appears de-energized (appliances don't work), but wires remain live and some residual-current devices (RCDs) may not trip if someone touches the live wire (because some RCDs need power to trip). This is why only common trip breakers must be used when neutral wire switching is needed.", "A shunt-trip unit appears similar to a normal breaker and the moving actuators are 'ganged' to a normal breaker mechanism to operate together in a similar way, but the shunt trip is a solenoid intended to be operated by an external constant voltage signal, rather than a current, commonly the local mains voltage or DC. These are often used to cut the power when a high risk event occurs, such as a fire or flood alarm, or another electrical condition, such as over voltage detection. Shunt trips may be a user fitted accessory to a standard breaker, or supplied as an integral part of the circuit breaker.", "Medium-voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72kV may be assembled into metal-enclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use, or may be individual components installed outdoors in a substation. Air-break circuit breakers replaced oil-filled units for indoor applications, but are now themselves being replaced by vacuum circuit breakers (up to about 40.5kV). Like the high voltage circuit breakers described below, these are also operated by current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. The characteristics of MV breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 62271. Medium-voltage circuit breakers nearly always use separate current sensors and protective relays, instead of relying on built-in thermal or magnetic overcurrent sensors. Medium-voltage circuit breakers can be classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc: Medium-voltage circuit breakers may be connected into the circuit by bolted connections to bus bars or wires, especially in outdoor switchyards. Medium-voltage circuit breakers in switchgear line-ups are often built with draw-out construction, allowing breaker removal without disturbing power circuit connections, using a motor-operated or hand-cranked mechanism to separate the breaker from its enclosure.", "Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high-voltage breakers. The definition of \"high voltage\" varies but in power transmission work is usually thought to be 72.5 kV or higher, according to a recent definition by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). High-voltage breakers are nearly always solenoid-operated, with current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. In substations the protective relay scheme can be complex, protecting equipment and buses from various types of overload or ground/earth fault. High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc: Due to environmental and cost concerns over insulating oil spills, most new breakers use SF gas to quench the arc. Circuit breakers can be classified as \"live tank\", where the enclosure that contains the breaking mechanism is at line potential, or \"dead tank\" with the enclosure at earth potential. High-voltage AC circuit breakers are routinely available with ratings up to 765 kV. 1,200kV breakers were launched by Siemens in November 2011, followed by ABB in April the following year. High-voltage circuit breakers used on transmission systems may be arranged to allow a single pole of a three-phase line to trip, instead of tripping all three poles; for some classes of faults this improves the system stability and availability. High-voltage direct current circuit breakers are still a field of research as of 2015. Such breakers would be useful to interconnect HVDC transmission systems.", "A sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses contacts surrounded by sulfur hexafluoride gas to quench the arc. They are most often used for transmission-level voltages and may be incorporated into compact gas-insulated switchgear. In cold climates, supplemental heating or de-rating of the circuit breakers may be required due to liquefaction of the SF6 gas.", "The disconnecting circuit breaker (DCB) was introduced in 2000 and is a high-voltage circuit breaker modeled after the SF-breaker. It presents a technical solution where the disconnecting function is integrated in the breaking chamber, eliminating the need for separate disconnectors. This increases the availability, since open-air disconnecting switch main contacts need maintenance every 2–6 years, while modern circuit breakers have maintenance intervals of 15 years. Implementing a DCB solution also reduces the space requirements within the substation, and increases the reliability, due to the lack of separate disconnectors. In order to further reduce the required space of substation, as well as simplifying the design and engineering of the substation, a fiber optic current sensor (FOCS) can be integrated with the DCB. A 420 kV DCB with integrated FOCS can reduce a substation's footprint with over 50% compared to a conventional solution of live tank breakers with disconnectors and current transformers, due to reduced material and no additional insulation medium.", "In 2012 ABB presented a 75kV high-voltage breaker that uses carbon dioxide as the medium to extinguish the arc. The carbon dioxide breaker works on the same principles as an SF breaker and can also be produced as a disconnecting circuit breaker. By switching from SF to CO it is possible to reduce the CO emissions by 10 tons during the product's life cycle.", "Several firms have looked at adding monitoring for appliances via electronics or using a digital circuit breaker to monitor the breakers remotely. Utility companies in the United States have been reviewing use of the technology to turn on and off appliances, as well as potentially turning off charging of electric cars during periods of high electrical grid load. These devices under research and testing would have wireless capability to monitor the electrical usage in a house via a smartphone app or other means.", "The following types are described in separate articles." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Architecture and operation.", "Watchdog restart.", "Single-stage watchdog.", "Multistage watchdog.", "Time intervals.", "Corrective actions.", "Fault detection." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The act of restarting a watchdog timer, commonly referred to as \"kicking\" the watchdog, is typically done by writing to a watchdog control port. Alternatively, in microcontrollers that have an integrated watchdog timer, the watchdog is sometimes kicked by executing a special machine language instruction or setting a specific bit in a register. An example of this is the CLRWDT (clear watchdog timer) instruction found in the instruction set of some PIC microcontrollers. In computers that are running operating systems, watchdog resets are usually invoked through a device driver. For example, in the Linux operating system, a user space program will kick the watchdog by interacting with the watchdog device driver, typically by writing a zero character to /dev/watchdog. The device driver, which serves to abstract the watchdog hardware from user space programs, is also used to configure the time-out period and start and stop the timer.", "Watchdog timers come in many configurations, and many allow their configurations to be altered. Microcontrollers often include an integrated, on-chip watchdog. In other computers the watchdog may reside in a nearby chip that connects directly to the CPU, or it may be located on an external expansion card in the computer's chassis. The watchdog and CPU may share a common clock signal, as shown in the block diagram below, or they may have independent clock signals.", "Two or more timers are sometimes cascaded to form a \"multistage watchdog timer\", where each timer is referred to as a \"timer stage\", or simply a \"stage\". For example, the block diagram below shows a three-stage watchdog. In a multistage watchdog, only the first stage is kicked by the processor. Upon first stage timeout, a corrective action is initiated and the next stage in the cascade is started. As each subsequent stage times out, it triggers a corrective action and starts the next stage. Upon final stage timeout, a corrective action is initiated, but no other stage is started because the end of the cascade has been reached. Typically, single-stage watchdog timers are used to simply restart the computer, whereas multistage watchdog timers will sequentially trigger a series of corrective actions, with the final stage triggering a computer restart.", "Watchdog timers may have either fixed or programmable time intervals. Some watchdog timers allow the time interval to be programmed by selecting from among a few selectable, discrete values. In others, the interval can be programmed to arbitrary values. Typically, watchdog time intervals range from ten milliseconds to a minute or more. In a multistage watchdog, each timer may have its own, unique time interval.", "A watchdog timer may initiate any of several types of corrective action, including maskable interrupt, non-maskable interrupt, processor reset, fail-safe state activation, power cycling, or combinations of these. Depending on its architecture, the type of corrective action or actions that a watchdog can trigger may be fixed or programmable. Some computers (e.g., PC compatibles) require a pulsed signal to invoke a processor reset. In such cases, the watchdog typically triggers a processor reset by activating an internal or external pulse generator, which in turn creates the required reset pulses. In embedded systems and control systems, watchdog timers are often used to activate fail-safe circuitry. When activated, the fail-safe circuitry forces all control outputs to safe states (e.g., turns off motors, heaters, and high-voltages) to prevent injuries and equipment damage while the fault persists. In a two-stage watchdog, the first timer is often used to activate fail-safe outputs and start the second timer stage; the second stage will reset the computer if the fault cannot be corrected before the timer elapses. Watchdog timers are sometimes used to trigger the recording of system state information—which may be useful during fault recovery—or debug information (which may be useful for determining the cause of the fault) onto a persistent medium. In such cases, a second timer—which is started when the first timer elapses—is typically used to reset the computer later, after allowing sufficient time for data recording to complete. This allows time for the information to be saved, but ensures that the computer will be reset even if the recording process fails. For example, the above diagram shows a likely configuration for a two-stage watchdog timer. During normal operation the computer regularly kicks Stage1 to prevent a timeout. If the computer fails to kick Stage1 (e.g., due to a hardware fault or programming error), Stage1 will eventually timeout. This event will start the Stage2 timer and, simultaneously, notify the computer (by means of a non-maskable interrupt) that a reset is imminent. Until Stage2 times out, the computer may attempt to record state information, debug information, or both. The computer will be reset upon Stage2 timeout.", "A computer system is typically designed so that its watchdog timer will be kicked only if the computer deems the system functional. The computer determines whether the system is functional by conducting one or more fault detection tests and it will kick the watchdog only if all tests have passed. In computers that are running an operating system and multiple processes, a single, simple test may be insufficient to guarantee normal operation, as it could fail to detect a subtle fault condition and therefore allow the watchdog to be kicked even though a fault condition exists. For example, in the case of the Linux operating system, a user-space watchdog daemon may simply kick the watchdog periodically without performing any tests. As long as the daemon runs normally, the system will be protected against serious system crashes such as a kernel panic. To detect less severe faults, the daemon can be configured to perform tests that cover resource availability (e.g., sufficient memory and file handles, reasonable CPU time), evidence of expected process activity (e.g., system daemons running, specific files being present or updated), overheating, and network activity, and system-specific test scripts or programs may also be run. Upon discovery of a failed test, the Linux watchdog daemon may attempt to perform a software-initiated restart, which can be preferable to a hardware reset as the file systems will be safely unmounted and fault information will be logged. However it is essential to have the insurance of the hardware timer as a software restart can fail under a number of fault conditions. In effect, this is a dual-stage watchdog with the software restart comprising the first stage and the hardware reset the second stage." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history.", "As a province.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Municipalities.", "Economy.", "Notable residents." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Archaeological discoveries in Hardinxveld-Giessendam indicate that the area of South Holland has been inhabited since at least ca. 7,500 years before present, probably by nomadic hunter-gatherers. Agriculture and permanent settlements probably originated around 2,000 years later, based on excavations near Vlaardingen. In the classical antiquity, South Holland was part of the Roman Province of Germania Inferior, and the border of the Roman Empire ran along the Old Rhine and reached the North Sea near Katwijk. The Romans built fortresses along the border, such as Praetorium Agrippinae near modern-day Valkenburg, Matilo near modern-day Leiden, and Albaniana near modern-day Alphen aan den Rijn. A city was founded near modern-day Voorburg, Forum Hadriani. It was built according to the grid plan, and facilitated a square, a court, a bathhouse and several temples. After the departure of the Romans, the area belonged to the Frisian Kingdom, after which it was conquered by the Frankish king Dagobert I in 636. In 690, the Anglo-Saxon monk Willibrord arrived near Katwijk and was granted permission to spread Roman Catholicism by the Frankish king Pepin II. He accordingly founded a church in Oegstgeest, after which the entire area was gradually Christianised. The area was appointed to East Francia in the Treaty of Verdun in 843, after which the king granted lands to Gerolf, who had helped him claim the lands. This was the birth of the County of Holland. Gerolf was later succeeded by Dirk I, who continued to rule Holland under the Frankish king. In 1248, count William II ordered the construction of the Ridderzaal, which was later finished by his son and successor Floris V. The first city in South Holland to receive city rights was Dordrecht, which did so in 1220. The city retained a dominant position in the area until it was struck by a series of floods in the late 14th century. The same century also saw a series of civil wars, the Hook and Cod wars, concerning the succession of count William IV. Both his daughter Jacqueline and his brother John, the latter supported by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, claimed the throne. The conflict ended in 1490, with John victorious. Overall, the area of South Holland remained largely agrarian throughout the late Middle Ages. This changed around 1500, when Holland became Europe's most urbanised area. During the Eighty Years' War, the area of South Holland was the scene of the Capture of Brielle, the Siege of Leiden and the assassination of William the Silent. The United Netherlands declared their independence in 1581, and Holland quickly emerged as the country's dominant province, with important trading cities such as Leiden, Delft, Gouda and Dordrecht. In 1575, the Netherlands' first university was founded in Leiden by William the Silent. The Hague, which had originated around the castle of the counts of Holland, became its new political centre. Both the States of Holland and the States General seated in the Binnenhof. The Dutch Golden Age blossomed in the 17th century. The south of Holland, back then often referred to as the \"Zuiderkwartier\" (literally \"South Quarter\"), was the birthplace and residence of scientists such as Antoni van Leeuwenhoek and Christiaan Huygens, philosophers such as Baruch Spinoza and Pierre Bayle, and painters such as Johannes Vermeer, Rembrandt van Rijn and Jan Steen.", "The province of South Holland as it is today has its origins in the period of French rule from 1795 to 1813. This was a time of bewildering changes to the Dutch system of provinces. In 1795, the Batavian Republic was proclaimed and the old order was swept away by a series of constitutional changes in the following years. In the Constitution enacted on 23 April 1798, the old borders were radically changed. The republic was reorganised into eight departments with roughly equal populations. The south of Holland was split up into three departments. The islands in the south were merged with Zeeland and the west of North Brabant to form the Department of the Scheldt and Meuse. The north of the area became the Department of the Delf. A small region in the east of the area became part of the Department of the Rhine, which spanned much of Gelderland and Utrecht. In 1801, the old borders were restored when the department of Holland was created. The reorganisation had been short-lived, but it gave birth to the concept of a division of Holland, creating less dominant provinces. In 1807, Holland was reorganised once again. This time, the department was split in two. The south, what would later become South Holland, was called the Department of Maasland. This also did not last long. In 1810, all the Dutch provinces were integrated into the French Empire, and Maasland was renamed Bouches-de-la-Meuse. After the defeat of the French in 1813, this organisation remained unchanged for a year or so. When the 1814 Constitution was introduced, most borders were restored to their situation before the French period. The north and south of Holland were reunited as the province of Holland. However, the division hadn't completely been undone. Since its re-establishment in 1814, Holland had always had two King's Commissioners, one for the north and one for the south. Even though the province had been reunited, the two areas were still treated differently in some ways and the idea of dividing Holland remained alive. In 1840, it was decided to once again split Holland into North and South Holland, because the province of Holland was deemed too dominant in area, population and wealth. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, five municipalities were transferred from South Holland to Utrecht; Oudewater in 1970, Woerden in 1989, Vianen in 2002, Leerdam and Zederik in 2019. The construction of the Nieuwe Waterweg in 1863 marked the start of the growth of the Port of Rotterdam. On 14 May 1940, during the Second World War, the centre of Rotterdam was destroyed by a German bombardment. The subsequent German occupation of the Netherlands resulted in anti-Jewish measures, and many members of Dutch resistance were captured and executed on the Waalsdorpervlakte. At the same time, the Atlantikwall was constructed along the coast. After the Second World War, in 1953, the south of South Holland was heavily struck by the North Sea flood, which took the lives of 677 South Hollanders. After this, the Dutch government decided for the construction of the Delta Works, which came to an end with the completion of the Maeslantkering in 1997.", "South Holland covers an area of, of which is water. It borders the North Sea to the west, North Holland to the north, Utrecht and Gelderland to the east, and North Brabant and Zeeland to the south. Beside the dunes along the North Sea coast, the province is almost entirely flat and mostly consists of polders. The centre of South Holland and the area along the coast in the west are largely urban, part of the Randstad conurbation, while the east of the province is more agrarian and belongs to the Groene Hart, literally \"Green Heart\". The south of the province is a collection of islands in the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta. For census reasons, South Holland is divided into four regions: Rijnmond, South, West and East. The Duin- en Bollenstreek is a region in the north-west of South Holland, around Katwijk, that features coastal dunes and the cultivation of flower bulbs. To the south of the region lie mostly pastures on sand soil, that form the transition to more urban area. This urban area runs along the Old Rhine, from Katwijk via Rijnsburg to Leiden and Zoeterwoude-Rijndijk. South of Leiden and north of The Hague lies an area where a landscape of dunes bordering the North Sea in the west transitions to one of peat more to the east. The easternmost tip of South Holland is part of De Biesbosch, one of the largest national parks of the Netherlands and one of the last freshwater tide areas in Europe. Other parks in South Holland, although no national parks, include Delftse Hout east of Delft, Ackerdijkse Plassen, a bird reserve north of Rotterdam, and Buytenpark and Westerpark near Zoetermeer. The Kagerplassen are a collection of lakes north-east of Leiden, popular for boating, watersports, fishing, camping and walking. The southern part of South Holland consists of a number of islands of the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta. Although technically islands in the sense that they are surrounded by rivers, canals or other bodies of water, most of these islands are well connected to the rest of the province via bridges, tunnels and dams. The southern islands, most notably Goeree-Overflakkee (1 on the map), Tiengemeten (2), Hoeksche Waard (6) and Voorne-Putten (4/5), are largely agrarian, while more to the north, the islands are more urban, such as Dordrecht (7), IJsselmonde (9) and Rozenburg (10), while other islands, like Rozenburg (10), are mostly used for petrochemical industry. Together, these cities form the Rijnmond conurbation, centred on the city of Rotterdam. Together with Haaglanden (centred on The Hague) and Delfland (centred on Delft) in the north, and the Drechtsteden to the south-east, this conurbation in turn forms the South Wing of the Randstad conurbation, which spans across South Holland, North Holland and Utrecht. Other regions in South Holland include Alblasserwaard, Gouwestreek (\"The Gouwe Area\"), Hoeksche Waard, Krimpenerwaard, Rijnland (\"Rhineland\"), Rijnstreek (\"The Rhine Area\"), Vijfheerenlanden and Westland (roughly including Hoek van Holland and the municipalities of Westland and Midden-Delfland).", "Like the rest of the Netherlands, South Holland experiences a temperate oceanic climate, a Cfb-class according to the Köppen climate classification. The climate is influenced by the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, which results in relatively cooler summers and milder winters. Rain showers are common in the fall and winter seasons. Because of the flat surface, wind storms are also not uncommon in the winter. Although rain occurs all year long, the first six months of the year are relatively dry. Eastern winds can result in temporary continental climate conditions with relatively warm and dry summers and cold and stormy winters. The temperature varies between the 2 °C and 6 °C in the winter and 17 °C and 20 °C in the summer.", "South Holland is divided into 52 municipalities.", "The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 163.8 billion € in 2018. This contributes to the gross domestic product of the Netherlands for 21.2%. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 38,700 € or 128% of the EU27 average in the same year. South Holland's labour force amounts 1,661,000 people; 47.1% of the total population. The unemployment rate is 6.1% in 2013. Main sectors of economical activity in this province are among others:", "Two well known scientists originating from South Holland are: As far as art concerns, several famous painters originate from this province; such as:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definitions and properties.", "Applications.", "Inflection points.", "Second-derivative test.", "Critical points.", "Use in optimization.", "Other applications.", "Generalizations.", "Bordered Hessian.", "Vector-valued functions.", "Generalization to the complex case.", "Generalizations to Riemannian manifolds." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Suppose is a function taking as input a vector and outputting a scalar. If all second partial derivatives of exist and are continuous over the domain of the function, then the Hessian matrix of is a square matrix, usually defined and arranged as follows: or, by stating an equation for the coefficients using indices i and j, The Hessian matrix is a symmetric matrix, since the hypothesis of continuity of the second derivatives implies that the order of differentiation does not matter (Schwarz's theorem) The determinant of the Hessian matrix is called the \"Hessian determinant\". The Hessian matrix of a function is the Jacobian matrix of the gradient of the function:.", "", "If is a homogeneous polynomial in three variables, the equation is the implicit equation of a plane projective curve. The inflection points of the curve are exactly the non-singular points where the Hessian determinant is zero. It follows by Bézout's theorem that a cubic plane curve has at most 9 inflection points, since the Hessian determinant is a polynomial of degree 3.", "The Hessian matrix of a convex function is positive semi-definite. Refining this property allows us to test whether a critical point is a local maximum, local minimum, or a saddle point, as follows: If the Hessian is positive-definite at, then attains an isolated local minimum at. If the Hessian is negative-definite at, then attains an isolated local maximum at. If the Hessian has both positive and negative eigenvalues, then is a saddle point for. Otherwise the test is inconclusive. This implies that at a local minimum the Hessian is positive-semidefinite, and at a local maximum the Hessian is negative-semidefinite. Note that for positive-semidefinite and negative-semidefinite Hessians the test is inconclusive (a critical point where the Hessian is semidefinite but not definite may be a local extremum or a saddle point). However, more can be said from the point of view of Morse theory. The second-derivative test for functions of one and two variables is simple. In one variable, the Hessian contains just one second derivative; if it is positive, then is a local minimum, and if it is negative, then is a local maximum; if it is zero, then the test is inconclusive. In two variables, the determinant can be used, because the determinant is the product of the eigenvalues. If it is positive, then the eigenvalues are both positive, or both negative. If it is negative, then the two eigenvalues have different signs. If it is zero, then the second-derivative test is inconclusive. Equivalently, the second-order conditions that are sufficient for a local minimum or maximum can be expressed in terms of the sequence of principal (upper-leftmost) minors (determinants of sub-matrices) of the Hessian; these conditions are a special case of those given in the next section for bordered Hessians for constrained optimization—the case in which the number of constraints is zero. Specifically, the sufficient condition for a minimum is that all of these principal minors be positive, while the sufficient condition for a maximum is that the minors alternate in sign, with the 1×1 minor being negative.", "If the gradient (the vector of the partial derivatives) of a function is zero at some point, then has a \"critical point\" (or \"stationary point\") at. The determinant of the Hessian at is called, in some contexts, a discriminant. If this determinant is zero then is called a \"degenerate critical point\" of, or a \"non-Morse critical point\" of. Otherwise it is non-degenerate, and called a \"Morse critical point\" of. The Hessian matrix plays an important role in Morse theory and catastrophe theory, because its kernel and eigenvalues allow classification of the critical points.", "Hessian matrices are used in large-scale optimization problems within Newton-type methods because they are the coefficient of the quadratic term of a local Taylor expansion of a function. That is, where is the gradient. Computing and storing the full Hessian matrix takes memory, which is infeasible for high-dimensional functions such as the loss functions of neural nets, conditional random fields, and other statistical models with large numbers of parameters. For such situations, truncated-Newton and quasi-Newton algorithms have been developed. The latter family of algorithms use approximations to the Hessian; one of the most popular quasi-Newton algorithms is BFGS. Such approximations may use the fact that an optimization algorithm uses the Hessian only as a linear operator, and proceed by first noticing that the Hessian also appears in the local expansion of the gradient: Letting for some scalar, this gives i.e., so if the gradient is already computed, the approximate Hessian can be computed by a linear (in the size of the gradient) number of scalar operations. (While simple to program, this approximation scheme is not numerically stable since has to be made small to prevent error due to the formula_7 term, but decreasing it loses precision in the first term.)", "The Hessian matrix is commonly used for expressing image processing operators in image processing and computer vision (see the Laplacian of Gaussian (LoG) blob detector, the determinant of Hessian (DoH) blob detector and scale space).", "", "A bordered Hessian is used for the second-derivative test in certain constrained optimization problems. Given the function considered previously, but adding a constraint function such that, the bordered Hessian is the Hessian of the Lagrange function formula_8: If there are, say, \"m\" constraints then the zero in the upper-left corner is an \"m\" × \"m\" block of zeros, and there are \"m\" border rows at the top and \"m\" border columns at the left. The above rules stating that extrema are characterized (among critical points with a non-singular Hessian) by a positive-definite or negative-definite Hessian cannot apply here since a bordered Hessian can neither be negative-definite nor positive-definite, as formula_10 if formula_11 is any vector whose sole non-zero entry is its first. The second derivative test consists here of sign restrictions of the determinants of a certain set of \"n – m\" submatrices of the bordered Hessian. Intuitively, one can think of the \"m\" constraints as reducing the problem to one with \"n – m\" free variables. (For example, the maximization of subject to the constraint can be reduced to the maximization of without constraint.) Specifically, sign conditions are imposed on the sequence of leading principal minors (determinants of upper-left-justified sub-matrices) of the bordered Hessian, for which the first 2\"m\" leading principal minors are neglected, the smallest minor consisting of the truncated first 2\"m\"+1 rows and columns, the next consisting of the truncated first 2\"m\"+2 rows and columns, and so on, with the last being the entire bordered Hessian; if 2\"m\"+1 is larger than n+m, then the smallest leading principal minor is the Hessian itself. There are thus \"n\"–\"m\" minors to consider, each evaluated at the specific point being considered as a candidate maximum or minimum. A sufficient condition for a local \"maximum\" is that these minors alternate in sign with the smallest one having the sign of (–1). A sufficient condition for a local \"minimum\" is that all of these minors have the sign of (–1). (In the unconstrained case of \"m\"=0 these conditions coincide with the conditions for the unbordered Hessian to be negative definite or positive definite respectively).", "If is instead a vector field, i.e. then the collection of second partial derivatives is not a matrix, but rather a third-order tensor. This can be thought of as an array of Hessian matrices, one for each component of : This tensor degenerates to the usual Hessian matrix when = 1.", "In the context of several complex variables, the Hessian may be generalized. Suppose formula_14, and we write formula_15. Then one may generalize the Hessian to formula_16. Note that if formula_17 satisfies the n-dimensional Cauchy–Riemann conditions, then the complex Hessian matrix is identically zero.", "Let formula_18 be a Riemannian manifold and formula_19 its Levi-Civita connection. Let formula_20 be a smooth function. We may define the Hessian tensor where we have taken advantage of the first covariant derivative of a function being the same as its ordinary derivative. Choosing local coordinates formula_23 we obtain the local expression for the Hessian as where formula_25 are the Christoffel symbols of the connection. Other equivalent forms for the Hessian are given by" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and construction.", "Description.", "Observation blocks.", "Tank obstacle blocks.", "Casemates and shelters.", "Manning.", "History.", "1940.", "1944.", "Cold War.", "Current status." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The site was approved in stages by CORF (\"Commission d'Organisation des Régions Fortifiées\"), the Maginot Line's design and construction agency, between 1929 and 1932. Work by the contractor Enterprise de Travaille de Fortification began in 1929 at a cost of 172 million francs. A planned second phase was to add two 81mm mortar turrets and three more casemates on the back side of the ridge. Original plans called for a turret block with 155mm guns and another with long-range 145mm guns. More than of underground galleries connect the entries to the farthest blocks 4 and 5, at an average depth of. An \"M1\" magazine, arranged with a horseshoe-shaped perimeter gallery connected by cross galleries between the legs, is located close to the ammunition entrance, while the large underground barracks and utility areas are just inside the personnel entry. The \"ouvrage\" is Y-shaped in plan, with the main gallery splitting in two almost in from the ammunition entry. A gallery runs to the principal combat blocks of the west wing, while the other passage runs another approximately to the combat blocks of the east wing. The gallery system was served by a narrow-gauge (60 cm) electrified railway that continued out the ammunition entry and connected to a regional military railway system for the movement of materiel along the front a few kilometres to the rear.", "The \"gros ouvrage\" (large work) is composed of 17 combat blocks and 18 artillery pieces, with a total of of galleries. The galleries are between below the surface to protect against bombardment. The main gallery extends.", "Two observation blocks are situated on the ridge of the Hackenberg, which gives its name to the \"ouvrage\"", "Apart from Hochwald, Hackenberg is the only \"ouvrage\" in the Line with a deep anti-tank ditch and wall. The ditch is defended by Blocks 21 and 25.", "In addition to the extensive network of connected combat blocks, a series of detached casemates and infantry shelters surround Hackenberg, including", "940 men and 41 officers were billeted in June 1940, part of the 153rd Position Artillery Regiment (RAP) and the 164th Fortress Infantry Regiment (RIF). Official strength was 42 officers and 1040 men. The commanding officer was Chef d'Escadron Ebrard until 13 June 1940, succeeded by Chef de Bataillon Ismeur. The Casernement de Veckring provided peacetime above-ground barracks and support services to Hackenberg and other positions in the area.", "The construction of Hackenberg' took place between 1929 and 1933. After France's entry into World War II, the \"ouvrage\" was considered emblematic of the entire Line and was visited by King George VI on 9 December 1939.", "German troops harassed Hackenberg in 1940. A portion of the front was at this time held by the British 51st (Highland) Infantry Division, along with the French 26th and 42nd Infantry Divisions. No attempt was made by the Germans to directly attack this central portion of the Maginot Line, the Germans preferring to go around the west end of the Line and take it from the rear. Hackenberg provided covering fire to other \"ouvrages\" in the area through June as the Germans advanced eastwards behind French lines. On 15 June the German 1st Army broke through the Line at the Saar and pushed west and east along the Line, enveloping the French armies. The \"ouvrage\" remained under French control for a time after the armistice of 25 June 1940. Hackenberg's garrison evacuated on 4 July 1940. Following the takeover, French prisoners of war were put to work removing mines around the \"ouvrage\", resulting in many French casualties. In the following years under German occupation, Hackenberg was used as a bombproof factory by the Klöckner-Humboldt-Deutz company of Cologne for the production of transmissions and gears. The operation used the M1 magazine and the caserne, sharing the magazine with German munitions.", "During the Occupation, the Germans occupied Hackenberg and posed a considerable obstacle to American advances in 1944 during the Lorraine Campaign. Although much of Hackenberg's armament had been removed for use in the Atlantic Wall, some of the heavier guns remained. On 15 November, the U.S. 90th Infantry Division encountered Hackenberg as it advanced along the length of the Maginot Line. Block 8, with its battery of 75mm guns, proved particularly troublesome, with 99 rounds falling on the American position in 90 seconds. After an attack using tank destroyers failed, the Americans used a 155mm self-propelled gun against the rear of Block 8 in the morning of 16 November. The success of this attack allowed the Americans to take the west wing on the 17th. Hackenberg was entirely occupied by American forces on the 19th, only after the retreating Germans had destroyed the M1 magazine.", "Following World War II, interest revived in the use of the Maginot Line to defend against a possible Soviet advance through southern Germany. Funds were allocated for restoration of the \"gros ouvrages\", with new 105mm artillery proposed for Block 8 at Hackenberg. Funding was not forthcoming, and work was limited to restoration of systems and improvements to existing armament. Restoration of Block 8, damaged in the American attack of 1944, was canceled. The renovations did not include the command post or the barracks. By 1956, Hackenberg had been designated part of the \"Mòle de Boulay\", a strongpoint in the northeastern defenses against Soviet attack. By the late 1950s interest in fixed fortifications was waning after France developed a nuclear deterrent. The money needed to maintain and upgrade the fortifications was diverted for the nuclear programs. Hackenberg was maintained for use by the Army until 1968, and finally abandoned in 1970 after it was placed in second-class reserve. In 1975, residents from nearby villages started to organize sightseeing tours, which led to the founding of the volunteer-driven AMIFORT association for the preservation of Hackenberg.", "Today, site visits are organized by \"l'Association AMIFORT VECKRING\". The volunteers have restored one block in the west wing to functionality, with a working elevator, a turret turntable and lift table. The movement of the turret is shown to visitors. One of the four generators is equipped with a post-World War II engine and is also running during sightseeing tours. The electric train in the mountain is used in the tour to transport visitors from the ammunition entry to the functional turret. Block 8 is also visited in the tour. The eastern wing is in poor condition due to subsidence in gypsum strata that have damaged the structure, and cannot be toured. Guided tours are offered on weekends, opening hours on weekends are 14:00 to 17:00, varying over the year." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Other countries.", "Contents.", "Directors.", "Shareholders.", "Memorandum of association.", "Board meetings.", "Annual general meeting.", "Resolutions.", "Model articles of associations (A.O.A.).", "Companies Act 2006." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The term articles of association of a company, or articles of incorporation, of an American or Canadian Company, are often simply referred to as articles (and are often capitalized as an abbreviation for the full term). The Articles are a requirement for the establishment of a company under the law of India, the United Kingdom, Nigeria, Pakistan and many other countries. Together with the memorandum of association, they are the constitution of a company. The equivalent term for LLC is Articles of Organization. Roughly equivalent terms operate in other countries, such as \"Gesellschaftsvertrag\" in Germany, \"statuts\" in France, \"statut\" in Poland, \"\" (Latin: ) in Ukraine, \"Jeong-gwan\" in South Korea. In South Africa, from the new Companies Act 2008 which commenced in 2011, articles and memoranda of association have been replaced by a \"memorandum of incorporation\" or \"MOI\". The MOI gives considerably more scope to vary how to the company is governed than the previous arrangement.", "The following is largely based on British Company Law, references which are made at the end of this Article. The Articles can cover a medley of topics, not all of which is required in a country's law. Although all terms are not discussed, they may cover:", "A Company is essentially run by the shareholders, but for convenience, and day-to-day working, by the elected Directors. Usually, the shareholders elect a Board of Directors (BOD) at the Annual General Meeting (AGM), which may be statutory (e.g. India).and uk The number of Directors depends on the size of the Company and statutory requirements. The Chairperson is generally a well-known outsider but he /she may be a working Executive of the company, typically of an American Company. The Directors may, or may not, be employees of the Company.", "In the emerging countries there are usually some major shareholders who come together to form the company. Each usually has the right to nominate, without objection of the other, a certain number of Directors who become nominees for the election by the shareholder body at the AGM. The Treasurer and Chairperson is usually the privilege of one of the JV partners (which nomination can be shared). Shareholders may also elect Independent Directors (from the public). The Chair would be a person not associated with the promoters of the company, a person is generally a well-known outsider. Once elected, the BOD manages the Company. The shareholders play no part till the next AGM/EGM.", "The Objectives and the purpose of the Company are determined in advance by the shareholders and the Memorandum of Association (MOA), if separate, which denotes the name of the Company, its Head- Office, street address, and (founding) Directors and the main purposes of the Company for public access. It cannot be changed except at an AGM or Extraordinary General Meeting (EGM) and statutory allowance. The MOA is generally filed with a Registrar of Companies who is an appointee of the Government of the country. For their assurance, the shareholders are permit of the Memorandum of Association. Any matter in the Articles of Association not within the scope of the Memorandum of Association of the company is void.", "The Board meets several times each year. At each meeting there is an 'agenda' before it. A minimum number of Directors (a quorum) is required to meet. This is either determined by the 'by-laws' or is a statutory requirement. It is presided over by the Chairperson, or in her/his absence, by the Vice-Chair. The Directors survey their area of responsibility. They may determine to make a 'Resolution' at the next AGM or if it is an urgent matter, at an EGM. The Directors who are the electives of one major shareholder, may present his/her view but this is not necessarily so - they may have to view the Objectives of the Company and competitive position. The Chair may have to break the vote if there is a tie. At the AGM, the various Resolutions are put to vote.", "The AGM is called with a notice sent to all shareholders with a clear interval. A certain quorum of shareholders is required to meet. If the quorum requirement is not met, it is canceled and another Meeting called. If it at that too a quorum is not met, a Third Meeting may be called and the members present, unlimited by the quorum, take all decisions. There are variations to this among companies and countries. Decisions are taken by a show of hands; the Chair is always present. Where decisions are made by a show of hands is challenged, it is met by a count of votes. Voting can be taken in person or by marking the paper sent by the Company. A person who is not a shareholder of the Company can vote if he/she has the 'proxy', an authorization from the shareholder. Each share carries the number of votes attached to it. Some votes maybe for the decision, others not.", "There are two types of resolutions, known as an Ordinary Resolution and a Special Resolution. A Special Resolution can be tabled at a Director's Meeting. The Ordinary Resolution requires the endorsement by a majority vote, sometimes easily met by partners' vote. The Special Resolution requires a 60,70 or 80% of the vote as stipulated by the constitution of the Company. Shareholders other than partners may vote. The matters which require the Ordinary and Special Resolution to be passed are enumerated in Company or Corporate Law. Special Resolutions covering some topics may be a statutory requirement.", "In the United Kingdom, model articles of association, known as Table A have been published since 1865. The articles of association of most companies incorporated prior to 1 October 2009 – particularly small companies – are Table A, or closely derived from it. However, a company is free to incorporate under different articles of association, or to amend its articles of association at any time by a special resolution of its shareholders, provided that they meet the requirements and restrictions of the Companies Acts. Such requirements tend to be more onerous for public companies than for private ones. In Hong Kong, the Companies Registry provides four samples of model Articles of Association, and they are known as Sample A, B, C, and D respectively. Sample A and B are both designed for a private company (the most common company type). Sample C for a public company. Sample D for a company limited by guarantee. Apparently, the Hong Kong Companies Registry decided to give more than one sample of model Articles of Association rather than one size fits all.", "The Companies Act 2006 received Royal Assent on 8 November 2006 and was fully implemented on 1 October 2009. It provides a new form of Model Articles for companies incorporated in the United Kingdom. Under the new legislation, the articles of association will become the single constitutional document for a UK company, and will subsume the majority of the role previously filled by the separate memorandum of association." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Subdivisions.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Culture.", "Language.", "Cuisine.", "Museums.", "Sports.", "Politics.", "Transportation.", "Roads.", "Public transport.", "Airports.", "Science and education.", "Media.", "Notable residents." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Groningen was originally a part of Frisia. It became a part of the Frankish Empire around 785. Charlemagne assigned the Christianization of this new possession to Ludger. In the 11th century, the city of Groningen was a village in Drenthe that belonged to the Bishopric of Utrecht, while most of the province was in the Prince-Bishopric of Münster. During the Middle Ages, central control was remote, and the city of Groningen acted as a city-state, exerting a dominating influence on the surrounding Ommelanden. In the 14th century, Groningen became one of the towns within the Hanseatic League. In the years after, Groningen expanded its influence. At its peak almost all of the current province Friesland was under the influence and control of Groningen. Shortly before 1498, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor gave Groningen and Friesland to Albert III, Duke of Saxony, who could however not establish permanent control. In 1514/15 Groningen came to the Duchy of Guelders, and in 1536 as the Lordship of Groningen to the Habsburg Netherlands. In 1594, Groningen was conquered from the Spanish by the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, precursor state of the Netherlands, to which it belonged henceforth. During World War II, the Netherlands were occupied by Nazi Germany. In April 1945, the 2nd Canadian Division fought in the Battle of Groningen, which resulted in the liberation of the city and in the death of 130, the capture of 5,212, and the fleeing of 2,000 German soldiers. In May 1945, another 3,000 German soldiers were captured in the Battle of Delfzijl by the 5th Canadian Division, after which all of the northern provinces were liberated. East Groningen was the scene of a particularly fierce class struggle in the 19th and 20th centuries. Perhaps not coincidentally, Groningen boasts the only municipality (Beerta) where the Communist Party of the Netherlands has ever had a mayor (Hanneke Jagersma).", "Groningen is situated at in the northeast of the Netherlands. To the west is the province Friesland, to the south is the province Drenthe, to the east the German districts are Leer and Emsland in the state Lower Saxony, and to the north the North Sea, Ems, and Dollart. The northernmost point of the Netherlands is on Rottumerplaat at ; the easternmost point of the Netherlands is in Bad Nieuweschans at. Groningen is the 7th largest province of the Netherlands. It has a total area of, with of land and of water. About 80% of the land or is used for agriculture. The rest of the land is: 9% or of built-up or semi built-up area, 6% or of nature, 3% or of infrastructure, and 2% or of recreational area. The land in Groningen is flat. A large area of the province is below sea level. The Hasseberg near Sellingen of above sea level is the highest point. The Groningen gas field near Slochteren is the 8th largest natural gas field in the world. Since 1986, the exploitation of this gas field has caused earthquakes in the region with magnitudes up to 3.6. In the Wadden Sea of Groningen, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2009, are the sandbank Simonszand and the natural reserve Rottum consisting of the three uninhabited islands Rottumeroog, Rottumerplaat, and Zuiderduintjes. The national park Lauwersmeer (IUCN category II) is located on the border between Groningen and Friesland.", "The province of Groningen is also called \"Stad en Ommelanden\", which means the city of Groningen and its surrounding lands, which are the historical regions of Fivelingo, Hunsingo, Oldambt, Westerkwartier, and Westerwolde. The province (Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics or NUTS level 2) is divided into three COROP regions (NUTS level 3): East Groningen, Delfzijl and surroundings, and the rest of Groningen. The COROP regions are used for statistical purposes. The province is also divided into 12 municipalities with each their own local government. Currently, Groningen is the most populated and most densely populated municipality, containing the largest city, and Eemsmond is the largest municipality, containing a large part of the Wadden Sea in the province. Ten Boer is the least populated, De Marne is the least densely populated, and Appingedam is the smallest municipality. The nine municipalities, Bedum, Groningen, Haren, Hoogezand-Sappemeer, Leek, Slochteren, Ten Boer, Winsum, and Zuidhorn, are part of the interprovincial Groningen-Assen Region and the seventeen municipalities, Appingedam, Bellingwedde, Delfzijl, Eemsmond, Groningen, Grootegast, Haren, Hoogezand-Sappemeer, Leek, Menterwolde, Oldambt, Pekela, Slochteren, Stadskanaal, Veendam, Vlagtwedde, and Zuidhorn, are part of the international Ems Dollart Region (EDR).", "The province of Groningen has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb).", "On 1 January 2014, the province of Groningen had a population of 582,640 and a population density of, which make it the 9th most populous province and 8th most densely populated province of the Netherlands. The city of Groningen is the most populous city in the province and the in the Netherlands. On 1 January 2013, 92.2% of the total provincial population was born in the Netherlands; and of the 7.8% that was born abroad, the ten most common foreign countries of origin are the neighbour Germany (1.09%), the former colonies and dependencies Indonesia (0.60%), Netherlands Antilles and Aruba (0.55%), Suriname (0.54%), and other countries Turkey (0.41%), Soviet Union (0.36%), China (0.32%), Poland (0,26%), Yugoslavia (0.26%), and United Kingdom (0.18%). In 1999, a 59% majority of the population of Groningen was not affiliated with any religion; 29% was Protestant (15% Reformed and 14% Dutch Reformed; since 2004 united in Protestant Church in the Netherlands), 7% was Roman Catholic (Diocese of Groningen-Leeuwarden), and 6% had another religion.", "The city of Groningen is the economic center of the province. In the 14th century, the city became a member of the Hanseatic League. Currently some of the city's major employers are University Medical Center Groningen with 12,141 employees, University of Groningen with 5,591 employees, Municipality of Groningen with 3,063 employees, Education Implementation Service (DUO) with 2,000 employees, and Gasunie with 1,748 employees. The other economically important area is the Ems delta with the sea ports of Delfzijl and Eemshaven. In 2015, a total of 11,589 cargo vessels arrived at the two Groningen Seaports combined, 7,111 sea vessels and 4,478 inland vessels. The ports had a cargo throughput of 11,309,000 tonnes. The chemical industry near Delfzijl is located at the Chemie Park in Farmsum, with factories of AkzoNobel, Lubrizol, and Teijin Aramid. Both GDF Suez and Vattenfall have a natural gas-fired power plant in Eemshaven, and Essent is building a coal-fired power plant there. The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the province was 25 billion € in 2018, accounting for 3.2% of the Netherlands economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 37,300 € or 124% of the EU27 average in the same year. In 1959, the Groningen gas field near Slochteren was discovered, and the NAM started to exploit the field in 1963. This caused Dutch disease and induced earthquakes. In 2013, Groningen had a labor force of 268,000 people and unemployment rate of 9.6%, which is the second highest unemployment for a province in the Netherlands.", "", "Groningen is home to the Low Saxon dialect called \"Gronings\" (\"Grönnegs\" / \"Grunnegs\" in Gronings regional language), In the eastern part of Friesland variations of the Groninger 'language' is spoken. Gronings has local nuances, for example, the people in the eastern part speak Gronings with more German influence. Nowadays, many inhabitants of the province don't speak the dialect, especially in the city of Groningen where many outsiders have moved.", "Traditional dishes and delicacies from Groningen are boerenkoolstamppot, droge worst, krentjebrij, oudewijvenkoek, poffert, and spekdik. Traditional alcoholic drinks are boerenjongens, boerenmeisjes, fladderak, and heet bier.", "Museumhuis Groningen is an umbrella organization for museums and other heritage organizations in the province of Groningen and has 58 members. The Groninger Museum is the most visited museum in the province with 209,195 visitors in 2015. The other museums and heritage organizations with more than 25 thousand visitors in 2015 are Fort Bourtange in Bourtange, Noordelijk Scheepvaartmuseum in Groningen, Ter Apel Monastery in Ter Apel, Fraeylemaborg in Slochteren, Nationaal Bus Museum in Hoogezand, and Museumspoorlijn STAR in Stadskanaal.", "FC Groningen from the city of Groningen is the only football club from the province in the Eredivisie. Their home stadium Euroborg has a capacity of 22,550 seats. In the 2012–2013 competition, FC Groningen became 7th of the 18 teams. SC Veendam played in the Eerste Divisie, but filed for bankruptcy in 2013. The city of Groningen is also the base of basketball club GasTerra Flames, volleyball club Lycurgus, and korfball club Nic.. The ice rink at the multi-sport center Kardinge in the city of Groningen is used for national speed skating championships, most recently the 2013 KNSB Dutch Sprint Championships.", "A provincial government in the Netherlands consists of a Provincial Council, the directly elected legislative branch, and a Provincial Executive, the executive branch. The King's Commissioner, who is appointed by the national government, is chairman of both branches. The Provincial Council of Groningen consists of 43 members and the Provincial Executive consists of the King's Commissioner and six deputies. The government has its seat in the city of Groningen, which is the provincial capital. René Paas, member of the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA), has been the King's Commissioner since 18 April 2016. He succeeded Max van den Berg who was the King's Commissioner in Groningen from 2007 to 2016. In the provincial elections of 2011, the Labour Party became the largest party with nearly 25% of the votes and 12 seats in the Provincial Council. The next three largest parties are the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) and the Socialist Party (SP) with 6 seats each, and the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) with 5 seats. In 2011, two months after the elections, the member of the Party for the North (PvhN) continued as an independent under the name Free Mandate. The next provincial elections are planned for 18 March 2015. Following the 2011 elections, the Provincial Executive was formed by a coalition of the Labour Party, the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy, Democrats 66 (D66), and GreenLeft (GL). In 2013, GreenLeft left the coalition and was replaced by the ChristianUnion (CU). The Labour Party has three deputies, the other coalition parties have one deputy each. 2015 provincial election!colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"| Party! Votes! Seats!colspan=\"2\"| Total! 241,479! 100! 43", "", "In the province of Groningen, there are three national roads (), which are maintained by Rijkswaterstaat. The motorway A7 (E22) connects the city of Groningen with the provinces of Friesland and North Holland in the west and with Winschoten and Germany in the east. The motorway is interrupted for the ring road of the city of Groningen, where it is the expressway N7. The motorway A28 (E232) starts at the city of Groningen and runs south connecting it with the provinces of Drenthe, Overijssel, Gelderland, and Utrecht. The expressway N33 runs south from Eemshaven, via Appingedam and Veendam, to Drenthe. Other roads are overseen by the province (N roads), municipalities, or water boards.", "Public transport falls under the rules for government procurement in the European Union. Tenders for regional bus and railway services are selected by the province of Groningen. Qbuzz is contracted for bus services in the period 2009–2015 and Arriva for railway services in the period 2005–2020. Nederlandse Spoorwegen operates the railway services from Groningen railway station southward to Drenthe and beyond. The railway network in the Netherlands is maintained by ProRail. There are six railways located partially or entirely in the province of Groningen. The railway station Groningen connects several of these railways.", "The international airport that serves Groningen is Groningen Airport Eelde, which is located in Eelde in the province of Drenthe. The airport is co-owned by the provinces of Groningen and Drenthe and the municipalities of Groningen, Assen, and Tynaarlo. Its summer destinations are Antalya, Faro, Girona, Gran Canaria, Heraklion, Kos, Palma de Mallorca, and Tenerife. Its winter destinations are Innsbruck and Salzburg. Starting on 5 June 2014, there will also be flights to London. For other international destinations, Amsterdam Airport Schiphol is the nearest airport. The general aviation airports in the province are Oostwold Airport in Oostwold and Stadskanaal Airfield in Stadskanaal.", "The University of Groningen in the city of Groningen was founded in 1614 and is the only research university (\"universiteit\") in the province. On 1 September 2013, it had 29,407 students and 5,238 full-time equivalent of staff members. The university has ten faculties: Arts, Behavioural and Social Sciences, Economics and Business, Law, Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Medical Sciences, Philosophy, Spatial Sciences, Theology and Religious Studies, and University College Groningen. The Hanze University of Applied Sciences, the NHL University of Applied Sciences, and the Stenden University of Applied Sciences in the city of Groningen are the province's publicly funded universities of applied sciences (\"hogescholen\").", "The \"Dagblad van het Noorden\" is a regional daily newspaper based in the city of Groningen and is owned by NDC Mediagroep. It was founded in 2002 by merging the \"Nieuwsblad van het Noorden\", the \"Groninger Dagblad\", and the \"Drentse Courant\". In 2015, the newspaper had a circulation of 96,515. RTV Noord is a regional public broadcaster of radio and television based in the city of Groningen, with Radio Noord and TV Noord. Their radio station has 121,000 daily listeners and a market share of 28% (2012) and their TV station has 171,000 daily viewers and a market share of 26.7% (2012).", "People from the province of Groningen:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Toponymy.", "History.", "Prehistory.", "Early Middle Ages.", "Frisian freedom.", "Modern times.", "Geography.", "Urban areas.", "Municipalities.", "Climate.", "Demography.", "Anthropometry.", "Economy.", "Culture.", "Languages.", "Sports.", "Politics.", "Transport.", "Media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1996 the States of Friesland resolved that the official name of the province should follow the West Frisian spelling rather than the Dutch spelling, resulting in \"Friesland\" being replaced by \"Fryslân\". In 2004 the Dutch government confirmed this resolution, putting in place a three-year scheme to oversee the name change and associated cultural programme. The province of Friesland is occasionally referred to as \"Frisia\" by, amongst others, Hanno Brand, head of the history and literature department at the Fryske Akademy since 2009. However, the English-language webpage of the Friesland Provincial Council refers to the province as \"Fryslân\".", "", "The Frisii were among the migrating Germanic tribes that, following the breakup of Celtic Europe in the 4th century BC, settled along the North Sea. They came to control the area from roughly present-day Bremen to Brugge, and conquered many of the smaller offshore islands. What little is known of the Frisii is provided by a few Roman accounts, most of them military. Pliny the Elder said their lands were forest-covered with tall trees growing up to the edge of the lakes. They lived by agriculture and raising cattle. In his \"Germania\", Tacitus would describe all the Germanic peoples of the region as having elected kings with limited powers and influential military leaders who led by example rather than by authority. The people lived in spread-out settlements. He specifically noted the weakness of Germanic political hierarchies in reference to the Frisii, when he mentioned the names of two kings of the 1st century Frisii and added that they were kings \"as far as the Germans are under kings\". In the 1st century BC, the Frisii halted a Roman advance and thus managed to maintain their independence. Some or all of the Frisii may have joined into the Frankish and Saxon peoples in late Roman times, but they would retain a separate identity in Roman eyes until at least 296, when they were forcibly resettled as \"laeti\" (Roman-era serfs) and thereafter disappear from recorded history. Their tentative existence in the 4th century is confirmed by archaeological discovery of a type of earthenware unique to 4th-century Frisia, called \"terp Tritzum\", showing that an unknown number of Frisii were resettled in Flanders and Kent, likely as \"laeti\" under the aforementioned Roman coercion. The lands of the Frisii were largely abandoned by c. 400 as a result of the conflicts of the Migration Period, climate deterioration, and the flooding caused by a rise in the sea level.", "The area lay empty for one or two centuries, when changing environmental and political conditions made the region habitable again. At that time, during the Migration Period, \"new\" Frisians (probably descended from a merging of Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisii) repopulated the coastal regions. These Frisians consisted of tribes with loose bonds, centred on war bands but without great power. The earliest Frisian records name four social classes, the \"ethelings\" (\"nobiles\" in Latin documents; \"adel\" in Dutch and German) and \"frilings\" (\"vrijen\" in Dutch and \"Freien\" in German), who together made up the \"Free Frisians\" who might bring suit at court, and the \"laten\" or \"liten\" with the slaves, who were absorbed into the \"laten\" during the Early Middle Ages, as slavery was not so much formally abolished, as evaporated. The \"laten\" were tenants of lands they did not own and might be tied to it in the manner of serfs, but in later times might buy their freedom. Under the rule of King Aldgisl, the Frisians came in conflict with the Frankish mayor of the palace Ebroin, over the old Roman border fortifications. Aldgisl could keep the Franks at a distance with his army. During the reign of Redbad, however, the tide turned in favour of the Franks; in 690, the Franks were victorious in the Battle of Dorestad. In 733, Charles Martel sent an army against the Frisians. The Frisian army was pushed back to Eastergoa. The next year the Battle of the Boarn took place. Charles ferried an army across the Almere with a fleet that enabled him to sail up to De Boarn. The Frisians were defeated in the ensuing battle, and their last king Poppo was killed. The victors began plundering and burning heathen sanctuaries. Charles Martel returned with much loot, and broke the power of the Frisian kings for good. The Franks annexed the Frisian lands between the Vlie and the Lauwers. They conquered the area east of the Lauwers in 785, when Charlemagne defeated Widukind. The Carolingians laid Frisia under the rule of \"grewan\", a title that has been loosely related to count in its early sense of \"governor\" rather than \"feudal overlord\". About 100,000 Dutch drowned in a flood in 1228.", "When, around 800, the Scandinavian Vikings first attacked Frisia, which was still under Carolingian rule, the Frisians were released from military service on foreign territory in order to be able to defend themselves against the heathen Vikings. With their victory in the Battle of Norditi in 884 they were able to drive the Vikings permanently out of East Frisia, although it remained under constant threat. Over the centuries, whilst feudal lords reigned in the rest of Europe, no aristocratic structures emerged in Frisia. This 'Frisian freedom' was represented abroad by \"redjeven\" who were elected from among the wealthier farmers or from elected representatives of the autonomous rural municipalities. Originally the \"redjeven\" were all judges, so-called \"Asega\", who were appointed by the territorial lords. After significant territories were lost to Holland in the Friso-Hollandic Wars, Frisia saw an economic downturn in the mid-14th century. Accompanied by a decline in monasteries and other communal institutions, social discord led to the emergence of untitled nobles called \"haadlingen\" (\"headmen\"), wealthy landowners possessing large tracts of land and fortified homes who took over the role of the judiciary as well offering protection to their local inhabitants. Internal struggles between regional leaders resulted in bloody conflicts and the alignment of regions along two opposing parties: the Fetkeapers and Skieringers. On 21 March 1498, a small group of Skieringers from Westergo secretly met with Albert III, Duke of Saxony, the Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands, in Medemblik requesting his help. Albrecht, who had gained a reputation as a formidable military commander, accepted and soon conquered all Friesland. Emperor Maximilian of Habsburg appointed Albrecht hereditary potestate and gubernator of Friesland in 1499. In 1515, an army of peasant rebels and mercenaries known as the Arumer Zwarte Hoop started a peasants' revolt against the Habsburg authorities. The leader was the farmer Pier Gerlofs Donia, whose farm had been burned down and whose kinfolk had been killed by a marauding \"Landsknecht\" regiment. Since the regiment had been employed by the Habsburg authorities to suppress the civil war of the Fetkeapers and Skieringers, Donia put the blame on the authorities. After this he gathered angry peasants and some petty noblemen from Frisia and Gelderland and formed the \"Arumer Zwarte Hoop\".The rebels received financial support from Charles II, Duke of Guelders, who claimed the Duchy of Guelders in opposition to the House of Habsburg. Charles also employed mercenaries under command of his military commander Maarten van Rossum in their support. However, when the tides turned against the rebels after the Donia's death in 1520, Charles withdrew his support, without which the rebels could no longer afford to pay their mercenary army. The revolt was put to an end in 1523 and Frisia was incorporated into the Habsburg Netherlands, bringing an end to the Frisian freedom.", "Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, became the first lord of the Lordship of Frisia. He appointed Georg Schenck van Toutenburg, who had crushed the peasants' revolt, as Stadtholder to rule over the province in his stead. When Charles abdicated in 1556, Frisia was inherited by Philip II of Spain along with the rest of the Netherlands. In 1566, Frisia joined the Dutch Revolt against Spanish rule. In 1577, George de Lalaing, Count of Rennenberg was appointed Stadtholder of Frisia and other provinces. A moderate, trusted by both sides, he tried to reconcile the rebels with the Crown. But in 1580, Rennenburg declared for Spain. The States of Frisia raised troops and took his strongholds of Leeuwarden, Harlingen and Stavoren. Rennenburg was deposed and Frisia became the fifth Lordship to join the rebels' Union of Utrecht. From 1580 onward, all stadtholders were members of the House of Orange-Nassau. With the Peace of Münster in 1648, Frisia became a full member of the independent Dutch Republic, a federation of provincies. In economic and therefore also political importance, Friesland was next in rank to the provinces of Holland and Zeeland. In 1798, three years after the Batavian Revolution, the provincial lordship of Frisia was abolished and its territory was divided between the Eems and Oude IJssel departments. This was short-lived, however, as Frisia was revived, however as a department in 1802. When the Netherlands were annexed by the First French Empire in 1810, the department was in French renamed Frise. After Napoleon was defeated in 1813 and a new constitution was introduced in 1814, Friesland became a province of the Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands, then of the unitary Kingdom of the Netherlands a year later.", "Friesland is situated at in the northwest of the Netherlands, west of the province of Groningen, northwest of Drenthe and Overijssel, north of Flevoland, northeast of the IJsselmeer and North Holland, and south of the North Sea. It is the largest province of the Netherlands if one includes areas of water; in terms of land area only, it is the third-largest province. Most of Friesland is on the mainland, but it also includes a number of West Frisian Islands, including Vlieland, Terschelling, Ameland and Schiermonnikoog, which are connected to the mainland by ferry. The province's highest point is a dune at above sea level, on the island of Vlieland. There are four national parks of the Netherlands located in Friesland: Schiermonnikoog, De Alde Feanen, Lauwersmeer (partially in Groningen), and Drents-Friese Wold (also partially situated in Drenthe).", "The ten urban areas in Friesland with the largest population are:", "The province is divided into 18 municipalities, each with local government (municipal council, mayor and aldermen).", "The province of Friesland has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb).", "In 2020, Friesland had a population of 649,944 and a population density of. The years 1880–1900 show slower population growth due to a farm crisis during which some 20,000 Frisians emigrated to the United States.", "Since the late Middle Ages, Friesland has been renowned for the exceptional height of its inhabitants, who were deemed among the tallest groups of Indo-Europeans. Even early Renaissance poet Dante Alighieri refers to the height of Frisians in his \"Divine Comedy\" when, in the canticle about Hell, he talks about the magnitude of an infernal demon by stating that \"not even three tall Frieslanders, were they set one upon the other, would have matched his height\".", "Friesland is mainly an agricultural province. The black and white Frisian cattle, black and white Stabyhoun and the black Frisian horse originated here. Tourism is another important source of income: the principal tourist destinations include the lakes in the southwest of the province and the islands in the Wadden Sea to the north. There are 195 windmills in the province of Friesland, out of a total of about 1200 in the entire country. The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 19.8 billion € in 2018, accounting for 2.6% of the Netherlands economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 26,700 € or 89% of the EU27 average in the same year.", "", "Friesland is the only one of the twelve provinces of the Netherlands to have its own language that is recognized as such, West Frisian. Before the 18th century, varieties of Frisian were also spoken in the provinces of North-Holland and Groningen, and together with the Frisian speakers in Ost-Friesland and North-Friesland a continuous linguistic area existed between Amsterdam and the present day Danish-German border. According to a study carried out in 2007, West Frisian is the native language of the 54.3% of the inhabitants of the province of Friesland, followed by Dutch with 34.7%, and speakers of other regional languages, most of these restricted to Friesland, with 9.7%, and in the end other foreign languages with 1.4%. Frisian speakers are traditionally underrepresented in urban areas, and predominant in the countryside. West-Frisian is also spoken in a small adjacent part of the province of Groningen. Up to the 18th century Frisian was spoken in the, at that time Prussian and Hannoveran, lordships of Ost-Friesland (East-Friesland). Since then the Ost-Frisian population switched to East Frisian (\"Ostfriesisch\"), a Low German dialect. Only in some, formerly remoted, East-Frisian villages (Saterland) a variety of historically East Frisian (\"Seeltersk\") is still in use but by an older generation. A collection of dialects named North Frisian, is or was spoken in North Friesland, alongside the North See Coast and on the islands of Slesvig-Holstein. The named Frisian languages are historically related to Old English which points at the fact that Anglians and Saxons, eventually accompanied by Frisians, came from these areas. In Stellingwerf, in south-east Friesland, a dialect of Low Saxon is spoken. The language policy in Friesland is preservation. West Frisian is a mandatory subject in Friesland in primary and secondary schools of the Frisian speaking districts. The bilingual (Dutch-Frisian) and trilingual (Dutch-English-Frisian) schools in the province of Friesland use in some lessons West-Frisian as a language of instruction, besides Dutch in most other lessons and next to them English. Literacy in Frisian however, is not often a core aim and that makes the number of Frisians speakers able to write in Frisian only 12%. The provincial government takes various initiatives to preserve the West Frisian language. All parents in Friesland receive, at their children's birth, information about language and multilingualism (ex. 'taaltaske'). To support the use of Frisian in public and at public events, the province also invests in the development of speech pathology materials and strives to create information technology devices for the West Frisian language. The Frisian government subsidizes the Afûk organization, which offers language courses and actively promotes Frisian in all sectors of society as well as the corporate domain which as a rule is dominated by Dutch and Modern English. The province also promotes a wide range of art and entertainment in Frisian.", "The province is famous for its speed skaters, with mass participation in cross-country ice skating when weather conditions permit. When winters are cold enough to allow the freshwater canals to freeze hard, the province holds its traditional Elfstedentocht (Eleven cities tour), a ice skating tour. A traditional sport is Frisian handball. Another Frisian practice is \"fierljeppen\", a sport with some similarities to pole vaulting. A jump consists of an intense sprint to the pole (\"polsstok\"), jumping and grabbing it, then climbing to the top while trying to control the pole's forward and lateral movements over a body of water and finishing with a graceful landing on a sand bed opposite to the starting point. Because of all the diverse skills required in fierljeppen, fierljeppers are considered to be very complete athletes with superbly developed strength and coordination. In the warmer months, many Frisians practice \"wadlopen\", the traditional art of wading across designated sections of the Wadden Sea at low tide. There are currently two top level football clubs playing in Friesland: SC Cambuur from Leeuwarden (home stadium Cambuur Stadion) and SC Heerenveen (home stadium Abe Lenstra Stadion).", "The King's Commissioner of Friesland is Arno Brok. The States of Friesland have 43 seats. The Provincial Executive is a coalition of the Christian Democratic Appeal, the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy, the Labour Party and the Frisian National Party (FNP). !colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"|Party!Votes!Seats!colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"|Total! 298.241!align=\"center\" | 43", "The four motorways in the province are A6, A7 (E22), A31, and A32. The main railway station of Friesland is Leeuwarden, which connects the railways Arnhem–Leeuwarden, Harlingen–Nieuweschans, and Leeuwarden–Stavoren which are all (partially) located in the province. Ameland Airport near Ballum and Drachten Airfield near Drachten are the two general aviation airports in the province. The Royal Netherlands Air Force uses Vlieland Heliport and the Leeuwarden Air Base.", "\"Friesch Dagblad\" and \"Leeuwarder Courant\" are daily newspapers mainly written in Dutch. Omrop Fryslân is the public broadcaster with radio and TV programs mainly in Frisian." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Requirements: United Kingdom.", "Capacities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "It is still a requirement to file a memorandum of association to incorporate a new company, but it contains less information than was required before 1 October 2010. The Companies (Registration) Regulation 2008 included pro-forma Memoranda. It is basically a statement that the subscribers wish to form a company under the Companies Act 2006, have agreed to become members and, in the case of a company that is to have a share capital, to take at least one share each. It is no longer required to state the name of the company, the type of company (such as public limited company or private company limited by shares), the location of its registered office, the objects of the company, and its authorised share capital. Instead, these details appear solely in the Articles of Association. Companies incorporated prior to 1 October 2009 are not required to amend their memoranda, and for these companies the provisions which would have appeared in the memorandum but are now required to appear in the Articles, such as the objects clause and details of the share capital, are deemed to form a part of the latter.", "The memorandum no longer restricts the activities of a company. Since 1 October 2009, if a company's constitution contains any restrictions on the objects at all, those restrictions will form part of the articles of association. Historically, a company's memorandum of association contained an objects clause, which limited its capacity to act. When the first limited companies were incorporated, the objects clause had to be widely drafted so as not to restrict the board of directors in their day to day trading. In the Companies Act 1989, the term \"General Commercial Company\" was introduced which meant that companies could undertake \"any lawful or legal trade or business.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Works.", "Zeno's paradoxes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Little is known for certain about Zeno's life. Although written nearly a century after Zeno's death, the primary source of biographical information about Zeno is Plato's \"Parmenides\" and he is also mentioned in Aristotle's \"Physics\". In the dialogue of \"Parmenides\", Plato describes a visit to Athens by Zeno and Parmenides, at a time when Parmenides is \"about 65\", Zeno is \"nearly 40\", and Socrates is \"a very young man\". Assuming an age for Socrates of around 20 and taking the date of Socrates' birth as 469 BC gives an approximate date of birth for Zeno of 490 BC. Plato says that Zeno was \"tall and fair to look upon\" and was \"in the days of his youth... reported to have been beloved by Parmenides\". Other perhaps less reliable details of Zeno's life are given by Diogenes Laërtius in his \"Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers\", where it is reported that he was the son of Teleutagoras, but the adopted son of Parmenides, was \"skilled to argue both sides of any question, the universal critic\", and that he was arrested and perhaps killed at the hands of a tyrant of Elea. According to Diogenes Laërtius, Zeno conspired to overthrow Nearchus the tyrant. Eventually, Zeno was arrested and tortured. According to Valerius Maximus, when he was tortured to reveal the name of his colleagues in conspiracy, Zeno refused to reveal their names, although he said that he did have a secret that would be advantageous for Nearchus to hear. When Nearchus leaned in to listen to the secret, Zeno bit his ear. He \"did not let go until he lost his life and the tyrant lost that part of his body\". Within \"Men of the Same Name\", Demetrius said that the nose was bit off instead. Zeno may have also interacted with other tyrants. According to Laërtius, Heraclides Lembus, within his \"Satyrus\", these events occurred against Diomedon instead of Nearchus. Valerius Maximus recounts a conspiracy against the tyrant Phalaris, but this would be impossible as Phalaris had died before Zeno was even born. According to Plutarch, Zeno attempted to kill the tyrant Demylus. After failing, he had \"with his own teeth bit off his tongue, he spit it in the tyrant’s face\".", "Although many ancient writers refer to the writings of Zeno, none of his works survive intact. The main sources on the nature of Zeno's arguments on motion, in fact, come from the writings of Aristotle and Simplicius of Cilicia. Plato says that Zeno's writings were \"brought to Athens for the first time on the occasion of\" the visit of Zeno and Parmenides. Plato also has Zeno say that this work \"meant to protect the arguments of Parmenides\", was written in Zeno's youth, stolen, and published without his consent. Plato has Socrates paraphrase the \"first thesis of the first argument\" of Zeno's work as follows: \"If being is many, it must be both like and unlike, and this is impossible, for neither can the like be unlike, nor the unlike like.\" According to Proclus in his \"Commentary on Plato's Parmenides\", Zeno produced \"not less than forty arguments revealing contradictions\", but only nine are now known. Zeno's arguments are perhaps the first examples of a method of proof called \"reductio ad absurdum\", literally meaning \"to reduce to the absurd\". Parmenides is said to be the first individual to implement this style of argument. This form of argument soon became known as the \"epicheirema\". In Book VII of his \"Topics\", Aristotle says that an \"epicheirema\" is \"a dialectical syllogism\". It is a connected piece of reasoning which an opponent has put forward as true. The disputant sets out to break down the dialectical syllogism. This destructive method of argument was maintained by him to such a degree that Seneca the Younger commented a few centuries later: \"If I accede to Parmenides there is nothing left but the One; if I accede to Zeno, not even the One is left.\" Zeno is also regarded as the first philosopher who dealt with the earliest attestable accounts of mathematical infinity. According to Sir William Smith, in Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology (1870) Eusebius quoting Aristocles of Messene says that Zeno was part of a line of philosophy that culminated in Pyrrhonism.", "Zeno's paradoxes have puzzled, challenged, influenced, inspired, infuriated, and amused philosophers, mathematicians, and physicists for over two millennia. The most famous are the arguments against motion described by Aristotle in his \"Physics\", Book VI." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Role in market success.", "Historical views.", "Appearance in real markets.", "Time variation.", "Anti-competitive pressures and practices.", "Anti-competitive practices." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "Competition is generally accepted as an essential component of markets, and results from scarcity—there is never enough to satisfy all conceivable human wants—and occurs \"when people strive to meet the criteria that are being used to determine who gets what.\" In offering goods for exchange, buyers competitively bid to purchase specific quantities of specific goods which are available, or might be available if sellers were to choose to offer such goods. Similarly, sellers bid against other sellers in offering goods on the market, competing for the attention and exchange resources of buyers. The competitive process in a market economy exerts a sort of pressure that tends to move resources to where they are most needed, and to where they can be used most efficiently for the economy as a whole. For the competitive process to work however, it is \"important that prices accurately signal costs and benefits.\" Where externalities occur, or monopolistic or oligopolistic conditions persist, or for the provision of certain goods such as public goods, the pressure of the competitive process is reduced. In any given market, the power structure will either be in favor of sellers or in favor of buyers. The former case is known as a seller's market; the latter is known as a buyer's market or consumer sovereignty. In either case, the disadvantaged group is known as price-takers and the advantaged group known as price-setters. Competition bolsters product differentiation as businesses try to innovate and entice consumers to gain a higher market share. It helps in improving the processes and productivity as businesses strive to perform better than competitors with limited resources. The Australian economy thrives on competition as it keeps the prices in check.", "In his 1776 \"The Wealth of Nations\", Adam Smith described it as the exercise of allocating productive resources to their most highly valued uses and encouraging efficiency, an explanation that quickly found support among liberal economists opposing the monopolistic practices of mercantilism, the dominant economic philosophy of the time. Smith and other classical economists before Cournot were referring to price and non-price rivalry among producers to sell their goods on best terms by bidding of buyers, not necessarily to a large number of sellers nor to a market in final equilibrium. Later microeconomic theory distinguished between perfect competition and imperfect competition, concluding that perfect competition is Pareto efficient while imperfect competition is not. Conversely, by Edgeworth's limit theorem, the addition of more firms to an imperfect market will cause the market to tend towards Pareto efficiency.", "Real markets are never perfect. Economists who believe that in perfect competition as a useful approximation to real markets classify markets as ranging from close-to-perfect to very imperfect. Examples of close-to-perfect markets typically include share and foreign exchange markets while the real estate market is typically an example of a very imperfect market. In such markets, the theory of the second best proves that, even if one optimality condition in an economic model cannot be satisfied, the next-best solution can be achieved by changing other variables away from otherwise-optimal values.", "Within competitive markets, markets are often defined by their sub-sectors, such as the \"short term\" / \"long term\", \"seasonal\" / \"summer\", or \"broad\" / \"remainder\" market. For example, in otherwise competitive market economies, a large majority of the commercial exchanges may be competitively determined by long-term contracts and therefore long-term clearing prices. In such a scenario, a “remainder market” is one where prices are determined by the small part of the market that deals with the availability of goods not cleared via long term transactions. For example, in the sugar industry, about 94-95% of the market clearing price is determined by long-term supply and purchase contracts. The balance of the market (and world sugar prices) are determined by the \"ad hoc\" demand for the remainder; quoted prices in the \"remainder market\" can be significantly higher or lower than the long-term market clearing price. Similarly, in the US real estate housing market, appraisal prices can be determined by both short-term or long-term characteristics, depending on short-term supply and demand factors. This can result in large price variations for a property at one location.", "Competition requires the existing of multiple firms, so it duplicates fixed costs. In a small number of goods and services, the resulting cost structure means that producing enough firms to effect competition may itself be inefficient. These situations are known as natural monopolies and are usually publicly provided or tightly regulated. International competition also differentially affects sectors of national economies. In order to protect political supporters, governments may introduce protectionist measures such as tariffs to reduce competition.", "A practice is anti-competitive if it unfairly distorts free and effective competition in the marketplace. Examples include cartelization and evergreening." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Value.", "Protection.", "Misappropriation.", "History.", "Roman law.", "19th century.", "Worldwide.", "Commonwealth nations.", "England and Wales.", "Hong Kong.", "European Union.", "United States.", "State law.", "Federal law.", "Comparison to other types of intellectual property law.", "Comparison with trademarks.", "Comparison with patents.", "Criticism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "4", "4", "3", "3", "4", "4", "3", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The precise language by which a trade secret is defined varies by jurisdiction, as do the particular types of information that are subject to trade secret protection. Three factors are common to all such definitions: A trade secret is information that In international law, these three factors define a trade secret under article 39 of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, commonly referred to as the TRIPS Agreement. Similarly, in the United States Economic Espionage Act of 1996, \"A trade secret, as defined under (3)(A),(B) (1996), has three parts: (1) information; (2) reasonable measures taken to protect the information; and (3) which derives independent economic value from not being publicly known.\"", "Trade secrets are an important, but invisible component of a company's intellectual property (IP). Their contribution to a company's value, measured as its market capitalization, can be major. Being invisible, that contribution is hard to measure. Patents are a visible contribution, but delayed, and unsuitable for internal innovations. Having an internal scoreboard provides insight into the cost of risks of employees leaving to serve or start competing ventures.", "In contrast to registered intellectual property, trade secrets are, by definition, not disclosed to the world at large. Instead, owners of trade secrets seek to protect trade secret information from competitors by instituting special procedures for handling it, as well as technological and legal security measures. Legal protections include non-disclosure agreements (NDAs), and work-for-hire and non-compete clauses. In other words, in exchange for an opportunity to be employed by the holder of secrets, an employee may sign agreements to not reveal their prospective employer's proprietary information, to surrender or assign to their employer ownership rights to intellectual work and work-products produced during the course (or as a condition) of employment, and to not work for a competitor for a given period of time (sometimes within a given geographic region). Violation of the agreement generally carries the possibility of heavy financial penalties which operate as a disincentive to reveal trade secrets. However, proving a breach of an NDA by a former stakeholder who is legally working for a competitor or prevailing in a lawsuit for breaching a non-compete clause can be very difficult. A holder of a trade secret may also require similar agreements from other parties he or she deals with, such as vendors, licensees, and board members. As a company can protect its confidential information through NDA, work-for-hire, and non-compete contracts with its stakeholders (within the constraints of employment law, including only restraint that is reasonable in geographic- and time-scope), these protective contractual measures effectively create a perpetual monopoly on secret information that does not expire as would a patent or copyright. The lack of formal protection associated with registered intellectual property rights, however, means that a third party not bound by a signed agreement is not prevented from independently duplicating and using the secret information once it is discovered, such as through reverse engineering. Therefore, trade secrets such as secret formulae are often protected by restricting the key information to a few trusted individuals. Famous examples of products protected by trade secrets are Chartreuse liqueur and Coca-Cola. Because protection of trade secrets can, in principle, extend indefinitely, it therefore may provide an advantage over patent protection and other registered intellectual property rights, which last only for a specific duration. The Coca-Cola company, for example, has no patent for the formula of Coca-Cola and has been effective in protecting it for many more years than the 20 years of protection that a patent would have provided. In fact, Coca-Cola refused to reveal its trade secret under at least two judges' orders.", "Companies often try to discover one another's trade secrets through lawful methods of reverse engineering or employee poaching on one hand, and potentially unlawful methods including industrial espionage on the other. Acts of industrial espionage are generally illegal in their own right under the relevant governing laws, and penalties can be harsh. The importance of that illegality to trade secret law is: if a trade secret is acquired by improper means (a somewhat wider concept than \"illegal means\" but inclusive of such means), then the secret is generally deemed to have been \"misappropriated\". Thus, if a trade secret has been acquired via industrial espionage, its acquirer will probably be subject to legal liability for having acquired it improperly⁠ ⁠— this notwithstanding, the holder of the trade secret is nevertheless obliged to protect against such espionage to some degree in order to safeguard the secret, as under most trade secret regimes, a trade secret is not deemed to exist unless its purported holder takes reasonable steps to maintain its secrecy.", "", "Commentators starting with A. Arthur Schiller assert that trade secrets were protected under Roman law by a claim known as, interpreted as an \"action for making a slave worse\" (or an action for corrupting a servant). The Roman law is described as follows: [T]he Roman owner of a mark or firm name was legally protected against unfair usage by a competitor through the \"actio servi corrupti\"... which the Roman jurists used to grant commercial relief under the guise of private law actions. \"If, as the writer believes [writes Schiller], various private cases of action were available in satisfying commercial needs, the state was acting in exactly the same fashion as it does at the present day.\" The suggestion that trade secret law has its roots in Roman law was introduced in 1929 in a \"Columbia Law Review\" article called \"Trade Secrets and the Roman Law: The \"Actio Servi Corrupti\"\", which has been reproduced in Schiller's, \"An American Experience in Roman Law\" 1 (1971). See \"Trade Secrets and Roman Law: The Myth Exploded\", at 19. However, the University of Georgia Law School professor Alan Watson argued in \"Trade Secrets and Roman Law: The Myth Exploded \"that the \"actio servi corrupti\" was not used to protect trade secrets p. 19. Rather, he explained: Schiller is sadly mistaken as to what was going on.... The \"actio servi corrupti\" presumably or possibly could be used to protect trade secrets and other similar commercial interests. That was not its purpose and was, at most, an incidental spin-off. But there is not the slightest evidence that the action was ever so used. In this regard the \"actio servi corrupti\" is not unique. Exactly the same can be said of many private law actions including those for theft, damage to property, deposit, and production of property. All of these could, I suppose, be used to protect trade secrets, etc., but there is no evidence they were. It is bizarre to see any degree the Roman actio servi corrupti as the counterpart of modern law for the protection of trade secrets and other such commercial interests.", "Trade secret law as known today made its first appearance in England in 1817 in \"Newbery v. James\", and in the United States in 1837 in \"Vickery v. Welch\". While those cases involved the first known common law causes of action based on a modern concept of trade secret laws, neither involved injunctive relief; rather, they involved damages only. In England, the first case involving injunctive relief came in 1820 in \"Yovatt v Winyard\", while in the United States, it took until the 1866 case \"Taylor v. Blanchard\". Trade secrets law continued to evolve throughout the United States as a hodgepodge of state laws. In 1939, the American Law Institute issued the Restatement of Torts, containing a summary of trade secret laws across states, which served as the primary resource until the latter part of the century. As of 2013, however, only four states—Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, and Texas—still rely on the Restatement as their primary source of guidance (other than their body of state case law). It has also been recently theorized that the doctrine of trade secrets should protect competitively valuable, personal information of company executives, in a concept known as \"executive trade secrets\".", "", "In Commonwealth common law jurisdictions, confidentiality and trade secrets are regarded as an equitable right rather than a property right.", "The Court of Appeal of England and Wales in the case of \"Saltman Engineering Co Ltd v. Campbell Engineering Ltd\" held that the action for breach of confidence is based on a principle of preserving \"good faith\". The test for a cause of action for breach of confidence in the common law world is set out in the case of \"Coco v. A.N. Clark (Engineers) Ltd\": The \"quality of confidence\" highlights that trade secrets are a legal concept. With sufficient effort or through illegal acts (such as breaking and entering), competitors can usually obtain trade secrets. However, so long as the owner of the trade secret can prove that reasonable efforts have been made to keep the information confidential, the information remains a trade secret and generally remains legally protected. Conversely, trade secret owners who cannot evidence reasonable efforts at protecting confidential information risk losing the trade secret, even if the information is obtained by competitors illegally. It is for this reason that trade secret owners shred documents and do not simply recycle them. A successful plaintiff is entitled to various forms of judicial relief, including:", "Hong Kong does not follow the traditional commonwealth approach, instead recognizing trade secrets where a judgment of the High Court indicates that confidential information may be a property right.", "The EU adopted a Directive on the Protection of Trade Secrets on 27 May 2016. The goal of the directive is to harmonize the definition of trade secrets in accordance with existing international standards, and the means of obtaining protection of trade secrets within the EU.", "Within the U.S., trade secrets generally encompass a company's proprietary information that is not generally known to its competitors, and which provides the company with a competitive advantage. Although trade secrets law evolved under state common law, prior to 1974, the question of whether patent law preempted state trade secrets law had been unanswered. In 1974, the United States Supreme Court issued the landmark decision, \"Kewanee Oil Co. v. Bicron Corp.,\" which resolved the question in favor of allowing the states to freely develop their own trade secret laws.", "In 1979 several U.S. states adopted the Uniform Trade Secrets Act (UTSA), which was further amended in 1985, with approximately 47 states having adopted some variation of it as the basis for trade secret law. Another significant development is the Economic Espionage Act (EEA) of 1996 (), which makes the theft or misappropriation of a trade secret a federal crime. This law contains two provisions criminalizing two sorts of activity. The statutory penalties are different for the two offenses. The EEA was extended in 2016 to allow companies to file civil suits in federal court.", "On May 11, 2016, President Obama signed the Defend Trade Secrets Act (DTSA), 18 U.S.C.§§1839 et seq., which for the first time created a federal cause of action for misappropriating trade secrets. The DTSA provides for both a private right of action for damages and injunction and a civil action for injunction brought by the Attorney General. The statute followed state laws on liability in significant part, defining trade secrets in the same way as the Uniform Trade Secrets Act as, However, the law contains several important differences from prior law. The DTSA also clarifies that a United States resident (including a company) can be liable for misappropriation that takes place outside the United States, and any person can be liable as long as an act in furtherance of the misappropriation takes place in the United States, 18 U.S.C. §1837. The DTSA provides the courts with broad injunctive powers. 18 U.S.C. §1836(b)(3). The DTSA does not preempt or supplant state laws, but provides an additional cause of action. Because states vary significantly in their approach to the \"inevitable disclosure\" doctrine, its use has limited, if any, application under the DTSA, 18 U.S.C.§1836(b)(3)(A).", "In the United States, trade secrets are not protected by law in the same manner as patents or trademarks. Historically, trademarks and patents are protected under federal statutes, the Lanham Act and Patent Act, respectively, while trade secrets are usually protected under state laws, and most states have enacted the Uniform Trade Secrets Act (UTSA), except for Massachusetts, New York, and North Carolina. However, since 2016 this situation changed with the enactment of the Defend Trade Secrets Act (DTSA), making trade secrets also protectable under a federal law. One of the differences between patents and trademarks, on the one hand, and trade secrets, on the other, is that a trade secret is protected only when the owner has taken reasonable measures to protect the information as a secret (see (3)(A)).", "Nations have different trademark policies. Assuming the mark in question meets certain other standards of protectibility, trademarks are generally protected from infringement on the grounds that other uses might confuse consumers as to the origin or nature of the goods once the mark has been associated with a particular supplier. Similar considerations apply to service marks and trade dress. By definition, a trademark enjoys no protection (\"qua\" trademark) until and unless it is \"disclosed\" to consumers, for only then are consumers able to associate it with a supplier or source in the requisite manner. (That a company plans to \"use\" a certain trademark might itself be protectable as a trade secret, however, until the mark is actually made public.) To acquire a trademark rights under U.S. law, one must simply use the mark \"in commerce\". It is possible to register a trademark in the United States, both at the federal and state levels. Registration of trademarks confers some advantages, including stronger protection in certain respects, but registration is not required in order to get protection. Registration may be required in order to file a lawsuit for trademark infringement.", "To acquire a patent, full information about the method or product has to be supplied to the patent office and upon publication or issuance, will then be available to all. After expiration of the patent, competitors can copy the method or product legally. The temporary monopoly on the subject matter of the patent is regarded as a tradeoff for thus disclosing the information to the public. It may be possible to obtain patent protection for a trade secret. In order to obtain a patent, the inventor must disclose the invention, so that others will be able to both make and use the invention. To obtain a patent in the United States, any preference for the mode of practicing the invention must be disclosed. Often, an invention will be improved after filing of the patent application, and additional information will be learned. None of that additional information must be disclosed through the patent application process, and it may thus be kept as a trade secret. That nondisclosed information will often increase the commercial viability of the patent. Most patent licenses include clauses that require the inventor to disclose any trade secrets they have, and patent licensors must be careful to maintain their trade secrets while licensing a patent through such means as the use of a non-disclosure agreement. Compared to patents, the advantages of trade secrets are that a trade secret is not limited in time (it \"continues indefinitely as long as the secret is not revealed to the public\", whereas a patent is only in force for a specified time, after which others may freely copy the invention), a trade secret does not imply any registration costs, has an immediate effect, does not require compliance with any formalities, and does not imply any disclosure of the invention to the public. The disadvantages of trade secrets include that \"others may be able to legally discover the secret and be thereafter entitled to use it\", \"others may obtain patent protection for legally discovered secrets\", and a trade secret is more difficult to enforce than a patent.", "Trade secret regulations that mask the composition of chemical agents in consumer products have been criticized for allowing the trade secret holders to hide the presence of potentially harmful and toxic substances. It has been argued that the public is being denied a clear picture of such products' safety, whereas competitors are well positioned to analyze its chemical composition. In 2004, the National Environmental Trust tested 40 common consumer products; in more than half of them they found toxic substances not listed on the product label." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot summary.", "Reception.", "Film." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The story takes place in the opening months of World War II. Josef Schwarz is a refugee who offers his visa and tickets for America to another refugee desperate to leave Lisbon. He does this in exchange for keeping him company throughout one night, a night in which he relates the story of his and his wife's frantic flight from Nazi Germany to Lisbon.", "\"The Night in Lisbon\" became an immediate bestseller in America and Britain when published in English in 1964, remaining on the \"New York Times\" Top Ten list for five months. In his review for the \"Times\", Maxwell Geismar called it a \"most brooding and thoughtful novel... it may not quite be a great novel, but it is surely one of the most absorbing and eloquent narratives of our period.\" In a 1964 book review, \"Kirkus Reviews\" called the book \"limp with romantic despair and frayed cynicism making the experience of dislocation and the concentration camps more acceptable to an audience which has avoided it before... Remarque's old following will find that it has a certain urgency without perhaps pausing to wonder whether it is as real as it is readable.\" Charles Poore wrote in his review for \"The Times\"; \"It is a brilliant novel and a strange one, not completely successful but hauntingly moving.\"", "With an expected release during October, 2020, a film based on \"The Night in Lisbon\" is being produced. Ian Stokell is the author of the screenplay." ] }

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{ "title": [ "DVD track listing.", "Concert.", "Special features.", "Laserdisc track listing.", "2019 Restored and Re-Edited Blu-ray/DVD Version.", "2019 Restored and re-edited 90 Minute Version.", "Editing out the Publius Enigma.", "Different Film Versions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "\"Disc One\" \"Disc Two\" \"The Dark Side of the Moon:\" \"The encores:\" Songs #10 to #19 on disc two are a complete performance of Pink Floyd's 1973 album \"The Dark Side of the Moon\".", "\"Bootlegging the Bootleggers:\" \"Screen films:\" \"Music videos:\" \"Learning to Fly\" and \"Take It Back\" \"Behind the Scenes Footage:\" \"Say Goodbye to Life as We Know It\" \"Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Induction Ceremony, USA 1996,\" including \"Wish You Were Here\" with Billy Corgan \"Other:\"", "The 1995 Sony Laserdisc featured the concert spread out over three sides of a two-disc set. Due to space contraints, for continuity, and to permit the complete performance of \"The Dark Side of the Moon\" on side two without interruption, \"Another Brick in the Wall (Part 2)\" and \"One of These Days\" were moved to the beginning of side three. \"Side One\" \"Side Two\" \"Side Three\"", "The track listing is the same as the original VHS release, and was restored & re-edited from the original master tapes.", "This was edited for streaming and broadcasting the same material as the above Blu-ray/DVD version. The track listing includes a complete performance of the album \"The Dark Side of the Moon\".", "The DVD release saw some re-edited footage of the original 1995 release. During \"The Division Bell Tour\" the word(s) \"Enigma\" or \"Publius Enigma\" would be visible on part of the stage (sometimes it would be written in lights, or on the back screen). These were connected to the Enigma competition surrounding the album and tour. On 20 October 1994, during \"Another Brick in the Wall (Part 2)\" the screen displayed the word \"Enigma\" instead of \"E=MC\" which is what was shown at other shows, this is shown on the original 1995 release. The DVD, however, has an altered back-drop displaying \"E=MC\", although if the DVD is paused at the correct moment the word \"Enigma\" is still visible. This portion has been replaced with band members shots on the 2019 Blu-ray version.", "Both 1995 original and 2006 new edit were done by Dave Gardener, the 2006 new edit features more shots of David Gilmour. The 2019 re-edit available on the Later Years box set was done by Benny Trickett and keeps few shots from the original 1995 version (mainly film screens are replaced, The Great Gig In The Sky doesn't feature at all the screen film for example, which was present on the original vhs). It replaces them with closer shots of all band members at key moments of their playing (Richard Wright at the start of Shine On You Crazy Diamond or The Great Gig In The Sky ; Gary Wallis breaks during Any Colour You Like; Nick Mason using the fluorescent sticks on Time, etc). This version is the only one (as of 06.02.2020) available in HD." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and artistic training.", "Height of career.", "Later life.", "Shunga.", "Works and influences.", "Influences on art and culture.", "Further reading.", "Specific works of art.", "Art monographs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Hokusai's date of birth is unclear, but is often stated as the 23rd day of the 9th month of the 10th year of the Hōreki era (in the old calendar, or 31 October 1760) to an artisan family, in the Katsushika district of Edo, Japan. His childhood name was Tokitarō. It is believed his father was the mirror-maker Nakajima Ise, who produced mirrors for the shōgun. His father never made Hokusai an heir, so it is possible that his mother was a concubine. Hokusai began painting around the age of six, perhaps learning from his father, whose work on mirrors included a painting of designs around mirrors. Hokusai was known by at least thirty names during his lifetime. While the use of multiple names was a common practice of Japanese artists of the time, his number of pseudonyms exceeds that of any other major Japanese artist. Hokusai's name changes are so frequent, and so often related to changes in his artistic production and style, that they are used for breaking his life up into periods. At the age of 12, his father sent him to work in a bookshop and lending library, a popular institution in Japanese cities, where reading books made from wood-cut blocks was a popular entertainment of the middle and upper classes. At 14, he worked as an apprentice to a wood-carver, until the age of 18, when he entered the studio of Katsukawa Shunshō. Shunshō was an artist of ukiyo-e, a style of woodblock prints and paintings that Hokusai would master, and head of the so-called Katsukawa school. Ukiyo-e, as practised by artists like Shunshō, focused on images of the courtesans and Kabuki actors who were popular in Japan's cities at the time. After a year, Hokusai's name changed for the first time, when he was dubbed Shunrō by his master. It was under this name that he published his first prints, a series of pictures of Kabuki actors published in 1779. During the decade he worked in Shunshō's studio, Hokusai was married to his first wife, about whom very little is known except that she died in the early 1790s. He married again in 1797, although this second wife also died after a short time. He fathered two sons and three daughters with these two wives, and his youngest daughter Ei, also known as Ōi, eventually became an artist. Upon the death of Shunshō in 1793, Hokusai began exploring other styles of art, including European styles he was exposed to through French and Dutch copper engravings he was able to acquire. He was soon expelled from the Katsukawa school by Shunkō, the chief disciple of Shunshō, possibly due to studies at the rival Kanō school. This event was, in his own words, inspirational: \"What really motivated the development of my artistic style was the embarrassment I suffered at Shunkō's hands.\" Hokusai also changed the subjects of his works, moving away from the images of courtesans and actors that were the traditional subjects of ukiyo-e. Instead, his work became focused on landscapes and images of the daily life of Japanese people from a variety of social levels. This change of subject was a breakthrough in ukiyo-e and in Hokusai's career. \"Fireworks in the Cool of Evening at Ryogoku Bridge in Edo\" (1790) dates from this period of Hokusai's life.", "The next period saw Hokusai's association with the Tawaraya School and the adoption of the name \"Tawaraya Sōri\". He produced many brush paintings, called \"surimono\", and illustrations for \"kyōka ehon\" (illustrated book of humorous poems) during this time. In 1798, Hokusai passed his name on to a pupil and set out as an independent artist, free from ties to a school for the first time, adopting the name Hokusai Tomisa. By 1800, Hokusai was further developing his use of ukiyo-e for purposes other than portraiture. He had also adopted the name he would most widely be known by, Katsushika Hokusai, the former name referring to the part of Edo where he was born and the latter meaning, 'north studio'. That year, he published two collections of landscapes, \"Famous Sights of the Eastern Capital\" and \"Eight Views of Edo\" (modern Tokyo). He also began to attract students of his own, eventually teaching 50 pupils over the course of his life. He became increasingly famous over the next decade, both due to his artwork and his talent for self-promotion. During an Edo festival in 1804, he created a portrait of the Buddhist prelate Daruma, founder of Zen, said to be long using a broom and buckets full of ink. Another story places him in the court of the shogun Tokugawa Ienari, invited there to compete with another artist who practised more traditional brush stroke painting. Hokusai's painting, created in front of the Shōgun, consisted of painting a blue curve on paper, then chasing across it a chicken whose feet had been dipped in red paint. He described the painting to the Shōgun as a landscape showing the Tatsuta River with red maple leaves floating in it, winning the competition. 1807 saw Hokusai collaborate with the popular novelist Takizawa Bakin on a series of illustrated books. The two did not get along due to artistic differences, and their collaboration ended during work on their fourth book. The publisher, given the choice between keeping Hokusai or Bakin on the project, opted to keep Hokusai, emphasizing the importance of illustrations in printed works of the period. Hokusai paid close attention to the production of his work in books. Two instances are documented in letters he wrote to the publishers and block cutters involved in the production of his designs in \"Toshisen Ehon\", a Japanese edition of an anthology of Chinese poetry. Hokusai writes to the book's publisher that the blockcutter Egawa Tomekichi, with whom Hokusai had previously worked and whom he respected, had strayed from Hokusai's style in the cutting of certain heads. Hokusai also wrote directly to another block cutter involved in the project, Sugita Kinsuke, stating that he disliked the Utagawa-school style in which Kinsuke had cut the figure's eyes and noses and that amendments would need to be made for the final prints to be true to Hokusai's style. In his letter, Hokusai includes illustrated examples of both his style of illustrating eyes and noses and the Utagawa–school style. The publisher agreed to make these alterations, even with hundreds of copies of the book already printed. To correct these details the already existing cut blocks would be corrected by use of the Umeki technique. The sections to be corrected would be removed and a prepared piece of wood inserted, into which the blockcutter would cut the revised design. Use of the Umeki technique can be detected by fine break marks bordering the inserted block. Copies in print of both the original woodblock and those made of Hokusai's requested revisions survive, printed in 1833 and 1836 respectively. In 1811, at the age of 51, Hokusai changed his name to \"Taito\" and entered the period in which he created the \"Hokusai Manga\" and various \"etehon\", or art manuals. These \"etehon\", beginning in 1812 with \"Quick Lessons in Simplified Drawing\", served as a convenient way to make money and attract more students. \"Manga\" (meaning random drawings) included studies in perspective. The first book of Hokusai's \"manga\", sketches or caricatures that influenced the modern form of comics known by the same name, was published in 1814. Together, his 12 volumes of manga published before 1820 and three more published posthumously include thousands of drawings of animals, religious figures, and everyday people. They often have humorous overtones and were very popular at the time. Later, Hokusai created 4-frame-cartoons. Many of his Manga also illustrates rich people's live in a humorous way. On 5 October 1817, he painted at the Hongan-ji Nagoya Betsuin in Nagoya the \"Big Daruma\" on paper, measuring 18 × 10.8 metres, impressing many onlookers. For this feat he received the name \"\"Darusen\" (a shortened form of \"Daruma Sensei\"). Although the original was destroyed in 1945, promotional handbills from that time survived and are preserved at the Nagoya City Museum. Based on studies, a reproduction of the large painting was done at a large public event on 23 November 2017 to commemorate the 200-year anniversary of the painting, using the same size and techniques and material as the original. In 1820, Hokusai changed his name yet again, this time to \"Iitsu,\" a change which marked the start of a period in which he secured fame as an artist throughout Japan. His most famous work, \"Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji\", including the famous \"Great Wave off Kanagawa\", was produced in the early 1830s. The results of Hokusai's perspectival studies in \"Manga\" can be seen here in \"The Great Wave off Kanagawa\" where he uses what would have been seen as a western perspective to represent depth and volume. It proved so popular that Hokusai later added ten more prints to the series. Among the other popular series of prints he published during this time are \"A Tour of the Waterfalls of the Provinces\", \"Oceans of Wisdom\" and \"Unusual Views of Celebrated Bridges in the Provinces\". He also began producing a number of detailed individual images of flowers and birds, including the extraordinarily detailed \"Poppies\" and \"Flock of Chickens\".", "The next period, beginning in 1834, saw Hokusai working under the name \"Gakyō Rōjin\" (; \"The Old Man Mad About Art\"). It was at this time that Hokusai produced \"\", another significant landscape series. In the postscript to this work, Hokusai writes: In 1839, a fire destroyed Hokusai's studio and much of his work. By this time, his career was beginning to fade as younger artists such as Andō Hiroshige became increasingly popular. At the age of 83, Hokusai traveled to Obuse in Shinano Province (now Nagano Prefecture) at the invitation of a wealthy farmer, Takai Kozan where he stayed for several years. During his time in Obuse, he created several masterpieces, included the \"Masculine Wave\" and the \"Feminine Wave\". Hokusai never stopped painting and completed \"Ducks in a Stream\" at the age of 87. Constantly seeking to produce better work, he apparently exclaimed on his deathbed, \"If only Heaven will give me just another ten years... Just another five more years, then I could become a real painter.\" He died on 10 May 1849 (18th day of the 4th month of the 2nd year of the Kaei era by the old calendar), and was buried at the Seikyō-ji in Tokyo (Taito Ward).", "Hokusai also created erotic art, called \"shunga\" in Japanese. Most shunga are a type of ukiyo-e, usually executed in woodblock print format. Translated literally, the Japanese word \"shunga\" means \"picture of spring\" or \"spring\".", "Hokusai had a long career, but he produced most of his important work after age 60. His most popular work is the ukiyo-e series \"Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji\", which was created between 1826 and 1833. It actually consists of 46 prints (10 of them added after initial publication). In addition, Hokusai is responsible for the 1834, a work which \"is generally considered the masterpiece among his landscape picture books\". His ukiyo-e transformed the art form from a style of portraiture focused on the courtesans and actors popular during the Edo period in Japan's cities into a much broader style of art that focused on landscapes, plants, and animals. Both Hokusai's choice of art name and frequent depiction of Mount Fuji stem from his religious beliefs. The name means \"North Studio (room)\", an abbreviation of or \"North Star Studio\". Hokusai was a member of the Nichiren sect of Buddhism, who see the North Star as associated with the deity. Mount Fuji has traditionally been linked with eternal life. This belief can be traced to \"The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter\", where a goddess deposits the elixir of life on the peak. As Henry Smith expounds: \"Thus from an early time, Mt. Fuji was seen as the source of the secret of immortality, a tradition that was at the heart of Hokusai's own obsession with the mountain.\" The largest of Hokusai's works is the 15-volume collection, published in 1814. The work is crammed with a collection of nearly 4,000 sketches of animals, people, objects, etc. Despite the name, the sketches can not really be considered the precedent to modern manga, as the style and content of \"Hokusai's Manga\" is different from the story-based comic-book style of modern manga.", "Hokusai had achievements in various fields as an artist. He made designs for book illustrations and woodblock prints, sketches, and painting for over 70 years. Hokusai was an early experimenter with western linear perspective among Japanese artists. Hokusai himself was influenced by Sesshū Tōyō and other styles of Chinese painting. His influences stretched across the globe to his western contemporaries in nineteenth-century Europe with Japonism, which started with a craze for collecting Japanese art, particularly ukiyo-e, of which some of the first samples were to be seen in Paris, when in about 1856, the French artist Félix Bracquemond first came across a copy of the sketchbook Hokusai Manga at the workshop of his printer. He influenced Art Nouveau, or Jugendstil in Germany, and the larger Impressionism movement, with themes echoing his work appearing in the work of Claude Monet and Pierre-Auguste Renoir. According to the Brooklyn Rail, \"many artists collected his woodcuts: Degas, Gauguin, Klimt, Franz Marc, August Macke, Manet, and van Gogh.\" Hermann Obrist's whiplash motif, or \"Peitschenhieb\", which came to exemplify the new movement, is visibly influenced by Hokusai's work. Even after his death, exhibitions of his artworks continue to grow. In 2005, Tokyo National Museum held a Hokusai exhibition which had the largest number of visitors of any exhibit there that year. Several paintings from the Tokyo exhibition were also exhibited in the United Kingdom. The British Museum held the first exhibition of Hokusai's later year artworks including \"'The Great Wave\"' in 2017. Hokusai inspired the Hugo Award–winning short story by science fiction author Roger Zelazny, \"24 Views of Mt. Fuji, by Hokusai\", in which the protagonist tours the area surrounding Mount Fuji, stopping at locations painted by Hokusai. A 2011 book on mindfulness closes with the poem \"Hokusai Says\" by Roger Keyes, preceded with the explanation that \"[s]ometimes poetry captures the soul of an idea better than anything else.\" In the 1985 \"Encyclopaedia Britannica\", Richard Lane characterizes Hokusai as \"since the later 19th century [having] impressed Western artists, critics and art lovers alike, more, possibly, than any other single Asian artist\". \"'Store Selling Picture Books and Ukiyo-e\"' by Hokusai shows how ukiyo-e during the time was actually sold; it shows how these prints were sold at local shops, and ordinary people could buy ukiyo-e. Unusually in this image, Hokusai used a hand-colored approach instead of using several separated woodblocks.", "", "For readers who want more information on specific works of art by Hokusai, these particular works are recommended.", "Monographs dedicated to Hokusai art works:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Prints.", "Original thirty-six.", "Exhibitions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Mount Fuji is a popular subject for Japanese art due to its cultural and religious significance. This belief can be traced to \"The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter\", where a goddess deposits the elixir of life on the peak. As the historian Henry Smith explains, \"Thus from an early time, Mt. Fuji was seen as the source of the secret of immortality, a tradition that was at the heart of Hokusai's own obsession with the mountain.\" The most famous single image from the series is widely known in English as \"The Great Wave off Kanagawa\". It depicts three boats being threatened by a large wave while Mount Fuji rises in the background. While sometimes assumed to be a tsunami, the wave is more likely to be an exceptionally large storm wave. Each of the images was made through a process whereby an image drawn on paper was used to guide the carving of a wood block. This block was then covered with ink and applied to paper to create the image (see Woodblock printing in Japan for further details). The complexity of Hokusai's images includes the wide range of colors he used, which required the use of a separate block for each color appearing in the image. While Hokusai's \"Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji\" is the most famous ukiyo-e series to focus on Mount Fuji, there are several other works with the same subject, including Hiroshige's series \"Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji\" and Hokusai's subsequent book \"One Hundred Views of Mount Fuji\". From to 1892, the series of, the parody of number 36, was produced by Yoshitoshi, and published by. The French artist Henri Rivière (1864–1951) published the set of color lithographs \"Thirty-six views of the Tour Eiffel\" in 1902, inspired by the seminal print set of Hokusai, one of the many influences of Japanese art on late 19th century and early 20th century French art (Japonism, known as \"Japonisme\" in French)", "", "These images are of modern facsimile prints made using the same techniques.", "A collection of Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji prints contained in the wellness spa of the Costa Concordia was lost during the collision of the ship on January 13, 2012. All forty-six prints (the original thirty-six plus the ten additions) were featured in the exhibition \"Hokusai: 36 Views of Mount Fuji\" at the Freer Gallery of Art and the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, the Smithsonian's museums of Asian art, in the spring of 2012. The Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji prints were displayed at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston as part of a Hokusai exhibit April 5 through August 9, 2015. The Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji prints were displayed at the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia as part of a Hokusai exhibit 21 July through 22 October 2017, featuring two copies of The Great Wave off Kanagawa, one from the NGV and one from Japan Ukiyo-e Museum." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Series overview.", "Episodes.", "Two-part episodes summary.", "Main cast appearances.", "Cross-overs with \"DS9\".", "Crossover with \"Voyager\".", "Character story-arcs.", "Home media.", "DVD and Blu-Ray.", "Streaming." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "<onlyinclude></onlyinclude>", "Both the series' premiere (\"Encounter at Farpoint\") and finale (\"\") originally aired as single two-hour presentations, but have since aired as two one-hour episodes.", "The two-part episodes are sometimes edited into one showing and released as a single feature. Typically the short summary of Part I at the start of Part II, as well as the second showing of the opening credits, is cut.", "This is a graph of when the main cast made appearances.", "There are a number of \"TNG\" episodes that have direct or indirect ties to \"Deep Space Nine\" including \"\" (Enterprise visits DS9 station), \"\" (Fills in many details of the Federation-Cardassian conflict story), \"Lower Decks\" (Bajoran story also a sequel of sorts to \"The First Duty\"), \"\" (more Federation-Cardassia narrative), and \"\" (has a scene with Quark). The story of Worf and O'Brien and several other characters are further extended on the \"Deep Space Nine\" TV show, which debuted in 1993 while \"TNG\" was in mid-6th season", "On December 1, 1999 there was a crossover episode concerning \"Voyager\" and STTNG cast Deanna Troi and Reginald Barclay in episode \"\" [Season 6/Episode 10]", "A number of episodes continue story arcs for certain characters. Examples:", "TNG was released on VHS cassette tapes, and these usually put two episodes on one tape. For some releases the credits of both shows on the tape were shown combined at the end of the tape not separately.", "Certain episodes of the series have also been released on eight \"best of\" collections. The four \"Next Generation\" movies were released together on a Blu-ray set in 2009. They have subsequently been re-released individually. Three episodes were released on region-free Blu-ray Disc in January 2012. The complete series was digitally remastered in 1080p high definition and will be available for Blu-ray releases, syndication on television, and distribution digitally. There were also five fan collective DVD collections, that released a set of episodes across the Star Trek franchise but included episodes from TNG. The five sets are Borg, Klingon, Q, Time Travel, and Captain's Log.", "The digital distribution of the remastered series has been through services such as iTunes and Amazon Video. Seasons 1 and 2 were released on the US, Canadian and UK iTunes stores in early 2013, in both high and standard definition. Seasons 3 and 4 were released on the US and Canadian iTunes stores in the second half of 2013, and on the UK store in March 2014 - again in both high and standard definition. In early 2014, the first four seasons were added to the Australian iTunes Store in both high and standard definition. Both high and standard definition versions of Season 5 were released digitally in the US via Amazon Video and iTunes in early May 2014, and later in the UK, Canadian and Australian iTunes stores. In December 2014, Season 6 was added in both high and standard definition to the US iTunes Store. The complete series was added to the Netflix streaming service in the US in 2011. In 2015, the series was updated to the high-definition remastered version of the show." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin and history.", "Gestalt therapy.", "Contributions.", "Theoretical framework and methodology.", "Properties.", "Reification.", "Multistability.", "Invariance.", "Figure-Ground Organization.", "\"Prägnanz\".", "Law of Proximity.", "Law of Similarity.", "Law of Closure.", "Law of Symmetry.", "Law of Common Fate.", "Law of Continuity.", "Law of Past Experience.", "Music.", "Problem solving and insight.", "Fuzzy-trace theory of memory.", "Legacy.", "Support from cybernetics and neurology.", "Quantum cognition modeling.", "Use in contemporary social psychology.", "Contemporary cognitive and perceptual psychology.", "Use in design." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967) founded Gestalt psychology in the early 20th century. The dominant view in psychology at the time was structuralism, exemplified by the work of Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894), Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), and Edward B. Titchener (1867–1927). Structuralism was rooted firmly in British empiricism and was based on three closely interrelated theories: (1) \"atomism,\" also known as \"elementalism,\" the view that all knowledge, even complex abstract ideas, is built from simple, elementary constituents, (2) \"sensationalism,\" the view that the simplest constituents—the atoms of thought—are elementary sense impressions, and (3) \"associationism,\" the view that more complex ideas arise from the association of simpler ideas. Together, these three theories give rise to the view that the mind constructs all perceptions and even abstract thoughts strictly from lower-level sensations that are related solely by being associated closely in space and time. The Gestaltists took issue with this widespread \"atomistic\" view that the aim of psychology should be to break consciousness down into putative basic elements. In contrast, the Gestalt psychologists believed that breaking psychological phenomena down into smaller parts would not lead to understanding psychology. The Gestalt psychologists believed, instead, that the most fruitful way to view psychological phenomena is as organized, structured wholes. They argued that the psychological \"whole\" has priority and that the \"parts\" are defined by the structure of the whole, rather than vice versa. One could say that the approach was based on a macroscopic view of psychology rather than a microscopic approach. Gestalt theories of perception are based on human nature being inclined to understand objects as an entire structure rather than the sum of its parts. Wertheimer had been a student of Austrian philosopher, Christian von Ehrenfels (1859–1932), a member of the School of Brentano. Von Ehrenfels introduced the concept of \"Gestalt\" to philosophy and psychology in 1890, before the advent of Gestalt psychology as such. Von Ehrenfels observed that a perceptual experience, such as perceiving a melody or a shape, is more than the sum of its sensory components. He claimed that, in addition to the sensory elements of the perception, there is something extra. Although in some sense derived from the organization of the component sensory elements, this further quality is an element in its own right. He called it \"Gestalt-qualität\" or \"form-quality.\" For instance, when one hears a melody, one hears the notes plus something in addition to them that binds them together into a tune – the \"Gestalt-qualität\". It is this \"Gestalt-qualität\" that, according to von Ehrenfels, allows a tune to be transposed to a new key, using completely different notes, while still retaining its identity. The idea of a \"Gestalt-qualität\" has roots in theories by David Hume, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Immanuel Kant, David Hartley, and Ernst Mach. Both von Ehrenfels and Edmund Husserl seem to have been inspired by Mach's work \"Beiträge zur Analyse der Empfindungen\" (Contributions to the Analysis of Sensations, 1886), in formulating their very similar concepts of \"gestalt\" and \"figural moment\", respectively. By 1914, the first published references to Gestalt theory could be found in a footnote of Gabriele von Wartensleben's application of Gestalt theory to personality. She was a student at Frankfurt Academy for Social Sciences, who interacted deeply with Wertheimer and Köhler. Through a series of experiments, Wertheimer discovered that a person observing a pair of alternating bars of light can, under the right conditions, experience the illusion of movement between one location and the other. He noted that this was a perception of motion absent any moving object. That is, it was pure phenomenal motion. He dubbed it phi (\"phenomenal\") motion. Wertheimer's publication of these results in 1912 marks the beginning of Gestalt psychology. In comparison to von Ehrenfels and others who had used the term \"gestalt\" earlier in various ways, Wertheimer's unique contribution was to insist that the \"gestalt\" is perceptually primary. The gestalt defines the parts from which it is composed, rather than being a secondary quality that emerges from those parts. Wertheimer took the more radical position that \"what is given me by the melody does not arise... as a secondary process from the sum of the pieces as such. Instead, what takes place in each single part already depends upon what the whole is\", (1925/1938). In other words, one hears the melody first and only then may perceptually divide it up into notes. Similarly, in vision, one sees the form of the circle first—it is given \"im-mediately\" (i.e., its apprehension is not mediated by a process of part-summation). Only after this primary apprehension might one notice that it is made up of lines or dots or stars. The two men who served as Wertheimer's subjects in the phi experiments were Köhler and Koffka. Köhler was an expert in physical acoustics, having studied under physicist Max Planck (1858–1947), but had taken his degree in psychology under Carl Stumpf (1848–1936). Koffka was also a student of Stumpf's, having studied movement phenomena and psychological aspects of rhythm. In 1917, Köhler (1917/1925) published the results of four years of research on learning in chimpanzees. Köhler showed, contrary to the claims of most other learning theorists, that animals can learn by \"sudden insight\" into the \"structure\" of a problem, over and above the associative and incremental manner of learning that Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) and Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949) had demonstrated with dogs and cats, respectively. The terms \"structure\" and \"organization\" were focal for the Gestalt psychologists. Stimuli were said to have a certain structure, to be organized in a certain way, and that it is to this structural organization, rather than to individual sensory elements, that the organism responds. When an animal is conditioned, it does not simply respond to the absolute properties of a stimulus, but to its properties relative to its surroundings. To use a favorite example of Köhler's, if conditioned to respond in a certain way to the lighter of two gray cards, the animal generalizes the relation between the two stimuli rather than the absolute properties of the conditioned stimulus: it will respond to the lighter of two cards in subsequent trials even if the darker card in the test trial is of the same intensity as the lighter one in the original training trials. In 1921, Koffka published a Gestalt-oriented text on developmental psychology, \"Growth of the Mind\". With the help of American psychologist Robert Ogden, Koffka introduced the Gestalt point of view to an American audience in 1922 by way of a paper in \"Psychological Bulletin\". It contains criticisms of then-current explanations of a number of problems of perception, and the alternatives offered by the Gestalt school. Koffka moved to the United States in 1924, eventually settling at Smith College in 1927. In 1935, Koffka published his \"Principles of Gestalt Psychology\". This textbook laid out the \"Gestalt\" vision of the scientific enterprise as a whole. Science, he said, is not the simple accumulation of facts. What makes research scientific is the incorporation of facts into a theoretical structure. The goal of the \"Gestaltists\" was to integrate the facts of inanimate nature, life, and mind into a single scientific structure. This meant that science would have to accommodate not only what Koffka called the quantitative facts of physical science but the facts of two other \"scientific categories\": questions of order and questions of \"Sinn\", a German word which has been variously translated as significance, value, and meaning. Without incorporating the meaning of experience and behavior, Koffka believed that science would doom itself to trivialities in its investigation of human beings. Having survived the Nazis up to the mid-1930s, all the core members of the Gestalt movement were forced out of Germany to the United States by 1935. Köhler published another book, \"Dynamics in Psychology\", in 1940 but thereafter the \"Gestalt\" movement suffered a series of setbacks. Koffka died in 1941 and Wertheimer in 1943. Wertheimer's long-awaited book on mathematical problem-solving, \"Productive Thinking,\" was published posthumously in 1945, but Köhler was left to guide the movement without his two long-time colleagues.", "Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt therapy, which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology. The founders of Gestalt therapy, Fritz and Laura Perls, had worked with Kurt Goldstein, a neurologist who had applied principles of Gestalt psychology to the functioning of the organism. Laura Perls had been a Gestalt psychologist before she became a psychoanalyst and before she began developing Gestalt therapy together with Fritz Perls. The extent to which Gestalt psychology influenced Gestalt therapy is disputed, however. In any case it is not identical with Gestalt psychology. On the one hand, Laura Perls preferred not to use the term \"Gestalt\" to name the emerging new therapy, because she thought that the Gestalt psychologists would object to it; on the other hand Fritz and Laura Perls clearly adopted some of Goldstein's work. Thus, though recognizing the historical connection and the influence, most Gestalt psychologists emphasize that Gestalt therapy is not a form of Gestalt psychology. Mary Henle noted in her presidential address to Division 24 at the meeting of the American Psychological Association (1975): \"What Perls has done has been to take a few terms from Gestalt psychology, stretch their meaning beyond recognition, mix them with notions—often unclear and often incompatible—from the depth psychologies, existentialism, and common sense, and he has called the whole mixture gestalt therapy. His work has no substantive relation to scientific Gestalt psychology. To use his own language, Fritz Perls has done 'his thing'; whatever it is, it is \"not\" Gestalt psychology\" With her analysis however, she restricts herself explicitly to only three of Perls' books from 1969 and 1972, leaving out Perls' earlier work, and Gestalt therapy in general as a psychotherapy method. There have been clinical applications of Gestalt psychology in the psychotherapeutic field long before Perls'ian Gestalt therapy, in group psychoanalysis (Foulkes), Adlerian individual psychology, by Gestalt psychologists in psychotherapy like Erwin Levy, Abraham S. Luchins, by Gestalt psychologically oriented psychoanalysts in Italy (Canestrari and others), and there have been newer developments foremost in Europe. For example, a strictly Gestalt psychology-based therapeutic method is Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy, developed by the German Gestalt psychologist and psychotherapist Hans-Jürgen Walter and his colleagues in Germany, Austria (Gerhard Stemberger and colleagues) and Switzerland. Other countries, especially Italy, have seen similar developments.", "Gestalt psychology made many contributions to the body of psychology. The Gestaltists were the first to demonstrate empirically and document many facts about perception—including facts about the perception of movement, the perception of contour, perceptual constancy, and perceptual illusions. Wertheimer's discovery of the phi phenomenon is one example of such a contribution. In addition to discovering perceptual phenomena, the contributions of Gestalt psychology include: (a) a unique theoretical framework and methodology, (b) a set of perceptual principles, (c) a well-known set of perceptual grouping laws, (d) a theory of problem solving based on insight, and (e) a theory of memory. The following subsections discuss these contributions in turn.", "The Gestalt psychologists practiced a set of theoretical and methodological principles that attempted to redefine the approach to psychological research. This is in contrast to investigations developed at the beginning of the 20th century, based on traditional scientific methodology, which divided the object of study into a set of elements that could be analyzed separately with the objective of reducing the complexity of this object. The theoretical principles are the following: Based on the principles above the following methodological principles are defined:", "The key principles of gestalt systems are emergence, reification, multistability and invariance.", "Reification is the \"constructive\" or \"generative\" aspect of perception, by which the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based. For instance, a triangle is perceived in picture A, though no triangle is there. In pictures B and D the eye recognizes disparate shapes as \"belonging\" to a single shape, in C a complete three-dimensional shape is seen, where in actuality no such thing is drawn. Reification can be explained by progress in the study of illusory contours, which are treated by the visual system as \"real\" contours.", "Multistability (or multistable perception) is the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth unstably between two or more alternative interpretations. This is seen, for example, in the Necker cube and Rubin's Figure/Vase illusion shown here. Other examples include the three-legged blivet and artist M. C. Escher's artwork and the appearance of flashing marquee lights moving first one direction and then suddenly the other. Again, Gestalt psychology does not explain \"how\" images appear multistable, only that they \"do\".", "Invariance is the property of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognized independent of rotation, translation, and scale; as well as several other variations such as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different component features. For example, the objects in A in the figure are all immediately recognized as the same basic shape, which are immediately distinguishable from the forms in B. They are even recognized despite perspective and elastic deformations as in C, and when depicted using different graphic elements as in D. Computational theories of vision, such as those by David Marr, have provided alternate explanations of how perceived objects are classified. Emergence, reification, multistability, and invariance are not necessarily separable modules to model individually, but they could be different aspects of a single unified dynamic mechanism.", "The perceptual field (what an organism perceives) is organized. Figure-ground organization is one form of perceptual organization. Figure-ground organization is the interpretation of perceptual elements in terms of their shapes and relative locations in the layout of surfaces in the 3-D world. Figure-ground organization structures the perceptual field into a figure (standing out at the front of the perceptual field) and a background (receding behind the figure).. Pioneering work on figure-ground organization was carried out by the Danish psychologist Edgar Rubin. The Gestalt psychologists demonstrated that we tend to perceive as figures those parts of our perceptual fields that are convex, symmetric, small, and enclosed.", "Like figure-ground organization, perceptual grouping (sometimes called perceptual segregation) is a form of perceptual organization. Organisms perceive some parts of their perceptual fields as \"hanging together\" more tightly than others. They use this information for object detection. Perceptual grouping is the process that determines what these \"pieces\" of the perceptual field are. The Gestaltists were the first psychologists to systematically study perceptual grouping. According to Gestalt psychologists, the fundamental principle of perceptual grouping is the law of Prägnanz. (The law of Prägnanz is also known as the law of good Gestalt.) \"Prägnanz\" is a German word that directly translates to \"pithiness\" and implies salience, conciseness, and orderliness. The law of Prägnanz says that we tend to experience things as regular, orderly, symmetrical, and simple. As Koffka put it, \"Of several geometrically possible organizations that one will actually occur which possesses the best, simplest and most stable shape.\" The law of Prägnanz implies that, as individuals perceive the world, they eliminate complexity and unfamiliarity so they can observe reality in its most simplistic form. Eliminating extraneous stimuli helps the mind create meaning. This meaning created by perception implies a global regularity, which is often mentally prioritized over spatial relations. The law of good Gestalt focuses on the idea of conciseness, which is what all of Gestalt theory is based on. A major aspect of Gestalt psychology is that it implies that the mind understands external stimuli as wholes rather than as the sums of their parts. The wholes are structured and organized using grouping laws. Gestalt psychologists attempted to discover refinements of the law of \"Prägnanz\", and this involved writing down laws that, hypothetically, allow us to predict the interpretation of sensation, what are often called \"gestalt laws\". Wertheimer defined a few principles that explain the ways humans perceive objects. Those principles were based on similarity, proximity, continuity. The Gestalt concept is based on perceiving reality in its simplest form. The various laws are called \"laws\" or \"principles\", depending on the paper where they appear—but for simplicity's sake, this article uses the term \"laws\". These laws took several forms, such as the grouping of similar, or proximate, objects together, within this global process. These laws deal with the sensory modality of vision. However, there are analogous laws for other sensory modalities including auditory, tactile, gustatory and olfactory (Bregman – GP). The visual Gestalt principles of grouping were introduced in Wertheimer (1923). Through the 1930s and '40s Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffka formulated many of the laws of grouping through the study of visual perception.", "The law of proximity states that when an individual perceives an assortment of objects, they perceive objects that are close to each other as forming a group. For example, in the figure illustrating the law of proximity, there are 72 circles, but we perceive the collection of circles in groups. Specifically, we perceive that there is a group of 36 circles on the left side of the image, and three groups of 12 circles on the right side of the image. This law is often used in advertising logos to emphasize which aspects of events are associated.", "The law of similarity states that elements within an assortment of objects are perceptually grouped together if they are similar to each other. This similarity can occur in the form of shape, colour, shading or other qualities. For example, the figure illustrating the law of similarity portrays 36 circles all equal distance apart from one another forming a square. In this depiction, 18 of the circles are shaded dark, and 18 of the circles are shaded light. We perceive the dark circles as grouped together and the light circles as grouped together, forming six horizontal lines within the square of circles. This perception of lines is due to the law of similarity.", "Gestalt psychologists believed that humans tend to perceive objects as complete rather than focusing on the gaps that the object might contain. For example, a circle has good Gestalt in terms of completeness. However, we will also perceive an incomplete circle as a complete circle. That tendency to complete shapes and figures is called closure. The law of closure states that individuals perceive objects such as shapes, letters, pictures, etc., as being whole when they are not complete. Specifically, when parts of a whole picture are missing, our perception fills in the visual gap. Research shows that the reason the mind completes a regular figure that is not perceived through sensation is to increase the regularity of surrounding stimuli. For example, the figure that depicts the law of closure portrays what we perceive as a circle on the left side of the image and a rectangle on the right side of the image. However, gaps are present in the shapes. If the law of closure did not exist, the image would depict an assortment of different lines with different lengths, rotations, and curvatures—but with the law of closure, we perceptually combine the lines into whole shapes.", "The law of symmetry states that the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point. It is perceptually pleasing to divide objects into an even number of symmetrical parts. Therefore, when two symmetrical elements are unconnected the mind perceptually connects them to form a coherent shape. Similarities between symmetrical objects increase the likelihood that objects are grouped to form a combined symmetrical object. For example, the figure depicting the law of symmetry shows a configuration of square and curled brackets. When the image is perceived, we tend to observe three pairs of symmetrical brackets rather than six individual brackets.", "The law of common fate states that objects are perceived as lines that move along the smoothest path. Experiments using the visual sensory modality found that movement of elements of an object produce paths that individuals perceive that the objects are on. We perceive elements of objects to have trends of motion, which indicate the path that the object is on. The law of continuity implies the grouping together of objects that have the same trend of motion and are therefore on the same path. For example, if there are an array of dots and half the dots are moving upward while the other half are moving downward, we would perceive the upward moving dots and the downward moving dots as two distinct units.", "The law of continuity (also known as the law of good continuation) states that elements of objects tend to be grouped together, and therefore integrated into perceptual wholes if they are aligned within an object. In cases where there is an intersection between objects, individuals tend to perceive the two objects as two single uninterrupted entities. Stimuli remain distinct even with overlap. We are less likely to group elements with sharp abrupt directional changes as being one object.", "The law of past experience implies that under some circumstances visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience. If two objects tend to be observed within close proximity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are more likely to be perceived together. For example, the English language contains 26 letters that are grouped to form words using a set of rules. If an individual reads an English word they have never seen, they use the law of past experience to interpret the letters \"L\" and \"I\" as two letters beside each other, rather than using the law of closure to combine the letters and interpret the object as an uppercase U.", "An example of the Gestalt movement in effect, as it is both a process and result, is a music sequence. People are able to recognise a sequence of perhaps six or seven notes, despite them being transposed into a different tuning or key.", "Gestalt psychology contributed to the scientific study of problem solving. In fact, the early experimental work of the Gestaltists in Germany marks the beginning of the scientific study of problem solving. Later this experimental work continued through the 1960s and early 1970s with research conducted on relatively simple (but novel for participants) laboratory tasks of problem solving. Given Gestalt psychology's focus on the whole, it was natural for Gestalt psychologists to study problem solving from the perspective of insight, seeking to understand the process by which organisms sometimes suddenly transition from having no idea how to solve a problem to instantly understanding the whole problem and its solution. In a famous set of experiments, Köhler gave chimpanzees some boxes and placed food high off the ground; after some time, the chimpanzees appeared to suddenly realize that they could stack the boxes on top of each other to reach the food. Max Wertheimer distinguished two kinds of thinking: productive thinking and reproductive thinking. \"Productive thinking\" is solving a problem based on insight—a quick, creative, unplanned response to situations and environmental interaction. \"Reproductive thinking\" is solving a problem deliberately based on previous experience and knowledge. Reproductive thinking proceeds algorithmically—a problem solver reproduces a series of steps from memory, knowing that they will lead to a solution—or by trial and error. Karl Duncker, another Gestalt psychologist who studied problem solving, coined the term functional fixedness for describing the difficulties in both visual perception and problem solving that arise from the fact that one element of a whole situation already has a (fixed) function that has to be changed in order to perceive something or find the solution to a problem. Abraham Luchins also studied problem solving from the perspective of Gestalt psychology. He is well known for his research on the role of \"mental set\" (Einstellung effect), which he demonstrated using a series of problems having to do with refilling water jars. Another Gestalt psychologist, Perkins, believes insight deals with three processes: Views going against the Gestalt psychology are:", "Fuzzy-trace theory, a dual process model of memory and reasoning, was also derived from Gestalt psychology. Fuzzy-trace theory posits that we encode information into two separate traces: verbatim and gist. Information stored in verbatim is exact memory for detail (the individual parts of a pattern, for example) while information stored in gist is semantic and conceptual (what we perceive the pattern to be). The effects seen in Gestalt psychology can be attributed to the way we encode information as gist.", "Gestalt psychology struggled to precisely define terms like Prägnanz, to make specific behavioral predictions, and to articulate testable models of underlying neural mechanisms. It was criticized as being merely descriptive. These shortcomings led, by the mid-20th century, to growing dissatisfaction with Gestaltism and a subsequent decline in its impact on psychology. Despite this decline, Gestalt psychology has formed the basis of much further research into the perception of patterns and objects and of research into behavior, thinking, problem solving and psychopathology.", "In the 1940s and 1950s, laboratory research in neurology and what became known as cybernetics on the mechanism of frogs' eyes indicate that perception of 'gestalts' (in particular gestalts \"in motion\") is perhaps more primitive and fundamental than'seeing' as such:", "Similarities between Gestalt phenomena and quantum mechanics have been pointed out by, among others, chemist Anton Amann, who commented that \"similarities between Gestalt perception and quantum mechanics are on a level of a parable\" yet may give useful insight nonetheless. Physicist Elio Conte and co-workers have proposed abstract, mathematical models to describe the time dynamics of cognitive associations with mathematical tools borrowed from quantum mechanics and has discussed psychology experiments in this context. A similar approach has been suggested by physicists David Bohm, Basil Hiley and philosopher Paavo Pylkkänen with the notion that mind and matter both emerge from an \"implicate order\". The models involve non-commutative mathematics; such models account for situations in which the outcome of two measurements performed one after the other can depend on the order in which they are performed—a pertinent feature for psychological processes, as an experiment performed on a conscious person may influence the outcome of a subsequent experiment by changing the state of mind of that person.", "The halo effect can be explained through the application of Gestalt theories to social information processing. The constructive theories of social cognition are applied though the expectations of individuals. They have been perceived in this manner and the person judging the individual is continuing to view them in this positive manner. Gestalt's theories of perception enforces that individual's tendency to perceive actions and characteristics as a whole rather than isolated parts, therefore humans are inclined to build a coherent and consistent impression of objects and behaviors in order to achieve an acceptable shape and form. The halo effect is what forms patterns for individuals, the halo effect being classified as a cognitive bias which occurs during impression formation. The halo effect can also be altered by physical characteristics, social status and many other characteristics. As well, the halo effect can have real repercussions on the individual's perception of reality, either negatively or positively, meaning to construct negative or positive images about other individuals or situations, something that could lead to self-fulfilling prophesies, stereotyping, or even discrimination.", "Some of the central criticisms of Gestaltism are based on the preference Gestaltists are deemed to have for theory over data, and a lack of quantitative research supporting Gestalt ideas. This is not necessarily a fair criticism as highlighted by a recent collection of quantitative research on Gestalt perception. Researchers continue to test hypotheses about the mechanisms underlying Gestalt principles such as the principle of similarity. Other important criticisms concern the lack of definition and support for the many physiological assumptions made by gestaltists and lack of theoretical coherence in modern Gestalt psychology. In some scholarly communities, such as cognitive psychology and computational neuroscience, gestalt theories of perception are criticized for being \"descriptive\" rather than \"explanatory\" in nature. For this reason, they are viewed by some as redundant or uninformative. For example, a textbook on visual perception states that, \"The physiological theory of the gestaltists has fallen by the wayside, leaving us with a set of descriptive principles, but without a model of perceptual processing. Indeed, some of their 'laws' of perceptual organisation today sound vague and inadequate. What is meant by a 'good' or'simple' shape, for example?\" One historian of psychology has argued that Gestalt psychologists first discovered many principles later championed by cognitive psychology, including schemas and prototypes. Another psychologist has argued that the Gestalt psychologists made a lasting contribution by showing how the study of illusions can help scientists understand essential aspects of how the visual system \"normally\" functions, not merely how it breaks down.", "The gestalt laws are used in user interface design. The laws of similarity and proximity can, for example, be used as guides for placing radio buttons. They may also be used in designing computers and software for more intuitive human use. Examples include the design and layout of a desktop's shortcuts in rows and columns." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The concept of the transporter bridge was invented in 1873 by Charles Smith (1844-1882), the manager of an engine works in Hartlepool, England. He called it a \"bridge ferry\" and unsuccessfully presented his ideas to councils in Hartlepool, Middlesbrough, and Glasgow. The first transporter bridge, Vizcaya Bridge was built between Las Arenas and Portugalete, Spain, in 1893. The design from Alberto Palacio inspired others to attempt similar structures. The idea came about in locations where it was seen as impractical to build long approach ramps that would be required to reach a high span, and in places where ferries are not easily able to cross. Because transporter bridges can carry only a limited load, the idea was little used after the rise of the automobile. The first such bridge built in France, the 1898 Rouen bridge crossing the Seine, was destroyed by the French Army to slow down German troops in World War II. Transporter bridges were popular in France, where five were erected and another partially completed. The United Kingdom has four transporter bridges, though Warrington Transporter Bridge is disused and the modern Royal Victoria Dock Bridge, though designed with the potential to be used as a transporter bridge, has so far only been used as a high-level footbridge. The Newport Transporter Bridge was built in 1906 across the River Usk in Newport. Because the river banks are very low at the crossing point (a few miles south of the city centre) a traditional bridge would need a very long approach ramp and a ferry could not be used at low tide. The Newport bridge was a Ferdinand Arnodin design. The Middlesbrough Transporter Bridge opened in 1911 crossing the River Tees. It was featured in the 2002 series of the popular British TV show \"Auf Wiedersehen, Pet\"; the programme's plot had the bridge being dismantled and re-erected in Arizona, USA. The Widnes-Runcorn Transporter Bridge, demolished in the early 1960s, was the first of its type in Britain, and the largest ever built. In the United States, two such bridges were built. The first was the Aerial Bridge built in Duluth, Minnesota in 1905, although the city had originally planned to build a vertical lift bridge at the site. The transporter design was used for about 25 years before the structure was reconfigured to lift a central span in 1930. The second American transporter bridge was different from other designs and partially resembled gondola lifts used in mountainous regions. The Sky Ride was part of the 1933–34 Chicago World's Fair (\"Century of Progress\"), it was taken down after standing for just two years. However, it was the longest bridge of this type ever built at the time. Two historic transporter bridges survive in Germany. A unique example is the bridge at Rendsburg, from 1913 which is two bridges in one: A railroad link crosses high above on the top span, and the suspended ferry carries traffic on the valley floor. The bridge at Osten is four years older and was the first transporter bridge in Germany." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Universal Heritage.", "Operation.", "Architecture.", "Construction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Vizcaya Bridge was built to connect the two banks which are situated at the mouth of the Nervion River. It is the world's oldest transporter bridge and was built in 1893, designed by Alberto Palacio, one of Gustave Eiffel's disciples. The Engineer Ferdinand Joseph Arnodin was in charge, and the main financier of the project was Santos Lopez de Letona. It was the solution given by the engineer to the problem of connecting the towns of Portugalete and Getxo without disrupting the maritime traffic of the Port of Bilbao and without having to build a massive structure with long ramps. Palacio wanted to design a bridge which could transport passengers and cargo, and that could allow ships to go through. Palacio's shuttle bridge was adequate and could be built for a reasonable price. The service was only interrupted once, for four years, during the Spanish Civil War, when the upper section was dynamited. From his house in Portugalete, Palacio saw his masterpiece partially destroyed just before his own death.", "On July 13, 2006, the Vizcaya Bridge was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. In Spain, it is the only monument in the Industrial Heritage category. UNESCO considers the bridge to be a perfect combination of beauty and functionality. It was the first to use a combination of iron technology and new steel cables which began a new form of constructing bridges which was later imitated throughout the world.", "The bridge, still in use, is 164 meters long, and its gondola can transport six cars and several dozen passengers in one and a half minutes. It operates every 8 minutes during the day (every hour at night), all year round, with different fares for day and night services, and is integrated into Barik card system. An estimated four million passengers and half a million vehicles use the bridge annually. There are two new visitor lifts installed in the 50-metre-high pillars of the bridge that allow walking over the bridge's platform, from where there is a view of the port and the Abra bay.", "The structure is made of four 61 metre towers which are the pillars and stand on the river banks. The towers are braced by iron cables to the crossbeam and are parallel to the river and by cables following the line of the bridge into the hill behind (on the Portugalete side) and the ground (on the Las Arenas side). The upper crossbeam which lies horizontally, rests between two towers by 70 suspension cables. They also help support a great amount of weight and are supported in the corbels which helps balance the weight. The gondola transports vehicles and they hang from a 36-wheeled caty and is 25m. long. It moves along the rails through the horizontal crossbeam.", "The structure is 45 metres high and 160 metres long. In the final design they decided to use two horizontal girders to support the rails, and these are supported by four pillars which stand on four towers which are situated on the river banks. It is made of iron. Much iron was extracted from the mines of Vizcaya, which increased the mining and shipping industry. Therefore, the Vizcaya Bridge also represents the growth and triumph of a new era." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Bay window is a generic term for all protruding window constructions, regardless of whether they run over one or multiple storeys. In plan, the most frequently used shapes are isosceles trapezoid (which may be referred to as a \"canted bay window\") and rectangle. But other polygonal shapes with more than two corners are also common as are curved shapes. If a bay window is curved it may alternatively be called \"bow window.\" Bay windows in a triangular shape with just one corner exist but are relatively rare. A bay window supported by a corbel, bracket or similar is called an oriel window.", "Most medieval bay windows and up to the Baroque era are oriel windows. They frequently appear as a highly ornamented addition to the building rather than an organic part of it. Particularly during the Gothic period they often serve as small house chapels, with the oriel window containing an altar and resembling an apse of a church. Especially in Nuremberg these are even called ( \"little apse/choir\"), with the most famous example being the one from the parsonage of St. Sebaldus Church. In Islamic architecture, oriel windows such as the Arabic mashrabiya are frequently made of wood and allow viewing out while restricting visibility from the outside. Especially in warmer climates, a bay window may be identical to a balcony, with a privacy shield or screen. Bay windows can make a room appear larger, and provide views of the outside which would be unavailable with an ordinary flat window. They are found in terraced houses, semis and detached houses as well as in blocks of flats. Based on British models, their use spread to other English-speaking countries like Ireland, the US, Canada and Australia. Following the pioneering model of pre-modern commercial architecture at the Oriel Chambers in Liverpool, they feature on early Chicago School skyscrapers, where they often run the whole height of the building's upper storeys. Bay windows were identified as a defining characteristic of San Francisco architecture in a 2012 study that had a machine learning algorithm examine a random sample of 25,000 photos of cities from Google Street View." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Spanish boot.", "Malay boot.", "Foot press." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Spanish boot was an iron casing for the leg and foot. Wood or iron wedges were hammered in between the casing and the victim's flesh. A similar device, commonly referred to as a shin crusher, squeezed the calf between two curved iron plates, studded with spikes, teeth, and knobs, to fracture the tibia and fibula. Primitive forerunners of the archetype can be found dating back as far as a thousand years. The first Scottish effort, also referred to as a buskin, made use of a vaguely boot-shaped rawhide garment that was soaked with water, drawn over the foot and lower leg, and bound in place with cords. The contraption was slowly heated over a gentle fire, drastically contracting the rawhide and squeezing the foot until the bones were dislocated, though there would not have been sufficient pressure to actually crush the bones of the foot. A more progressive variant, found in both the British Isles and France, consisted of a trio of upright wooden boards that splinted around and between the feet, fundamentally identical to the Chinese foot torture known as \"kia quen\", and were tied in place by cords. Wedges were hammered between the boards and the feet to dislocate and crush the bones. Even ancient India saw the use of the \"kittee\", a simplistic wooden press for squeezing feet. A prototype hailing from Autun, France, consisted of high boots of spongy, porous leather that were drawn over the feet and legs. Boiling water was poured over the boots, eventually soaking through the leather and eating the flesh away from the entrapped limbs. Lastly, oversized boots of iron or copper (often soldered in place on the floor) received the prisoner's bare feet as he lay helplessly bound and gagged in a chair. The boots were slowly filled with boiling water or oil, or even molten lead, to consume the feet and legs. One variant—applied in Ireland to the martyr Dermot O'Hurley—consisted of lightweight metal boots that were filled with cool water and heated with the feet inside over a fire until the water boiled aggressively.", "The Malay boot figures prominently in the movie \"China Seas\", in which the protagonist, portrayed by Clark Gable, is subjected to this cruel torture. The instrument splints the foot and ankle between a pair of vertical boards made of strong wood or metal. The members are vaguely boot shaped and completely enclose the prisoner's instep and toes. A crank is turned to close the uprights around the foot, squeezing the entrapped foot to first grind the metatarsal heads together and eventually inflict sufficient pressure to shatter bones. Curiously, in the movie, Clark Gable's character is tortured while wearing a sock: in actuality, the torture was applied to the naked foot.", "A similar implement, the \"foot press\", consisted of a pair of horizontal iron plates slowly tightened around the bare foot by means of a crank mechanism, squeezing the foot with sufficient force to pulverize the bones. Although it was quite standard to line the lower plate with ribs to prevent the foot from popping out of the grip of the instrument as it became sweatier, a crueler variant of this device—typically encountered in Nuremberg, Germany—lined the upper plate with hundreds of sharp spikes. A version from Venice, sometimes called the \"foot screw\" or \"toe breaker\", connected the crank mechanism to a drill that slowly mutilated the foot by boring a hole through the center of the instep as the press was tightened. In the most extreme case, the press was tightened until the plates met, so grinding the foot bones to powder. Medieval boots were built according to a wide array of architectures. One commonly encountered boot consisted fundamentally of a pair of upright parallel boards that splinted the toes. Turning the screw squeezed the toes between the boards, inflicting lateral pressure on the metatarsal heads and causing agony. This is the type of boot commonly associated with the torture of Esmeralda in Victor Hugo's \"Hunchback of Notre-Dame\". Hollywood went out of its way to present exotic, even bizarre, boots that were short on historical accuracy, one of which was little more than dissociated spiked plates lying here and there. The cruelty of the torture could be increased by spacing the toes apart with stiff wooden pegs. Various extensions of the instrument were designed to crush the ankle, calf, or knee in addition to its primary target, the instep. The toes often protruded from the front of the boot, facilitating the infliction of ancillary tortures, such as forcibly tearing the nails from the toes with red-hot pincers or exploring the delicate webbing between the toes with a red-hot iron probe. This type of boot, also called the \"brodequin\", seems to have been the commonest torture device in France. An alternative \"boot\" of streamlined design, into which the bare foot was locked with an iron pin, squeezed the toes between iron bars until their bones were fractured. Toe bones were also routinely crushed with mallets, sometimes by cruelly hammering sharp wooden wedges into the tips. In \"The Big Book of Pain\", Donnelly and Diehl present an ingenious and diabolical iron torture boot. The configurable device completely encloses the naked foot. The roomy toe box is filled with iron spikes, teeth, and burs. A vertical plate behind the prisoner's heel fits into a grooved track and can be forced forward by turning a wheel. The steadily increasing pressure first forces the toes against the spikes, mangling their flesh and crushing their bones. Under continued inexorable pressure, the bones of the instep eventually give way until the arch of the foot is shattered. The heel bone is sufficiently powerful to withstand the torture, although the heel is not generously provided with afferent pain nociceptors." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "Religion.", "Early career.", "Nika riots.", "Military career.", "Return to Italy.", "Battle of Taginae.", "Tactics.", "Rome.", "Battle of Mons Lactarius.", "Final battles.", "Final years." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Narses was of Armenian descent and a member of the Kamsarakan Armenian noble family, which was an offshoot of the House of Karen, a noble Parthian clan. His first mention in a primary source is by Procopius in AD 530. The year of Narses' birth is unknown; historians have given dates including 478, 479 and 480. The year of his death is also unknown, with dates given between 566 and 574, making him eighty-six to ninety-six years old at his death. His family and lineage is also completely unknown, with many different stories told about his origins and how he became a eunuch. Agathias Scholasticus of Myrina described him thus: “He was a man of sound mind, and clever at adapting himself to the times. He was not versed in literature nor practiced in oratory, [but] made for it by the fertility of his wits,” and as “small and of a lean habit, but stronger and more high-spirited than would have been believed.”", "Narses was reported to be a very pious man with a special devotion to the Virgin Mary. Evagrius Scholasticus in Ecclesiastica Historia reported that she would tell him the proper time to attack, and Narses would never engage in battle without her consent. Narses also was reported to be generous to the poor and zealous when it came to restoring churches. He was so devoted to prayers and vigils that “he obtained victory more by the supplications he poured forth to God, than by arms of war.” Before accepting supreme command of the army, Narses built a church and monastery in Cappadocia, intent upon going there upon his retirement.", "How or when Narses arrived in Constantinople, or how he found a footing in the \"officium\" of the Grand Chamberlain (\"praepositus sacri cubiculi\"), remains unknown. The first time he was mentioned by Procopius in 530 AD, Narses was the Emperor Justinian I’s steward. He was a high treasurer, who dealt with the emperor’s finances and payments from the imperial treasury. Narses rose through the ranks and even became the commander of the eunuch bodyguard for the Emperor and eventually became the Grand Chamberlain and Master of Soldiers (\"magister militum\").", "Narses had a limited involvement in the Nika riots in 532, in that he was instructed by Justinian or Theodora to take, from the treasury, funds sufficient to bribe the Blue Faction's leaders. Narses appealed to their party loyalty. He reminded them that Hypatius, the man they were about to declare emperor, was a Green, unlike Justinian, who supported the Blues. Either the money or his words were convincing, so that soon the Blues began to acclaim Justinian and turned against Hypatius and the Greens. Narses himself may have been with the men that dragged Hypatius from the throne on the Imperial Stand.", "Narses' involvement and help in suppressing the Nika Riots suddenly found him in charge of a moderately-sized army that would go to Italy to help Belisarius. The army arrived in June of 538 probably in Ancona and consisted of roughly 7,000 soldiers. (Every army that Narses commanded was made up of very diverse peoples, drawing from many of the surrounding tribes.) Procopius referred to Narses as the eunuch and keeper of the royal treasuries, and described him as “keen and more energetic than would be expected of a eunuch”. Narses met with Belisarius at Firmum where a council of war was held. The council discussed what should happen at Rimini and with the commander of troops, John. Narses commented that he had already been punished for his “insolence” and that if the Goths took Rimini then it could turn the tide of the war. Belisarius and Narses led a column of troops through inland mountainous routes to descend upon Rimini from the northwest. John owed his thanks to Narses for convincing Belisarius, and according to Procopius, commented on the relationship between the two men. “And from that time both these men [Belisarius and Narses] began to regard each other with great suspicion.” During the autumn and winter months of 538–39, the Army in Italy was divided into two parties, between Belisarius and Narses. Justinian himself dispatched a letter to Belisarius, stating that “We have not sent our steward Narses to Italy in order to command the army; for we wish Belisarius alone to command the whole army in whatever manner seems to him best, and it is the duty of all of you to follow him in the interest of the state.” The division however remained and the city of Milan was to fall victim to the divided command. Narses was recalled to Constantinople, but not in disgrace, as he was allowed to retain some of his barbarian guardsmen. After being recalled, Narses seemed to have lost “none of his favour at court, [and] remained the most trusted servant and minister of the Emperor and his consort.” For the next twelve years, 539-51, there is little historical reference to Narses and he seemed to work more behind the scenes. In 541, Narses was believed to have helped the Empress Theodora and Antonina (wife of Belisarius) with the overthrow of John the Cappadocian. In 545, Justinian sent Narses to the rulers of the Heruli, to recruit troops since he was popular among that barbarian nation. Narses was also very active in Justinian's persecution campaigns against Paganism. Around 535, the emperor sent him to Philae in Egypt, where a temple of Isis was still active, to eradicate the cult. Narses imprisoned the priests and looted the temple. Shortly after, the local bishop Theodore converted the temple into a church.", "Finally in 551, Narses was sent back to Italy, where he was to achieve his greatest victories. Germanus, a cousin of the Emperor, was appointed by Justinian to finish what Belisarius had started a decade before. However, on his way to Italy in 550, Germanus fell ill and “abruptly reached the term of life.” Narses was appointed the new commander of the army, given supreme command and returned to Italy where twelve years previously he had been recalled. Many historians believe that Narses was put in command because of his old age, so that he would never be able to rebel successfully against Justinian. Narses' greatest asset in his newfound position was to have access to the Emperor's financial resources. With the treasury, Narses was able to amass anywhere between 20,000 and 30,000 troops. Narses also seemed to be well liked by many of the soldiers of fortune, as he had treated them “especially well”. Procopius reported that Narses had built an army that in the requirement of men and arms was “worthy of the Roman Empire”. The army reflected many of Narses' previous commands, in that most of the troops were barbarians. Narses was to take more than a year to reach Italy after his appointment, as his entire army made a long march along the coast of the Adriatic Sea. Totila the Ostrogothic king controlled the sea of eastern Italy and hampered supply ships that set sail for Narses’ army. John from Salona led 38 ships and Valerian sailed with 12 to meet Totila's force and bring relief to Ancona. Procopius described the subsequent Battle of Sena Gallica as a naval battle that resembled a battle on land. “There were arrows discharged and fighting at close quarters with sword and spear, just as on a battle field.” The Byzantine victory at Sena Gallica was overwhelming, as 36 of the 47 Gothic ships were destroyed, and Gibal, a Gothic admiral, was captured. Historian Archibald R. Lewis pointed out that victory could only come to Narses after Totila's sea dominance was brought to an end. There were a number of reasons that Narses' march was very slow. Totila had dispatched various troops to employ delaying tactics and the Franks were enemies of Narses' allies the Lombards, and did not allow free passage. Procopius stated that Narses was “completely bewildered”, but John was familiar with that part of Italy and advised him how to continue. Using this advice, Narses was able to reach Ravenna unopposed. Totila may have believed that Narses was going to come from the sea, whence all the previous invasions had come.", "On his way to seek Totila's main army, Narses encountered a small Gothic garrison at the town of Rimini. John, who had previously been in command at Rimini when it was besieged by Gothic forces, again gave advice to Narses on how to proceed. The exact route taken was not precisely indicated by Procopius and has led to confusion on the reconstruction of the coming battles. Procopius referred to the next battle as “Busta Gallorum”, but many historians now refer to it as the Battle of Taginae. Narses sent word to Totila and gave him a chance to either surrender, or give the day in which the battle would take place. Procopius quoted Totila's response, “At the end of eight days let us match our strength.” Narses was not fooled by this and preferred the tactical defensive upon meeting Totila, as his army would have been larger than that of Totila. The following battle would be Narses' ultimate victory, and would set the estimation of his military talents as not inferior to those of Belisarius.", "Narses' great success at the Battle of Taginae was to come from the disposition of his forces before the battle began. Narses arrayed his troops in a “crescent shaped” formation with mostly infantry in the middle, flanked by archers. The infantry were in fact dismounted barbarian cavalry, since many of the Goths thought that typical infantry was frail and would flee in the face of a charge. Some historians feel there may have been a political motivation by placing the Heruli and Lombards in the centre dismounted, Narses possibly suspecting them of having sympathy or admiration for Totila. On the sides of the crescent, foot-archers were placed, and this enabled them to destroy the Gothic cavalry through enfilading fire. (This disposition of the archers and their effect upon the battle is strikingly parallel to the later Battle of Agincourt.) Next, Narses placed much of his cavalry on the immediate sides of the dismounted infantry. Normally the cavalry would have been behind the centre, but they were not meant to aid any of the struggling line. Instead they were used to deliver a surprise attack on the Goths when they became fully enveloped. Narses knew that Totila would take the advantage of attacking the “weak” centre, and therefore allowed Narses to completely destroy the Ostrogothic army. Procopius said that Totila had been “out-generalled by his own folly”, because Totila had instructed his troops to only engage with spears, as he thought a quick strike would win the battle. Totila sent wave after wave of troops, who became so disorganized by the raining arrow storm that by the time they met the dismounted infantrymen they were completely broken. The Gothic infantry never even engaged in actual combat as they hesitated to advance far enough to actually become effective. They were kept in the rear of the advance, fearing that Narses' horsemen would outflank them from the hill. Finally, Totila's cavalry was pressed backwards onto their own line of infantry, Narses then charged with his own cavalry, which had been held in reserve. The retreat quickly turned into a rout, as the Gothic cavalry rushed right over the infantry, who joined them in the withdrawal. Totila himself was killed at this battle and Procopius gave two versions as to the fate of the Ostrogothic king. The first has Totila initially surviving the battle and fleeing the field of battle with only five of his followers. Asbad, leader of the Gepids, overtook him and drove his spear into Totila. The body was immediately taken to the village of Caprae where it was hurriedly buried. In the second version, Totila was mortally wounded in the first wave, struck by a bowman who did not even recognize his target. The first is more widely accepted by historians, as later a Gothic woman revealed where Totila was buried and the body was exhumed and positively identified.", "Narses marched to Rome after the Battle of Taginae and had to conduct a short siege of the city. Narses attacked on one side with a large contingent of archers, while John assaulted another part of the walls. From Rome, Narses would work to remove all of the remaining Ostrogothic forces from Italy. The next major move that Narses undertook was to capture the treasury of Totila that was held in Cumae. Both Procopius and Agathias wrote of the strength of the fortress at Cumae. Procopius called it, “an exceedingly strong fortress,” and Agathias declared it “very well fortified.” As parts of the army were sent throughout the country to deal with Teias (the son of Totila, and new Gothic king), a considerable detachment was sent to Campania to take Cumae. Teias followed the example set by Narses on his march into Italy and marched around the Imperial Army. After engaging Narses in small skirmishes for nearly two months, Teias retreated into the mountains. They maneuvered onto Mons Lactarius, where they soon faced death from starvation.", "The Goths suddenly came down the mountain in a compact phalanx, catching the army off guard who were also on foot. The reasons why the Goths attacked horseless is unknown, but the suddenness of the attack seemed to be the reason that Narses fought horseless as well. The ensuing battle was fought for two days and Procopius described the bravery of King Teias. He first introduced the battle as “a battle of great note,” and the heroism displayed by King Teias was not “inferior to any of the heroes of legend.” It may be noted that Procopius did not witness any of the battle, and only retold it from the account of others. Teias led the charge towards Narses. Procopius recounts that every time his shield was filled with arrows, he received another from his man-at-arms. Finally when a spear struck his shield, he received another but was struck with a mortal blow. The soldier cut off his head to display to the Goths their king had died, but instead of disheartening the Goths, it reinvigorated them to fight for another day. The second day was much like the first, as the Goths charged and fought on foot, involving little to no tactics. Finally, the Goths sent some of their officers to Narses who said they would surrender if they were allowed to leave the country safely. Narses, who received more advice from John, accepted those terms of surrender.", "After the final defeat of the Goths, the Franks, led by the brothers Leutharis and Buccillinus, attempted to invade the recently reconquered lands. From the \"Liber Pontificalis\": \"They (The Franks) in like manner wasted Italy. But with the help of the Lord they too were destroyed by Narses. And all Italy rejoiced.\" For the next year or two, Narses crossed the countryside, reinstituting Byzantine rule and laying siege to towns that resisted. But as more and more Franks poured over the Alps, Narses regrouped in Rome, and once spring came, marched his army against them. The Franks, led by the two brothers, were pursuing separate routes, but plundering the whole time. At the Battle of Casilinum, Narses put true heavy infantry in the centre, instead of dismounted cavalry. These were hand picked troops, “Ante-signani”, who wore long clad coats of mail that went down to their feet. Highly trained cavalry were on the flanks, armed with everything that the army carried. On the opposing side, Agathias describes the Franks as, “Very rude and without cavalry. Their swords were worn on the left leg, and their main weapons were the throwing ax and hooked javelins.\" The Franks attacked Narses' centre, which was initially pushed back but was reinforced by the Herulis, who slowed the attackers. At this point Narses had the cavalry wheel in from the flanks, but without directly engaging the Franks. Instead, he had them unleash an enormous number of arrows into the half-naked barbarians. Finally the Franks became disorganized and their tightly held formations broke down. Narses sounded a general charge that blasted their ranks, and mowed them down. The Franks were massacred and Agathias claimed that only five of them escaped from Narses that day. All three of Narses' major victories can be credited to his skillful use of combined tactics involving cavalry and archers to create and exploit disorder in his enemies. Afterwards, in the autumn of 554, Narses became the last general to receive an official Roman triumph in the city of Rome.", "For the next twelve years, it is thought that Narses stayed in and “set about to reorganize” Italy. Justinian sent Narses a series of new decrees known as \"pragmatic sanctions\". Many historians refer to Narses in this part of his career as an Exarch. Narses completed some restoration projects in Italy but was unable to return Rome to its former splendor, though he did repair many of the bridges into the city and rebuild the city's walls. The last years of Narses' life are enveloped in mystery. Dealing with subsequent events, some historians believe Narses died in 567. Others assert that he died in 574. If the latter is true, and he was born in 478, then he would have been 95 at the time of death. Legend has it that Narses was recalled to Constantinople for turning the Romans under his rule into virtual slaves, thereby upsetting the new Emperor Justin II. Narses then retired to Naples, and while there, supposedly sent word to the Lombards inviting them to invade northern Italy. Historian Dunlap questions whether there was hostility between the empress and Narses. Paul the Deacon wrote that his body was returned to Constantinople; and John of Ephesus wrote that Narses was buried in the presence of the Emperor and Empress in a monastery founded by him." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "The DRM service." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Radio Luxembourg in English from 1933 to 1939 and from 1946 to 1992 was an important forerunner of modern commercial radio in the United Kingdom. It was an effective way to advertise products by circumventing British broadcasting restrictions that were in place at the time. The English-language station broadcasting from the Grand Duchy closed down at the end of 1992.", "In 2005 the parent RTL company stated that the AM transmissions would not resume but that a full-time English service would begin on Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM). During August of that year, the parent operating company of Radio Luxembourg conducted digital test broadcasts to Great Britain on 7145 kHz using DRM. This culminated in the soft re-launch of Radio Luxembourg in English at 07:00 BST on September 12, 2005. For a time Radio Luxembourg was heard at 7295 kHz DRM, but RTL has now discontinued DRM broadcasts on 7295 kHz throwing the future of the DRM station into doubt, although local DRM broadcasts are still on air in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. Radio Luxembourg can also be heard with a live stream with a classic rock playlist. Its presenters include Lisa V, Benny Brown and Enda Caldwell. Radio Luxembourg was hoping to broadcast in English on one of the two new digital national DAB services in the UK during 2008, if National Grid Wireless Limited won the licence. However, National Grid Wireless failed to win the license, so the long-term future of English transmissions must now be in serious doubt. The station continues as an online service for the moment, although the service has not been updated with any new audio programming since 31 December 2007." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Content and recording.", "Release history.", "LED packaging." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The album is notable for including a complete live version of \"The Dark Side of the Moon\". It also features \"Astronomy Domine\", a Syd Barrett song not performed since the early 1970s. The track \"Another Brick in the Wall, Part II\" features small portions of the songs \"Another Brick in the Wall, Part I\", \"The Happiest Days of Our Lives\" and \"Another Brick in the Wall, Part III\". \"Take It Back\" was originally going to be on the album with the recording from 25 September 1994, Stade Olympique de la Pontaise, Lausanne but was cut due to length. Unlike the previous live album \"Delicate Sound of Thunder\", no parts of the songs were re-recorded in the studio. However, the band and Guthrie fixed songs that had bad notes (as heard on some bootlegs) by lifting solos and corrected vocal lines from other performances as the band recorded most of the European leg. The album was mixed in QSound, which produces a 3D audio effect even on a two channel stereo system.", "In the United States, despite a price of $34.99 (which included flashing spine light and two AA batteries) \"Pulse\" debuted at number one on the \"Billboard\" 200 during the week of 24 June 1995 with 198,000 copies sold, it became the first multidisk album to top the \"Billboard\" 200 since the chart started using SoundScan data in May 1991. The next week it fell off to number three on the chart. It remained on the chart for twenty two weeks. It was certified two times platinum by the RIAA on 31 July 1995 for shipments of one million units. On 1 July 1995 the video version of \"Pulse\" debuted at number one on the \"Billboard\"'s Top Music Videos chart with 16,500 units sold. The video was certified eight times platinum by the RIAA on 31 July 2006 for shipments of 800,000 units. The video version (on VHS and Laserdisc) also featured the song \"Take It Back,\" and an almost complete performance from their 20 October show at Earl's Court, London. The \"Pulse\" DVD was released on 10 July 2006. The vinyl version was released as a four-LP box set and included \"One of These Days\" (also heard on the cassette release) as well as a large version of the photo booklet. The original CD cover features an \"eye-like\" machine that has clock pieces inside, there is a planet in its centre, and on the outside it shows evolution as it moves backwards. It starts in the sea, moves to the bacteria which evolve into fishes, then into egg type creatures, then into eggs that hatch birds, and birds follow the trail of an aeroplane. There are six pyramids in the desert, and in the bottom of the sea, one can observe a city in the shore. The debut of the album was highlighted by a light show from the top of the Empire State Building in New York City with music simulcasted on a New York City radio station.", "Early CD versions came with a flashing red LED on the side of the case. This was designed by EMI contractor Jon Kempner, who was awarded the platinum disc, using the now discontinued LM3909 LED flasher IC. The circuit was powered by a single AA battery; the battery life was stated to be over six months. Some versions were also made with two AA batteries and later editions of the CD set did not feature the blinking LED." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Early history.", "Middle Ages.", "Ottoman Era.", "Modern.", "Kosovo War.", "Environment.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Politics.", "Capital.", "City Council.", "Demography.", "Population.", "Religion.", "Economy.", "Transport.", "Culture.", "Sights.", "Music.", "Theater.", "Festivals and Fairs.", "Media.", "Education.", "Sports.", "International relations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The name of the city could be derived from Proto-Slavic dialectal word *\"pryščina\", meaning \"spring (of water)\", which is also attested in the Moravian dialects of Czech; it is derived from the verb *\"pryskati\", meaning \"to splash\" or \"to spray\" (\"prskati\" in modern Serbian). The toponym Priština also appears as the name of a hamlet near Teslić in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Marko Snoj proposes the derivation from a Slavic form *\"Prišьčь\", a possessive adjective from the personal name *\"Prišьkъ\", (preserved in the Kajkavian surname \"Prišek\", in the Old Polish personal name \"Parzyszek\", and in the Polish surname \"Pryszczyk\") and", "", "The earliest traces of human life in the area date from the Paleolithic period, with further traces in the Mesolithic and Neolithic. The succeeding Starcevo, Vinca, Bubanj-Hum and Baden cultures were active in the region. The area what is now Pristina has been inhabited for nearly 10,000 years. Early Neolithic findings were discovered dating as far back as the 8th century BC, in the areas surrounding Pristina, which includes Matiçan, Gracanica and", "Between the 5th and the 9th century the area was part of the Byzantine Empire. In the middle of the 9th century the area of modern Pristina was ceded to the First Bulgarian Empire. In the early 11th century it fell under Byzantine rule and the area was included into a province called Bulgaria. Between the late 11th and middle of the 13th century it was ceded several times to the Second Bulgarian Empire. Pristina was an important town in late Medieval Serbia. The \"župe\" (counties) of Sitnica and", "In the course of the 14th and 15th centuries, Pristina developed as an important mining and trading center thanks to its proximity to the rich mining town of Novo Brdo, and due to its position of the Balkan trade routes. The old town stretching out between the Vellusha and Prishtevka rivers which are both covered over today, became an important crafts and trade center. Pristina was famous for its annual trade fairs (\"Panair\") and its goat hide and goat hair articles. Around 50 different crafts were practiced from tanning to leather dying, belt making and silk weaving, as well as crafts related to the military – armorers, smiths, and saddle makers. As early as 1485, Pristina artisans also started producing gunpowder. Trade was thriving and there was a growing colony of Ragusan traders (from modern day Dubrovnik) providing the link between Pristina's craftsmen and the outside world. The first mosque was constructed in the late 14th century while still under Serbian rule. The 1487 defter recorded 412", "The year 1874 marked a turning point. That year the railway between Salonika and Mitrovica started operations and the seat of the vilayet of Prizren was relocated to Pristina. This privileged position as capital of the Ottoman vilayet lasted only for a short while. from January until August 1912, Pristina was liberated from Ottoman rule by Albanian rebel forces led by Hasan Prishtina. However, The Kingdom of Serbia opposed the plan for a Greater Albania, preferring a partition of the European territory of the Ottoman Empire among the four Balkan allies. On October 22, 1912, Serb forces took Pristina. However, Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its share of the first Balkan War, occupied", "Following the reduction of Kosovo's autonomy by Serbian President Slobodan Milošević in 1989, a harshly repressive regime was imposed throughout Kosovo by the Yugoslav government with Albanians largely being purged from state industries and institutions. The LDK's role meant, that when the Kosovo Liberation Army began to attack Serbian and Yugoslav forces from 1996 onwards, Pristina remained largely calm until the outbreak of the Kosovo War in March 1999. Pristina was spared large scale destruction compared to towns like Gjakova or Peć that suffered heavily at the hands of Serbian forces. For their strategic importance, however, a number of military targets were hit in Pristina during NATO's aerial campaign, including the post office, police headquarters and army barracks (today's Adem Jashari garrison on the road to Kosovo Polje). Widespread violence broke out in Pristina. Serbian and Yugoslav forces shelled several districts and, in conjunction with paramilitaries, conducted large-scale expulsions of ethnic Albanians accompanied by widespread looting and destruction of Albanian properties. Many of those expelled were directed onto trains apparently brought to Pristina's main station for the express purpose of deporting them to the border of North Macedonia,", "", "Pristina covers an area of. Strategically placed in the north-eastern part of Kosovo, the city is close to the Goljak mountains. Due to its status as the capital city of Kosovo, Pristina has grown over the past years, that it has connected with Kosovo Polje. By road it is south of Belgrade, north of Skopje, north-east of Tirana, and east of Podgorica. Pristina is one of the urban areas with the most severe water shortages in the nation. The population of the city have to cope with daily water curbs due to the lack of rainfall and snowfall which has left the city's water supplies in a dreadful", "Pristina has either a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification: Dfb), or", "", "Being the capital city of Kosovo, it influences the politic, culture and economic aspects of the country. Pristina is the seat of the Government of Kosovo. The Mayor of Pristina is one of the most influential political figures in the nation as well as serving as an urban figure through the youth of the city. Kosovo is known for having the youngest population in Europe, with an average of 25 years old. During", "The city council consists of 51 members. One out of three of the members have to be women according to the Statute of the Municipality approved in 2010. The city council has seen the LDK having the most members in all elections held until now. In the 2013 elections, although", "", "In the 2011 census, the total population of the municipality of Pristina was estimated at 198,897 constituting the largest city of Kosovo by population. The most commonly nominated ethnic groups were Albanian (97.8%), Turkish (1%), Ashkali (0.28%), Serbian (0.22%), Bosnian (0.20%), Gorani (0.10%), Romani (0.03%) and Egyptian (0.001%). The rural area as well as the area near the center of Pristina, in terms of socio-economic processes, is under the influence of population dynamics, both in terms of demographic regime, which is more expansive, and in addition mechanical population. This part of the municipality has a high density of population. The density of population is 247 inhabitants per square kilometres. While the population density of suburban area of the municipality without Pristina, as an urban center, is 123 inhabitants per km2 As an urban center with representative functions and its economic strength, has changed the population structure. With the surrounding", "Kosovo is a secular state with no state religion. The freedom of belief, conscience and religion is explicitly guaranteed in the Constitution of Kosovo. Islam and Christianity are the most widely practiced religions among the people of Pristina. In the 2011 census, 97.3% of the population of the city was counted as Muslim and 0.8% as Christian including 0.59% as Roman", "Pristina constitutes the heart of the economy of Kosovo and of vital importance to the country's stability. The tertiary sector is the most important for the economy of the city and employs more than 75% of work force of Pristina. 20% of the working population makes up the secondary sector followed by the primary sector with only 5%. Pristina is the primary tourist destination in Kosovo as well as the main air gateway to the country. It is known as a university center of students from neighbouring countries as Albania, North Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia. In 2012, Tourism in Pristina attracted 36,186 foreign visitors. which represents 74.2% Most foreign tourists come from Albania, Turkey, Germany, United States, Slovenia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, with the number of visitors from elsewhere growing every year. The city has a large number of luxury hotels, modern restaurants, bars, pubs and very large nightclubs. Coffee bars are a representative icon of Pristina and they can be found almost everywhere. The largest hotels of the city are the Swiss Diamond and the Grand Hotel Prishtina situated in the heart of the city. Other major hotels present in Pristina include the Emerald Hotel, Sirius Hotel and Hotel Garden. Some of the most visited sights near the city include the Batlava Lake and Marble Cave, which are also among the most visited places in country. Pristina has played a very important role during the World War II, being a shelter for Jews, whose cemeteries now can be visited.", "Pristina constitutes the economic and financial heart of Kosovo due to its high population, modern infrastructure and geographical location in the center of the country. Following independence of Kosovo, the city has undergone significant improvements and developments in the past years, vastly modernizing and expanding the economy, infrastructure and transportation by air, rail and road. Pristina is the most important and frequent road junction of Kosovo as all of the major expressways and motorways passes through the city limits. Most of the motorways of Kosovo are largely completed and partially under construction or under planning process. Immediately after completion, Pristina will provide direct access to Skopje through the R6 motorway. The R7 motorway significantly connects Durrës with Prishtina and", "As the capital city of the Republic of Kosovo, it is the center of cultural and artistic development of all Albanians that live in Kosovo. Pristina is home to the largest cultural institutions of the country, such as the National Theatre of Kosovo, National Archaeology, Ethnography and Natural science Museum, National Art Gallery and the Ethnological Museum. The National Library of Kosovo has than 1.8 million books, periodicals, maps, atlases, microfilms and other library materials. There are many foreign cultural institutions in Pristina, including the Albanian Albanological Institute, the French Alliance Française, the British Council, and the German Goethe-Institut and Friedrich Ebert Foundation. The Information Office of the Council of Europe was also established in Pristina.", "Of 426 protected historical monuments in Kosovo, 21 are in Pristina. A large number of these monuments date back to the Byzantine and Ottoman periods. Starting in 1945, the Yugoslav authorities began constructing a modern Pristina with the idea of \"destroy the old, build the new\". This modernization led to major changes in the structure of the buildings, their function and their surrounding environment. However, numerous types of monuments have been preserved, including four mosques, a restored orthodox church, an Ottoman bath, a public fountain, a clock tower, several traditional houses as well as European-influenced architecture buildings such as Kosovo Museum. These symbolize the historical and cultural", "Albanian music is considered to be very rich in genres and their development. But before talking about genre development, a key point that has to be mentioned is without doubt the rich folklore of Kosovo most of which unfortunately has not been digitalized and saved in archives. The importance of folklore is reflected in two main keys, it is considered a treasure\" of cultural heritage of our country and it helps to enlighten the Albanian history of that time, and the importance of that is of a high", "The city of Pristina hosts only three active theatres such as the National Theater, Oda and Dodona Theatre placed in center of Pristina. They offers live performances every week. The National Theatre is placed in the middle downtown of the city, near the main government building and was founded in 1946. ODA Theatre is", "Festivals and events are one of some things that people in Pristina enjoy properly, without rushing to get it over with. Despite having quite a small territorial space, Pristina has a pleasant number of festivals and events. The diversity of festivals makes it possible for people of different tastes to find themselves in a city this small. The Prishtina International Film Festival screens prominent international cinema productions in the Balkan region and beyond, and draws attention to the Kosovar film industry. It was created after the 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence. After its independence in 2008, Kosovo looked for ways to promote its cultural and artistic image. One of major festivals include the Chopin Piano Fest Pristina that was established for the first time on the occasion of the 200th birth anniversary of Frédéric Chopin in 2010 by the Kosovo Chopin Association. The festival is becoming a traditional piano festival held in spring every year. It is considered to be a national treasure. In its 5 years of formation it has offered interpretations by both world-famous pianists such as Peter Donohoe, Janina Fialkowska, Kosovo-Albanian musicians", "Media in Pristina include some of the most important newspapers, largest publishing houses and most prolific television studios of Kosovo. Pristina is the largest communications center of media in Kosovo. Almost all of the major media organizations in Kosovo are based in Pristina. The television industry", "Pristina is the center of education in the country and home to many public and private primary and secondary schools, colleges, academies and universities, located in different areas across the city. The University of Pristina is the largest and oldest university of the city and was established in the 20th century. Finance, arts, journalism, medicine, dentistry, pharmaceuticals, veterinary programs, and engineering are among the most popular fields for foreigners to undertake in the", "Pristina is the center of sport in Kosovo, where activity is organized across amateur and professional levels, sport organizations and clubs, regulated by the Kosovo Olympic Committee and the Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sport. Sport is organized in units called Municipal Leagues. There are seven Municipal Leagues in Pristina. The Football Municipal consists of 18 clubs, the Basketball Municipal 5 clubs, the Handball Municipal 2 clubs, Table Tennis and Chess 6 clubs each, the Karate Municipal 15 and the Tennis Municipal 2 clubs.", "Pristina is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Choosing a secure and memorable password.", "Factors in the security of a password system.", "Rate at which an attacker can try guessed passwords.", "Limits on the number of password guesses.", "Form of stored passwords.", "Methods of verifying a password over a network.", "Simple transmission of the password.", "Transmission through encrypted channels.", "Hash-based challenge-response methods.", "Zero-knowledge password proofs.", "Procedures for changing passwords.", "Password longevity.", "Number of users per password.", "Password security architecture.", "Password reuse.", "Writing down passwords on paper.", "After death.", "Multi-factor authentication.", "Password rules.", "Password cracking.", "Alternatives to passwords for authentication.", "\"The Password is dead\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Passwords have been used since ancient times. Sentries would challenge those wishing to enter an area to supply a password or \"watchword\", and would only allow a person or group to pass if they knew the password. Polybius describes the system for the distribution of watchwords in the Roman military as follows: The way in which they secure the passing round of the watchword for the night is as follows: from the tenth maniple of each class of infantry and cavalry, the maniple which is encamped at the lower end of the street, a man is chosen who is relieved from guard duty, and he attends every day at sunset at the tent of the tribune, and receiving from him the watchword—that is a wooden tablet with the word inscribed on it – takes his leave, and on returning to his quarters passes on the watchword and tablet before witnesses to the commander of the next maniple, who in turn passes it to the one next him. All do the same until it reaches the first maniples, those encamped near the tents of the tribunes. These latter are obliged to deliver the tablet to the tribunes before dark. So that if all those issued are returned, the tribune knows that the watchword has been given to all the maniples, and has passed through all on its way back to him. If any one of them is missing, he makes inquiry at once, as he knows by the marks from what quarter the tablet has not returned, and whoever is responsible for the stoppage meets with the punishment he merits. Passwords in military use evolved to include not just a password, but a password and a counterpassword; for example in the opening days of the Battle of Normandy, paratroopers of the U.S. 101st Airborne Division used a password—\"flash\"—which was presented as a challenge, and answered with the correct response—\"thunder\". The challenge and response were changed every three days. American paratroopers also famously used a device known as a \"cricket\" on D-Day in place of a password system as a temporarily unique method of identification; one metallic click given by the device in lieu of a password was to be met by two clicks in reply. Passwords have been used with computers since the earliest days of computing. The Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS), an operating system introduced at MIT in 1961, was the first computer system to implement password login. CTSS had a LOGIN command that requested a user password. \"After typing PASSWORD, the system turns off the printing mechanism, if possible, so that the user may type in his password with privacy.\" In the early 1970s, Robert Morris developed a system of storing login passwords in a hashed form as part of the Unix operating system. The system was based on a simulated Hagelin rotor crypto machine, and first appeared in 6th Edition Unix in 1974. A later version of his algorithm, known as crypt(3), used a 12-bit salt and invoked a modified form of the DES algorithm 25 times to reduce the risk of pre-computed dictionary attacks. In modern times, user names and passwords are commonly used by people during a log in process that controls access to protected computer operating systems, mobile phones, cable TV decoders, automated teller machines (ATMs), etc. A typical computer user has passwords for many purposes: logging into accounts, retrieving e-mail, accessing applications, databases, networks, web sites, and even reading the morning newspaper online.", "The easier a password is for the owner to remember generally means it will be easier for an attacker to guess. However, passwords that are difficult to remember may also reduce the security of a system because (a) users might need to write down or electronically store the password, (b) users will need frequent password resets and (c) users are more likely to re-use the same password across different accounts. Similarly, the more stringent the password requirements, such as \"have a mix of uppercase and lowercase letters and digits\" or \"change it monthly\", the greater the degree to which users will subvert the system. Others argue longer passwords provide more security (e.g., entropy) than shorter passwords with a wide variety of characters. In \"The Memorability and Security of Passwords\", Jeff Yan et al. examine the effect of advice given to users about a good choice of password. They found that passwords based on thinking of a phrase and taking the first letter of each word are just as memorable as naively selected passwords, and just as hard to crack as randomly generated passwords. Combining two or more unrelated words and altering some of the letters to special characters or numbers is another good method, but a single dictionary word is not. Having a personally designed algorithm for generating obscure passwords is another good method. However, asking users to remember a password consisting of a \"mix of uppercase and lowercase characters\" is similar to asking them to remember a sequence of bits: hard to remember, and only a little bit harder to crack (e.g. only 128 times harder to crack for 7-letter passwords, less if the user simply capitalises one of the letters). Asking users to use \"both letters and digits\" will often lead to easy-to-guess substitutions such as 'E' → '3' and 'I' → '1', substitutions which are well known to attackers. Similarly typing the password one keyboard row higher is a common trick known to attackers. In 2013, Google released a list of the most common password types, all of which are considered insecure because they are too easy to guess (especially after researching an individual on social media):", "The security of a password-protected system depends on several factors. The overall system must be designed for sound security, with protection against computer viruses, man-in-the-middle attacks and the like. Physical security issues are also a concern, from deterring shoulder surfing to more sophisticated physical threats such as video cameras and keyboard sniffers. Passwords should be chosen so that they are hard for an attacker to guess and hard for an attacker to discover using any of the available automatic attack schemes. See password strength and computer security for more information. Nowadays, it is a common practice for computer systems to hide passwords as they are typed. The purpose of this measure is to prevent bystanders from reading the password; however, some argue that this practice may lead to mistakes and stress, encouraging users to choose weak passwords. As an alternative, users should have the option to show or hide passwords as they type them. Effective access control provisions may force extreme measures on criminals seeking to acquire a password or biometric token. Less extreme measures include extortion, rubber hose cryptanalysis, and side channel attack. Some specific password management issues that must be considered when thinking about, choosing, and handling, a password follow.", "The rate at which an attacker can submit guessed passwords to the system is a key factor in determining system security. Some systems impose a time-out of several seconds after a small number (e.g., three) of failed password entry attempts. In the absence of other vulnerabilities, such systems can be effectively secure with relatively simple passwords, if they have been well chosen and are not easily guessed. Many systems store a cryptographic hash of the password. If an attacker gets access to the file of hashed passwords guessing can be done offline, rapidly testing candidate passwords against the true password's hash value. In the example of a web-server, an online attacker can guess only at the rate at which the server will respond, while an off-line attacker (who gains access to the file) can guess at a rate limited only by the hardware on which the attack is running. Passwords that are used to generate cryptographic keys (e.g., for disk encryption or Wi-Fi security) can also be subjected to high rate guessing. Lists of common passwords are widely available and can make password attacks very efficient. (See Password cracking.) Security in such situations depends on using passwords or passphrases of adequate complexity, making such an attack computationally infeasible for the attacker. Some systems, such as PGP and Wi-Fi WPA, apply a computation-intensive hash to the password to slow such attacks. See key stretching.", "An alternative to limiting the rate at which an attacker can make guesses on a password is to limit the total number of guesses that can be made. The password can be disabled, requiring a reset, after a small number of consecutive bad guesses (say 5); and the user may be required to change the password after a larger cumulative number of bad guesses (say 30), to prevent an attacker from making an arbitrarily large number of bad guesses by interspersing them between good guesses made by the legitimate password owner. Attackers may conversely use knowledge of this mitigation to implement a denial of service attack against the user by intentionally locking the user out of their own device; this denial of service may open other avenues for the attacker to manipulate the situation to their advantage via social engineering.", "Some computer systems store user passwords as plaintext, against which to compare user logon attempts. If an attacker gains access to such an internal password store, all passwords—and so all user accounts—will be compromised. If some users employ the same password for accounts on different systems, those will be compromised as well. More secure systems store each password in a cryptographically protected form, so access to the actual password will still be difficult for a snooper who gains internal access to the system, while validation of user access attempts remains possible. The most secure don't store passwords at all, but a one-way derivation, such as a polynomial, modulus, or an advanced hash function. Roger Needham invented the now common approach of storing only a \"hashed\" form of the plaintext password. When a user types in a password on such a system, the password handling software runs through a cryptographic hash algorithm, and if the hash value generated from the user's entry matches the hash stored in the password database, the user is permitted access. The hash value is created by applying a cryptographic hash function to a string consisting of the submitted password and, in many implementations, another value known as a salt. A salt prevents attackers from easily building a list of hash values for common passwords and prevents password cracking efforts from scaling across all users. MD5 and SHA1 are frequently used cryptographic hash functions but they are not recommended for password hashing unless they are used as part of a larger construction such as in PBKDF2. The stored data—sometimes called the \"password verifier\" or the \"password hash\"—is often stored in Modular Crypt Format or RFC 2307 hash format, sometimes in the /etc/passwd file or the /etc/shadow file. The main storage methods for passwords are plain text, hashed, hashed and salted, and reversibly encrypted. If an attacker gains access to the password file, then if it is stored as plain text, no cracking is necessary. If it is hashed but not salted then it is vulnerable to rainbow table attacks (which are more efficient than cracking). If it is reversibly encrypted then if the attacker gets the decryption key along with the file no cracking is necessary, while if he fails to get the key cracking is not possible. Thus, of the common storage formats for passwords only when passwords have been salted and hashed is cracking both necessary and possible. If a cryptographic hash function is well designed, it is computationally infeasible to reverse the function to recover a plaintext password. An attacker can, however, use widely available tools to attempt to guess the passwords. These tools work by hashing possible passwords and comparing the result of each guess to the actual password hashes. If the attacker finds a match, they know that their guess is the actual password for the associated user. Password cracking tools can operate by brute force (i.e. trying every possible combination of characters) or by hashing every word from a list; large lists of possible passwords in many languages are widely available on the Internet. The existence of password cracking tools allows attackers to easily recover poorly chosen passwords. In particular, attackers can quickly recover passwords that are short, dictionary words, simple variations on dictionary words or that use easily guessable patterns. A modified version of the DES algorithm was used as the basis for the password hashing algorithm in early Unix systems. The crypt algorithm used a 12-bit salt value so that each user's hash was unique and iterated the DES algorithm 25 times in order to make the hash function slower, both measures intended to frustrate automated guessing attacks. The user's password was used as a key to encrypt a fixed value. More recent Unix or Unix like systems (e.g., Linux or the various BSD systems) use more secure password hashing algorithms such as PBKDF2, bcrypt, and scrypt which have large salts and an adjustable cost or number of iterations. A poorly designed hash function can make attacks feasible even if a strong password is chosen. See LM hash for a widely deployed, and insecure, example.", "", "Passwords are vulnerable to interception (i.e., \"snooping\") while being transmitted to the authenticating machine or person. If the password is carried as electrical signals on unsecured physical wiring between the user access point and the central system controlling the password database, it is subject to snooping by wiretapping methods. If it is carried as packeted data over the Internet, anyone able to watch the packets containing the logon information can snoop with a very low probability of detection. Email is sometimes used to distribute passwords but this is generally an insecure method. Since most email is sent as plaintext, a message containing a password is readable without effort during transport by any eavesdropper. Further, the message will be stored as plaintext on at least two computers: the sender's and the recipient's. If it passes through intermediate systems during its travels, it will probably be stored on there as well, at least for some time, and may be copied to backup, cache or history files on any of these systems. Using client-side encryption will only protect transmission from the mail handling system server to the client machine. Previous or subsequent relays of the email will not be protected and the email will probably be stored on multiple computers, certainly on the originating and receiving computers, most often in clear text.", "The risk of interception of passwords sent over the Internet can be reduced by, among other approaches, using cryptographic protection. The most widely used is the Transport Layer Security (TLS, previously called SSL) feature built into most current Internet browsers. Most browsers alert the user of a TLS/SSL protected exchange with a server by displaying a closed lock icon, or some other sign, when TLS is in use. There are several other techniques in use; see cryptography.", "Unfortunately, there is a conflict between stored hashed-passwords and hash-based challenge-response authentication; the latter requires a client to prove to a server that they know what the shared secret (i.e., password) is, and to do this, the server must be able to obtain the shared secret from its stored form. On many systems (including Unix-type systems) doing remote authentication, the shared secret usually becomes the hashed form and has the serious limitation of exposing passwords to offline guessing attacks. In addition, when the hash is used as a shared secret, an attacker does not need the original password to authenticate remotely; they only need the hash.", "Rather than transmitting a password, or transmitting the hash of the password, password-authenticated key agreement systems can perform a zero-knowledge password proof, which proves knowledge of the password without exposing it. Moving a step further, augmented systems for password-authenticated key agreement (e.g., AMP, B-SPEKE, PAK-Z, SRP-6) avoid both the conflict and limitation of hash-based methods. An augmented system allows a client to prove knowledge of the password to a server, where the server knows only a (not exactly) hashed password, and where the unhashed password is required to gain access.", "Usually, a system must provide a way to change a password, either because a user believes the current password has been (or might have been) compromised, or as a precautionary measure. If a new password is passed to the system in unencrypted form, security can be lost (e.g., via wiretapping) before the new password can even be installed in the password database and if the new password is given to a compromised employee, little is gained. Some web sites include the user-selected password in an unencrypted confirmation e-mail message, with the obvious increased vulnerability. Identity management systems are increasingly used to automate issuance of replacements for lost passwords, a feature called self service password reset. The user's identity is verified by asking questions and comparing the answers to ones previously stored (i.e., when the account was opened). Some password reset questions ask for personal information that could be found on social media, such as mother's maiden name. As a result, some security experts recommend either making up one's own questions or giving false answers.", "\"Password aging\" is a feature of some operating systems which forces users to change passwords frequently (e.g., quarterly, monthly or even more often). Such policies usually provoke user protest and foot-dragging at best and hostility at worst. There is often an increase in the people who note down the password and leave it where it can easily be found, as well as help desk calls to reset a forgotten password. Users may use simpler passwords or develop variation patterns on a consistent theme to keep their passwords memorable. Because of these issues, there is some debate as to whether password aging is effective. Changing a password will not prevent abuse in most cases, since the abuse would often be immediately noticeable. However, if someone may have had access to the password through some means, such as sharing a computer or breaching a different site, changing the password limits the window for abuse.", "Single passwords are also much less convenient to change because many people need to be told at the same time, and they make removal of a particular user's access more difficult, as for instance on graduation or resignation. Separate logins are also often used for accountability, for example to know who changed a piece of data.", "Common techniques used to improve the security of computer systems protected by a password include: Some of the more stringent policy enforcement measures can pose a risk of alienating users, possibly decreasing security as a result.", "It is common practice amongst computer users to reuse the same password on multiple sites. This presents a substantial security risk, because an attacker needs to only compromise a single site in order to gain access to other sites the victim uses. This problem is exacerbated by also reusing usernames, and by websites requiring email logins, as it makes it easier for an attacker to track a single user across multiple sites. Password reuse can be avoided or minimised by using mnemonic techniques, writing passwords down on paper, or using a password manager. It has been argued by Redmond researchers Dinei Florencio and Cormac Herley, together with Paul C. van Oorschot of Carleton University, Canada, that password reuse is inevitable, and that users should reuse passwords for low-security websites (which contain little personal data and no financial information, for example) and instead focus their efforts on remember long, complex passwords for a few important accounts, such as bank accounts. Similar arguments were made by Forbes in not change passwords as often as many \"experts\" advise, due to the same limitations in human memory.", "Historically, many security experts asked people to memorize their passwords: \"Never write down a password\". More recently, many security experts such as Bruce Schneier recommend that people use passwords that are too complicated to memorize, write them down on paper, and keep them in a wallet. Password manager software can also store passwords relatively safely, in an encrypted file sealed with a single master password.", "According to a survey by the University of London, one in ten people are now leaving their passwords in their wills to pass on this important information when they die. One third of people, according to the poll, agree that their password protected data is important enough to pass on in their will.", "Multi-factor authentication schemes combine passwords (as \"knowledge factors\") with one or more other means of authentication, to make authentication more secure and less vulnerable to compromised passwords. For example, a simple two-factor login might send a text message, e-mail, automated phone call, or similar alert whenever a login attempt is made, possibly supplying a code which must be entered in addition to a password. More sophisticated factors include such things as hardware tokens and biometric security.", "Most organizations specify a password policy that sets requirements for the composition and usage of passwords, typically dictating minimum length, required categories (e.g., upper and lower case, numbers, and special characters), prohibited elements (e.g., use of one's own name, date of birth, address, telephone number). Some governments have national authentication frameworks that define requirements for user authentication to government services, including requirements for passwords. Many websites enforce standard rules such as minimum and maximum length, but also frequently include composition rules such as featuring at least one capital letter and at least one number/symbol. These latter, more specific rules were largely based on a 2003 report by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), authored by Bill Burr. It originally proposed the practice of using numbers, obscure characters and capital letters and updating regularly. In a 2017 \"Wall Street Journal\" article, Burr reported he regrets these proposals and made a mistake when he recommended them. According to a 2017 rewrite of this NIST report, many websites have rules that actually have the opposite effect on the security of their users. This includes complex composition rules as well as forced password changes after certain periods of time. While these rules have long been widespread, they have also long been seen as annoying and ineffective by both users and cyber-security experts. The NIST recommends people use longer phrases as passwords (and advises websites to raise the maximum password length) instead of hard-to-remember passwords with \"illusory complexity\" such as \"pA55w+rd\". A user prevented from using the password \"password\" may simply choose \"Password1\" if required to include a number and uppercase letter. Combined with forced periodic password changes, this can lead to passwords that are difficult to remember but easy to crack. Paul Grassi, one of the 2017 NIST report's authors, further elaborated: \"Everyone knows that an exclamation point is a 1, or an I, or the last character of a password. $ is an S or a 5. If we use these well-known tricks, we aren’t fooling any adversary. We are simply fooling the database that stores passwords into thinking the user did something good.\"", "Attempting to crack passwords by trying as many possibilities as time and money permit is a brute force attack. A related method, rather more efficient in most cases, is a dictionary attack. In a dictionary attack, all words in one or more dictionaries are tested. Lists of common passwords are also typically tested. Password strength is the likelihood that a password cannot be guessed or discovered, and varies with the attack algorithm used. Cryptologists and computer scientists often refer to the strength or 'hardness' in terms of entropy. Passwords easily discovered are termed \"weak\" or \"vulnerable\"; passwords very difficult or impossible to discover are considered \"strong\". There are several programs available for password attack (or even auditing and recovery by systems personnel) such as L0phtCrack, John the Ripper, and Cain; some of which use password design vulnerabilities (as found in the Microsoft LANManager system) to increase efficiency. These programs are sometimes used by system administrators to detect weak passwords proposed by users. Studies of production computer systems have consistently shown that a large fraction of all user-chosen passwords are readily guessed automatically. For example, Columbia University found 22% of user passwords could be recovered with little effort. According to Bruce Schneier, examining data from a 2006 phishing attack, 55% of MySpace passwords would be crackable in 8 hours using a commercially available Password Recovery Toolkit capable of testing 200,000 passwords per second in 2006. He also reported that the single most common password was \"password1\", confirming yet again the general lack of informed care in choosing passwords among users. (He nevertheless maintained, based on these data, that the general quality of passwords has improved over the years—for example, average length was up to eight characters from under seven in previous surveys, and less than 4% were dictionary words.)", "The numerous ways in which permanent or semi-permanent passwords can be compromised has prompted the development of other techniques. Unfortunately, some are inadequate in practice, and in any case few have become universally available for users seeking a more secure alternative. A 2012 paper examines why passwords have proved so hard to supplant (despite numerous predictions that they would soon be a thing of the past); in examining thirty representative proposed replacements with respect to security, usability and deployability they conclude \"none even retains the full set of benefits that legacy passwords already provide.\"", "That \"the password is dead\" is a recurring idea in computer security. It often accompanies arguments that the replacement of passwords by a more secure means of authentication is both necessary and imminent. This claim has been made by numerous people at least since 2004. Notably, Bill Gates, speaking at the 2004 RSA Conference predicted the demise of passwords saying \"they just don't meet the challenge for anything you really want to secure.\" In 2011 IBM predicted that, within five years, \"You will never need a password again.\" Matt Honan, a journalist at Wired, who was the victim of a hacking incident, in 2012 wrote \"The age of the password has come to an end.\" Heather Adkins, manager of Information Security at Google, in 2013 said that \"passwords are done at Google.\" Eric Grosse, VP of security engineering at Google, states that \"passwords and simple bearer tokens, such as cookies, are no longer sufficient to keep users safe.\" Christopher Mims, writing in the Wall Street Journal said the password \"is finally dying\" and predicted their replacement by device-based authentication. Avivah Litan of Gartner said in 2014 \"Passwords were dead a few years ago. Now they are more than dead.\" The reasons given often include reference to the usability as well as security problems of passwords. The claim that \"the password is dead\" is often used by advocates of alternatives to passwords, such as biometrics, two-factor authentication or single sign-on. Many initiatives have been launched with the explicit goal of eliminating passwords. These include Microsoft's Cardspace, the Higgins project, the Liberty Alliance, NSTIC, the FIDO Alliance and various Identity 2.0 proposals. Jeremy Grant, head of NSTIC initiative (the US Dept. of Commerce National Strategy for Trusted Identities in Cyberspace), declared \"Passwords are a disaster from a security perspective, we want to shoot them dead.\" The FIDO Alliance promises a \"passwordless experience\" in its 2015 specification document. In spite of these predictions and efforts to replace them passwords still appear as the dominant form of authentication on the web. In \"The Persistence of Passwords,\" Cormac Herley and Paul van Oorschot suggest that every effort should be made to end the \"spectacularly incorrect assumption\" that passwords are dead. They argue that \"no other single technology matches their combination of cost, immediacy and convenience\" and that \"passwords are themselves the best fit for many of the scenarios in which they are currently used.\" Following the work of Herley and van Oorschot, Bonneau et al. systematically compared web passwords to 35 competing authentication schemes in terms of their usability, deployability, and security. (The technical report is an extended version of the peer-reviewed paper by the same name.) Their analysis shows that most schemes do better than passwords on security, some schemes do better and some worse with respect to usability, while \"every\" scheme does worse than passwords on deployability. The authors conclude with the following observation: “Marginal gains are often not sufficient to reach the activation energy necessary to overcome significant transition costs, which may provide the best explanation of why we are likely to live considerably longer before seeing the funeral procession for passwords arrive at the cemetery.”" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Partisan life.", "Disagreement with Yugoslav communists.", "Early leadership (1946–1965).", "Relations with Yugoslavia.", "Relations with the Soviet Union.", "Later rule.", "Later life and death.", "Family.", "Assassination attempt." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hoxha was born in Gjirokastër in southern Albania (then a part of the Ottoman Empire), the son of Halil Hoxha, a Muslim Tosk cloth merchant who travelled widely across Europe and the US, and Gjylihan (Gjylo) Hoxha née \"Çuçi\". The Hoxha family was attached to the Bektashi Order. In 1916 his father brought him to seek the blessing of Baba Selim of the Zall Teqe. After elementary school, he followed his studies in the city senior high school \"Liria\". He started his studies at the Gjirokastër Lyceum in 1923. After the lyceum was closed, due to intervention of Eqrem Libohova Hoxha was awarded a state scholarship for the continuation of his studies in Korçë, at the French language Albanian National Lyceum until 1930. In 1930, Hoxha went", "On 8 November 1941, the Communist Party of Albania (later renamed the Party of Labour of Albania in 1948) was founded. Hoxha was chosen from the \"Korca group\" as a Muslim representative by the two Yugoslav envoys as one of the seven members of the provisional Central Committee. The First Consultative Meeting of Activists of the Communist Party of Albania was held in Tirana from April 8 to 11, 1942, with Hoxha himself delivering the main report on 8 April 1942. In July 1942, Hoxha wrote \"Call to the Albanian Peasantry\", issued in the name of the Communist Party of Albania. The call sought to enlist support in Albania for the war against the fascists. The peasants were encouraged to hoard their grain and refuse to pay taxes or livestock levies brought by the government. After the September 1942 Conference at Pezë, the National Liberation Movement was founded with the purpose of uniting the anti-fascist Albanians, regardless of ideology or class. By March 1943, the first National Conference of the Communist Party elected Hoxha formally as First Secretary. During WWII, the Soviet Union's role in Albania was negligible. On 10 July 1943, the Albanian partisans were organised in regular units of companies, battalions and brigades and named the Albanian National Liberation Army. The organization received military support from the British intelligence service, SOE. The General Headquarters was created, with Spiro Moisiu as the commander and Hoxha as political commissar. The Yugoslav Partisans had a much more practical role, helping to plan attacks and exchanging supplies, but communication between them and the Albanians was limited and letters would often arrive late, sometimes well after a plan had been agreed upon by the National Liberation Army without consultation from the Yugoslav partisans. Within Albania, repeated attempts were made during the war to remedy the communications difficulties which faced partisan groups. In August 1943, a secret meeting, the Mukje Conference, was held between the anti-communist Balli Kombëtar (National Front) and the Communist Party of Albania. The result of this was an agreement to: To encourage the Balli Kombëtar to sign, the Greater Albania sections that included Kosovo (part of Yugoslavia) and Chamëria were made part of the Agreement.", "A problem developed when the Yugoslav Communists disagreed with the goal of a Greater Albania and asked the Communists in Albania to withdraw their agreement. According to Hoxha, Josip Broz Tito had not agreed that \"Kosovo was Albanian\" and that Serbian opposition made the transfer an unwise option. After the Albanian Communists repudiated the Greater Albania agreement, the Balli Kombëtar condemned the Communists, who in turn accused the Balli Kombëtar of siding with the Italians. The Balli Kombëtar, however, lacked support from the people. After judging the Communists as an immediate threat, the Balli Kombëtar sided with Nazi Germany, fatally damaging its image among those fighting the Fascists. The Communists quickly added to their ranks many of those disillusioned with the Balli Kombëtar and took centre stage in the fight for liberation. The Permet National Congress held during that time called for a \"new democratic Albania for the people\". Although the monarchy was not formally abolished, King Zog was barred from returning to the country, which further increased the Communists' control. The Anti-Fascist Committee for National Liberation was founded, chaired by Hoxha.", "Hoxha declared himself a Marxist–Leninist and strongly admired Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. During the period of 1945–1950, the government adopted policies and actions intended to consolidate power which included extrajudicial killings and executions that targeted and eliminated anti-communists. The Agrarian Reform Law was passed in August 1945. It confiscated land from beys and large landowners, giving it without compensation to peasants. 52% of all land was owned by large landowners before the law was passed; this declined to 16% after the law's passage. Illiteracy, which was 90–95% in rural areas in 1939 went down to 30% by 1950 and by 1985 it was equal to that of a Western country. The State University of Tirana was established in 1957, which was the first of its kind in Albania. The Medieval Gjakmarrja (blood feud) was banned. Malaria, the most widespread disease, was successfully fought through advances in health care, the use of DDT, and through the draining of swamplands. From 1965 to 1985, no cases of malaria were reported, whereas previously Albania had the greatest number of infected patients in Europe. No cases of syphilis had been recorded for 30 years. By 1949, the US and British intelligence organisations were working with King Zog and the mountain men of his personal guard. They recruited Albanian refugees and émigrés from Egypt, Italy and Greece, trained them in Cyprus, Malta and the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), and infiltrated them into Albania. Guerrilla units entered Albania in 1950 and 1952, but they were killed or captured by Albanian security forces. Kim Philby, a Soviet double agent working as a liaison officer between the British intelligence service and the US Central Intelligence Agency, had leaked details of the infiltration plan to Moscow, and the security breach claimed the lives of about 300 infiltrators.", "At this point, relations with Yugoslavia had begun to change. The roots of the change began on 20 October 1944 at the Second Plenary Session of the Communist Party of Albania. The Session considered the problems that the post-independence Albanian government would face. However, the Yugoslav delegation led by Velimir Stoinić accused the party of \"sectarianism and opportunism\" and blamed Hoxha for these errors. He also stressed the view that the Yugoslav Communist partisans spearheaded the Albanian partisan movement. Anti-Yugoslav members of the Albanian Communist Party had begun to think that this was a plot by Tito", "After the break with Yugoslavia, Hoxha aligned himself with the Soviet Union, for which he had a great admiration. From 1948 to 1960, $200 million in Soviet aid was given to Albania for technical and infrastructural expansion. Albania was admitted to the Comecon on 22 February 1949 and remained important both as a way to pressure Yugoslavia and to serve as a pro-Soviet force in the Adriatic Sea. A submarine base was built on the island of Sazan near Vlorë, posing a possible threat to the United States Sixth Fleet. Relations remained close until the death of Stalin on 5 March 1953. His death was met with 14 days of national mourning in Albania—more than in the Soviet Union. Hoxha assembled the entire population in the capital's largest square featuring a statue of Stalin, requested that they kneel, and made them take a two-thousand word oath of \"eternal fidelity\" and \"gratitude\" to their \"beloved father\" and \"great liberator\" to whom the people owed \"everything\". Under Nikita Khrushchev, Stalin's successor, aid was reduced and Albania was encouraged to adopt Khrushchev's specialization policy. Under this policy, Albania would develop its agricultural output in order to supply", "As Hoxha's leadership continued, he took on an increasingly theoretical stance. He wrote criticisms which were based on theory and current events which occurred at the time; his most notable criticisms were his condemnations of Maoism after 1978. A major achievement under Hoxha was the advancement of women's rights. Albania had been one of the most, if not the most, patriarchal countries in Europe. The \"Code of Lekë\", which regulated the status of women, states, \"A woman is known as a sack, made to endure as long as she lives in her husband's house.\" Women were not allowed to inherit anything from their parents, and discrimination was even made in the case of the murder of a pregnant woman: Women were forbidden from obtaining a divorce, and the wife's parents were obliged to return a runaway daughter to her husband or else suffer shame which could even result in a generations-long blood feud. During World War II, the Albanian Communists encouraged women to join the partisans and following the war, women were encouraged to take up menial jobs, as the education necessary for higher level work was out of most women's reach. In 1938, 4% worked in various sectors of the economy. In 1970, this number had risen to 38%, and in 1982 to 46%. During the Cultural and Ideological Revolution (discussed below), women were encouraged to take up \"all\" jobs, including government posts, which resulted in 40.7% of the People's Councils and 30.4% of the People's Assembly being made up of women, including two women in the Central Committee by 1985. In 1978, 15.1 times as many females attended eight-year schools as had done so in 1938 and 175.7 times as many females attended secondary schools. By 1978, 101.9 times as many women attended higher schools as in 1957. Hoxha said of women's rights in 1967:The entire party and country should hurl into the fire and break the neck of anyone who dared trample underfoot the sacred edict of the party on the defense of women's rights.In 1969, direct taxation was abolished and during this period the quality of schooling and health care continued to improve. An electrification campaign was begun in 1960 and the entire nation was expected to have electricity by 1985. Instead, it achieved this on 25 October 1970, making it the first nation with complete electrification in the world. During the Cultural & Ideological Revolution of 1967–1968 the military changed from traditional Communist army tactics and began to adhere to the Maoist strategy known as people's war, which included the abolition of military ranks, which were not fully restored until 1991. Mehmet Shehu said of the country's health service in 1979:' Hoxha's legacy also included a complex of 173,371 one-man concrete bunkers across a country of 3 million inhabitants, to act as look-outs and gun emplacements along with chemical weapons. The bunkers were built strong and mobile, with the intention that they could be easily placed by a crane or a helicopter in a hole. The types of bunkers vary from machine gun pillboxes, beach bunkers, to underground naval facilities and even Air Force Mountain and underground bunkers. Hoxha's internal policies were true to Stalin's paradigm which he admired, and the personality cult which was developed in the 1970s and organized around him by the Party also bore a striking resemblance to that of Stalin. At times it even reached an intensity which was as extreme as the personality cult of Kim Il-sung (which Hoxha condemned) with Hoxha being portrayed as a genius commenting on virtually all facets of life from culture to economics to military matters. Each schoolbook required one or more quotations from him on the subjects being studied. The Party honored him with titles such as Supreme Comrade, Sole Force and Great Teacher. He adopted a different type military salute for the People's Army to render honors which is known today as the Hoxhaist Salute, which involves soldiers curling their right fist and raising it to shoulder level. It replaced the Zogist salute, which was used by the Royal Albanian Army for many years. Hoxha's governance was also distinguished by his encouragement of a high birthrate policy. For instance, a woman who bore an above-average number of children would be given the government award of \"Heroine Mother\" (in Albanian: \"Nënë Heroinë\") along with cash rewards. Abortion was essentially restricted (to encourage high birth rates), except if the birth posed a danger to the mother's life, though it was not completely banned; the process was decided by district medical commissions. As a result, the population of Albania tripled from 1 million in 1944 to around 3 million in 1985.", "A new Constitution was decided upon by the Seventh Congress of the Albanian Party of Labour on 1–7 November 1976. According to Hoxha, \"The old Constitution was the Constitution of the building of the foundations of socialism, whereas the new Constitution will be the Constitution of the complete construction of a socialist society.\" Self-reliance was now stressed more than ever. Citizens were encouraged to train in the use of weapons, and this activity was also taught in schools. This was to encourage the creation of quick partisans. Borrowing and foreign investment were banned under Article 26 of the Constitution, which read: \"The granting of concessions to, and the creation of foreign economic and financial companies and other institutions or ones formed jointly with bourgeois and revisionist capitalist monopolies and states as well as obtaining credits from them are prohibited in the People's Socialist Republic of Albania.\" Hoxha said of borrowing money and allowing investment from other countries: During this period Albania was the most isolated and poorest country in Europe and socially backwards by European standards. It had the lowest standard of living in Europe. However, as a result of economic self-sufficiency, Albania had a minimal foreign debt. In 1983, Albania imported goods worth $280 million but exported goods worth $290 million, producing a trade surplus of $10 million. In 1981, Hoxha ordered the execution of several party and", "The surname \"Hoxha\" is the Albanian variant of Hodja (from ), a title given to his ancestors due to their efforts to teach Albanians about Islam. In addition, among the population, he was widely known by his nickname of \"Dulla\", a short form for the Muslim name Abdullah stemming from his Muslim roots. Hoxha's parents were Halil and Gjylihan (Gjylo) Hoxha, and Hoxha had three sisters, Fahrije, Haxhire and Sanije. Hysen Hoxha () was Enver Hoxha's uncle and was a militant who campaigned vigorously for the independence of Albania, which occurred when Enver was four", "Banda Mustafaj was a group of four Albanian émigrés, led by Xhevdet Mustafa, who wanted to assassinate Enver Hoxha in 1982. The gang was connected to counter-revolutionary elements such as the Albanian mafia and members of the royal House of Zogu. The plan failed and two of its members were killed and another one was arrested. It marked the only real effort to kill Hoxha." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Recording.", "Legal disputes.", "Packaging and title.", "Release and reception.", "Reissues.", "Tour.", "Track listing.", "Personnel.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "After the release of Pink Floyd's 1983 album \"The Final Cut\", viewed by some as a \"de facto\" solo record by bassist and songwriter Roger Waters, the band members worked on solo projects. Guitarist David Gilmour expressed feelings about his strained relationship with Waters on his second solo album, \"About Face\" (1984), and finished the accompanying tour as Waters began touring to promote his debut solo album, \"The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking\". Although both had enlisted a range of successful performers, including in Waters' case Eric Clapton, their solo acts attracted fewer fans than Pink Floyd; poor ticket sales forced Gilmour to cancel several concerts, and critic David Fricke felt that Waters' show was \"a petulant echo, a transparent attempt to prove that Roger Waters \"was\" Pink Floyd\". Waters returned to the US in March 1985 with a second tour, this time without the support of CBS Records, which had expressed its preference for a new Pink Floyd album; Waters criticised the corporation as \"a machine\". After drummer Nick Mason attended one of Waters' London performances in 1985, he found he missed touring under the Pink Floyd name. His visit coincided with the release in August of his second solo album, \"Profiles\", on which Gilmour sang. With a shared love of aviation, Mason and Gilmour were taking flying lessons and together bought a de Havilland Dove aeroplane. Gilmour was working on other collaborations, including a performance for Bryan Ferry at 1985's Live Aid concert, and co-produced the Dream Academy's self-titled debut album. In December 1985, Waters announced that he had left Pink Floyd, which he believed was \"a spent force creatively\". After the failure of his \"About Face\" tour, Gilmour hoped to continue with the Pink Floyd name. The threat of a lawsuit from Gilmour, Mason and CBS Records was meant to compel Waters to write and produce another Pink Floyd album with his bandmates, who had barely participated in making \"The Final Cut\"; Gilmour was especially critical of the album, labelling it \"cheap filler\" and \"meandering rubbish\". According to Gilmour, \"I told [Waters] before he left, 'If you go, man, we're carrying on. Make no bones about it, \"we would carry on\", and Roger replied: 'You'll never fucking do it.'\" Waters had written to EMI and Columbia declaring his intention to leave the group and asking them to release him from his contractual obligations. He also dispensed with the services of Pink Floyd manager Steve O'Rourke and employed Peter Rudge to manage his affairs. This left Gilmour and Mason, in their view, free to continue with the Pink Floyd name. In 2013, Waters said he regretted the lawsuit and had not understood English jurisprudence. In Waters' absence, Gilmour had been recruiting musicians for a new project. Months previously, keyboardist Jon Carin had jammed with Gilmour at his Hookend studio, where he composed the chord progression that became \"Learning to Fly\", and so was invited onto the team. Gilmour invited Bob Ezrin (co-producer of 1979's \"The Wall\") to help consolidate their material; Ezrin had turned down Waters' offer of a role on the development of his new solo album, \"Radio K.A.O.S.\", saying it was \"far easier for Dave and I to do \"our\" version of a Floyd record\". Ezrin arrived in England in mid-1986 for what Gilmour later described as \"mucking about with a lot of demos\". At this stage, there was no commitment to a new Pink Floyd release, and Gilmour maintained that the material might become his third solo album. CBS representative Stephen Ralbovsky hoped for a new Pink Floyd album, but in a meeting in November 1986, told Gilmour and Ezrin that the music \"doesn't sound a fucking thing like Pink Floyd\". By the end of that year, Gilmour had decided to make the material into a Pink Floyd project, and agreed to rework the material that Ralbovsky had found objectionable.", "Gilmour experimented with songwriters such as Eric Stewart and Roger McGough, but settled on Anthony Moore, who was credited as co-writer of \"Learning to Fly\" and \"On the Turning Away\". Whereas many prior Pink Floyd albums are concept albums, Gilmour chose a more conventional approach of a collection of songs without a thematic link. Gilmour later said that the project had been difficult without Waters. \"A Momentary Lapse of Reason \"was recorded in several studios, mainly Gilmour's houseboat studio \"Astoria, \"moored on the Thames; according to Ezrin, \"working there was just magical, so inspirational; kids sculling down the river, geese flying by...\". Andy Jackson was brought in to engineer. During sessions held between November 1986 and February 1987, Gilmour's band worked on new material, which in a change from previous Pink Floyd albums was recorded with a 24-track analogue machine and overdubbed onto a 32-track Mitsubishi digital recorder. This trend of using new technologies continued with the use of MIDI synchronisation, aided by an Apple Macintosh computer. Ezrin suggested incorporating rap, an idea dismissed by Gilmour. After agreeing to rework the material that Ralbovsky had found objectionable, Gilmour employed session musicians such as Carmine Appice and Jim Keltner. Both drummers, they replaced Mason on several songs; Mason was concerned that he was too out of practice to perform on the album, and instead busied himself with its sound effects. Some drum parts were also performed by drum machines. In his memoir, Mason wrote: \"In hindsight, I really should have had the self-belief to play all the drum parts. And in the early days of life after Roger, I think David and I felt that we had to get it right, or we would be slaughtered.\" During the sessions, Gilmour was asked by the wife of Pink Floyd's former keyboardist, Richard Wright, if he could contribute. A founding member of the band, Wright had left in 1979, and there were legal obstacles to his return; after a meeting in Hampstead he was recruited as a paid musician on a weekly wage of $11,000. Gilmour said in an interview that Wright's presence \"would make us stronger legally and musically\". However, his contributions were minimal; most of the keyboard parts had already been recorded, and so from February 1987 Wright played some background reinforcement on a Hammond organ, and a Rhodes piano, and added vocal harmonies. He also performed a solo in \"On the Turning Away\", which was discarded, according to Wright, \"not because they didn't like it... they just thought it didn't fit\". Gilmour later said: \"Both Nick and Rick were catatonic in terms of their playing ability at the beginning. Neither of them played on this at all really. In my view, they'd been destroyed by Roger.\" Gilmour's comments angered Mason, who said: \"I'd deny that I was catatonic. I'd expect that from the opposition, it's less attractive from one's allies. At some point, he made some sort of apology.\" Mason conceded that Gilmour was nervous about how the album would be perceived. \"Learning to Fly\" was inspired by Gilmour's flying lessons, which occasionally conflicted with his studio duties. The track also contains a recording of Mason's voice during takeoff. The band experimented with audio samples, and Ezrin recorded the sound of Gilmour's boatman (Langley Iddens) rowing across the Thames. Iddens' presence at the sessions was made vital when \"Astoria\" began to lift in response to the rapidly rising river, which was pushing the boat against the pier on which it was moored. \"The Dogs of War\" is a song about \"physical and political mercenaries\", according to Gilmour. Its creation came about through a mishap in the studio when a sampling machine began playing a sample of laughter, which Gilmour thought sounded like a dog's bark. \"Terminal Frost\" was one of Gilmour's older demos, which he decided to leave as an instrumental. Conversely, the lyrics for \"Sorrow\" were written before the music. The song's opening guitar solo was recorded in the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena. A 24-track mobile studio piped Gilmour's guitar tracks through a public address system, and the resulting mix was then recorded in surround sound.", "The sessions were interrupted by the escalating disagreement between Waters and Pink Floyd over who had the rights to the Pink Floyd name. O'Rourke, believing that his contract with Waters had been terminated illegally, sued Waters for £25,000 of back-commission. In a late-1986 board meeting of Pink Floyd Music Ltd (Pink Floyd's clearing house for all financial transactions since 1973), Waters learnt that a bank account had been opened to deal exclusively with all monies related to \"the new Pink Floyd project\". He immediately applied to the High Court to prevent the Pink Floyd name from being used again, but his lawyers discovered that the partnership had never been formally confirmed. Waters returned to the High Court in an attempt to gain a veto over further use of the band's name. Gilmour's team responded by issuing a press release affirming that Pink Floyd would continue to exist; however, Gilmour told a \"Sunday Times\" reporter: \"Roger is a dog in the manger and I'm going to fight him, no one else has claimed Pink Floyd was entirely them. Anybody who does is extremely arrogant.\" Waters twice visited \"Astoria\", and with his wife had a meeting in August 1986 with Ezrin; Ezrin later suggested that he was being \"checked out\". As Waters was still a shareholder and director of Pink Floyd Music, he was able to block any decisions made by his former bandmates. Recording moved to Mayfair Studios in February 1987, and from February to March – under the terms of an agreement with Ezrin to record close to his home – to A&M Studios in Los Angeles: \"It was fantastic because... the lawyers couldn't call in the middle of recording unless they were calling in the middle of the night.\" The bitterness of the row between Waters and Pink Floyd was covered in a November 1987 issue of \"Rolling Stone\", which became the magazine's best-selling issue of that year. The legal disputes were resolved out-of-court by the end of 1987.", "Careful consideration was given to the album's title, with the initial three contenders being \"Signs of Life\", \"Of Promises Broken\" and \"Delusions of Maturity\". The final title appears as a line in the chorus of \"One Slip\". For the first time since 1977's \"Animals\", designer Storm Thorgerson was employed to work on a Pink Floyd studio album cover. His finished design was a long river of hospital beds arranged on a beach, inspired by a phrase from \"Yet Another Movie\" and Gilmour's vague hint of a design that included a bed in a Mediterranean house, as well as \"vestiges of relationships that have evaporated, leaving only echoes\". The cover shows hundreds of hospital beds, placed on Saunton Sands in Devon (where some of the scenes for \"Pink Floyd – The Wall\" were filmed). The beds were arranged by Thorgerson's colleague Colin Elgie. A hang glider in the sky references \"Learning to Fly\". The photographer, Robert Dowling, won a gold award at the Association of Photographers Awards for the image, which took about two weeks to create. To emphasise that Waters had left the band, the inner gatefold featured a photograph of just Gilmour and Mason shot by David Bailey. Its inclusion marked the first time since 1971's \"Meddle\" that a group photo had been used in the artwork of a Pink Floyd album. Wright was represented only by name, on the credits.", "\"A Momentary Lapse of Reason\" was released in the UK and US on 7 September 1987. It went straight to number three in both countries, held from the top spot in the US by Michael Jackson's \"Bad\" and Whitesnake's self-titled album. It spent 34 weeks on the UK Albums Chart. It was certified silver and gold in the UK on 1 October 1987, and gold and platinum in the US on 9 November. It went double platinum on 18 January the following year, triple platinum on 10 March 1992, and quadruple platinum on 16 August 2001, greatly outselling \"The Final Cut\". Gilmour presented \"A Momentary Lapse\" as a return to an older Pink Floyd sound, citing his belief that under Waters' tenure, lyrics had become more important than music. He said that their albums \"The Dark Side of the Moon\" and \"Wish You Were Here\" were successful \"not just because of Roger's contributions, but also because there was a better balance between the music and the lyrics [than on later albums]\". Waters said of the album: \"I think it's very facile, but a quite clever forgery... The songs are poor in general; the lyrics I can't quite believe. Gilmour's lyrics are very third-rate.\" Wright later said Waters' criticisms were \"fair\". In \"Q\", Phil Sutcliffe wrote that it \"does sound like a Pink Floyd album\" and highlighted the two-part \"A New Machine\" as \"a chillingly beautiful vocal exploration\" and a \"brilliant stroke of imagination\". He concluded: \"\"A Momentary Lapse\" is Gilmour's album to much the same degree that the previous four under Floyd's name were dominated by Waters... Clearly it wasn't only business sense and repressed ego but repressed talent which drove the guitarist to insist on continuing under the band brand-name.\" Recognising the return to a more music-oriented approach, \"Sounds\" said the album was \"back over the wall to where diamonds are crazy, moons have dark sides, and mothers have atom hearts\". Conversely, Greg Quill of the \"Toronto Star\" wrote: \"Something's missing here. This is, for all its lumbering weight, not a record that challenges and provokes as Pink Floyd should. \"A Momentary Lapse of Reason\", sorry to say, is mundane, predictable.\" \"Village Voice\" critic Robert Christgau wrote: \"You'd hardly know the group's conceptmaster was gone – except that they put out noticeably fewer ideas.\" In 2016, AllMusic critic William Ruhlmann described it as a \"Gilmour solo album in all but name\". In 2016, Nick Shilton chose \"A Momentary Lapse of Reason\" as one of the \"Top 10 Essential 80s Prog Albums\" for \"Prog\". He wrote: \"While it's not a patch on the Floyd masterworks of the 70s, it merits inclusion here. The ironically titled 'Signs of Life' is an instrumental prelude for 'Learning to Fly' which showcases Gilmour's guitar, while the pulsating 'The Dogs of War' is considerably darker, and the uplifting 'On the Turning Away' simply sublime.\"", "The album was reissued in 1988 as a limited-edition vinyl album, complete with posters, and a guaranteed ticket application for the band's upcoming UK concerts. It was digitally remastered and re-released in 1994, and a tenth anniversary edition was issued in the US three years later. \"A Momentary Lapse of Reason\" was reissued again as part of the \"Later Years\" box set released in December 2019. The album was \"updated and remixed\" by Gilmour and Jackson, with restored contributions from Wright and newly recorded drum tracks from Mason to \"restore the creative balance between the three Pink Floyd members\". \"Rolling Stone\" described this version as \"more tasteful... [it] doesn’t drown in eighties reverb the way the original did... Although none of the \"Momentary Lapse\" remixes will be dramatic enough to sway the band’s critics, they add clarity to what Gilmour was trying to achieve.\"", "Pink Floyd decided to tour for the album before it was complete. Early rehearsals were chaotic; Mason and Wright were out of practice, and, realising he had taken on too much work, Gilmour asked Ezrin to take charge. Matters were complicated when Waters contacted several US promoters and threatened to sue if they used the Pink Floyd name. Gilmour and Mason funded the start-up costs; Mason, separated from his wife, used his Ferrari 250 GTO as collateral. Some promoters were offended by Waters' threat, and several months later 60,000 tickets went on sale in Toronto, selling out within hours. As the new line-up (with Wright) toured throughout North America, Waters' \"Radio K.A.O.S.\" tour was sometimes close by. Waters forbade the members of Pink Floyd to attend his concerts, which were generally in smaller venues. Waters also issued a writ for copyright fees for use of the Pink Floyd flying pig; Pink Floyd responded by attaching a huge set of male genitalia to the balloon's underside to distinguish it from Waters' design. By November 1987, Waters had given up, and on 23 December a legal settlement was reached at a meeting on \"Astoria\". The \"Momentary Lapse\" tour beat box office records in every US venue it booked, and was the most successful US tour that year. Tours of Australia, Japan, and Europe followed, before two more tours of the US. Almost every venue was sold out. A live album, \"Delicate Sound of Thunder\", was released on 22 November 1988, followed in June 1989 by a concert video. A few days later, the live album was played in orbit, on board Soyuz TM-7. The tour eventually came to an end by closing the Silver Clef Award Winners Concert, at Knebworth Park on 30 June 1990, after 200 performances, a gross audience of 4.25 million fans, and box office receipts of more than £60 million (not including merchandising).", "All lead vocals performed by David Gilmour except where noted. Note", "Track numbering refers to CD and digital releases of the album. Pink Floyd Production Additional musicians", "Notes Footnotes Bibliography" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Denmark and Germany.", "Depression and \"Messias\".", "Last years.", "Works.", "\"Der Messias\".", "Odes and dramas.", "Prose.", "Correspondence.", "Editions.", "Goethe's description.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Klopstock was born at Quedlinburg, the eldest son of a lawyer. Both in his birthplace and on the estate of Friedeburg on the Saale, which his father later rented, he spent a happy childhood. Having been given more attention to his physical than to his mental development, he grew up strong and healthy and was considered an excellent horseman. In his thirteenth year, he returned to Quedlinburg and attended the gymnasium there, and in 1739 went on to the famous classical school named Schulpforta. Here he soon became adept in Greek and Latin versification, and wrote some meritorious idylls and odes in German. His original intention of making Henry the Fowler the hero of an epic was abandoned in favor of a religious epic, under the influence of Milton's \"Paradise Lost,\" with which he became acquainted through Bodmer's translation. While still at school, he had already drafted the plan of \"Der Messias\" on which most of his fame rests. On 21 September 1745 he delivered, on quitting school, a remarkable \"departing oration\" on epic poetry—\"Abschiedsrede über die epische Poesie, kultur- und literargeschichtlich erläutert\"—and next proceeded to Jena as a student of theology, where he drew up in prose the first three cantos of the \"Messias\". Finding life at that university not to his liking, he transferred in the spring of 1746 to Leipzig, where he joined a circle of young men of letters who contributed to the \"Bremer Beiträge\". In this periodical the first three cantos of \"Der Messias\" were published anonymously in hexameter verse in 1748.", "A new era in German literature had commenced, and the identity of the author soon became known. In Leipzig he also wrote a number of odes, the best known of which is \"An meine Freunde\" (1747), afterwards recast as \"Wingolf\" (1767). He left the university in 1748 and became a private tutor in the family of a relative at Langensalza, where unrequited love for a cousin (the \"Fanny\" of his odes) disturbed his peace of mind. For that reason he gladly accepted in 1750 an invitation from Bodmer, the translator of \"Paradise Lost\", to visit him in Zürich, where Klopstock was initially treated with every kindness and respect and rapidly recovered his spirits. Bodmer, however, was disappointed to find in the young poet of the \"Messias\" a man of strong worldly interests, and a coolness sprang up between the two men. At this juncture Klopstock received from Frederick V of Denmark, on the recommendation of his minister Count von Bernstorff (1712–1772), an invitation to settle in Copenhagen with an annuity of 400 thalers, in the hope that he would complete \"Der Messias\" there. The offer was accepted. On his way to the Danish capital, Klopstock met in Hamburg the woman who later in 1754 became his wife,, the \"Cidli\" of his odes. She was the daughter of a Hamburg merchant and an enthusiastic admirer of his poetry. His happiness was short, as she died in 1758, leaving him broken-hearted. His grief at her loss finds pathetic expression in the fifteenth canto of the \"Messias\". The poet subsequently published his wife's writings, \"Hinterlassene Werke von Margareta Klopstock\" (1759), which give evidence of a tender, sensitive and deeply religious spirit. See also \"Memoirs of Frederick and Margaret Klopstock\" (English translation by Elizabeth Smith, London, 1808) and her correspondence with Samuel Richardson, published 1818.", "Klopstock now relapsed into melancholy; new ideas failed him, and his poetry became more introspective. He continued to live and work in Copenhagen, however, and next, following Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg, turned his attention to northern mythology, which in his view should replace classical subjects in a new school of German poetry. In 1770, when King Christian VII dismissed Count Bernstorff from office, he retired with the latter to Hamburg but retained his pension, together with the rank of councillor of legation. In 1773 were published the last five cantos of the \"Messias\". In the following year he published a scheme for the regeneration of German letters, \"Die Gelehrtenrepublik\" (1774). In 1775 he traveled south, and making the acquaintance of Goethe on the way, spent a year at the court of the Margrave of Baden at Karlsruhe. Thence, in 1776, with the title of \"Hofrath\" and a pension from the Margrave, which he retained along with that from the king of Denmark, he returned to Hamburg where he spent the remainder of his life.", "His latter years he passed, as had always been his inclination, in retirement, only occasionally relieved by socializing with his most intimate friends, occupied in philological studies and taking scant interest in the new developments in German literature. However, he was enthusiastic about the American War of Independence and the French Revolution. The French Republic sent him a diploma of honorary citizenship; but, horrified at the terrible scenes the Revolution had enacted in the name of liberty, he returned it. At the age of 67 he undertook a second marriage, to Johanna Elisabeth von Winthem, a widow and a niece of his late wife, who for many years had been one of his most intimate friends. He died in Hamburg on 14 March 1803, mourned throughout Germany, and was buried with great ceremony next to his first wife in the churchyard of the village of Ottensen.", "", "The \"Messias\" follows from the aspirations to become an epic poet, which Klopstock nurtured in his early years. The leitmotif of the work is the Redemption, which is given an epic treatment. He resorted to Christian mythology in trying to circumscribe the subject-matter within the dogmas of the Church. Milton's \"Paradise Lost\" was one of the models Klopstock had in mind in giving form to his poem. The poem took twenty-five years to complete. The work aroused intense public enthusiasm at its commencement. It has been translated into seventeen languages, and led to numerous imitations.", "In his odes Klopstock had more scope for his distinctive talent. Some have Nordic mythological inspiration, while others emphasize religious themes. Among the most celebrated and translated are \"An Fanny\"; \"Der Zürchersee\"; \"Die tote Klarissa\"; \"An Cidli\"; \"Die beiden Musen\"; \"Der Rheinwein\"; \"Die frühen Gräber\", \"Mein Vaterland\". His religious odes mostly take the form of hymns, of which the most beautiful is \"Die Frühlingsfeier\".. In some of his dramas, notably \"Hermanns Schlacht\" (1769) and \"Hermann und die Fürsten\" (1784), Klopstock celebrated the deeds of the ancient German hero Arminius, and in others, \"Der Tod Adams\" (1757) and \"Salomo\" (1764), he took his materials from the Old Testament. These also represent an important part of his body of work. He immortalized his 1750s visit at the Swiss Au peninsula in his \"Ode an den Zürichsee\" (“Ode to Lake Zurich”). It has been said that Klopstock's hymn \"Die Auferstehung\" at the funeral of Hans von Bülow in 1894 gave Gustav Mahler the inspiration for the final movement of his second Symphony. Mahler incorporated the hymn with extra verses he wrote himself to bring a personal resolution to this work.", "In addition to \"Die Gelehrtenrepublik\", he was also the author of \"Fragmente über Sprache und Dichtkunst\" (1779) and \"Grammatische Gespräche\" (1794), works in which he made important contributions to philology and to the history of German poetry.", "As was common in the period, Klopstock kept up an abundant correspondence with his contemporaries, friends, and colleagues, and this has been published in diverse collections. Some of them are listed below:", "Klopstock's \"Werke\" first appeared in seven quarto volumes (1798–1809). At the same time a more complete edition in twelve octavo volumes was published (1798–1817), to which six additional volumes were added in 1830. Other nineteenth-century editions were published in 1844–1845, 1854–1855, 1879 (ed. by R. Boxberger), 1884 (ed. by R. Hamel) and 1893 (a selection edited by F. Muncker). A critical edition of the \"Odes\" was published by F. Muncker and J. Pawel in 1889; a commentary on these by H. Düntzer (1860; 2nd ed., 1878).", "Goethe in his autobiography recorded his personal impression of Klopstock: \"He was of small stature, but well built. His manners were grave and decorous, but free from pedantry. His address was intelligent and pleasing. On the whole, one might have taken him for a diplomatist. He carried himself with the self-conscious dignity of a person who has a great moral mission to fulfil. He conversed with facility on various subjects, but rather avoided speaking of poetry and literary matters.\"", "Klopstock's enrichment of poetic vocabulary and attention to prosody did great service to the poets who immediately followed him. In freeing German poetry from its exclusive interest in Alexandrine verse, he became the founder of a new era in German literature, so that Schiller and Goethe were artistically indebted to him. An 800 year old oak tree where Klopstock spent time in Denmark was named after him." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure.", "Location.", "Cartilages.", "Muscles.", "Intrinsic.", "Extrinsic.", "Nerve supply.", "Development.", "Function.", "Sound generation.", "Other.", "Clinical significance.", "Disorders.", "Treatments.", "Other animals.", "Non-mammals.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The triangle-shaped larynx consists largely of cartilages that are attached to one another, and to surrounding structures, by muscles or by fibrous and elastic tissue components. It is lined by a ciliated mucous membrane. The cavity of the larynx extends from its triangle-shaped inlet the epiglottis to the circular outlet at the lower border of the cricoid cartilage, where it is continuous with the lumen of the trachea. The mucous membrane lining the larynx forms two pairs of lateral folds that jut inward into its cavity. The upper folds are called the vestibular folds. They are also sometimes called the false vocal folds for the rather obvious reason that they play no part in vocalization. The lower pair serves as the vocal folds, which produce sounds needed for speech and other vocalizations. The vocal folds are sometimes called the true vocal folds or simply vocal cords (and often mistakenly spelt as, “vocal chords”). The slitlike space between the left and right vocal folds, called the rima glottidis, is the narrowest part of the larynx. The vocal folds and the space between them (rima glottidis) are together designated as the glottis. An endoscopic view of the vocal folds and related structures. The laryngeal cavity above the vestibular folds is called the vestibule. The very middle portion of the cavity between the vestibular and vocal folds is the ventricle of the larynx, or laryngeal ventricle. The infraglottic cavity is the open space below the glottis.", "In adult humans, the larynx is found in the anterior neck at the level of the C3–C6 vertebrae. It connects the inferior part of the pharynx (hypopharynx) with the trachea. The laryngeal skeleton consists of six cartilages: three single (epiglottic, thyroid and cricoid) and three paired (arytenoid, corniculate, and cuneiform). The hyoid bone is not part of the larynx, though the larynx is suspended from the hyoid. The larynx extends vertically from the tip of the epiglottis to the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage. Its interior can be divided in supraglottis, glottis and subglottis.", "There are six cartilages, three unpaired and three paired, that support the mammalian larynx and form its skeleton. Unpaired cartilages: Paired cartilages:", "The muscles of the larynx are divided into \"intrinsic\" and \"extrinsic\" muscles. The intrinsic muscles are divided into respiratory and the phonatory muscles (the muscles of phonation). The respiratory muscles move the vocal cords apart and serve breathing. The phonatory muscles move the vocal cords together and serve the production of voice. The extrinsic, passing between the larynx and parts around; and intrinsic, confined entirely. The main respiratory muscles are the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles. The phonatory muscles are divided into adductors (lateral cricoarytenoid muscles, arytenoid muscles) and tensors (cricothyroid muscles, thyroarytenoid muscles).", "The intrinsic laryngeal muscles are responsible for controlling sound production. Notably the only muscle capable of separating the vocal cords for normal breathing is the posterior cricoarytenoid. If this muscle is incapacitated on both sides, the inability to pull the vocal folds apart (abduct) will cause difficulty breathing. Bilateral injury to the recurrent laryngeal nerve would cause this condition. It is also worth noting that all muscles are innervated by the recurrent laryngeal branch of the vagus except the cricothyroid muscle, which is innervated by the external laryngeal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve (a branch of the vagus). Additionally, intrinsic laryngeal muscles present a constitutive Ca-buffering profile that predicts their better ability to handle calcium changes in comparison to other muscles. This profile is in agreement with their function as very fast muscles with a well-developed capacity for prolonged work. Studies suggests that mechanisms involved in the prompt sequestering of Ca (sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca-reuptake proteins, plasma membrane pumps, and cytosolic Ca-buffering proteins) are particularly elevated in laryngeal muscles, indicating their importance for the myofiber function and protection against disease, such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Furthermore, different levels of Orai1 in rat intrinsic laryngeal muscles and extraocular muscles over the limb muscle suggests a role for store operated calcium entry channels in those muscles' functional properties and signaling mechanisms.", "The extrinsic laryngeal muscles support and position the larynx within the mid-cervical region. [trachea.]", "The larynx is innervated by branches of the vagus nerve on each side. Sensory innervation to the glottis and laryngeal vestibule is by the internal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve. The external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve innervates the cricothyroid muscle. Motor innervation to all other muscles of the larynx and sensory innervation to the subglottis is by the recurrent laryngeal nerve. While the sensory input described above is (general) visceral sensation (diffuse, poorly localized), the vocal fold also receives general somatic sensory innervation (proprioceptive and touch) by the superior laryngeal nerve. Injury to the external laryngeal nerve causes weakened phonation because the vocal folds cannot be tightened. Injury to one of the recurrent laryngeal nerves produces hoarseness, if both are damaged the voice may or may not be preserved, but breathing becomes difficult.", "In newborn infants, the larynx is initially at the level of the C2–C3 vertebrae, and is further forward and higher relative to its position in the adult body. The larynx descends as the child grows.", "", "Sound is generated in the larynx, and that is where pitch and volume are manipulated. The strength of expiration from the lungs also contributes to loudness. Manipulation of the larynx is used to generate a source sound with a particular fundamental frequency, or pitch. This source sound is altered as it travels through the vocal tract, configured differently based on the position of the tongue, lips, mouth, and pharynx. The process of altering a source sound as it passes through the filter of the vocal tract creates the many different vowel and consonant sounds of the world's languages as well as tone, certain realizations of stress and other types of linguistic prosody. The larynx also has a similar function to the lungs in creating pressure differences required for sound production; a constricted larynx can be raised or lowered affecting the volume of the oral cavity as necessary in glottalic consonants. The vocal folds can be held close together (by adducting the arytenoid cartilages) so that they vibrate (see phonation). The muscles attached to the arytenoid cartilages control the degree of opening. Vocal fold length and tension can be controlled by rocking the thyroid cartilage forward and backward on the cricoid cartilage (either directly by contracting the cricothyroids or indirectly by changing the vertical position of the larynx), by manipulating the tension of the muscles within the vocal folds, and by moving the arytenoids forward or backward. This causes the pitch produced during phonation to rise or fall. In most males the vocal folds are longer and with a greater mass than most females' vocal folds, producing a lower pitch. The vocal apparatus consists of two pairs of mucosal folds. These folds are false vocal folds (vestibular folds) and true vocal folds (folds). The false vocal folds are covered by respiratory epithelium, while the true vocal folds are covered by stratified squamous epithelium. The false vocal folds are not responsible for sound production, but rather for resonance. The exceptions to this are found in Tibetan Chant and Kargyraa, a style of Tuvan throat singing. Both make use of the false vocal folds to create an undertone. These false vocal folds do not contain muscle, while the true vocal folds do have skeletal muscle.", "The most important role of the larynx is its protecting function; the prevention of foreign objects from entering the lungs by coughing and other reflexive actions. A cough is initiated by a deep inhalation through the vocal folds, followed by the elevation of the larynx and the tight adduction (closing) of the vocal folds. The forced expiration that follows, assisted by tissue recoil and the muscles of expiration, blows the vocal folds apart, and the high pressure expels the irritating object out of the throat. Throat clearing is less violent than coughing, but is a similar increased respiratory effort countered by the tightening of the laryngeal musculature. Both coughing and throat clearing are predictable and necessary actions because they clear the respiratory passageway, but both place the vocal folds under significant strain. Another important role of the larynx is abdominal fixation, a kind of Valsalva maneuver in which the lungs are filled with air in order to stiffen the thorax so that forces applied for lifting can be translated down to the legs. This is achieved by a deep inhalation followed by the adduction of the vocal folds. Grunting while lifting heavy objects is the result of some air escaping through the adducted vocal folds ready for phonation. Abduction of the vocal folds is important during physical exertion. The vocal folds are separated by about during normal respiration, but this width is doubled during forced respiration. During swallowing, elevation of the posterior portion of the tongue levers (inverts) the epiglottis over the glottis' opening to prevent swallowed material from entering the larynx which leads to the lungs, and provides a path for a food or liquid bolus to \"slide\" into the esophagus; the hyo-laryngeal complex is also pulled upwards to assist this process. Stimulation of the larynx by aspirated food or liquid produces a strong cough reflex to protect the lungs. In addition, intrinsic laryngeal muscles are spared from some muscle wasting disorders, such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy, may facilitate the development of novel strategies for the prevention and treatment of muscle wasting in a variety of clinical scenarios. ILM have a calcium regulation system profile suggestive of a better ability to handle calcium changes in comparison to other muscles, and this may provide a mechanistic insight for their unique pathophysiological properties", "", "There are several things that can cause a larynx to not function properly. Some symptoms are hoarseness, loss of voice, pain in the throat or ears, and breathing difficulties.", "Patients who have lost the use of their larynx are typically prescribed the use of an electrolarynx device. Larynx transplants are a rare procedure. The world's first successful operation took place in 1998 at the Cleveland Clinic, and the second took place in October 2010 at the University of California Davis Medical Center in Sacramento.", "Pioneering work on the structure and evolution of the larynx was carried out in the 1920s by the British comparative anatomist Victor Negus, culminating in his monumental work \"The Mechanism of the Larynx\" (1929). Negus, however, pointed out that the descent of the larynx reflected the reshaping and descent of the human tongue into the pharynx. This process is not complete until age six to eight years. Some researchers, such as Philip Lieberman, Dennis Klatt, Bart de Boer and Kenneth Stevens using computer-modeling techniques have suggested that the species-specific human tongue allows the vocal tract (the airway above the larynx) to assume the shapes necessary to produce speech sounds that enhance the robustness of human speech. Sounds such as the vowels of the words see and do, [i] and [u], (in phonetic notation) have been shown to be less subject to confusion in classic studies such as the 1950 Peterson and Barney investigation of the possibilities for computerized speech recognition. In contrast, though other species have low larynges, their tongues remain anchored in their mouths and their vocal tracts cannot produce the range of speech sounds of humans. The ability to lower the larynx transiently in some species extends the length of their vocal tract, which as Fitch showed creates the acoustic illusion that they are larger. Research at Haskins Laboratories in the 1960s showed that speech allows humans to achieve a vocal communication rate that exceeds the fusion frequency of the auditory system by fusing sounds together into syllables and words. The additional speech sounds that the human tongue enables us to produce, particularly [i], allow humans to unconsciously infer the length of the vocal tract of the person who is talking, a critical element in recovering the phonemes that make up a word.", "Most tetrapod species possess a larynx, but its structure is typically simpler than that found in mammals. The cartilages surrounding the larynx are apparently a remnant of the original gill arches in fish, and are a common feature, but not all are always present. For example, the thyroid cartilage is found only in mammals. Similarly, only mammals possess a true epiglottis, although a flap of non-cartilagenous mucosa is found in a similar position in many other groups. In modern amphibians, the laryngeal skeleton is considerably reduced; frogs have only the cricoid and arytenoid cartilages, while salamanders possess only the arytenoids. Vocal folds are found only in mammals, and a few lizards. As a result, many reptiles and amphibians are essentially voiceless; frogs use ridges in the trachea to modulate sound, while birds have a separate sound-producing organ, the syrinx.", "The ancient Greek physician Galen first described the larynx, describing it as the \"first and supremely most important instrument of the voice\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "General information.", "Structure.", "Knots." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The Helix Nebula is an example of a planetary nebula, formed by an intermediate to low-mass star, which sheds its outer layers near the end of its evolution. Gases from the star in the surrounding space appear, from our vantage point, as if we are looking down a helix structure. The remnant central stellar core, known as the central star (CS) of the planetary nebula, is destined to become a white dwarf star. The observed glow of the central star is so energetic that it causes the previously expelled gases to brightly fluoresce. The nebula is in the constellation of Aquarius, and lies about 650 light-years away, spanning about 0.8 parsecs (2.5 light-years). Its age is estimated to be years, based on its measured expansion rate of 31 km·s.", "The Helix Nebula is thought to be shaped like a prolate spheroid with strong density concentrations toward the filled disk along the equatorial plane, whose major axis is inclined about 21° to 37° from our vantage point. The size of the inner disk is 8×19 arcmin in diameter (0.52 pc); the outer torus is 12×22 arcmin in diameter (0.77 pc); and the outer-most ring is about 25 arcmin in diameter (1.76 pc). We see the outer-most ring as flattened on one side due to its colliding with the ambient interstellar medium. Expansion of the whole planetary nebula structure is estimated to have occurred in the last 6,560 years, and 12,100 years for the inner disk. Spectroscopically, the outer ring's expansion rate is 40 km/s, and about 32 km/s for the inner disk.", "The Helix Nebula was the first planetary nebula discovered to contain cometary knots. Its main ring contains knots of nebulosity, which have now been detected in several nearby planetary nebulae, especially those with a molecular envelope like the Ring nebula and the Dumbbell Nebula. These knots are radially symmetric (from the CS) and are described as \"cometary\", each centered on a core of neutral molecular gas and containing bright local photoionization fronts or cusps towards the central star and tails away from it. All tails extend away from the PNN in a radial direction. Excluding the tails, each knot is approximately the size of the Solar system, while each of the cusp knots are optically thick due to Lyc photons from the CS. There are about 40,000 cometary knots in the Helix Nebula. The excitation temperature varies across the Helix nebula. The rotational-vibrational temperature ranges from 1800 K in a cometary knot located in the inner region of the nebula are about 2.5'(arcmin) from the CS, and is calculated at about 900 K in the outer region at the distance of 5.6'." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Formation (1975).", "First world tour and initial success (1975–1978).", "Commercial success (1978–1984).", "Dissolution and temporary revival (1984–1997).", "Split (1997–2014).", "Revival (2015–present)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "By 1973, Blackmore had steered Deep Purple through a significant personnel change, with Ian Gillan and Roger Glover being replaced by David Coverdale and Glenn Hughes. However, the new members were keen to add musical styles and Blackmore found his request to record the Steve Hammond-penned \"Black Sheep of the Family\" with \"Sixteenth Century Greensleeves\" turned down by the band. He decided to record the song with Dio instead, using Dio's band Elf as musicians. He enjoyed the results, and a full album, billed as \"Ritchie Blackmore's Rainbow\", was recorded between February and March 1975 at Musicland Studios in Munich, Germany. The band name was inspired by the Rainbow Bar and Grill in West Hollywood, California. Rainbow's music was partly inspired by classical music since Blackmore started playing cello to help him construct interesting chord progressions, and Dio wrote lyrics about medieval themes. Dio possessed a powerful and versatile vocal range that encompassed hard rock and lighter ballads. Blackmore reported, \"I felt shivers down my spine.\" Although Dio never played a musical instrument on any Rainbow album, he is credited with writing and arranging the music with Blackmore, in addition to writing all the lyrics. Blackmore and Dio also found a common ground in their sense of humour. Rainbow, said the singer, \"was my opportunity to show my wares. I thank Ritchie for that all the time. Ritchie Blackmore is the one who gave me my opportunity to show what I was worth.\" Following the positive experience of recording with Dio, Blackmore decided to leave Deep Purple, playing his last show with them in Paris in April. The album met a positive critical reception and was a top 20 UK and top 30 US hit. Blackmore's departure from Purple was announced on 21 June.", "Blackmore was unhappy about carrying the Elf line-up along for live performances, and so he fired everybody except Dio shortly after the album was recorded, due to Driscoll's style of drumming and the funky bass playing of Gruber. Blackmore would continue to dictate personnel for the remainder of the band's lifetime, with drummer and former bandmate Ricky Munro remarking \"he was very difficult to get on with because you never knew when he would turn around and say 'You're sacked'.\" Blackmore recruited bassist Jimmy Bain, American keyboard player Tony Carey and drummer Cozy Powell, who had previously worked with Jeff Beck and had some solo success. Powell also greatly appealed to Blackmore in their mutual fondness for practical jokes. This line-up also commenced the first world tour for the band, with the first date in Montreal on 10 November 1975. The centrepiece of the band's live performance was a computer-controlled rainbow including 3,000 lightbulbs, which stretched 40 feet across the stage. A second album, \"Rising\", was recorded in February at Musicland. By the time of the European dates in the summer of 1976, Rainbow's reputation as a blistering live act had been established. The band added Deep Purple's \"Mistreated\" to their setlist, and song lengths were stretched to include improvisation. Carey recalls rehearsing the material was fairly straightforward, saying \"We didn't work anything out, except the structure, the ending... very free-form, really progressive rock.\" The album art was designed by American fantasy artist Ken Kelly, who had drawn Tarzan and Conan the Barbarian. In August 1976, following a gig at Newcastle City Hall, Blackmore decided to fire Carey, believing his playing style to be too complicated for the band. Unable to find a suitable replacement quickly, Carey was quickly reinstated, but as the world tour progressed on to Japan, he found himself regularly being the recipient of Blackmore's pranks and humour. Blackmore subsequently decided that Bain was substandard and fired him in January 1977. The same fate befell Carey shortly after. Blackmore, however, had difficulty finding replacements he liked. On keyboards, after auditioning several high-profile artists, including Vanilla Fudge's Mark Stein, Procol Harum's Matthew Fisher and ex-Curved Air and Roxy Music man Eddie Jobson, Blackmore finally selected Canadian David Stone, from the little-known band Symphonic Slam. For a bass player, Blackmore originally chose Mark Clarke, formerly of Jon Hiseman's Colosseum, Uriah Heep and Tempest, but once in the studio for the next album, \"Long Live Rock 'n' Roll\", Blackmore disliked Clarke's fingerstyle method of playing so much that he fired him on the spot and played bass himself on all but four songs: the album's title track, \"Gates of Babylon\", \"Kill the King\", and \"Sensitive to Light\". Former Widowmaker bassist Bob Daisley was hired to record these tracks, completing the band's next line-up. After the release and extensive world tour in 1977–78, Blackmore decided that he wanted to take the band in a new commercial direction away from the \"sword and sorcery\" theme. Dio did not agree with this change and left Rainbow. In a 1979 interview with Sounds (magazine), Blackmore said: \"If they were good enough, they'd still be in the band. I'm not putting down the other members who were in the band, but no-one has ever left Rainbow. It's a fact. Not a confrontation just, well you didn't quite make it, you'll have to do other things. \"Ronnie is a very good singer- I still like him- but he was becoming very lackadaisical. I'm sure if he were here now he would argue the point, but the fact is, Ronnie was not contributing what he should have done, and he knows that. For the last two years I would put down the riff, the progressions, give him the basic melody and he would write the lyrics. I found that in the past year he wasn't really doing that. He was bitching about the fact that it was Ritchie Blackmore's Rainbow. And I'm going, look, I've tried after three years to make it just Rainbow, not my Rainbow. \"When people leave the band we don't give too many reasons because we don't want to hinder their career. But if someone's not pulling their weight then I will not put up with someone who's second rate. I'm not going to jump onstage and say 'it's alright ladies and gentlemen, I know they're not very good but they are my friends' like most bands do. \"A couple of people in the band were taking quite a few drugs and consequently were falling asleep while they were playing because they'd been partying all night. I gave them the sack. It's incredible how those people react. They say 'how dare he do that to me?' But what have they got to offer other than looking the part?\"", "Blackmore asked Ian Gillan, also formerly of Deep Purple, to replace Dio, but Gillan turned him down. After a series of auditions, Graham Bonnet, former singer/guitarist of The Marbles, was recruited. Powell stayed, but Daisley was fired, and David Stone quit the band to be replaced by keyboardist Don Airey. At first the band auditioned bass players, but at Cozy Powell's suggestion Blackmore hired another former Deep Purple member, Roger Glover, as a producer, bassist and lyricist. The first album from the new line-up, \"Down to Earth\", featured the band's first major singles chart successes, \"All Night Long\" and the Russ Ballard-penned \"Since You Been Gone\". In 1980, the band headlined the inaugural Monsters of Rock festival at Castle Donington in England. However, this was Powell's last Rainbow gig: he had already given his notice to quit, disliking Blackmore's increasingly pop rock direction. Then Bonnet resigned to pursue a solo project. For the next album, Bonnet and Powell were replaced by Americans Joe Lynn Turner and Bobby Rondinelli, respectively. The title track from \"Difficult to Cure\" was a version of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. The album spawned their most successful UK single, \"I Surrender\" (another Ballard song), which reached No.3. After the supporting tour, Don Airey quit over musical differences and was replaced by David Rosenthal. The band attained significant airplay on Album-oriented rock radio stations in the US with the track \"Jealous Lover\", reaching No. 13 on Billboard Magazine's Rock Tracks chart. Originally issued as the B-side to \"Can't Happen Here\", \"Jealous Lover\" subsequently became the title track to an EP issued in the US that featured similar cover art to \"Difficult to Cure\". Rainbow's next full-length studio album was \"Straight Between the Eyes\". The album was more cohesive than \"Difficult to Cure\", and had more success in the United States. The band, however, was alienating some of its earlier fans with its more AOR sound. The single \"Stone Cold\" was a ballad that had some chart success (No. 1 on \"Billboard\" Magazine's Rock Tracks chart) and its video received heavy airplay on MTV. The successful supporting tour skipped the UK completely and focused on the American market. A date in San Antonio, Texas, on this tour was filmed, and the resulting \"Live Between the Eyes\" also received repeated showings on MTV. \"Bent Out of Shape\" saw drummer Rondinelli fired in favour of former Balance drummer Chuck Burgi. The album featured the single \"Street of Dreams\". Blackmore claims on his website that the song's video was banned by MTV for its supposedly controversial hypnotic video clip, but Dr. Thomas Radecki of the National Coalition on Television Violence criticised MTV for airing the video, contradicting Blackmore's claim. The resulting tour saw Rainbow return to the UK, and also to Japan in March 1984 where the band performed \"Difficult to Cure\" with a full orchestra. The concert was also filmed.", "Rainbow's management Thames Talent co-ordinated attempts to successfully reform Deep Purple MK. II. By April 1984, Rainbow was disbanded. A then-final Rainbow album, \"Finyl Vinyl\", was pieced together from live tracks and B-sides of singles, including the instrumental \"Weiss Heim\" (All Night Long B-side), \"Bad Girl\" (Since You Been Gone B-side), and \"Jealous Lover\" (Can't Happen Here B-side). In 1988, after joining the band Impelliteri, Graham Bonnet covered \"Since You Been Gone\" on the group's debut album, \"Stand In Line\". In 1993, Blackmore left Deep Purple permanently due to \"creative differences\" with other members, and reformed Rainbow with all-new members featuring Scottish singer Doogie White. The band released \"Stranger in Us All\" in 1995, and embarked on a lengthy world tour. The tour proved successful, and the show in Düsseldorf, Germany, was professionally filmed for the \"Rockpalast\" TV show. This show, initially heavily bootlegged (and considered by many collectors to be the best Rainbow bootleg of the era), was officially released by Eagle Records on CD and DVD as \"Black Masquerade\" in 2013. The live shows featured frequent changes in set lists, and musical improvisations that proved popular with bootleggers and many shows are still traded over a decade later. However, Blackmore turned his attention to his long-time musical passion, Renaissance and medieval music. Rainbow was put on hold once again after playing its final concert in Esbjerg, Denmark in 1997. Blackmore, together with his partner Candice Night as vocalist then formed the Renaissance-influenced Blackmore's Night. Around the same time as production of \"Stranger in Us All\" (1995), they were already gearing up their debut album \"Shadow of the Moon\" (1997).", "Many Rainbow songs have been performed live by former members of the band since the group's split in 1984 and then in 1997, particularly former frontmen Ronnie James Dio, Graham Bonnet, Joe Lynn Turner and Doogie White in recent years. Also, Don Airey often plays 1979-1981 era songs during his solo shows. Blackmore's Night occasionally performs one or two Rainbow songs live, namely \"Ariel\", \"Rainbow Eyes\", \"Street of Dreams\" and \"Temple of the King\". The latter three were also re-recorded by Blackmore's Night in studio. In 2002–2004, the Hughes Turner Project played a number of Rainbow songs at their concerts. On 9 August 2007, Joe Lynn Turner and Graham Bonnet played a tribute to Rainbow show in Helsinki, Finland. The concert consisted of songs from the 1979-1983 era. In 2009, Joe Lynn Turner, Bobby Rondinelli, Greg Smith and Tony Carey created the touring tribute band Over The Rainbow with Jürgen Blackmore (Ritchie's son) as the guitarist. Over The Rainbow performed songs from every era of the band's history. After the first tour, Tony Carey had to leave the band due to health concerns; he was replaced by another former Rainbow member, Paul Morris.", "In 2015, Blackmore announced that he would play \"all rock\" concerts in the summer of 2016 under the banner of \"Ritchie Blackmore's Rainbow\", his first rock shows since 1997. The new Rainbow line-up was announced on 6 November 2015. It featured Lords of Black singer Ronnie Romero, Stratovarius keyboardist Jens Johansson, Blackmore's Night drummer David Keith and bassist Bob Nouveau (Bob Curiano). The band headlined the German edition of the \"Monsters of Rock\" festival. They debuted on 17 June 2016 at Loreley Freilichtbuhne, an open-air show in front of an audience of an estimated 15,000. On 18 June, they played another open-air gig for 30,000 fans in Bietigheim-Bissingen (Festplatz am Viadukt). The third and final show took place at the Birmingham Genting Arena in England. Asked if Rainbow were planning to record a new album, bassist Bob Curiano replied, \"I'd love to go into the studio with this Rainbow. All we need is Ritchie to say, 'Let's go!' I think all of us feel under pressure, because of the fans' expectations. For me, the pressure makes me work harder and get better results.\" However, Blackmore said that they had no plans for a new album or world tour, and that the reunion was \"just a few dates for fun.\" Blackmore also said that Rainbow have received many offers to do a \"few more shows again\" in the future. Despite an earlier decision not to release new music, Blackmore revealed in a May 2017 interview with \"Burrn!\" magazine that Rainbow were in the studio recording two new tracks. Blackmore stated, \"I wrote one new song, and also recorded one of the old ones. Ronnie, who is in Madrid now, added his vocals and sent it back. Rather than make an album, we may release as singles.\" Rainbow embarked on a four-date UK tour in June 2017. It kicked off with the band's first show in London since 1995 at the second annual Stone Free Festival at The O2, followed by shows in Manchester, Glasgow and Birmingham. Rainbow released the live album \"Memories in Rock II (Live)\" in 2018, which chronicles a live show in Germany. However, the final track, \"Waiting for a Sign\", is a studio track recorded with the current band lineup, and marked Rainbow's first song in 23 years. The band played five dates in April 2018, at Moscow, St Petersburg, Helsinki, Berlin, and Prague. The shows were well-attended, with Helsinki a sell-out. The set-list again varied from night-to-night, with an almost 50/50 selection of Rainbow and Deep Purple songs." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Differentiation.", "Initial appearance.", "Early development.", "Gastrulation.", "Later development.", "Neurulation.", "Organogenesis.", "Clinical significance.", "Ectodermal dysplasia." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Heinz Christian Pander, a Baltic German–Russian biologist, has been credited for the discovery of the three germ layers that form during embryogenesis. Pander received his doctorate in zoology from the University of Würzburg in 1817. He began his studies in embryology using chicken eggs, which allowed for his discovery of the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. Due to his findings, Pander is sometimes referred to as the \"founder of embryology\". Pander's work of the early embryo was continued by a Prussian–Estonian biologist named Karl Ernst von Baer. Baer took Pander's concept of the germ layers and through extensive research of many different types of species, he was able to extend this principle to all vertebrates. Baer also received credit for the discovery of the blastula. Baer published his findings, including his germ layer theory, in a textbook which translates to \"On the Development of Animals\" which he released in 1828.", "", "The ectoderm can first be observed in amphibians and fish during the later stages of a process called gastrulation. At the start of this process, the developing embryo has divided into many cells separating the embryo, which is now a hollow sphere of cells called the blastula, into two parts, the animal hemisphere and vegetal hemisphere. It is the animal hemisphere of the blastula that will eventually become the ectoderm.", "Like the other two germ layers, mesoderm and endoderm, the ectoderm forms shortly after the egg is fertilized, and rapid cell division initiates. The epidermis of the skin originates from the less dorsal ectoderm which surrounds the neuroectoderm at the early gastrula stage of embryonic development. The position of the ectoderm relative to the other germ layers of the embryo is governed by \"selective affinity\", meaning that the inner surface of the ectoderm has a strong (positive) affinity for the mesoderm, and a weak (negative) affinity for the endoderm layer. This selective affinity changes during different stages of development. The strength of the attraction between two surfaces of two germ layers is determined by the amount and type of cadherin molecules present on the cells' surface. For example, the expression of N-cadherin is crucial to maintaining separation of precursor neural cells from precursor epithelial cells. The ectoderm is instructed to become the nervous system by the notochord, which is typically positioned above it.", "During the process of gastrulation, a special type of cells called bottle cells invaginates a hole on the surface of the blastula which is called the dorsal lip of the blastopore. Once this lip has been established, the bottle cells will extend inward and migrate along the inner wall of the blastula known as the roof of the blastocoel. The once superficial cells of the animal pole are destined to become the cells of the middle germ layer called the mesoderm. Through the process of radial extension, cells of the animal pole that were once several layers thick divide to form a thin layer. At the same time, when this thin layer of dividing cells reaches the dorsal lip of the blastopore, another process occurs termed convergent extension. During convergent extension, cells that approach the lip intercalate mediolaterally, in such a way that cells are pulled over the lip and inside the embryo. These two processes allow for the prospective mesoderm cells to be placed between the ectoderm and the endoderm. Once convergent extension and radial intercalation are underway, the rest of the vegetal pole, which will become endoderm cells, is completely engulfed by the prospective ectoderm, as these top cells undergo epiboly, where the ectoderm cells divide in a way to form one layer. This creates a uniform embryo composed of the three germ layers in their respective positions.", "Once there is an embryo with three established germ layers, differentiation among these three layers proceeds. The next event that will take place within the ectoderm is the process of neurulation, which results in the formation of the neural tube, neural crest cells and the epidermis. It is these three components of the ectoderm that will each give rise to a particular set of cells. The neural tube cells will become the central nervous system, neural crest cells will become the peripheral and enteric nervous system, along with melanocytes, facial cartilage and the dentin of teeth, and the epidermal cell region will give rise to epidermis, hair, nails, sebaceous glands, olfactory and mouth epithelium, as well as eyes.", "Neurulation proceeds by primary and secondary neurulation, both positioning neural crest cells between a superficial epidermal layer and a deep neural tube. During primary neurulation, the notochord cells of the mesoderm signal the adjacent, superficial ectoderm cells to reposition themselves in a columnar pattern to form cells of the ectodermal neural plate. As the cells continue to elongate, a group of cells immediately above the notochord change their shape, forming a wedge in the ectodermal region. These special cells are called medial hinge cells (MHP). Now, as the ectoderm continues to elongate, the ectodermal cells of the neural plate fold inward. The inward folding of the ectoderm by virtue of mainly cell division continues until another group of cells form within the neural plate. These cells are termed dorsolateral hinge cells (DLHP), and once formed, the inward folding of the ectoderm stops. The DLHP cells function in a similar fashion as MHP cells regarding their wedge like shape, however, the DLHP cells result in the ectoderm converging. This convergence is led by ectodermal cells above the DLHP cells known as the neural crest. The neural crest cells eventually pull the adjacent ectodermal cells together, which leaves neural crest cells between the prospective epidermis and hollow, neural tube.", "All of the organs that rise from the ectoderm such as the nervous system, teeth, hair and many exocrine glands, originate from two adjacent tissue layers: the epithelium and the mesenchyme.", "", "Ectodermal dysplasia is a rare but severe condition where the tissue groups (specifically teeth, skin, hair, nails and sweat glands) derived from the ectoderm undergo abnormal development. Ectodermal dysplasia is a vague term, as there are over 170 subtypes of ectodermal dysplasia. It has been accepted that the disease is caused by a mutation or a combination of mutations in certain genes. Research of the disease is ongoing, as only a fraction of the mutations involved with an ectodermal dysplasia subtype have been identified. Hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia (HED) is the most common subtype of the disease. Clinical cases of patients with this condition display a range of symptoms. The most relevant abnormality of HED is hypohidrosis, the inability to produce sufficient amounts of sweat, which is attributed to missing or dysfunctional sweat glands. This aspect represents a major handicap particularly in the summer, limits the patient's ability to participate in sports as well as his working capacity, and can be especially dangerous in warm climates where affected individuals are at risk of life-threatening hyperthermia. Facial malformations are also related to HED, such as pointed or absent teeth, wrinkled skin around the eyes, a misshaped nose along with scarce and thin hair. Skin problems like eczema are also observed in a number of cases. Most patients carry variants of the X-chromosomal EDA gene. This disease typically affects males more severely because they have only one X chromosome, while in females the second, usually unaffected X chromosome may be sufficient to prevent most symptoms." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Black Sabbath.", "Solo career.", "Ozzfest.", "2000s.", "2010s.", "2020s.", "Black Sabbath reunion.", "Other production work.", "Awards.", "Personal life.", "Controversy.", "Band members." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Osbourne was born in the Aston area of Birmingham, England. His mother, Lilian (née Unitt; 1916–2001), was a non-observant Catholic who worked days at a factory. His father, John Thomas \"Jack\" Osbourne (1915–1977), worked night shifts as a toolmaker at the General Electric Company. Osbourne has three older sisters named Jean, Iris, and Gillian, and he has two younger brothers named Paul and Tony. The family lived in a small two-bedroom home at 14 Lodge Road in Aston. Osbourne has had the nickname \"Ozzy\" since primary school. Osbourne dealt with dyslexia at school. At the age of 11, he suffered sexual abuse from school bullies. Drawn to the stage, he took part in school plays such as Gilbert and Sullivan's \"The Mikado\" and \"HMS", "", "In late 1967, Geezer Butler formed his first band, Rare Breed, and soon recruited Osbourne to serve as vocalist. The band played two shows, then broke up. Osbourne and Butler reunited in Polka Tulk Blues, along with guitarist Tony Iommi and drummer Bill Ward, whose band Mythology had recently broken up. They renamed themselves Earth, but after being accidentally booked for a show instead of a different band with the same name, they decided to change their name again. They finally settled on the name Black Sabbath in August 1969, based on the film of the same title. The band had noticed how people enjoyed being frightened; inspired, the band decided to play a heavy blues style of music laced with gloomy sounds and lyrics. While recording their first album, Butler read an occult book and woke up seeing a dark figure at the end of his bed. Butler told Osbourne about it and together they wrote the lyrics to \"Black Sabbath\", their first song in a darker vein. Despite only a modest investment from their US record label Warner Bros. Records, Black Sabbath met with swift and enduring success. Built around Tony Iommi's guitar riffs, Geezer Butler's lyrics, Bill Ward's dark tempo drumbeats, and topped by Osbourne's eerie vocals, early records such as their debut album \"Black Sabbath\" and \"Paranoid\" sold huge numbers, as well as getting considerable airplay. Osbourne recalls a band lament, \"in those days, the band wasn't very popular with the women\". At about this time, Osbourne first met his future wife, Sharon Arden. After the", "On leaving Sabbath, Osbourne recalled, \"I'd got £96,000 for my share of the name, so I'd just locked myself away and spent three months doing coke and booze. My thinking was, 'This is my last party, because after this I'm going back to Birmingham and the dole.\" However, Don Arden signed him to Jet Records with the aim of recording new material. Arden dispatched his daughter Sharon to Los Angeles to \"look after Ozzy's needs, whatever they were\", to protect his investment. Initially, Arden hoped Osbourne would return to Sabbath (who he was personally managing at that time), and later attempted to convince the singer to name his new band \"Son of Sabbath\", which Osbourne hated. Sharon attempted to convince Osbourne to form a supergroup with guitarist Gary Moore. \"When I lived in Los Angeles,\" Moore recalled, \"\"[Moore's band]\" G-Force helped him to audition musicians. If drummers were trying out, I played guitar, and if a bassist came along, my drummer would help out. We felt sorry for him, basically. He was always hovering around trying to get me to join, and I wasn't having any of it.\" In late 1979, under the management of the Ardens, Osbourne formed the Blizzard of Ozz, featuring drummer Lee Kerslake (of Uriah Heep), bassist-lyricist Bob Daisley (of Rainbow and later Uriah Heep), keyboardist Don Airey (of Rainbow, and later Deep Purple), and guitarist Randy Rhoads (of Quiet Riot). The record company would eventually title the group's debut album \"Blizzard of Ozz\", credited simply to Osbourne, thus commencing his solo career. Cowritten", "Osbourne's biggest financial success of the 1990s was a venture named Ozzfest, created and managed by his wife/manager Sharon and assisted by his son Jack. The first Ozzfest was held in Phoenix, Arizona on 25 October 1996 and in Devore, California on 26 October. Ozzfest was an instant hit with metal fans, helping many up-and-coming groups who were featured there to broad exposure and commercial success. Some acts shared the bill with a reformed Black Sabbath during the 1997 Ozzfest tour, beginning in West Palm Beach, Florida. Osbourne reunited with the original members of Sabbath in 1997 and has performed periodically with them since. Since its beginning, five million people have attended Ozzfest which has grossed over US$100 million. The festival helped promote many new hard rock and heavy metal acts of the late 1990s and early 2000s. Ozzfest helped Osbourne to become the first hard rock", "\"Down to Earth\", Osbourne's first album of new studio material in six years, was released on 16 October 2001. A live album, \"Live at Budokan\", followed in 2002. \"Down to Earth\", which achieved platinum status in 2003, featured the single \"Dreamer\", a song which peaked at number 10 on \"Billboard\"s Mainstream Rock Tracks. In June 2002, Osbourne was invited to participate in the Golden Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II, performing the Black Sabbath anthem \"Paranoid\" at the Party at the Palace concert in the grounds of Buckingham Palace. In 2003, Osbourne recruited former Metallica bassist Jason Newsted, though his time with Osbourne would be short. Interestingly, Osbourne's former bassist Robert Trujillo replaced Newsted in Metallica during this same period.", "On 13 April 2010, Osbourne announced the release date for \"Scream\" would be 15 June 2010. The release date was later changed to a week later. A single from the album, \"Let Me Hear You Scream\", debuted on 14 April 2010 episode of \"\". The song spent 8 weeks on the Billboard Rock Songs, peaking at No. 7. Osbourne held a Meet-And-Greet album signing at the main branch of HMV in his home-town Birmingham, followed later that day by an intimate show in the Birmingham Town Hall. The", "On 21 February 2020, Osbourne released his first solo album in almost ten years, \"Ordinary Man\", which received positive reviews from music critics and debuted at number three on the UK Albums", "It was announced on 11 November 2011 during a news conference at the Whisky a Go Go club on West Hollywood's Sunset Strip that the original Black Sabbath line up of Ozzy, Tony Iommi, Geezer Butler, and Bill Ward would reunite for a world tour and new album, to be produced by Rick Rubin. Bill Ward dropped out for contractual reasons, but the project continued with Rage Against the Machine's Brad Wilk", "Osbourne achieved greater celebrity status via his own brand of reality television. \"The Osbournes\", a series featuring the domestic life of Osbourne and his family (wife Sharon, children Jack and Kelly, occasional appearances from his son Louis, but eldest daughter Aimee did not participate). The program became one of MTV's greatest hits. It premiered on 5 March 2002, and the final episode aired 21 March 2005. The success of \"The Osbournes\" led Osbourne and the rest of his family to", "Osbourne has received several awards for his contributions to the music community. In 1994, he was awarded a Grammy Award for the track \"I Don't Want to Change the World\" from \"Live & Loud\" for Best Metal Performance of 1994. At the 2004 NME Awards in London, Osbourne received the award for Godlike Genius. In 2005 Osbourne was inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame both as a solo artist and as a member of Black Sabbath. In 2006, he was inducted into the US Rock and Roll Hall of Fame with Black Sabbath bandmates Tony Iommi, Bill Ward, and Geezer Butler. In 2007 Osbourne was honoured at the second annual VH1 Rock Honors, along with Genesis, Heart, and ZZ Top. In addition, that year a bronze star honouring Osbourne was placed on Broad Street in Birmingham, England", "In 1971, Osbourne met his first wife Thelma (née Riley) at a nightclub in Birmingham called the Rum Runner, where she worked. They were married in 1971 and children Jessica and Louis were soon born while Osbourne adopted Thelma's son Elliot. Osbourne later referred to his first marriage as \"a terrible mistake\". His drug and alcohol abuse, coupled with his frequent absences while touring with Black Sabbath, took their toll on his family life, with his children later complaining that he was not a good father. In the 2011 documentary film \"God Bless Ozzy Osbourne\", produced by his son Jack, Osbourne sheepishly admitted that he could not even remember when Louis and Jessica were born. Osbourne married his manager Sharon Arden on 4 July 1982 and the couple would have three children together, Aimee (born 2 September 1983), Kelly (born 27 October 1984), and Jack (born 8 November 1985). He later confessed that the well known \"Fourth of July\" US Independence Day date was chosen so that he would never forget his anniversary. Guitarist Randy Rhoads predicted in 1981 that the couple would \"probably get married someday\" despite their constant bickering and the fact that Osbourne was still married to Thelma at the time. Osbourne has numerous grandchildren. Osbourne wrote a song for his daughter Aimee, which appeared as a B-side on the album \"Ozzmosis\". At the end of the song, his daughter can be heard saying \"I'll always be your angel\", referring to the song's chorus lyrics. The song \"My Little Man\", which appears on Ozzmosis, was written about his son Jack. The Osbourne family divide their time between their Buckinghamshire mansion and a home in Los Angeles, California. Though Osbourne has long been accused of being a Satanist, it was reported by \"The New York Times\" in 1992 that he was a practicing member of the Church of England and prayed before each show. In 2002, Osbourne and wife Sharon were invited to the White House Correspondents' Association dinner by Fox News Channel correspondent Greta Van Susteren for that year's event. Then-President George W. Bush noted Osbourne's presence by joking, \"The thing about Ozzy is, he's made a lot of big hit recordings – 'Party with the Animals', 'Sabbath Bloody Sabbath', 'Facing Hell', 'Black Skies' and 'Bloodbath in Paradise'. Ozzy, Mom loves your stuff.\" Ozzy and his wife are one of the UK's richest couples, according to the \"Sunday Times\" Rich List. They ranked at number 458 in 2005, with an estimated £100 million earned from recording, touring, and TV shows. Osbourne has over 15 tattoos, the most famous of which are the letters O-Z-Z-Y across the knuckles of his left hand. This was his first tattoo, created by himself as a teenager with a sewing needle and pencil lead. A longtime fan of the comedy troupe Monty Python, in a 2010 interview with \"Us Weekly\" Osbourne stated, “My favourite movie is \"Monty Python's Life of Brian\"”. Osbourne suffered minor burns after a small house fire in January 2013. On his 65th birthday on 3 December 2013, he asked fans to celebrate his birthday by donating to the Royal Marsden cancer charity in London. On 6 February 2019, Osbourne was hospitalized in an undisclosed location on his doctor's advice due to flu complications, postponing the European leg of his \"No More Tours 2\" tour. The issue was described as a \"severe upper-respiratory infection\" following a bout with the flu which his doctor feared could develop into pneumonia, given the physicality of the live performances and an extensive travel schedule throughout Europe in harsh winter conditions. Pneumonia targets the airway and breathing and is typically fatal in elderly patients, necessitating the preventive measures. By 12 February 2019, Osbourne had been moved to intensive care. Tour promoters Live Nation said in a statement that they were hopeful that Osbourne would be \"fit and healthy\" and able to honor tour dates in Australia and New Zealand in March. Osbourne later cancelled the tour entirely, and ultimately all shows scheduled for 2019, after sustaining serious injuries from a fall in his Los Angeles home while still recovering from pneumonia. He was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in February 2019, which he publicly revealed in January 2020. In February 2020, Osbourne cancelled the 2020 North American tour, seeking treatment in Switzerland until April.", "Throughout his career, many religious groups have accused Osbourne of being a negative influence on teenagers, stating that his genre of rock music has been used to glorify Satanism. Scholar Christopher M. Moreman compared the controversy to those levelled against the occultist Aleister Crowley. Both were demonised by the media and some religious groups for their antics. Although Osbourne tempts the comparison with his song \"Mr. Crowley\", he denies the charge of being a Satanist; conversely it has been alleged that Osbourne is a member of the Church of England and that he prays before taking the stage each night before every concert. In 1981, after signing his first solo career record deal, Osbourne bit the head off a dove during a meeting with CBS Records executives in Los Angeles. Apparently, he had planned to release doves into the air as a sign of peace, but due to being intoxicated at the time, he instead grabbed a dove and bit its head off. He then spat the head out, with blood still dripping from his lips. Despite its controversy, the head-biting act has been parodied and alluded to several times throughout his career and is part of what made Osbourne famous. On 20 January 1982, Osbourne bit the head off a bat that he thought was rubber while performing at the Veterans Memorial Auditorium in Des Moines, Iowa. \"Rolling Stone\" magazine in 2004 ranked this incident number two on its list of \"Rock's Wildest Myths\". While the \"Rolling Stone\" article stated the bat was alive, 17-year-old Mark Neal who threw it onto the stage said it was brought to the show dead. According to Osbourne in the booklet to the 2002 edition of \"Diary of a Madman\", the bat was not only alive but managed to bite him, resulting in Osbourne being treated for rabies. On January 20,", "Current members:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Damage in 2002 floods.", "The route." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The construction started in 1881. The gauge selected for the line was, in common with other Saxon narrow gauge railways. The first section to Schmiedeberg was put into operation on 1 November 1882. On 3 September 1883, the regular trains reached the terminal station at Kurort Kipsdorf. In 1912 a part of the track was relocated to allow construction of the Malter Valley Dam. In 1920 construction began on the Pöbel Valley Railway (\"Pöbeltalbahn\") that was to link Schmiedelberg, on the Weißeritz Valley Railway, to Moldava, now in the Czech Republic. This line was expected to bring additional freight traffic, but construction was abandoned in 1923 and never resumed. Freight traffic ceased on the line in 1993, leaving only passenger traffic. By the time of the floods in 2002, the railway carried approximately 200,000 passengers per year.", "The railway was badly hit by the major flooding in 2002, which severely damaged most of the track and infrastructure. This damage mirrored that of 1897, when almost all the line's bridges were damaged or destroyed. The damage was estimated to be around €20 million and a fund-raising campaign was organised. The Federal government and the Government of Saxony agreed to cover one half of what is needed to rebuild the railway line. The section of line between Freital-Hainsberg station and Dippoldiswalde, the normal passing point for trains, was reopened on 14 December 2008. Six return trains per day are normally operated on this section. The section of line from Dippoldiswalde to the terminus at Kurort Kipsdorf was due to reopen in 2010, however reconstruction was halted whilst the cost of rebuilding the first section to reopen is investigated. The rebuilding was originally expected to cost €19 million, but as of 2010 had cost €22.5 million. As this increase has coincided with budgetary cutbacks for the Saxon narrow gauge lines, new sources of funding had to be found if the rebuilding were to be completed. Funding was secured, and work on rebuilding the remainder of the line resumed in 2014; the remaining section from Dippoldiswalde to Kurort Kipsdorf reopened on 17 July 2017.", "The track begins at Freital-Hainsberg station on the standard gauge railway from Dresden to Chemnitz, and at an altitude of. The other stations and stops are as follows:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Form and behavior.", "Flagellates as specialized cells or life cycle stages.", "Flagellates as organisms: the Flagellata." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Flagella are supported by microtubules in a characteristic arrangement, with nine fused pairs surrounding two central singlets. These arise from a basal body. In some flagellates, flagella direct food into a cytostome or mouth, where food is ingested. Flagella often support hairs, called mastigonemes, or contain rods. Their ultrastructure plays an important role in classifying eukaryotes. Among protoctists and microscopic animals, a flagellate is an organism with one or more flagella. Some cells in other animals may be flagellate, for instance the spermatozoa of most animal phyla. Flowering plants do not produce flagellate cells, but ferns, mosses, green algae, and some gymnosperms and closely related plants do so. Likewise, most fungi do not produce cells with flagellae, but the primitive fungal chytrids do. Many protists take the form of single-celled flagellates. Flagella are generally used for propulsion. They may also be used to create a current that brings in food. In most such organisms, one or more flagella are located at or near the anterior of the cell, e.g., \"Euglena\". Often there is one directed forwards and one trailing behind. Among animals, fungi, which are part of a group called the opisthokonts, there is a single posterior flagellum. They are from the phylum Mastigophora. They can cause diseases and are typically heterotrophic. They reproduce by binary fission. They spend most of their existence moving or feeding. Many parasites that affect human health or economy are flagellates. Flagellates are the major consumers of primary and secondary production in aquatic ecosystems - consuming bacteria and other protists.", "An overview of the occurrence of flagellated cells in eukaryote groups, as specialized cells of multicellular organisms or as life cycle stages, is given below (see also the article flagellum):", "In older classifications, flagellated protozoa were grouped in Flagellata (= Mastigophora), sometimes divided in Phytoflagellata (= Phytomastigina, mostly autotrophic) and Zooflagellata (= Zoomastigina, heterotrophic). They were sometimes grouped with Sarcodina (ameboids) in the group Sarcomastigophora. The autotrophic flagellates were grouped similarly to the botanical schemes used for the corresponding algae groups. The colourless flagellates were customary grouped in three groups, highly artificial: Presently, these groups are known to be highly polyphyletic. In modern classifications of the protists, the principal flagellated taxa are placed in the following eukaryote groups, which include also non-flagellated forms (A: autotrophic; F: free-living heterotrophic; P: parasitic; S: symbiotic): Although the taxonomic group Flagellata was abandoned, the term \"flagellate\" is still used as the description of a and also as an ecological functional group. Another term used is \"monadoid\", from monad. as in \"Monas\", and \"Cryptomonas\" and in the groups as listed above. The amoeboflagellates (e.g., the rhizarian genus \"Cercomonas\", some amoebozoan Archamoebae, some excavate Heterolobosea) have a peculiar type of flagellate/amoeboid organization, in which cells may present flagella and pseudopods, simultaneously or sequentially, while the helioflagellates (e.g., the cercozoan heliomonads/dimorphids, the stramenopile pedinellids and ciliophryids) have a flagellate/heliozoan organization." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Technique.", "Phishing types.", "Spear phishing.", "Whaling.", "Catphishing/Catfishing.", "Clone phishing.", "Link manipulation.", "Filter evasion.", "Website forgery.", "Covert redirect.", "Social engineering.", "Voice phishing.", "History.", "1980s.", "1990s.", "Early AOL phishing.", "Anti-phishing.", "User training.", "Technical approaches.", "Filtering out phishing mail.", "Browsers alerting users to fraudulent websites.", "Augmenting password logins.", "Monitoring and takedown.", "Transaction verification and signing.", "Multi-factor authentication.", "Email content redaction.", "Limitations of technical responses.", "Legal responses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "", "Phishing attempts directed at specific individuals or companies is known as \"spear phishing\". In contrast to bulk phishing, spear phishing attackers often gather and use personal information about their target to increase their probability of success. The first study of social phishing, a type of spear-phishing attack that leverages friendship information from social networks, yielded over 70% success rate in experiments. Threat Group-4127 (Fancy Bear) used spear phishing tactics to target email accounts linked to Hillary Clinton's 2016 presidential campaign. They attacked more than 1,800 Google accounts and implemented the accounts-google.com domain to threaten targeted users.", "The term whaling refers to spear phishing attacks directed specifically at senior executives and other high-profile targets. In these cases, the content will be crafted to target an upper manager and the person's role in the company. The content of a whaling attack email may be an executive issue such as a subpoena or customer complaint.", "Catphishing (spelled with a “ph”) is a type of online deception that involves getting to know someone closely in order to gain access to information and/or resources, usually in the control of the mark, or to otherwise get control over the conduct of the target. Catfishing (spelled with an “f”), a similar but distinct concept, involves a person creating a social network presence as a sock puppet or fictional person in order to finagle someone into a (usually) romantic relationship. This usually begins online, with the hope or promise of it progressing to real-life romance. This is never the object of the perpetrator; in general, he is seeking access to the mark's money or resources, or to receive gifts or other consideration from the victim. Occasionally, it may be a form of self-serving attention-getting.", "Clone phishing is a type of phishing attack whereby a legitimate, and previously delivered, email containing an attachment or link has had its content and recipient address(es) taken and used to create an almost identical or cloned email. The attachment or link within the email is replaced with a malicious version and then sent from an email address spoofed to appear to come from the original sender. It may claim to be a resend of the original or an updated version to the original. Typically this requires either the sender or recipient to have been previously hacked for the malicious third party to obtain the legitimate email.", "Most methods of phishing use some form of technical deception designed to make a link in an email (and the spoofed website it leads to) appear to belong to the spoofed organization. Misspelled URLs or the use of subdomains are common tricks used by phishers. In the following example URL,, it appears as though the URL will take you to the \"example\" section of the \"yourbank\" website; actually this URL points to the \"\"yourbank\"\" (i.e. phishing) section of the \"example\" website. Another common trick is to make the displayed text for a link (the text between the tags) suggest a reliable destination, when the link actually goes to the phishers' site. Many desktop email clients and web browsers will show a link's target URL in the status bar while hovering the mouse over it. This behavior, however, may in some circumstances be overridden by the phisher. Equivalent mobile apps generally do not have this preview feature. Internationalized domain names (IDN) can be exploited via IDN spoofing or homograph attacks, to create web addresses visually identical to a legitimate site, that lead instead to malicious version. Phishers have taken advantage of a similar risk, using open URL redirectors on the websites of trusted organizations to disguise malicious URLs with a trusted domain. Even digital certificates do not solve this problem because it is quite possible for a phisher to purchase a valid certificate and subsequently change content to spoof a genuine website, or, to host the phish site without SSL at all.", "Phishers have sometimes used images instead of text to make it harder for anti-phishing filters to detect the text commonly used in phishing emails. In response, more sophisticated anti-phishing filters are able to recover hidden text in images using OCR (optical character recognition).", "Some phishing scams use JavaScript commands in order to alter the address bar of the website they lead to. This is done either by placing a picture of a legitimate URL over the address bar, or by closing the original bar and opening up a new one with the legitimate URL. An attacker can also potentially use flaws in a trusted website's own scripts against the victim. These types of attacks (known as cross-site scripting) are particularly problematic, because they direct the user to sign in at their bank or service's own web page, where everything from the web address to the security certificates appears correct. In reality, the link to the website is crafted to carry out the attack, making it very difficult to spot without specialist knowledge. Such a flaw was used in 2006 against PayPal. To avoid anti-phishing techniques that scan websites for phishing-related text, phishers sometimes use Flash-based websites (a technique known as phlashing). These look much like the real website, but hide the text in a multimedia object.", "Covert redirect is a subtle method to perform phishing attacks that makes links appear legitimate, but actually redirect a victim to an attacker's website. The flaw is usually masqueraded under a log-in popup based on an affected site's domain. It can affect OAuth 2.0 and OpenID based on well-known exploit parameters as well. This often makes use of open redirect and XSS vulnerabilities in the third-party application websites. Users may also be redirected to phishing websites covertly through malicious browser extensions. Normal phishing attempts can be easy to spot because the malicious page's URL will usually be different from the real site link. For covert redirect, an attacker could use a real website instead by corrupting the site with a malicious login popup dialogue box. This makes covert redirect different from others. For example, suppose a victim clicks a malicious phishing link beginning with Facebook. A popup window from Facebook will ask whether the victim would like to authorize the app. If the victim chooses to authorize the app, a \"token\" will be sent to the attacker and the victim's personal sensitive information could be exposed. These information may include the email address, birth date, contacts, and work history. In case the \"token” has greater privilege, the attacker could obtain more sensitive information including the mailbox, online presence, and friends list. Worse still, the attacker may possibly control and operate the user's account. Even if the victim does not choose to authorize the app, he or she will still get redirected to a website controlled by the attacker. This could potentially further compromise the victim. This vulnerability was discovered by Wang Jing, a Mathematics Ph.D. student at School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences in Nanyang Technological University in Singapore. Covert redirect is a notable security flaw, though it is not a threat to the Internet worth significant attention.", "Users can be encouraged to click on various kinds of unexpected content for a variety of technical and social reasons. For example, a malicious attachment might masquerade as a benign linked Google Doc. Alternatively users might be outraged by a fake news story, click a link and become infected.", "Not all phishing attacks require a fake website. Messages that claimed to be from a bank told users to dial a phone number regarding problems with their bank accounts. Once the phone number (owned by the phisher, and provided by a voice over IP service) was dialed, prompts told users to enter their account numbers and PIN. Vishing (voice phishing) sometimes uses fake caller-ID data to give the appearance that calls come from a trusted organization.", "", "A phishing technique was described in detail in a paper and presentation delivered to the 1987 International HP Users Group, Interex.", "The term \"phishing\" is said to have been coined by the well known spammer and hacker in the mid-90s, Khan C Smith. The first recorded mention of the term is found in the hacking tool AOHell (according to its creator), which included a function for attempting to steal the passwords or financial details of America Online users.", "Phishing on AOL was closely associated with the warez community that exchanged unlicensed software and the black hat hacking scene that perpetrated credit card fraud and other online crimes. AOL enforcement would detect words used in AOL chat rooms to suspend the accounts of individuals involved in counterfeiting software and trading stolen accounts. The term was used because \"<><\" is the single most common tag of HTML that was found in all chat transcripts naturally, and as such could not be detected or filtered by AOL staff. The symbol <>< was replaced for any wording that referred to stolen credit cards, accounts, or illegal activity. Since the symbol looked like a fish, and due to the popularity of phreaking it was adapted as \"Phishing\". AOHell, released in early 1995, was a program designed to hack AOL users by allowing the attacker to pose as an AOL staff member, and send an instant message to a potential victim, asking him to reveal his password. In order to lure the victim into giving up sensitive information, the message might include imperatives such as \"verify your account\" or \"confirm billing information\". Once the victim had revealed the password, the attacker could access and use the victim's account for fraudulent purposes. Both phishing and warezing on AOL generally required custom-written programs, such as AOHell. Phishing became so prevalent on AOL that they added a line on all instant messages stating: \"no one working at AOL will ask for your password or billing information\". A user using both an AIM account and an AOL account from an ISP simultaneously could phish AOL members with relative impunity as internet AIM accounts could be used by non-AOL internet members and could not be actioned (i.e., reported to AOL TOS department for disciplinary action).. In late 1995, AOL crackers resorted to phishing for legitimate accounts after AOL brought in measures in late 1995 to prevent using fake, algorithmically generated credit card numbers to open accounts. Eventually, AOL's policy enforcement forced copyright infringement off AOL servers, and AOL promptly deactivate accounts involved in phishing, often before the victims could respond. The shutting down of the warez scene on AOL caused most phishers to leave the service.", "There are anti-phishing websites which publish exact messages that have been recently circulating the internet, such as FraudWatch International and Millersmiles. Such sites often provide specific details about the particular messages. As recently as 2007, the adoption of anti-phishing strategies by businesses needing to protect personal and financial information was low. Now there are several different techniques to combat phishing, including legislation and technology created specifically to protect against phishing. These techniques include steps that can be taken by individuals, as well as by organizations. Phone, web site, and email phishing can now be reported to authorities, as described below.", "People can be trained to recognize phishing attempts, and to deal with them through a variety of approaches. Such education can be effective, especially where training emphasises conceptual knowledge and provides direct feedback. Many organisations run regular simulated phishing campaigns targeting their staff to measure the effectiveness of their training. People can take steps to avoid phishing attempts by slightly modifying their browsing habits. When contacted about an account needing to be \"verified\" (or any other topic used by phishers), it is a sensible precaution to contact the company from which the email apparently originates to check that the email is legitimate. Alternatively, the address that the individual knows is the company's genuine website can be typed into the address bar of the browser, rather than trusting any hyperlinks in the suspected phishing message. Nearly all legitimate e-mail messages from companies to their customers contain an item of information that is not readily available to phishers. Some companies, for example PayPal, always address their customers by their username in emails, so if an email addresses the recipient in a generic fashion (\"\"Dear PayPal customer\"\") it is likely to be an attempt at phishing. Furthermore, PayPal offers various methods to determine spoof emails and advises users to forward suspicious emails to their [email protected] domain to investigate and warn other customers. However it is unsafe to assume that the presence of personal information alone guarantees that a message is legitimate, and some studies have shown that the presence of personal information does not significantly affect the success rate of phishing attacks; which suggests that most people do not pay attention to such details. Emails from banks and credit card companies often include partial account numbers. However, recent research has shown that the public do not typically distinguish between the first few digits and the last few digits of an account number—a significant problem since the first few digits are often the same for all clients of a financial institution. The Anti-Phishing Working Group produces regular report on trends in phishing attacks. Google posted a video demonstrating how to identify and protect yourself from Phishing scams.", "A wide range of technical approaches are available to prevent phishing attacks reaching users or to prevent them from successfully capturing sensitive information.", "Specialized spam filters can reduce the number of phishing emails that reach their addressees' inboxes. These filters use a number of techniques including machine learning and natural language processing approaches to classify phishing emails, and reject email with forged addresses.", "Another popular approach to fighting phishing is to maintain a list of known phishing sites and to check websites against the list. One such service is the Safe Browsing service. Web browsers such as Google Chrome, Internet Explorer 7, Mozilla Firefox 2.0, Safari 3.2, and Opera all contain this type of anti-phishing measure. Firefox 2 used Google anti-phishing software. Opera 9.1 uses live blacklists from Phishtank, cyscon and GeoTrust, as well as live whitelists from GeoTrust. Some implementations of this approach send the visited URLs to a central service to be checked, which has raised concerns about privacy. According to a report by Mozilla in late 2006, Firefox 2 was found to be more effective than Internet Explorer 7 at detecting fraudulent sites in a study by an independent software testing company. An approach introduced in mid-2006 involves switching to a special DNS service that filters out known phishing domains: this will work with any browser, and is similar in principle to using a hosts file to block web adverts. To mitigate the problem of phishing sites impersonating a victim site by embedding its images (such as logos), several site owners have altered the images to send a message to the visitor that a site may be fraudulent. The image may be moved to a new filename and the original permanently replaced, or a server can detect that the image was not requested as part of normal browsing, and instead send a warning image.", "The Bank of America website is one of several that asks users to select a personal image (marketed as SiteKey) and displays this user-selected image with any forms that request a password. Users of the bank's online services are instructed to enter a password only when they see the image they selected. However, several studies suggest that few users refrain from entering their passwords when images are absent. In addition, this feature (like other forms of two-factor authentication) is susceptible to other attacks, such as those suffered by Scandinavian bank Nordea in late 2005, and Citibank in 2006. A similar system, in which an automatically generated \"Identity Cue\" consisting of a colored word within a colored box is displayed to each website user, is in use at other financial institutions. Security skins are a related technique that involves overlaying a user-selected image onto the login form as a visual cue that the form is legitimate. Unlike the website-based image schemes, however, the image itself is shared only between the user and the browser, and not between the user and the website. The scheme also relies on a mutual authentication protocol, which makes it less vulnerable to attacks that affect user-only authentication schemes. Still another technique relies on a dynamic grid of images that is different for each login attempt. The user must identify the pictures that fit their pre-chosen categories (such as dogs, cars and flowers). Only after they have correctly identified the pictures that fit their categories are they allowed to enter their alphanumeric password to complete the login. Unlike the static images used on the Bank of America website, a dynamic image-based authentication method creates a one-time passcode for the login, requires active participation from the user, and is very difficult for a phishing website to correctly replicate because it would need to display a different grid of randomly generated images that includes the user's secret categories.", "Several companies offer banks and other organizations likely to suffer from phishing scams round-the-clock services to monitor, analyze and assist in shutting down phishing websites. Individuals can contribute by reporting phishing to both volunteer and industry groups, such as cyscon or PhishTank. Individuals can also contribute by reporting phone phishing attempts to Phone Phishing, Federal Trade Commission. Phishing web pages and emails can be reported to Google. The Internet Crime Complaint Center noticeboard carries phishing and ransomware alerts.", "Solutions have also emerged using the mobile phone (smartphone) as a second channel for verification and authorization of banking transactions.", "Organisations can implement two factor or multi-factor authentication (MFA), which requires a user to use at least 2 factors when logging in. (For example, a user must both present a smart card and a password). This mitigates some risk, in the event of a successful phishing attack, the stolen password on its own cannot be reused to further breach the protected system. However, there are several attack methods which can defeat many of the typical systems. MFA schemes such as WebAuthn address this issue by design.", "Organizations that prioritize security over convenience can require users of its computers to use an email client that redacts URLs from email messages, thus making it impossible for the reader of the email to click on a link, or even copy a URL. While this may result in an inconvenience, it does almost completely eliminate email phishing attacks.", "An article in \"Forbes\" in August 2014 argues that the reason phishing problems persist even after a decade of anti-phishing technologies being sold is that phishing is \"a technological medium to exploit human weaknesses\" and that technology cannot fully compensate for human weaknesses.", "On January 26, 2004, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission filed the first lawsuit against a suspected phisher. The defendant, a Californian teenager, allegedly created a webpage designed to look like the America Online website, and used it to steal credit card information. Other countries have followed this lead by tracing and arresting phishers. A phishing kingpin, Valdir Paulo de Almeida, was arrested in Brazil for leading one of the largest phishing crime rings, which in two years stole between and. UK authorities jailed two men in June 2005 for their role in a phishing scam, in a case connected to the U.S. Secret Service Operation Firewall, which targeted notorious \"carder\" websites. In 2006 eight people were arrested by Japanese police on suspicion of phishing fraud by creating bogus Yahoo Japan Web sites, netting themselves (). The arrests continued in 2006 with the FBI Operation Cardkeeper detaining a gang of sixteen in the U.S. and Europe. In the United States, Senator Patrick Leahy introduced the \"Anti-Phishing Act of 2005\" in Congress on March 1, 2005. This bill, if it had been enacted into law, would have subjected criminals who created fake web sites and sent bogus emails in order to defraud consumers to fines of up to and prison terms of up to five years. The UK strengthened its legal arsenal against phishing with the Fraud Act 2006, which introduces a general offence of fraud that can carry up to a ten-year prison sentence, and prohibits the development or possession of phishing kits with intent to commit fraud. Companies have also joined the effort to crack down on phishing. On March 31, 2005, Microsoft filed 117 federal lawsuits in the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Washington. The lawsuits accuse \"John Doe\" defendants of obtaining passwords and confidential information. March 2005 also saw a partnership between Microsoft and the Australian government teaching law enforcement officials how to combat various cyber crimes, including phishing. Microsoft announced a planned further 100 lawsuits outside the U.S. in March 2006, followed by the commencement, as of November 2006, of 129 lawsuits mixing criminal and civil actions. AOL reinforced its efforts against phishing in early 2006 with three lawsuits seeking a total of under the 2005 amendments to the Virginia Computer Crimes Act, and Earthlink has joined in by helping to identify six men subsequently charged with phishing fraud in Connecticut. In January 2007, Jeffrey Brett Goodin of California became the first defendant convicted by a jury under the provisions of the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003. He was found guilty of sending thousands of emails to America Online users, while posing as AOL's billing department, which prompted customers to submit personal and credit card information. Facing a possible 101 years in prison for the CAN-SPAM violation and ten other counts including wire fraud, the unauthorized use of credit cards, and the misuse of AOL's trademark, he was sentenced to serve 70 months. Goodin had been in custody since failing to appear for an earlier court hearing and began serving his prison term immediately." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geographical extent.", "Geology.", "Ecology.", "Mining and economics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Canadian Shield is a physiographic division comprising four smaller physiographic provinces: the Laurentian Upland, Kazan Region, Davis and James. The shield extends into the United States as the Adirondack Mountains (connected by the Frontenac Axis) and the Superior Upland. The Canadian Shield is a U-shaped subsection of the Laurentia craton signifying the area of greatest glacial impact (scraping down to bare rock) creating the thin soils. The Canadian Shield is more than 3.96 billion years old. The Canadian Shield once had jagged peaks, higher than any of today's mountains, but millions of years of erosion have changed these mountains to rolling hills. The Canadian Shield is a collage of Archean plates and accreted juvenile arc terranes and sedimentary basins of the Proterozoic Eon that were progressively amalgamated during the interval 2.45–1.24 Ga, with the most substantial growth period occurring during the Trans-Hudson orogeny, between ca. 1.90–1.80 Ga. The Canadian Shield was the first part of North America to be permanently elevated above sea level and has remained almost wholly untouched by successive encroachments of the sea upon the continent. It is the Earth's greatest area of exposed Archean rock. The metamorphic base rocks are mostly from the Precambrian (between 4.5 billion and 540 million years ago) and have been repeatedly uplifted and eroded. Today it consists largely of an area of low relief above sea level with a few monadnocks and low mountain ranges (including and Laurentian Mountains) probably eroded from the plateau during the Cenozoic Era. During the Pleistocene Epoch, continental ice sheets depressed the land surface (creating Hudson Bay) but also tilted up its northeastern \"rim\" (the Torngat), scooped out thousands of lake basins, and carried away much of the region's soil. The northeastern portion, however, became tilted up so that, in northern Labrador and Baffin Island, the land rises to more than 1,500 metres (5,000 feet) above sea level. When the Greenland section is included, the Shield is approximately circular, bounded on the northeast by the northeast edge of Greenland, with Hudson Bay in the middle. It covers much of Greenland, all of Labrador and the Great Northern Peninsula of Newfoundland, most of Quebec north of the St. Lawrence River, much of Ontario including northern sections of the Ontario Peninsula, the Adirondack Mountains of New York, the northernmost part of Lower Michigan and all of Upper Michigan, northern Wisconsin, northeastern Minnesota, the central and northern portions of Manitoba away from Hudson Bay, northern Saskatchewan, a small portion of northeastern Alberta, mainland Northwest Territories to the east of a line extended north from the Saskatchewan-Alberta border, most of Nunavut's mainland and, of its Arctic Archipelago, Baffin Island and significant bands through Somerset, Southampton, Devon and Ellesmere islands. In total, the exposed area of the Shield covers approximately. The true extent of the Shield is greater still and stretches from the Western Cordillera in the west to the Appalachians in the east and as far south as Texas, but these regions are overlaid with much younger rocks and sediment.", "The Canadian Shield is among the oldest on earth, with regions dating from 2.5 to 4.2 billion years. The multitude of rivers and lakes in the entire region is caused by the watersheds of the area being so young and in a state of sorting themselves out with the added effect of post-glacial rebound. The Shield was originally an area of very large, very tall mountains (about ) with much volcanic activity, but over hundreds of millions of years, the area has been eroded to its current topographic appearance of relatively low relief. It has some of the oldest (extinct) volcanoes on the planet. It has over 150 volcanic belts (now deformed and eroded down to nearly flat plains) whose bedrock ranges from 600 to 1,200 million years old. Each belt probably grew by the coalescence of accumulations erupted from numerous vents, making the tally of volcanoes reach the hundreds. Many of Canada's major ore deposits are associated with Precambrian volcanoes. The Sturgeon Lake Caldera in Kenora District, Ontario, is one of the world's best preserved mineralized Neoarchean caldera complexes, which is 2.7 billion years old. The Canadian Shield also contains the Mackenzie dike swarm, which is the largest dike swarm known on Earth. Mountains have deep roots and float on the denser mantle much like an iceberg at sea. As mountains erode, their roots rise and are eroded in turn. The rocks that now form the surface of the Shield were once far below the Earth's surface. The high pressures and temperatures at those depths provided ideal conditions for mineralization. Although these mountains are now heavily eroded, many large mountains still exist in Canada's far north called the Arctic Cordillera. This is a vast, deeply dissected mountain range, stretching from northernmost Ellesmere Island to the northernmost tip of Labrador. The range's highest peak is Nunavut's Barbeau Peak at above sea level. Precambrian rock is the major component of the bedrock. The North American craton is the bedrock forming the heart of the North American continent and the Canadian Shield is the largest exposed part of the craton's bedrock. The Canadian Shield is part of an ancient continent called Arctica, which was formed about 2.5 billion years ago during the Neoarchean era. It was split into Greenland, Laurentia, Scotland, and Siberia, and is now roughly situated in the Arctic around the current North Pole.", "The current surface expression of the Shield is one of very thin soil lying on top of the bedrock, with many bare outcrops. This arrangement was caused by severe glaciation during the ice age, which covered the Shield and scraped the rock clean. The lowlands of the Canadian Shield have a very dense soil that is not suitable for forestation; it also contains many marshes and bogs (muskegs). The rest of the region has coarse soil that does not retain moisture well and is frozen with permafrost throughout the year. Forests are not as dense in the north. The Shield is covered in parts by vast boreal forests in the south that support natural ecosystems as well as a major logging industry. The boreal forest area gives way to the Eastern Canadian Shield taiga that covers northern Quebec and most of Labrador. The Midwestern Canadian Shield forests that run westwards from Northwestern Ontario have boreal forests that give way to taiga in the most northerly parts of Manitoba and Saskatchewan. Hydrologic drainage is generally poor, the soil compacting effects of glaciation being one of the many causes. Tundra typically prevails in the northern regions. Many mammals such as caribou, white-tailed deer, moose, wolves, wolverines, weasels, mink, otters, grizzly bear, polar bears and black bears are present. In the case of polar bears (), the Shield area contains many of their denning locations, such as the Wapusk National Park.", "The Canadian Shield is one of the world's richest areas in terms of mineral ores. It is filled with substantial deposits of nickel, gold, silver, and copper. Throughout the Shield there are many mining towns extracting these minerals. The largest, and one of the best known, is Sudbury, Ontario. Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals in the Shield since the Sudbury Basin is an ancient meteorite impact crater. Ejecta from the meteorite impact was found in the Rove Formation in May 2007. The nearby but less-known Temagami Magnetic Anomaly has striking similarities to the Sudbury Basin. This suggests it could be a second metal-rich impact crater. In northeastern Quebec, the giant Manicouagan Reservoir is the site of an extensive hydroelectric project (Manic-cinq, or Manic-5). This is one of the largest-known meteorite impact craters on Earth. The Flin Flon greenstone belt in central Manitoba and east-central Saskatchewan \"is one of the largest Paleoproterozoic volcanic-hosted massive sulfide (VMS) districts in the world, containing 27 copper-zinc-(gold) deposits from which more than 183 million tonnes of sulfide have been mined.\" The Shield, particularly the portion in the Northwest Territories, has recently been the site of several major diamond discoveries. The kimberlite pipes in which the diamonds are found are closely associated with cratons, which provide the deep lithospheric mantle required to stabilize diamond as a mineral. The kimberlite eruptions then bring the diamonds from over depth to the surface. The Ekati and Diavik mines are actively mining kimberlite diamonds." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Cognitive processes.", "Attention.", "Memory.", "Working memory.", "Long-term memory.", "Perception.", "Language.", "Metacognition.", "Modern perspectives.", "Applications.", "Abnormal psychology.", "Social psychology.", "Developmental psychology.", "Educational psychology.", "Personality psychology.", "Cognitive psychology vs. cognitive science.", "Criticisms." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Philosophically, ruminations of the human mind and its processes have been around since the times of the ancient Greeks. In 387 BCE, Plato is known to have suggested that the brain was the seat of the mental processes. In 1637, René Descartes posited that humans are born with innate ideas, and forwarded the idea of mind-body dualism, which would come to be known as substance dualism (essentially the idea that the mind and the body are two separate substances). From that time, major debates ensued through the 19th century regarding whether human thought was solely experiential (empiricism), or included innate knowledge (rationalism). Some of those involved in this debate included George Berkeley and John Locke on the side of empiricism, and Immanuel Kant on the side of nativism. With the philosophical debate continuing, the mid to late 19th century was a critical time in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline. Two discoveries that would later play substantial roles in cognitive psychology were Paul Broca's discovery of the area of the brain largely responsible for language production, and Carl Wernicke's discovery of an area thought to be mostly responsible for comprehension of language. Both areas were subsequently formally named for their founders and disruptions of an individual's language production or comprehension due to trauma or malformation in these areas have come to commonly be known as Broca's aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia. From the 1920s to the 1950s, the main approach to psychology was behaviorism. Initially, its adherents viewed mental events such as thoughts, ideas, attention, and consciousness as unobservables, hence outside the realm of a science of psychology. One pioneer of cognitive psychology, who worked outside the boundaries (both intellectual and geographical) of behaviorism was Jean Piaget. From 1926 to the 1950s and into the 1980s, he studied the thoughts, language, and intelligence of children and adults. In the mid-20th century, three main influences arose that would inspire and shape cognitive psychology as a formal school of thought: Ulric Neisser put the term \"cognitive psychology\" into common use through his book \"Cognitive Psychology\", published in 1967. Neisser's definition of \"cognition\" illustrates the then-progressive concept of cognitive processes: The term \"cognition\" refers to all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. It is concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of relevant stimulation, as in images and hallucinations.... Given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do; that every psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon. But although cognitive psychology is concerned with all human activity rather than some fraction of it, the concern is from a particular point of view. Other viewpoints are equally legitimate and necessary. Dynamic psychology, which begins with motives rather than with sensory input, is a case in point. Instead of asking how a man's actions and experiences result from what he saw, remembered, or believed, the dynamic psychologist asks how they follow from the subject's goals, needs, or instincts.", "The main focus of cognitive psychologists is on the mental processes that affect behavior. Those processes include, but are not limited to, the following three stages of memory: 1-sensory memory storage: holds sensory information 2-short term memory storage: holds information temporarily for analysis and retrieves information from the Long term memory. 3- Long term memory: holds information over an extended period of time which receives information from the short term memory.", "The psychological definition of attention is \"a state of focused awareness on a subset of the available perceptual information\". A key function of attention is to identify irrelevant data and filter it out, enabling significant data to be distributed to the other mental processes. For example, the human brain may simultaneously receive auditory, visual, olfactory, taste, and tactile information. The brain is able to consciously handle only a small subset of this information, and this is accomplished through the attentional processes. Attention can be divided into two major attentional systems: exogenous control and endogenous control. Exogenous control works in a bottom-up manner and is responsible for orienting reflex, and pop-out effects. Endogenous control works top-down and is the more deliberate attentional system, responsible for divided attention and conscious processing. One major focal point relating to attention within the field of cognitive psychology is the concept of divided attention. A number of early studies dealt with the ability of a person wearing headphones to discern meaningful conversation when presented with different messages into each ear; this is known as the dichotic listening task. Key findings involved an increased understanding of the mind's ability to both focus on one message, while still being somewhat aware of information being taken in from the ear not being consciously attended to. E.g., participants (wearing earphones) may be told that they will be hearing separate messages in each ear and that they are expected to attend only to information related to basketball. When the experiment starts, the message about basketball will be presented to the left ear and non-relevant information will be presented to the right ear. At some point the message related to basketball will switch to the right ear and the non-relevant information to the left ear. When this happens, the listener is usually able to repeat the entire message at the end, having attended to the left or right ear only when it was appropriate. The ability to attend to one conversation in the face of many is known as the cocktail party effect. Other major findings include that participants can't comprehend both passages, when shadowing one passage, they can't report content of the unattended message, they can shadow a message better if the pitches in each ear are different. However, while deep processing doesn't occur, early sensory processing does. Subjects did notice if the pitch of the unattended message changed or if it ceased altogether, and some even oriented to the unattended message if their name was mentioned.", "The two main types of memory are short-term memory and long-term memory; however, short-term memory has become better understood to be working memory. Cognitive psychologists often study memory in terms of working memory.", "Though working memory is often thought of as just short-term memory, it is more clearly defined as the ability to process and maintain temporary information in a wide range of everyday activities in the face of distraction. The famously known capacity of memory of 7 plus or minus 2 is a combination of both memory in working memory and long term memory. One of the classic experiments is by Ebbinghaus, who found the serial position effect where information from the beginning and end of list of random words were better recalled than those in the center. This primacy and recency effect varies in intensity based on list length. Its typical U-shaped curve can be disrupted by an attention-grabbing word; this is known as the Von Restorff effect. Many models of working memory have been made. One of the most regarded is the Baddeley and Hitch model of working memory. It takes into account both visual and auditory stimuli, long-term memory to use as a reference, and a central processor to combine and understand it all. A large part of memory is forgetting, and there is a large debate among psychologists of decay theory versus interference theory.", "Modern conceptions of memory are usually about long-term memory and break it down into three main sub-classes. These three classes are somewhat hierarchical in nature, in terms of the level of conscious thought related to their use.", "Perception involves both the physical senses (sight, smell, hearing, taste, touch, and proprioception) as well as the cognitive processes involved in interpreting those senses. Essentially, it is how people come to understand the world around them through interpretation of stimuli. Early psychologists like Edward B. Titchener began to work with perception in their structuralist approach to psychology. Structuralism dealt heavily with trying to reduce human thought (or \"consciousness,\" as Titchener would have called it) into its most basic elements by gaining understanding of how an individual perceives particular stimuli. Current perspectives on perception within cognitive psychology tend to focus on particular ways in which the human mind interprets stimuli from the senses and how these interpretations affect behavior. An example of the way in which modern psychologists approach the study of perception is the research being done at the Center for Ecological Study of Perception and Action at the University of Connecticut (CESPA). One study at CESPA concerns ways in which individuals perceive their physical environment and how that influences their navigation through that environment.", "Psychologists have had an interest in the cognitive processes involved with language that dates back to the 1870s, when Carl Wernicke proposed a model for the mental processing of language. Current work on language within the field of cognitive psychology varies widely. Cognitive psychologists may study language acquisition, individual components of language formation (like phonemes), how language use is involved in mood, or numerous other related areas. Significant work has been done recently with regard to understanding the timing of language acquisition and how it can be used to determine if a child has, or is at risk of, developing a learning disability. A study from 2012, showed that while this can be an effective strategy, it is important that those making evaluations include all relevant information when making their assessments. Factors such as individual variability, socioeconomic status, short-term and long-term memory capacity, and others must be included in order to make valid assessments.", "Metacognition, in a broad sense, is the thoughts that a person has about their own thoughts. More specifically, metacognition includes things like: Much of the current study regarding metacognition within the field of cognitive psychology deals with its application within the area of education. Being able to increase a student's metacognitive abilities has been shown to have a significant impact on their learning and study habits. One key aspect of this concept is the improvement of students' ability to set goals and self-regulate effectively to meet those goals. As a part of this process, it is also important to ensure that students are realistically evaluating their personal degree of knowledge and setting realistic goals (another metacognitive task). Common phenomena related to metacognition include:", "Modern perspectives on cognitive psychology generally address cognition as a dual process theory, expounded upon by Daniel Kahneman in 2011. Kahneman differentiated the two styles of processing more, calling them intuition and reasoning. Intuition (or system 1), similar to associative reasoning, was determined to be fast and automatic, usually with strong emotional bonds included in the reasoning process. Kahneman said that this kind of reasoning was based on formed habits and very difficult to change or manipulate. Reasoning (or system 2) was slower and much more volatile, being subject to conscious judgments and attitudes.", "", "Following the cognitive revolution, and as a result of many of the principle discoveries to come out of the field of cognitive psychology, the discipline of cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) evolved. Aaron T. Beck is generally regarded as the father of cognitive therapy, a particular type of CBT treatment. His work in the areas of recognition and treatment of depression has gained worldwide recognition. In his 1987 book titled \"Cognitive Therapy of Depression\", Beck puts forth three salient points with regard to his reasoning for the treatment of depression by means of therapy or therapy and antidepressants versus using a pharmacological-only approach: 1. Despite the prevalent use of antidepressants, the fact remains that not all patients respond to them. Beck cites (in 1987) that only 60 to 65% of patients respond to antidepressants, and recent meta-analyses (a statistical breakdown of multiple studies) show very similar numbers.2. Many of those who do respond to antidepressants end up not taking their medications, for various reasons. They may develop side-effects or have some form of personal objection to taking the drugs.3. Beck posits that the use of psychotropic drugs may lead to an eventual breakdown in the individual's coping mechanisms. His theory is that the person essentially becomes reliant on the medication as a means of improving mood and fails to practice those coping techniques typically practiced by healthy individuals to alleviate the effects of depressive symptoms. By failing to do so, once the patient is weaned off of the antidepressants, they often are unable to cope with normal levels of depressed mood and feel driven to reinstate use of the antidepressants.", "Many facets of modern social psychology have roots in research done within the field of cognitive psychology. Social cognition is a specific sub-set of social psychology that concentrates on processes that have been of particular focus within cognitive psychology, specifically applied to human interactions. Gordon B. Moskowitz defines social cognition as \"... the study of the mental processes involved in perceiving, attending to, remembering, thinking about, and making sense of the people in our social world\". The development of multiple social information processing (SIP) models has been influential in studies involving aggressive and anti-social behavior. Kenneth Dodge's SIP model is one of, if not the most, empirically supported models relating to aggression. Among his research, Dodge posits that children who possess a greater ability to process social information more often display higher levels of socially acceptable behavior. His model asserts that there are five steps that an individual proceeds through when evaluating interactions with other individuals and that how the person interprets cues is key to their reactionary process.", "Many of the prominent names in the field of developmental psychology base their understanding of development on cognitive models. One of the major paradigms of developmental psychology, the Theory of Mind (ToM), deals specifically with the ability of an individual to effectively understand and attribute cognition to those around them. This concept typically becomes fully apparent in children between the ages of 4 and 6. Essentially, before the child develops ToM, they are unable to understand that those around them can have different thoughts, ideas, or feelings than themselves. The development of ToM is a matter of metacognition, or thinking about one's thoughts. The child must be able to recognize that they have their own thoughts and in turn, that others possess thoughts of their own. One of the foremost minds with regard to developmental psychology, Jean Piaget, focused much of his attention on cognitive development from birth through adulthood. Though there have been considerable challenges to parts of his stages of cognitive development, they remain a staple in the realm of education. Piaget's concepts and ideas predated the cognitive revolution but inspired a wealth of research in the field of cognitive psychology and many of his principles have been blended with modern theory to synthesize the predominant views of today.", "Modern theories of education have applied many concepts that are focal points of cognitive psychology. Some of the most prominent concepts include:", "Cognitive therapeutic approaches have received considerable attention in the treatment of personality disorders in recent years. The approach focuses on the formation of what it believes to be faulty schemata, centralized on judgmental biases and general cognitive errors.", "The line between cognitive psychology and cognitive science can be blurry. Cognitive psychology is better understood as predominantly concerned with applied psychology and the understanding of psychological phenomena. Cognitive psychologists are often heavily involved in running psychological experiments involving human participants, with the goal of gathering information related to how the human mind takes in, processes, and acts upon inputs received from the outside world. The information gained in this area is then often used in the applied field of clinical psychology. Cognitive science is better understood as predominantly concerned with a much broader scope, with links to philosophy, linguistics, anthropology, neuroscience, and particularly with artificial intelligence. It could be said that cognitive science provides the corpus of information feeding the theories used by cognitive psychologists. Cognitive scientists' research sometimes involves non-human subjects, allowing them to delve into areas which would come under ethical scrutiny if performed on human participants. I.e., they may do research implanting devices in the brains of rats to track the firing of neurons while the rat performs a particular task. Cognitive science is highly involved in the area of artificial intelligence and its application to the understanding of mental processes.", "In the early years of cognitive psychology, behaviorist critics held that the empiricism it pursued was incompatible with the concept of internal mental states. Cognitive neuroscience, however, continues to gather evidence of direct correlations between physiological brain activity and putative mental states, endorsing the basis for cognitive psychology. Some observers have suggested that as cognitive psychology became a movement during the 1970s, the intricacies of the phenomena and processes it examined meant it also began to lose cohesion as a field of study. In \"Psychology: Pythagoras to Present\", for example, John Malone writes: \"Examinations of late twentieth-century textbooks dealing with \"cognitive psychology\", \"human cognition\", \"cognitive science\" and the like quickly reveal that there are many, many varieties of cognitive psychology and very little agreement about exactly what may be its domain.\" This misfortune produced competing models that questioned information-processing approaches to cognitive functioning such as Decision Making and Behavioral Science." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and musical beginnings.", "Career.", "2001–2005: Career beginnings and \"Soviet Kitsch\".", "2006–2008: \"Begin to Hope\".", "2009–2011: \"Far\".", "2012–2015: \"What We Saw from the Cheap Seats\".", "2016–present: \"Remember Us to Life\".", "Voice and style.", "Appearances in the media.", "Personal life.", "Philanthropy.", "Discography.", "Awards and nominations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Spektor was born in 1980 in Moscow, Soviet Union, to a musical Russian-Jewish family. Her father, Ilya Spektor, is a photographer and amateur violinist. Her mother, Bella Spektor, was a music professor in a Soviet college of music and teaches at a public elementary school in Mount Vernon, New York. She has a brother Boruch (also known as Bear), who was featured in track 7, \"* * *\", or \"Whisper\", of her 2004 album \"Soviet Kitsch\". Growing up in Moscow, Regina started taking piano lessons when she was seven and learned how to play the piano by practicing on a Petrof upright that her grandfather gave her mother. She grew up listening to classical music and famous Russian bards like Vladimir Vysotsky and Bulat Okudzhava. Her father, who obtained recordings in Eastern Europe and traded cassettes with friends in the Soviet Union, also exposed her to rock and roll bands such as the Beatles, Queen, and the Moody Blues. The family left the Soviet Union for the Bronx in 1989, when Regina was nine and a half, during the period of Perestroika, when Soviet citizens were permitted to emigrate. Regina had to leave her piano behind. The seriousness of her piano studies led her parents to consider not leaving the Soviet Union, but they finally decided to emigrate due to the racial, ethnic, and political discrimination that Jews faced. Traveling first to Austria and then Italy, the Spektor family was admitted to the United States as refugees with the assistance of HIAS (the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society). They settled in the Bronx, where Spektor graduated from the SAR Academy, a Jewish day middle school in the Riverdale section of the Bronx. Since the family had been unable to bring their piano from Moscow, Spektor practiced on tabletops and other hard surfaces until she found a piano on which to play in the basement of her synagogue. In New York City, Spektor studied classical piano with Sonia Vargas, a professor at the Manhattan School of Music, until she was 17; Spektor's father had met Vargas through Vargas' husband, violinist Samuel Marder. Spektor attended high school for two years at the Frisch School, a yeshiva in Paramus, New Jersey, but transferred to a public school, Fair Lawn High School, in Fair Lawn, New Jersey, where she finished the last two years of her high school education. Spektor was originally interested in classical music only, but later became interested in hip hop, rock, and punk as well. Although she had always made up songs around the house, she first became interested in more formal songwriting during a visit to Israel with the Nesiya Institute in her teenage years when she attracted attention from the other children on the trip for the songs she made up while hiking. Following this trip, she was exposed to the works of Joni Mitchell, Ani DiFranco, and other singer-songwriters, which encouraged her belief that she could create her own songs. She wrote her first a cappella songs around the age of 16 and her first songs for voice and piano when she was nearly 18. Spektor completed the four-year studio composition program of the Conservatory of Music at Purchase College within three years, graduating with honors in 2001. Around this time, she also worked briefly at a butterfly farm in Luck, Wisconsin, and studied in Tottenham (in North London) for one term.", "", "Spektor gradually achieved recognition through performances in the anti-folk scene in downtown New York City, most prominently at the East Village's SideWalk Cafe. She also performed at local colleges (such as Sarah Lawrence College) with other musicians, including the Trachtenburg Family Slideshow Players. She sold self-published CDs at her performances during this period: \"\" (2001) and \"Songs\" (2002). Spektor's first nationwide tour was accompanying The Strokes as the opening act on their 2003–2004 \"Room on Fire\" tour which included performances at The Theater at Madison Square Garden. While on the tour, she and the band performed and recorded \"Modern Girls & Old Fashion Men\". After the tour, Kings of Leon who were the second opening act on the tour, invited Spektor to open for them on their own European tour. In 2004, Spektor signed a contract with Warner Brothers' record label Sire Records to publish and distribute her third album \"Soviet Kitsch\", originally self-released in 2003. In 2005, she began making her first TV appearances including guest spots on various late-night talk shows. In June 2005, Spektor was the opening act for the English piano rock band Keane on their North American tour, during which she performed at Radio City Music Hall on June 7, 2005.", "Spektor went on to release the album \"Begin to Hope\" on June 13, 2006. The album debuted at number 70 on the Billboard 200, but due to the popularity of the single \"Fidelity\", it went on to peak at number 20, and was certified Gold by the RIAA. Spektor received increased attention when her video for \"Fidelity\" was viewed over 200,000 times in two days on YouTube. Spektor's 2006 headlining tour in support of the \"Begin to Hope\" album included back-to-back hometown shows at Town Hall Theater in New York City on September 27 and September 28, 2006. This tour was Spektor's first to feature a full backing band. Listeners of Sirius Radio's Left of Center channel voted her single \"Fidelity\" as the No. 1 song of 2006. Towards the end of 2006, VH1 showcased her as part of their \"You Oughta Know: Artists on the Rise\" featurettes, playing clips from the \"Fidelity\" music video and showing parts of an interview with Spektor during commercial breaks on the channel. Spektor's video for \"Fidelity\" reached No. 3 on VH1's Top 20 Countdown. Spektor reached No. 33 on \"Blender\" magazine's top 100 of 2006 and was also listed as one of the \"Hottest Women of Rock\". On January 21, 2007, she was given an extensive feature on \"CBS News Sunday Morning\" which showcased her musical beginnings and growing popularity. In 2007, Spektor began performing at several major music festivals including Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, Bonnaroo Music Festival, Lollapalooza, Virgin Festival and Austin City Limits Music Festival. On October 1, 2007, her video for \"Better\" was released on VH1 and YouTube, where it was viewed more than 100,000 times within the first 24 hours. Spektor performed acoustic at Neil Young's Bridge School Benefit at Shoreline Amphitheatre on October 27, 2007. On November 14, 2007, at her concert at Ryman Auditorium in Nashville, Spektor collapsed during the sound check and was taken to a local emergency room. According to the statement given to the audience, Spektor was fine, but doctors said that she could not perform that night. It was later reported that the cause of the collapse was an inner ear infection which caused intense vertigo. The show was initially rescheduled for December 6, 2007, but the date was once again rescheduled, and the concert finally occurred on February 29, 2008. After her initial collapse in Nashville, she was able to perform in concerts at Mountain Stage, in West Virginia, on November 18, 2007 (the concert was aired in September 2008), and at Duke University on November 19, 2007. Spektor wrote the song \"The Call\" for the 2008 film \"\", which appeared prominently in the film's finale sequence. She then appeared as a guest vocalist on \"You Don't Know Me\", a single from Ben Folds' 2008 album, \"Way to Normal\". In promotion for the single, the duo performed the song together on several late-night talk shows.", "Spektor's fifth album \"Far\" was released June 23, 2009. For the record she worked with four producers: David Kahne (who had previously worked with Spektor on \"Begin to Hope\"), Mike Elizondo, Jacknife Lee and Jeff Lynne. The record sold 50,000 copies in its first week, entering the US \"Billboard\" 200 at number three; the record remained on the chart for 19 weeks. The album peaked at number 30 and 16 in the UK and Canada, respectively. She then headlined at Serpentine Sessions, a series of concerts at London's Hyde Park on June 29, 2009. Other European performances in 2009 include Glastonbury Festival, Hultsfred Festival, Oxegen 2009, T in the Park, Paradiso, Latitude Festival, and Rock Werchter. Spektor invited Brooklyn-based rock band Jupiter One to open concerts on her 2009 North American tour. As a part of that tour, on October 14, 2009, Spektor headlined a concert at the Radio City Music Hall in NYC. On September 16, 2009, it was announced that Spektor would write the music for the musical \"Beauty\", a modern adaptation of the fairy tale \"Sleeping Beauty\", which was initially set to open during the 2011–12 Broadway season. Regina made her \"Saturday Night Live\" debut on October 10, 2009, performing \"Eet\" and \"The Calculation\" off of \"Far\". In May 2010, Spektor performed for Barack and Michelle Obama along with hundreds of other guests at the White House reception in honor of Jewish American Heritage Month. She performed \"Us\" and \"The Sword & the Pen\".", "Spektor's sixth album, \"What We Saw from the Cheap Seats\" was released May 29, 2012. Like her previous album, it debuted at number three on the Billboard 200. Promotional appearances for the record included Spektor appearing on the June 7, 2012 episode of \"The Colbert Report\" where she performed \"Small Town Moon\" as well as \"Ballad of a Politician\" as online bonus content. Her world tour in support of \"What We Saw from the Cheap Seats\" included a performance in Moscow; Spektor had not yet returned since fleeing with her family in 1989. In 2012, Spektor was christened an official \"Steinway Artist\"; she plays Steinway & Sons pianos almost exclusively. Spektor wrote and recorded the main title theme song, \"You've Got Time\", for the Netflix Original series \"Orange Is the New Black\", which premiered in July 2013. It was nominated in the Best Song Written for Visual Media category at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards.", "Spektor announced her seventh album, \"Remember Us to Life\" on July 21, 2016 through her email newsletter. The album was released on September 30, 2016. The first single, \"Bleeding Heart\", was released July 22, 2016. The follow-up single, \"Small Bill$\", was released August 11, 2016. Regina Spektor performed George Harrison's \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\", released August 5, 2016, for the film \"Kubo and the Two Strings\". In 2016, Spektor was one of the artists featured on The Hamilton Mixtape; she sings a remix of \"Dear Theodosia\" with Ben Folds. In 2017, Spektor was featured as a guest singer on the title track to Gypsy-punk band Gogol Bordello's studio album, \"Seekers and Finders\". In 2017, Spektor was featured as a guest vocalist on Odesza's song \"Just A Memory\" from their album A Moment Apart. On November 8, 2018, Spektor released a new song entitled \"Birdsong\", written specially for an episode of the Amazon Prime series \"The Romanoffs\". On March 25, 2019, Spektor announced she would be bringing her music to Broadway as the Artist in Residency at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre for five performances June 20–26, 2019. On July 26, 2019, Spektor released an acoustic version of her own song \"You've Got Time\", coinciding with the release of the seventh and final season of \"Orange Is the New Black\". The song is also featured in the final episode of the Netflix series.", "Spektor's primary instrument is the piano though she plays the guitar as a secondary instrument, primarily playing on a seafoam Epiphone Wildkat archtop hollow-body electric guitar for live performances. Spektor has said that she has created a great number of songs but rarely writes any of them down. Spektor's songs are not usually autobiographical but are based on scenarios and characters drawn from her imagination. Her songs show influences from folk, punk, rock, Jewish, Russian, hip hop, jazz, and classical music. Spektor has said that she works hard to ensure that each of her songs has its own musical style, rather than trying to develop a distinctive style for her music as a whole: \"It doesn't feel natural for me to write some diary type song. I want to write a classic like Yesterday but weird songs about meatballs in refrigerators come into my head – I can't help it.\" Spektor performs using a broad vocal range, with a falsetto extension, but without any apparent break. She explores a variety of different and somewhat unorthodox vocal techniques, such as verses composed entirely of buzzing noises made with the lips and beatbox-style flourishes in the middle of ballads, and also makes use of such unusual musical techniques as using a drum stick to tap rhythms on the body of a chair. Part of her style also results from the exaggeration of certain aspects of vocalization, most notably the glottal stop, prominent in the single \"Fidelity\". She also uses a strong New York accent on some words, which she has said is due to her love of New York and its culture. Her lyrics are equally eclectic, often taking the form of abstract narratives or first-person character studies, similar to short stories or vignettes put to song. Spektor usually sings in English, though she sometimes includes a few words or verses of Latin, Russian, French, and other languages in her songs. She also plays with pronunciations, which she said on a NPR interview to be a remnant of her early years when she listened to pop in English without understanding the lyrics. Some of Spektor's lyrics include literary allusions, such as: F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway in \"Poor Little Rich Boy\"; \"The Little Prince\" in \"Baobabs\"; Virginia Woolf and Margaret Atwood in \"Paris\"; Ezra Pound and \"The Merchant of Venice\" in \"Pound of Flesh\", Boris Pasternak in \"Après Moi\"; Samson and Delilah in \"Samson\"; \"Oedipus Rex\" in \"Oedipus\"; Edith Wharton's \"Ethan Frome\" in \"2.99¢ Blues\". Recurring themes and topics in Spektor's lyrics include love, death, religion (particularly biblical and Jewish references), city life (particularly New York references), and certain key phrases which recur in different songs, such as references to gravediggers, the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil and the name \"Mary Ann\". Spektor's use of satire is evident in \"Wasteside\", which refers to \"The Twelve Chairs\", the classic satirical novel by the Soviet authors Ilf and Petrov, and describes the town in which people are born, get their hair cut, and then are sent to the cemetery. Spektor's first, self-released album, \"\", was recorded and self-released while she was still in college. The album differs from Spektor's later releases as she was heavily influenced by blues and jazz at the time of its recording. Her second album, \"Songs\", was recorded on Christmas Day, 2001. Each song was recorded with just one take and is entirely acoustic. The session from which the album was derived was not originally intended as an album recording session. Her third album, \"Soviet Kitsch\", featured strings on several songs and was her first to feature a full rock band. Upon signing with a major label which in turn provided a bigger budget for production and studio time, Spektor's albums began to put more emphasis into song production and feature more prominent use of traditional pop and rock instruments. Spektor says the records that most impact her are those of \"bands whose music is really involved\", specifically naming the Beatles, Bob Dylan, Nirvana, Madonna, Eminem, Kate Bush, Rufus Wainwright, David Bowie, the Ramones, Patti Smith, Billie Holiday, Radiohead, Tom Waits, and Frédéric Chopin as primary influences.", "Since 2005, Spektor's music has been used in various television programs and commercials.", "Spektor is fluent in Russian and reads Hebrew. She has paid tribute to her Russian heritage, quoting the poem \"February\" by the Russian poet Boris Pasternak in her song \"Après Moi\", and stating, \"I'm very connected to the language and the culture.\" Spektor and her family did not return home to Moscow until July 2012, when she toured through Russia in support of her sixth album, \"What We Saw from the Cheap Seats\". She has stated that she used to be vegetarian, though stopped this after touring with The Strokes, who frequently dined on steak. Spektor married singer-songwriter Jack Dishel in 2011. Formerly a guitarist with the band The Moldy Peaches, Dishel is a member of the band Only Son and duets with Spektor in the song \"Call Them Brothers\". They had a son in March 2014. In a 2016 interview on NPR, \"Regina Spektor: 'I see my family...In Everybody'\", Spektor discusses the experiences and struggles as an immigrant youth in New York have had in contributing to the recent album \"Remember Us to Life\".", "In 2007, Spektor covered John Lennon's \"Real Love\" for \"\". The following year, she participated in \"Songs for Tibet\", an initiative in support of human rights in Tibet and the 14th Dalai Lama. The album was issued on August 5, 2008, via iTunes and on August 19 in music stores around the world. On January 22, 2009, Spektor performed at the third annual Roe on the Rocks gig at the Bowery Ballroom to raise money for Planned Parenthood New York City.", "Studio albums", "MVPA Awards Other awards" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Design.", "Reverse (common) side.", "Obverse (national) side.", "Planned designs.", "Minting.", "Error coins." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "The coin dates from 2002, when euro coins and banknotes were introduced in the twelve-member Eurozone and its related territories. The common side was designed by Luc Luycx, a Belgian artist who won a Europe-wide competition to design the new coins. The design of the one and two euro coins was intended to show the European Union (EU) as a whole with the then 15 countries more closely joined together than on the 10- to 50-cent coins (the 1- to 5-cent coins showed the EU as one, though intending to show its place in the world). There were then 15 versions of the national sides (eurozone + Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican who could mint their own) and in each case there was a national competition to decide the design, which had to comply with uniform specifications, such as the requirement to include twelve stars (see euro coins). National designs were not allowed to change until the end of 2008, unless a monarch (whose portrait usually appears on the coins) died or abdicated. This happened in Monaco and the Vatican City, resulting in three new designs in circulation (the Vatican had an interim \"sede vacante\" design until the new Pope was elected). National designs have seen some changes, as they are now required to include the name of the issuing country: previously neither Finland nor Belgium showed this., Austria, Germany and Greece are obliged to change their designs due this requirement in the future. As the EU's membership has since expanded in 2004 and 2007, with further expansions envisaged, the common face of all euro coins of values of 10 cents and above were redesigned in 2007 to show a new map. This map showed Europe, not just the EU, as one continuous landmass; however Cyprus was moved west as the map cut off after the Bosphorus (which was seen as excluding Turkey for political reasons). The 2007 redesign coincided with the first enlargement of the eurozone in that year, with the entry of Slovenia. Hence, the Slovenian design was added to the designs in circulation. Since then designs for Cyprus, Malta, Slovakia, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania have been added as each of these states joined the eurozone. Andorra began minting its own designs in 2014 after winning the right to do so.", "The coins are composed of two alloys. The inner circle is composed of three layers (copper-nickel, nickel, copper-nickel) and the outer ring of nickel brass, giving the coin a two-colour appearance. The coin has a diameter of 23.25 mm, thickness 2.33 mm and a mass of 7.5 grams. The coins' edges consist of alternating segments: three smooth, three finely ribbed. The coins have been used from 2002, though some are dated 1999, which is the year the euro was created as a currency, but not put into general circulation.", "The reverse (used from 2007 onwards) was designed by Luc Luycx and displays a map of Europe, not including Iceland and cutting off, in a semicircle, at the Bosphorus, north through the middle of Ukraine, then Russia and through northern Scandinavia. Cyprus is located further west than it should be and Malta is shown disproportionately large so that it appears on the map. The map has numerous indentations giving an appearance of geography rather than a flat design. Six fine lines cut across the map except where there is landmass and have a star at each end—reflecting the twelve stars on the flag of Europe. Across the map is the word EURO, and a large number 1 appears to the left hand side of the coin. The designer's initials, LL, appear next to Cyprus. Luc Luycx designed the original coin, which was much the same except that the design was only of the then 15 members in their entirety and showing borders and no geographic features. The map was less detailed and the lines the stars were upon cut through where there would be landmass in eastern Europe if it were shown.", "The obverse side of the coin depends on the issuing country. All have to include twelve stars (in most cases a circle around the edge), the engraver's initials and the year of issue. New designs also have to include the name or initials of the issuing country. The side cannot repeat the denomination of the coin unless the issuing country uses an alphabet other than Latin (currently, Greece is the only such country, hence \"1 ΕΥΡΩ\" is engraved upon its coin. Austria is currently in breach of the revised rules, but has so far not announced plans to remove \"1 EURO\" from its coin).", "Austria, Germany and Greece will at some point need to update their designs to comply with guidelines stating they must include the issuing state's name or initial, and not repeat the denomination of the coin. In addition, there are several EU states that have not yet adopted the euro, some of them have already agreed upon their coin designs; however, it is not known exactly when they will adopt the currency, and hence these are not yet minted. See enlargement of the Eurozone for expected entry dates of these countries.", "One-euro coins have been produced every year in Belgium, Finland, France, the Netherlands and Spain. In Austria, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Luxembourg, Portugal, San Marino and the Vatican City no €1 coins were minted dated 1999, 2000 and 2001. In Monaco, no €1 coins were minted in 1999, 2000, 2005, 2008 and 2010. Malta did not issue €1 coins in 2009. Slovenia and Slovakia have produced coins every year since their respective entries to the eurozone. Proof €1 coins are minted by the majority, but not all, of the eurozone states. One of the most valuable planned issues of a €1 coin was by Vatican City in 2002, which may sell for several hundred euros. However, the French mint marks were mistakenly not placed on some 2007 Monaco coins which are hence worth more than €200 to collectors. PP means the proof-condition coins. Numbers means if more than one coin was minted in that year in that condition by the country. In Germany, there are five mint marks, so they mint ten types of coins in every year. In Greece, there were coins in 2002 which were minted in Finland with S mint mark. In the Vatican, there were coins minted with John Paul II's effigy, and with \"Sede Vacante\" image in 2005.", "There are several error 1-euro coins: Italian types from 2002 without mintmarks; Portuguese coins, also from 2002 with another type of edging (29 stripes instead of 28) and from 2008 with the first type of the common side, officially used until 2007; and the famous Monegasque coin from 2007 without mint marks." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Generators of unwanted heat.", "Damage prevention.", "Mainframes and supercomputers.", "Air cooling.", "Fans.", "Performance of fans in chassis.", "Parallel versus series installation.", "Temperature versus flow rate.", "Piezoelectric pump.", "Passive cooling.", "Other techniques.", "Liquid immersion cooling.", "Waste heat reduction.", "Heat-sinks.", "Peltier (thermoelectric) cooling.", "Liquid cooling.", "Heat pipes and vapor chambers.", "Electrostatic air movement and corona discharge effect cooling.", "Soft cooling.", "Undervolting.", "Chip-integrated.", "Phase-change cooling.", "Liquid nitrogen.", "Liquid helium.", "Optimization.", "Thermally conductive compounds.", "Heat sink lapping.", "Rounded cables.", "Airflow.", "Air pressure.", "Computer types.", "Desktops.", "Servers.", "Rack-mounted.", "Laptops.", "Mobile devices." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Integrated circuits (e.g., CPU and GPU) are the main generators of heat in modern computers. Heat generation can be reduced by efficient design and selection of operating parameters such as voltage and frequency, but ultimately, acceptable performance can often only be achieved by managing significant heat generation.", "Because high temperatures can significantly reduce life span or cause permanent damage to components, and the heat output of components can sometimes exceed the computer's cooling capacity, manufacturers often take additional precautions to ensure that temperatures remain within safe limits. A computer with thermal sensors integrated in the CPU, motherboard, chipset, or GPU can shut itself down when high temperatures are detected to prevent permanent damage, although this may not completely", "As electronic computers became larger and more complex, cooling of the active components became a critical factor for reliable operation. Early vacuum-tube computers, with relatively large cabinets, could rely on natural or forced air circulation for cooling. However, solid state devices were packed much more densely and had lower allowable operating temperatures. Starting in 1965, IBM and other manufacturers of mainframe computers sponsored intensive research into the physics of cooling densely packed integrated circuits. Many air and liquid cooling systems were devised and investigated, using methods such as natural and forced convection, direct air impingement, direct liquid immersion and forced convection, pool boiling, falling films, flow boiling, and liquid jet impingement. Mathematical analysis was used to predict temperature rises of components for each possible cooling system geometry. IBM developed three generations of the Thermal Conduction Module (TCM) which used a water-cooled cold plate in direct thermal contact with integrated circuit packages. Each package had a thermally conductive pin pressed onto it, and helium gas surrounded chips and heat conducting pins. The design could remove up to 27 watts from a chip and up to 2000 watts per module, while maintaining chip package temperatures around. Systems using TCMs were the 3081 family (1980), ES/3090 (1984) and some models of the ES/9000 (1990). In the IBM 3081 processor, TCMs allowed up to 2700 watts on a single printed circuit board while maintaining chip temperature at", "", "Fans are used when natural convection is insufficient to remove heat. Fans may be fitted to the computer case or attached to CPUs, GPUs, chipset, power supply unit (PSU), hard drives, or as cards plugged into an expansion slot. Common fan sizes include 40, 60, 80, 92, 120, and 140 mm. 200, 230, 250 and 300 mm fans are sometimes used in high-performance personal computers.", "A computer has a certain resistance to air flowing through the chassis and components. This is the sum of all the smaller impediments to air flow, such as the inlet and outlet openings, air filters, internal chassis, and electronic components. Fans are simple air pumps which provide pressure to the air of the inlet side relative to the output side. That pressure difference", "Fans can be installed parallel to each other, in series, or a combination of both. Parallel installation would be fans mounted side by side. Series installation would be a second fan in line with another fan such as an inlet fan and an exhaust fan. To simplify the discussion, it is assumed the fans are the same model. Parallel fans will provide double the free air flow but no additional driving pressure. Series installation, on the other hand, will double the available static pressure but not increase the free air flow rate. The adjacent illustration shows a single fan versus two fans in parallel with a maximum pressure of of water and a doubled flow rate of about. Note that air flow changes as the", "The equation for required airflow through a chassis is formula_1 where A simple conservative rule of thumb for cooling flow requirements, discounting such effects as heat loss through the chassis walls and laminar versus turbulent flow, and accounting for the constants for specific heat and density at sea level is: formula_2 formula_3 For example, a typical chassis with 500 watts of load, maximum internal temperature in a environment, i.e. a difference of : formula_4 This would be actual flow through the chassis and not the free air rating of the fan. It should also be noted that \"Q\", the heat transferred is a function of the heat transfer efficiency of a CPU or GPU cooler to the airflow.", "A \"dual piezo cooling jet\", patented by GE, uses vibrations to pump air through the device. The initial device is three millimeters thick and consists of two nickel discs that are connected on either side to a sliver of piezoelectric ceramics. An alternating current passed through the ceramic component causes it to expand and contract at up to", "Passive heat-sink cooling involves attaching a block of machined or extruded metal to the part that needs cooling. A thermal adhesive may be used. More commonly for a personal-computer CPU, a clamp holds the heat sink directly over the chip, with a thermal grease or thermal pad spread between. This block has fins and ridges to increase its surface area. The heat conductivity of metal is much better than that of air, and it radiates heat better than the component that it is protecting (usually an integrated circuit or CPU). Fan-cooled aluminium heat sinks were originally the norm", "", "Another growing trend due to the increasing heat density of computer, GPU, FPGA, and ASICs is to immerse the entire computer or select components in a thermally, but not electrically, conductive liquid. Although rarely used for the cooling of personal computers, liquid immersion is a routine method of cooling large power distribution components such as transformers. It is also becoming popular with data centers. Personal computers cooled in this manner may not require either fans or pumps, and may be cooled exclusively by passive heat exchange between the computer hardware and the enclosure it is placed in. A heat exchanger (i.e. heater core or radiator) might still be needed though, and the piping also needs to be placed correctly. The coolant used must have sufficiently low electrical conductivity not to interfere with the normal operation of the computer. If the liquid is somewhat electrically conductive, it may cause electrical shorts between components or", "Where powerful computers with many features are not required, less powerful computers or ones with fewer features can be used. a VIA EPIA motherboard with CPU typically dissipates approximately 25 watts of heat, whereas a more capable Pentium", "A component may be fitted in good thermal contact with a heatsink, a passive device with large thermal capacity and with a large surface area relative to its volume. Heatsinks are usually made of a metal with high thermal conductivity such as aluminium or copper, and incorporate fins to increase surface area. Heat from a relatively small component is transferred to the larger heatsink; the equilibrium temperature of the component plus heatsink is much lower than the component's alone would be. Heat is carried away from the heatsink by convective or fan-forced airflow. Fan cooling is often used to cool processors and graphics cards that consume significant amounts of electrical energy. In a computer, a typical heat-generating component may be manufactured with a flat surface. A block of metal with a corresponding flat surface and finned construction, sometimes with an attached fan, is clamped to the component. To fill poorly conducting air gaps due to imperfectly flat and smooth surfaces, a thin layer of thermal grease, a thermal pad, or thermal adhesive may be placed between the", "Peltier junctions are generally only around 10-15% as efficient as the ideal refrigerator (Carnot cycle), compared with 40–60% achieved by conventional compression cycle systems (reverse Rankine systems using compression/expansion). Due to this lower efficiency, thermoelectric cooling is generally only used in environments where the solid state nature (no moving parts, low maintenance, compact size, and orientation insensitivity) outweighs pure efficiency. Modern TECs use several stacked units each", "Liquid cooling is a highly effective method of removing excess heat, with the most common heat transfer fluid in desktop PCs being (distilled) water. The advantages of water cooling over air cooling include water's higher specific heat capacity and thermal conductivity. The principle used in a typical (active) liquid cooling system for computers is identical to that used in an automobile's internal combustion engine, with the water being circulated by a water pump through a waterblock mounted on the CPU (and sometimes additional components as GPU and northbridge) and out to a heat exchanger, typically a radiator. The radiator is", "A heat pipe is a hollow tube containing a heat transfer liquid. The liquid absorbs heat and evaporates at one end of the pipe. The vapor travels to the other (cooler) end of the tube, where it condenses, giving up its latent heat. The liquid returns to the hot end of the tube by gravity or capillary action and repeats the cycle. Heat pipes have a much higher effective thermal conductivity than solid materials. For use in computers, the heat sink on the CPU is attached to a larger radiator heat sink. Both heat sinks are hollow, as", "The cooling technology under development by Kronos and Thorn Micro Technologies employs a device called an ionic wind pump (also known as an electrostatic fluid accelerator). The basic operating principle of an ionic wind pump is corona discharge, an electrical discharge near a charged conductor caused by the ionization of the surrounding air. The corona discharge cooler developed by Kronos works in the following manner: A high electric field is created at the tip of the cathode, which", "Soft cooling is the practice of utilizing software to take advantage of CPU power saving technologies to minimize energy use. This is done using halt instructions to turn off or put in standby state CPU subparts that aren't being", "Undervolting is a practice of running the CPU or any other component with voltages below the device specifications. An undervolted component draws less power and thus produces less heat. The ability to do this varies by manufacturer, product line, and even different production runs of the same product (as well as that of other components in the system), but processors are often specified", "Conventional cooling techniques all attach their \"cooling\" component to the outside of the computer chip package. This \"attaching\" technique will always exhibit some thermal resistance, reducing its effectiveness. The heat can be more efficiently and quickly removed by directly cooling the local hot spots of the chip, within the package. At these locations, power dissipation of over 300 W/cm (typical CPU is less than 100 W/cm) can occur, although future systems are expected to exceed 1000 W/cm. This form of local cooling is essential to developing high power density chips. This ideology has led to the investigation of integrating cooling elements into the computer chip. Currently there are two techniques: micro-channel heat sinks, and jet impingement cooling.", "Phase-change cooling is an extremely effective way to cool the processor. A vapor compression phase-change cooler is a unit which usually sits underneath the PC, with a tube leading to the processor. Inside the unit is a compressor of the same type as in an air conditioner. The compressor compresses a gas (or mixture of gases) which comes from the evaporator (cpu cooler discussed below). Then, the very hot high pressure vapor is pushed into the condenser (heat dissipation device) where it condenses from a hot gas into a liquid, typically subcooled at the exit of the condenser then the liquid is fed to an expansion device (restriction in the system) to cause a drop in pressure a vaporize the fluid (cause it to reach a pressure where it can boil at the desired temperature); the expansion device used can be a simple capillary tube to a more elaborate thermal expansion valve. The liquid evaporates (changing phase), absorbing the heat from the processor as it draws extra energy from its environment to accommodate this change (see latent heat). The evaporation can produce temperatures reaching around. The liquid flow into the evaporator boiling cooling the cpu, turning into a vapor", "As liquid nitrogen boils at, far below the freezing point of water, it is valuable as an extreme coolant for short overclocking sessions. In a typical installation of liquid nitrogen cooling, a copper or aluminum pipe is mounted on top of the processor or graphics card. After the system has been heavily insulated against condensation, the liquid nitrogen is poured into the pipe, resulting in temperatures well below. Evaporation devices ranging from cut out heat sinks with pipes attached to custom milled copper containers are used", "Liquid helium, colder than liquid nitrogen, has also been used for cooling. Liquid helium boils at, and temperatures ranging from have been measured from the", "Cooling can be improved by several techniques which may involve additional expense or effort. These techniques are often used, in particular, by those who run parts of their computer (such as the CPU and GPU) at higher voltages and frequencies than specified by manufacturer (overclocking), which increases heat generation. The installation of higher performance, non-stock cooling may also be considered modding. Many overclockers simply buy more efficient, and often, more expensive fan and heat sink combinations, while others resort to more exotic ways of computer cooling, such as liquid cooling, Peltier effect heatpumps, heat pipe or phase change cooling. There are also some related practices that have a positive impact in reducing system temperatures:", "Often called Thermal Interface Material (TIM) (e.g. Intel) Perfectly flat surfaces in contact give optimal cooling, but perfect flatness and absence of microscopic air gaps is not practically possible, particularly in mass-produced equipment. A very thin skim of thermal compound, which is much more thermally conductive than air, though much less so than metal, can improve thermal contact and cooling by filling in the air gaps. If only a small amount of compound just sufficient to fill the gaps is used, best temperature reduction will be obtained. There is much debate about the merits of compounds,", "Mass-produced CPU heat spreaders and heatsink bases are never perfectly flat or smooth; if these surfaces are placed in the best contact possible, there will be air gaps which reduce", "Most older PCs use flat ribbon cables to connect storage drives (IDE or SCSI). These large flat cables greatly impede airflow by causing drag and turbulence. Overclockers and modders often replace these with rounded cables, with the conductive wires bunched together tightly to reduce surface area. Theoretically, the parallel strands of conductors in a ribbon cable serve to reduce crosstalk (signal carrying conductors inducing", "The colder the cooling medium (the air), the more effective the cooling. Cooling air temperature can be improved with these guidelines: Fewer fans but strategically placed will improve the airflow internally within the PC and thus lower the overall internal case temperature in relation to ambient conditions. The use of larger fans also improves efficiency and lowers the amount of waste heat along with the amount of noise generated by the fans while in operation. There is little agreement", "Loosely speaking, positive pressure means intake into the case is stronger than exhaust from the case. This configuration results in pressure inside of the case being higher than in its environment. Negative pressure means exhaust is stronger than intake. This results in internal air pressure being lower than in the environment. Both configurations have benefits and drawbacks, with positive pressure being the more popular of the two configurations. Negative pressure results in the case pulling air through holes and vents separate from the fans, as the internal gases will attempt to reach an equilibrium pressure with the environment. Consequently, this results in dust entering the computer in all locations. Positive pressure solves this issue, as air will only incline to be exhausted through these holes and vents in order to reach an equilibrium with its environment. Dust is then unable to enter the case except through the intake fans, which generally possess dust filters.", "", "Desktop computers typically use one or more fans for cooling. While almost all desktop power supplies have at least one built-in fan, power supplies should never draw heated air from within the case, as this results in higher PSU operating temperatures which decrease the PSU's energy efficiency, reliability and overall ability to provide a steady supply of power to the computer's internal components. For this reason, all modern ATX cases (with some exceptions found in ultra-low-budget cases) feature a power supply mount in the bottom, with a dedicated PSU air intake (often with its own filter) beneath the mounting location, allowing the PSU to draw cool", "Server cooling fans in (1 U) enclosures are usually located in the middle of the enclosure, between the hard drives at the front and passive CPU heat sinks at the rear. Larger (higher) enclosures also have exhaust fans, and from approximately 4U they may have active heat sinks. Power supplies generally have their own rear-facing exhaust fans.", "Data centers typically contain many racks of thin, horizontally mounted 1U servers. Air is drawn in at the front of the rack and exhausted at the rear. Because data centers typically contain large numbers of computers and other power-dissipating devices, they risk equipment overheating; extensive HVAC systems are used to prevent this. Often a raised floor is used so the area under the floor may be used as a large plenum for cooled air and power cabling. Another way of accommodating large numbers of systems in a small space is to use blade chassis, oriented vertically rather than horizontally, to facilitate convection. Air heated by the hot components tends to rise, creating a natural air flow along the boards (stack effect), cooling them. Some manufacturers take advantage of this effect.", "Laptops present a difficult mechanical airflow design, power dissipation, and cooling challenge. Constraints specific to laptops include: the device as a whole has to be as light as possible; the form factor has to be built around the standard keyboard layout; users are", "Mobile devices usually have no discrete cooling systems, as mobile CPU and GPU chips are designed for maximum power efficiency" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin and description." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "It was by means of a midnight ritual in an oaken grove that the \"Göttinger Hainbund\" was founded on 12 September 1772 by Johann Heinrich Voss, Ludwig Christoph Heinrich Hölty, Johann Martin Miller, Gottlieb Dieterich von Miller, Johann Friedrich Hahn and Johann Thomas Ludwig Wehrs, in the university town of Göttingen. The members knew one other through their presence at the University of Göttingen or through their contributions to the \"Göttinger Musenalmanach\", a literary annual founded by Heinrich Christian Boie in 1770. Their evident delight in wilderness and untamed Nature (as a counterweight to the rationalism of the Enlightenment) is what scholars use to connect them to \"Sturm und Drang\", although not all commentators agree on who influenced whom, and in what way. In the poetry of the 48-year-old Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock they found their ideal. Their respect for him ran parallel to their disdain for Christoph Martin Wieland's jesting poetry, which they saw as frivolous, Frenchified work. On 2 July 1773, they celebrated Klopstock's birthday: Wieland was untroubled and responded generously, referring to the members of the \"Hainbund\", in a letter to Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, as \"well-meaning\" youngsters without experience of the world. In fact, by 1779, Voss was counted among Wieland's friends. The term \"Hainbund\" refers to Klopstock's ode \"\"Der Hügel und der Hain\"\" (\"The Hill and the Grove\", 1767), which contrasts citified Ancient Greek artistic ideals (symbolised by Mount Parnassus) with the simple rural virtue of the German bard. The two literary predecessors, \"Poet\" and \"Barde\", vie for the allegiance of the modern \"Dichter\". The \"Poet\" condemns the \"voice of coarse Nature\", but the \"Barde\" wins by emphasizing the closer spiritual connection he holds with the living German, and the \"Dichter\" exclaims: Another father figure (although not a member) was Gottfried August Bürger. He and Hölty are known as the inventors of the German \"Kunstballade\" (\"art ballad\"). On Sunday, 18 September 1774, Klopstock passed through the city and paid them a visit. He had intended to leave early the next morning, but transportation was difficult to find, and to their delight he spent nearly the whole of the Monday in their company. In 1775, most of its members having completed their education, the \"Hainbund\" gradually broke up as they returned to their home cities." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Formation and ideology.", "Activity.", "Decline." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The party was formed in March 1926 by the merger of a group of dissident National Democrats known as the \"Red-Whites\" with various other rightist groups across Bohemia and Moravia. It was distinguished by a strong current of opposition to Germany, which continued even after Adolf Hitler had come to power. The NOF instead looked to Italy as its model, and based itself wholly on Mussolini's National Fascist Party. In this respect it differed markedly from its chief rival Vlajka, which was firmly in the Hitler camp. Groups targeted by the NOF for criticism included the Jews, communists, the Czechoslovak government and the Magyars. It set up a youth group and a trade union movement, although the latter was minor. The group also advocated a policy of Pan-Slavism, and hoped to take a joint lead with Poland of a grand Slavic alliance that would overthrow communism in the Soviet Union. They also believed in a corporatist economy with a large agricultural sector. The NOF attracted some early support from veterans of the Czechoslovak Legions. It was estimated by a government informer that the NOF had as many as 200,000 followers in 1926, although it had virtually no support in the Slovak area as the far right there was dominated by an indigenous movement.", "The NOF regularly indulged in street-fighting tactics, clashing frequently with the National Labour Party, a moderate left-wing party led by Jaroslav Stránský. Such was the frequency of NOF attacks on Stránský and fellow leader Václav Bouček in 1927 that both men were provided with bodyguards by the government. The NOF even made plans for a possible coup d'etat and secured the support of Slovak paramilitary group Rodobrana in this endeavour although ultimately the plans were intercepted by Brno police and thus shelved.", "In the 1929 elections the NOF ran under the name \"Against Fixed-Order Lists\", but won three seats. Gajda was elected to Parliament, but the party failed to maintain its support, and received only 2% of the vote and seven seats in Chamber of Deputies in the elections of 1935. The NOF attempted a comeback during the German occupation, although the Nazis did not support due to their earlier criticism and their overall minor status. Ultimately the NOF were disbanded and largely absorbed into the puppet National Partnership, Gajda having been bribed to leave politics. The party's demise was sealed in late 1939 when they organised a rally in Prague's Wenceslas Square and only managed to attract 300 supporters." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Early reign.", "Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian Wars.", "Engagement and sexuality.", "Patron.", "Ludwig and Wagner.", "Theater.", "Castles.", "Neuschwanstein.", "Linderhof.", "Herrenchiemsee.", "Munich Residenz Palace royal apartment.", "Later projects.", "Controversy and struggle for power.", "Deposition.", "Death.", "Legacy.", "Buildings.", "Ludwig and the arts.", "In popular culture.", "Video games." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Born at Nymphenburg Palace (today located in suburban Munich), he was the elder son of Maximilian II of Bavaria and Marie of Prussia, Crown Prince and Princess of Bavaria, who became King and Queen in 1848 after the abdication of the former's father, Ludwig I, during the German Revolution. His parents intended to name him Otto, but his grandfather insisted that his grandson be named after him, since their common birthday, 25 August, is the feast day of Saint Louis IX of France, patron saint of Bavaria (with \"Ludwig\" being the German form of \"Louis\"). His younger brother, born three years later, was named Otto. Like many young heirs in an age when kings governed most of Europe, Ludwig was continually reminded of his royal status. King Maximilian wanted to instruct both of his sons in the burdens of royal duty from an early age. Ludwig was both extremely indulged and severely controlled by his tutors and subjected to", "Crown Prince Ludwig was in his 19th year when his father died after a three-day illness, and he ascended the Bavarian throne. Although he was not prepared for high office, his youth and brooding good looks made him popular in Bavaria and elsewhere. He continued the state policies of his father and retained his ministers. His real interests were in art, music, and architecture. One of the first acts of his reign, a few months after his accession, was to summon Wagner to his court. Also in 1864, he laid the foundation stone of a new Court Theatre, now the \"Staatstheater am Gärtnerplatz\" (\"Gärtnerplatz-Theater\"). Ludwig was notably eccentric in ways", "Unification with Prussia took center stage from 1866. In the Austro-Prussian War, which began in August, Ludwig supported Austria against Prussia. Austria and Bavaria were defeated, and Bavaria was forced to sign a mutual defense treaty with Prussia. When the Franco-Prussian War broke out in 1870, Bavaria was required to fight alongside Prussia. After the Prussian victory over France, Bismarck moved to complete the Unification of Germany. In November 1870, Bavaria joined the North German Confederation, thus losing its status as an independent kingdom. However,", "The greatest stress of Ludwig's early reign was pressure to produce an heir. This issue came to the forefront in 1867. Ludwig became engaged to Duchess Sophie Charlotte in Bavaria, his cousin and the youngest sister of his dear friend, Empress Elisabeth of Austria. They shared a deep interest in the works of Wagner. The engagement was announced on 22 January 1867; a few days earlier, Ludwig had written Sophie, \"The main substance of our relationship has always been... Richard Wagner's remarkable and deeply moving destiny.\" However, Ludwig repeatedly postponed the wedding date, and finally cancelled the engagement in October. After the engagement was broken off, Ludwig wrote to his former fiancée, \"My beloved Elsa! Your cruel father has torn us apart. Eternally yours, Heinrich.\" (The names Elsa and Heinrich came from characters in Wagner's opera", "After 1871, Ludwig largely withdrew from politics, and devoted himself to his personal creative projects, most famously his castles, for which he personally approved every detail of the architecture, decoration, and furnishing.", "Ludwig was intensely interested in the operas of Richard Wagner. This interest began when Ludwig first saw \"Lohengrin\" at the impressionable age of 15, followed by \"Tannhäuser\" ten months later. Wagner's operas appealed to the king's fantasy-filled imagination. Wagner had a notorious reputation as a political radical and philanderer, and was constantly on the run from creditors. However, on 4 May 1864, the 51-year-old Wagner was given an unprecedented 13⁄4 hour audience with Ludwig in the Royal Palace in Munich; later, the composer wrote of his first meeting with Ludwig: \"Alas, he is so handsome and wise, soulful and lovely, that I fear that his life must melt away in this vulgar world like a fleeting dream of the gods.\" Ludwig was probably the savior of Wagner's career. Without Ludwig, Wagner's later operas are unlikely to have been composed,", "Ludwig's interest in theater was by no means confined to Wagner. In 1867, he appointed Karl von Perfall as director of his new court theater. Ludwig wished to introduce Munich theater-goers to the best of European drama. Perfall, under Ludwig's supervision, introduced them to Shakespeare, Calderón, Mozart, Gluck, Ibsen, Weber, and many others. He also raised the standard of interpretation of Schiller, Molière, and Corneille. Between 1872 and 1885,", "Ludwig used his personal fortune (supplemented annually from 1873 by 270,000 marks from the \"Welfenfonds\") to fund the construction of a series of elaborate castles. In 1867, he visited Eugène Viollet-le-Duc's work at Pierrefonds, and the Palace of Versailles in France, as well as the Wartburg near Eisenach in Thuringia, which largely influenced the style of his construction. In his letters, Ludwig marvelled at how the French had magnificently built up and glorified their culture (e.g., architecture, art, and music) and how miserably lacking Bavaria was in comparison. His dream became to", "Schloss Neuschwanstein (\"New Swanstone Castle\") is a dramatic Romanesque fortress with soaring fairy-tale towers. It is situated on an Alpine crag above Ludwig's childhood home, Castle Hohenschwangau (\"Upper Swan County Palace\"). Hohenschwangau was a medieval knights' castle that his parents had purchased. Ludwig reputedly", "In 1878, construction was completed on Ludwig's Schloss Linderhof, an ornate palace in neo-French Rococo style, with handsome formal gardens. The grounds contained a Venus grotto lit by electricity, where Ludwig was rowed in a boat shaped like a shell. After seeing the Bayreuth performances, Ludwig built \"Hundinghütte\" (\"Hunding's Hut\", based on the stage set of the first act of Wagner's \"Die Walküre\") in the forest near Linderhof, complete with an artificial tree and a sword embedded in it. (In \"Die Walküre\", Siegmund pulls the sword from the tree.) Hunding's Hut was destroyed in 1945, but a replica was", "In 1878, construction began on Herrenchiemsee, a partial replica of the palace at Versailles, sited on the Herreninsel in the Chiemsee. It was built as Ludwig's", "The following year, Ludwig finished the construction of the royal apartment in the Residenz Palace in Munich, to which he had added an opulent conservatory or winter garden on the palace roof. It was started in 1867 as quite a small structure, but after extensions in", "In the 1880s, Ludwig continued his elaborate schemes. He planned the construction of a new castle on Falkenstein (\"Falcon Rock\") near Pfronten in the Allgäu (a place he knew well: a diary entry for 16 October 1867 reads \"Falkenstein wild, romantic\"). The first design was a sketch by Christian Jank in 1883 \"very much like the Townhall of Liège\". Subsequent designs showed a modest villa with a square tower", "Although the king had paid for his pet projects out of his own funds and not the state coffers, that did not necessarily spare Bavaria from financial fallout. By 1885, the king was 14 million marks in debt, had borrowed heavily from his family, and rather than economizing, as his financial ministers advised him, he planned further opulent designs without pause. He demanded that loans be sought from all of Europe's royalty, and remained aloof from matters of state. Feeling harassed and irritated by his ministers, he considered dismissing the entire cabinet and replacing them with fresh faces. The cabinet decided to act first. Seeking a cause to depose Ludwig by constitutional means, the rebelling ministers decided on the rationale that he was mentally ill, and unable to rule. They asked Ludwig's uncle, Prince Luitpold, to step into the royal vacancy once Ludwig was deposed. Luitpold agreed, on condition the conspirators produced reliable proof that the king was, in fact, helplessly insane. Between January and March 1886, the conspirators assembled the \"\" or Medical Report, on Ludwig's fitness to rule. Most of the details in the report were compiled by Maximilian Count von Holnstein, who was disillusioned with Ludwig and actively sought his downfall. Holnstein used bribery and his high rank to extract a long list of complaints, accounts, and gossip about Ludwig from among the king's servants. The litany", "At 4 am on 10 June 1886, a government commission including Holnstein and Gudden arrived at Neuschwanstein to deliver the document of deposition to the King formally and to place him in custody. Tipped off an hour or two earlier by a faithful servant, his coachman Fritz Osterholzer, Ludwig ordered the local police to protect him, and the commissioners were turned back from the castle gate at gunpoint. In an infamous sideshow, the commissioners were attacked by the 47-year-old baroness Spera von Truchseß, out of loyalty to the king, who flailed at the men with her umbrella and then rushed to the king's apartments to identify the conspirators. Ludwig then had the commissioners arrested, but after holding them captive for several hours, released them. Prince Ludwig Ferdinand was the only member of the Bavarian royal family who always remained on friendly terms with his cousin (with the exception of Elisabeth, Empress of Austria), so Ludwig II wrote him a telegram; the latter immediately intended to follow this call, but was prevented from leaving Nymphenburg Palace by his uncle Luitpold, who was about to", "On the afternoon of the next day, 13 June 1886, Dr. Gudden accompanied Ludwig on a stroll in the grounds of Berg Castle. They were escorted by two attendants. On their return, Gudden expressed optimism to other doctors concerning the treatment of his royal patient. Following dinner, at around 6 pm, Ludwig asked Gudden to accompany him on a further walk, this time through the Schloß Berg parkland along the shore of Lake Starnberg. Gudden agreed; the walk may even have been his suggestion, and he told the aides not to join them. His words were ambiguous (\"Es darf kein Pfleger mitgehen\", \"No attendant may come with [us]\") and whether they were meant to follow at a discreet distance is not clear. The two men were last seen at about 6:30 pm; they were due back at 8 pm, but never returned. After searches were made for more than two hours by the entire castle staff in a gale with heavy rain, at 10:30 pm that night, the bodies of both the King and von Gudden were found, head and shoulders above the shallow water near the shore. The King's watch had stopped at 6:54. Gendarmes patrolling the park had neither seen nor heard anything unusual. Ludwig's death was officially ruled a suicide by drowning, but the official autopsy report indicated that no water was found in his lungs. Ludwig was a very strong swimmer in his youth, the water was approximately waist deep where his body was found, and he had not expressed suicidal feelings during the crisis. Gudden's body showed blows to the head and neck and signs of strangulation, leading to the suspicion that he was strangled, although no other evidence was found to prove this. Speculation exists that Ludwig was murdered by his enemies while attempting to escape from Berg. One account suggests that the king was shot. The King's personal fisherman, Jakob Lidl (1864–1933), stated,", "Though many considered Ludwig peculiar, the question of clinical insanity remains unresolved. The prominent German brain researcher Heinz Häfner has disagreed with the contention that clear evidence existed for Ludwig's insanity. Others believe he may have suffered from the effects of chloroform used in an effort to control chronic toothache rather than any psychological disorder. His cousin and friend, Empress Elisabeth held that, \"The King was not mad; he was just an eccentric living in a world of dreams. They might have treated him more gently, and thus perhaps spared him so terrible an end.\" One of Ludwig's most quoted sayings was, \"I wish to remain an eternal enigma to myself and to others.\" Today visitors pay tribute to King Ludwig by visiting his grave as well as his castles. Ironically, the very castles which were causing the king's financial ruin have today become extremely profitable tourist attractions for the Bavarian state. The palaces, given to Bavaria by Ludwig III's son Crown Prince Rupprecht in 1923, have paid for themselves many times over and attract millions of tourists from all over the world to Germany each year.", "Not surprisingly, Ludwig II had a great interest in building. His paternal grandfather, King Ludwig I, had largely rebuilt Munich. It was known as the 'Athens on the Isar'. His father, King Maximilian II, had also continued with more construction in Munich, as well as the construction of Hohenschwangau Castle, the childhood home of Ludwig II, near the future Neuschwanstein Castle of Ludwig II. Ludwig II had planned to build a large opera house on the banks of the Isar River in Munich. This", "It has been said that Richard Wagner's late career is part of Ludwig's legacy, since he almost certainly would have been unable to complete his opera cycle \"Der Ring des Nibelungen\" or to write his final opera, \"Parsifal\", without the king's support. Ludwig also sponsored the premieres of \"Tristan und Isolde\", \"Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg\", and, through his financial support of the Bayreuth Festival, those of \"Der Ring des", "", "A semi-fictionalised version of the history" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "In 942, subjects of the \"Fürsten\" of Boleslaus I, Duke of Bohemia explored the area of Husinec for gold. The first written record dates from 1291 when Heinrich Vok von Borek und Husinec (Jindřich Vok z Borku a Husince) declared his rights to the area at the District Court. In 1359, the village became a city. In the 14th Century a castle was built whose ruins exist today. In 1390, the Hus Castle was taken by Sigismund von Huller und Orlik (Sigmund Huller z Orlíka), a supporter of King Wenceslaus and eventually state treasurer and King's advisor. Caught falsifying documents, however, he was beheaded. The castle was left for his brother Andreas, who a short time later sold it to the Knights of Mikuláš of Hus. This castle, in 1419, hosted a meeting of Mikuláš's supporters who were preparing for the overthrow of King Wenceslaus. The coup did not take place. In 1420, Mikuláš fell off his horse and died. The abandoned castle was taken and plundered by the robber baron Habart z Hrádku, or Lopata z Budějovic, known as \"The merchant of the Golden Trail\". On September 8, 1441, landowners from surrounding towns joined together to attack and burn the castle. In 1455, the Knight Smílek ze Lnář sold his allegiance to Ulrich II of Rosenberg bringing Husinec under the rule of Winterberg. The economy of Husinec was dependent up the trade produced by the Golden Trail trade route. Goods transported on the route included, primarily, salt, expensive clothes, wine, seafood, tropical fruits, spices, iron and weapons. In 1601, the House of Kolowrat bought the town followed by Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg in 1630. After the Battle of White Mountain many residents of Husinec, who were followers of the reformer Jan Hus and his teachings, emigrated abroad. From 1655 to 1848 Husinec fell under the control of the House of Schwarzenberg. At that time the village contained about 1173 inhabitants but the population increased to 1731 in 1886, 1189 in 1931 and 1800 in 1938. In 1945, Husinec was liberated by the U.S. Army. Since 12 April 2007 Husinec is a town." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Uses.", "Early use.", "Britain.", "Russia.", "Other punitive positioning devices." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The rack was first used in antiquity and it is unclear exactly from which civilization it originated, though some of the earliest examples are from Greece. The Greeks may have first used the rack as a means of torturing slaves and non-citizens, and later in special cases, as in 356 BC, when it was applied to gain a confession from Herostratus, who was later executed for burning down the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Arrian's \"Anabasis of Alexander\" states that Alexander the Great had the pages who conspired in his assassination, and their mentor, his court historian Callisthenes, tortured on the rack in 328 BC. According to Tacitus, the rack was used in a vain attempt to extract the names of the conspirators to assassinate Emperor Nero in the Pisonian conspiracy from the freedwoman Epicharis in 65 A.D. The next day, after refusing to talk, she was being dragged back to the rack on a chair (all of her limbs were dislocated, so she could not stand), but strangled herself on a loop of cord on the back of the chair on the way. The rack was also used on early Christians, such as St. Vincent (304 A.D.), and mentioned by the Church Fathers Tertullian and St. Jerome (420 A.D.).", "Its first appearance in England is said to have been due to John Holland, 2nd Duke of Exeter, the constable of the Tower in 1447, whence it was popularly known as the Duke of Exeter's daughter. The Catholic martyr Saint Nicholas Owen, a noted builder of priest holes, died under torture on the rack in the Tower of London in 1606. Guy Fawkes is also thought to have been put to the rack, since a royal warrant authorising his torture survives. The warrant states that the \"lesser tortures\" should be applied to him first, but that if he remained recalcitrant he could be racked. In 1615 a clergyman called Edmund Peacham, accused of high treason, was racked. In 1628 the question of its legality was raised by a proposal in the Privy Council to rack John Felton, the assassin of the Duke of Buckingham. The judges resisted this, unanimously declaring its use to be contrary to the laws of England. The previous year Charles I had authorised the Irish Courts to rack a Catholic priest; this seems to have been the last time the rack was used in Ireland. In 1679 Miles Prance, a silversmith who was being questioned about the murder of the respected magistrate Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey, was threatened with the rack, although it is unlikely that the threat was a serious one.", "In Russia up to the 18th century the rack (\"дыба\", dyba) was a gallows-like device for suspending the victims (strappado). The suspended victims were whipped with a knout and sometimes burned with torches.", "The term rack is also used, occasionally, for a number of simpler constructions that merely facilitate corporal punishment, after which it may be named specifically, e.g., \"caning rack\", as in a given jurisdiction it was often the custom to administer any given punishment in a specific position, for which the device (with or without fitting shackling and/or padding) would be chosen or specially made. Several devices similar in principle to the rack have been used through the ages. One of these was the Wooden Horse, a device used to torture prisoners during the Roman Empire by stretching them on top of a tall wooden frame until the shoulders were dislocated followed by a violent drop into a hanging position and beating. In another variant used primarily in ancient times, the victim's feet were affixed to the ground and his/her hands were chained to a wheel. When the wheel was turned, the person was stretched in a manner similar to the rack. The \"Austrian Ladder\" was basically a more vertically oriented rack. As part of the torture, victims would usually be burned under the arms with candles." ] }

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{ "title": [ "In psychology.", "Wundt.", "Titchener.", "Historical misconceptions.", "Recent developments.", "In religion.", "Christianity.", "Jainism.", "Hinduism.", "In fiction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "It has often been claimed that Wilhelm Wundt, the father of modern psychology, was the first to adopt introspection to experimental psychology though the methodological idea had been presented long before, as by 18th century German philosopher-psychologists such as Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten or Johann Nicolaus Tetens. Also, Wundt's views on introspection must be approached with great care. Wundt was influenced by notable physiologists, such as Gustav Fechner, who used a kind of controlled introspection as a means to study human sensory organs. Building upon the pre-existing use of introspection in physiology, Wundt believed the method of introspection was the ability to observe an experience, not just the logical reflection or speculations which some others interpreted his meaning to be. Wundt imposed exacting control over the use of introspection in his experimental laboratory at the University of Leipzig, making it possible for other scientists to replicate his experiments elsewhere, a development that proved essential to the development of psychology as a modern, peer-reviewed scientific discipline. Such exact purism was typical of Wundt and he instructed all introspection observations be performed under these same instructions: \"1) the Observer must, if possible, be in a position to determine beforehand the entrance of the process to be observed. 2) the introspectionist must, as far as possible, grasp the phenomenon in a state of strained attention and follow its course. 3) Every observation must, in order to make certain, be capable of being repeated several times under the same conditions and 4) the conditions under which the phenomenon appears must be found out by the variation of the attendant circumstances and when this was done the various coherent experiments must be varied according to a plan partly by eliminating certain stimuli and partly by grading their strength and quality\".", "Edward Titchener was an early pioneer in experimental psychology and student of Wilhelm Wundt. After earning his doctorate under the tutelage of Wundt at the University of Leipzig, he made his way to Cornell University, where he established his own laboratory and research. When Titchener arrived at Cornell in 1894, psychology was still a fledgling discipline, especially in the United States, and Titchener was a key figure in bringing Wundt's ideas to America. However, Titchener misrepresented some of Wundt's ideas to the American psychological establishment, especially in his account of introspection which, Titchener taught, only served a purpose in the qualitative analysis of consciousness into its various parts, while Wundt saw it as a means to quantitatively measure the whole of conscious experience. Titchener was exclusively interested in the individual components that comprise conscious experience, while Wundt, seeing little purpose in the analysis of individual components, focused on synthesis of these components. Ultimately, Titchener's ideas would form the basis of the short-lived psychological theory of structuralism.", "American historiography of introspection, according to some authors, is dominated by three misconceptions. In particular, historians of psychology tend to argue 1) that introspection once was the dominant method of psychological inquiry, 2) that behaviorism, and in particular John B. Watson, is responsible for discrediting introspection as a valid method, and 3) that scientific psychology completely abandoned introspection as a result of those critiques. Yet, introspection has not been the dominant method. It is believed to be so because Edward Titchener's student Edwin G. Boring, in his influential historical accounts of experimental psychology, privileged Titchener's views while giving little credit to original sources. Introspection has been critiqued by many other psychologists, including Wilhelm Wundt, and Knight Dunlap who in his article \"\"The Case Against Introspection\"\", presents an argument against self-observation that is not primarily rooted in behaviorist epistemology. Introspection is still widely used in psychology, but under different names, such as self-report surveys, interviews and fMRIs. It is not the method but rather its name that has been dropped from the dominant psychological vocabulary.", "Partly as a result of Titchener's misrepresentation, the use of introspection diminished after his death and the subsequent decline of structuralism. Later psychological movements, such as functionalism and behaviorism, rejected introspection for its lack of scientific reliability among other factors. Functionalism originally arose in direct opposition to structuralism, opposing its narrow focus on the elements of consciousness and emphasising the purpose of consciousness and other psychological behavior. Behaviorism's objection to introspection focused much more on its unreliability and subjectivity which conflicted with behaviorism's focus on measurable behavior. The more recently established cognitive psychology movement has to some extent accepted introspection's usefulness in the study of psychological phenomena, though generally only in experiments pertaining to internal thought conducted under experimental conditions. For example, in the \"think aloud protocol\", investigators cue participants to speak their thoughts aloud in order to study an active thought process without forcing an individual to comment on the process itself. Already in the 18th century authors had criticized the use of introspection, both for knowing one's own mind and as a method for psychology. David Hume pointed out that introspecting a mental state tends to alter the very state itself; a German author, Christian Gottfried Schütz, noted that introspection is often described as mere \"inner sensation\", but actually requires also attention, that introspection does not get at unconscious mental states, and that it cannot be used naively - one needs to know what to look for. Immanuel Kant added that, if they are understood too narrowly, introspective experiments are impossible. Introspection delivers, at best, hints about what goes on in the mind; it does not suffice to justify knowledge claims about the mind. Similarly, the idea continued to be discussed between John Stuart Mill and Auguste Comte. Recent psychological research on cognition and attribution has asked people to report on their mental processes, for instance to say why they made a particular choice or how they arrived at a judgment. In some situations, these reports are clearly confabulated. For example, people justify choices they have not in fact made. Such results undermine the idea that those verbal reports are based on direct introspective access to mental content. Instead, judgements about one's own mind seem to be inferences from overt behavior, similar to judgements made about another person. However, it is hard to assess whether these results only apply to unusual experimental situations, or if they reveal something about everyday introspection. The theory of the adaptive unconscious suggests that a very large proportion of mental processes, even \"high-level\" processes like goal-setting and decision-making, are inaccessible to introspection. Indeed, it is questionable how confident researchers can be in their own introspections. One of the central implications of dissociations between consciousness and meta-consciousness is that individuals, presumably including researchers, can misrepresent their experiences to themselves. Jack and Roepstorff assert, '...there is also a sense in which subjects simply cannot be wrong about their own experiential states.' Presumably they arrived at this conclusion by drawing on the seemingly self-evident quality of their own introspections, and assumed that it must equally apply to others. However, when we consider research on the topic, this conclusion seems less self-evident. If, for example, extensive introspection can cause people to make decisions that they later regret, then one very reasonable possibility is that the introspection caused them to 'lose touch with their feelings'. In short, empirical studies suggest that people can fail to appraise adequately (i.e. are wrong about) their own experiential states. Another question in regards to the veracious accountability of introspection is if researchers lack the confidence in their own introspections and those of their participants, then how can it gain legitimacy? Three strategies are accountable: identifying behaviors that establish credibility, finding common ground that enables mutual understanding, and developing a trust that allows one to know when to give the benefit of the doubt. That is to say, that words are only meaningful if validated by one's actions; When people report strategies, feelings or beliefs, their behaviors must correspond with these statements if they are to be believed. Even when their introspections are uninformative, people still give confident descriptions of their mental processes, being \"unaware of their unawareness\". This phenomenon has been termed the \"introspection illusion\" and has been used to explain some cognitive biases and belief in some paranormal phenomena. When making judgements about themselves, subjects treat their own introspections as reliable, whereas they judge other people based on their behavior. This can lead to illusions of superiority. For example, people generally see themselves as less conformist than others, and this seems to be because they do not introspect any urge to conform. Another reliable finding is that people generally see themselves as less biased than everyone else, because they are not likely to introspect any biased thought processes. These introspections are misleading, however, because biases work unconsciously. One experiment tried to give their subjects access to others' introspections. They made audio recordings of subjects who had been told to say whatever came into their heads as they answered a question about their own bias. Although subjects persuaded themselves they were unlikely to be biased, their introspective reports did not sway the assessments of observers. When subjects were explicitly told to avoid relying on introspection, their assessments of their own bias became more realistic. The 2020 study distinguish various sources of errors that may accompany introspection and classify four main errors: attentional, attributional, conceptual, and expressional error. Furthermore, methodological recommendations for the possible elimination of these errors have been determined in the study: \"1) a better focusing of the subject’s attention to their mental processes, 2) providing suitable stimuli, and 3) the sharing of introspective experience between subjects.\"", "", "In Eastern Christianity some concepts addressing human needs, such as sober introspection \"(nepsis\"), require watchfulness of the human heart and the conflicts of the human \"nous\", heart or mind. Noetic understanding can not be achieved by rational or discursive thought (i.e. systemization).", "Jains practise \"pratikraman\" (Sanskrit \"introspection\"), a process of repentance of wrongdoings during their daily life, and remind themselves to refrain from doing so again. Devout Jains often do Pratikraman at least twice a day.", "Introspection is encouraged in schools such as Advaita Vedanta; in order for one to know their own true nature, they need to reflect and introspect on their true nature—which is what meditation is. Especially, Swami Chinmayananda emphasised the role of introspection in five stages, outlined in his book \"Self Unfoldment.\"", "Introspection (also referred to as Rufus dialogue, interior monologue, self-talk) is the fiction-writing mode used to convey a character's thoughts. As explained by Renni Browne and Dave King, \"One of the great gifts of literature is that it allows for the expression of unexpressed thoughts...\" According to Nancy Kress, a character's thoughts can greatly enhance a story: deepening characterization, increasing tension, and widening the scope of a story. As outlined by Jack M. Bickham, thought plays a critical role in both scene and sequel." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "The iron maiden of Nuremberg.", "Cultural influence of the iron maiden." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Despite its reputation as a medieval instrument of torture, there is no evidence of the existence of iron maidens before the early 19th century. There are, however, ancient reports of the Spartan tyrant Nabis using a similar device around 200 B.C. for extortion and murder. The modern device, known in German as the \"Eiserne Jungfrau\", looked very similar to an Egyptian mummy sarcophagus. Wolfgang Schild, a professor of criminal law, criminal law history, and philosophy of law at the Bielefeld University, has argued that putative iron maidens were pieced together from artifacts found in museums to create spectacular objects intended for (commercial) exhibition. Several 19th-century iron maidens are on display in museums around the world, including the San Diego Museum of Man, the Meiji University Museum, and several torture museums in Europe. The 19th-century iron maidens may have been constructed as probable misinterpretation of a medieval Schandmantel which was made of wood and metal but without spikes. Inspiration for the iron maiden may also have come from the Carthaginian execution of Marcus Atilius Regulus as recorded in Tertullian's \"To the Martyrs\" (Chapter 4) and Augustine of Hippo's \"The City of God\" (I.15), in which the Carthaginians \"packed him into a tight wooden box, spiked with sharp nails on all sides so that he could not lean in any direction without being pierced,\" or from Polybius' account of Nabis of Sparta's deadly statue of his wife, the Iron Apega (earliest form of the device).", "The most famous iron maiden that popularized the design was that of Nuremberg, first displayed possibly as far back as 1802. The original was lost in the Allied bombing of Nuremberg in 1945. A copy \"from the Royal Castle of Nuremberg\", crafted for public display, was sold through J. Ichenhauser of London to the Earl of Shrewsbury in 1890 along with other torture devices, and, after being displayed at the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893, was taken on an American tour. This copy was auctioned in the early 1960s and is now on display at the Medieval Crime Museum, Rothenburg ob der Tauber. Historians have ascertained that Johann Philipp Siebenkees made up the history of the device. According to Siebenkees' colportage, it was first used on August 14, 1515, to execute a coin forger.", "The British heavy metal band Iron Maiden was named after the torture device. An iron maiden features in the Bram Stoker short story \"The Squaw\", set in Nuremberg Castle. \"Iron Maiden\" was the nickname given to a research centrifuge gondola designed for submerging a human body in water to counteract the effects of high-g acceleration, at the Aviation Medical Acceleration Laboratory (AMAL) of the Johnsville Naval Air Development Center. In 1958, researcher R. Flanagan Gray survived, experiencing 31.25 Gs for five seconds using AMAL's Iron Maiden. A makeshift iron maiden nicknamed the \"Chokey\" appears in Roald Dahl's \"Matilda\", owned by the school headmistress Mrs Trunchbull and used on her students as a method of correction. It is constructed much like the Carthaginian example above, being non-injurious to health unless one leans for rest; the torture in this case comes from the students being forced by the Chokey to stand erect for long periods of time. In the 1975 film of the The Who's rock opera, \"Tommy\", an iron maiden (with syringes instead of spikes) is used in Tina Turner's rendition of the song\" The Acid Queen\". In the 1992 film \"Batman Returns\", Bruce Wayne uses an altered version of an iron maiden to access the Batcave. The maiden is large enough inside that the spikes did not penetrate the person inside; the spikes withdraw within the doors of the maiden and the floor falls out below, leading to a tubular slide down to the Batcave. In the 1999 film \"Sleepy Hollow\", an iron maiden features heavily in Ichabod Crane's resurgent and previously repressed childhood memories. In 2003, \"Time\" magazine reported that an iron maiden was found outside the Iraqi Football Association office of Uday Hussein in Iraq. In season 11, episode 4 of the British detective drama \"Midsomer Murders\", a person is murdered inside an iron maiden. In \"Despicable Me\", a functional model of an Iron Maiden is inside Gru's house and Edith walks inside it, almost being impaled by the spikes in the process." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Inter-disciplinary perspectives.", "Etymology.", "Dictionary definitions.", "Philosophy of mind.", "The coherence of the concept.", "Types of consciousness.", "Mind–body problem.", "Problem of other minds.", "Animal consciousness.", "Artifact consciousness.", "Scientific study.", "Measurement.", "Neural correlates.", "Biological function and evolution.", "States of consciousness.", "Phenomenology.", "Entropic brain.", "Medical aspects.", "Assessment.", "Disorders of consciousness.", "Anosognosia.", "Stream of consciousness.", "Narrative form.", "Spiritual approaches." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Western philosophers since the time of Descartes and Locke have struggled to comprehend the nature of consciousness and how it fits into a larger picture of the world. These issues remain central to both continental and analytic philosophy, in phenomenology and the philosophy of mind, respectively. Some basic questions include: whether consciousness is the same kind of thing as matter; whether it may ever be possible for computing machines like computers or robots to be conscious; how consciousness relates to language; how consciousness as Being relates to the world of experience; the role of the self in experience; whether individual thought is possible at all; and whether the concept is fundamentally coherent. Recently, consciousness has also become a significant topic of interdisciplinary research in cognitive science, involving", "The origin of the modern concept of consciousness is often attributed to John Locke's \"Essay Concerning Human Understanding\", published in 1690. Locke defined consciousness as \"the perception of what passes in a man's own mind\". His essay influenced the 18th-century view of consciousness, and his definition appeared in Samuel Johnson's celebrated \"Dictionary\" (1755). \"Consciousness\" (French: \"conscience\") is also defined in the 1753 volume of Diderot and d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, as \"the opinion or internal feeling that we ourselves have from what we do\". The earliest English language uses of \"conscious\" and \"consciousness\" date back, however, to the 1500s. The English word \"conscious\" originally derived from the Latin \"conscius\" (\"con-\" \"together\" and \"scio\" \"to know\"), but the Latin word did not have the same meaning as our word—it meant \"knowing with\", in other words, \"having joint or common knowledge with another\". There were, however, many occurrences in Latin writings of the phrase \"conscius sibi\", which translates literally as \"knowing with", "The dictionary meanings of the word \"consciousness\" extend through several centuries and several associated related meanings. These have ranged from formal definitions to definitions attempting to capture the less easily captured and more debated meanings and usage of the word. One formal definition indicating the range of these related meanings is given in \"Webster's Third New International", "The philosophy of mind has given rise to many stances regarding consciousness. The \"Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy\" in 1998 defines consciousness as follows: In a more skeptical definition of \"consciousness\", Stuart Sutherland has exemplified some of the difficulties in fully ascertaining all of its cognate meanings in his entry for the 1989 version of the \"Macmillan Dictionary of Psychology\": Most writers on the philosophy of consciousness have been concerned with defending a particular point of view, and have organized their material accordingly. For surveys, the most common approach is to follow a historical path by associating stances with the philosophers who are most strongly associated with them, for example, Descartes, Locke, Kant, etc. An alternative is to organize philosophical stances according to basic issues.", "Many philosophers have argued that consciousness is a unitary concept that is understood intuitively by the majority of people in spite of the difficulty in defining it. Others, though, have argued that the level of disagreement about the meaning of the word indicates that it either means different things to different people (for instance, the objective versus subjective aspects of consciousness), or else it encompasses a variety of distinct meanings with no simple element in common. Philosophers differ from non-philosophers in their intuitions about what consciousness is. While most people have", "Ned Block proposed a distinction between two types of consciousness that he called \"phenomenal\" (P-consciousness) and \"access\" (A-consciousness). P-consciousness, according to Block, is simply raw experience: it is moving, colored forms, sounds, sensations, emotions and feelings with our bodies and responses at the center. These experiences, considered independently of any impact on behavior, are called qualia. A-consciousness, on the other hand, is the phenomenon whereby information in our minds is accessible for verbal report, reasoning, and the control of behavior. So, when we perceive, information about what we perceive is access conscious; when we introspect, information about our thoughts is access conscious; when we remember, information about the past is access conscious, and so on. Although some philosophers, such as Daniel Dennett, have disputed the validity of this distinction, others have broadly accepted it. David Chalmers has argued", "Mental processes (such as consciousness) and physical processes (such as brain events) seem to be correlated, however the specific nature of the connection is unknown. The first influential philosopher to discuss this question specifically was Descartes, and the answer he gave is known as Cartesian dualism. Descartes proposed that consciousness resides within an immaterial domain he called res cogitans (the realm of thought), in contrast to the domain of material things, which he called res extensa (the realm of extension). He suggested that the interaction between these two domains occurs inside the brain, perhaps in a small midline structure called the pineal gland. Although it is widely accepted that Descartes explained the problem cogently,", "Many philosophers consider experience to be the essence of consciousness, and believe that experience can only fully be known from the inside, subjectively. But if consciousness is subjective and not visible from the outside, why do the vast majority of people believe that other people are conscious, but rocks and trees are not? This is called the problem of other minds. It is particularly acute for people who believe in the possibility of philosophical zombies, that is, people who think it is possible in principle to have an entity that is physically indistinguishable from a human being and behaves like a human being in every way but nevertheless lacks consciousness. Related issues have also been studied extensively by Greg Littmann of the University of Illinois, and Colin Allen a professor", "The topic of animal consciousness is beset by a number of difficulties. It poses the problem of other minds in an especially severe form, because non-human animals, lacking the ability to express human language, cannot tell humans about their experiences. Also, it is difficult to reason objectively about the question, because a denial that an animal is conscious is often taken to imply that it does not feel, its life has no value, and that harming it is not morally wrong. Descartes, for example, has sometimes been blamed for mistreatment of animals due to the fact that he believed only humans have a non-physical mind. Most people have a strong intuition that some animals, such as cats and dogs, are conscious, while others, such as insects, are not; but the sources of this intuition are not obvious, and are often based on personal interactions with pets and other animals they have observed. Philosophers who consider subjective experience the essence of consciousness also generally believe, as a correlate, that the existence and nature of animal consciousness can never rigorously be known. Thomas Nagel spelled out this point of view in an", "The idea of an artifact made conscious is an ancient theme of mythology, appearing for example in the Greek myth of Pygmalion, who carved a statue that was magically brought to life, and in medieval Jewish stories of the Golem, a magically animated homunculus built of clay. However, the possibility of actually constructing a conscious machine was probably first discussed by Ada Lovelace, in a set of notes written in 1842 about the Analytical Engine invented by Charles Babbage, a precursor (never built) to modern electronic computers. Lovelace was essentially dismissive of the idea that a machine such as the Analytical Engine could think in a humanlike way. She wrote: One of the most influential contributions to this question was an essay written in 1950 by pioneering computer scientist Alan Turing, titled \"Computing Machinery and Intelligence\". Turing disavowed any interest in terminology, saying that even \"Can machines think?\" is too loaded", "For many decades, consciousness as a research topic was avoided by the majority of mainstream scientists, because of a general feeling that a phenomenon defined in subjective terms could not properly be studied using objective experimental methods. In 1975 George Mandler published an influential psychological study which distinguished between slow, serial, and limited conscious processes and fast, parallel and extensive unconscious ones. Starting in the 1980s, an expanding community of neuroscientists and psychologists have associated themselves with a field called \"Consciousness Studies\", giving rise to a stream of experimental work published in books, journals such as \"Consciousness and Cognition\", \"Frontiers in Consciousness Research\", \"Psyche\", and the \"Journal of Consciousness Studies\", along with regular conferences organized by groups such as the Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness and the Society for Consciousness Studies. Modern medical and psychological investigations into consciousness are based on psychological experiments (including, for example, the investigation of priming effects using subliminal stimuli), and on case studies of alterations in consciousness produced by trauma, illness, or drugs. Broadly viewed, scientific approaches are based on two core concepts. The first identifies the content of consciousness with the experiences that are reported by human subjects; the second makes use of the concept of consciousness that has been developed by neurologists and other medical professionals who deal with patients whose behavior is impaired. In either case, the ultimate goals are to develop techniques for assessing consciousness objectively in humans as well as other animals, and to understand the neural and psychological mechanisms that underlie it.", "Experimental research on consciousness presents special difficulties, due to the lack of a universally accepted operational definition. In the majority of experiments that are specifically about consciousness, the subjects are human, and the criterion used is verbal report: in other words, subjects are asked to describe their experiences, and their descriptions are treated as observations of the contents of consciousness. For example, subjects who stare continuously at a Necker cube usually report that they experience it \"flipping\" between two 3D configurations, even though the stimulus itself remains the same. The objective is to understand the relationship between the conscious awareness of stimuli", "A major part of the scientific literature on consciousness consists of studies that examine the relationship between the experiences reported by subjects and the activity that simultaneously takes place in their brains—that is, studies of the neural correlates of consciousness. The hope is to find that activity in a particular part of the brain, or a particular pattern of global brain activity, which will be strongly predictive of conscious awareness. Several brain imaging techniques, such as EEG and fMRI, have been used for physical measures of brain activity in these studies. Another idea that has drawn attention for several decades is that consciousness is associated with high-frequency (gamma band) oscillations in brain activity. This idea arose from proposals in the 1980s, by Christof von der Malsburg and Wolf Singer, that gamma oscillations could solve the so-called binding problem, by linking information represented in different parts of the brain into a unified experience. Rodolfo Llinás, for example, proposed that consciousness results from recurrent thalamo-cortical resonance where the specific thalamocortical systems", "Opinions are divided as to where in biological evolution consciousness emerged and about whether or not consciousness has any survival value. Some argue that consciousness is a byproduct of evolution. It has been argued that consciousness emerged (i) exclusively with the first humans, (ii) exclusively with the first mammals, (iii) independently in mammals and birds, or (iv) with the first reptiles. Other authors date the origins of consciousness to the first animals with nervous systems or early vertebrates in the Cambrian over 500 million years ago. Donald Griffin suggests in his book \"Animal Minds\" a gradual evolution of consciousness. Each of these scenarios raises the question of the possible survival value of consciousness. Thomas Henry Huxley defends in an essay titled \"On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History\" an epiphenomenalist theory of consciousness according to which consciousness is a causally inert effect of neural activity—\"as the steam-whistle which accompanies the work of a locomotive", "There are some brain states in which consciousness seems to be absent, including dreamless sleep, coma, and death. There are also a variety of circumstances that can change the relationship between the mind and the world in less drastic ways, producing what are known as altered states of consciousness. Some altered states occur naturally; others can be produced by drugs or brain damage. Altered states can be accompanied by changes in thinking, disturbances in the sense of time, feelings of loss of control, changes in emotional expression, alternations in body image and changes in meaning or significance. The two most widely accepted altered states", "Phenomenology is a method of inquiry that attempts to examine the structure of consciousness in its own right, putting aside problems regarding the relationship of consciousness to the physical world. This approach was first proposed by the philosopher Edmund Husserl, and later elaborated by other philosophers and scientists. Husserl's original concept gave rise to two distinct lines of inquiry, in philosophy and psychology. In philosophy, phenomenology has largely been devoted to fundamental metaphysical questions, such as the nature of intentionality (\"\"aboutness\"\"). In psychology, phenomenology largely has meant attempting to investigate consciousness using the method of introspection, which means looking into one's own mind and reporting what one observes. This method fell into disrepute in the early", "The entropic brain is a theory of conscious states informed by neuroimaging research with psychedelic drugs. The theory suggests that the brain in primary states such as rapid eye movement (REM)", "The medical approach to consciousness is practically oriented. It derives from a need to treat people whose brain function has been impaired as a result of disease, brain damage, toxins, or drugs. In medicine, conceptual distinctions are considered useful to the degree that they can help to guide treatments. Whereas the philosophical approach to consciousness focuses on its fundamental nature and its contents, the medical approach focuses on the amount of consciousness a person has: in medicine, consciousness is assessed as a \"level\" ranging from coma and brain death at the low end, to full alertness and purposeful responsiveness at the high end. Consciousness is of concern to patients and physicians, especially neurologists and anesthesiologists. Patients may suffer from disorders of consciousness or may need to be anesthetized for a surgical procedure. Physicians may perform consciousness-related interventions such as instructing the patient to sleep, administering general anesthesia, or inducing medical coma. Also, bioethicists may be concerned with the ethical implications of consciousness in medical cases of patients such as the Karen Ann Quinlan case, while neuroscientists may study patients with impaired consciousness in hopes of gaining information about how the brain works.", "In medicine, consciousness is examined using a set of procedures known as neuropsychological assessment. There are two commonly used methods for assessing the level of consciousness of a patient: a simple procedure that requires minimal training, and a more complex procedure that requires substantial expertise. The simple procedure begins by asking whether the patient is able to move and react to physical stimuli. If so, the next question is whether the patient can respond in a meaningful way to questions and commands. If so, the patient is asked for name, current location, and current day and time. A patient who can answer all of these questions is said to be \"alert and oriented times four\" (sometimes denoted \"A&Ox4\" on a medical chart), and is usually considered fully conscious.", "Medical conditions that inhibit consciousness are considered disorders of consciousness. This category generally includes minimally conscious state and persistent vegetative state, but sometimes also includes the less severe locked-in syndrome and more severe chronic coma.", "One of the most striking disorders of consciousness goes by the name anosognosia, a Greek-derived term meaning 'unawareness of disease'. This is a condition in which patients are disabled in some way, most commonly as a result of a stroke, but either misunderstand the nature of the problem or deny that there is anything wrong with them. The most frequently occurring form is seen in people who have experienced a stroke damaging the parietal lobe in the right hemisphere of the brain, giving rise to a syndrome known as hemispatial neglect, characterized by an inability to direct action or attention toward objects", "William James is usually credited with popularizing the idea that human consciousness flows like a stream, in his \"Principles of Psychology\" of 1890. According to James, the \"stream of thought\" is governed by five characteristics: \"(1) Every thought tends to be part of a personal consciousness. (2) Within each personal consciousness thought is always changing. (3) Within each personal consciousness thought is sensibly continuous. (4) It always appears to deal with objects independent of itself. (5) It is interested in some parts of these objects to the exclusion of others\". A similar concept appears in Buddhist philosophy, expressed by the Sanskrit term \"Citta-saṃtāna\", which is usually translated as mindstream or \"mental continuum\". Buddhist teachings describe that consciousness manifests moment to moment as sense impressions and mental phenomena that are continuously changing. The teachings list six triggers that can result in the generation of different mental events. These triggers are input from the five senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting or touch sensations), or a thought (relating to the past, present or the future) that happen to arise in the mind. The mental events generated as a result of these triggers are: feelings, perceptions and intentions/behaviour. The moment-by-moment manifestation of the mind-stream is said to happen in every person all the time. It even happens in a scientist who analyses various phenomena in the world, or analyses the material body including the organ brain. The manifestation of the mindstream is also described as being influenced by physical laws, biological laws, psychological laws, volitional laws, and universal laws. The purpose of the Buddhist practice of mindfulness is to understand the inherent nature of the consciousness and its characteristics.", "In the west, the primary impact of the idea has been on literature rather than science: stream of consciousness as a narrative mode means writing in a way that attempts to portray the moment-to-moment thoughts and experiences", "To most philosophers, the word \"consciousness\" connotes the relationship between the mind and the world. To writers on spiritual or religious topics, it frequently connotes the relationship between the mind and God, or the relationship between the mind and deeper truths that are thought to be more fundamental than the physical world. The mystical psychiatrist Richard Maurice Bucke distinguished between three types of consciousness: 'Simple Consciousness', awareness of the body, possessed by many animals; 'Self Consciousness', awareness of being aware, possessed only by humans; and 'Cosmic Consciousness', awareness of the life and order of the universe, possessed only by humans who are enlightened. Many more examples could be given, such as the various levels of spiritual consciousness presented by Prem Saran Satsangi and Stuart Hameroff. The most thorough account of the spiritual approach may be Ken Wilber's book \"The Spectrum of Consciousness\", a comparison of western and eastern ways of thinking about the mind. Wilber described consciousness as a spectrum with ordinary awareness at one end, and more profound types of awareness at higher levels." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Team history.", "Early years (1917–1927).", "Conn Smythe era (1927–1961).", "Opening of Maple Leaf Gardens (1930s).", "The first dynasty (1940s).", "The Barilko Curse (1950s).", "New owners and a new dynasty (1961–1971).", "The Ballard years (1971–1990).", "Resurgence (1990–2004).", "New home and a new millennium (1998–2004).", "After the lock-out (2005–2014).", "Brendan Shanahan era (2014–present).", "Team culture.", "Fan base.", "Rivalries.", "Boston Bruins.", "Detroit Red Wings.", "Montreal Canadiens.", "Ottawa Senators.", "Team information.", "Broadcasters.", "Home arenas and practice facilities.", "Logo and uniform.", "Mascot.", "Minor league affiliates.", "Ownership.", "Season-by-season record.", "Players and personnel.", "Team captains.", "Head coaches.", "Draft picks.", "Team and league honours.", "Retired numbers.", "Hall of Famers.", "Franchise career leaders.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The National Hockey League was formed in 1917 in Montreal by teams formerly belonging to the National Hockey Association (NHA) that had a dispute with Eddie Livingstone, owner of the Toronto Blueshirts. The owners of the other four clubs — the Montreal Canadiens, Montreal Wanderers, Quebec Bulldogs and the Ottawa Senators — wanted to replace Livingstone, but discovered that the NHA constitution did not allow them to simply vote him out of the league. Instead, they opted to create a new league, the NHL, and did not invite Livingstone to join them. They also remained voting members of", "After a number of financially difficult seasons, the St. Patricks' ownership group seriously considered selling the team to C. C. Pyle for C$200,000 (). Pyle sought to move the team to Philadelphia. However, Toronto Varsity Blues coach Conn Smythe put together a group of his own and made a $160,000 () offer. With the support of Bickell, a St. Pats shareholder, Smythe persuaded Querrie to accept their bid, arguing that civic pride was more important than money. After taking control on February 14, 1927, Smythe immediately renamed the team the Maple Leafs, after the national symbol of Canada. He attributed his choice of a maple leaf for the logo to his experiences as a Canadian Army officer and prisoner of war during World", "By 1930 Smythe saw the need to construct a new arena, viewing the Arena Gardens as a facility lacking modern amenities and seating. Finding an adequate number of financiers, he purchased land from the Eaton family, and construction of the arena was completed in five months. The Maple Leafs debuted at their new arena, Maple Leaf Gardens, with a 2–1 loss to the Chicago Black Hawks on November 12, 1931. The opening ceremonies for Maple Leaf Gardens included a performance from the 48th Highlanders of Canada Pipe and Drums. The military band has continued to perform in every subsequent season home opening game, as well as other ceremonies conducted by the hockey club. The debut also featured Foster Hewitt in his newly constructed press box above the ice surface, where he began his famous \"Hockey Night in Canada\" radio broadcasts that eventually came to be a Saturday-night tradition. The press box was often called 'the gondola', a name that emerged during the Gardens' inaugural season, when a General Motors", "In the 1942 Stanley Cup Finals, the Maple Leafs were down three games to none in the best-of-seven series against Detroit. Fourth-line forward Don Metz then galvanized the team, to score a hat-trick in game four and the game-winner in game five. Goalie Turk Broda shut out the Wings in game six, and Sweeney Schriner scored two goals in the third period to win the seventh game 3–1, completing the reverse-sweep. The Leafs remain the only team to have successfully performed", "The Maple Leafs and Canadiens met again in the 1951 finals, with five consecutive overtime games played in the series. Defenceman Bill Barilko managed to score the series-winning goal in overtime, leaving his defensive position (in spite of coach Joe Primeau's instructions not to) to pick up an errant pass and score. Barilko helped the club secure its fourth Stanley Cup in five years. His glory was short-lived, as he disappeared in a plane crash near Timmins, Ontario, four months later. The crash site was not found until a helicopter pilot discovered the plane's wreckage plane about north of Cochrane, Ontario 11 years later. The Leafs did not win another Cup during the 1950s, with rumours swirling that the team was \"cursed\", and would not win a cup until Barilko's body was found. The \"curse\" came to an end after the Leafs' 1962 Stanley Cup victory, which came six weeks before to the discovery of the", "Beginning in the 1960s, the Leafs became a stronger team, with Johnny Bower as goaltender, and Bob Baun, Carl Brewer, Tim Horton and Allan Stanley serving as the Maple Leafs' defencemen. In an effort to bolster their forward group during the 1960 off-season, Imlach traded Marc Reaume to the Red Wings for Red Kelly. Originally a defenceman, Kelly was asked to make the transition to the role of centre, where he remained for the rest of his career. Kelly helped reinforce a forward group made up of Frank Mahovlich, and team captain George Armstrong. The beginning of the 1960–61 season also saw the debut of rookies Bob Nevin, and Dave Keon. Keon previously played for the St. Michael's Majors (the Maple Leafs junior affiliate), but had impressed Imlach during the Leafs' training camp, and joined the team for the season. Despite these new additions, the Leafs' 1961 playoff", "A series of events in 1971 made Harold Ballard the primary owner of the Maple Leafs. After a series of disputes between Bassett, Ballard and Stafford Smythe, Bassett sold his stake in the company to them. Shortly afterwards, Smythe died in October 1971. Under the terms of Stafford's will, of which Ballard was an executor, each partner was allowed to buy the other's shares upon their death. Stafford's brother and son tried to keep the shares in the family, but in February 1972 Ballard bought all of Stafford's shares for $7.5 million, valuing the company at $22 million (). Six months later, Ballard was convicted of charges including fraud, and theft of money and goods, and spent a year at Milhaven Penitentiary. By the end of 1971, the World Hockey Association (WHA) began operations as a", "Don Crump, Don Giffin, and Steve Stavro were named executors of Ballard's estate. Stavro succeeded Ballard as chairman of Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd. and governor of the Maple Leafs. Cliff Fletcher was hired by Giffin to be the new general manager, although this was opposed by Stavro, who told Fletcher that he wanted to appoint his own general manager. In 1992, Fletcher set about building a competitive club, hiring Pat Burns as the new coach, and by making a series of trades and free agent acquisitions, such as acquiring Doug Gilmour and Dave Andreychuk, which turned the Leafs into a contender. Assisted by stellar goaltending from minor league call-up Felix Potvin, the team posted a then-franchise-record 99 points. Toronto dispatched the Detroit Red Wings in seven", "On February 12, 1998, MLGL purchased the Toronto Raptors, a National Basketball Association franchise, and the arena the Raptors were building, from Allan Slaight and Scotiabank. With the acquisition, MLGL was renamed to Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment (MLSE), acting as the parent company of the two teams. Larry Tanenbaum was a driving force in the acquisition, having bought a 12.5 percent stake in Maple Leaf Gardens Limited (MLGL) in 1996. Curtis Joseph was acquired as the team's starting goalie, while Pat Quinn was hired as the head coach before the 1998–99 season. Realigning the NHL's conferences in 1998, the Leafs were moved from the Western to the Eastern Conference. On February 13, 1999, the Leafs played their final game at the Gardens before moving to their new home at the then-Air Canada Centre. In the 1999 playoffs, the team advanced to the Conference Finals, but lost in five games to the Buffalo Sabres. In the 1999–2000 season, the Leafs hosted the 50th NHL All-Star Game. By the end of the season, they recorded their first 100-point season and won their first division title in 37 years. In both the 2000 and 2001 playoffs, the Leafs defeated the Ottawa Senators in the first round, and lost to the New Jersey", "Following the 2004–05 NHL lockout, the Maple Leafs experienced their longest playoff drought in the club's history. They struggled in the 2005–06 season; despite a late-season surge (9–1–2 in their final 12 games), led by goaltender Jean-Sebastien Aubin, Toronto was out of playoff contention for the first time since 1998. This marked the first time the team had missed the postseason under Quinn, who was later relieved as head coach. Quinn's dismissal was controversial since many of the young players who were key contributors to the Leafs' late-season run had been drafted by him before Ferguson's arrival, while Ferguson's signings (Jason Allison, Belfour, Alexander Khavanov, and Eric Lindros)", "Shortly after the end of the 2013–14 regular season, Brendan Shanahan was named as the president and an alternate governor of the Maple Leafs. On January 6, 2015, the Leafs fired Randy Carlyle as head coach, and assistant coach Peter Horachek took over on an interim basis immediately. While the Leafs had a winning record before Carlyle's firing, the team eventually collapsed. On February 6, 2015, the Leafs set a new franchise record of 11 consecutive games without a win. At", "", "The price of a Maple Leafs home game ticket is the highest amongst any team in the NHL. Scotiabank Arena holds 18,900 seats for Leafs games, with 15,500 reserved for season ticket holders. Because of the demand for season tickets, their sale is limited to the 10,000 people on the waiting list. As of March 2016, Leafs' season tickets saw a renewal rate of 99.5 percent, a rate that would require more than 250 years to clear the existing waiting list. In a 2014 survey by \"ESPN The Magazine\", the Leafs", "During the 25 years of the Original Six-era (1942–67), teams played each other 14 times during the regular season, and with only four teams continuing into the playoffs, rivalries were intense. The Maple Leafs established several rivalries with other teams that played in this era, including the Boston Bruins, Detroit Red Wings, and the Montreal Canadiens. In addition to the aforementioned teams, the Maple Leafs have also developed a rivalry with the Ottawa Senators.", "Both teams are Original Six teams, with their first game played in Boston's inaugural season on December 3, 1924. In the match-up, the St. Patricks earned a 5–3 victory against the Bruins at Mutual Street Arena. The Maple Leafs played their first Stanley Cup playoff series against the Bruins in 1933, winning the series 3–2.", "The Detroit Red Wings and the Maple Leafs are both Original Six teams, playing their first game together in 1927. From 1929 to 1993, the teams met each other in the 16 playoff series, as well as seven Stanley Cup Finals. Meeting one another for a combined 23 times in the postseason, they have played each other in more playoff series than any other two teams in NHL history with the exception of the Bruins and Canadiens who have played a total of 34 playoff series. Overlapping fanbases, particularly in markets such as Windsor, Ontario and the surrounding Essex County, have added to the rivalry. The rivalry between the Detroit Red Wings and the Maple Leafs was at its height during", "The rivalry between the Montreal Canadiens and the Maple Leafs is the oldest in the NHL, featuring two clubs that were active since the inaugural NHL season in 1917. In the early 20th century, the rivalry was an embodiment of a larger culture war between English Canada and French Canada. The Canadiens have won 24 Stanley Cups, while the Maple Leafs have won 13, ranking them first and second for most Cup wins. The height of the rivalry was during the 1960s, when the Canadiens and Leafs combined to win all but one Cup. The two clubs had 15 playoff meetings. However, failing to meet each", "The modern Ottawa Senators entered the NHL in 1992, but the rivalry between the two teams did not begin to emerge until the late 1990s. From 1992 to 1998, Ottawa and Toronto played in different conferences (Eastern and Western respectively), which meant they rarely played each other. However, before the 1998–99 season, the conferences and divisions were realigned, with Toronto moved to the Eastern Conference's Northeast Division with Ottawa. From 2000 to 2004, the teams played four post-season series; the Leafs won all four playoff series. Due in part to the number Leafs fans living in the Ottawa Valley, and in part to Ottawa's proximity to Toronto, Leafs–Senators games at the Canadian Tire Centre in Ottawa hold a more neutral audience.", "", "As a result of both Bell Canada and Rogers Communications having an ownership stake in MLSE, Maple Leafs broadcasts are split between the two media companies; with regional TV broadcasts split between Rogers' Sportsnet Ontario and Bell's TSN4. Colour commentary for Bell's television broadcasts is performed by Ray Ferraro, while play-by-play is provided by Chris Cuthbert and Gord Miller. Colour commentary for Rogers' television broadcasts is performed by Greg Millen, while play-by-play is provided by John Bartlett. MLSE also operates a regional specialty channel, the Leafs Nation Network. The Leafs Nation Network broadcasts programming related to the Maple Leafs, as well as games for the", "The team's first home was the Arena Gardens, later known as the Mutual Street Arena. From 1912 until 1931, the Arena was ice hockey's premier site in Toronto. The Arena Gardens was the third arena in Canada to feature a mechanically-frozen, or artificial, ice surface, and for 11 years was the only such facility in Eastern Canada. The Arena was demolished in 1989, with most of the site converted to residential developments. In 2011, parts of the site were made into a city park, known as Arena Gardens. In 1931, over a six-month period, Conn Smythe built Maple Leaf Gardens on the northwest corner of Carlton Street and Church Street, at a cost of C$1.5 million (C$ million in ). The arena soon acquired nicknames including the \"Carlton Street Cashbox\", and the \"Maple Leaf Mint\", since the team's games were constantly sold out. The Maple Leafs won 11 Stanley Cups while playing at the Gardens. The first annual NHL All-Star Game was also held at Maple Leaf Gardens in 1947. The Gardens opened on November 12, 1931, with the Maple Leafs losing 2–1 to the Chicago", "The team is represented through a number of images and symbols, including the maple leaf logo found on the club's uniform, and their mascot. The Maple Leafs' jersey has a long history and is one of the best-selling NHL jerseys among fans. The club's uniforms have been altered several times. The club's first uniforms were blue and featured the letter T. The first major alteration came in 1919, when the club was renamed the St. Patricks. The uniforms were green with \"Toronto St. Pats\" on the logo, lettered in green either on a white \"pill\" shape or stripes. When the club was renamed the Maple Leafs in the 1927–28 season, the logo was changed, and the team reverted to blue uniforms. The logo was a 48-point maple leaf with the words lettered in white. The home jersey was blue with alternating thin-thick stripes on the arms, legs and shoulders. The road uniform was white with three stripes on the chest and back, waist and legs. For 1933–34, the alternating thin-thick stripes were replaced with stripes of equal thickness. This remained the basic design for the next 40 years. In 1937, veins were added", "The Maple Leafs' mascot is Carlton the Bear, an anthropomorphic polar bear whose name and number (#60) comes from the location of Maple Leaf", "The Maple Leafs are presently affiliated with two minor league teams, the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League and the Newfoundland Growlers of the ECHL. The Marlies play from Coca-Cola Coliseum in Toronto. Prior to its move to Coca-Cola Coliseum in 2005, the team was located in St. John's, Newfoundland and was known as the St. John's Maple Leafs. The Marlies originated from the New Brunswick Hawks, who later moved to St. Catherines, Newmarket, and St.", "The Maple Leafs is one of six professional sports teams owned by Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment (MLSE). In 2018, \"Forbes\" estimated the value of the club at US$1.45 billion, making the Maple Leafs are the second most valuable franchise in the NHL, after the New York Rangers. However, MLSE has refuted past valuations made by \"Forbes\". Initially ownership of the club was held by the Arena Gardens of Toronto, Limited; an ownership group fronted by Henry Pellatt, that owned and managed Arena Gardens. The club was named a permanent franchise in the League following its inaugural season, with team manager Charles Querrie, and the Arena Gardens", "\"This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Maple Leafs. For the full season-by-season history, see List of", "", "In all, 25 individuals have served as captain of the Toronto Maple Leafs. Ken Randall served as the team's first captain for two years beginning with the inaugural 1917–18 NHL season. John Ross Roach was the first goaltender to be named captain in the NHL, and the only goaltender to serve as the Leafs' captain. He was one of only six goalies in NHL history to have been officially recognized as the team captain. George Armstrong, captain from 1958 through 1969, was the longest serving captain in the team's history. In 1997, Mats Sundin became the first non-Canadian to captain the Maple Leafs. His tenure as captain holds the distinction as the longest captaincy for a non-North American born player in NHL history. The last player named to the position was John Tavares on October 2, 2019. Three", "The Maple Leafs have had 40 head coaches (including four interim coaches). The franchise's first head coach was Dick Carroll, who coached the team for two seasons. A number of coaches have served as the Leafs head coach on multiple occasions. King Clancy was named the head coach on three separate occasions while Charles Querrie and Punch Imlach served the position on two occasions. Sheldon Keefe is the current head coach. He was named coach on November 20, 2019. Punch Imlach coached the most regular season games", "In the 1963 NHL Amateur Draft, the NHL's inaugural draft, the Maple Leafs selected Walt McKechnie, a centre from the London Nationals with their first pick, sixth overall. Two Maple Leafs captains were obtained through the draft, Darryl Sittler in the 1970", "The Maple Leafs has won 13 Stanley Cups in its history. Winning their last Stanley Cup in 1967, the club's 51-season Stanley Cup drought is the longest active drought in the NHL. Toronto's first two Stanley Cup, in 1918 and 1922, took place when the Stanley Cup tournament operated as an interleague competition. Toronto's subsequent 11 Stanley Cups were awarded after 1926, when it was established as the championship trophy of the NHL. The Maple Leafs were also awarded the Prince of Wales Trophy twice, following the 1946–47 season, and the 1962–63 season. The Prince of Wales Trophy was awarded to the club when it was used as NHL's regular season championship trophy.", "The Maple Leafs have retired the numbers of 19 players (as some players used the same number, only 13 numbers have been retired). Between October 17, 1992, and October 15, 2016, the Maple Leafs took a unique approach to retired numbers. Whereas players who suffered a career ending injury had their numbers retired, \"great\" players had their number \"honoured\". Honoured numbers remained in general circulation for players, however, during Brian Burke's tenure as the Maple Leafs' general manager, use of honoured numbers required his approval. During this period, only two players met the criteria, the first being number 6, worn by Ace Bailey and retired on February 14, 1934; and Bill Barilko's number 5, retired on October 17, 1992. The retirement of Bailey's number holds the distinction of being the first of its kind in professional sports. It was briefly taken out of retirement, after Bailey asked that Ron", "The Toronto Maple Leafs acknowledge an affiliation with 75 inductees of the Hockey Hall of Fame. The 75 inductees include 62 former players as well as 13 builders of the sport. The Maple Leafs have the greatest number of players inducted in the Hockey Hall of Fame of any NHL team. The 13 individuals recognized as builders of the sport include former Maple Leafs broadcasters, executives, head coaches, and other personnel relating to the club's operations.", "These are the top franchise leaders in regular season points, goals,", "Footnotes Citations Works cited" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Physical and chemical properties.", "Biological function.", "Biosynthesis and attachment.", "Enzymatic activity.", "Biological sources and degradation.", "Chemical synthesis.", "Pharmacology.", "Pharmacokinetics.", "Pharmacodynamics.", "Uses.", "Clinical research." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Lipoic acid (LA), also known as α-lipoic acid, alpha lipoic acid (ALA) and thioctic acid is an organosulfur compound derived from octanoic acid. LA contains two sulfur atoms (at C6 and C8) connected by a disulfide bond and is thus considered to be oxidized although either sulfur atom can exist in higher oxidation states. The carbon atom at C6 is chiral and the molecule exists as two enantiomers (\"R\")-(+)-lipoic acid (RLA) and (\"S\")-(-)-lipoic acid (SLA) and as a racemic mixture (\"R\"/\"S\")-lipoic acid (R/S-LA). LA appears physically as a yellow solid and structurally contains a terminal carboxylic acid and a terminal dithiolane ring. For use in dietary supplement materials and compounding pharmacies, the USP has established an official monograph for R/S-LA.", "\"Lipoate\" is the conjugate base of lipoic acid, and the most prevalent form of LA under physiological conditions. Most endogenously produced RLA are not \"free\" because octanoic acid, the precursor to RLA, is bound to the enzyme complexes prior to enzymatic insertion of the sulfur atoms. As a cofactor, RLA is covalently attached by an amide bond to a terminal lysine residue of the enzyme's lipoyl domains. One of the most studied roles of RLA is as a cofactor of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC or PDHC), though it is a cofactor in other enzymatic systems as well (described below). Only the (\"R\")-(+)-enantiomer (RLA) exists in nature and is essential for aerobic metabolism because RLA is an essential cofactor of many enzyme complexes.", "The precursor to lipoic acid, octanoic acid, is made via fatty acid biosynthesis in the form of octanoyl-acyl carrier protein. In eukaryotes, a second fatty acid biosynthetic pathway in mitochondria is used for this purpose. The octanoate is transferred as a thioester of acyl carrier protein from fatty acid biosynthesis to an amide of the lipoyl domain protein by an enzyme called an octanoyltransferase. Two hydrogens of octanoate are replaced with sulfur groups via a radical SAM mechanism, by lipoyl synthase. As a result, lipoic acid is synthesized attached to proteins and no free lipoic acid is produced. Lipoic acid can be removed whenever proteins are degraded and by action of the enzyme lipoamidase. Free lipoate can be used by some organisms as an enzyme called lipoate protein ligase that attaches it covalently to the correct protein. The ligase activity of this enzyme requires ATP.", "Lipoic acid is a cofactor for at least five enzyme systems. Two of these are in the citric acid cycle through which many organisms turn nutrients into energy. Lipoylated enzymes have lipoic acid attached to them covalently. The lipoyl group transfers acyl groups in 2-oxoacid dehydrogenase complexes, and methylamine group in the glycine cleavage complex or glycine dehydrogenase. 2-Oxoacid dehydrogenase transfer reactions occur by a similar mechanism in: The most-studied of these is the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. These complexes have three central subunits: E1-3, which are the decarboxylase, lipoyl transferase, and dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase, respectively. These complexes have a central E2 core and the other subunits surround this core to form the complex. In the gap between these two subunits, the lipoyl domain ferries intermediates between the active sites. The lipoyl domain itself is attached by a flexible linker to the E2 core and the number of lipoyl domains varies from one to three for a given organism. The number of domains has been experimentally varied and seems to have little effect on growth until over nine are added, although more than three decreased activity of the complex. Lipoic acid serves as co-factor to the acetoin dehydrogenase complex catalyzing the conversion of acetoin (3-hydroxy-2-butanone) to acetaldehyde and acetyl coenzyme A. The glycine cleavage system differs from the other complexes, and has a different nomenclature. In this system, the H protein is a free lipoyl domain with additional helices, the L protein is a dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase, the P protein is the decarboxylase, and the T protein transfers the methylamine from lipoate to tetrahydrofolate (THF) yielding methylene-THF and ammonia. Methylene-THF is then used by serine hydroxymethyltransferase to synthesize serine from glycine. This system is part of plant photorespiration.", "Lipoic acid is present in many foods in which it is bound to lysine in proteins, but slightly more so in kidney, heart, liver, spinach, broccoli, and yeast extract. Naturally occurring lipoic acid is always covalently bound and not readily available from dietary sources. In addition, the amount of lipoic acid present in dietary sources is low. For instance, the purification of lipoic acid to determine its structure used an estimated 10 tons of liver residue, which yielded 30 mg of lipoic acid. As a result, all lipoic acid available as a supplement is chemically synthesized. Baseline levels (prior to supplementation) of RLA and R-DHLA have not been detected in human plasma. RLA has been detected at 12.3−43.1 ng/mL following acid hydrolysis, which releases protein-bound lipoic acid. Enzymatic hydrolysis of protein bound lipoic acid released 1.4−11.6 ng/mL and <1-38.2 ng/mL using subtilisin and alcalase, respectively. Digestive proteolytic enzymes cleave the R-lipoyllysine residue from the mitochondrial enzyme complexes derived from food but are unable to cleave the lipoic acid--lysine amide bond. Both synthetic lipoamide and (\"R\")-lipoyl--lysine are rapidly cleaved by serum lipoamidases, which release free (\"R\")-lipoic acid and either -lysine or ammonia. Little is known about the degradation and utilization of aliphatic sulfides such as lipoic acid, except for cysteine. Lipoic acid is metabolized in a variety of ways when given as a dietary supplement in mammals. Lipoic acid is partially degraded by a variety of transformations, which can occur in various combinations. Degradation to tetranorlipoic acid, oxidation of one or both of the sulfur atoms to the sulfoxide, and S-methylation of the sulfide were observed. Conjugation of unmodified lipoic acid to glycine was detected especially in mice. Degradation of lipoic acid is similar in humans, although it is not clear if the sulfur atoms become significantly oxidized. Apparently mammals are not capable of utilizing lipoic acid as a sulfur source.", "SLA did not exist prior to chemical synthesis in 1952. SLA is produced in equal amounts with RLA during achiral manufacturing processes. The racemic form was more widely used clinically in Europe and Japan in the 1950s to 1960s despite the early recognition that the various forms of LA are not bioequivalent. The first synthetic procedures appeared for RLA and SLA in the mid-1950s. Advances in chiral chemistry led to more efficient technologies for manufacturing the single enantiomers by both classical resolution and asymmetric synthesis and the demand for RLA also grew at this time. In the 21st century, R/S-LA, RLA and SLA with high chemical and/or optical purities are available in industrial quantities. At the current time, most of the world supply of R/S-LA and RLA is manufactured in China and smaller amounts in Italy, Germany, and Japan. RLA is produced by modifications of a process first described by Georg Lang in a Ph.D. thesis and later patented by DeGussa. Although RLA is favored nutritionally due to its “vitamin-like” role in metabolism, both RLA and R/S-LA are widely available as dietary supplements. Both stereospecific and non-stereospecific reactions are known to occur \"in vivo\" and contribute to the mechanisms of action, but evidence to date indicates RLA may be the eutomer (the nutritionally and therapeutically preferred form).", "", "A 2007 human pharmacokinetic study of sodium RLA demonstrated the maximum concentration in plasma and bioavailability are significantly greater than the free acid form, and rivals plasma levels achieved by intravenous administration of the free acid form. Additionally, high plasma levels comparable to those in animal models where Nrf2 was activated were achieved. The various forms of LA are not bioequivalent. Very few studies compare individual enantiomers with racemic lipoic acid. It is unclear if twice as much racemic lipoic acid can replace RLA. The toxic dose of LA in cats is much lower than that in humans or dogs and produces hepatocellular toxicity.", "The mechanism and action of lipoic acid when supplied externally to an organism is controversial. Lipoic acid in a cell seems primarily to induce the oxidative stress response rather than directly scavenge free radicals. This effect is specific for RLA. Despite the strongly reducing milieu, LA has been detected intracellularly in both oxidized and reduced forms. LA is able to scavenge reactive oxygen and reactive nitrogen species in a biochemical assay due to long incubation times, but there is little evidence this occurs within a cell or that radical scavenging contributes to the primary mechanisms of action of LA. The relatively good scavenging activity of LA toward hypochlorous acid (a bactericidal produced by neutrophils that may produce inflammation and tissue damage) is due to the strained conformation of the 5-membered dithiolane ring, which is lost upon reduction to DHLA. In cells, LA is reduced to dihydrolipoic acid, which is generally regarded as the more bioactive form of LA and the form responsible for most of the antioxidant effects and for lowering the redox activities of unbound iron and copper. This theory has been challenged due to the high level of reactivity of the two free sulfhydryls, low intracellular concentrations of DHLA as well as the rapid methylation of one or both sulfhydryls, rapid side-chain oxidation to shorter metabolites and rapid efflux from the cell. Although both DHLA and LA have been found inside cells after administration, most intracellular DHLA probably exists as mixed disulfides with various cysteine residues from cytosolic and mitochondrial proteins. Recent findings suggest therapeutic and anti-aging effects are due to modulation of signal transduction and gene transcription, which improve the antioxidant status of the cell. However, this likely occurs via pro-oxidant mechanisms, not by radical scavenging or reducing effects. All the disulfide forms of LA (R/S-LA, RLA and SLA) can be reduced to DHLA although both tissue specific and stereoselective (preference for one enantiomer over the other) reductions have been reported in model systems. At least two cytosolic enzymes, glutathione reductase (GR) and thioredoxin reductase (Trx1), and two mitochondrial enzymes, lipoamide dehydrogenase and thioredoxin reductase (Trx2), reduce LA. SLA is stereoselectively reduced by cytosolic GR whereas Trx1, Trx2 and lipoamide dehydrogenase stereoselectively reduce RLA. (\"R\")-(+)-lipoic acid is enzymatically or chemically reduced to (\"R\")-(-)-dihydrolipoic acid whereas (\"S\")-(-)-lipoic acid is reduced to (\"S\")-(+)-dihydrolipoic acid. Dihydrolipoic acid (DHLA) can also form intracellularly and extracellularly via non-enzymatic, thiol-disulfide exchange reactions. RLA may function \"in vivo\" like a B-vitamin and at higher doses like plant-derived nutrients, such as curcumin, sulforaphane, resveratrol, and other nutritional substances that induce phase II detoxification enzymes, thus acting as cytoprotective agents. This stress response indirectly improves the antioxidant capacity of the cell. The (\"S\")-enantiomer of LA was shown to be toxic when administered to thiamine-deficient rats. Several studies have demonstrated that SLA either has lower activity than RLA or interferes with the specific effects of RLA by competitive inhibition.", "R/S-LA and RLA are widely available as over-the-counter nutritional supplements in the United States in the form of capsules, tablets, and aqueous liquids, and have been marketed as antioxidants. Although the body can synthesize LA, it can also be absorbed from the diet. Dietary supplementation in doses from 200–600 mg are likely to provide up to 1000 times the amount available from a regular diet. Gastrointestinal absorption is variable and decreases with the use of food. It is therefore recommended that dietary LA be taken 30–60 minutes before or at least 120 minutes after a meal. Maximum blood levels of LA are achieved 30–60 minutes after dietary supplementation, and it is thought to be largely metabolized in the liver. In Germany, LA is approved as a drug for the treatment of diabetic neuropathy since 1966 and is available by prescription.", "According to the American Cancer Society as of 2013, \"there is no reliable scientific evidence at this time that lipoic acid prevents the development or spread of cancer\". As of 2015, intravenously administered ALA is unapproved anywhere in the world except Germany for diabetic neuropathy, but has been proven reasonably safe and effective in four clinical trials; however another large trial over four years found no difference from placebo. As of 2012, there was no good evidence alpha lipoic acid helps people with mitochondrial disorders. A 2018 review recommending ALA as an anti-obesity supplement with low dosage (< 600 mg/day) for a short period of time (<10 weeks), however it is too expensive to be practical as an complementary therapy for obesity." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description and etymology.", "Range and habitat.", "Life cycle.", "Cantharidin.", "Culinary uses.", "Other uses.", "Noteworthy cases." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Lytta vesicatoria\" is a slender, soft-bodied metallic and iridescent golden-green insect, one of the blister beetles. It is approximately wide by long. The generic and specific names derive from the Greek λύττα (\"lytta\") for martial rage, raging madness, Bacchic frenzy, or rabies, and Latin \"vesica\" for blister.", "The Spanish fly is a mainly southern European species although its range of habitats is more completely described as being \"throughout southern Europe and eastward to Central Asia and Siberia,\" alternatively as being throughout Europe, and parts of northern and southern Asia (excluding China). It occurs locally in southern Great Britain and Poland. Adult beetles primarily feed on leaves of ash, lilac, amur privet, honey suckle and white willow tree while occasionally being found on plum, rose, and elm.", "The defensive chemical cantharidin, for which the beetle is known, is produced only by males; females obtain it from males during mating, as the spermatophore contains some. This may be a nuptial gift, increasing the value of mating to the female, and thus increasing the male's reproductive fitness. The female lays her fertilised eggs on the ground, near the nest of a ground-nesting solitary bee. The larvae are very active as soon as they hatch. They climb a flowering plant and await the arrival of a solitary bee. They hook themselves on to the bee using the three claws on their legs that give the first instar larvae their name, triungulins (from Latin \"tri\", three, and \"ungulus\", claw). The bee carries the larvae back to its nest, where they feed on bee larvae and the bees' food supplies. The larvae are thus somewhere between predators and parasites. The active larvae moult into very different, more typically scarabaeoid larvae for the remaining two or more instars, in a development type called hypermetamorphosis. The adults emerge from the bees' nest and fly to the woody plants on which they feed.", "Cantharidin, the principal active component in preparations of Spanish fly, was first isolated and named in 1810 by the French chemist Pierre Robiquet, who demonstrated that it was the principal agent responsible for the aggressively blistering properties of this insect's egg coating. It was asserted at that time that it was as toxic as the most violent poisons then known, such as strychnine. The active agent has been estimated present at about 0.2–0.7 mg per beetle, males producing significantly more than females. The beetle secretes the agent orally, and exudes it from its joints as a milky fluid. The potency of the insect species as a vesicant has been known since antiquity and the activity has been used in various ways. This has led to its small-scale commercial preparation and sale, in a powdered form known as \"cantharides\" (from the plural of Greek κανθαρίς, \"Kantharis\", beetle), obtained from dried and ground beetles. The crushed powder is of yellow-brown to brown-olive color with iridescent reflections, is of disagreeable scent, and is bitter to taste. Cantharidin, the active agent, is a terpenoid, and is produced by some other insects, such as \"Epicauta immaculata\". Cantharidin is dangerously toxic, inhibiting the enzyme phosphatase 2A. It causes irritation, blistering, bleeding and discomfort. These effects can escalate to erosion and bleeding of mucosa in each system, sometimes followed by severe gastro-intestinal bleeding and acute tubular necrosis and glomerular destruction, resulting in gastro-intestinal and renal dysfunction, by organ failure, and death. Preparations from \"L. vesicatoria\" and its active agent have been implicated in both inadvertent and intentional poisonings. Froberg notes a 1954 manslaughter case where cantharidin was administered in a coconut-flavoured candy as an intended aphrodisiac, resulting in illness and eventual death of two women (agent identified postmortem), and in facial blistering and criminal conviction of the perpetrator.", "In Morocco and other parts of North Africa, spice blends known as \"ras el hanout\" sometimes included as a minor ingredient \"green metallic beetles\", inferred to be cantharides from \"L. vesicatoria\", although sale of this in Moroccan spice markets was banned in the 1990s. \"Dawamesk\", a spread or jam made in North Africa and containing hashish, almond paste, pistachio nuts, sugar, orange or tamarind peel, cloves, and other various spices, occasionally included cantharides.", "In ancient China, the beetles were mixed with human excrement, arsenic, and wolfsbane to make the world's first recorded stink bomb.", "The Venezuelan leader Simón Bolívar may have been accidentally poisoned by application of Spanish fly. Arthur Kendrick Ford was convicted and given a multiyear prison sentence in 1954 for the unintended deaths of two women surreptitiously given candies laced with cantharidin, which were intended to act as an aphrodisiac. George Washington is thought to have been treated for epiglottitis (his cause of death) with Spanish Fly. Of the many (now obsolete) treatments given to George Washington for his epiglottitis one of them involved Spanish Fly. Using it by blistering his throat with Spanish fly, a treatment that is no longer used." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Loss of the technique.", "Reproduction.", "Moran: billet welding.", "Verhoeven and Pendray: crucible.", "Anosov, Wadsworth and Sherby: bulat.", "Additional research.", "In gunmaking.", "Popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Extensive scientific and archaeological researches has been conducted in understanding the Sinhalese steel technology successfully replicating the production of Sinhalese steel. Damascus blades were first manufactured in the Near East from ingots of wootz steel that were imported from Southern India (present day Tamil Nadu and Kerala) and Sri Lanka. The Arabs introduced the wootz steel to Damascus, where a weapons industry thrived. From the 3rd century to the 17th century, steel ingots were being shipped to the Middle East from Sri Lanka and India..", "Production of these patterned swords gradually declined, ceasing by around 1750. Some gunsmiths during the 18th and 19th century used this technique for gunbarrels but usage of the technique ended in the 1900s. Several modern theories have ventured to explain this decline, including the breakdown of trade routes to supply the needed metals, the lack of trace impurities in the metals, the possible loss of knowledge on the crafting techniques through secrecy and lack of transmission, suppression of the industry in India by the British Raj, or a combination of all the above. The original wootz was imported to Damascus, where Middle Eastern bladesmiths forged them into swords. Due to the distance of trade for this steel, a sufficiently lengthy disruption of the trade routes could have ended the production of Damascus steel and eventually led to the loss of the technique. As well, the need for key trace impurities of tungsten or vanadium within the materials needed for the production of the steel may be absent if this material was acquired from different production regions or smelted from ores lacking these key trace elements. The technique for controlled thermal cycling after the initial forging at a specific temperature could also have been lost, thereby preventing the final damask pattern in the steel from occurring. The discovery of carbon nanotubes in the Damascus steel's composition supports this hypothesis, since the precipitation of carbon nanotubes probably resulted from a specific process that may be difficult to replicate should the production technique or raw materials used be significantly altered.", "Recreating Damascus steel has been attempted by archaeologists using experimental archaeology. Many have attempted to discover or reverse-engineer the process by which it was made.", "Since the well-known technique of pattern welding - the forge-welding of a blade from several differing pieces - produced surface patterns similar to those found on Damascus blades, some modern blacksmiths were erroneously led to believe that the original Damascus blades were made using this technique. However today, the difference between wootz steel and pattern welding is fully documented and well understood. Pattern-welded steel has been referred to as \"Damascus steel\" since 1973 when Bladesmith William F. Moran unveiled his \"Damascus knives\" at the Knifemakers' Guild Show. This \"Modern Damascus\" is made from several types of steel and iron slices welded together to form a billet (semi-finished product), and currently, the term \"Damascus\" (although technically incorrect) is widely accepted to describe modern pattern-welded steel blades in the trade. The patterns vary depending on how the smith works the billet. The billet is drawn out and folded until the desired number of layers are formed. To attain a Master Smith rating with the American Bladesmith Society that Moran founded, the smith must forge a Damascus blade with a minimum of 300 layers.", "J. D. Verhoeven and A. H. Pendray published an article on their attempts to reproduce the elemental, structural, and visual characteristics of Damascus steel. They started with a cake of steel that matched the properties of the original wootz steel from India, which also matched a number of original Damascus swords that Verhoeven and Pendray had access to. The wootz was in a soft, annealed state, with a grain structure and beads of pure iron carbide, which resulted from its hypereutectoid state. Verhoeven and Pendray had already determined that the grains on the surface of the steel were grains of iron carbide—their goal was to reproduce the iron carbide patterns they saw in the Damascus blades from the grains in the wootz. Although such material could be worked at low temperatures to produce the striated Damascene pattern of intermixed ferrite and cementite bands in a manner identical to pattern-welded Damascus steel, any heat treatment sufficient to dissolve the carbides would permanently destroy the pattern. However, Verhoeven and Pendray discovered that in samples of true Damascus steel, the Damascene pattern could be recovered by aging at a moderate temperature. They found that certain carbide forming elements, one of which was vanadium, did not disperse until the steel reached higher temperatures than those needed to dissolve the carbides. Therefore, a high heat treatment could remove the visual evidence of patterning associated with carbides but did not remove the underlying patterning of the carbide forming elements; a subsequent lower-temperature heat treatment, at a temperature at which the carbides were again stable, could recover the structure by the binding of carbon by those elements.", "In Russia, chronicles record the use of a material known as bulat steel to make highly valued weapons, including swords, knives, and axes. Tsar Michael of Russia reportedly had a bulat helmet made for him in 1621. The exact origin or the manufacturing process of the bulat is unknown, but it was likely imported to Russia via Persia and Turkestan, and it was similar and possibly the same as Damascus steel. Pavel Petrovich Anosov made several attempts to reproduce the process in the mid-19th century. Wadsworth and Sherby also researched the reproduction of bulat steel and published their results in 1980.", "A team of researchers based at the Technical University of Dresden that used x-rays and electron microscopy to examine Damascus steel discovered the presence of cementite nanowires and carbon nanotubes. Peter Paufler, a member of the Dresden team, says that these nanostructures are a result of the forging process. Sanderson proposes that the process of forging and annealing accounts for the nano-scale structures.", "Prior to the early 20th century, all shotgun barrels were forged by heating narrow strips of iron and steel and shaping them around a mandrel. This process was referred to as \"laminating\" or \"Damascus\". These types of barrels earned a reputation for weakness and were never meant to be used with modern smokeless powder, or any kind of moderately powerful explosive. Because of the resemblance to Damascus steel, higher-end barrels were made by Belgian and British gun makers. These barrels are proof marked and meant to be used with light pressure loads. Current gun manufacturers make slide assemblies and small parts such as triggers and safeties for Colt M1911 pistols from powdered Swedish steel resulting in a swirling two-toned effect; these parts are often referred to as \"Stainless Damascus\".", "The exceptionally strong fictitious Valyrian steel mentioned in the television series \"Game of Thrones\", as well as George R. R. Martin's book series \"A Song of Ice and Fire\", appears to have been inspired by Damascus steel, but with a magic twist. Just like Damascus/Wootz steel, Valyrian steel also seems to be a lost art from an ancient civilization. Unlike Damascus steel, however, Valyrian steel blades require no maintenance and cannot be damaged through normal combat. Damascus Steel is also a special finish for many knives in \"\". In \"\", iridescent blue and red Damascus steel weapon camouflage is available for players who have unlocked all other camouflages for every base weapon in the game." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Discovery and early investigation.", "Structure.", "Genetics.", "Assembly dynamics.", "Nucleation and polymerization.", "Associated proteins.", "Chemical inhibitors.", "Functions and location.", "Cytoskeleton.", "Yeasts.", "Plants.", "Nuclear actin.", "Transport of actin through the nuclear membrane.", "The organization of nuclear actin.", "Actin isoforms in the cell nucleus.", "Nuclear actin functions.", "Muscular contraction.", "Outline of a muscle contraction.", "Actin’s role in muscle contraction.", "Other biological processes.", "Molecular pathology.", "Pathology associated with \"ACTA1\".", "In smooth muscle.", "In heart muscle.", "In cytoplasmatic actins.", "Other pathological mechanisms.", "Evolution.", "Equivalents in bacteria.", "Applications.", "Genes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Actin was first observed experimentally in 1887 by W.D. Halliburton, who extracted a protein from muscle that 'coagulated' preparations of myosin that he called \"myosin-ferment\". However, Halliburton was unable to further refine his findings, and the discovery of actin is credited instead to Brunó Ferenc Straub, a young biochemist working in Albert Szent-Györgyi's laboratory at the Institute of Medical Chemistry at the University of Szeged, Hungary. In 1942, Straub developed a novel technique for extracting muscle protein that allowed him to isolate substantial amounts of relatively pure actin. Straub's method is essentially the same as that used in laboratories today. Szent-Gyorgyi had previously described the more viscous form of myosin produced by slow muscle extractions as 'activated' myosin, and, since Straub's protein produced the activating effect, it was dubbed \"actin\". Adding ATP to a mixture of both proteins (called actomyosin) causes a decrease in viscosity. The hostilities of World War II meant Szent-Gyorgyi and Straub were unable to publish the work in Western scientific journals. Actin therefore only became well known in the West in 1945, when their paper was published as a supplement to the \"Acta Physiologica Scandinavica\". Straub continued to work on actin, and in 1950 reported", "Its amino acid sequence is also one of the most highly conserved of the proteins as it has changed little over the course of evolution, differing by no more than 20% in species as diverse as algae and humans. It is therefore considered to have an optimised structure. It has two distinguishing features: it is an enzyme that slowly hydrolizes ATP, the \"universal energy currency\" of biological processes. However, the ATP is required in order to maintain its structural integrity. Its efficient structure is formed by an almost unique folding process. In addition, it is able to carry out more interactions than any other protein, which allows it to perform a wider variety of functions than other proteins at almost every level of cellular life. Myosin is an example of a protein that bonds with actin. Another example is villin, which can weave actin into bundles or cut the filaments depending on the concentration of calcium cations in the surrounding medium. Actin is one of the most abundant proteins in eukaryotes, where it is found throughout the cytoplasm. In fact, in muscle fibres it comprises 20% of total cellular protein by weight and between 1% and 5% in other cells. However, there is not only one type of actin; the genes that code for actin are defined as a gene family (a family that in plants contains more than 60 elements, including genes and pseudogenes and in humans more than 30 elements). This means that the genetic information of each individual contains instructions that generate actin variants (called isoforms) that possess slightly different functions. This, in turn, means that eukaryotic organisms express different genes that give rise to: α-actin, which is found in contractile structures; β-actin, found at the expanding edge of cells that use the projection of their cellular structures as their means of mobility; and γ-actin, which is found in the filaments of stress fibres. In addition to the similarities that exist between an organism's isoforms there is also an evolutionary conservation in the structure and function even between organisms contained in different eukaryotic domains: in bacteria the actin homologue MreB has been identified, which is a protein that is capable of polymerizing into microfilaments; and in archaea the homologue Ta0583 is even more similar to the eukaryotic actins. Cellular actin has two forms: monomeric globules called G-actin and polymeric filaments called F-actin (that is, as filaments made up of many G-actin monomers). F-actin can also be described as a microfilament. Two parallel F-actin strands must rotate 166 degrees to lie correctly on top of each other. This creates the double helix structure of the microfilaments found in the cytoskeleton. Microfilaments measure approximately 7 nm in diameter with the helix repeating every 37 nm. Each molecule of actin is bound to a molecule of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) or adenosine diphosphate (ADP) that is associated with a Mg cation. The most commonly found forms of actin, compared to all the possible combinations, are ATP-G-Actin and ADP-F-actin.", "Actin has been one of the most highly conserved proteins throughout evolution because it interacts with a large number of other proteins. It has 80.2% sequence conservation at the gene level between \"Homo sapiens\" and \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\" (a species of yeast), and 95% conservation of the primary structure of the protein product. Although most yeasts have only a single actin gene, higher eukaryotes, in general, express several isoforms of actin encoded by a family of related genes. Mammals have at least six actin isoforms coded by separate genes, which are divided into three classes (alpha, beta, and gamma) according to their isoelectric points. In general, alpha actins are found in muscle (α-skeletal, α-aortic smooth, α-cardiac), whereas beta", "", "Nucleating factors are necessary to stimulate actin polymerization. One such nucleating factor is the Arp2/3 complex, which mimics a G-actin dimer in order to stimulate the nucleation (or formation of the first trimer) of monomeric G-actin. The Arp2/3 complex binds to actin filaments at 70 degrees to form new actin branches off existing actin filaments. Arp2/3-mediated nucleation is necessary for directed cell migration. Also, actin filaments themselves bind ATP, and hydrolysis of this ATP stimulates destabilization of the polymer. The growth of actin filaments can be regulated by thymosin and profilin. Thymosin binds to G-actin to buffer the polymerizing process, while profilin binds to G-actin to exchange ADP for ATP, promoting the monomeric addition to the barbed, plus end of F-actin filaments. F-actin is both strong and dynamic. Unlike other polymers, such as DNA, whose constituent elements are bound together with covalent bonds, the monomers of actin filaments are assembled by weaker bonds. The lateral bonds with neighbouring monomers", "The actin cytoskeleton \"in vivo\" is not exclusively composed of actin, other proteins are required for its formation, continuance, and function. These proteins are called \"actin-binding proteins\" (ABP) and they are involved in actin's polymerization, depolymerization, stability, organisation in bundles or networks, fragmentation, and destruction. The diversity of these proteins is such that actin is thought to be the protein that takes part in the greatest number of protein-protein interactions. For example, G-actin sequestering elements exist that impede its incorporation into microfilaments. There are also proteins that stimulate its polymerization or that give complexity to the synthesizing networks. Other proteins that bind to actin regulate the length of the microfilaments by cutting them, which gives rise to new active ends for polymerization. For example, if a microfilament with two ends is cut twice, there will be three new microfilaments with six ends. This new situation favors the dynamics of assembly and disassembly. The most notable of these proteins are gelsolin and cofilin. These proteins first achieve a", "There are a number of toxins that interfere with actin's", "Actin forms filaments ('F-actin' or microfilaments) that are essential elements of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton, able to undergo very fast polymerization and depolymerization dynamics. In most cells actin filaments form larger-scale networks which are essential for many key functions in cells: The actin protein is found in both the cytoplasm and the cell nucleus. Its location is regulated by cell membrane signal transduction pathways that integrate the stimuli that a cell receives stimulating the restructuring of the actin networks in response. In \"Dictyostelium\", phospholipase D has been found to intervene in inositol phosphate pathways. Actin filaments are particularly stable and abundant in muscle fibres. Within the sarcomere (the basic morphological and physiological unit of muscle fibres) actin is present in both the I and A bands; myosin is also present in the latter.", "Microfilaments are involved in the movement of all mobile cells, including non-muscular types, and drugs that disrupt F-actin organization (such as the cytochalasins) affect the activity of these cells. Actin comprises 2% of the total amount of proteins in hepatocytes, 10% in fibroblasts, 15% in amoebas and up to 50–80% in activated platelets. There are a number of different types of actin with slightly different structures and functions. This means that α-actin is found exclusively in muscle fibres, while types β and γ are found in other cells. In addition, as the latter types have a high turnover rate the majority of them are found outside permanent structures. This means that the microfilaments found in cells other than muscle cells are present in two forms:", "Actin's cytoskeleton is key to the processes of endocytosis, cytokinesis, determination of cell polarity and morphogenesis in yeasts. In addition to relying on actin these processes involve 20 or 30 associated proteins, which all have a high degree of evolutionary conservation, along with many signalling molecules. Together these elements allow a spatially and temporally modulated assembly that defines a cell's response to both internal and external stimuli. Yeasts", "Plant genome studies have revealed the existence of protein isovariants within the actin family of genes. Within \"Arabidopsis thaliana\", a dicotyledon used as a model organism, there are ten types of actin, nine types of α-tubulins, six β-tubulins, six profilins, and dozens of myosins. This diversity is explained by the evolutionary necessity of possessing variants that slightly differ in their temporal and spatial expression. The majority of these proteins were jointly expressed in the tissue analysed. Actin networks are distributed throughout the cytoplasm of cells that have been cultivated \"in vitro\". There is a concentration of the network around the nucleus that is connected via spokes to the cellular cortex, this network is highly dynamic, with a continuous polymerization and depolymerization. Even though the majority of plant cells have a cell wall that defines their morphology and impedes their movement, their microfilaments can generate sufficient force to achieve", "Nuclear actin was first noticed and described in 1977 by Clark and Merriam. Authors describe a protein present in the nuclear fraction, obtained from \"Xenopus laevis\" oocytes, which shows the same features as skeletal muscle actin. Since that time there have been many scientific reports about the structure and functions of actin in the nucleus (for review see: Hofmann 2009.) The controlled level of actin in the nucleus, its interaction with actin-binding proteins (ABP) and the presence of different isoforms allows actin to play an important role in many important nuclear processes.", "The actin sequence does not contain a nuclear localization signal. The small size of actin (about 43 kDa) allows it to enter the nucleus by passive diffusion. Actin however shuttles between cytoplasm and nucleus quite quickly, which indicates the existence of active transport. The import of actin into the nucleus (probably in a complex with cofilin) is facilitated by the import protein importin 9.", "Nuclear actin exists mainly as a monomer, but can also form dynamic oligomers and short polymers. Nuclear actin organization varies in different cell types. For example, in \"Xenopus\" oocytes (with higher nuclear actin level in comparison to somatic cells) actin forms filaments, which stabilize nucleus architecture. These filaments can be observed under the microscope thanks to fluorophore-conjugated phalloidin staining.", "Little attention is paid to actin isoforms, however it has been shown that different isoforms of actin are present in the cell nucleus. Actin isoforms, despite of their high sequence similarity, have different biochemical properties such as polymerization and depolymerization kinetic. They also shows different localization and functions. The level of actin isoforms, both in the cytoplasm", "Functions of actin in the nucleus are associated with its ability to polymerization, interaction with variety of ABPs and with structural elements of the nucleus. Nuclear actin is involved in: Due to its ability to conformational changes and interaction with many proteins actin acts as a regulator of formation and activity of protein complexes such as transcriptional complex.", "", "In muscle cells, actomyosin myofibrils makeup much of the cytoplasmic material. These myofibrils are made of \"thin filaments\" of actin (typically around 7 nm in diameter), and \"thick filaments\" of the motor-protein myosin (typically around 15 nm in diameter). These myofibrils use energy derived from ATP to create movements of cells, such as muscle contraction. Using the hydrolysis of ATP for energy, myosin heads undergo a cycle during which they attach to thin filaments, exert a tension, and then, depending on the load, perform a power stroke that causes the thin filaments", "The helical F-actin filament found in muscles also contains a tropomyosin molecule, a 40-nanometre protein that is wrapped around the F-actin helix. During the resting phase the tropomyosin covers the actin's active sites so that the actin-myosin interaction cannot take place and produce muscular contraction (the interaction gives rise to a movement between the two proteins that, because it is repeated many times, produces a contraction). There are other protein molecules bound to the tropomyosin thread, these include the troponins that have three polymers: troponin I, troponin T, and troponin C. Tropomyosin's regulatory function depends on its interaction with troponin in the presence of Ca ions. Both actin and myosin are involved in muscle contraction and relaxation and they make up 90% of muscle protein. The overall process is initiated by an external signal, typically through an action potential stimulating the muscle, which contains specialized cells whose interiors are rich in actin and myosin filaments. The contraction-relaxation cycle comprises the following steps:", "The traditional image of actin's function relates it to the maintenance of the cytoskeleton and, therefore, the organization and", "The majority of mammals possess six different actin genes. Of these, two code for the cytoskeleton (\"ACTB\" and \"ACTG1\") while the other four are involved in skeletal striated muscle (\"ACTA1\"), smooth muscle tissue (\"ACTA2\"), intestinal muscles (\"ACTG2\") and cardiac muscle (\"ACTC1\"). The actin in the cytoskeleton is involved in the pathogenic mechanisms of many infectious agents, including HIV. The vast majority of the mutations that affect actin are point mutations that have a dominant effect, with the exception of six mutations involved in nemaline myopathy. This is because in many cases the mutant of the actin monomer acts as a “cap” by preventing the elongation of F-actin.", "\"ACTA1\" is the gene that codes for the α-isoform of actin that is predominant in human skeletal striated muscles, although it is also expressed in heart muscle and in the thyroid gland. Its DNA sequence consists of seven exons that produce five known transcripts. The majority of these consist of point mutations causing substitution of amino acids. The mutations are in many cases associated with a phenotype that determines the severity and the course of the affliction. The mutation alters the structure and function of skeletal muscles producing one of three forms of myopathy: type 3 nemaline myopathy, congenital myopathy with an excess of thin myofilaments (CM) and congenital myopathy with fibre type disproportion (CMFTD). Mutations have also been found that produce core myopathies. Although their phenotypes are similar, in addition to typical nemaline myopathy some specialists distinguish another type of myopathy called actinic nemaline myopathy. In the former, clumps of actin form instead of the typical rods. It is important to state that a patient can show more than one of these phenotypes in a biopsy. The most common symptoms", "There are two isoforms that code for actins in the smooth muscle tissue: \"ACTG2\" codes for the largest actin isoform, which has nine exons, one of which, the one located at the 5' end, is not translated. It is an γ-actin that is expressed in the enteric smooth muscle. No mutations to this gene have been found that correspond to pathologies, although microarrays have shown that this protein is more often expressed in cases that are resistant to chemotherapy using cisplatin. \"ACTA2\" codes for an α-actin located in the smooth", "The \"ACTC1\" gene codes for the α-actin isoform present in heart muscle. It was first sequenced by Hamada and co-workers in 1982, when it was found that it is interrupted by five introns. It was the first of the six genes where alleles were found that were implicated in pathological processes. A number of structural disorders associated with point mutations of this gene have been described that cause malfunctioning of the heart, such as Type 1R dilated cardiomyopathy and Type 11 hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Certain defects of the atrial septum have been described recently that could also be related to these mutations.", "\"ACTB\" is a highly complex locus. A number of pseudogenes exist that are distributed throughout the genome, and its sequence contains six exons that can give rise to up to 21 different transcriptions by alternative splicing, which are known as the β-actins. Consistent with this complexity, its products are also found in a number of locations and they form part of a wide variety of processes (cytoskeleton, NuA4 histone-acyltransferase complex, cell nucleus) and in addition they are associated with the mechanisms of a great number of pathological processes (carcinomas, juvenile dystonia, infection mechanisms, nervous system malformations and tumour invasion, among others). A new form of actin has been discovered, kappa actin, which appears to substitute for β-actin in processes relating to tumours. Three pathological processes have so far been discovered that are caused by a direct alteration in gene sequence: The \"ACTG1\" locus codes for the cytosolic γ-actin protein that is responsible for the formation of cytoskeletal microfilaments. It contains six exons, giving rise to 22 different mRNAs,", "Some infectious agents use actin, especially cytoplasmic actin, in their life cycle. Two basic forms are present in bacteria: In addition to the previously cited example,", "The eukaryotic cytoskeleton of organisms among all taxonomic groups have similar components to actin and tubulin. For example, the protein that is coded by the \"ACTG2\" gene in humans is completely equivalent to the homologues present in rats and mice, even though at a nucleotide level the similarity decreases to 92%. However, there are major differences with the equivalents in prokaryotes (FtsZ and MreB), where the similarity between nucleotide sequences is between 40−50 % among different bacteria and archaea species. Some authors suggest that the ancestral protein that gave rise to the model eukaryotic actin resembles the proteins present in modern bacterial cytoskeletons. Some authors point out that the behaviour of actin, tubulin, and histone, a protein involved in the stabilization and regulation of DNA, are similar in their ability to bind nucleotides and in their ability of take advantage of Brownian motion. It has also been suggested that they all have a common ancestor. Therefore, evolutionary processes resulted in the diversification of ancestral proteins into the varieties present today, conserving, among others, actins as efficient molecules that were able to tackle essential ancestral biological processes, such as endocytosis.", "The bacterial cytoskeleton may not be as complex as that found in eukaryotes; however, it contains proteins that are highly similar to actin monomers and polymers. The bacterial protein MreB polymerizes into thin non-helical filaments and occasionally into helical structures similar to F-actin. Furthermore, its crystalline structure is very similar to that of G-actin (in terms of its three-dimensional conformation), there are even similarities between the MreB protofilaments and F-actin. The bacterial cytoskeleton also contains the FtsZ proteins, which are similar", "Actin is used in scientific and technological laboratories as a track for molecular motors such as myosin (either in muscle tissue or outside it) and as a necessary component for cellular functioning. It can also be used as a diagnostic tool, as several of its anomalous variants are related to the appearance of specific", "Human genes encoding actin proteins include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "History.", "Before Common Era.", "Common Era.", "Modern philosophy.", "Contemporary philosophy.", "Analytic philosophy.", "Continental philosophy.", "Defining matter.", "Physicalism.", "Criticism and alternatives.", "From scientists.", "Quantum mechanics.", "Digital physics.", "Religious and spiritual views.", "Philosophical objections.", "Idealisms.", "Materialism as methodology.", "Notes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Materialism belongs to the class of monist ontology. As such, it is different from ontological theories based on dualism or pluralism. For singular explanations of the phenomenal reality, materialism would be in contrast to idealism, neutral monism and spiritualism. Despite the large number of philosophical schools and subtle nuances between many, all philosophies are said to fall into one of two primary categories, which are defined in contrast to each other: idealism and materialism. The basic proposition of these two categories pertains to the nature of reality—the primary distinction between them is the way they answer two fundamental questions: \"what does reality consist of?\" and \"how does it originate?\" To idealists, spirit or mind or the objects of mind (ideas) are primary, and matter secondary. To materialists, matter is primary, and mind or spirit or ideas are secondary—the product of matter acting upon matter. The materialist view is perhaps best understood in its opposition to the doctrines of immaterial substance applied to the mind historically by René Descartes; however, by itself materialism says nothing about how material substance should be characterized. In practice, it is frequently assimilated to one variety of physicalism or another. Materialism is often associated with reductionism, according to which the objects or phenomena individuated at one level of description, if they are genuine, must be explicable in terms of the objects or phenomena at some other level of description—typically, at a more reduced level. Non-reductive materialism explicitly rejects this notion, however, taking the material constitution of all particulars to be consistent with the existence of real objects, properties or phenomena not explicable in the terms canonically used for the basic material constituents. Jerry Fodor argues this view, according to which empirical laws and explanations in \"special sciences\" like psychology or geology are invisible from the perspective of basic physics. Modern philosophical materialists extend the definition of other scientifically observable entities such as energy, forces and the curvature of space; however, philosophers such as Mary Midgley suggest that the concept of \"matter\" is elusive and poorly defined. Materialism typically contrasts with dualism, phenomenalism, idealism, vitalism and dual-aspect monism. Its materiality can, in some ways, be linked to the concept of determinism, as espoused by Enlightenment thinkers. During the nineteenth century, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels extended the concept of materialism to elaborate a \"materialist conception of history\" centered on the roughly empirical world of human activity (practice, including labor) and the institutions created, reproduced or destroyed by that activity (see materialist conception of history). They also developed dialectical materialism, through taking Hegelian dialectics, stripping them of their idealist aspects and fusing them with materialism (see Modern philosophy).", "", "Materialism developed, possibly independently, in several geographically separated regions of Eurasia during what Karl Jaspers termed the Axial Age ( 800–200 BC). In ancient Indian philosophy, materialism developed around 600 BC with the works of Ajita Kesakambali, Payasi, Kanada and the proponents of the Cārvāka school of philosophy. Kanada became one of the early proponents of atomism. The Nyaya–Vaisesika school (c. 600–100 BC) developed one of the earliest forms of atomism (although their proofs of God and their positing that consciousness was not material precludes labelling them as materialists). Buddhist atomism and the Jaina school continued the atomic tradition. Ancient Greek atomists like Leucippus, Democritus and Epicurus prefigure later materialists. The Latin poem \"De Rerum Natura\" by Lucretius (99 – c. 55 BC) reflects the mechanistic philosophy of Democritus and Epicurus. According to this view, all that exists is matter and void, and all phenomena result from different motions and conglomerations of base material particles called \"atoms\" (literally: \"indivisibles\"). \"De Rerum Natura\" provides mechanistic explanations for phenomena such as erosion, evaporation, wind and sound. Famous principles like \"nothing can touch body but body\" first appeared in the works of Lucretius. Democritus and Epicurus, however, did not hold to a monist ontology since they held to the ontological separation of matter and space (i.e. space being \"another kind\" of being) indicating that the definition of \"materialism\" is wider than the given scope of this article.", "Wang Chong (27 – c. 100 AD) was a Chinese thinker of the early Common Era said to be a materialist. Later Indian materialist Jayaraashi Bhatta (6th century) in his work \"Tattvopaplavasimha\" (\"The upsetting of all principles\") refuted the Nyaya Sutra epistemology. The materialistic Cārvāka philosophy appears to have died out some time after 1400; when Madhavacharya compiled \"Sarva-darśana-samgraha\" (a digest of all philosophies) in the 14th century, he had no Cārvāka/Lokāyata text to quote from or refer to. In early 12th-century al-Andalus, the Arabian philosopher, Ibn Tufail ( Abubacer), wrote discussions on materialism in his philosophical novel, \"Hayy ibn Yaqdhan\" (\"Philosophus Autodidactus\"), while vaguely foreshadowing the idea of a historical materialism.", "Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) and Pierre Gassendi (1592–1665) represented the materialist tradition in opposition to the attempts of René Descartes (1596–1650) to provide the natural sciences with dualist foundations. There followed the materialist and atheist \"abbé\" Jean Meslier (1664–1729) and the works of the French materialists: Julien Offray de La Mettrie, the German-French Baron d'Holbach (1723–1789), Denis Diderot (1713–1784) and other French Enlightenment thinkers. In England, John \"Walking\" Stewart (1747–1822) insisted on seeing matter as endowed with a moral dimension, which had a major impact on the philosophical poetry of William Wordsworth (1770–1850). In late modern philosophy, German atheist anthropologist Ludwig Feuerbach would signal a new turn in materialism through his book \"The Essence of Christianity\" (1841), which presented a humanist account of religion as the outward projection of man's inward nature. Feuerbach's anthropological materialism (a version of materialism which views materialist anthropology as the universal science) would later heavily influence Karl Marx, who in the late 19th century elaborated the concept of historical materialism—the basis for what Marx and Friedrich Engels outlined as scientific socialism: Engels later developed a \"materialist dialectic\" philosophy of nature (\"Dialectics of Nature\", 1883). Engels's worldview was given the title \"dialectical materialism\" by Georgi Plekhanov, the father of Russian Marxism. In early 20th-century Russian philosophy, Vladimir Lenin further developed dialectical materialism in his book \"Materialism and Empirio-criticism\" (1909), which connected the political conceptions put forth by his opponents to their anti-materialist philosophies. A more naturalist-oriented materialist school of thought that developed in the middle of the 19th century (also in Germany) was German materialism: members included Ludwig Büchner, Jacob Moleschott and Carl Vogt.", "", "Contemporary analytic philosophers (e.g. Daniel Dennett, Willard Van Orman Quine, Donald Davidson, and Jerry Fodor) operate within a broadly physicalist or scientific materialist framework, producing rival accounts of how best to accommodate the mind, including functionalism, anomalous monism, identity theory, and so on. Scientific materialism is often synonymous with, and has typically been described as being, a reductive materialism. In the early twenty-first century, Paul and Patricia Churchland advocated a radically contrasting position (at least, in regards to certain hypotheses); eliminativist materialism holds that some mental phenomena simply do not exist at all, and that talk of those mental phenomena reflects a totally spurious \"folk psychology\" and introspection illusion. An eliminative materialist might believe that a concept like \"belief\" simply has no basis in fact (e.g. the way folk science speaks of demon-caused illnesses). With reductive materialism being at one end of a continuum (our theories will \"reduce\" to facts) and eliminative materialism on the other (certain theories will need to be \"eliminated\" in light of new facts), revisionary materialism is somewhere in the middle.", "Contemporary continental philosopher Gilles Deleuze has attempted to rework and strengthen classical materialist ideas. Contemporary theorists such as Manuel DeLanda, working with this reinvigorated materialism, have come to be classified as \"new materialist\" in persuasion. New materialism has now become its own specialized subfield of knowledge, with courses being offered on the topic at major universities, as well as numerous conferences, edited collections and monographs devoted to it. Jane Bennett's book \"Vibrant Matter\" (2010) has been particularly instrumental in bringing theories of monist ontology and vitalism back into a critical theoretical fold dominated by poststructuralist theories of language and discourse. Scholars such as Mel Y. Chen and Zakiyyah Iman Jackson, however, have critiqued this body of new materialist literature for its neglect in considering the materiality of race and gender in particular. Métis scholar Zoe Todd and Mohawk (Bear Clan, Six Nations) and Anishinaabe scholar Vanessa Watts, query the colonial orientation of the race for a \"new\" materialism. Watts in particular describes the tendency to regard matter as a subject of feminist or philosophical care as a tendency that is too invested in the reanimation of a Eurocentric tradition of inquiry at the expense of an Indigenous ethic of responsibility. While, other scholars, such as Helene Vosters, echo their concerns and have questioned whether there is anything particularly \"new\" about this so-called \"new materialism\", as Indigenous and other animist ontologies have attested to what might be called the \"vibrancy of matter\" for centuries. Other scholars such as Thomas Nail have critiqued \"vitalist\" versions of new materialism for its depoliticizing \"flat ontology\" and for being ahistorical in nature. Quentin Meillassoux proposed speculative materialism, a post-Kantian return to David Hume which is also based on materialist ideas.", "The nature and definition of matter—like other key concepts in science and philosophy—have occasioned much debate. Is there a single kind of matter (hyle) which everything is made of, or multiple kinds? Is matter a continuous substance capable of expressing multiple forms (hylomorphism) or a number of discrete, unchanging constituents (atomism)? Does it have intrinsic properties (substance theory) or is it lacking them (prima materia)? One challenge to the traditional concept of matter as tangible \"stuff\" came with the rise of field physics in the 19th century. Relativity shows that matter and energy (including the spatially distributed energy of fields) are interchangeable. This enables the ontological view that energy is prima materia and matter is one of its forms. On the other hand, the Standard Model of particle physics uses quantum field theory to describe all interactions. On this view it could be said that fields are prima materia and the energy is a property of the field. According to the dominant cosmological model, the Lambda-CDM model, less than 5% of the universe's energy density is made up of the \"matter\" described by the Standard Model, and the majority of the universe is composed of dark matter and dark energy, with little agreement among scientists about what these are made of. With the advent of quantum physics, some scientists believed the concept of matter had merely changed, while others believed the conventional position could no longer be maintained. For instance Werner Heisenberg said, \"The ontology of materialism rested upon the illusion that the kind of existence, the direct 'actuality' of the world around us, can be extrapolated into the atomic range. This extrapolation, however, is impossible... atoms are not things.\" Likewise, some philosophers feel that these dichotomies necessitate a switch from materialism to physicalism. Others use the terms \"materialism\" and \"physicalism\" interchangeably. The concept of matter has changed in response to new scientific discoveries. Thus materialism has no definite content independent of the particular theory of matter on which it is based. According to Noam Chomsky, any property can be considered material, if one defines matter such that it has that property.", "George Stack distinguishes between materialism and physicalism: However, not all conceptions of physicalism are tied to verificationist theories of meaning or direct realist accounts of perception. Rather, physicalists believe that no “element of reality” is missing from the mathematical formalism of our best description of the world. “Materialist” physicalists also believe that the formalism describes fields of insentience. In other words, the intrinsic nature of the physical is non-experiential.", "", "Rudolf Peierls, a physicist who played a major role in the Manhattan Project, rejected materialism, saying, \"The premise that you can describe in terms of physics the whole function of a human being [...] including knowledge and consciousness, is untenable. There is still something missing\". Erwin Schrödinger said, \"Consciousness cannot be accounted for in physical terms. For consciousness is absolutely fundamental. It cannot be accounted for in terms of anything else\". Werner Heisenberg, who came up with the uncertainty principle, wrote, \"The ontology of materialism rested upon the illusion that the kind of existence, the direct ‘actuality’ of the world around us, can be extrapolated into the atomic range. This extrapolation, however, is impossible...Atoms are not things\".", "Some 20th-century physicists (such as Eugene Wigner and Henry Stapp) and modern day physicists and science writers (such as Stephen Barr, Paul Davies and John Gribbin) have argued that materialism is flawed due to certain recent scientific findings in physics, such as quantum mechanics and chaos theory. In 1991, Gribbin and Davies released their book \"The Matter Myth\", the first chapter of which, \"The Death of Materialism\", contained the following passage:", "The objections of Davies and Gribbin are shared by proponents of digital physics who view information rather than matter to be fundamental. Famous physicist and proponent of digital physics John Archibald Wheeler wrote, \"all matter and all things physical are information-theoretic in origin and this is a participatory universe\". Their objections were also shared by some founders of quantum theory, such as Max Planck, who wrote: James Jeans concurred with Planck saying, \"The Universe begins to look more like a great thought than like a great machine. Mind no longer appears to be an accidental intruder into the realm of matter\".", "According to Constantin Gutberlet writing in \"Catholic Encyclopedia\" (1911), materialism, defined as \"a philosophical system which regards matter as the only reality in the world [...] denies the existence of God and the soul\". In this view, materialism could be perceived incompatible with world religions that ascribe existence to immaterial objects. Materialism could be conflated with atheism. However, Friedrich Lange wrote in 1892, \"Diderot has not always in the Encyclopædia expressed his own individual opinion, but it is just as true that at its commencement he had not yet got as far as Atheism and Materialism\". Most of Hinduism and transcendentalism regard all matter as an illusion called Maya, blinding humans from knowing the truth. Transcendental experiences like the perception of Brahman are considered to destroy the illusion. Joseph Smith, the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, taught: \"There is no such thing as immaterial matter. All spirit is matter, but it is more fine or pure, and can only be discerned by purer eyes; We cannot see it; but when our bodies are purified we shall see that it is all matter.\" This spirit element is believed to always have existed and to be co-eternal with God. Mary Baker Eddy, the founder of the Christian Science movement, denied the existence of matter on the basis of the allness of Mind (which she regarded as a synonym for God).", "In the \"Critique of Pure Reason\", Immanuel Kant argued against materialism in defending his transcendental idealism (as well as offering arguments against subjective idealism and mind–body dualism). However, Kant with his refutation of idealism, argues that change and time require an enduring substrate. Postmodern/poststructuralist thinkers also express a skepticism about any all-encompassing metaphysical scheme. Philosopher Mary Midgley argues that materialism is a self-refuting idea, at least in its eliminative materialist form.", "Arguments for idealism, such as those of Hegel and Berkeley, often take the form of an argument against materialism; indeed, the idealism of Berkeley was called \"immaterialism\". Now, matter can be argued to be redundant, as in bundle theory, and mind-independent properties can, in turn, be reduced to subjective percepts. Berkeley presents an example of the latter by pointing out that it is impossible to gather direct evidence of matter, as there is no direct experience of matter; all that is experienced is perception, whether internal or external. As such, the existence of matter can only be assumed from the apparent (perceived) stability of perceptions; it finds absolutely no evidence in direct experience. If matter and energy are seen as necessary to explain the physical world, but incapable of explaining mind, dualism results. Emergence, holism and process philosophy seek to ameliorate the perceived shortcomings of traditional (especially mechanistic) materialism without abandoning materialism entirely.", "Some critics object to materialism as part of an overly skeptical, narrow or reductivist approach to theorizing, rather than to the ontological claim that matter is the only substance. Particle physicist and Anglican theologian John Polkinghorne objects to what he calls \"promissory materialism\"—claims that materialistic science \"will\" eventually succeed in explaining phenomena it has not so far been able to explain. Polkinghorne prefers \"dual-aspect monism\" to materialism. Some scientific materialists have been criticized for failing to provide clear definitions for what constitutes matter, leaving the term \"materialism\" without any definite meaning. Noam Chomsky states that since the concept of matter may be affected by new scientific discoveries, as has happened in the past, scientific materialists are being dogmatic in assuming the opposite.", "a. Indeed, it has been noted it is difficult if not impossible to define one category without contrasting it with the other." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Stands.", "Main stand.", "Cage End stand.", "Away End.", "Whitehouse.", "Waterworks Stand." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Solitude was opened in 1890 after Cliftonville moved across the road from Oldpark Avenue. The ground holds the distinction of having the first ever penalty in International Football taken there. Previously consisting of two pitches (the second of which was sold off and now contains housing), Solitude is the oldest football ground in Ireland. Solitude has hosted a number of cup finals and international games. During the 1890s and early 1900s Solitude was the home ground of Ireland, replacing the Ulster Cricket Ground at Ballynafeigh. During the 1890s, the ground hosted 11 home internationals. On 3 March 1894, after thirteen attempts Ireland, playing at Solitude, finally avoided defeat to England. Against an England team that included Fred Spiksley and Jack Reynolds, Ireland gained a 2–2 draw. Goals from Olphert Stanfield and W.K. Gibson inspired Ireland to come back from 2–0 down to gain a 2–2 draw. The ground continued to host Ireland internationals into the early 1900s, but was gradually replaced as Ireland’s home ground by Windsor Park and Dalymount Park.", "", "The main stand at Solitude, situated on the western side of the ground, houses the majority of the Cliftonville support on any given home matchday. It was constructed during the 1950s, and has two tiers. The lower tier is terracing, and the upper tier has a mixture of seating and benches, and holds over 2,500 people. The original stand was destroyed in January 1949 when a fire broke out after a Linfield v Glentoran Irish Cup tie at the ground. The match was staged at Solitude as Linfield's Windsor Park had been closed for a month in the aftermath of the infamous 1948 Linfield v Belfast Celtic Boxing Day tie at which serious crowd trouble erupted and Celtic striker Jimmy Jones was badly beaten by spectators. Also contained within the main stand at Solitude, is Cliftonville Social Club: Cliftonville's licensed premises. In god knows when the main stand will be demolished to make way for a new main stand which will look similar to the new south stand at Crusaders ground Seaview. This will hold an estimated 1100 supporters along with underground parking and bring Solitude's seated capacity up to around 3500.", "In many peoples' opinion this most famous part of the old ground. The Cage was demolished and a new stand seating 1600 was opened on 27 October 2008. New facilities under this stand have replaced facilities such as new dressing rooms.", "Often referred to as \"The Bowling Green End\" (due to the bowling green behind it), the away end on the north side of the ground underwent a major facelift in 2001, when the covered terracing used to house away fans was replaced by an 880 all-seated stand.", "The Whitehouse, not unlike \"the Cottage\" at Fulham's ground Craven Cottage, currently contains the changing facilities and the board room for the club. However the building of the new stand in place of the Cage is expected to relieve the Whitehouse of these duties. Some have suggested that this historic part of Irish football will be preserved in the form of a museum. As part of the new main stand the Whitehouse will be demolished to make for a club shop, museum, bar and function room as well as serving as an entrance to new main stand and the underground car park that will ease traffic chaos in the small streets behind the main stand on match day.", "The Waterworks Stand was temporarily erected first for a UEFA Champions League game against Scottish Champions Celtic. Once the Main Stand is rebuilt future plans could see Sport NI, NIFL and IFA give funds to Cliftonville to make a stand on that side that will look a bit like Windsor Park's North Stand to house the Cliftonville and Away fans at big games to help rebrand the Irish League under NIFL. While the Red's attendances have doubled since 2008/09 from 700 to 1400 they would need to further increase considerably for the Waterworks stand to be viable as after the completion of the Main Stand capacity will be 3500." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Lines and developments.", "Network.", "Future.", "Former lines." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The BHÉV connects Csepel (south), Ráckeve (far south), Gödöllő (northeast), and Szentendre (north) with various points of central Budapest. The four BHÉV lines are not connected directly, each originating from a different terminus, but their railway are still connected to the MÁV lines. The BHÉV is a hybrid between a commuter rail and a rapid transit. Although most of its stations are above ground and outdoor, some are underground (for example the city centre terminus at Batthyány tér).", "The BHÉV lines are planned to become integrated into the metro network. The Szentendre, Ráckeve and Csepel lines are slated to be merged into what is called the metro line 5 (North-South Regional rapid railway). The connection will be made by an underground line between the Kaszásdűlő and Lágymányosi bridge stations, and extended in order to reach the center of Pesterzsébet. The Urban and Suburban Transit Association (\"Városi és Elővárosi Közlekedési Egyesület\") has presented a plan to merge line 2 with the HÉV from Gödöllő. The city government did not totally accept the plan, but it still may be built after 2021.", "Today there are four (plus one branch line to Csömör) BHÉV lines in and around Budapest, although other HÉV lines around Budapest have existed in the past. Now integrated to MÁV's (Hungarian State Railways) network: Owned by the local tramway operators and abandoned or integrated to the actual tramway network: Withdrawn BHÉV lines: Branch of Budapest-Szentlőrinci HÉV (owned by BLVV):" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Jōyō Kanji.", "Traditional characters that may cause problems displaying.", "List of the simplified jōyō kanji and their traditional forms.", "Jinmeiyō Kanji.", "Kyūjitai vs. Shinjitai.", "Variants.", "Former Jōyō Kanji still used as Jinmeiyō Kanji.", "Jinmeiyō Kanji used as Jōyō Kanji since 2010.", "Hyōgai Kanji.", "Former Hyōgai Kanji used as Jōyō Kanji since 2010.", "Kokuji.", "Kokuji used as Jōyō Kanji or Jinmeiyō Kanji (as of 2010)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "In the 2,136, there are 364 pairs of simplified and traditional characters (for example, is the simplified form of ). Note that the kanji is used to simplify three different traditional kanji (,, and ).", "Some of the traditional kanji are not included in the Japanese font of Windows XP/2000, and only rectangles are shown. Downloading the Meiryo font from the Microsoft website (VistaFont_JPN.EXE) and installing it will solve this problem. Note that within the jōyō kanji there are 62 characters the old forms of which may cause problems displaying: Kyōiku kanji (26): Secondary-school kanji (36): These characters are Unicode CJK Unified Ideographs for which the old form (kyūjitai) and the new form (shinjitai) have been unified under the Unicode standard. Although the old and new forms are distinguished under the JIS X 0213 standard, the old forms map to Unicode CJK Compatibility Ideographs which are considered by Unicode to be canonically equivalent to the new forms and may not be distinguished by user agents. Therefore, depending on the user environment, it may not be possible to see the distinction between old and new forms of the characters. In particular, all Unicode normalization methods merge the old characters with the new ones.", "In the revised version of Jōyō Kanji, 5 kanji were removed (but preserved as Jinmeiyō Kanji), and 196 more kanji were added into \"Jōyō Kanjihyō\" of originally 1945 kanji; 6 of these new kanji have a traditional and a simplified form. They are underlined in the following list.", "", "The Jinmeiyō Kanji List contains 212 traditional characters still used in names. The modern form (\"shinjitai\"), which appears in the Jōyō Kanji List, is given in parentheses.", "The Jinmeiyō Kanji List also contains 631 additional kanji that are not elements of the Jōyō Kanji List; 18 of them have a variant:", "The following 5 kanji were removed from the Jōyō Kanji List in 2010, but were preserved as Jinmeiyō Kanji. They have no simplified form. Note that and are kokuji.", "Of the 196 new Jōyō Kanji, 129 were already on the Jinmeiyō Kanji List; 10 of them are used in names of Japanese prefectures, and the kanji appears in the name of South Korea ( \"Kankoku\"). Four of these kanji have both a simplified and a traditional form:", "Hyōgai Kanji are kanji that are element neither of the Jōyō Kanji List nor the Jinmeiyō Kanji List. In, traditional characters are recognized as printed standard style () while the simplified characters are recognized as simple conventional style (). Here are some examples of Hyōgai Kanji that have a simplified and a traditional form:", "In 2010, 67 Hyōgai Kanji were added to the Jōyō Kanji List; 2 of them have a traditional and a simplified form:", "Kokuji are characters that were created in Japan and were not taken over from China. Some of them, e.g., are now also used in Chinese, but most of them are unknown to the Chinese. Currently, there are no kokuji that have been simplified after their introduction.", "The Jōyō Kanji List currently contains 9 kokuji ( and are Kyōiku Kanji): The Jinmeiyō Kanji List currently contains 16 kokuji:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Etymology.", "Alternative names.", "Attestations.", "Theories.", "Divine pair.", "Proto-Indo-European origin." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The Old Norse name \"Fjörgyn\" is used as a poetic synonym for 'land' or 'the earth' in skaldic poems. It stems from Proto-Germanic \"*fergunja\", meaning'mountain', perhaps'mountainous forest' (or the feminine equivalent of \"*ferga\", 'god'), which may ultimately derive from Proto-Indo-European \"*per-kun-iyā\" ('the realm of Perkunos'; i.e., the wooden mountains). \"Fjörgyn\" is cognate with the Gothic \"fairguni\" (𐍆𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌲𐌿𐌽𐌹), the Old English \"firgen\", both meaning'mountain', or with the Old High German \"Firgunnea\" (the Ore Mountains).\"\"", "Scholars argue that Fjörgyn may simply be another name for Jörð, whose name also means 'earth'. The fact that she does not appear elsewhere as a goddess in skaldic poetry \"as would be expected of a purely literary alternative to Jörð\" may be also notable.", "Fjörgyn is attested in \"Völuspá\" in the kenning \"Fjörgyn’s son\" for Thor, and in \"Hárbarðsljóð\" as the mother of Thor.\"\" In both \"Gylfaginning\" and \"Skáldskaparmál\", Fjörgynn is depicted as the father of Frigg\".\" In \"Lokasenna\" ('Loki's flyting'), Loki is responding to Frigg:", "", "Hilda Ellis Davidson theorizes that Fjörgyn and Fjörgynn may have represented a divine pair of which little information has survived, along with figures such as the theorized Ullr and Ullin, Njörðr and Nerthus, and the attested Freyr and Freyja.", "Theories have been proposed that Fjörgyn (Proto-Germanic: *\"fergunja\") may represent an extension of an earlier Proto-Indo-European thunder or rain god \"*Perkunos\" due to Indo-European linguistic connections between Norse Fjörgyn, the Lithuanian god Perkūnas, the Slavic god Perun and, perhaps, the Vedic rain god Parjanya." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Attestations.", "\"Poetic Edda\".", "\"Prose Edda\".", "\"Horse Cure\" Merseburg Incantation.", "Theories." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Old Norse name \"Fulla\", possibly translated as 'bountiful', stems from Proto-Germanic \"*fullōn\" ('fullness, plenitude'; compare with Gothic \"fullo\" 'fullness', OHG \"folla\" 'plenitude'), itself a derivative of \"*fullaz\" ('full'; compare with Old Nor. \"fullr\", Goth. \"fulls\", OHG \"foll\", all meaning 'full'), ultimately from Proto-Indo-European \"plh1-nó-\" (compare with Skt \"pūrná\" 'full', Lith. \"pìlnas\" 'filled'), a past participle of the verbal root \"*pelh1-\" ('to fill').", "", "In the prose introduction to the \"Poetic Edda\" poem \"Grímnismál\", Frigg makes a wager with her husband—the god Odin—over the hospitality of their human patrons. Frigg sends her servant maid Fulla to warn the king Geirröd—Frigg's patron—that a magician (actually Odin in disguise) will visit him. Fulla meets with Geirröd, gives the warning, and advises to him a means of detecting the magician:", "In chapter 35 of the \"Prose Edda\" book \"Gylfaginning\", High provides brief descriptions of 16 ásynjur. High lists Fulla fifth, stating that, like the goddess Gefjun, Fulla is a virgin, wears her hair flowing freely with a gold band around her head. High describes that Fulla carries Frigg's \"eski\", looks after Frigg's footwear, and that in Fulla Frigg confides secrets. In chapter 49 of \"Gylfaginning\", High details that, after the death of the deity couple Baldr and Nanna, the god Hermóðr wagers for their return in the underworld location of Hel. Hel, ruler of the location of the same name, tells Hermóðr a way to resurrect Baldr, but will not allow Baldr and Nanna to leave until the deed is accomplished. Hel does, however, allow Baldr and Nanna to send gifts to the living; Baldr sends Odin the ring Draupnir, and Nanna sends Frigg a robe of linen, and \"other gifts.\" Of these \"other gifts\" sent, the only specific item that High mentions is a finger-ring for Fulla. The first chapter of the \"Prose Edda\" book \"Skáldskaparmál\", Fulla is listed among eight ásynjur who attend an evening drinking banquet held for Ægir. In chapter 19 of \"Skáldskaparmál\", poetic ways to refer to Frigg are given, one of which is by referring to her as \"queen [...] of Fulla.\" In chapter 32, poetic expressions for gold are given, one of which includes \"Fulla's snood.\" In chapter 36, a work by the skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir is cited that references Fulla's golden headgear (\"the falling sun [gold] of the plain [forehead] of Fulla's eyelashes shone on [...]\"). Fulla receives a final mention in the \"Prose Edda\" in chapter 75, where Fulla appears within a list of 27 ásynjur names.", "One of the two Merseburg Incantations (the \"horse cure\"), recorded in Old High German, mentions Volla. The incantation describes how Phol and Wodan rode to a wood, and there Balder's foal sprained its foot. Sinthgunt sang charms, her sister Sunna sang charms, Friia sang charms, her sister Volla sang charms, and finally Wodan sang charms, followed by a verse describing the healing of the foal's bone. The charm reads:", "Andy Orchard comments that the seeming appearance of Baldr with Volla in the Merseburg Incantation is \"intriguing\" since Fulla is one of the three goddesses (the other two being Baldr's mother Frigg and his wife Nanna) the deceased Baldr expressly sends gifts to from Hel. John Lindow says that since the name \"Fulla\" seems to have something to do with fullness, it may also point to an association with fertility. Rudolf Simek comments that while Snorri notes that Baldr sends Fulla a golden ring from Hel in \"Gylfaginning\", \"this does not prove that she plays any role in the Baldr myth, but merely shows that Snorri associated her with gold\" because of kennings used associating Fulla with gold. Simek says that since Fulla appears in the poetry of Skalds as early as the 10th century that she was likely \"not a late personification of plenty\" but that she is very likely identical with Volla from the Merseburg Incantation. Simek adds that it is unclear as to who Fulla actually is; Simek argues that she may be an independent deity or simply identical with the goddess Freyja or with Frigg. John Knight Bostock says that theories have been proposed that the Fulla may at one time have been an aspect of Frigg. As a result, this notion has resulted in theory that a similar situation may have existed between the figures of the goddesses Sinthgunt and Sunna, in that the two may have been understood as aspects of one another rather than entirely separate figures. Hilda Ellis Davidson states that the goddesses Gefjun, Gerðr, Fulla, and Skaði \"may represent important goddesses of early times in the North, but little was remembered about them by the time Snorri was collecting his material.\" On the other hand, Davidson notes that it is also possible that these goddesses are viewable as aspects of a single Great Goddess. Davidson calls Fulla and Volla \"vague, uncertain figures, emerging from odd references to goddesses which Snorri has noted in the poets, but they suggest the possibility that at one time three generations were represented among the goddesses of fertility and harvest in Scandinavia.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Attestations.", "\"Prose Edda\".", "\"Poetic Edda\".", "Skaldic poetry.", "\"Beowulf\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Hermóðr appears distinctly in section 49 of the Prose Edda book \"Gylfaginning\". There, it is described that the gods were speechless and devastated at the death of Baldr, unable to react due to their grief. After the gods gathered their wits from the immense shock and grief of Baldr's death, Frigg asked the Æsir who amongst them wished \"to gain all of her love and favor\" by riding the road to Hel. Whoever agreed was to offer Hel a ransom in exchange for Baldr's return to Asgard. Hermóðr agrees to this and set off with Sleipnir to Hel. Hermóðr rode Odin's horse Sleipnir for nine nights through deep and dark valleys to the Gjöll bridge covered with shining gold, the bridge being guarded by the maiden Móðguðr 'Battle-frenzy' or 'Battle-tired'. Móðguðr told Hermóðr that Baldr had already crossed the bridge and that Hermóðr should ride downwards and northwards. Upon coming to Hel's gate, Hermóðr dismounted, tightened Sleipnir's girth, mounted again, and spurred Sleipnir so that Sleipnir leapt entirely over the gate. So at last Hermóðr came to Hel's hall and saw Baldr seated in the most honorable seat. Hermóðr begged Hel to release Baldr, citing the great weeping for Baldr among the Æsir. Thereupon Hel announced that Baldr would only be released if all things, dead and alive, wept for him. Baldr gave Hermóðr the ring Draupnir which had been burned with him on his pyre, to take back to Odin. Nanna gave a linen robe for Frigg along with other gifts and a finger-ring for Fulla. Thereupon Hermóðr returned with his message. Hermóðr is called \"son\" of Odin in most manuscripts, while in the Codex Regius version—normally considered the best manuscript—Hermóðr is called \"sveinn Óðins\" 'Odin's boy', which in the context is as likely to mean 'Odin's servant'. However Hermóðr in a later passage is called Baldr's brother and also appears as son of Odin in a list of Odin's sons. See Sons of Odin.", "The name Hermóðr seems to be applied to a mortal hero in the eddic poem \"Hyndluljóð\" (stanza 2): The favour of the Highfather we seek to find,<br> To his followers gold he gladly gives;<br> To Hermóðr he gave helm and mail-coat,<br> And to Sigmund he gave a sword as a gift.", "In the skaldic poem \"Hákonarmál\" (stanza 14) Hermóðr and Bragi appear in Valhalla receiving Hákon the Good. It is not certain that either Hermóðr or Bragi is intended to be a god in this poem.", "In the Old English poem \"Beowulf\", Heremod is a Danish king who was driven into exile and in Old English genealogies Heremod appears appropriately as one of the descendants of Sceafa and usually as the father of Scyld." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and work.", "Characteristics of his work.", "Other.", "Works.", "English translations.", "Further reading.", "Nineteenth-century works on Jean Paul." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Jean Paul was born at Wunsiedel, in the Fichtelgebirge mountains (Franconia). His father was an organist at Wunsiedel. In 1765 his father became a pastor at Joditz near Hof and, in 1767 at Schwarzenbach, but he died on 25 April 1779, leaving the family in great poverty. Later in life, Jean Paul noted, \"The words that a father speaks to his children in the privacy of home are not heard by the world, but as in whispering-galleries, they are clearly heard at the end and by posterity.\" After attending the \"Gymnasium\" at Hof, in 1781 Jean Paul went to the University of Leipzig. His original intention was to enter his father's profession, but theology did not interest him, and he soon devoted himself wholly to the study of literature. Unable to maintain himself at Leipzig he returned in 1784 to Hof, where he lived with his mother. From 1787 to 1789 he served as a tutor at Töpen, a village near Hof; and from 1790 to 1794 he taught the children of several families in a school he had founded in nearby Schwarzenbach. Jean Paul began his career as a man of letters with \"Grönländische Prozesse\" (\"Greenland Lawsuits\"), published anonymously in Berlin in 1783–84, and \"Auswahl aus des Teufels Papieren\" (\"Selections from the Devil's Papers\", signed J. P. F. Hasus), published in 1789. These works were not received with much favour, and in later life even their author had little sympathy for their satirical tone. Jean Paul's outlook was profoundly altered by a spiritual crisis he suffered on 15 November 1790, in which he had a vision of his own death. His next book, \"Die unsichtbare Loge\" (\"The Invisible Lodge\"), a romance published in 1793 under the pen-name Jean Paul (in honour of Jean-Jacques Rousseau), had all the qualities that were soon to make him famous, and its power was immediately recognized by some of the best critics of the day. Encouraged by the reception of \"Die unsichtbare Loge\", Richter composed a number of books in rapid succession: \"Leben des vergnügten Schulmeisterleins Maria Wutz in Auenthal\" (\"Life of the Cheerful Schoolmaster Maria Wutz\", 1793), the best-selling \"Hesperus\" (1795), which made him famous, \"Biographische Belustigungen unter der Gehirnschale einer Riesin\" (\"Biographical Recreations under the Brainpan of a Giantess\", 1796), \"Leben des Quintus Fixlein\" (\"Life of Quintus Fixlein\", 1796), \"Der Jubelsenior\" (\"The Parson in Jubilee\", 1797), and \"Das Kampaner Tal\" (\"The Valley of Campan\", 1797). Also among these was the novel \"Siebenkäs\" in 1796–97. \"Siebenkäs\"' slightly supernatural theme, involving a Doppelgänger and pseudocide, stirred some controversy over its interpretation of the Resurrection, but these criticisms served only to draw awareness to the author. This series of writings assured Richter a place in German literature, and during the rest of his life every work he produced was welcomed by a wide circle of admirers. After his mother's death in 1797, Richter went to Leipzig, and in the following year, to Weimar, where he started work on his most ambitious novel, \"Titan\", published between 1800 and 1803. Richter became friends with such Weimar notables as Johann Gottfried Herder, by whom he was warmly appreciated, but despite their close proximity, Richter never became close to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe or Friedrich Schiller, both of whom found his literary methods repugnant; but in Weimar, as elsewhere, his remarkable conversational powers and his genial manners made him a favorite in general society. The English writers Thomas Carlyle and Thomas De Quincey took an interest in Jean Paul's work. In 1801 he married Caroline Meyer, whom he had met in Berlin the year before. They lived first at Meiningen, then at Coburg; and finally, in 1804, they settled at Bayreuth. Here Richter spent a quiet, simple, and happy life, constantly occupied with his work as a writer. In 1808 he was delivered from anxiety about outward necessities by Prince Primate Karl Theodor von Dalberg, who gave him an annual pension of 1,000 florins, which was later continued by the king of Bavaria. Jean Paul's \"Titan\" was followed by \"Flegeljahre\" (\"The Awkward Age\", 1804–5). His later imaginative works were \"Dr Katzenbergers Badereise\" (\"Dr Katzenberger's Trip to the Medicinal Springs\", 1809), \"Des Feldpredigers Schmelzle Reise nach Flätz\" (\"Army Chaplain Schmelzle's Voyage to Flätz\", 1809), \"Leben Fibels\" (\"Life of Fibel\", 1812), and \"Der Komet, oder Nikolaus Marggraf\" (\"The Comet, or, Nikolaus Markgraf\", 1820–22). In \"Vorschule der Aesthetik\" (\"Introduction to Aesthetics\", 1804) he expounded his ideas on art; he discussed the principles of education in \"Levana, oder Erziehungslehre\" (\"Levana, or, Pedagogy\", 1807); and the opinions suggested by current events he set forth in \"Friedenspredigt\" (\"Peace Sermon\", 1808), \"Dämmerungen für Deutschland\" (\"Twilights for Germany\", 1809), \"Mars und Phöbus Thronwechsel im Jahre 1814\" (\"Mars and Phoebus Exchange Thrones in the Year 1814\", 1814), and \"Politische Fastenpredigten\" (\"Political Lenten Sermons\", 1817). In his last years he began \"Wahrheit aus Jean Pauls Leben\" (\"The Truth from Jean Paul's Life\"), to which additions from his papers and other sources were made after his death by C. Otto and E. Förster. Also during this time he supported the younger writer E. T. A. Hoffmann, who long counted Richter among his influences. Richter wrote the preface to \"Fantasy Pieces\", a collection of Hoffmann's short stories published in 1814. In September 1821 Jean Paul lost his only son, Max, a youth of the highest promise; and he never quite recovered from this shock. He lost his sight in 1824, and died of dropsy at Bayreuth, on 14 November 1825.", "Jean Paul occupies an unusual position in German literature and has always divided the literary public. Some hold him in highest veneration while others treat his work with indifference. He took the Romantic formlessness of the novel to extremes: Schlegel called his novels soliloquies, in which he makes his readers take part (in this respect going even further than Laurence Sterne in \"Tristram Shandy\"). Jean Paul habitually played with a multitude of droll and bizarre ideas: his work is characterized by wild metaphors as well as by digressive and partly labyrinthine plots. He mixed contemplation with literary theory: alongside spirited irony the reader finds bitter satire and mild humour; next to soberly realistic passages there are romanticized and often ironically-curtailed idylls, social commentary and political statements. The quick changes of mood attracted the composer Schumann whose \"Papillons\" was inspired by Jean Paul. His novels were especially admired by women. This was due to the empathy with which Jean Paul created the female characters in his works: never before in German literature were women represented with such psychological depth. At the same time however, his work contains misogynistic quips. Jean Paul's character may have been as diverse and as confusing as many of his novels: he was said to be very sociable and witty, while at the same time extremely sentimental: having an almost childlike nature, quickly moved to tears. It is obvious from his works that his interests encompassed not only literature but also astronomy and other sciences. It is no surprise that the relationship of so capricious an author with the Weimar classicists Goethe and Schiller always remained ambivalent: Schiller once remarked that Jean Paul was as alien to him as someone who fell from the moon, and that he might have been worthy of admiration \"if he had made as good use of his riches as other men made of their poverty.\" Herder and Wieland on the other hand fully appreciated his work and supported him. Although he always kept his distance from the classicists, who wanted to \"absolutize\" art, and although his theoretical approach (most notably in his \"Introduction to Aesthetics\") was considerably influenced by Romanticism, it would be misleading to call him a Romantic without qualification. Here too he kept his distance: with all his subjectivism he didn't absolutize the subject of the author as the Romantics often did. Jean Paul had what had become rare amidst classical severity and romantic irony: humour. He also was one of the first who approached humour from a theoretical standpoint. He thought that both the Enlightenment and metaphysics had failed, though they still held importance for his worldview. He arrived at a philosophy without illusions, and a state of humorous resignation. Correspondingly he was one of the first defenders of Schopenhauer's philosophy. He didn't try to indoctrinate but to portray human happiness, even (and especially) in an increasingly alienated environment — the rococo castles and bleak villages of Upper Franconia. Jean Paul was not only the first to use and name the literary motif of the Doppelgänger, he also utilised it in countless variations (e.g. Siebenkäs and Leibgeber, Liane and Idoine, Roquairol and Albano). In his novel \"Siebenkäs\" he defines the \"Doppelgänger\" as the \"people who see themselves.\" Jean Paul was a lifelong defender of freedom of the press and his campaigns against censorship went beyond many of his contemporaries. In his \"Freiheitsbüchlein\" (1805), he maintains that books belong to humanity and should have the chance to have an impact on all times, not just the present moment, and therefore preventing a book from being published renders the censor a judge not just for contemporary society but for all future societies. Censorship is not feasible because it would be impossible to find a person able to fulfill the true requirements of the office. After the great achievements of the eighteenth century, the prospect of complete freedom of opinion, speech, and printing was real. Even under the tightened conditions of the Napoleonic occupation, Jean Paul continued to speak out in favor of reason, as in his \"Friedens-Predigt an Deutschland\" (1808). The last section of his \"Politische Fastenpredigten\" (1816) contains a warning to rulers that minds cannot be controlled, and that police action will only cause them to eventually explode like a champagne bottle.", "Rudolf Steiner edited a multi-volume collection of the works of Jean Paul. In published lectures, Steiner often mentioned the realization by the 7-year-old Jean Paul that he was an individual \"Ego\", expressed in Paul's surprise at understanding that \"I am an I\".", "", "Richter's more important works have been translated into English, for example:", "", "Richter's \"Sämtliche Werke\" (\"Complete Works\") appeared in 1826–1828 in 60 volumes, to which were added 5 volumes of \"Literarischer Nachlass\" (literary bequest) in 1836–1838; a second edition was published in 1840–1842 (33 volumes); a third in 1860–1862 (24 volumes). The last complete edition is that edited by R. Gottschall (60 parts, 1879). Editions of selected works appeared in 16 volumes (1865), in Kürschner's \"Deutsche Nationalliteratur\" (edited by P. Nerrlich, 6 vols, pp. 388–487), &c. The chief collections of Richter's correspondence are: See further:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Today." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "This area south of Trondheim was named after the Old Norse god Heimdall from Norse mythology. The area has been continuously inhabited since at least the Iron Age, and is rich in archaeological sites. The area where Tillerbyen has been built was initially swamp, but it was drained in the 1930s as an airport was planned here. Nazi invaders of 1940 halted these plans, as they rather wanted an airport at Lade. In 1963 the municipality of Trondheim bought the areas, and in 1966 they verified a development plan for a new tertiary and commercial hub that could lighten the development pressure on the crowded downtown areas. These plans met much resistance; many politicians thought the development would be too hard to complete, as the soil was too wet and unstable to support large-scale development. Ever since the first developments, the areas of Tillerbyen and Sjetnemarka have been one of the most booming parts of the city and still, large development projects are launched to meet the growing population pressure.", "Heimdal proper is a traditional commercial and transportation center; the railway has connections to Sweden (Nabotåget, literally meaning \"the neighbour train\"), to Oslo and the south of Norway via the Dovre Line as well as to the north. Many bus lines also connect here. In addition to the large residential areas, Heimdal houses many of the city's leading enterprises and services. City Syd was at the time of its construction the largest shopping mall in the country and is still one of the most profitable shopping malls in Northern Europe, as it receives customers not only from the city, but from the surrounding countryside and neighbouring counties as well. Heimdal Stadion is a large sports complex with soccer and handball fields adjacent to the Breidablikk School. Heimdal is today a city within a city. The central areas of Tillerbyen resemble a typical western downtown area with high commercial structures, as opposed to the traditional downtown areas of Trondheim, which are dominated by old, two-storey buildings." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Attestations.", "\"Poetic Edda\".", "\"Prose Edda\".", "\"Heimskringla\".", "\"Völsa þáttr\".", "Glosses.", "Theories.", "Ploughing, folk customs, parallels, and fertility.", "Possible \"Gylfaginning\" manuscript alteration.", "\"Beowulf\".", "Frigg and Freyja.", "Modern influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The etymology of theonym \"Gefjon\" (and its variant \"Gefjun\") has been a matter of dispute. In modern scholarship, the element \"Gef-\" is generally held to be related to the element \"Gef-\" in the name \"Gefn\", one of the numerous names for the goddess Freyja, and likely means'she who gives (prosperity or happiness)'. The connection between the two names has resulted in etymological interpretation of \"Gefjun\" as \"the giving one.\" The names \"Gefjun\" and \"Gefn\" are both related to the Matron groups the Alagabiae or Ollogabiae. Albert Murey Sturtevant notes that \"the only other feminine personal name which contains the suffix \"-un\" is \"Njǫr-un\", recorded only in the \"þulur\" [...], and among the \"kvenna heiti ókend\". Whatever the stem syllable \"Njǫr-\" represents (perhaps *\"ner-\" as in *\"Ner-þuz>Njǫrðr\"), the addition of the \"n-\" and \"un\"-suffixes seems to furnish an exact parallel to \"Gef-n\" : \"Gefj-un\" (cf. \"Njǫr-n\" : \"Njǫr-un\").\" A Finnish word \"kapiot\" for \"bride's outfit, trousseau\" may derive from Gefjon's name.", "", "In the \"Poetic Edda\", Gefjon appears solely in three stanzas of the poem \"Lokasenna\", where an exchange occurs between Gefjun and Loki at a dinner feast, and the god Odin comes to Gefjon's defense. After an exchange occurs between Loki and the goddess Iðunn, Gefjon questions why Loki wants to bring negativity into the hall with the assembled gods: The last two lines of the stanza above differ greatly by translation. Henry Adams Bellows comments that the manuscript text for these two lines is \"puzzling\" and that as a result they have been \"freely amended.\" In the stanza that follows, Loki responds to Gefjon, commenting that a youthful male once gave her a necklace, and that with this youth Gefjon slept: Odin interjects; stating that Loki must be quite insane to incur the wrath of Gefjon, for she knows the destinies of mankind just as well as Odin himself:", "The \"Prose Edda\" book \"Gylfaginning\" begins with a prose account stating that King Gylfi was once the ruler of \"what is now called Sweden,\" and that he was said to have given \"a certain vagrant woman, as reward for his entertainment, one plough-land in his kingdom, as much as four oxen could plow up in a day and night.\" This woman was \"of the race of the Æsir\" and her name was Gefjun. Gefjun took four oxen from Jötunheimr in the north. These oxen were her sons from a jötunn (name not provided). Gefjun's plough \"cut so hard and deep that it uprooted the land, and the oxen drew the land out into the sea to the west and halted in a certain sound.\" Gefjun there placed the land, and bestowed upon it the name Zealand. Where the land had been taken from a lake stands. According to Snorri, the lake is now known as Lake Mälar, located in Sweden, and the inlets in this lake parallel the headlands of Zealand; however, since this is much more true of Lake Vänern, the myth was probably originally about Vänern, not Mälaren. As a reference, the prose account presents a stanza from a work attributed to the 9th century skald Bragi Boddason: In chapter 35 of \"Gylfaginning\", the enthroned figure of High presents a list of goddesses. High presents Gefjun fourth, and says that Gefjun is a virgin, and all who die as virgins attend her. In relation, High notes that, like Gefjun, the goddess Fulla is also a virgin. At the beginning of the \"Prose Edda\" book \"Skáldskaparmál\", Gefjun is listed among nine goddesses who attend a banquet for Ægir on the island of Hlesey (modern Læsø, Denmark). In chapter 32, Gefjun is listed among six goddesses who attend a party held by Ægir. In chapter 75, Gefjun is included among a list of 27 ásynjur names. In addition, \"Gefjun\" appears in a kenning for the völva Gróa (\"ale-Gefjun\") employed in the skald Þjóðólfr of Hvinir's composition \"Haustlöng\" as quoted in chapter 17 of \"Skáldskaparmál\".", "In chapter 5 of \"Ynglinga saga\" (as collected in \"Heimskringla\"), a euhemerized prose account relates that Odin sent Gefjun from Odense, Funen \"north over the sound to seek for land.\" There, Gefjun encountered king Gylfi \"and he gave her ploughland.\" Gefjun went to the land of Jötunheimr, and there bore four sons to a jötunn (whose name is not provided). Gefjun transformed these four sons into oxen, attached them to a plough, and drew forth the land westward of the sea, opposite to Odense. The saga adds that this land is now called Zealand, and that Gefjun married Skjöldr (described here as \"a son of Odin\"). The two dwelled in Lejre thereafter. From where Gefjun took the land that formed Zealand, a lake was left behind call Lögrinn, and the saga posits that the bays in lake Lögrinn correspond to the nesses of Zealand. This is followed by the same stanza used in \"Gylfaginning\" above composed by the skald Bragi Boddason.", "Gefjun is sworn by in the þáttr \"Völsa þáttr\", where the daughter of a thrall reluctantly worships a penis severed from a horse:", "Gefjon appears in some Old Norse translations of Latin works as a gloss on the names of goddesses from Greco-Roman mythology. In several works, including \"Breta sögur\" (based on Geoffrey of Monmouth's \"Historia Regum Britanniae\") the goddess Diana is glossed as \"Gefjon\". In \"Stjórn\", Gefjon appears as a gloss for the goddess Aphrodite. In other works, Gefjon glosses the goddesses Athena and Vesta.", "", "A reoccurring theme in legend and folktale consists of a man or, more often, a woman who is challenged to gain as much land as can be traveled within a limited amount of time. This motif is attested by Livy around 1 CE, 5th century BCE Greek historian Herodotus, and in folktales from Northern Europe. In six tales from Jutland, Denmark and one from Germany a plough is used similarly as in Livy's account, though the conditions are often met by walking or riding. Hilda Ellis Davidson points out a tale from Iceland that features a female settler \"whose husband had died on the voyage out, establishing her claim to a piece of land by driving a young hiefer round it.\" Davidson notes that in \"Landnámabók\", this is recorded as a recognized method for a woman to claim land, and the work further details that \"she might not possess more than she could encircle in this way between sunrise and sunset on a spring day.\" Davidson comments that \"this sounds like a ritual taking over of land rather than a legal requirement, like the custom of men lighting fires when taking new land, and it is possible that the women's custom was linked with the fertility goddess.\" In addition, Davidson notes that Zealand is the most fertile region of Denmark. Davidson further links folk customs recorded in the 19th century involving ploughs in Northern and Eastern Europe to practices involving Gefjon from the heathen period. Davidson points out that in eastern Europe, a custom is recorded in Russia where women with loosened hair and clad in white would assemble and drag a plough three times around their village during serious disease outbreaks. In Western Europe, yearly ploughing rituals occurring in England and Denmark in preparation for spring sowing which are, in eastern England, held on Plough Monday after the Christmas break. Gangs of young men dragged round a plough, while taking various names. Davidson states that \"Gefjon with her giant sons transformed into oxen seems a fitting patroness of ceremonies of this kind.\" Davidson finds similar elements and parallels in non-Germanic traditions, such as a folktale regarding the Lady of the Lake from Wales recorded in the 19th century. In the tale, the Lady brings forth \"a herd of wondrous cattle\" from the water after she consents to marrying a local farmer. Years later, he unwittingly breaks conditions that she had laid down. As a result, the Lady returns to her dwelling beneath the lake, and calls for her cattle to accompany her, calling them by name. In one version of the tale, the Lady calls forth four gray oxen who were ploughing in a field six miles away. Responding to her call, the oxen dragged the plough with them, and the gash in the land that the plough produced was said to have once been clearly visible. A woman was recorded in 1881 as having claimed to recall that people once gathered at the lake on the first Sunday of August, waiting to see whether or not the water would boil up as an indication that the Lady and her oxen would make an appearance. Davidson notes that \"here again a supernatural woman is linked both with water and ploughing land.\" Davidson states that in Germanic areas of Europe, traditions also exist of supernatural women who travel about the countryside with a plough, examples including Holde and Holle (from the western and central regions of Germany) and Berchte and Perchte in traditions from upper Germany, Switzerland, and Austria. Davidson explains that \"they were frequently said to travel with a plough around the countryside, in a way reminiscent of the journey of the fertility goddess to bless the land in pre-Christian times, and on these occasions they might be accompanied by a host of tiny children; it was suggested that these children who died unbaptized, or human offspring replaced by changelings, but another possibility is that they were the souls of the unborn.\" Davidson details that some local tales feature the plough breaking down, the supernatural woman gaining assistance from a helper, and the supernatural woman giving him wooden chips, only for the chips to later to turn to gold. Regarding the plough and Gefjon, Davidson concludes that \"the idea behind the taking of the plough round the countryside seems to be that it brought good fortune and prosperity, gifts of a benevolent goddess. Gefjon and her plough thus fit into a large framework of the cult of a goddess associated with fertility of both land and water.\"", "Questions have been proposed over the seemingly contradictory description of Gefjon as a virgin in \"Gylfaginning\", yet also as attested as having sexual relations (\"Lokasenna\", \"Heimskringla\") and marrying (\"Heimskringla\"). John Lindow says that the Gefjon/Gylfi story in \"Gylfaginning\" is absent in one branch of manuscripts of the work, and that \"the fact that Gylfi is reintroduced directly after it in the other manuscripts, suggests that that it was not part of Snorri's [author of the \"Prose Edda\" and \"Heimskringla\"] original text but may have been added by a later scribe.\" Lindow says that if Snorri did not write it, the possibility exists that whoever added the story either was aware of an association made between Gefjon and the Greek goddess Diana (as in the \"glosses\" section above) \"or took the view of the pagan gods as demons and therefore made a whore out of Gefjon.\" However, Lindow adds that the reference to Gefjon made by Loki in \"Lokasenna\" suggest that the notion of Gefjon partaking in sexual activity may have been widespread.", "Mentions of Gefjon may appear in \"Beowulf\" in five passages (line 49, line 362, line 515, line 1394, and line 1690). The word \"geofon\", a poetic epithet for 'ocean, sea', is parallelled by the word \"geƀen\" in the Old-Saxon \"Heliand\". Scholar Frank Battaglia refers to these passages as \"the Gefion passages,\" and asks \"Does Beowulf oppose the Earth Goddess of ancient Germanic religion? The possibility of such an interpretation follows upon the discovery that the name \"Gefion\", by which early Danes called their female chthonic deity, may occur in the Old English poem five times.\" Battaglia further theorizes that: Battaglia says that if the passages are taken to represent Gefjon, \"gēafon\" mentioned in line 49 refers directly to Gefjon's sadness at Skjöldr's (described as having wed Gefjon in \"Heimskringla\") death, and that here \"we may with some confidence conclude that in a poem about Scyld's funeral for an Anglo-Danish audience, the word \"gēafon\" could probably not have been used without invoking Gefion.\" Battaglia posits translations for line 362 (\"Geofenes begang\") as \"Gefion's realm,\" line 515 (\"Geofon ȳðum wēol\") as \"Gefion welled up in waves,\" line 1394 (\"nē on Gyfenes grund, gā þær hē wille\") as \"not (even) in the ground of Gefion, go where he will,\" and line 1690 (\"Gifen gēotende gīgante cyn;\") as \"Gefion gushing, the race of giants.\" Scholar Richard North theorizes that Old English \"geofon\" and Old Norse \"Gefjun\" and Freyja's name \"Gefn\" may all descend from a common origin; \"gabia\" a Germanic goddess connected with the sea, whose name means \"giving\".", "Some scholars have proposed a connection between Gefjun and the goddesses Frigg and Freyja due to perceived similarities. Britt-Mari Näsström theorizes that Gefjun is simply another aspect of Freyja, and that the \"white youth\" that Freyja is accused of sleeping with by Loki in \"Gylfaginning\" may be the god Heimdallr. Hilda Ellis Davidson says that \"there seems ample indication that Gefjon represents one aspect of a once powerful goddess of the north, the figure representing in Scandinavian myths as either Frigg, the wife of Odin, or Freyja, sister of fertility god Freyr. Freyja, desired by gods, giants and dwarves alike, acted as dispenser of bounty and inspirer of sexual love between men and women like the Greek Aphrodite.\" In addition, Davidson says that \"as Axel Olrik (1901) pointed out long ago, we know very little about Gefion, and it is possible that she can be identified with Frigg or Freyja\" and not only does the \"Prose Edda\" associate her with an afterlife realm of the dead, \"in \"Lokasenna\", Loki claims that Gefion was given a jewel by a lover, traditions that would fit in very well with what we know of Freyja.\" Regarding parallels drawn between Freyja and Gefjon proposed from the exchange found in \"Lokasenna\", Rudolf Simek says that \"Lokasenna\" is a \"late composition and the reproach is too much of a stereotype to carry much weight.\" Simek says that, regardless, even if Gefjon shouldn't be identified with Freyja, Gefjon could still be considered \"one of the fertility and protective goddesses because of the meaning of her name ('the giving one').\"", "Gefjon appears prominently as the allegorical mother of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark in the forty-page Swedish Romantic poem \"Gefion, a Poem in Four Cantos\" by Eleonora Charlotta d'Albedyhll (1770–1835). A fountain depicting Gefjun driving her oxen sons to pull her plough (The Gefion Fountain, 1908) by Anders Bundgaard stands in Copenhagen, Denmark, on the island of Zealand, as in the myth. The Gefion family, a family of asteroids, and asteroid 1272 Gefion (discovered in 1931 by Karl Wilhelm Reinmuth) both derive their names from that of the goddess. The highest mountain in Queen Louise Land (), NE Greenland was named after Gefjon by the 1912–13 Danish Expedition to Queen Louise Land led by J.P. Koch." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Attestations.", "\"Poetic Edda\".", "\"Prose Edda\".", "\"Heimskringla\".", "\"Egils saga\".", "\"Gesta Danorum\".", "Archaeological record.", "Theories.", "Seo Hell.", "\"Bartholomeus saga postola\".", "Origins and development.", "As a given name." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Old Norse divine name \"Hel\" is identical to the name of the location over which she rules. It stems from the Proto-Germanic feminine noun \"*haljō-\" ('concealed place, the underworld'; compare with Gothic \"halja\", Old English \"hel\", Old Frisian \"helle\", Old Saxon \"hellia\", Old High German \"hella\"), itself a derivative of \"*helan-\" ('to cover > conceal, hide'; compare with OE \"helan\", OF \"hela\", OS \"helan\", OHG \"helan\"). It derives, ultimately, from the Proto-Indo-European verbal root \"*ḱel-\" ('to conceal, cover, protect'; compare with Latin \"cēlō\", Old Irish \"ceilid\", Greek \"kalúptō\"). The Old Irish masculine noun \"cel\" ('dissolution, extinction, death') is also related. Other related early Germanic terms and concepts include the compounds \"*halja-rūnō(n)\" and *\"halja-wītjan\".' The feminine noun \"*halja-rūnō(n)\" is formed with \"*haljō-\" ('hell') attached to \"*rūno\" ('mystery, secret' > runes). It has descendant cognates in the Old English \"helle-rúne\" ('possessed woman, sorceress, diviner'), the Old High German \"helli-rūna\" ('magic'), and perhaps in the Latinized Gothic form \"haliurunnae\",' although its second element may derive instead from \"rinnan\" 'to run, go', leading to Gothic \"*haljurunna\" as the 'one who travels to the netherworld'. The neutral noun *\"halja-wītjan\" is composed of the same root \"*haljō-\" attached to *\"wītjan\" (compare with Goth. \"un-witi\" 'foolishness, understanding', OE \"witt\" 'right mind, wits', OHG \"wizzi\" 'understanding'), with descendant cognates in Old Norse \"hel-víti\" ('hell'), Old English \"helle-wíte\" ('hell-torment, hell'), Old Saxon helli-wīti ('hell'), or Middle High German \"helle-wīzi\" ('hell').\"\" \"Hel\" is also etymologically related–although distantly that time–to the Old Norse word \"Valhöll\" (Valhalla, 'hall of the slain') and to the English word \"hall\", both likewise deriving from Proto-Indo-European \"*ḱel-\" via the Proto-Germanic root *\"hallō-\" ('covered place, hall').", "", "The \"Poetic Edda\", compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, features various poems that mention Hel. In the \"Poetic Edda\" poem \"Völuspá\", Hel's realm is referred to as the \"Halls of Hel.\" In stanza 31 of \"Grímnismál\", Hel is listed as living beneath one of three roots growing from the world tree Yggdrasil. In \"Fáfnismál\", the hero Sigurd stands before the mortally wounded body of the dragon Fáfnir, and states that Fáfnir lies in pieces, where \"Hel can take\" him. In \"Atlamál\", the phrases \"Hel has half of us\" and \"sent off to Hel\" are used in reference to death, though it could be a reference to the location and not the being, if not both. In stanza 4 of \"Baldrs draumar\", Odin rides towards the \"high hall of Hel.\" Hel may also be alluded to in \"Hamðismál\". Death is periphrased as \"joy of the troll-woman\" (or \"ogress\") and ostensibly it is Hel being referred to as the troll-woman or the ogre (\"flagð\"), although it may otherwise be some unspecified \"dís\".", "Hel is referred to in the \"Prose Edda\", written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. In chapter 34 of the book \"Gylfaginning\", Hel is listed by High as one of the three children of Loki and Angrboða; the wolf Fenrir, the serpent Jörmungandr, and Hel. High continues that, once the gods found that these three children are being brought up in the land of Jötunheimr, and when the gods \"traced prophecies that from these siblings great mischief and disaster would arise for them\" then the gods expected a lot of trouble from the three children, partially due to the nature of the mother of the children, yet worse so due to the nature of their father. High says that Odin sent the gods to gather the children and bring them to him. Upon their arrival, Odin threw Jörmungandr into \"that deep sea that lies round all lands,\" Odin threw Hel into Niflheim, and bestowed upon her authority over nine worlds, in that she must \"administer board and lodging to those sent to her, and that is those who die of sickness or old age.\" High details that in this realm Hel has \"great Mansions\" with extremely high walls and immense gates, a hall called Éljúðnir, a dish called \"Hunger,\" a knife called \"Famine,\" the servant Ganglati (Old Norse \"lazy walker\"), the serving-maid Ganglöt (also \"lazy walker\"), the entrance threshold \"Stumbling-block,\" the bed \"Sick-bed,\" and the curtains \"Gleaming-bale.\" High describes Hel as \"half black and half flesh-coloured,\" adding that this makes her easily recognizable, and furthermore that Hel is \"rather downcast and fierce-looking.\" In chapter 49, High describes the events surrounding the death of the god Baldr. The goddess Frigg asks who among the Æsir will earn \"all her love and favour\" by riding to Hel, the location, to try to find Baldr, and offer Hel herself a ransom. The god Hermóðr volunteers and sets off upon the eight-legged horse Sleipnir to Hel. Hermóðr arrives in Hel's hall, finds his brother Baldr there, and stays the night. The next morning, Hermóðr begs Hel to allow Baldr to ride home with him, and tells her about the great weeping the Æsir have done upon Baldr's death. Hel says the love people have for Baldr that Hermóðr has claimed must be tested, stating: If all things in the world, alive or dead, weep for him, then he will be allowed to return to the Æsir. If anyone speaks against him or refuses to cry, then he will remain with Hel. Later in the chapter, after the female jötunn Þökk refuses to weep for the dead Baldr, she responds in verse, ending with \"let Hel hold what she has.\" In chapter 51, High describes the events of Ragnarök, and details that when Loki arrives at the field Vígríðr \"all of Hel's people\" will arrive with him. In chapter 5 of the \"Prose Edda\" book \"Skáldskaparmál\", Hel is mentioned in a kenning for Baldr (\"Hel's companion\"). In chapter 16, \"Hel's [...] relative or father\" is given as a kenning for Loki. In chapter 50, Hel is referenced (\"to join the company of the quite monstrous wolf's sister\") in the skaldic poem \"Ragnarsdrápa\".", "In the \"Heimskringla\" book \"Ynglinga saga\", written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, Hel is referred to, though never by name. In chapter 17, the king Dyggvi dies of sickness. A poem from the 9th-century \"Ynglingatal\" that forms the basis of \"Ynglinga saga\" is then quoted that describes Hel's taking of Dyggvi: In chapter 45, a section from \"Ynglingatal\" is given which refers to Hel as \"howes'-warder\" (meaning \"guardian of the graves\") and as taking King Halfdan Hvitbeinn from life. In chapter 46, King Eystein Halfdansson dies by being knocked overboard by a sail yard. A section from \"Ynglingatal\" follows, describing that Eystein \"fared to\" Hel (referred to as \"Býleistr's-brother's-daughter\"). In chapter 47, the deceased Eystein's son King Halfdan dies of an illness, and the excerpt provided in the chapter describes his fate thereafter, a portion of which references Hel: In a stanza from \"Ynglingatal\" recorded in chapter 72 of the \"Heimskringla\" book \"Saga of Harald Sigurdsson\", \"given to Hel\" is again used as a phrase to referring to death.", "The Icelanders' saga \"Egils saga\" contains the poem \"Sonatorrek\". The saga attributes the poem to 10th century skald Egill Skallagrímsson, and writes that it was composed by Egill after the death of his son Gunnar. The final stanza of the poem contains a mention of Hel, though not by name:", "In the account of Baldr's death in Saxo Grammaticus' early 13th century work \"Gesta Danorum\", the dying Baldr has a dream visitation from Proserpina (here translated as \"the goddess of death\"): The following night the goddess of death appeared to him in a dream standing at his side, and declared that in three days time she would clasp him in her arms. It was no idle vision, for after three days the acute pain of his injury brought his end. Scholars have assumed that Saxo used Proserpina as a goddess equivalent to the Norse Hel.", "It has been suggested that several imitation medallions and bracteates of the Migration Period (ca. first centuries AD) feature depictions of Hel. In particular the bracteates IK 14 and IK 124 depict a rider traveling down a slope and coming upon a female being holding a scepter or a staff. The downward slope may indicate that the rider is traveling towards the realm of the dead and the woman with the scepter may be a female ruler of that realm, corresponding to Hel. Some B-class bracteates showing three godly figures have been interpreted as depicting Baldr's death, the best known of these is the Fakse bracteate. Two of the figures are understood to be Baldr and Odin while both Loki and Hel have been proposed as candidates for the third figure. If it is Hel she is presumably greeting the dying Baldr as he comes to her realm.", "", "The \"Old English Gospel of Nicodemus\", preserved in two manuscripts from the 11th century, contains a female figure referred to as \"Seo hell\" who engages in flyting with Satan and tells him to leave her dwelling (Old English \"ut of mynre onwununge\"). Regarding Seo Hell in the \"Old English Gospel of Nicodemus\", Michael Bell states that \"her vivid personification in a dramatically excellent scene suggests that her gender is more than grammatical, and invites comparison with the Old Norse underworld goddess Hel and the Frau Holle of German folklore, to say nothing of underworld goddesses in other cultures\" yet adds that \"the possibility that these genders \"are\" merely grammatical is strengthened by the fact that an Old Norse version of Nicodemus, possibly translated under English influence, personifies Hell in the neutral (Old Norse \"þat helvíti\").\"", "The Old Norse \"Bartholomeus saga postola\", an account of the life of Saint Bartholomew dating from the 13th century, mentions a \"Queen Hel.\" In the story, a devil is hiding within a pagan idol, and bound by Bartholomew's spiritual powers to acknowledge himself and confess, the devil refers to Jesus as the one which \"made war on Hel our queen\" (Old Norse \"heriaði a Hel drottning vara\"). \"Queen Hel\" is not mentioned elsewhere in the saga. Michael Bell says that while Hel \"might at first appear to be identical with the well-known pagan goddess of the Norse underworld\" as described in chapter 34 of \"Gylfaginning\", \"in the combined light of the Old English and Old Norse versions of \"Nicodemus\" she casts quite a different a shadow,\" and that in \"Bartholomeus saga postola\" \"she is clearly the queen of the Christian, not pagan, underworld.\"", "Jacob Grimm theorized that Hel (whom he refers to here as \"Halja\", the theorized Proto-Germanic form of the term) is essentially an \"image of a greedy, unrestoring, female deity\" and that \"the higher we are allowed to penetrate into our antiquities, the less hellish and more godlike may \"Halja\" appear. Of this we have a particularly strong guarantee in her affinity to the Indian Bhavani, who travels about and bathes like Nerthus and Holda, but is likewise called \"Kali\" or \"Mahakali\", the great \"black\" goddess. In the underworld she is supposed to sit in judgment on souls. This office, the similar name and the black hue [...] make her exceedingly like \"Halja\". And \"Halja\" is one of the oldest and commonest conceptions of our heathenism.\" Grimm theorizes that the Helhest, a three legged-horse that roams the countryside \"as a harbinger of plague and pestilence\" in Danish folklore, was originally the steed of the goddess Hel, and that on this steed Hel roamed the land \"picking up the dead that were her due.\" In addition, Grimm says that a wagon was once ascribed to Hel, with which Hel made journeys. Grimm says that Hel is an example of a \"half-goddess;\" \"one who cannot be shown to be either wife or daughter of a god, and who stands in a dependent relation to higher divinities\" and that \"half-goddesses\" stand higher than \"half-gods\" in Germanic mythology. Hilda Ellis Davidson (1948) states that Hel \"as a goddess\" in surviving sources seems to belong to a genre of literary personification, that the word \"hel\" is generally \"used simply to signify death or the grave,\" and that the word often appears as the equivalent to the English 'death,' which Davidson states \"naturally lends itself to personification by poets.\" Davidson explains that \"whether this personification has originally been based on a belief in a goddess of death called Hel is another question,\" but that she does not believe that the surviving sources give any reason to believe so. Davidson adds that, on the other hand, various other examples of \"certain supernatural women\" connected with death are to be found in sources for Norse mythology, that they \"seem to have been closely connected with the world of death, and were pictured as welcoming dead warriors,\" and that the depiction of Hel \"as a goddess\" in \"Gylfaginning\" \"might well owe something to these.\" In a later work (1998), Davidson states that the description of Hel found in chapter 33 of \"Gylfaginning\" \"hardly suggests a goddess.\" Davidson adds that \"yet this is not the impression given in the account of Hermod's ride to Hel later in \"Gylfaginning\" (49)\" and points out that here Hel \"[speaks] with authority as ruler of the underworld\" and that from her realm \"gifts are sent back to Frigg and Fulla by Balder's wife Nanna as from a friendly kingdom.\" Davidson posits that Snorri may have \"earlier turned the goddess of death into an allegorical figure, just as he made Hel, the underworld of shades, a place 'where wicked men go,' like the Christian Hell (\"Gylfaginning\" 3).\" Davidson continues that: On the other hand, a goddess of death who represents the horrors of slaughter and decay is something well known elsewhere; the figure of Kali in India is an outstanding example. Like Snorri's Hel, she is terrifying to in appearance, black or dark in colour, usually naked, adorned with severed heads or arms or the corpses of children, her lips smeared with blood. She haunts the battlefield or cremation ground and squats on corpses. Yet for all this she is \"the recipient of ardent devotion from countless devotees who approach her as their mother\" [...]. Davidson further compares to early attestations of the Irish goddesses Badb (Davidson points to the description of Badb from \"The Destruction of Da Choca's Hostel\" where Badb is wearing a dusky mantle, has a large mouth, is dark in color, and has gray hair falling over her shoulders, or, alternatively, \"as a red figure on the edge of the ford, washing the chariot of a king doomed to die\") and The Morrígan. Davidson concludes that, in these examples, \"here we have the fierce destructive side of death, with a strong emphasis on its physical horrors, so perhaps we should not assume that the gruesome figure of Hel is wholly Snorri's literary invention.\" John Lindow states that most details about Hel, as a figure, are not found outside of Snorri's writing in \"Gylfaginning\", and says that when older skaldic poetry \"says that people are 'in' rather than 'with' Hel, we are clearly dealing with a place rather than a person, and this is assumed to be the older conception,\" that the noun and place \"Hel\" likely originally simply meant \"grave,\" and that \"the personification came later.\" He also draws a parallel between the personified Hel's banishment to the underworld and the binding of Fenrir as part of a recurring theme of the bound monster, where an enemy of the gods is bound but destined to break free at Ragnarok. Rudolf Simek theorizes that the figure of Hel is \"probably a very late personification of the underworld Hel,\" and says that \"the first scriptures using the goddess Hel are found at the end of the 10th and in the 11th centuries.\" Simek states that the allegorical description of Hel's house in \"Gylfaginning\" \"clearly stands in the Christian tradition,\" and that \"on the whole nothing speaks in favour of there being a belief in Hel in pre-Christian times.\" However, Simek also cites Hel as possibly appearing as one of three figures appearing together on Migration Period B-bracteates.", "In January 2017, the Icelandic Naming Committee ruled that parents could not name their child \"Hel\" \"on the grounds that the name would cause the child significant distress and trouble as it grows up\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "The \"Prose Edda\".", "The \"Poetic Edda\".", "Skaldic poetry.", "\"Gesta Danorum\".", "\"Chronicon Lethrense\" and \"Annales Lundenses\".", "Rydberg's theories." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"Hǫðr\", meaning 'warrior', is comparable with the Old English \"heaðu-deór\" ('brave, stout in war'). Like the Old Norse noun \"hǫð\" ('war, slaughter'), it stems from Proto-Germanic \"*haþuz\" ('battle'; compare with Old English \"heaðo-\", Old High German \"hadu\"-, Old Saxon \"hathu\"-).", "In the \"Gylfaginning\" part of Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda Höðr is introduced in an ominous way. Höðr is not mentioned again until the prelude to Baldr's death is described. All things except the mistletoe (believed to be harmless) have sworn an oath not to harm Baldr, so the Æsir throw missiles at him for sport. The \"Gylfaginning\" does not say what happens to Höðr after this. In fact it specifically states that Baldr cannot be avenged, at least not immediately. It does seem, however, that Höðr ends up in Hel one way or another for the last mention of him in \"Gylfaginning\" is in the description of the post-Ragnarök world. Snorri's source of this knowledge is clearly \"Völuspá\" as quoted below. In the \"Skáldskaparmál\" section of the Prose Edda several kennings for Höðr are related. None of those kennings, however, are actually found in surviving skaldic poetry. Neither are Snorri's kennings for Váli, which are also of interest in this context. It is clear from this that Snorri was familiar with the role of Váli as Höðr's slayer, even though he does not relate that myth in the \"Gylfaginning\" prose. Some scholars have speculated that he found it distasteful, since Höðr is essentially innocent in his version of the story.", "Höðr is referred to several times in the Poetic Edda, always in the context of Baldr's death. The following strophes are from \"Völuspá\". This account seems to fit well with the information in the Prose Edda, but here the role of Baldr's avenging brother is emphasized. Baldr and Höðr are also mentioned in \"Völuspá\"'s description of the world after Ragnarök. The poem \"Vafþrúðnismál\" informs us that the gods who survive Ragnarök are Viðarr, Váli, Móði and Magni with no mention of Höðr and Baldr. The myth of Baldr's death is also referred to in another Eddic poem, \"Baldrs draumar\". Höðr is not mentioned again by name in the Eddas. He is, however, referred to in \"Völuspá in skamma\".", "The name of Höðr occurs several times in skaldic poetry as a part of warrior-kennings. Thus \"Höðr brynju\", \"Höðr of byrnie\", is a warrior and so is \"Höðr víga\", \"Höðr of battle\". Some scholars have found the fact that the poets should want to compare warriors with Höðr to be incongruous with Snorri's description of him as a blind god, unable to harm anyone without assistance. It is possible that this indicates that some of the poets were familiar with other myths about Höðr than the one related in \"Gylfaginning\" - perhaps some where Höðr has a more active role. On the other hand, the names of many gods occur in kennings and the poets might not have been particular in using any god name as a part of a kenning.", "In \"Gesta Danorum\" Hotherus is a human hero of the Danish and Swedish royal lines. He is gifted in swimming, archery, fighting and music and Nanna, daughter of King Gevarus falls in love with him. But at the same time Balderus, son of Othinus, has caught sight of Nanna bathing and fallen violently in love with her. He resolves to slay Hotherus, his rival. Out hunting, Hotherus is led astray by a mist and meets wood-maidens who control the fortunes of war. They warn him that Balderus has designs on Nanna but also tell him that he shouldn't attack him in battle since he is a demigod. Hotherus goes to consult with King Gevarus and asks him for his daughter. The king replies that he would gladly favour him but that Balderus has already made a like request and he does not want to incur his wrath. Gevarus tells Hotherus that Balderus is invincible but that he knows of one weapon which can defeat him, a sword kept by Mimingus, the satyr of the woods. Mimingus also has another magical artifact, a bracelet that increases the wealth of its owner. Riding through a region of extraordinary cold in a carriage drawn by reindeer, Hotherus captures the satyr with a clever ruse and forces him to yield his artifacts. Hearing about Hotherus's artifacts, Gelderus, king of Saxony, equips a fleet to attack him. Gevarus warns Hotherus of this and tells him where to meet Gelderus in battle. When the battle is joined, Hotherus and his men save their missiles while defending themselves against those of the enemy with a testudo formation. With his missiles exhausted, Gelderus is forced to sue for peace. He is treated mercifully by Hotherus and becomes his ally. Hotherus then gains another ally with his eloquent oratory by helping King Helgo of Hålogaland win a bride. Meanwhile, Balderus enters the country of king Gevarus armed and sues for Nanna. Gevarus tells him to learn Nanna's own mind. Balderus addresses her with cajoling words but is refused. Nanna tells him that because of the great difference in their nature and stature, since he is a demigod, they are not suitable for marriage. As news of Balderus's efforts reaches Hotherus, he and his allies resolve to attack Balderus. A great naval battle ensues where the gods fight on the side of Balderus. Thoro in particular shatters all opposition with his mighty club. When the battle seems lost, Hotherus manages to hew Thoro's club off at the haft and the gods are forced to retreat. Gelderus perishes in the battle and Hotherus arranges a funeral pyre of vessels for him. After this battle Hotherus finally marries Nanna. Balderus is not completely defeated and shortly afterwards returns to defeat Hotherus in the field. But Balderus's victory is without fruit for he is still without Nanna. Lovesick, he is harassed by phantoms in Nanna's likeness and his health deteriorates so that he cannot walk but has himself drawn around in a cart. After a while Hotherus and Balderus have their third battle and again Hotherus is forced to retreat. Weary of life because of his misfortunes, he plans to retire and wanders into the wilderness. In a cave he comes upon the same maidens he had met at the start of his career. Now they tell him that he can defeat Balderus if he gets a taste of some extraordinary food which had been devised to increase the strength of Balderus. Encouraged by this, Hotherus returns from exile and once again meets Balderus in the field. After a day of inconclusive fighting, he goes out during the night to spy on the enemy. He finds where Balderus's magical food is prepared and plays the lyre for the maidens preparing it. While they don't want to give him the food, they bestow on him a belt and a girdle which secure victory. Heading back to his camp, Hotherus meets Balderus and plunges his sword into his side. After three days, Balderus dies from his wound. Many years later, Bous, the son of Othinus and Rinda, avenges his brother by killing Hotherus in a duel.", "There are also two lesser-known DanishLatin chronicles, the \"Chronicon Lethrense\" and the \"Annales Lundenses\", of which the latter is included in the former. These two sources provide a second euhemerized account of Höðr's slaying of Balder. It relates that Hother was the king of the Saxons, son of Hothbrod, the daughter of Hadding. Hother first slew Othen's (i.e., Odin's) son Balder in battle and then chased Othen and Thor. Finally, Othen's son Both killed Hother. Hother, Balder, Othen, and Thor were incorrectly considered to be gods.", "According to the Swedish mythologist and romantic poet Viktor Rydberg, the story of Baldr's death was taken from Húsdrápa, a poem composed by Ulfr Uggason around 990 AD at a feast thrown by the Icelandic Chief Óláfr Höskuldsson to celebrate the finished construction of his new home, Hjarðarholt, the walls of which were filled with symbolic representations of the Baldr myth among others. Rydberg suggested that Höðr was depicted with eyes closed and Loki guiding his aim to indicate that Loki was the true cause of Baldr's death and Höðr was only his \"blind tool.\" Rydberg theorized that the author of the \"Gylfaginning\" then mistook the description of the symbolic artwork in the Húsdrápa as the actual tale of Baldr's death." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Description.", "Recipients.", "Numbers awarded." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The award was established on 3 June 1918, shortly after the formation of the Royal Air Force (RAF), with the Royal Warrant published on 5 December 1919. It was originally awarded to RAF commissioned and warrant officers, including officers in Commonwealth and allied forces. In March 1941 eligibility was extended to Naval Officers of the Fleet Air Arm, and in November 1942 to Army officers, including Royal Artillery officers serving on attachment to the RAF as pilots-cum-artillery observers. Posthumous awards were permitted from 1979. Since the 1993 review of the honours system as part of the drive to remove distinctions of rank in bravery awards, all ranks of all arms of the Armed Forces have been eligible, and the Distinguished Flying Medal, which had until then been awarded to other ranks, was discontinued. While remaining a reward for \"flying in active operations against the enemy\", the requirement was changed from \"valour, courage or devotion to duty\" to \"exemplary gallantry\". The DFC had also been awarded by Commonwealth countries but by the 1990s most, including Canada, Australia and New Zealand, had established their own honours systems and no longer recommended British honours. The DFC now serves as the third-level award for all ranks of the British Armed Forces for exemplary gallantry in active operations against the enemy in the air, not to the standard required to receive the Victoria Cross or the Conspicuous Gallantry Cross. Apart from honorary awards to those serving with allied forces, all awards of the DFC are announced in the \"London Gazette\". A bar is added to the ribbon for holders of the DFC who received a further award, with a silver rosette worn on the ribbon when worn alone to denote the award of each bar. Recipients are entitled to use the post-nominal letters \"DFC\".", "The decoration, designed by Edward Carter Preston, is a cross flory, wide. The horizontal and bottom bars are terminated with bumps, the upper bar with a rose. The decoration's face features aeroplane propellers, superimposed on the vertical arms of the cross, and wings on the horizontal arms. In the centre is a laurel wreath around the RAF monogram, surmounted by a heraldic Imperial Crown. The reverse is plain, except for a central roundel bearing the reigning monarch's cypher and the date '1918'. Originally awarded unnamed, from 1939 the year of issue was engraved on the reverse lower limb of cross, and since 1984 it has been awarded named to the recipient. The suspender is straight and decorated with laurel wreaths. The ribbon bar denoting a further award is silver, with the Royal Air Force eagle in its centre. Bars awarded during World War II have the year of award engraved on the reverse. The 1.25-inch (32 mm) ribbon was originally white with deep purple broad horizontal stripes, but it was changed in 1919 to the current white with purple broad diagonal stripes.", "", "From 1918 to 2017 approximately 22,322 Distinguished Flying Crosses and 1,737 bars have been awarded. The figures to 1979 are laid out in the table below, the dates reflecting the relevant entries in the London Gazette: In addition, between 1980 and 2017 approximately 80 DFCs have been earned, including awards for the Falklands and the wars in the Gulf, Iraq and Afghanistan. In addition, two second-award, and one third-award bar have been awarded. The above figures include awards to the Dominions:<br>In all, 4,460 DFCs have gone to Canadians, including 256 first bars and six second bars. Of these, 193 crosses and nine first bars were for service with the RAF in World War I. For World War II, 4,018 DFCs with 213 first bars and six second bars were earned by members of the Royal Canadian Air Force, with a further 247 crosses and 34 first bars to Canadians serving with the RAF.<br>From 1918 to 1972 the DFC was awarded to 2,391 Australians, along with 144 first Bars and five second Bars.<br>Over 1,000 DFCs were awarded to New Zealanders during the World War II, with the most recent awards for service in Vietnam. In 1999 the DFC was replaced by the New Zealand Gallantry Decoration. A total of 1,022 honorary awards have been made to members of allied foreign forces. This comprises 46 for World War I, 927 with 34 first and three second award bars for World War II, eight with three bars to members of the US Air Force for the Korean War, and one to the US Marine Corps during the Iraq War." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Style.", "History.", "Repertoire.", "Song types.", "Song structure.", "Orchestration.", "Time.", "Melodic modes.", "Ahava Rabboh/Freygish.", "Mi Shebeirach.", "Adoyn-y Moloch.", "Mogen Ovoys.", "Yishtabach." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The term klezmer comes from a combination of Hebrew words: \"klei\", meaning \"tools, utensils or instruments of\" and \"zemer\", \"melody\"; leading to \"k'lei zemer\", literally \"instruments of music\" or \"musical instruments\". Originally, \"klezmer\" referred to musical instruments, and was later extended to refer, as a pejorative, to musicians themselves. From the 16th to 18th centuries, it replaced older terms such as \"leyts\" (clown). It was not until the late 20th century that the word came to identify a musical genre. Early 20th century recordings and writings most often refer to the style as \"Yiddish\" music, although it is also sometimes called \"Freilech music\" (Yiddish, literally \"Happy music\"). The first recordings to use the term \"klezmer\" to refer to the music were The Klezmorim's \"East Side Wedding\" and \"Streets of Gold\" in 1977/78, followed by Andy Statman and Zev Feldman's \"Jewish Klezmer Music\" in 1979.", "Klezmer is easily identifiable by its characteristic expressive melodies, reminiscent of the human voice, complete with laughing and weeping. This is not a coincidence; the style is meant to imitate khazone and paraliturgical singing. A number of \"dreydlekh\" (a Yiddish word for musical ornaments), such as krekhts (\"sobs\") are used to produce this style. Various musical styles influenced traditional klezmer music. Perhaps the strongest and most enduring is Romani music. Klezmer musicians heard and adapted traditional Romani music, which is reflected in the dance forms found throughout surviving klezmer music repertoire (e.g., Horas, Doinas, Sirbas, and Bulgars)", "The Bible has several descriptions of orchestras and Levites making music, but after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, many Rabbis discouraged musical instruments. However, the importance of merrymaking at weddings was not diminished, and musicians came forth to fill that niche, klezmorim. The first klezmer known by name was Yakobius ben Yakobius, a player of the aulos in Samaria in the 2nd century CE. The earliest written record of the klezmorim is in the 15th century. It is unlikely that they played music recognizable as klezmer today since the style and structure of klezmer as we know it today is thought to have come largely from 19th century Bessarabia, where the bulk of today's traditional repertoire was written. Klezmorim based much of their secular instrumental music upon the devotional vocal music of the synagogue, in particular cantorial music. Even so, klezmorim—along with other entertainers—were typically looked down on by Rabbis because of their secular traveling lifestyle. Klezmorim often travelled and played with Romani musicians (\"lăutari\"), because they occupied similar social strata. They had a great influence on each other musically and linguistically (the extensive klezmer argot in Yiddish includes some Romani borrowings). Klezmorim were respected for their musical abilities and diverse repertoire, but they were by no means restricted to playing klezmer. They sometimes played for Christian churches and local aristocracy, and taught some Italian classical violin virtuosos. Like other professional musicians, klezmorim were often limited by authorities. In Ukraine they were banned from playing loud instruments, until the 19th century. Hence musicians took up the violin, tsimbl (or cymbalom), and other stringed instruments. The first musician to play klezmer in European concerts, Josef Gusikov, played a type of xylophone which he invented and called a \"wood and straw instrument\". It was laid out like a cymbalom, and attracted comments from Felix Mendelssohn (highly favourable) and Liszt (condemnatory). Later, around 1855 under the reign of Alexander II of Russia, Ukraine permitted loud instruments. The clarinet started to replace the violin as the instrument of choice. Also, a shift towards brass and percussion happened when klezmorim were conscripted into military bands. As Jews left Eastern Europe and the shtetls (see a related article about the artist Chaim Goldberg, who depicted klezmer performers of the shtetl in his paintings), klezmer spread throughout the globe, to the United States as well as to Canada, Mexico, and Argentina. Initially, the klezmer tradition was not maintained much by U.S. Jews. In the 1920s, clarinetists Dave Tarras and Naftule Brandwein caused a brief, influential revival, but Hankus Netsky has noted that \"few of the performers of this era actually referred to themselves as klezmorim, and the term is found nowhere in any Jewish instrumental recording of the time.\" (The soprano Isa Kremer was a popular exponent of Yiddish song internationally during the first half of the 20th century; notably making several recordings with Columbia Records and appearing often at Carnegie Hall and other major venues in the U.S. from 1922-1950.) As U.S. Jews began to adopt mainstream culture, the popularity of klezmer waned, and Jewish celebrations were increasingly accompanied by non-Jewish music. While traditional performances may have been on the decline, many Jewish composers who had mainstream success, such as Leonard Bernstein and Aaron Copland, continued to be influenced by the klezmeric idioms heard during their youth (as Gustav Mahler had been). George Gershwin was familiar with klezmer music, and the opening clarinet glissando of Rhapsody in Blue suggests this influence, although the composer did not compose klezmer directly. Some clarinet stylings of swing jazz bandleaders Benny Goodman and Artie Shaw can be interpreted as having been derived from klezmer, as can the \"freilach swing\" playing of other Jewish artists of the period such as trumpeter Ziggy Elman. At the same time, non-Jewish composers were also turning to klezmer for a prolific source of fascinating thematic material. Dmitri Shostakovich in particular admired klezmer music for embracing both the ecstasy and the despair of human life, and quoted several melodies in his chamber masterpieces, the Piano Quintet in G minor, op. 57 (1940), the Piano Trio No. 2 in E minor, op. 67 (1944), and the String Quartet No. 8 in C minor, op. 110 (1960). In the mid-to-late 1970s there was a klezmer revival in the United States and Europe, led by Giora Feidman, The Klezmorim, Zev Feldman, Andy Statman, and the Klezmer Conservatory Band. They drew their repertoire from recordings and surviving musicians of U.S. klezmer. In 1985, Henry Sapoznik and Adrienne Cooper founded KlezKamp to teach klezmer and other Yiddish music. The 1980s saw a second wave of revival, as interest grew in more traditionally inspired performances with string instruments, largely with non-Jews of the United States and Germany. Musicians began to track down older European klezmer, by listening to recordings, finding transcriptions, and making field recordings of the few klezmorim left in Eastern Europe. Key performers in this style are Joel Rubin, Budowitz, Khevrisa, Di Naye Kapelye, Yale Strom, The Chicago Klezmer Ensemble, The Maxwell Street Klezmer Band, the violinists Alicia Svigals, Steven Greenman, Cookie Segelstein and Elie Rosenblatt, flutist Adrianne Greenbaum, and tsimbl player Pete Rushefsky. Other artists like Yale Strom used their first-hand field research and recordings from as early as 1981 in Central and Eastern Europe as a foundation for more of a fusion between traditional repertoire and original compositions, as well as incorporating the Rom (Roma) music element into the Jewish style. Bands like Brave Old World, Hot Pstromi and The Klezmatics also emerged during this period. In the 1990s, musicians from the San Francisco Bay Area helped further interest in klezmer music by taking it into new territory. Clarinetist Ben Goldberg and drummer Kenny Wollesen, after playing in Bay Area-based The Klezmorim, formed the critically acclaimed New Klezmer Trio—kicking open the door for radical experiments with Ashkenazi music and paving the way for John Zorn's Masada, Naftule's Dream, Don Byron's Mickey Katz project and violinist Daniel Hoffman's klezmer/jazz/Middle-Eastern fusion band Davka. The New Orleans Klezmer All-Stars also formed in 1991 with a mixture of New Orleans funk, jazz, and klezmer styles. Interest in klezmer has been sustained and supported by such well-known avant-garde jazz musicians as John Zorn and Don Byron, who sometimes blend klezmer with jazz. Klezmer melodies have recently been incorporated into songs by third-wave Ska band Streetlight Manifesto. Singer/songwriter Tomas Kalnoky frequently slips in horn licks with Russian and Jewish origins. Mames Babegenush was formed in Copenhagen, Denmark, in 2004 out of strong Scandinavian roots merged with traditional klezmer, influenced on the klezmer side by masters like Naftule Brandwein, Abe Schwartz and Dave Tarras. Today the band has developed a new sound of modern klezmer, pushing the perimeter of klezmer to incorporate many cultures and touring worldwide. The band's most recent album \" Mames Babegenush With Strings\" (2017) was warmly received with 5-6 stars reviews in such magazines as \"Songlines\" and \"fRoots\". Starting in 2008, \"The Other Europeans\" project, funded by several EU cultural institutions, spent a year doing intensive field research in Moldavia under the leadership of Alan Bern and scholar Zev Feldman. They wanted to explore klezmer and lautari roots, and fuse the music of the two \"other European\" groups. The resulting band now performs internationally. As with this ensemble, groups like Di Naye Kapelye and Yale Strom & Hot Pstromi have incorporated Rom musicians and elements since their inceptions. A separate klezmer tradition had developed in Israel in the 20th century. Clarinetists Moshe Berlin and Avrum Leib Burstein are known exponents of the klezmer style in Israel. In order to preserve and promote klezmer music in Israel, Burstein founded the Jerusalem Klezmer Association, which has become a center for learning and performance of Klezmer music in the country.", "According to Walter Zev Feldman, the klezmer dance repertoire seems to have been relatively uniform across the areas of Jewish settlement in the Russian Empire. Much of the traditional klezmer repertoire was created by professional klezmer musicians in the style of their region or tradition, and much co-territorial music such as non-Jewish folksongs, especially Romanian music (mainly from Moldavia), as well as Ukrainian music and Ottoman music, and the musics of other minorities living in the same areas as Jews in Southeastern Europe such as Crimean Tatars. Historically, young klezmorim learned tunes from their family and their elders in bands. However, there were several times in history where this transmission broke down, including mass emigration, but especially the Holocaust, which destroyed most of Jewish life and culture in Europe. Few scions of klezmer dynasties remained in Europe, one notable exception being Leopold Kozlowski of Poland. Undoubtedly, much has been lost of the repertoires played in various locations and social contexts—especially wedding repertoire, since although Jewish weddings could last several days, early recording technology could only capture a few minutes at a time. Also, recordings specific to one area may not have represented klezmer repertoire from other parts of the region. A few older klezmorim—such as Leon Schwartz, Dave Tarras, and German Goldenshtayn—survived into the klezmer revival era and could recall some forgotten repertoire. Also, some transcriptions survive from the 19th century. Some ethnomusicological work from Jewish Eastern Europe is still available in print, notably the work of Soviet Jewish field researcher Moshe Beregovski. In the 21st century, klezmer is typically learned from \"fake books\" and transcriptions of old recordings, although the music was traditionally transmitted and learned by ear.", "Most klezmer pieces are for dancing to, from fast to slow tempo: Types not designed for dance are:", "Most klezmer tunes are in several sections, sometimes with each in a different key. Many songs have alternating sections with major and minor keys. Klezmer music often uses \"folk scales,\" or scales commonly found in folk music, such as the harmonic minor and phrygian dominant. Instrumental tunes often follow the types of chord progressions found in Middle Eastern and Greek music, whereas vocal Yiddish songs are often much simpler, and follow a style and chord progressions similar to Russian folk songs. Freylekhs are often in the form ABCB, which is rare in music. Having a third distinct section is a relatively unique aspect of klezmer music. A common ending for songs is an upwards chromatic run or glissando, followed by a slow staccato 8-5-1. They may also end with a Coda, a new melodic line that is accompanied by a change in the percussion rhythm and an increase in tempo.", "Klezmer is generally instrumental, although at weddings klezmorim traditionally accompanied the vocal stylings of the \"badkhn\" (wedding entertainer). A typical 19th-century European orchestra included a first violin, a contra-violin (or modified 3-stringed viola also called Groyse Fidl [Yid. Big Fiddle], Sekund, Kontra or Zsidó Bratsch [Hun.]), a tsimbl (cimbalom or hammered dulcimer), a bass or cello, and sometimes a flute. Other instruments such as a piano or an accordion are used too. The melody is generally assigned to the lead violin, while the other instrumentalists provide harmony, rhythm, and some counterpoint (the latter usually coming from the second violin or viola). The inclusion of Jews in tsarist army bands during the 19th century led to the introduction of typical military band instruments into klezmer. The clarinet now often played the melody. Brass instruments—such as the French valved cornet and keyed German trumpet—eventually inherited a counter-voice role. Modern klezmer instrumentation is more commonly influenced by the instruments of the 19th century military bands than the earlier orchestras. The orchestration used by Joel Rubin—one of the most experienced and knowledgeable contemporary klezmer musicians—represents a historically justified link with that of contemporary ethnic music ensembles of Romania and Hungary. Percussion in early 20th-century klezmer recordings was generally minimal—no more than a wood block or snare drum. The snare drum is the more \"authentic\" of the two. Wood blocks were introduced by modern klezmorim to imitate recordings from the early 20th century that replaced snare drums—which tended to overwhelm the recording equipment of the time—with quieter instruments. In Eastern Europe, percussion was often provided by a drummer who played a frame drum, or \"poyk\", sometimes called baraban. A poyk is similar to a bass drum and often has a cymbal or piece of metal mounted on top, which is struck by a beater or a small cymbal strapped to the hand. In Bulgaria, Serbia, and Macedonia, sometimes the \"paykler\" (drummer) also played in the \"tapan\" style, i.e., with a switch in one hand on a thin tight head, and a mallet in the other, on a thicker, looser head. Some klezmer revival bands look to loud-instrument klezmer, jazz, and Dixieland for inspiration. Their bands are similar to a typical jazz band, with some differences. They use a clarinet, saxophone, or trumpet for the melody, and make great use of the trombone for slides and other flourishes. When a cymbalom sound is called for, a piano may be played. There is usually a brass instrument ensemble, and sometimes a tuba substitutes for bass. Performers in this style include The Klezmorim, The Klezmatics, The Klezmer Conservatory Band, and The Maxwell Street Klezmer Band. Other bands look back to different eras or regions in an effort to recreate specific styles of klezmer—for example, Budowitz, the Chicago Klezmer Band, Veretski Pass, Di Naye Kapelye, and the Hungarian band Muzsikas with its album \"Maramoros: the Lost Jewish Music of Transylvania\". Klezmer instrument choices were traditionally based, by necessity, on an instrument's portability. Music being required for several parts of the wedding ceremony, taking place in different rooms or courtyards, the band had to relocate quickly from space to space. Further, klezmorim were usually itinerant musicians, who moved from town to town for work. Therefore, instruments held in the hands (clarinet, violin, trumpet, flute) or supported by a neck or shoulder strap (accordion, cimbalom, drum) were favored over those that rested on the ground (cello, bass violin), or needed several people to move (piano). In America, this trend has continued into the present day, with hand-held or strap-held instruments like guitars, saxophones, and even harmonicas integrated into klezmer ensembles. For example, the typical American klezmer wedding band uses a portable electronic synthesizer, not a piano. The compositions of Israeli-born composer Ofer Ben-Amots incorporate aspects of klezmer music, most notably his 2006 composition \"Klezmer Concerto\". The piece is for klezmer clarinet (written for Jewish clarinetist David Krakauer), string orchestra, harp and percussion.", "In its historic form, klezmer was live music designed to facilitate dancing. Hence, musicians adjusted the tempo as dancers tired or better dancers joined in. Tunes could drag to a near-halt during a particularly sad part, picking up slowly, and eventually bursting into happy song again. (This is also a feature of many Rom and Russian folk songs.) Like other musicians of their time, and many modern jazz performers, early klezmorim did not rigidly follow the beat. Often they slightly led or trailed it, giving a lilting sound.", "Klezmer is usually played in shteygerim, prayer modes of the synagogue. They are closely related to Greek, Turkish, and other \"co-territorial\" modes of Southeastern and Central Europe. The following are the names of these modes; the names are taken from the names of familiar prayers that use that mode (imagine an American composer referring to a piece as \"a Grand Old Flag\" instead of as \"a march\").", "Ahavo Rabboh means \"Abounding Love\" in Hebrew, and refers to a prayer from the daily morning prayer service (\"shacharis\"). It is built on the 5th degree of the harmonic minor scale, with a descending tetrachord to the tonic being the most characteristic final cadence. It is also called the \"Freygish\", a Yiddish term derived from the German \"Phrygisch\", or Phrygian mode (specifically, the Phrygian dominant scale). It is considered the mode of supplication. Conversely, it can be thought of as a natural minor scale with lowered 2nd, and augmented 3rd degrees. It is similar to the Arabic Hijaz maqam. Much of klezmer music uses the Ahavah Rabboh scale (such as Nigun Rikud, Tish Nigun and numerous freylekhs), although Mi Sheberach is prevalent as well.", "Mi Shebeirach means \"He who blessed\" in Hebrew, from the \"Mi Shebeirach\" prayer, recited after the honor of being called to the Torah reading. It is also called the \"Ukrainian\", \"Altered Ukrainian\", \"Doina\", or \"Altered Dorian\". It is similar to the natural minor scale, but has raised fourth and sixth scale degrees, and is used often for the doina or dance pieces, like the \"Odessa Bulgar\". When used in combination with the Ahavoh Rabboh scale in the same piece (as in Mayn Shtetl Yas), the Mi Shebeirach section is usually a whole tone below the Ahavoh Rabboh scale (for example, D Ahavoh Rabboh changes to C Mi Shebeirach or vice versa).", "Adoyn-y Moloch means \"my Lord reigns\" in Hebrew. It is common in traditional synagogue services (they are the beginning words of many of the Psalms). It is similar to the Western Mixolydian mode and can be thought of as a major scale with a lowered 7th, which is sometimes raised at cadences, but is generally avoided altogether.", "Mogen Ovoys means \"our forebears' shield\" in Hebrew. It is an older mode from the synagogue, derived from the Friday night prayers. It is similar to the Western melodic minor scale.", "Yishtabach means \"it shall become superb\" in Hebrew (from the daily morning services). It has a frequent lowering of the 2nd and 5th. It is related to \"Mogein Ovoys\", above." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Ultimate causes.", "Legacies of the First World War.", "Failure of the League of Nations.", "Expansionism and militarism.", "Germans vs Slavs.", "Japan's seizure of resources and markets.", "Mason-Overy febate: \"Flight into War\" theory.", "Proximate causes.", "Nazi dictatorship.", "Re-militarization of the Rhineland.", "Italian invasion of Abyssinia.", "Spanish Civil War.", "Second Sino-Japanese War.", "Anschluss.", "Munich Agreement.", "Italian invasion of Albania.", "Soviet–Japanese Border War.", "Danzig crisis.", "Polish alliance with the Entente.", "Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.", "Declarations of war.", "Invasion of Poland.", "Invasion of the Soviet Union.", "Attacks on Pearl Harbor, the Philippines, British Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "By the end of World War I in late 1918, the world's social and geopolitical circumstances had fundamentally and irrevocably changed. The Allies had been victorious, but many of Europe's economies and infrastructures were devastated, including those of the victors. France, along with the other victor countries, was in a desperate situation regarding its economy, security, and morale, and understood that its position in 1918 was \"artificial and transitory\". Thus, Prime Minister of France Georges Clemenceau worked to gain French security via the Treaty of Versailles, and French security demands, such as reparations, coal payments, and a demilitarized Rhineland, took precedence at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920, which designed the treaty. The war \"must be someone's fault – and that's a very natural human reaction\" analyzed historian Margaret MacMillan. Germany was charged with the sole responsibility of starting World War I, and the \"War Guilt Clause\" was the first step towards a satisfying revenge for the victor countries, namely France, against Germany. Ginsberg argues, \"France was greatly weakened and, in its weakness and fear of", "The League of Nations was an international peacekeeping organization founded after World War I with the explicit goal of preventing future wars. The League's methods included disarmament, collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation diplomacy, and improving global welfare. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift in thought from the preceding century. The old philosophy of \"concert of nations\", growing out of the Congress of Vienna (1815), saw Europe as a shifting map of alliances among nation-states, creating a balance of power maintained by strong armies and secret agreements. Under the new philosophy, the League would act as a government of governments, with the role of", "Expansionism is the doctrine of expanding the territorial base (or economic influence) of a country, usually by means of military aggression. Militarism is the principle or policy of maintaining a strong military capability to use aggressively to expand national interests and/or values, with the view that military efficiency is the supreme ideal of a state. Though the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations had sought to stifle expansionist and militarist policies by all actors, the conditions their creators had imposed on the world's new geopolitical situation and the technological circumstances of the era only emboldened the re-emergence of these ideologies", "Twentieth-century events marked the culmination of a millennium-long process of intermingling between Germans and Slavic peoples. The rise of nationalism in the 19th century made race a centerpiece of political loyalty. The rise of the nation-state had", "Other than a few coal and iron deposits, and a small oil field on Sakhalin Island, Japan lacked strategic mineral resources. At the start of the 20th century in the Russo-Japanese War, Japan had succeeded in pushing back the East Asian expansion of the Russian Empire in competition for Korea and Manchuria. Japan's goal after 1931 was economic dominance of most of East Asia, often expressed in Pan-Asian terms of \"Asia for the Asians.\". Japan was determined to dominate the China market, which the U.S. and other European powers had been dominating. On October 19, 1939, the American Ambassador to Japan, Joseph C. Grew, in a formal address to the America-Japan Society stated: In 1937 Japan invaded Manchuria and China", "In the late 1980s, the British historian Richard Overy was involved in a historical dispute with Timothy Mason that mostly played out over the pages of the \"Past and Present\" journal over the reasons for the outbreak of World War II in 1939. Mason had contended that a \"flight into war\" had been imposed on Adolf Hitler by a structural economic crisis, which confronted Hitler with the choice of making difficult economic decisions or aggression. Overy argued against Mason's thesis, maintaining that though Germany was faced with economic problems in 1939, the extent of these problems cannot explain aggression against Poland and the reasons for the outbreak of war were due to the choices made by the Nazi leadership. Mason had argued that the German working-class was", "", "Hitler and his Nazis took full control of Germany in 1933–34 (Machtergreifung), turning it into a dictatorship with a highly hostile outlook toward the Treaty of Versailles and Jews. It solved its unemployment crisis by heavy military spending. Hitler's diplomatic tactics were to make seemingly reasonable demands, then threatening war if they were not met; concessions were made, he accepted them and moved onto a new demand. When opponents tried to", "In violation of the Treaty of Versailles and the spirit of the Locarno Pact and the Stresa Front, Germany re-militarized the Rhineland on March 7, 1936. It moved German", "After the Stresa Conference and even as a reaction to the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini attempted to expand the Italian Empire in Africa by invading the Ethiopian Empire, also known as the Abyssinian Empire. The League of Nations declared Italy to be the aggressor and imposed sanctions on oil sales", "Between 1936 and 1939, Germany and Italy lent support to the Nationalists led by general Francisco Franco in Spain, while the Soviet Union supported the existing democratically elected government, the Spanish Republic, led by Manuel Azaña. Both sides experimented with new weapons and tactics. The League of Nations was never involved, and the major powers of the League remained neutral and tried (with little success) to", "In 1931 Japan took advantage of China's weakness in the Warlord Era and fabricated the Mukden Incident in 1931 to set up the puppet state of Manchukuo in Manchuria, with Puyi, who had been the last emperor of China, as its emperor. In 1937 the Marco Polo Bridge Incident triggered the Second Sino-Japanese War. The invasion", "The \"Anschluss\" was the 1938 annexation by threat of force of Austria into Germany. Historically, the Pan-Germanism idea of creating a Greater Germany to include all ethnic Germans into one nation-state was popular for Germans in both Austria and Germany. One of the Nazi party's points was \"We demand the unification of all Germans in the Greater Germany on the basis of the people's right", "The Sudetenland was a predominantly-German region in Czechoslovakia along thr border with Germany. It had more than three million ethnic Germans, who comprised almost a quarter of the population of Czechoslovakia. In the Treaty of Versailles it was given to the Czechoslovakia against the wishes of most of the local population. The decision to disregard their right to self-determination was based on France's intent to weaken Germany. Much of Sudetenland was industrialized. Czechoslovakia had a modern army of 38 divisions, backed by a well-noted armament industry (Škoda) as well as military alliances with France and the Soviet Union. However, its defensive strategy against Germany was based on the mountains of the Sudetenland. Hitler pressed for the Sudetenland's incorporation into Germany snd supported German separatist groups within the region. Alleged Czechoslovak brutality and persecution under Prague helped to stir up nationalist tendencies, as did the Nazi press. After the \"Anschluss\", all German parties (except the German Social-Democratic party) merged with the Sudeten German Party", "After the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, Mussolini feared for Italy becoming a second-rate member of the Axis. Rome delivered Tirana an ultimatum on March 25, 1939 by demanding the accession to", "In 1939, the Japanese attacked west from Manchuria into the Mongolian People's Republic afrer the earlier 1938 Battle of Lake Khasan. They were decisively beaten by Soviet units, under General Georgy Zhukov. After the battle, the Soviet Union", "After the final fate of Czechoslovakia proved that the Führer's word could not be trusted, Britain and France decided on a change of strategy. They decided any further unilateral German expansion would be met by force. The natural next target for the Third Reich's further expansion was Poland, whose access to the Baltic sea had been carved out of West Prussia by the Versailles treaty, making East Prussia an exclave. The main port of the area, Danzig, had been made a free city-state under Polish influence guaranteed by the League", "In March 1939, Britain and France guaranteed the independence of Poland. Hitler's claims in the summer", "Nominally, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact was a non-aggression treaty between Germany and the Soviet Union. It was signed in Moscow on August 23, 1939, by the Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov and the German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop. In 1939, neither Germany nor the Soviet Union was ready to go to war with each other. The Soviet Union had lost territory to Poland in 1920. Although officially labeled a \"non-aggression treaty,\" the pact included a secret protocol in which the independent countries of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Romania were divided into spheres of interest of the parties. The secret protocol explicitly assumed \"territorial and political rearrangements\" in those countries' areas. All of those mentioned countries were invaded, occupied, or forced to cede part of their territory by the Soviet Union, Germany, or both.", "", "Between 1919 and 1939 Poland pursued a policy of balancing between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany, seeking non-aggression treaties with both. In early 1939 Germany demanded that Poland join the Anti-Comintern Pact as a satellite state of Germany. Poland, fearing a loss of independence, refused, and Hitler told his generals on 23 May 1939 that the reason for invading Poland was not Danzig: \"Danzig is not the issue at stake. It's a matter of extending", "Germany attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941. Hitler believed that the Soviet Union could be defeated in a", "The US government and the American public in general had been supportive of China, condemning the colonialist policies of the European powers and Japan, and promoting the so-called Open Door Policy. Many Americans viewed the Japanese as an aggressive and/or inferior race. The Nationalist government of Chiang Kai-shek held friendly relations with the United States, which opposed Japan's invasion of China in 1937 and considered it a violation of international law and of the sovereignty of the Republic of China. It and offered the Nationalist government diplomatic, economic, and military assistance during its war against Japan. Diplomatic friction between the United States and Japan manifested itself in events like the Panay incident in 1937 and the Allison incident in 1938. Reacting to Japanese pressure on French", "[[Category:Causes of wars|World War II, Causes of]] [[Category:Chronology of World War II]] [[Category:Politics of World War II]]" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Attestations.", "Theories.", "Modern influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The etymology of the name is uncertain. The root \"kvas-\" in \"Kvas-ir\" likely stems from the Proto-Germanic base *\"kvass\"-, meaning “to squeeze, squash, crush, bruise”. Regarding this etymology, linguist Albert Morey Sturtevant comments that \"fluids may result from the crushing or pressing of an object (cf. Dan. \"kvase\" 'to crush something in order to squeeze out the juice'). Hence we are justified in assuming the stem syllable in \"kvas-ir\" has reference to the fluid (saliva) out of which he was created and that the name \"Kvas-ir\" denotes the person who possesses the characteristic qualities inherent in this fluid, viz., poetic inspiration and wisdom.\" The same root \"kvas-\" may also be related to kvass, a fermented drink of the Slavic peoples. The common Slavic word stems from Proto-Slavic *\"kvasъ\" (\"leaven\", \"fermented drink\") and ultimately from Proto-Indo-European base \"kwat\". This etymological connection, as considered by some scholars (Alexander Afanasyev, Richard Heinzel, Jooseppi Julius Mikkola, Georges Dumézil, et al.), is motivated by the consideration of kvasir as a personification of fermented beverages.", "In the \"Prose Edda\", Kvasir appears in the books \"Gylfaginning\" and \"Skáldskaparmál\". Kvasir is mentioned a single time in \"Gylfaginning\"; in chapter 50, where the enthroned figure of High tells Gangleri (Gylfi in disguise) of how Loki was caught by the gods after being responsible for the murder of the god Baldr. In the chapter, High says that while Loki was hiding from the gods, he often took the form of a salmon during the day and swam in the waterfall Franangrsfors. Loki considered what sort of device that the gods might craft to catch him there, and so, sitting in his four-door mountain lookout house, knotted together linen thread in \"which ever since the net has been\". Loki noticed that the gods were not far away from him, and that Odin had spotted him from Hliðskjálf. Loki sat before a fire, and when he noticed the gods were coming near him, he threw the net into the fire and jumped up and slipped into the river. The gods reached Loki's house, and the first to enter was Kvasir, who High describes as \"the wisest of all\". Kvasir saw the shape of the net in the ash of the fire, and so realized its purpose; to catch fish. And so Kvasir told the gods about it. The gods used the shape found in the ash as their model, and with it flushed Loki out of the river, resulting in his binding. In \"Skáldskaparmál\", Kvasir is mentioned several times. In chapter 57 of the book, Ægir asks the skaldic god Bragi where the craft of poetry originates. Bragi says that the Æsir once wrangled with the Vanir (see Æsir–Vanir War) but eventually came together to make peace. The two groups decided to form a truce by way of both sides spitting into a vat. After they left, the gods kept the vat as a symbol of their truce, \"and decided not to let it be wasted and out of it made a man\". The man was named Kvasir, and he was extremely wise; he knew the answer to any question posed to him. Kvasir traveled far and wide throughout the world teaching mankind and spreading his vast knowledge. In time, two dwarfs, Fjalar and Galar, invited Kvasir to their home for a private talk. Upon Kvasir's arrival, the two dwarfs killed him, and drained his blood into three objects. Two of the objects were vats, called Són and Boðn, and the third was a pot called Óðrerir. Fjalar and Galar mixed the blood with honey and the mixture became mead, and whomever partakes of it becomes a poet or scholar (Kvasir's blood had become the Mead of Poetry). The two dwarfs explained to the Æsir that Kvasir died by way of “suffocat[ion] in intelligence”, as there were none among them who were so well educated as to be able to pose him questions. Bragi then tells how the Mead of Poetry, by way of the god Odin, ultimately came into the hands of mankind. In chapter 2 \"Skáldskaparmál\", poetic ways of referring to poetry are provided, including \"Kvasir's blood\". In reference, part of \"Vellekla\" by the 10th century Icelandic skald Einarr skálaglamm is provided, where the term \"Kvasir's blood\" for 'poetry' is used. Further, in chapter 3, a prose narrative mentions that the Kvasir's blood was made into the Mead of Poetry. Kvasir is mentioned in an euhemerized account of the origin of the gods in chapter 4 of \"Ynglinga saga\", contained within \"Heimskringla\". The chapter narrative explains that Odin waged war on the Vanir, yet the Vanir could not be defeated, and so the two decided to exchange hostages in a peace agreement. Kvasir, here a member of the Vanir and described as the \"cleverest among them\", is included among the hostages.", "Rudolf Simek comments that \"kvasir\" likely originally referred to juice squeezed from berries and then fermented. In some ancient cultures, berries were communally chewed before being spat into a container, which exactly parallels Kvasir's mythical creation. Simek says that Snorri's description is further proven faithful by way of the (above-mentioned) 10th-century skaldic kenning “Kvasir's blood” (Old Norse \"Kvasis dreya\"), and that strong parallels exist between the Old Norse tale of the theft of the Mead of Poetry by Odin (in the form of an eagle) and the Sanskrit tale of the theft of Soma—beverage of the gods—by the god Indra (or an eagle), and that these parallels point to a common Proto-Indo-European basis. Further, the mixing of spit in a vat between the two groups of gods points to an ancient basis for the myth, as the customs of mixing spittle and the group drinking of intoxicating beverage are well rooted in traditional peacemaking and group binding customs among various ancient peoples.", "A Norwegian search engine, Kvasir, takes its name from the god." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Attestations.", "\"Poetic Edda\".", "\"Prose Edda\".", "Theories." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In the poem \"Völuspá\", a dead völva recounts the history of the universe and foretells the future to the disguised god Odin. In doing so, the völva recounts the early days of the universe: In stanza 23 of the poem \"Vafþrúðnismál\", the god Odin (disguised as \"Gagnráðr\") tasks the jötunn Vafþrúðnir with a question about the origins of the Sun and the Moon, whom he describes as journeying over mankind. Vafþrúðnir responds that Mundilfari is the father of both Sól and Máni, and that they must pass through the heavens every day to count the years for mankind: In stanza 39 of the poem \"Grímnismál\", Odin (disguised as \"Grímnir\") says that both the Sun and the Moon are pursued through the heavens by wolves; the Sun, referred to as the \"shining god\" is pursued by Sköll to the \"protecting woods\", while the moon is pursued by Hati Hróðvitnisson. In stanza 13 of the poem \"Alvíssmál\", the god Thor questions the dwarf Alvíss about the Moon, asking him what the Moon is called in each of the worlds. Alvíss responds that it is called \"moon\" by mankind, \"fiery one\" by the gods, \"the whirling wheel\" in Hel, \"the hastener\" by the jötnar, \"the shiner\" by the dwarves, and \"the counter of years\" by the elves.", "In the \"Prose Edda\" book \"Gylfaginning\", Máni is referenced in three chapters. In chapter 8, the enthroned figure of High quotes stanza 5 of \"Völuspá\", and the figure of Third, also enthroned, adds that this occurred prior to the creation of the Earth. In chapter 11, High says that Máni and his sister Sól are the children of a man by the name of Mundilfari. The children were so fair that Mundilfari named them \"moon\" and \"sun\". Perceiving this as arrogance, the gods were so angered that they placed the brother and sister in the heavens. There, Máni \"guides the path of the moon and controls its waxing and waning.\" Additionally, Máni is followed through the heavens by the brother and sister children Hjúki and Bil \"as can be seen from the earth\", whom he took from the Earth while they fetched water from a well. In chapter 51, High foretells the events of Ragnarök, including that Máni will be consumed by one of two wolves chasing the heavenly bodies. In the \"Prose Edda\" book \"Skáldskaparmál\", Sól is referred to in chapter 26 as \"sister of Máni\", and in chapter 55 names are given for the moon: \"lune\", \"waxer\", \"waner\", \"year-counter\", \"clipped\", \"shiner\", \"gloam\", \"hastener\", \"squinter\" and \"gleamer\".", "Kennings in the skaldic corpus for female jötnar have been identified (such as \"desired woman of Máni\" used by the 10th century skald Guthormr sindri) as pointing to a potential marriage or sexual union between Máni and a female jötunn. John Lindow states that if a story about Máni having such a relationship with a female jötunn existed, then \"it has left no other trace in the extant mythology. Rudolf Simek states that in two skaldic kennings \"Máni is apparently a gigantic being in a myth of which we otherwise know nothing\". John Lindow theorizes on Máni's fate at Ragnarök in that \"as part of the creation of the æsir, that is, the cosmos, Máni must be destroyed at Ragnarök, but this is not explicitly stated, except perhaps by Snorri, who tells about Mánagarm, who will swallow a heavenly body that may be the moon\". Rudolf Simek connects the account of Máni, and Hjúki and Bil (featuring, as Simek states, \"a man with a pole and a woman with a bushel\") found in chapter 11 of \"Gylfaginning\" with modern accounts of the Man in the Moon found in modern folklore in Scandinavia, England, and North Germany. Simek additionally points out that a stanza appearing early in the poem \"Völuspá\" states that the Æsir had set up the Moon \"in order to be able to reckon the year\", which Simek connects with Germanic computation of time having been directed towards the moon rather than the sun, and that shorter amounts of time were given in nights rather than days." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Attestations.", "\"Poetic Edda\".", "\"Prose Edda\".", "\"Heimskringla\".", "Theories." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The proper names \"Mímir\" and \"Mim\" present difficulties for historical linguists. However, the most generally accepted etymology among philologists is that \"Mímir\" stems from a reduplication of the Proto-Indo-European verb *\"(s)mer-\", meaning 'to think, recall, reflect, worry over' (compare Sanskrit \"smárati\", Avestan \"hi-šmaraiti\", Ancient Greek \"mermaírō\", Gothic \"maúrnan\"). In turn, scholars note that the names \"Mímir\" and \"Mim\" are therefore likely ultimately related to the modern English word'memory' and its associated concepts. For example, scholar Rudolf Simek renders the name as meaning 'the rememberer, the wise one'.", "", "Mímir is mentioned in the \"Poetic Edda\" poems \"Völuspá\" and \"Sigrdrífumál\". In \"Völuspá\", Mímir is mentioned in two stanzas. Stanza 28 references Odin's sacrifice of his eye to Mímir's Well, and states that Mímir drinks mead every morning \"from the Father of the Slain's [Odin] wager.\" Stanza 46 describes that, in reference to Ragnarök, the \"sons\" of Mím are at play while \"fate burns\" (though no further information about these \"sons\" has survived), that the god Heimdallr blows the Gjallarhorn, and that Mímir's severed head gives counsel to Odin. The single mention in stanza 14 of \"Sigrdrífumál\" is also a reference to Mímir's speaking, decollated head. Stanzas 20 and 24 of the poem \"Fjölsvinnsmál\" refer to Yggdrasil as \"Mímameiðr\".", "In chapter 15 of the \"Prose Edda\" book \"Gylfaginning\", as owner of his namesake well, Mímir himself drinks from it and gains great knowledge. To drink from the well, he uses the Gjallarhorn, a drinking horn which shares its name with the sounding horn used by Heimdallr intended to announce the onset of Ragnarök. The section further relates that the well is located beneath one of the three roots of Yggdrasil, in the realm of the frost jötnar. Chapter 51 relates that, with the onset of Ragnarök, \"Heimdall stands up and blows the Gjallarhorn with all his strength. He wakens all the gods who then hold an assembly. Odin now rides to Mimir's Well, seeking council for both himself and his followers. The ash Yggdrasil shakes, and nothing, whether in heaven or on earth, is without fear.\" In the \"Prose Edda\" book \"Skáldskaparmál\", Mímir's name appears in various kennings. These kennings include \"Mím's friend\" (for \"Odin\") in three places, \"mischief-Mímir\" (a kenning for \"jötunn\"), and among a list of names for jötunn.", "Mímir is mentioned in chapters 4 and 7 of the saga \"Ynglinga Saga\", as collected in \"Heimskringla\". In chapter 4, Snorri presents a euhemerized account of the Æsir-Vanir War. Snorri states that the two sides eventually tired of the war and both agree to meet to establish a truce. The two sides meet and exchanged hostages. Vanaheimr are described as having sent to Asgard their best men: Njörðr—described as wealthy—and his son Freyr in exchange for Asaland's Hœnir—described here as large, handsome, and thought of by the people of Vanaheimr well suited to be a chieftain. Additionally, the Æsir send Mímir—described as a man of great understanding—in exchange for Kvasir, who Snorri describes as the wisest man of Vanaheimr. Snorri continues that, upon arrival in Vanaheimr, Hœnir was immediately made chief and Mímir often gave him good counsel. However, when Hœnir was at meetings and at the Thing without Mímir by his side, he would always answer the same way: \"Let others decide.\" Subsequently, the Vanir suspected they had been cheated in the exchange by the Æsir, so they seized Mimir and beheaded him and sent the head to Asgard. Odin took the head of Mímir, embalmed it with herbs so that it would not rot, and spoke charms over it, which gave it the power to speak to him and reveal to him secrets. The head of Mímir is again mentioned in chapter 7 in connection with Odin, where Odin is described as keeping Mímir's head with him and that it divulged information from other worlds.", "On the basis of \"Hávamál\" 140 – where Odin learns nine magic songs from the unnamed brother of his mother Bestla – some scholars have theorized that Bestla's brother may in fact be Mímir, who is then Odin's maternal uncle. This also means that Mimir's father would be Bölþorn. In the theories of Viktor Rydberg, Mímir's wife is Sinmara, named in the poem \"Fjölsvinnsmal\". According to Rydberg, the byname \"Sinmara\" (\"sinew-maimir\") refers to \"Mímir-Niðhad\"'s \"queen ordering Völund's hamstrings to be cut\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "\"The People's Car\".", "Development.", "Factory.", "Wartime production.", "Post-war production and boom.", "Decline.", "Worldwide end of production.", "Prototypes.", "Diesel.", "Design.", "Evolution and design changes.", "Beetle cabriolet.", "1950–1959 models.", "1960–1969 models.", "1970–1979 models.", "Introduction to international markets.", "Ireland.", "United Kingdom.", "Japan.", "Vietnam.", "International production.", "Brazil.", "Southern Rhodesia.", "Mexico.", "Australia.", "South Africa.", "Influence claims.", "Béla Barényi.", "Standard Superior.", "Tatra.", "Fedden.", "Tjaarda's 'Briggs Dream Car'.", "Motorsport.", "Drag racing.", "Formula Vee.", "Uniroyal Fun Cup.", "Rally and Rallycross.", "Trans-Am Series.", "Armstrong 500.", "Baja 1000.", "Beetle Challenge.", "Retrofit program." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The original concept behind the first Volkswagen, the company, and its name is the notion of a \"people’s car\" – a car affordable and practical enough for common people to own. Hence the name, which is literally \"people's car\" in German, pronounced ). Although the Volkswagen beetle was mainly the brainchild of Ferdinand Porsche and Adolf Hitler, the idea of a \"people's car\" is much older than Nazism and has existed since the mass-production of cars was introduced. In fact, Béla Barényi was able to prove in court in 1953 that Porsche's patents were Barényi's ideas, and therefore Barényi has since been credited with first conceiving the original design for this car in 1925, – notably by Mercedes-Benz, on their website, including his original technical drawing, – five years before Ferdinand Porsche claimed to have made his initial version. Barényi also successfully sued Volkswagen for copyright infringement in 1955, whereby his contribution to the creation of the VW Type 1 was legally acknowledged. Contrary to the situation in the United States, where", "Ferdinand Porsche developed the Type 12, or \"\"Auto für Jedermann\"\" (car for everybody) for Zündapp in 1931. Porsche already preferred the flat-four engine, and selected a swing axle rear suspension (invented by Edmund Rumpler), while Zündapp insisted on a water-cooled five-cylinder radial engine. In 1932 three prototypes were running; all were lost during World War II, the last in a bombing raid in Stuttgart in 1945. The Zündapp prototypes were followed by the Porsche Type 32, designed in 1933 for \"NSU Motorenwerke AG\", another motorcycle company. The Type 32 was similar in design to the Type 12, but it had a flat-four engine. NSU discontinued car manufacturing, and the Type 32 was abandoned at the prototype stage. Initially designated Type 60 by Porsche, the design team included", "On 26 May 1938, Hitler laid the cornerstone for the Volkswagen factory in Fallersleben. He gave a speech, in which he named the car \"Kraft-durch-Freude-Wagen\" (\"Strength Through Joy Car\", usually abbreviated to \"KdF-Wagen\"). The name refers to \"Kraft durch Freude\" ('Strength Through Joy'), the official leisure organization of Nazi Germany. The model village of Stadt des KdF-Wagens was created near Fallersleben in Lower Saxony in 1938 for the benefit", "A handful of KdF-Wagen were produced, primarily for the Nazi elite, from 1941 to 1944, as the Typ 60. During World War II, the factory primarily built the \"Kübelwagen\" (Typ 82), the \"Schwimmwagen\" (Typ 166), and a handful of other light wheeled vehicles, all mechanically derived from the Typ 1, for the \"Wehrmacht\". These included several hundred \"Kommandeurswagen\" (Typ 87), with a Typ 1 Beetle body mounted on the", "In occupied Germany, the Allies followed the Morgenthau plan to remove all German war potential by complete or partial pastoralization. As part of this, in the Industrial plans for Germany, the rules for which industry Germany was to be allowed to retain were set out. German car production was set at a maximum of 10% of the 1936 car production numbers. Mass production of civilian VW cars did not start until post-war occupation. The Volkswagen factory was handed over by the Americans to British control in 1945; it was to be dismantled and shipped to Britain. However, no British car manufacturer was interested in the factory; an official report", "Though extremely successful in the 1960s, experiencing its greatest sales growth in North America between 1960 and 1965, the Beetle was increasingly faced with stiff competition from more modern designs globally. The Japanese had refined rear-wheel-drive, water-cooled, front-engine, small cars including the Datsun 510 and Toyota Corona, whose sales in the North American market grew rapidly at the expense of Volkswagen in the late 1960s. Honda introduced the N600, based on the space-efficient transverse-engine, front-wheel-drive layout of the original Austin Mini, to the North American market in late 1969, and upgraded the model to the Honda Civic in 1972. The Japanese \"big three\" would soon dominate", "By 2002, over 21 million Type 1s had been produced, but by 2003, annual production had dropped to 30,000 from a peak of 1.3 million in 1971. VW announced the end of production in June 2003, citing decreasing demand, and the final original Type 1 VW Beetle (No. 21,529,464) rolled off the production line at Puebla, Mexico, on 30 July 2003, 65 years after its original launch. This last Beetle, nicknamed \"El Rey\" (Spanish for \"The King\" after a legendary Mexican song by José Alfredo Jiménez) was delivered to the company's museum in Wolfsburg, Germany. To celebrate the occasion, Volkswagen marketed a final, special series of 3,000 Beetles marketed as \"Última Edición\" (Final Edition) in light blue (Aquarius Blue) or beige (Harvest Moon Beige).", "", "In 1951, Volkswagen prototyped a 1.3 L diesel engine. Volkswagen made only two of these naturally aspirated, air-cooled boxer diesel engines,", "The Beetle featured a rear-located, rear-wheel drive, air-cooled four-cylinder, boxer engine in a two-door bodywork featuring a flat front windscreen, accommodating four passengers and providing luggage storage under the front bonnet and behind the rear seat—and offering a coefficient of drag of 0.48; to this relatively good C, the also streamlined rear of car was of help. The bodywork attached with eighteen bolts to its nearly flat platform chassis which featured a central structural tunnel. Front and rear suspension featured torsion bars along with front stabilizer bar—providing independent suspension at all wheels. Certain initial features were subsequently revised, including mechanical drum brakes, split-window rear windows, mechanical direction-indicators and the non-synchronized gearbox. Other features, including its distinctive overall shape, endured. In fact, the Beetle was prized for its seemingly unchanged appearance and \"marketed to American consumers as the anti-GM and Ford: 'We do not believe in planned obsolescence. We don't change a car for the sake of change.'\" Its engine, transmission, and cylinder heads were constructed of light alloy. An engine oil cooler (located in the", "", "It was in 1948 that Wilhelm Karmann first bought a VW Beetle sedan and converted it into a four-seated convertible. After successfully presenting it at VW in Wolfsburg the Beetle Cabriolet began production in 1949 by Karmann in Osnabrück. The convertible was more than a Beetle with a folding top. To compensate for the strength lost in removing the roof, the sills were reinforced with welded U-channel rails, a transverse beam was fitted below the front edge of the rear seat cushion, and the side cowl-panels below the instrument panel were double-wall. In addition, the lower corners of the door apertures had welded-in curved gussets, and the doors had secondary alignment wedges at the B-pillar. The top was", "During this period, myriad changes were made throughout the vehicle beginning with the availability of hydraulic brakes and a folding fabric sunroof in 1950. The rear window of the VW Beetle evolved from a divided or \"split\" oval, to a singular oval. The change occurred between October 1952 and March 1953. Beetles built during this time were known as a \"Zwitter\", or \"hybrid\", as they used the split-window bodyshell with oval-model chrome trim, vent windows and dashboard. 1953 models received a redesigned instrument panel. The one-piece \"Pope's Nose\" combination license plate/brake light was replaced by a smaller flat-bottomed license plate light. The brake light function was transferred to new heart-shaped lamps located in the top", "1960 models received a front anti roll bar along with hydraulic steering damper. For 1961, significant technical advances occurred in the form of a new engine and transmission. The engine remained at but the power increased to at 3900 rpm and at 2400 rpm of torque primarily due to an increase in compression ratio to 7.1:1. The single-barrel Solex carburetor received an electric automatic choke and the transmission was now synchronized on all forward gears. The traditional semaphore turn signals were replaced by conventional flashing directional indicators worldwide. The standard model called the TYPE 111–112, continued to use the 36 hp 1200 engine of the old architecture that dates back to Franz Reimspiess original design of 1937 all the way until the end of the 1965 model year. 1965 standard model in 1965 is called the \"A\" sedan. For 1962, the Beetle received a mechanical fuel level gauge in place of the former fuel tap. The Standard model continued without a gas gauge until the end of the 1965 model year. At the rear, larger tail lights were introduced incorporating a separate", "In 1970, a new \"L\" (Luxus) Package was introduced including, among other items, twin map pockets, dual rear ashtrays, full carpeting, a passenger-side visor vanity mirror, and rubber bumper moldings. The optional 1500 cc engine now came with an engine lid having two rows of cooling louvers, while the convertible's engine lid gained two additional sets for a total of four. For North America, the 1500 cc engine was enlarged to 1600 cc engine and produced There were two Beetles for the first time in 1971, the familiar standard Beetle and a new, larger version, different from the windscreen forward. All Beetles received an engine upgrade: the optional 1500 cc engine was replaced by a 1600 cc with twin-port cylinder heads and a larger, relocated oil cooler. The new engine produced. The ventilation system was improved with the original dash-top vents augmented by a second pair aimed directly at the driver and passenger. For the first time the system was a flow-through design with crescent-shaped air exits fitted behind the rear quarter windows. Airflow could be increased via an optional 2-speed fan. The standard Beetle was now badged as the VW 1300; when equipped with the 1600 engine, it was badged 1300 S, to avoided confusion with the Type 3, which wore VW 1600 badges. The new, larger Beetle was sold as the 1302/1302 S, offering nearly 43% more luggage capacity, up from 140 liters in front", "", "Volkswagen began its involvement in Ireland when in 1949, Motor Distributors Limited, founded by Stephen O'Flaherty secured the franchise for the country at that year's Paris Motor Show. In 1950, Volkswagen Beetles started arriving into Dublin packed in crates in what", "In 1952, John Colborne-Baber began to import small numbers of Beetles largely to satisfy demand from US Air Force personnel stationed in Kent. Today, Colborne Garages still hold the Volkswagen franchises for Guildford and Walton-on-Thames. In 1953 J.Gilder & Co.", "The Type 1 was introduced to Japan in 1953, and was imported by Yanase dealerships in Japan. Its exterior dimensions and engine displacement were in compliance with Japanese Government regulations, which", "Nguyen Hoang Hiep, vice chairman of the National Traffic Safety Committee, reported in 2014 that there were 2.1", "German production of the Beetle took place initially at the parent Wolfsburg plant until the Golf's introduction in 1974, later expanding to the newer Emden and Hanover plants. Volkswagen's takeover of Auto Union in 1964 saw 60,000 cars per year being produced on the Audi assembly lines in Ingolstadt until 1971. The last German made cars were assembled at Emden in 1978, after which the Puebla, Mexico plant became the principal source of Beetle production. Other countries produced Beetles from CKD (complete knockdown kits): Ireland, Thailand, Indonesia, South Africa, Australia, Yugoslavia (city of Sarajevo), and Nigeria have assembled Beetles under license from VW. Beetles produced in Mexico and Brazil had several differences:", "Brazilian assembly of the Beetle, where it is called \"Fusca\", started in 1953, with parts imported from Germany. By January 1959 the cars were built in the new São Bernardo do Campo plant, although they originally had 60% German parts content. By the mid-sixties, the cars had 99.93% Brazilian parts content, with four German parts of a combined value of about one US dollar still being imported. Production continued until 1986. In 1993 production resumed and continued to 1996. The Brazilian version retained the 1958–64 body style (Europe and U.S. version) with the thick door pillars and smaller side windows. This body style was also produced in Mexico until 1971. Around 1973, all Brazilian Beetles (1300 and 1500 series) were updated with the 1968-up sheet metal, bumpers, and four-lug rims; although the five-stud rims and \"bugeye\" headlights were produced as late as 1972 (the base VW 1200 and 1300 manufactured in Brazil was similar to the 1964 European/U.S. 1200 until the 1970 model year but came with vented wheels", "The Volkswagen Type 1 chassis was used as the basis for a mine-protected APC", "Mexican production began in 1955 because of agreements with companies such as Chrysler in Mexico and the Studebaker-Packard Corporation which assembled cars imported in CKD form. In 1964, they began to be locally produced. These models have the larger windshield, rear window, door and quarter glass starting in 1972; and the rear window from 1965 to 1971 German built models was used on the Mexican models from 1972 to 1985, when it was replaced with the larger rear window used on 1972 and later German built Beetles. This version, after the mid-1970s, saw little change with the incorporation of electronic ignition in 1988, an anti-theft alarm system in 1990, a catalytic converter in 1991 (as required by", "Official importation of the Volkswagen Beetle into Australia began in 1953, with local assembly operations commencing the following year. Volkswagen Australia was formed in 1957, and by 1960 locally produced body panels were being used for the first time. When the European Type One body received the larger windows for the 1965 model year, Volkswagen Australia decided not to update, but continued to produce the smaller-windowed bodies, with unique features to the", "The Beetle was also produced in South Africa at the Uitenhage plant from 31 August 1951 to 1979. Several features from the Super Beetle were grafted onto the South African Beetle 1600S, such as curved windshield, new dashboard, and larger taillights, while retaining the Beetle chassis and mechanicals. The 1600 model was introduced to South Africa in 1972; it was marketed as the cheapest 1.6-liter car available there. In late", "A number of separate cars and designs have each claimed to have been the original \"influencers\" of Porsche's Volkswagen concept.", "The Austro-Hungarian automotive engineer Béla Barényi is credited with designing a", "German engineer Josef Ganz designed a car, the \"May Bug\", that is very similar to the Volkswagen Beetle. Hitler saw the car in 1933 at an auto show. There is a strong resemblance to the Standard Superior, an automobile produced from 1933 to 1935 by Standard", "The Austrian car designer Hans Ledwinka was a contemporary of Porsche working at the Czechoslovakian company Tatra. In 1931, Tatra built the V570 prototype, which had an air-cooled flat-twin engine mounted at the rear. This was followed in 1933 by a second V570 prototype with a streamlined body similar to that of the Porsche Type 32. The rear-engine, rear-wheel drive layout was a challenge for effective air cooling, and during development of the much larger V8 engined Tatra 77 in 1933 Tatra registered numerous patents related to air flow into the rear engine compartment. The use of Tatra's patented air cooling designs later became one of ten issues for which Tatra filed suit against VW. Both Hitler and Porsche were influenced by the Tatras. Hitler was a keen automotive enthusiast, and had ridden in Tatras during political tours of Czechoslovakia. He had also dined numerous times with Ledwinka. After one of these dinners Hitler remarked to", "On Sept 28, 1943, Roy Fedden, most known by his participation in the Bristol Single Sleeve valve engine research, headed by Harry", "It has also been pointed out that the VW Beetle bears a striking resemblance to John Tjaarda's 1933 design for a streamlined, rear-engined car, that he created working for Briggs Manufacturing Company. At Briggs, a Detroit-based manufacturer of automobile bodies for Ford Motor Company, Chrysler Corporation and other U.S. and European automobile manufacturers, Tjaarda was developing a radical car", "", "The Beetle has been modified for use in drag racing; its rearward (RR layout) weight distribution keeps the weight over the rear wheels, maximizing grip off the starting line. The car's weight is reduced for", "The Beetle is also used as the basis for the Formula Vee open-wheel racing category: specifically, the front suspension crossmember assembly (the shock absorber mounts are sometimes removed, depending on regulations in the class), and the engine and transaxle assembly (usually the earlier swing-axle type, not the later double-jointed axle). In original 1,200 cc Formula Vee spec, upgrades to the cars would only be allowed sparsely, so that the wheels, tires and engines didn't differ very much from", "Volkswagen Beetle-style bodies are fitted to space frame racing chassis, and are used in the Uniroyal Fun", "Especially the Austrian sole distributor Porsche Salzburg (now Porsche Austria) seriously entered the Volkswagen in local and European contests in the 1960s and early 1970s. Starting with the VW 1500, in the mid-1960s the peak of their racing performance was achieved with the VW 1302S and VW 1303S (known as the Salzburg Rally Beetle) from 1971 to 1973. The vehicles were entered in such famous races as TAP (Portugal), Austrian Alpine, Elba, Acropolis etc. Drivers were top performers such as", "Beetles were used in the Trans-Am Series for", "A Volkswagen won its class in", "The Baja 1000 off-road race in the Baja California Peninsula, Mexico includes specific vehicle classes", "The Beetle Challenge is a UK-based circuit racing championship for classic air-cooled Volkswagen Beetles. The general concept is to take any Beetle, of any age or model from the 40s through to 1303s, and with minimal restrictions, allowing parts from various years to be interchanged, and of course", "Volkswagen has joined up with eClassics to allow beetle owners to convert their car to electric. The battery will have a total capacity of 36.8 kWh, which should be good for around 200 kilometers of range. It reaches a top speed of 150 km/h and charging for an hour allows to store enough energy for a journey of over 150 km." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Origins.", "Prototype and trials.", "Production.", "Design.", "Operational history.", "Pre-war.", "Phoney War.", "Battle of France.", "Operation Dynamo.", "Battle of Britain.", "Night fighters and intruders.", "North Africa.", "Defence of Malta.", "Air defence in Russia.", "Far East.", "Epilogue.", "Aircraft carrier operations.", "Hurricane aces.", "Operators.", "Surviving aircraft." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "During the era in which the Hawker Aircraft company developed the Hurricane, RAF Fighter Command comprised just 13 squadrons, equipped with the Hawker Fury, Hawker Demon, or the Bristol Bulldog, all biplanes furnished with fixed-pitch wooden propellers and non-retractable undercarriages. At the time, there was an institutional reluctance towards change within the Air Staff; according to aviation author Francis K. Mason, some senior figures were prejudiced against the adoption of monoplane fighter aircraft, while mid-level officers were typically approachable on the subject and design concepts that made use of such configurations. In 1934, the British Air Ministry issued Specification F.7/30 in response to demands within the Royal Air Force (RAF) for a new generation of fighter aircraft. Earlier, during 1933, British aircraft designer Sydney Camm had conducted discussions with Major John Buchanan of the Directorate of Technical Development on a monoplane based on the existing Fury. Mason attributes Camm's discussions with figures within the RAF, such as Squadron Leader Ralph Sorley, as having provoked the specification and some of its details, such as the preference", "In July 1934 at a meeting chaired by Air Commodore Tedder, Air Ministry Science Office Captain F.W. (\"Gunner\") Hill presented his calculation showing that future fighters must carry no fewer than eight machine guns, each capable of firing 1,000 shots a minute. Hill's assistant in making his calculations was his teenage daughter. Of the decision to place eight machine guns in fighters, Keith says 'The battle was brisk and was carried into very high quarters before the implementing authority was given. My Branch had made out a sound case for 8-gun fighters and if this recommendation had not been accepted and we had been content with half-measures, it might indeed have gone ill for us during the late summer of 1940'. Present at", "In June 1936, the Hurricane was formally ordered into production, the Air Ministry having placed its first order that month for 600 aircraft. On 26 June 1936, the type name \"Hurricane\", which had been proposed by Hawker, was approved by the Air Ministry; an informal christening ceremony for the aircraft was carried out during the following month during an official visit by King Edward VIII to Martlesham Heath. A key reason for the aircraft's appeal was its relatively simple construction and ease of manufacture. In comparison to the Supermarine Spitfire, it was significantly cheaper and involved less labour, requiring 10,300 man hours to produce versus 15,200 for the Spitfire. As a large-scale war was looking increasingly likely, and time was of the essence in providing the RAF with an", "The Hawker Hurricane is a low-wing cantilever monoplane outfitted with retractable undercarriage and an enclosed cockpit for the pilot. A clean, single-seat fighter, it was developed to provide a competent combatant for aerial combat against the latest fighter designs that were emerging amongst the air services of other powers of the era. The Hurricane was initially armed with an arrangement of eight remotely-operated wing-mounted Browning machine guns, intended for conducting rapid engagements. The Hurricane was typically equipped for flying under both day and night conditions, being provided with navigation lights, Harley landing lights, complete blind-flying equipment, and two-way radios. Upon its entry to service, much of the performance data was intentionally concealed from the general public, but it was known that the type possessed a speed range of 6:1. Though faster and more advanced than the RAF's current front line biplane fighters, the design of the Hurricane's construction was already considered to be somewhat outdated when introduced to service and resembled those used on the earlier biplanes. Hawker had decided to employ its traditional construction techniques instead of radical measures such as the adoption of a stressed-skin metal exterior. The primary structure comprised a Warren truss box-girder that made use of high-tensile steel longerons and duralumin cross-bracing, which were mechanically fastened instead of welded. Over this, a secondary structure composed of wooden formers and stringers gave the fuselage a rounded external shape, which carried a doped linen covering. The majority of the external surfaces were linen, save for a section between the cockpit and the engine cowling that used lightweight metal panels instead. Similarly, a simple steel tube structure in the nose of the fuselage was used to support the engine; detachable panels across the cowling provided access to most of the engine's areas for inspection or adjustment purposes. Installed underneath the fuselage, the liquid-cooled radiator has a rectangular opening to its aft; this is covered by a hinged flap via which the pilot was able to actively vary the cooling level. An atypical feature for the era was the use of Tungum alloy pipes throughout the cooling system. Initially, the structure of the Hurricane's cantilever wing consisted of two steel spars, which possessed considerable strength and stiffness. The wing was described by aviation publication Flight as being relatively straightforward to manufacture, employing simple vertical jigs to attach the two spars, after which the wing ribs would be installed using horizontal bolts, forming separate units between the front and rear spars. Hydraulically-actuated split trailing edge flaps were present on the inner end of the wings. The original wing was predominantly fabric-covered, like the fuselage, while some use of lightweight metal sheets was made upon the exterior surface of the inner wing and its leading edge. The majority of the Flight control surfaces, such as the Frise-type ailerons, also had fabric coverings. An all-metal, stressed-skin wing of duraluminium (a DERD specification similar to AA2024) was introduced in April 1939 and was used for all of the later marks. \"The metal skinned wings allowed a diving speed", "", "By the middle of 1938, the first 50 Hurricanes had reached squadrons and, at that time, it had been assessed that the rate of production was slightly greater than the RAF's capacity to introduce the new aircraft, which had already been accelerated. Accordingly, the British government gave Hawker the clearance to sell excess aircraft to nations that were likely to oppose German expansion. As a result, there were some modest export sales made to other countries; at the earliest opportunity, a former RAF Hurricane I was dispatched to Yugoslavia for evaluation purposes. Shortly after this evaluation, an order for 24 Hurricane Mark Is for the Royal Yugoslav Air Force was received; this was followed by the purchase of a production licence for the Hurricane by Yugoslavia. Yugoslavia Hurricanes saw action against the Luftwaffe during the invasion of", "Owing to the Hurricane's rugged construction, ease of maintenance and repair in the field, and its docile landing and take-off characteristics, coupled with a wide-track undercarriage, it was selected to go to France as the principal RAF fighter. Two Hurricane squadrons, No. 1 and No. 73, formed 67 Wing of the Advanced Air Striking Force, while two more, No. 85 85 Sqn and No. 87, formed 60 Wing of the Air Component, BEF. While the two squadrons of No. 60 Wing had their Hurricanes painted in the standard colour scheme and markings of Home-based fighters, those of No. 67 Wing differed considerably. It was probably because No. 1 and No. 73 Squadrons were operating in close proximity to French fighter squadrons that these units painted Red, White and Blue stripes over the entire height of the rudders on", "In May 1940, Nos. 3, 79 and 504 Squadrons reinforced the earlier units as Germany's \"Blitzkrieg\" gathered momentum. On 10 May, the first day of the Battle of France, Flight Lieutenant R. E. Lovett and Flying Officer \"Fanny\" Orton, of 73 Squadron, were the first R.A.F pilots to engage enemy aircraft in the campaign. They attacked one of three Dornier Do 17s from \"4. Staffel/KG 2\" that were flying over their airfield at Rouvres-en-Woevre. The Dornier went away unscathed, while Orton was hit by defensive fire and had to force land. On the same day the Hurricane squadrons claimed 42 German aircraft, none of them fighters,", "During Operation Dynamo (the evacuation from Dunkirk of British, French and Belgian troops cut off by the German army during the Battle of Dunkirk), the Hawker Hurricanes operated from British bases. Between 26 May and 3 June 1940, the 14 Hurricane units involved were credited with 108 air victories. A total of 27 Hurricane pilots became aces during Operation Dynamo, led by Canadian Pilot Officer W. L. Willie McKnight (10 victories) and Pilot Officer Percival Stanley Turner (seven victories), who served in No. 242 Squadron, consisting mostly of Canadian personnel. Losses were 22 pilots killed and", "At the end of June 1940, following the fall of France, 31 of Fighter Command's 61 fighter squadrons were equipped with Hurricanes. The Battle of Britain officially lasted from 10 July until 31 October 1940, but the heaviest fighting took place between 8 August and 21 September. Both the Supermarine Spitfire and the Hurricane are renowned for their part in defending Britain against the Luftwaffe; generally, the Spitfire would intercept the German fighters, leaving Hurricanes to concentrate on the bombers, but, despite the undoubted abilities of the \"thoroughbred\" Spitfire, it was the \"workhorse\" Hurricane that scored the higher number of RAF victories during this period, accounting for 55 per cent of the 2,739 German losses, according to Fighter Command, compared with 42 per cent by Spitfires. On 8 August 1940, Hurricanes of No. 145 Squadron were recorded as having fired the first shots of the Battle of", "Following the Battle of Britain the Hurricane continued to give service; through the Blitz of 1941 it was the principal single-seat night fighter in Fighter Command. F/Lt. Richard Stevens claimed 14 Luftwaffe bombers flying Hurricanes in 1941. In 1942 the cannon-armed Mk IIc performed further afield, as a night intruder over occupied Europe. F/Lt. Karel Kuttelwascher of 1", "A Hurricane Mk I undertook tropical trials in Sudan in mid 1939, and a number were hastily tropicalised following Italy's entry into the war in June 1940. These aircraft were initially ferried through France and Malta by air to 80 Squadron in Egypt, replacing Gladiator biplanes. The Hurricane claimed its first kill in the Mediterranean on 19 June 1940, when F/O P.G. Wykeham-Barnes reported shooting down two Fiat CR.42s. Hurricanes served with several British Commonwealth squadrons in the Desert Air Force. They suffered heavy losses over North Africa after the arrival of Bf 109E and F-variants and were progressively replaced in the air superiority role from June 1941 by Curtiss Tomahawks/Kittyhawks. However, fighter-bomber variants (\"Hurribombers\") retained an edge in the ground attack role, due to their impressive armament of four 20 mm (.79 in)", "The Hurricane played a significant role in the defence of Malta. When Italy entered the war on 10 June 1940, Malta's air defence rested on Gloster Gladiators, which managed to hold out against vastly superior numbers of the Italian air force during the following 17 days. Initially there were six Gladiators, though after a while, only three were able to be flown at any one time because of a shortage of spare parts, and for whatever reason (five different explanations have been given), they became known as \"Faith, Hope and Charity\". Four Hurricanes joined them at the end of June, and together they faced attacks throughout July from the 200 enemy aircraft based in Sicily, with the loss of one Gladiator and one Hurricane. Further reinforcements arrived on 2 August in the form of 12 more Hurricanes", "The Hawker Hurricane was the first Allied Lend-Lease aircraft to be delivered to the Soviet Union with a total of 2,952 Hurricanes eventually delivered, becoming the most numerous British aircraft in Soviet service. Many Soviet pilots were disappointed by the Hawker fighter, regarding it as inferior to both German and Russian aircraft. During 1941, Mk II Hurricanes played an important air defence role when the Soviet Union found itself under threat from the approaching German Army, who were advancing across a broad front stretching", "Following the outbreak of the war with Japan, 51 Hurricane Mk IIBs en route to Iraq were diverted to Singapore; 10 were in crates, the others partially disassembled, these and the 24 pilots (many of whom were veterans of the Battle of Britain), who had been transferred to the theatre, formed the nucleus of five squadrons. They arrived on 13 January 1942, by which time the Allied fighter squadrons in Singapore, flying Brewster Buffalos, had been overwhelmed during the Malayan campaign. The fighters of the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force, especially the Nakajima Ki-43 Oscar, had been underestimated in its capability, numbers and the strategy of its commanders. Thanks to the efforts of the 151st Maintenance", "The battles over the Arakan in 1943 represented the last large-scale use of the Hurricane as a pure day fighter. But they were still used in the fighter-bomber role in Burma until the end of the war and they were occasionally caught up in air combat as well. For example, on 15 February 1944, Flg Off", "The Sea Hurricane became operational in mid-1941 and scored its first kill while operating from on 31 July 1941. During the next three years, Fleet Air Arm Sea Hurricanes were to feature prominently while operating from Royal Navy", "Top scoring", "Due to its lightweight, yet robust, construction and ease of maintenance, the Hurricane had a long operational life in many theatres of war. It was also built by, or exported to, several other countries. The Hurricane was unusual in that it was", "Of more than 14,583 Hurricanes that were built, approximately seventeen (including three Sea Hurricanes) are in airworthy condition worldwide, although many other non-flying examples survive in various air museums." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Practical OLEDs.", "Working principle.", "Carrier balance.", "Material technologies.", "Small molecules.", "Polymer light-emitting diodes.", "Phosphorescent materials.", "Device architectures.", "Structure.", "Color Patterning technologies.", "Shadow Mask patterning method.", "White + Color Filter method.", "Other color patterning approaches.", "TFT Backplane technologies.", "Advantages.", "Disadvantages.", "Lifespan.", "Cause of degradation.", "Color balance.", "Efficiency of blue OLEDs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "André Bernanose and co-workers at the Nancy-Université in France made the first observations of electroluminescence in organic materials in the early 1950s. They applied high alternating voltages in air to materials such as acridine orange, either deposited on or dissolved in cellulose or cellophane thin films. The proposed mechanism was either direct excitation of the dye molecules or excitation of electrons. In 1960, Martin Pope and some of his co-workers at New York University developed ohmic dark-injecting electrode contacts to organic crystals. They further described the necessary energetic requirements (work functions) for hole and electron injecting electrode contacts. These contacts are the basis of charge injection in all modern OLED devices. Pope's group also first observed direct current (DC) electroluminescence under vacuum on a single pure crystal of anthracene and on anthracene crystals doped with tetracene in 1963 using a small area silver electrode at 400 volts. The proposed mechanism was field-accelerated electron excitation of molecular fluorescence. Pope's group reported in 1965 that in the absence of an external electric field, the electroluminescence in anthracene crystals is caused by the recombination of a thermalized electron and hole, and that the conducting level of anthracene is higher in energy than the exciton energy level. Also in 1965, Wolfgang Helfrich and W. G. Schneider of the National Research Council in Canada produced double injection recombination electroluminescence for the first time in an anthracene single crystal using hole and electron injecting electrodes, the forerunner of modern double-injection devices. In the same year, Dow Chemical researchers patented a method of preparing electroluminescent cells using high-voltage (500–1500 V) AC-driven (100–3000Hz) electrically insulated one millimetre thin layers of a melted phosphor consisting of ground anthracene powder, tetracene, and graphite powder. Their proposed mechanism involved electronic excitation at the contacts between the graphite particles and the anthracene molecules. Roger Partridge made the first observation of electroluminescence from polymer films at the National Physical Laboratory in the United Kingdom. The device consisted of a film of poly(N-vinylcarbazole) up to 2.2 micrometers thick located between two charge injecting electrodes. The results of the project were patented in 1975 and published in 1983.", "Chemists Ching Wan Tang and Steven Van Slyke at Eastman Kodak built the first practical OLED device in 1987. This device used a two-layer structure with separate hole transporting and electron transporting layers such that recombination and light emission occurred in the middle of the organic layer; this resulted in a reduction in operating voltage and improvements in efficiency. Research into polymer electroluminescence culminated in 1990, with J. H. Burroughes \"et al.\" at the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge University, UK, reporting a high-efficiency green light-emitting polymer-based device using 100nm thick films of poly(p-phenylene vinylene). Moving from molecular to macromolecular materials solved the problems previously encountered with the long-term stability of the organic films and enabled high-quality films to be easily made. Subsequent research developed multilayer polymers and the new field of plastic electronics and OLED research and device production grew rapidly. In 1999, Kodak and Sanyo had entered into a partnership to jointly research, develop, and produce OLED displays. They announced the world's first 2.4-inch active-matrix, full-color OLED display in September the same year. In September 2002, they presented a prototype of 15-inch HDTV format display based on white OLED with color filters at the CEATEC Japan. Manufacturing of small molecule OLEDs was started in 1997 by Pioneer Corporation, followed by TDK in 2001 and Samsung-NEC Mobile Display (SNMD), which later became one of the world's largest OLED display manufacturers - Samsung Display, in 2002. The Sony XEL-1, released in 2007, was the first OLED television. Universal Display Corporation, one of the OLED materials companies, holds a number of patents concerning the commercialization of OLEDs that are used by major OLED manufacturers around the world. On December 5, 2017, JOLED, the successor of Sony and Panasonic's printable OLED business units, began the world's first commercial shipment of inkjet printed OLED panels. Dual panel or dual layer LCDs may be used instead of OLEDs, since OLEDs are difficult and expensive to make, unlike LCDs.", "A typical OLED is composed of a layer of organic materials situated between two electrodes, the anode and cathode, all deposited on a substrate. The organic molecules are electrically conductive as a result of delocalization of pi electrons caused by conjugation over part or all of the molecule. These materials have conductivity levels ranging from insulators to conductors, and are therefore considered organic semiconductors. The highest occupied and lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals (HOMO and LUMO) of organic semiconductors are analogous to the valence and conduction bands of inorganic semiconductors. Originally, the most basic polymer OLEDs consisted of a single organic layer. One example was the first light-emitting device synthesised by J. H. Burroughes \"et al.\", which involved a single layer of poly(p-phenylene vinylene). However multilayer OLEDs can be fabricated with two or more layers in order to improve device efficiency. As well as conductive properties, different materials may be chosen to aid charge injection at electrodes by providing a more gradual electronic profile, or block a charge from reaching the opposite electrode and being wasted. Many modern OLEDs incorporate a simple bilayer structure, consisting of a conductive layer and an emissive layer. More recent developments in OLED architecture improves quantum efficiency (up to 19%) by using a graded heterojunction. In the graded heterojunction architecture, the composition of hole and electron-transport materials varies continuously within the emissive layer with a dopant emitter. The graded heterojunction architecture combines the benefits of both conventional architectures by improving charge injection while simultaneously balancing charge transport within the emissive region. During operation, a voltage is applied across the OLED such that the anode is positive with respect to the cathode. Anodes are picked based upon the quality of their optical transparency, electrical conductivity, and chemical stability. A current of electrons flows through the device from cathode to anode, as electrons are injected into the LUMO of the organic layer at the cathode and withdrawn from the HOMO at the anode. This latter process may also be described as the injection of electron holes into the HOMO. Electrostatic forces bring the electrons and the holes towards each other and they recombine forming an exciton, a bound state of the electron and hole. This happens closer to the electron-transport layer part of the emissive layer, because in organic semiconductors holes are generally more mobile than electrons. The decay of this excited state results in a relaxation of the energy levels of the electron, accompanied by emission of radiation whose frequency is in the visible region. The frequency of this radiation depends on the band gap of the material, in this case the difference in energy between the HOMO and LUMO. As electrons and holes are fermions with half integer spin, an exciton may either be in a singlet state or a triplet state depending on how the spins of the electron and hole have been combined. Statistically three triplet excitons will be formed for each singlet exciton. Decay from triplet states (phosphorescence) is spin forbidden, increasing the timescale of the transition and limiting the internal efficiency of fluorescent devices. Phosphorescent organic light-emitting diodes make use of spin–orbit interactions to facilitate intersystem crossing between singlet and triplet states, thus obtaining emission from both singlet and triplet states and improving the internal efficiency. Indium tin oxide (ITO) is commonly used as the anode material. It is transparent to visible light and has a high work function which promotes injection of holes into the HOMO level of the organic layer. A second conductive (injection) layer is typically added, which may consist of, as the HOMO level of this material generally lies between the work function of ITO and the HOMO of other commonly used polymers, reducing the energy barriers for hole injection. Metals such as barium and calcium are often used for the cathode as they have low work functions which promote injection of electrons into the LUMO of the organic layer. Such metals are reactive, so they require a capping layer of aluminium to avoid degradation. Two secondary benefits of the aluminum capping layer include robustness to electrical contacts and the back reflection of emitted light out to the transparent ITO layer. Experimental research has proven that the properties of the anode, specifically the anode/hole transport layer (HTL) interface topography plays a major role in the efficiency, performance, and lifetime of organic light-emitting diodes. Imperfections in the surface of the anode decrease anode-organic film interface adhesion, increase electrical resistance, and allow for more frequent formation of non-emissive dark spots in the OLED material adversely affecting lifetime. Mechanisms to decrease anode roughness for ITO/glass substrates include the use of thin films and self-assembled monolayers. Also, alternative substrates and anode materials are being considered to increase OLED performance and lifetime. Possible examples include single crystal sapphire substrates treated with gold (Au) film anodes yielding lower work functions, operating voltages, electrical resistance values, and increasing lifetime of OLEDs. Single carrier devices are typically used to study the kinetics and charge transport mechanisms of an organic material and can be useful when trying to study energy transfer processes. As current through the device is composed of only one type of charge carrier, either electrons or holes, recombination does not occur and no light is emitted. For example, electron only devices can be obtained by replacing ITO with a lower work function metal which increases the energy barrier of hole injection. Similarly, hole only devices can be made by using a cathode made solely of aluminium, resulting in an energy barrier too large for efficient electron injection.", "Balanced charge injection and transfer are required to get high internal efficiency, pure emission of luminance layer without contaminated emission from charge transporting layers, and high stability. A common way to balance charge is optimizing the thickness of the charge transporting layers but is hard to control. Another way is using the exciplex. Exciplex formed between hole-transporting (p-type) and electron-transporting (n-type) side chains to localize electron-hole pairs. Energy is then transferred to luminophore and provide high efficiency. An example of using exciplex is grafting Oxadiazole and carbazole side units in red diketopyrrolopyrrole-doped Copolymer main chain shows improved external quantum efficiency and color purity in no optimized OLED.", "", "Efficient OLEDs using small molecules were first developed by Ching W. Tang \"et al.\" at Eastman Kodak. The term OLED traditionally refers specifically to this type of device, though the term SM-OLED is also in use. Molecules commonly used in OLEDs include organometallic chelates (for example Alq, used in the organic light-emitting device reported by Tang \"et al.\"), fluorescent and phosphorescent dyes and conjugated dendrimers. A number of materials are used for their charge transport properties, for example triphenylamine and derivatives are commonly used as materials for hole transport layers. Fluorescent dyes can be chosen to obtain light emission at different wavelengths, and compounds such as perylene, rubrene and quinacridone derivatives are often used. Alq has been used as a green emitter, electron transport material and as a host for yellow and red emitting dyes. The production of small molecule devices and displays usually involves thermal evaporation in a vacuum. This makes the production process more expensive and of limited use for large-area devices, than other processing techniques. However, contrary to polymer-based devices, the vacuum deposition process enables the formation of well controlled, homogeneous films, and the construction of very complex multi-layer structures. This high flexibility in layer design, enabling distinct charge transport and charge blocking layers to be formed, is the main reason for the high efficiencies of the small molecule OLEDs. Coherent emission from a laser dye-doped tandem SM-OLED device, excited in the pulsed regime, has been demonstrated. The emission is nearly diffraction limited with a spectral width similar to that of broadband dye lasers. Researchers report luminescence from a single polymer molecule, representing the smallest possible organic light-emitting diode (OLED) device. Scientists will be able to optimize substances to produce more powerful light emissions. Finally, this work is a first step towards making molecule-sized components that combine electronic and optical properties. Similar components could form the basis of a molecular computer.", "Polymer light-emitting diodes (PLED, P-OLED), also light-emitting polymers (LEP), involve an electroluminescent conductive polymer that emits light when connected to an external voltage. They are used as a thin film for full-spectrum colour displays. Polymer OLEDs are quite efficient and require a relatively small amount of power for the amount of light produced. Vacuum deposition is not a suitable method for forming thin films of polymers. However, polymers can be processed in solution, and spin coating is a common method of depositing thin polymer films. This method is more suited to forming large-area films than thermal evaporation. No vacuum is required, and the emissive materials can also be applied on the substrate by a technique derived from commercial inkjet printing. However, as the application of subsequent layers tends to dissolve those already present, formation of multilayer structures is difficult with these methods. The metal cathode may still need to be deposited by thermal evaporation in vacuum. An alternative method to vacuum deposition is to deposit a Langmuir-Blodgett film. Typical polymers used in PLED displays include derivatives of poly(\"p\"-phenylene vinylene) and polyfluorene. Substitution of side chains onto the polymer backbone may determine the colour of emitted light or the stability and solubility of the polymer for performance and ease of processing. While unsubstituted poly(p-phenylene vinylene) (PPV) is typically insoluble, a number of PPVs and related poly(naphthalene vinylene)s (PNVs) that are soluble in organic solvents or water have been prepared via ring opening metathesis polymerization. These water-soluble polymers or conjugated poly electrolytes (CPEs) also can be used as hole injection layers alone or in combination with nanoparticles like graphene.", "Phosphorescent organic light-emitting diodes use the principle of electrophosphorescence to convert electrical energy in an OLED into light in a highly efficient manner, with the internal quantum efficiencies of such devices approaching 100%. Typically, a polymer such as poly(N-vinylcarbazole) is used as a host material to which an organometallic complex is added as a dopant. Iridium complexes such as Ir(mppy) are currently the focus of research, although complexes based on other heavy metals such as platinum have also been used. The heavy metal atom at the centre of these complexes exhibits strong spin-orbit coupling, facilitating intersystem crossing between singlet and triplet states. By using these phosphorescent materials, both singlet and triplet excitons will be able to decay radiatively, hence improving the internal quantum efficiency of the device compared to a standard OLED where only the singlet states will contribute to emission of light. Applications of OLEDs in solid state lighting require the achievement of high brightness with good CIE coordinates (for white emission). The use of macromolecular species like polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes (POSS) in conjunction with the use of phosphorescent species such as Ir for printed OLEDs have exhibited brightnesses as high as 10,000cd/m.", "", "All OLED displays (passive and active matrix) use a driver IC, often mounted using Chip-on-glass (COG), using an Anisotropic conductive film.", "", "The most commonly used patterning method for organic light-emitting displays is shadow masking during film deposition, also called the \"RGB side-by-side\" method or \"RGB pixelation\" method. Metal sheets with multiple apertures made of low thermal expansion material, such as nickel alloy, are placed between the heated evaporation source and substrate, so that the organic or inorganic material from the evaporation source is deposited only to the desired location on the substrate. Almost all small OLED displays for smartphones have been manufactured using this method. Fine metal masks (FMMs) made by photochemical machining, reminiscent of old CRT shadow masks, are used in this process. The dot density of the mask will determine the pixel density of the finished display. Fine Hybrid Masks (FHMs) are lighter than FFMs, reducing bending caused by the mask's own weight, and are made using an electroforming process. This method requires heating the electroluminescent materials at 300 °C in a high vacuum of 10-5 Pa using an electron beam. An oxygen meter ensures that no oxygen enters the chamber as it could damage (through oxidation) the electroluminescent material, which is in powder form. The mask is aligned with the mother substrate before every use, and it is placed just below the substrate. The substrate and mask assembly are placed at the top of the deposition chamber. Afterwards, the electrode layer is deposited, by subjecting silver and aluminum powder to 1000 °C, using an electron beam. Shadow masks allow for high pixel densities of up to 2,250 PPI. High pixel densities are necessary for virtual reality headsets.", "Although the shadow-mask patterning method is a mature technology used from the first OLED manufacturing, it causes many issues like dark spot formation due to mask-substrate contact or misalignment of the pattern due to the deformation of shadow mask. Such defect formation can be regarded as trivial when the display size is small, however it causes serious issues when a large display is manufactured, which brings significant production yield loss. To circumvent such issues, white emission devices with 4-sub-pixel color filters (white, red, green and blue) have been used for large televisions. In spite of the light absorption by the color filter, state-of-the-art OLED televisions can reproduce color very well, such as 100% NTSC, and consume little power at the same time. This is done by using an emission spectrum with high human-eye sensitivity, special color filters with a low spectrum overlap, and performance tuning with color statistics into consideration. This approach is also called the \"Color-by-white\" method.", "There are other types of emerging patterning technologies to increase the manufacturabiltiy of OLEDs. Patternable organic light-emitting devices use a light or heat activated electroactive layer. A latent material (PEDOT-TMA) is included in this layer that, upon activation, becomes highly efficient as a hole injection layer. Using this process, light-emitting devices with arbitrary patterns can be prepared. Colour patterning can be accomplished by means of a laser, such as a radiation-induced sublimation transfer (RIST). Organic vapour jet printing (OVJP) uses an inert carrier gas, such as argon or nitrogen, to transport evaporated organic molecules (as in organic vapour phase deposition). The gas is expelled through a micrometre-sized nozzle or nozzle array close to the substrate as it is being translated. This allows printing arbitrary multilayer patterns without the use of solvents. Like ink jet material depositioning, inkjet etching (IJE) deposits precise amounts of solvent onto a substrate designed to selectively dissolve the substrate material and induce a structure or pattern. Inkjet etching of polymer layers in OLED's can be used to increase the overall out-coupling efficiency. In OLEDs, light produced from the emissive layers of the OLED is partially transmitted out of the device and partially trapped inside the device by total internal reflection (TIR). This trapped light is wave-guided along the interior of the device until it reaches an edge where it is dissipated by either absorption or emission. Inkjet etching can be used to selectively alter the polymeric layers of OLED structures to decrease overall TIR and increase out-coupling efficiency of the OLED. Compared to a non-etched polymer layer, the structured polymer layer in the OLED structure from the IJE process helps to decrease the TIR of the OLED device. IJE solvents are commonly organic instead of water-based due to their non-acidic nature and ability to effectively dissolve materials at temperatures under the boiling point of water. Transfer-printing is an emerging technology to assemble large numbers of parallel OLED and AMOLED devices efficiently. It takes advantage of standard metal deposition, photolithography, and etching to create alignment marks commonly on glass or other device substrates. Thin polymer adhesive layers are applied to enhance resistance to particles and surface defects. Microscale ICs are transfer-printed onto the adhesive surface and then baked to fully cure adhesive layers. An additional photosensitive polymer layer is applied to the substrate to account for the topography caused by the printed ICs, reintroducing a flat surface. Photolithography and etching removes some polymer layers to uncover conductive pads on the ICs. Afterwards, the anode layer is applied to the device backplane to form bottom electrode. OLED layers are applied to the anode layer with conventional vapor deposition, and covered with a conductive metal electrode layer. transfer-printing was capable to print onto target substrates up to 500mm X 400mm. This size limit needs to expand for transfer-printing to become a common process for the fabrication of large OLED/AMOLED displays. Experimental OLED displays using conventional photolithography techniques instead of FMMs have been demonstrated, allowing for large substrate sizes (as it eliminates the need for a mask that needs to be as large as the substate) and good yield control.", "For a high resolution display like a TV, a TFT backplane is necessary to drive the pixels correctly. As of 2019, low temperature polycrystalline silicon (LTPS)– thin-film transistor (TFT) is widely used for commercial AMOLED displays. LTPS-TFT has variation of the performance in a display, so various compensation circuits have been reported. Due to the size limitation of the excimer laser used for LTPS, the AMOLED size was limited. To cope with the hurdle related to the panel size, amorphous-silicon/microcrystalline-silicon backplanes have been reported with large display prototype demonstrations. An IGZO backplane can also be used.", "The different manufacturing process of OLEDs has several advantages over flat panel displays made with LCD technology.", "", "The biggest technical problem for OLEDs is the limited lifetime of the organic materials. One 2008 technical report on an OLED TV panel found that after 1,000hours, the blue luminance degraded by 12%, the red by 7% and the green by 8%. In particular, blue OLEDs historically have had a lifetime of around 14,000hours to half original brightness (five years at eight hours per day) when used for flat-panel displays. This is lower than the typical lifetime of LCD, LED or PDP technology; each currently is rated for about 25,000–40,000hours to half brightness, depending on manufacturer and model. One major challenge for OLED displays is the formation of dark spots due to the ingress of oxygen and moisture, which degrades the organic material over time whether or not the display is powered. In 2016, LG Electronics reported an expected lifetime of 100,000 hours, up from 36,000 hours in 2013. A US Department of Energy paper shows that the expected lifespans of OLED lighting products goes down with increasing brightness, with an expected lifespan of 40,000 hours at 25% brightness, or 10,000 hours at 100% brightness.", "Degradation occurs because of the accumulation of nonradiative recombination centers and luminescence quenchers in the emissive zone. It is said that the chemical breakdown in the semiconductors occurs in four steps: However, some manufacturers' displays aim to increase the lifespan of OLED displays, pushing their expected life past that of LCD displays by improving light outcoupling, thus achieving the same brightness at a lower drive current. In 2007, experimental OLEDs were created which can sustain 400cd/m of luminance for over 198,000hours for green OLEDs and 62,000hours for blue OLEDs. In 2012, OLED lifetime to half of the initial brightness was improved to 900,000hours for red, 1,450,000hours for yellow and 400,000hours for green at an initial luminance of 1,000cd/m. Proper encapsulation is critical for prolonging an OLED display's lifetime, as the OLED light emitting electroluminescent materials are sensitive to oxygen and moisture. When exposed to moisture or oxygen, the electroluminescent materials in OLEDs degrade as they oxidize, generating black spots and reducing or shrinking the area that emits light, reducing light output. This reduction can occur in a pixel by pixel basis. This can also lead to delamination of the electrode layer, eventually leading to complete panel failure. Degradation occurs 3 times faster when exposed to moisture than when exposed to oxygen. Encapsulation can be performed by applying an epoxy adhesive with dessicant, by laminating a glass sheet with epoxy glue and dessicant followed by vacuum degassing, or by using Thin-Film Encapsulation (TFE), which is a multi-layer coating of alternating organic and inorganic layers. The organic layers are applied using inkjet printing, and the inorganic layers are applied using Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD). The encapsulation process is carried out under a nitrogen environment, using UV-curable LOCA glue and the electroluminescent and electrode material deposition processes are carried out under a high vacuum. The encapsulation and material deposition processes are carried out by a single machine, after the Thin-film transistors have been applied. The transistors are applied in a process that is the same for LCDs. The electroluminescent materials can also be applied using inkjet printing.", "The OLED material used to produce blue light degrades much more rapidly than the materials used to produce other colors; in other words, blue light output will decrease relative to the other colors of light. This variation in the differential color output will change the color balance of the display, and is much more noticeable than a uniform decrease in overall luminance. This can be avoided partially by adjusting the color balance, but this may require advanced control circuits and input from a knowledgeable user. More commonly, though, manufacturers optimize the size of the R, G and B subpixels to reduce the current density through the subpixel in order to equalize lifetime at full luminance. For example, a blue subpixel may be 100% larger than the green subpixel. The red subpixel may be 10% larger than the green.", "Improvements to the efficiency and lifetime of blue OLEDs is vital to the success of OLEDs as replacements for LCD technology. Considerable research has been invested in developing blue OLEDs with high external quantum efficiency, as well as a deeper blue color. External quantum efficiency values of 20% and 19% have been reported for red (625nm) and green (530nm) diodes, respectively. However, blue diodes (430nm) have only been able to achieve maximum external quantum efficiencies in the range of 4% to 6%. Since 2012, research focuses on organic materials exhibiting thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF), discovered at Kyushu University OPERA and UC Santa Barbara CPOS. TADF would allow stable and high-efficiency solution processable (meaning that the organic materials are layered in solutions producing thinner layers) blue emitters, with internal quantum efficiencies reaching 100%.<ref>Wong M. Y., Hedley G. J., Xie G., Kölln L. S, Samuel I. D. W., Pertegaś A., Bolink H. J., Mosman-Colman, E., \"Light-emitting electrochemical cells and solution-processed organic light-emitting diodes using small molecule organic thermally activated delayed fluorescence emitters\", \"Chemistry of Materials\", vol. 27, no. 19, pp.6535–6542," ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Attestations.", "Poetic Edda.", "Prose Edda.", "Swedish folklore.", "Theories.", "\"Beowulf\".", "Hair as wheat and potential cognates.", "Rowan.", "\"Lokasenna\" accusations.", "Modern influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"Sif\" is the singular form of the plural Old Norse word. only appears in singular form when referring to the goddess as a proper noun. is cognate to the Old English and modern English (meaning \"affinity, connection, by marriage\") and in other Germanic languages: Gothic (), Old High German, and modern German. appears not only in ancient poetry and records of law, but also in compounds ( means \"to marry\"). Using this etymology, scholar John Lindow gives the meanings \"in-law-relationship\", scholar Andy Orchard provides \"relation\", and scholar Rudolf Simek gives \"relation by marriage\".", "", "In stanza 48 of the \"Poetic Edda\" poem \"Hárbarðsljóð\", Hárbarðr (Odin, father of Thor, in disguise) meets Thor at an inlet of a gulf. The two engage in flyting, and Hárbarðr refuses to ferry Thor across the bay. Among numerous other insults, Hárbarðr claims that Sif has a lover at home. In response, Thor says that Hárbarðr is speaking carelessly \"of what seems worst to me\" and also lying. In stanzas 53 and 54 of the poem \"Lokasenna\", after pouring Loki a crystal cup of mead during his series of insults towards the gods, Sif states that there is nothing Loki can say only in regard to her. In response, Loki claims that Sif has had an affair with him: Sif does not respond, and the exchange turns to Beyla. Sif is additionally mentioned in two kennings found in poems collected in the \"Poetic Edda\"; \"Hymiskviða\" (where Thor is referred to as the \"Husband of Sif\" thrice), and \"Þrymskviða\" (where Thor is once referred to as \"Husband of Sif\").", "In the \"Prose Edda\", Sif is mentioned once in the Prologue, in chapter 31 of \"Gylfaginning\", and in \"Skáldskaparmál\" as a guest at Ægir's feast, the subject of a jötunn's desire, as having her hair shorn by Loki, and in various kennings. Sif is introduced in chapter three of the Prologue section of the \"Prose Edda\"; Snorri's euhemerized account of the origins of Viking mythology. Snorri states that Thor married Sif, and that she is known as \"a prophetess called Sibyl, though we know her as Sif\". Sif is further described as \"the loveliest of women\" and with hair of gold. Although he lists her own ancestors as unknown, Snorri writes that Thor and Sif produced a son by the name of Lóriði, who \"took after his father\". In chapter 31 of the \"Prose Edda\" book \"Gylfaginning\", Ullr is referred to as a son of Sif and a stepson of Thor (though his father is not mentioned): As reported in the \"Prose Edda\" book \"Skáldskaparmál\", Thor once engages in a duel with Hrungnir, there described as the strongest of the jötnar. Prior to this, Hrungnir had been drunkenly boasting of his desire to, amongst other things, kill all of the gods except Freyja and Sif, whom he wanted to take home with him. However, at the duel, Hrungnir is quickly killed by the enraged Thor. Further in \"Skáldskaparmál\", Snorri relates a story where Loki cuts off Sif's hair as a prank. When Thor discovers this, he grabs hold of Loki, resulting in Loki swearing to have a headpiece made of gold to replace Sif's locks. Loki fulfills this promise by having a headpiece made by dwarfs, the Sons of Ivaldi. Along with the headpiece, the dwarfs produced Odin's spear, Gungnir. As the story progresses, the incident leads to the creation of the ship Skíðblaðnir and the boar Gullinbursti for Freyr, the multiplying ring Draupnir for Odin, and the mighty hammer Mjöllnir for Thor. Sif also appears in \"Skáldskaparmál\" listed as a heiti for \"earth\", appears in a kenning for a gold-keeping woman, and once for Hildr. Poetic means of referring to Sif calling her \"wife of Thor\", \"mother of Ullr\", \"the fair-haired deity\", \"rival of Járnsaxa\", and as \"mother of Þrúðr\".", "19th-century scholar Jacob Grimm records that in his time residents of Värmland, Sweden \"call[ed] Thor's wife \"godmor\", good mother.\"", "", "In Old English, \"sib\" (\"family\") is cognate with Old Norse \"Sif\" and \"sif\". In the Old English poem \"Beowulf\" (lines 2016 to 2018), Hroðgar's wife, Wealhþeow, moves through the hall serving mead to the warriors and defusing conflict. Various scholars beginning with Magnus Olsen have pointed to the similarity with what Sif does at the feast described in \"Lokasenna\". Richard North further notes that unusually, \"sib\" is personified here and in lines 2599 to 2661, and suggests they may be references to Sif in Danish religion: \"Both instances may indicate that the poet of \"Beowulf\" was in a position to imagine a sixth-century Scandinavia on the basis of his knowledge of contemporary Danish legends.\"", "19th-century scholar Jacob Grimm proposes a reconstruction of a Germanic deity cognate to Sif in other Germanic cultures and proposes a similar nature to that of the goddesses Frigg and Freyja: The Goth., OHG.,, AS. gen., denote peace, friendship, kindred; from these I infer a divinity \"Sibja\", \"Sippia\", \"Sib\", corresponding to ON. gen., the wife of Thôrr, for the ON. too has a pl. meaning cognatio, sifi amicus (OHG., ), sift genus, cognatio. By this sense of the word, \"Sif\" would appear to be, like Frigg and Freyja, a goddess of loveliness and love; as attributes of Oðinn and Thôrr agree, their wives Frigg and Sif have also a common signification. Grimm connects Eddic references to Sif's golden hair (gold is referred to as ; Sif's hair) with the herb name (\"Polytrichum aureum\"). Grimm says that \"expositors see in this the golden fruits of the Earth burnt up by fire and growing again, they liken Sif to Ceres\", and Grimm says that \"with it agrees the fact that O. Slav. is a gloss on \" but cites etymological problems between the potential cognate. Grimm says that Thor's mother was the earth, and not his wife, yet \"we do find the simple \"Sif\" standing for earth.\" Grimm adds that he is inconclusive regarding Sif and that, \"we ought to have fuller details about Sif, and these are wholly wanting in our mythology. Nowhere amongst us is the mystic relation of the seed-corn of Demeter, whose poignant grief for her daughter threatens to bring famine on mankind (Hymn to Cer. 305–306), nor anything like it, recorded.\" Citing the etymology of her name, 19th century scholar Guðbrandur Vigfússon theorizes that Sif \"betokens mother earth with her golden sheaves of grain; she was the goddess of the sanctity of the family and wedlock\". Scholar Rudolf Simek theorizes that Sif likely originated as a complement to Thor through his fertility associations, and that the name \"Sif\" (Simek provides the etymology \"relation by marriage\") may have originally simply meant \"the wife (of Thor)\". Simek rejects notions of a \"vegetation cult\" venerating Sif, says that Sif does not appear to have a function, dismisses theories proposing connections between Sif's hair and grain as \"over-zealous interpretation[s]\", and theorizes that Snorri invented the story of Sif's shorn locks in attempt to explain the attributes of various gods. Scholar H. R. Ellis Davidson states that Sif may have been an ancient fertility goddess, agreeing with a link between her lustrous hair and fields of golden wheat. Regarding Sif, Thor, and fertility, Davidson says: Scholar John Lindow proposes that a potentially understated mythological importance of Sif's role in the story of her sheared hair exists; her headpiece is created along with the most important and powerful items in Norse mythology. Lindow further states that it may be easy to lose sight of the central role Sif plays in the creation of these objects.", "Sif has been linked with Ravdna, the consort of the Sami thunder god Horagalles. Red berries of rowan were holy to Ravdna and the name \"Ravdna\" resembles the North Germanic words for the tree (for example, Old Norse \"reynir\"). According to \"Skáldskaparmál\", the rowan is called \"the salvation of Thor\" because Thor once saved himself by clinging to it. It has been theorized that Sif was once conceived in the form of a rowan to which Thor clung.", "Regarding the accusations that Loki makes to Sif in \"Lokasenna\", Carolyne Larrington says that Sif is not elsewhere attested as unfaithful, though notes that Odin makes a similar accusation in \"Hárbarðsljóð\", and theorizes a potential connection between the story of Loki cutting off Sif's hair with these references. Larrington says \"how he got close enough to carry this out might be explained by this verse.\"", "Sif has inspired the name of a volcano on the planet Venus (Sif Mons). Sif's characterization in modern media tends to be much more martial than in the original sources. The Marvel Comics character, Sif, is based on the Sif of Norse myth and is portrayed by Jaimie Alexander in the Marvel Studios film \"Thor\", its, and the \"Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D\" television series. From 2015 to 2017, a fictionalized version of Sif was a supporting character in Magnus Chase and the Gods of Asgard, a trilogy of fantasy novels written by American author Rick Riordan and published by Disney-Hyperion, set in the same fictional universe as the Camp Half-Blood Chronicles and The Kane Chronicles." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Attestations.", "\"Poetic Edda\".", "\"Prose Edda\".", "Archaeological record.", "Theories.", "Modern influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Sigyn is attested in the following works:", "In stanza 35 of the \"Poetic Edda\" poem \"Völuspá\", a völva tells Odin that, amongst many other things, she sees Sigyn sitting very unhappily with her bound husband, Loki, under a \"grove of hot springs\". Sigyn is mentioned a second (and final) time in the ending prose section of the poem \"Lokasenna\". In the prose, Loki has been bound by the gods with the guts of his son Nari, his son Váli is described as having been turned into a wolf, and the goddess Skaði fastens a venomous snake over Loki's face, from which venom drips. Sigyn, again described as Loki's wife, holds a basin under the dripping venom. The basin grows full, and she pulls it away, during which time venom drops on Loki, causing him to writhe so violently that earthquakes occur that shake the entire earth.", "Sigyn appears in the books \"Gylfaginning\" and \"Skáldskaparmál\" in the \"Prose Edda\". In \"Gylfaginning\", Sigyn is introduced in chapter 31. There, she is introduced as the wife of Loki, and that they have a son by the name of \"Nari or Narfi\". Sigyn is mentioned again in \"Gylfaginning\" in chapter 50, where events are described differently than in \"Lokasenna\". Here, the gods have captured Loki and his two sons, who are stated as Váli, described as a son of Loki, and \"Nari or Narfi\", the latter earlier described as also a son of Sigyn. Váli is changed into a wolf by the gods, and rips apart his brother \"Nari or Narfi\". The guts of \"Nari or Narfi\" are then used to tie Loki to three stones, after which the guts turn to iron, and Skaði places a snake above Loki. Sigyn places herself beside him, where she holds out a bowl to catch the dripping venom. However, when the bowl becomes full she leaves to pour out the venom. As a result, Loki is again described as shaking so violently that the planet shakes, and this process repeats until he breaks free, setting Ragnarök into motion. Sigyn is introduced as a goddess, an ásynja, in the \"Prose Edda\" book \"Skáldskaparmál\", where the gods are holding a grand feast for the visiting Ægir, and in kennings for Loki: \"husband of Sigyn\", \"cargo [Loki] of incantation-fetter's [Sigyn's] arms\", and in a passage quoted from the 9th-century \"Haustlöng\", \"the burden of Sigyn's arms\". The final mention of Sigyn in \"Skáldskaparmál\" is in the list of ásynjur in the appended Nafnaþulur section, chapter 75.", "The mid-11th century Gosforth Cross located in Cumbria, England, has been interpreted as featuring various figures from Norse mythology. The bottom portion of the west side of the cross features a depiction of a long-haired female, kneeling figure holding an object above another prostrate, bound figure. Above and to their left is a knotted serpent. This has been interpreted as Sigyn soothing the bound Loki.", "While the name \"Sigyn\" is found as a female personal name in Old Norse sources (Old Norse \"sigr\" meaning 'victory' and \"vina\" meaning 'girl-friend'), and though in surviving sources she is largely restricted to a single role, she appears in the 9th century skaldic poem \"Haustlöng\" from pagan times, written by the skald Þjóðólfr of Hvinir. Due to this early connection with Loki, Sigyn has been theorized as being a goddess dating back to an older form of Germanic paganism.", "The scene of Sigyn Loki has been depicted on a number of paintings, including \"Loke och Sigyn\" (1850) by Nils Blommér, \"Loke och Sigyn\" (1863) by Mårten Eskil Winge, \"Loki och Sigyn (1879) by Oscar Wergeland, and the illustration \"Loki und Sigyn; Hel mit dem Hunde Garm\" (1883) by K. Ehrenberg. Various objects and places have been named after Sigyn in modern times, including the Norwegian stiff-straw winter wheat varieties \"Sigyn I\" and \"Sigyn II\", a Marvel Comics character (1978) of the same name, the Swedish vessel MS Sigyn, which transports spent nuclear fuel in an allusion to Sigyn holding a bowl beneath the venom to spare Loki, and the antarctic Sigyn Glacier." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and works.", "Early life.", "Philological studies.", "Public offices and memberships.", "Egyptian hieroglyphics research.", "Other scholarly works.", "Critical studies.", "Famous students.", "Selected works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Silvestre de Sacy was born in Paris to a notary named Jacques Abraham Silvestre, a Jansenist. He was born into an ardently Catholic bourgeois family. The surname extension of \"de Sacy\" was added by the younger son after the name of Louis-Isaac Lemaistre de Sacy, a famous Jansenist cleric who lived in the XVIIth century. Sacy's father died when he was seven years old, and he was educated on his own by his mother.", "In 1781 he was appointed councillor in the \"cour des monnaies\", and was promoted in 1791 to be a commissary-general in the same department. Having successively studied Semitic languages, he began to make a name as an orientalist, and between 1787 and 1791 deciphered the Pahlavi inscriptions of the Sassanid kings. In 1792 he retired from public service, and lived in close seclusion in a cottage near Paris till in 1795 he became professor of Arabic in the newly founded school of living Eastern languages (École speciale des langues orientales vivantes). During this interval Sacy studied the religion of the Druze, the subject of his last and unfinished work, the \"Exposé de la religion des Druzes\" (2 vols., 1838). He published the following Arabic textbooks: In 1806 he added the duties of Persian professor to his old chair, and from this time onwards his life was one of increasing honour and success, broken only by a brief period of retreat during the Hundred Days.", "He was perpetual secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions from 1832 onwards; in 1808 he had entered the \"corps législatif\"; he was created a baron of the French Empire by Napoleon in 1813; and in 1832, when quite an old man, be became a peer of France and regularly spoke in the Chamber of Peers (\"\"). In 1815 he became rector of the University of Paris, and after the Second Restoration he was active on the commission of public instruction. With Abel Rémusat, he was joint founder of the Société asiatique, and was inspector of oriental typefaces at the Imprimerie nationale. In 1821 he was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society", "Silvestre de Sacy was the first Frenchman to attempt to read the Rosetta stone. He made some progress in identifying proper names in the demotic inscription. From 1807 to 1809, Sacy was also a teacher of Jean-François Champollion, whom he encouraged in his research. But later on, the relationship between the master and student became chilly. In no small measure, Champollion's Napoleonic sympathies were problematic for Sacy, who was decidedly Royalist in his political sympathies. In 1811, Étienne Marc Quatremère, also a student of Sacy, published his \"Mémoires géographiques et historiques sur l'Égypte... sur quelques contrées voisines\". There was some rivalry between Champollion and Quatremère. Champollion published a paper in 1814 that covered some of the same territory. The allegations then arose that Champollion had plagiarized the work of Quatremère. Silvestre de Sacy seemed to take the side of Quatremère, according to Champollion. There was also considerable rivalry between Champollion and Thomas Young, an English Egyptology researcher active in hieroglyphic decipherment. At first they cooperated in their work, but later, from around 1815, a chill arose between them. Again, Sacy took the side of Young. Young started to correspond with Sacy, who advised Young not to share his work with Champollion and described Champollion as a charlatan. Consequently, Young avoided all direct contact with Champollion. When Champollion submitted his Coptic grammar and dictionary for publication in 1815, de Sacy also opposed this. Another student of Sacy was Johan David Åkerblad. He was a Swedish scholar who also contributed significantly to the investigation of the Rosetta Stone. Early on, in 1802, Åkerblad published his version of the Demotic alphabet; sixteen of these letters later proved to be correct and were used by Champollion, as well as by Young. Sacy felt that Akerblad was not getting enough credit for the good work that he was doing. Thus, the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics was being hampered by political and personal considerations. There were also big political rivalries between England and France at that time that also stood in the way of co-operation. Nevertheless, when, in spite of all adversity, Champollion had made big progress in decipherment by 1822resulting in his \"Lettre à M. Dacier\"Sacy cast all politics aside and warmly welcomed the good work of his student.", "Among his other works are his edition of \"Hariri\" (1822), with a selected Arabic commentary, and of the \"Alfiya\" (1833), and his \"Calila et Dimna\" (1816), the Arabic version of the \"Panchatantra\" which has been in various forms one of the most popular books of the world. Other works include a version of Abd-el-Latif, \"Relation arabe sur l'Egypte\", essays on the history of the law of property in Egypt since the Arab conquest (1805–1818), and \"The Book of Wandering Stars\", a translation of a history of the Ottoman Empire and its rule of Egypt, particularly its recounting of the various actions of and events under the Ottoman governors of Egypt. To biblical criticism he contributed a memoir on the Samaritan Arabic \"Pentateuch\" (\"Mém. Acad. des Inscr.\" vol. xlix), and editions of the \"Arabic and Syriac New Testaments\" for the British and Foreign Bible Society. His students include Heinrich Leberecht Fleischer.", "Edward Said and other modern scholars have given critical attention to the theoretical foundations of \"orientalism\" in works like \"Chrestomathie arabe.\"", "Silvestre de Sacy assisted the young composer Fromental Halévy in his early career, giving him a testimonial during his application for the Prix de Rome. Sacy died in his native city of Paris, aged 79.", "In a statistical overview derived from writings by and about Antoine Isaac Silvestre de Sacy, OCLC/WorldCat encompasses roughly 1,000+ works in 1,000+ publications in 16 languages and 3,000+ library holdings." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "This species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 edition of \"Systema Naturae\", from a specimen collected in southern Sweden. The genus name is from Modern Latin \"silvia\", a woodland sprite, related to \"silva\", a wood. The specific \"curruca\" is a Latin term for a bird mentioned by Juvenal. This species has been commonly assumed to be closely related to the whitethroat, as their common names imply. It was suggested that the two species separated in the last ice age similar to the pattern found in the chiffchaff and willow warbler, with their ancestor being forced into two enclaves, one in the southeast and one in the southwest of Europe. When the ice sheets retreated, the two forms supposedly no longer recognised each other as the same species. However, scientists researching this question have for quite some time realized that these two taxa are not particularly close relatives. Rather, the lesser whitethroat and its closest relatives Hume's whitethroat and the small whitethroat appear more related to a group of morphologically quite dissimilar species. These vary much in size and color pattern, but also lack chestnut wing patches and have a strong contrast between the usually dark head sides and the white or whitish throat. The latter group occurs from the southern parts of the lesser whitethroat complex' range into Africa and include the Orphean warbler group, the Arabian warbler, and the brown and Yemen warblers sometimes placed in \"Parisoma\". Thus, it rather appears as if the divergence of the lesser whitethroat complex and its closest living relatives is more ancient than assumed, and that it did not involve separation by ice sheets building up in Europe, but by aridification of the Arabian region (which also occurred throughout the Ice Ages). The lesser whitethroat complex has been split up into the present species, Hume's whitethroat, and the small whitethroat from which the Margelanic whitethroat may also be specifically distinct. In this superspecies, the lesser whitethroat seems to form the basal European lineage. Only two subspecies are nowadays unequivocally recognized for the lesser whitethroat, and they intergrade throughout Central Europe: Two more taxa occur in the intergradation zone with the small whitethroat, stretching from the northern Caspian Sea area into Mongolia. The phylogeny of these is not well-researched, and they might eventually turn out to belong to either species or be stereotyped hybrids: Similarly, \"Sylvia curruca caucasica\" is intermediate between the lesser and Hume's whitethroats. A bird which wintered at Landsort Bird Observatory, Sweden, differed in the analyzed mtDNA sequences from all known taxa in the complex, although it most closely resembled \"halimodendri\" in the field. As mtDNA is inherited from the mother only, were this bird a hybrid this should have been recognizable. Some taxonomic authorities lump the Hume's whitethroat and the desert whitethroat into this species." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Neurological basis.", "Parallel map theory.", "Generation.", "History.", "Criticism.", "Mental Map Distinction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Cognitive maps have been studied in various fields, such as psychology, education, archaeology, planning, geography, cartography, architecture, landscape architecture, urban planning, management and history. Because of the broad use and study of cognitive maps, it has become a colloquialism for just about any mental representation or model. As a consequence, these mental models are often referred to, variously, as cognitive maps, mental maps, scripts, schemata, and frames of reference. Cognitive maps serve the construction and accumulation of spatial knowledge, allowing the \"mind's eye\" to visualize images in order to reduce cognitive load, enhance recall and learning of information. This type of spatial thinking can also be used as a metaphor for non-spatial tasks, where people performing non-spatial tasks involving memory and imaging use spatial knowledge to aid in processing the task. The neural correlates of a cognitive map have been speculated to be the place cell system in the hippocampus and the recently discovered grid cells in the entorhinal cortex.", "Cognitive mapping is believed to largely be a function of the hippocampus. The hippocampus is connected to the rest of the brain in such a way that it is ideal for integrating both spatial and nonspatial information. Connections from the postrhinal cortex and the medial entorhinal cortex provide spatial information to the hippocampus. Connections from the perirhinal cortex and lateral entorhinal cortex provide nonspatial information. The integration of this information in the hippocampus makes the hippocampus a practical location for cognitive mapping, which necessarily involves combining information about an object's location and its other features. O'Keefe and Nadel were the first to outline a relationship between the hippocampus and cognitive mapping. Many additional studies have shown additional evidence that supports this conclusion. Specifically, pyramidal cells (place cells, boundary cells, and grid cells) have been implicated as the neuronal basis for cognitive maps within the hippocampal system. Numerous studies by O'Keefe have implicated the involvement of place cells. Individual place cells within the hippocampus correspond to separate locations in the environment with the sum of all cells contributing to a single map of an entire environment. The strength of the connections between the cells represents the distances between them in the actual environment. The same cells can be used for constructing several environments, though individual cells' relationships to each other may differ on a map by map basis. The possible involvement of place cells in cognitive mapping has been seen in a number of mammalian species, including rats and macaque monkeys. Additionally, in a study of rats by Manns and Eichenbaum, pyramidal cells from within the hippocampus were also involved in representing object location and object identity, indicating their involvement in the creation of cognitive maps. However, there has been some dispute as to whether such studies of mammalian species indicate the presence of a cognitive map and not another, simpler method of determining one's environment. While not located in the hippocampus, grid cells from within the medial entorhinal cortex have also been implicated in the process of path integration, actually playing the role of the path integrator while place cells display the output of the information gained through path integration. The results of path integration are then later used by the hippocampus to generate the cognitive map. The cognitive map likely exists on a circuit involving much more than just the hippocampus, even if it is primarily based there. Other than the medial entorhinal cortex, the presubiculum and parietal cortex have also been implicated in the generation of cognitive maps.", "There has been some evidence for the idea that the cognitive map is represented in the hippocampus by two separate maps. The first is the bearing map, which represents the environment through self-movement cues and gradient cues. The use of these vector-based cues creates a rough, 2D map of the environment. The second map would be the sketch map that works off of positional cues. The second map integrates specific objects, or landmarks, and their relative locations to create a 2D map of the environment. The cognitive map is thus obtained by the integration of these two separate maps. This leads to an understanding that it is not just one map but three that help us create this mental process. It should be clear that parallel map theory is still growing. The sketch map has foundation in previous neurobiological processes and explanations while the bearing map has very little research to support its evidence.", "The cognitive map is generated from a number of sources, both from the visual system and elsewhere. Much of the cognitive map is created through self-generated movement cues. Inputs from senses like vision, proprioception, olfaction, and hearing are all used to deduce a person's location within their environment as they move through it. This allows for path integration, the creation of a vector that represents one's position and direction within one's environment, specifically in comparison to an earlier reference point. This resulting vector can be passed along to the hippocampal place cells where it is interpreted to provide more information about the environment and one's location within the context of the cognitive map. Directional cues and positional landmarks are also used to create the cognitive map. Within directional cues, both explicit cues, like markings on a compass, as well as gradients, like shading or magnetic fields, are used as inputs to create the cognitive map. Directional cues can be used both statically, when a person does not move within his environment while interpreting it, and dynamically, when movement through a gradient is used to provide information about the nature of the surrounding environment. Positional landmarks provide information about the environment by comparing the relative position of specific objects, whereas directional cues give information about the shape of the environment itself. These landmarks are processed by the hippocampus together to provide a graph of the environment through relative locations.", "The idea of a cognitive map was first developed by Edward C. Tolman. Tolman, one of the early cognitive psychologists, introduced this idea when doing an experiment involving rats and mazes. In Tolman's experiment, a rat was placed in a cross shaped maze and allowed to explore it. After this initial exploration, the rat was placed at one arm of the cross and food was placed at the next arm to the immediate right. The rat was conditioned to this layout and learned to turn right at the intersection in order to get to the food. When placed at different arms of the cross maze however, the rat still went in the correct direction to obtain the food because of the initial cognitive map it had created of the maze. Rather than just deciding to turn right at the intersection no matter what, the rat was able to determine the correct way to the food no matter where in the maze it was placed. Unfortunately, further research was slowed due to the behaviorist point of view prevalent in the field of psychology at the time. In later years, O'Keefe and Nadel attributed Tolman’s research to the hippocampus, stating that it was the key to the rats mental representation of its surroundings. This observation furthered research in this area and consequently much of hippocampus activity is explained through cognitive map making. As time went on, the cognitive map was researched in other prospective fields that found it useful, therefore leading to broader and differentiating definitions and applications. A very prominent researcher, Colin Eden, has specifically mentioned his application of cognitive mapping simply as any representation of thinking models.", "In a review, Andrew T.D. Bennett argued that there is no clear evidence for cognitive maps in non-human animals (i.e. cognitive map according to Tolman's definition). This argument is based on analyses of studies where it has been found that simpler explanations can account for experimental results. Bennett highlights three simpler alternatives that cannot be ruled out in tests of cognitive maps in non-human animals \"These alternatives are (1) that the apparently novel short-cut is not truly novel; (2) that path integration is being used; and (3) that familiar landmarks are being recognised from a new angle, followed by movement towards them.\"", "A cognitive map is a spatial representation of the outside world that is kept within the mind, until an actual manifestation (usually, a drawing) of this perceived knowledge is generated, a mental map. Cognitive mapping is the implicit, mental mapping the explicit part of the same process. In most cases, a cognitive map exists independently of a mental map, an article covering just cognitive maps would remain limited to theoretical considerations. Mental mapping is typically associated with landmarks, locations, and geography when demonstrated. Creating mental maps depends on the individual and their perceptions whether they are influenced by media, real-life, or other sources. Because of their factual storage mental maps can be useful when giving directions and navigating. As stated previously this distinction is hard to identify when posed with almost identical definitions, nevertheless there is a distinction. In some uses, mental map refers to a practice done by urban theorists by having city dwellers draw a map, from memory, of their city or the place they live. This allows the theorist to get a sense of which parts of the city or dwelling are more substantial or imaginable. This, in turn, lends itself to a decisive idea of how well urban planning has been conducted." ] }

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{ "title": [ "\"Horse cure\" Merseburg Incantation.", "Norse attestations.", "\"Poetic Edda\".", "\"Prose Edda\".", "Theories." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "One of the two Merseburg Incantations (the \"horse cure\"), recorded in Old High German, mentions Sunna, who is described as having a sister, Sinthgunt. The incantation describes how \"Phol\" and Wodan rode to a wood, and there Balder's foal sprained its foot. Sinthgunt sang charms, her sister Sunna sang charms, \"Friia\" sang charms, her sister \"Volla\" sang charms, and finally Wodan sang charms, followed by a verse describing the healing of the foal's bone.", "", "In the poem \"Völuspá\", a dead völva recounts the history of the universe and foretells the future to the disguised god Odin. In doing so, the völva recounts the early days of the universe, in which: In the poem \"Vafþrúðnismál\", the god Odin tasks the jötunn Vafþrúðnir with a question about the origins of the sun and the moon. Vafþrúðnir responds that Mundilfari is the father of both Sól and Máni, and that they must pass through the heavens every day to count the years for man: In a stanza \"Vafþrúðnismál\", Odin asks Vafþrúðnir from where another sun will come from once Fenrir has assailed the current sun. Vafþrúðnir responds in a further stanza, stating that before Álfröðull (Sól) is assailed by Fenrir, she will bear a daughter who will ride on her mother's paths after the events of Ragnarök. In a stanza of the poem \"Grímnismál\", Odin says that before the Sun (referred to as \"the shining god\") is a shield named Svalinn, and if the shield were to fall from its frontal position, mountain and sea \"would burn up\". In stanza 39 Odin (disguised as \"Grimnir\") says that both the Sun and the Moon are pursued through the heavens by wolves; the Sun, referred to as the \"bright bride\" of the heavens, is pursued by Sköll, while the Moon is pursued by Hati Hróðvitnisson. In the poem \"Alvíssmál\", the god Thor questions the dwarf Alvíss about the Sun, asking him what the Sun is called in each of the worlds. Alvíss responds that it is called \"sun\" by mankind, \"sunshine\" by the gods, \"Dvalinn's deluder\" by the dwarves, \"everglow\" by the jötnar, \"the lovely wheel\" by the elves, and \"all-shining\" by the \"sons of the Æsir\".", "Sól is referenced in the \"Prose Edda\" book \"Gylfaginning\", where she is introduced in chapter 8 in a quote from stanza 5 of \"Völuspá\". In chapter 11 of \"Gylfaginning\", Gangleri (described as King Gylfi in disguise) asks the enthroned figure of High how the Sun and Moon are steered. High describes that Sól is one of the two children of Mundilfari, and states that the children were so beautiful they were named after the Sun (Sól) and the Moon (Máni). Mundilfari has Sól married to a man named Glenr. High says that the gods were \"angered by this arrogance\" and that the gods had the two placed in the heavens. There, the children were made to drive the horses Árvakr and Alsviðr that drew the chariot of the sun. High says that the gods had created the chariot to illuminate the worlds from burning embers flying from the fiery world of Muspelheim. In order to cool the horses, the gods placed two bellows beneath their shoulders, and that \"according to the same lore\" these bellows are called Ísarnkol. In chapter 12 of \"Gylfaginning\", Gangleri tells High that the sun moves quickly, almost as if she were moving so quickly that she fears something, that she could not go faster even if she were afraid of her own death. High responds that \"It is not surprising that she moves with such speed. The one chasing her comes close, and there is no escape for her except to run.\" Gangleri asks who chases her, to which High responds that two wolves give chase to Sól and Máni. The first wolf, Sköll, chases Sól, and despite her fear, Sköll will eventually catch her. Hati Hróðvitnisson, the second wolf, runs ahead of Sól to chase after Máni, whom Hati Hróðvitnisson will also catch. In chapter 35, Sól's status as a goddess is stated by High, along with Bil. In chapter 53, High says that after the events of Ragnarök, Sól's legacy will be continued by a daughter that is no less beautiful than she, who will follow the path she once rode, and, in support, \"Vafþrúðnismál\" stanza 47 is then quoted. In the \"Prose Edda\" book \"Skáldskaparmál\", Sól is first presented in chapter 93, where the kennings \"daughter of Mundilfæri\", \"sister of Máni\", \"wife of Glen\", \"fire of sky and air\" are given for her, followed by an excerpt of a work by the 11th century skald Skúli Þórsteinsson: In chapter 56, additional names for Sól are given; \"day-star\", \"disc\", \"ever-glow\", \"all-bright seen\", \"fair-wheel\", \"grace-shine\", \"Dvalinn's toy\", \"elf-disc\", \"doubt-disc\", and \"ruddy\". In chapter 58, following a list of horses, the horses Arvakr and Alsviðr are listed as drawing the sun, and, in chapter 75, Sól is again included in a list of goddesses.", "Scholars have proposed that Sól, as a goddess, may represent an extension of an earlier Proto-Indo-European deity due to Indo-European linguistic connections between Norse \"Sól\", Sanskrit \"Surya\", Common Brittonic \"Sulis\", Lithuanian \"Saulė\", Latin \"Sol\", and Slavic \"Tsar Solnitse\". Regarding Sól's attested personifications in Norse mythology, John Lindow states that \"even kennings like 'hall of the sun' for sky may not suggest personification, given the rules of kenning formation\"; that in poetry only stanzas associated with Sól in the poem \"Vafþrúðnismál\" are certain in their personification of the goddess; and \"that Sól is female and Máni male probably has to do with the grammatical gender of the nouns: Sól is feminine and Máni is masculine.\" Lindow states that, while the Sun seems to have been a focus of older Scandinavian religious practices, it is difficult to make a case for the placement of the sun in a central role in surviving sources for Norse mythology. Rudolf Simek states that Nordic Bronze Age archaeological finds, such as rock carvings and the Trundholm sun chariot, provide ample evidence of the Sun having been viewed as a life-giving heavenly body to the Bronze Age Scandinavians, and that the Sun likely always received an amount of veneration. Simek states that the only evidence of the Sun assuming a personification stems from the Old High German Incantation reference and from \"Poetic Edda\" poems, and that both of these references do not provide enough information to assume a Germanic sun cult. \"On the other hand\", Simek posits, the \"great age of the concept is evident\" by the Trundholm sun chariot, which specifically supports the notion of the Sun being drawn across the sky by horses. Simek further theorizes that the combination of sun symbols with ships in religious practices, which occur with frequency from the Bronze Age into Middle Ages, seem to derive from religious practices surrounding a fertility god (such as the Vanir gods Njörðr or Freyr), and not to a personified sun." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Literary tradition.", "Epigraphy.", "\"Gesta Danorum\".", "Poetic Edda.", "Prose Edda.", "Skaldic poetry.", "Toponymy.", "Modern reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The term \"wolþu-\" \"glory\" (\"cf\". Old English \"wuldor\" and the Gothic \"wulþus\"), possibly in reference to the god, is attested on the 3rd century Thorsberg chape (as \"owlþu-\"), and there are many placenames in \"Ullr\" and a related name, Ullinn, but medieval Icelandic sources have only sparse material on the god Ullr. The medieval Norse word was Latinized as Ollerus. The Icelandic form is \"Ullur\". In the mainland North Germanic languages, the modern form is \"Ull\". The Old English cognate \"wuldor\" means \"glory\" but is not used as a proper name, although it figures frequently in kennings for the Christian God such as \"wuldres cyning\" \"king of glory\", \"wuldorfæder\" \"glory-father\" or \"wuldor alwealda\" \"glorious all-ruler\".", "The Thorsberg chape (a metal piece belonging to a scabbard found in the Thorsberg moor) bears an Elder Futhark inscription, one of the earliest known altogether, dating to roughly AD 200. \"owlþuþewaz / niwajmariz\" The first element \"owlþu\", for \"wolþu-\", means \"glory\", \"glorious one\", Old Norse \"Ullr\", Old English \"wuldor\". The second element, \"-þewaz\", means \"slave, servant\". The whole compound is a personal name or title, \"servant of the glorious one\", \"servant/priest of Ullr\". \"Niwajmariz\" means \"well-honored\".", "In Saxo Grammaticus' 12th century work \"Gesta Danorum\", where gods appear euhemerized, \"Ollerus\" is described as a cunning wizard with magical means of transportation: When Odin was exiled, Ollerus was chosen to take his place. Ollerus ruled under the name Odin for ten years until the true Odin was called back.", "Ullr is mentioned in the poem \"Grímnismál\" where the homes of individual gods are recounted. The English versions shown here are by Thorpe. The name \"Ýdalir\", meaning \"yew dales\", is not otherwise attested. The yew was an important material in the making of bows, and the word \"ýr\", \"yew\", is often used metonymically to refer to bows. It seems likely that the name \"Ýdalir\" is connected with the idea of Ullr as a bow-god. Another strophe in \"Grímnismál\" also mentions Ullr. The strophe is obscure but may refer to some sort of religious ceremony. It seems to indicate Ullr as an important god. The last reference to Ullr in the \"Poetic Edda\" is found in \"Atlakviða\": Both \"Atlakviða\" and \"Grímnismál\" are often considered to be among the oldest extant Eddic poems. It may not be a coincidence that they are the only ones to refer to Ullr. Again we seem to find Ullr associated with some sort of ceremony, this time that of swearing an oath by a ring, a practice associated with Thor in later sources.", "In chapter 31 of \"Gylfaginning\" in the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, Ullr is referred to as a son of Sif (with a father unrecorded in surviving sources) and as a stepson of Sif's husband; the major Germanic god Thor: In \"Skáldskaparmál\", the second part of the Prose Edda, Snorri mentions Ullr again in a discussion of kennings. Snorri informs his readers that Ullr can be called ski-god, bow-god, hunting-god and shield-god. In turn a shield can be called Ullr's ship. Despite these tantalising tidbits Snorri relates no myths about Ullr. It seems likely that he didn't know any, the god having faded from memory.", "Snorri's note that a shield can be called Ullr's ship is borne out by surviving skaldic poetry with kennings such as \"askr Ullar\", \"far Ullar\" and \"kjóll Ullar\" all meaning Ullr's ship and referring to shields. While the origin of this kenning is unknown it could be connected with the identity of Ullr as a ski-god. Early skis, or perhaps sleds, might have been reminiscent of shields. A late Icelandic composition, \"Laufás-Edda\", offers the prosaic explanation that Ullr's ship was called \"Skjöldr\", \"Shield\". The name of Ullr is also common in warrior kennings, where it is used as other god names are. Three skaldic poems, \"Þórsdrápa\", \"Haustlöng\" and a fragment by Eysteinn Valdason, refer to Thor as Ullr's stepfather, confirming Snorri's information.", "Ullr's name appears in several important Norwegian and Swedish place names (but not in Denmark or in Iceland). This indicates that Ullr had at some point a religious importance in Scandinavia that is greater than what is immediately apparent from the scant surviving textual references. It is also probably significant that the placenames referring to this god are often found close to placenames referring to another deity: Njörðr in Sweden and Freyr in Norway. Some of the Norwegian placenames have a variant form, \"Ullinn\". It has been suggested that this is the remnant of a pair of divine twins and further that there may have been a female Ullin, on the model of divine pairs such as Fjörgyn and Fjörgynn. Probably Ullr’s name also can be read in the former Finnish municipality Ullava in Central Osthrobotnia Region.", "Viktor Rydberg speculates in his \"Teutonic Mythology\" that Ullr was the son of Sif and Egill-Örvandill, half-brother of Svipdagr-Óðr, nephew of Völundr and a cousin of Skaði. His father, Egill, was the greatest archer in the mythology, and Ullr follows in his father's footsteps. Ullr helped Svipdagr-Eiríkr rescue Freyja from the giants. Rydberg also postulates he also ruled over the Vanir when they held Ásgarðr during the war between the Vanir and the Æsir, however Rudolf Simek states \"this has no basis in the sources whatsoever\". Ullr is a playable character in the video game Smite. Within the winter skiing community of Europe the Old Norse god \"Ullr\" is considered the Guardian Patron Saint of Skiers (German \"Schutzpatron der Skifahrer\"). An Ullr medallion or Ullr ski medal, depicting the Scandinavian god Ullr on skis holding a bow and arrow, is widely worn as a talisman by both recreational and professional skiers as well as ski patrols in Europe and elsewhere. The town of Breckenridge, Colorado hosts a week-long festival called \"Ullr Fest\" each year in January, featuring numerous events designed to win his favor in an effort to bring snow to the historic ski town. Breck Ullr Fest was first held in 1963. In the television series \"The Almighty Johnsons\", Ullr is depicted as a reincarnation of himself, named Mike Johnson, and is played by Tim Balme. In the game \"Totally Accurate Battle Simulator\", Ullr is a secret unit with the ability to freeze entire armies. In the book \"Hammered\", third book in \"The Iron Druid Chronicles\", Ullr makes an appearance when the main character and his five man team raid Asgard." ] }