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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Augustus in the East.", "War against Magnentius.", "Sole ruler of the empire.", "Religious issues.", "Paganism.", "Christianity.", "Judaism.", "More usurpers and Julian.", "Usurpation of Julian and crises in the east.", "Death.", "Marriages and children.", "Reputation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Constantius was born in 317 at Sirmium, Pannonia. He was the third son of Constantine the Great, and second by his second wife Fausta, the daughter of Maximian. Constantius was made Caesar by his father on 13 November 324. In 336, religious unrest in Armenia and tense relations between Constantine and king Shapur II caused war to break out between Rome and Sassanid Persia. Though he made initial preparations for the war, Constantine fell ill and sent Constantius east to take command of the eastern frontier. Before Constantius arrived, the Persian general Narses, who was possibly the king's brother, overran Mesopotamia and captured Amida. Constantius promptly attacked Narses, and after suffering minor setbacks defeated and killed Narses at the Battle of Narasara. Constantius captured Amida and initiated a major refortification of the city, enhancing the city's circuit walls and constructing large towers. He also built a new stronghold in the hinterland nearby, naming it \"Antinopolis\".", "In early 337, Constantius hurried to Constantinople after receiving news that his father was near death. After Constantine died, Constantius buried him with lavish ceremony in the Church of the Holy Apostles. Soon after his father's death Constantius supposedly ordered a massacre of his relatives descended from the second marriage of his paternal grandfather Constantius Chlorus, though the details are unclear. Eutropius, writing between 350 and 370, states that Constantius merely sanctioned “\"the act, rather than commanding it\"”. The massacre killed two of Constantius' uncles and six of his cousins, including Hannibalianus and Dalmatius, rulers of Pontus and Moesia respectively. The massacre left Constantius, his older brother Constantine II, his younger brother Constans, and three cousins Gallus, Julian and Nepotianus as the only surviving male relatives of Constantine the Great. Soon after, Constantius met his brothers in Pannonia at Sirmium to formalize the partition of the empire. Constantius received the eastern provinces, including Constantinople, Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Cyrenaica; Constantine received Britannia, Gaul, Hispania, and Mauretania; and Constans, initially under the supervision of Constantine II, received Italy, Africa, Illyricum, Pannonia, Macedonia, and Achaea. Constantius then hurried east to Antioch to resume the war with Persia. While Constantius was away from the eastern frontier in early 337, King Shapur II assembled a large army, which included war elephants, and launched an attack on Roman territory, laying waste to Mesopotamia and putting the city of Nisibis under siege. Despite initial success, Shapur lifted his siege after his army missed an opportunity to exploit a collapsed wall. When Constantius learned of Shapur's withdrawal from Roman territory, he prepared his army for a counter-attack. Constantius repeatedly defended the eastern border against invasions by the aggressive Sassanid Empire under Shapur. These conflicts were mainly limited to Sassanid sieges of the major fortresses of Roman Mesopotamia, including Nisibis (Nusaybin), Singara, and Amida (Diyarbakir). Although Shapur seems to have been victorious in most of these confrontations, the Sassanids were able to achieve little. However, the Romans won a decisive victory at the Battle of Narasara, killing Shapur's brother, Narses. Ultimately, Constantius was able to push back the invasion, and Shapur failed to make any significant gains. Meanwhile, Constantine II desired to retain control of Constans' realm, leading the brothers into open conflict. Constantine was killed in 340 near Aquileia during an ambush. As a result, Constans took control of his deceased brother's realms and became sole ruler of the Western two-thirds of the empire. This division lasted until 350, when Constans was assassinated by forces loyal to the usurper Magnentius.", "As the only surviving son of Constantine the Great, Constantius felt that the position of emperor was his alone, and he determined to march west to fight the usurper, Magnentius. However, feeling that the east still required some sort of imperial presence, he elevated his cousin Constantius Gallus to Caesar of the eastern provinces. As an extra measure to ensure the loyalty of his cousin, he married the elder of his two sisters, Constantina, to him. Before facing Magnentius, Constantius first came to terms with Vetranio, a loyal general in Illyricum who had recently been acclaimed emperor by his soldiers. Vetranio immediately sent letters to Constantius pledging his loyalty, which Constantius may have accepted simply in order to stop Magnentius from gaining more support. These events may have been spurred by the action of Constantina, who had since traveled east to marry Gallus. Constantius subsequently sent Vetranio the imperial diadem and acknowledged the general's new position as \"Augustus\". However, when Constantius arrived, Vetranio willingly resigned his position and accepted Constantius’ offer of a comfortable retirement in Bithynia. In 351, Constantius clashed with Magnentius in Pannonia with a large army. The ensuing Battle of Mursa Major was one of the largest and bloodiest battles ever between two Roman armies. The result was a victory for Constantius, but a costly one. Magnentius survived the battle and, determined to fight on, withdrew into northern Italy. Rather than pursuing his opponent, however, Constantius turned his attention to securing the Danubian border, where he spent the early months of 352 campaigning against the Sarmatians along the middle Danube. After achieving his aims, Constantius advanced on Magnentius in Italy. This action led the cities of Italy to switch their allegiance to him and eject the usurper's garrisons. Again, Magnentius withdrew, this time to southern Gaul. In 353, Constantius and Magnentius met for the final time at the Battle of Mons Seleucus in southern Gaul, and again Constantius emerged the victor. Magnentius, realizing the futility of continuing his position, committed suicide on 10 August 353.", "Constantius spent much of the rest of 353 and early 354 on campaign against the Alamanni on the Danube frontier. The campaign was successful and raiding by the Alamanni ceased temporarily. In the meantime, Constantius had been receiving disturbing reports regarding the actions of his cousin Gallus. Possibly as a result of these reports, Constantius concluded a peace with the Alamanni and traveled to Mediolanum (Milan). In Mediolanum, Constantius first summoned Ursicinus, Gallus’ \"magister equitum\", for reasons that remain unclear. Constantius then summoned Gallus and Constantina. Although Gallus and Constantina complied with the order at first, when Constantina died in Bithynia, Gallus began to hesitate. However, after some convincing by one of Constantius’ agents, Gallus continued his journey west, passing through Constantinople and Thrace to Poetovio (Ptuj) in Pannonia. In Poetovio, Gallus was arrested by the soldiers of Constantius under the command of Barbatio. Gallus was then moved to Pola and interrogated. Gallus claimed that it was Constantina who was to blame for all the trouble while he was in charge of the eastern provinces. This angered Constantius so greatly that he immediately ordered Gallus' execution. He soon changed his mind, however, and recanted the order. Unfortunately for Gallus, this second order was delayed by Eusebius, one of Constantius' eunuchs, and Gallus was executed.", "", "In spite of some of the edicts issued by Constantius, he never made any attempt to disband the various Roman priestly colleges or the Vestal Virgins, he never acted against the various pagan schools, and, at times, he actually made some effort to protect paganism. In fact, he even ordered the election of a priest for Africa. Also, he remained pontifex maximus and was deified by the Roman Senate after his death. His relative moderation toward paganism is reflected by the fact that it was over twenty years after his death, during the reign of Gratian, that any pagan senator protested his treatment of their religion.", "Although often considered an Arian, Constantius ultimately preferred a third, compromise version that lay somewhere in between Arianism and the Nicene Creed, retrospectively called Semi-Arianism. During his reign he attempted to mold the Christian church to follow this compromise position, convening several Christian councils. The most notable of these were the Council of Rimini and its twin at Seleucia, which met in 359 and 360 respectively. \"Unfortunately for his memory the theologians whose advice he took were ultimately discredited and the malcontents whom he pressed to conform emerged victorious,\" writes the historian A.H.M. Jones. \"The great councils of 359–60 are therefore not reckoned ecumenical in the tradition of the church, and Constantius II is not remembered as a restorer of unity, but as a heretic who arbitrarily imposed his will on the church.\" Christian-related edicts issued by Constantius (by himself or with others) included:", "Judaism faced some severe restrictions under Constantius, who seems to have followed an anti-Jewish policy in line with that of his father. Early in his reign, Constantius issued a double edict in concert with his brothers limiting the ownership of slaves by Jewish people and banning marriages between Jews and Christian women. A later edict issued by Constantius after becoming sole emperor decreed that a person who was proven to have converted from Christianity to Judaism would have all of his property confiscated by the state. However, Constantius' actions in this regard may not have been so much to do with Jewish religion as with Jewish business—apparently, privately owned Jewish businesses were often in competition with state-owned businesses. As a result, Constantius may have sought to provide an advantage to state-owned businesses by limiting the skilled workers and slaves available to Jewish businesses. Jew-related edicts issued by Constantius (by himself or with others) included:", "On 11 August 355, the magister militum Claudius Silvanus revolted in Gaul. Silvanus had surrendered to Constantius after the Battle of Mursa Major. Constantius had made him magister militum in 353 with the purpose of blocking the German threats, a feat that Silvanus achieved by bribing the German tribes with the money he had collected. A plot organized by members of Constantius' court led the emperor to recall Silvanus. After Silvanus revolted, he received a letter from Constantius recalling him to Milan, but which made no reference to the revolt. Ursicinus, who was meant to replace Silvanus, bribed some troops, and Silvanus was killed. Constantius realised that too many threats still faced the Empire, however, and he could not possibly handle all of them by himself. So on 6 November 355, he elevated his last remaining male relative, Julian, to the rank of Caesar. A few days later, Julian was married to Helena, the last surviving sister of Constantius. Constantius soon sent Julian off to Gaul. Constantius spent the next few years overseeing affairs in the western part of the empire primarily from his base at Mediolanum. In 357 he visited Rome for the only time in his life. The same year, he forced Sarmatian and Quadi invaders out of Pannonia and Moesia Inferior, then led a successful counter-attack across the Danube. In the winter of 357–58, Constantius received ambassadors from Shapur II who demanded that Rome restore the lands surrendered by Narseh. Despite rejecting these terms, Constantius tried to avert war with the Sassanid Empire by sending two embassies to Shapur II. Shapur II nevertheless launched another invasion of Roman Mesopotamia. In 360, when news reached Constantius that Shapur II had destroyed Singara, and taken Kiphas (Hasankeyf), Amida, and Ad Tigris (Cizre), he decided to travel east to face the re-emergent threat.", "In the meantime, Julian had won some victories against the Alamanni, who had once again invaded Roman Gaul. However, when Constantius requested reinforcements from Julian's army for the eastern campaign, the Gallic legions revolted and proclaimed Julian \"Augustus\". On account of the immediate Sassanid threat, Constantius was unable to directly respond to his cousin's usurpation, other than by sending missives in which he tried to convince Julian to resign the title of \"Augustus\" and be satisfied with that of \"Caesar\". By 361, Constantius saw no alternative but to face the usurper with force, and yet the threat of the Sassanids remained. Constantius had already spent part of early 361 unsuccessfully attempting to re-take the fortress of Ad Tigris. After a time he had withdrawn to Antioch to regroup and prepare for a confrontation with Shapur II. The campaigns of the previous year had inflicted heavy losses on the Sassanids, however, and they did not attempt another round of campaigns that year. This temporary respite in hostilities allowed Constantius to turn his full attention to facing Julian.", "Constantius immediately gathered his forces and set off west. However, by the time he reached Mopsuestia in Cilicia, it was clear that he was fatally ill and would not survive to face Julian. Apparently, realising his death was near, Constantius had himself baptised by Euzoius, the Semi-Arian bishop of Antioch, and then declared that Julian was his rightful successor. Constantius II died of fever on 3 November 361. Like Constantine the Great, he was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the \"De Ceremoniis\".", "Constantius II was married three times: First to a daughter of his half-uncle Julius Constantius, whose name is unknown. She was a full-sister of Gallus and a half-sister of Julian. She died c. 352/3. Second, to Eusebia, a woman of Macedonian origin, originally from the city of Thessaloniki, whom Constantius married before his defeat of Magnentius in 353. She died in 360. Third and lastly, in 360, to Faustina, who gave birth to Constantius' only child, a posthumous daughter named Flavia Maxima Constantia, who later married Emperor Gratian.", "Constantius II is a particularly difficult figure to judge properly due to the hostility of most sources toward him. A. H. M. Jones writes that Constantius \"appears in the pages of Ammianus as a conscientious emperor but a vain and stupid man, an easy prey to flatterers. He was timid and suspicious, and interested persons could easily play on his fears for their own advantage.\" However, Kent and M. and A. Hirmer suggest that Constantius \"has suffered at the hands of unsympathetic authors, ecclesiastical and civil alike. To orthodox churchmen he was a bigoted supporter of the Arian heresy, to Julian the Apostate and the many who have subsequently taken his part he was a murderer, a tyrant and inept as a ruler\". They go on to add, \"Most contemporaries seem in fact to have held him in high esteem, and he certainly inspired loyalty in a way his brother could not\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Subdivisions.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Culture.", "Language.", "Sports.", "Museums.", "Politics.", "Transportation.", "Science and education.", "Media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name Drenthe is said to stem from \"thrija-hantja\" meaning \"three lands\". Drenthe has been populated by people since prehistory. Artifacts from the Wolstonian Stage (150,000 years ago) are among the oldest found in the Netherlands. In fact, it was one of the most densely populated areas of the Netherlands until the Bronze Age. The most tangible evidence of this are the dolmens (\"hunebedden\") built around 3500 BC. 53 of the 54 dolmens in the Netherlands can be found in Drenthe, concentrated in the northeast of the province. In 2006, the archaeological reserve of Strubben-Kniphorstbos, located between Anloo and Schipborg, was created to preserve part of this heritage. Drenthe was first mentioned in a document from 820, it was called \"Pago Treanth\" (Drenthe district). In archives from \"Het Utrechts Archief\", from 1024 to 1025, the \"county Drenthe\" is mentioned, when Emperor Henry II gave it to Bishop Adalbold II of Utrecht. After long being subject to the Utrecht diocese, Bishop Henry of Wittelsbach in 1528 ceded Drenthe to Emperor Charles V of Habsburg, who incorporated it into the Habsburg Netherlands. When the Republic of the Seven United Provinces was declared in 1581, Drenthe became part of it as the County of Drenthe, although it never gained full provincial status due to its poverty; the province was so poor it was exempt from paying federal taxes and as a consequence was denied representation in the States General. The successor Batavian Republic granted it provincial status on 1 January 1796. Shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War, the Dutch government built a camp near the town of Hooghalen to intern German Jewish refugees. During the Second World War, the German occupiers used the camp (which they named KZ Westerbork) as a \"Durchgangslager\" (transit camp). Many Dutch Jews, Sinti, Roma, resistance combatants and political adversaries were imprisoned before being transferred to concentration and extermination camps in Germany and occupied Poland. Anne Frank was deported on the last train leaving the Westerbork transit camp on 3 September 1944. In the 1970s, there were four hostage crises where South Moluccan terrorists demanded an independent Republic of South Maluku. They held hostages in hijacked trains in 1975 and 1977, in a primary school in 1977, and in the province hall in 1978.", "Drenthe is situated at in the northeast of the Netherlands; with to the north the province Groningen, to the west the province Friesland, to the south the province Overijssel, and to the east the German districts Emsland and Bentheim in the state Lower Saxony. Drenthe is the 9th largest province of the Netherlands. It has a total area of, with of land and of water. About 72% of the land or is used for agriculture. Drenthe has several heathlands and no significant rivers or lakes. The national parks Drents-Friese Wold and Dwingelderveld (IUCN category II) and the national landscape Drentsche Aa (IUCN category V) are all (partially) located in the province. The major urban centers of the province are the capital Assen in the north and Emmen, Meppel, Hoogeveen, and Coevorden in the south.", "The province (Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics or NUTS level 2) is divided into three COROP regions (NUTS level 3): North Drenthe, Southeast Drenthe, and Southwest Drenthe. The COROP regions are used for statistical purposes. The Netherlands has been subject to a large amount of municipal mergers during the last decades. Drenthe is no exception; the largest concurrent merger happened in 1998, when 32 municipalities were amalgamated into 10 larger municipalities. Drenthe consists of 12 municipalities; Emmen is the largest municipality in terms of both population and area, Westerveld is the least populous and Meppel covers the smallest area. The municipalities Assen, Noordenveld, and Tynaarlo are part of the interprovincial Groningen-Assen Region and the municipalities Aa en Hunze, Assen, Borger-Odoorn, Coevorden, Emmen, Midden-Drenthe, Noordenveld, and Westerveld are part of the international Ems Dollart Region (EDR).", "Drenthe has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb).", "On 1 January 2014, Drenthe had a total population of 488,957 and a population density of. It is the 3rd least populous and least densely populated province of the Netherlands, with only Flevoland and Zeeland having fewer people. Emmen is the most populous municipality in the province.", "Agriculture is an important employer, although industrial areas are found near the cities. The quietness of the province is also attracting a growing number of tourists. Drenthe is known as the \"Cycling Province\" of the Netherlands and is an exceptional place for a cycling holiday, having hundreds of kilometres of cycle paths through forest, heath and along canals and many towns and villages offering refreshment along the way. Drenthe exports through the entire Netherlands and also receives supplies and goods from Germany, making it a good business district. Many Dutch and German multinational companies are settled in Drenthe. The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the province was 15.1 billion € in 2018, accounting for 1.9% of the Netherlands economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 26,700 € or 89% of the EU27 average in the same year.", "", "Over half the population of Drenthe speaks the Drents dialect. Each town or village has its own version. All versions are part of the Low Saxon language group. Dutch Low Saxon has been officially recognised by the Dutch government as a regional language and is protected by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.", "FC Emmen is the only professional football club in Drenthe. It plays in the Eredivisie and its home stadium is JenS Vesting. The TT Circuit in Assen hosts a MotoGP race and the Dutch TT.", "Drents Museum is an art and history museum in Assen. It had 227,000 visitors in 2013.", "The States of Drenthe have 41 seats, and is headed by the King's Commissioner, currently Jetta Klijnsma. While the provincial council is elected by the people of Drenthe, the Commissioner is appointed by the King and the cabinet of the Netherlands. With 12 seats, the social democratic PvdA is the largest party in the council. The daily affairs of the province are taken care of by the \"Gedeputeerde Staten\", which are also headed by the Commissioner; its members (\"gedeputeerden\") can be compared with ministers.", "The motorways A28 (E232), A32, A37 (E233), and the other major roads N33, N34, and N48 are maintained by the state. There are four railways partially in the province of Drenthe: Groningen Airport Eelde is a minor international airport located in Eelde in the province of Drenthe. Hoogeveen Airport is a general aviation airport located in Hoogeveen.", "ASTRON, the Netherlands institute for radio astronomy, is located near Dwingeloo. Their single-dish radio telescope of the Dwingeloo Radio Observatory was completed in 1956 and is now a national heritage site (\"rijksmonument\"). Their Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope is an array of fourteen dishes near the village of Westerbork and construction was completed in 1970. Their international Low-Frequency Array with its core near Exloo was completed in 2012. In Assen, Emmen, and Meppel are universities of applied sciences (\"hogescholen\"). The Stenden University of Applied Sciences has locations in these three towns, which formed the Drenthe University of Applied Sciences before a merger in 2008. The Hanze Institute of Technology, part of the Hanze University of Applied Sciences, is located in Assen. There are no research universities (\"universiteiten\") in the province of Drenthe.", "RTV Drenthe, the regional radio and television station, is based in Assen. The regional daily newspaper for the provinces of Drenthe and Groningen is \"Dagblad van het Noorden\", which is based in the city of Groningen." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Hesiod.", "\"Theogony\".", "\"Works and Days\".", "\"Pithos\" into \"box\".", "Difficulties of interpretation.", "Artistic representations.", "Pandora's relationship to Eve.", "Between Eve and Pygmalion.", "19th century drama.", "Pandora in character." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Hesiod, both in his \"Theogony\" (briefly, without naming Pandora outright, line 570) and in \"Works and Days\", gives the earliest version of the Pandora story.", "The Pandora myth first appeared in lines 560–612 of Hesiod's poem in epic meter, the \"Theogony\" (c. 8th–7th centuries BC), without ever giving the woman a name. After humans received the stolen gift of fire from Prometheus, an angry Zeus decides to give humanity a punishing gift to compensate for the boon they had been given. He commands Hephaestus to mold from earth the first woman, a \"beautiful evil\" whose descendants would torment the human race. After Hephaestus does so, Athena dresses her in a silvery gown, an embroidered veil, garlands and an ornate crown of silver. This woman goes unnamed in the \"Theogony\", but is presumably Pandora, whose myth Hesiod revisited in \"Works and Days\". When she first appears before gods and mortals, \"wonder seized them\" as they looked upon her. But she was \"sheer guile, not to be withstood by men.\" Hesiod elaborates (590–93): <poem> From her is the race of women and female kind: of her is the deadly race and tribe of women who live amongst mortal men to their great trouble, no helpmates in hateful poverty, but only in wealth.</poem> Hesiod goes on to lament that men who try to avoid the evil of women by avoiding marriage will fare no better (604–7): <poem> He reaches deadly old age without anyone to tend his years, and though he at least has no lack of livelihood while he lives, yet, when he is dead, his kinsfolk divide his possessions amongst them.</poem> Hesiod concedes that occasionally a man finds a good wife, but still (609) \"evil contends with good.\"", "The more famous version of the Pandora myth comes from another of Hesiod's poems, \"Works and Days\". In this version of the myth (lines 60–105), Hesiod expands upon her origin, and moreover widens the scope of the misery she inflicts on humanity. As before, she is created by Hephaestus, but now more gods contribute to her completion (63–82): Athena taught her needlework and weaving (63–4); Aphrodite \"shed grace upon her head and cruel longing and cares that weary the limbs\" (65–6); Hermes gave her \"a shameful mind and deceitful nature\" (67–8); Hermes also gave her the power of speech, putting in her \"lies and crafty words\" (77–80) ; Athena then clothed her (72); next Persuasion and the Charites adorned her with necklaces and other finery (72–4); the Horae adorned her with a garland crown (75). Finally, Hermes gives this woman a name: Pandora – \"All-gifted\" – \"because all the Olympians gave her a gift\" (81). (In Greek, \"Pandora\" has an active rather than a passive meaning; hence, Pandora properly means \"All-giving.\" The implications of this mistranslation are explored in \"All-giving Pandora: mythic inversion?\" below.) In this retelling of her story, Pandora's deceitful feminine nature becomes the least of humanity's worries. For she brings with her a jar (which, due to textual corruption in the sixteenth century, came to be called a box) containing \"burdensome toil and sickness that brings death to men\" (91–2), diseases (102) and \"a myriad other pains\" (100). Prometheus had (fearing further reprisals) warned his brother Epimetheus not to accept any gifts from Zeus. But Epimetheus did not listen; he accepted Pandora, who promptly scattered the contents of her jar. As a result, Hesiod tells us, \"the earth and sea are full of evils\" (101). One item, however, did not escape the jar (96–9): <poem> Only Hope was left within her unbreakable house, she remained under the lip of the jar, and did not fly away. Before [she could], Pandora replaced the lid of the jar. This was the will of aegis-bearing Zeus the Cloudgatherer.</poem> Hesiod does not say why hope (\"elpis\") remained in the jar. and closes with the moral (105): \"Thus it is not possible to escape the mind of Zeus.\" Hesiod also outlines how the end of man's Golden Age (an all-male society of immortals who were reverent to the gods, worked hard, and ate from abundant groves of fruit) was brought on by Prometheus. When he stole Fire from Mt. Olympus and gave it to mortal man, Zeus punished the technologically advanced society by creating a woman. Thus, Pandora was created and given the jar (mistranslated as 'box') which releases all evils upon man. Archaic and Classic Greek literature seem to make little further mention of Pandora, but mythographers later filled in minor details or added postscripts to Hesiod's account. For example, the \"Bibliotheca\" and Hyginus each make explicit what might be latent in the Hesiodic text: Epimetheus married Pandora. They each add that the couple had a daughter, Pyrrha, who married Deucalion and survived the deluge with him. However, the Hesiodic \"Catalogue of Women\",, had made a \"Pandora\" one of the \"daughters\" of Deucalion, and the mother of Graecus by Zeus. In the 15th-century AD an attempt was made to conjoin pagan and scriptural narrative by the monk Annio da Viterbo, who claimed to have found an account by the ancient Chaldean historian Berossus in which \"Pandora\" was named as a daughter-in-law of Noah in the alternative Flood narrative.", "The mistranslation of \"pithos\", a large storage jar, as \"box\" is usually attributed to the sixteenth century humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam when he translated Hesiod's tale of Pandora into Latin. Hesiod's \"pithos\" refers to a large storage jar, often half-buried in the ground, used for wine, oil or grain. It can also refer to a funerary jar. Erasmus, however, translated \"pithos\" into the Latin word \"pyxis\", meaning \"box\". The phrase \"Pandora's box\" has endured ever since.", "Historic interpretations of the Pandora figure are rich enough to have offered Dora and Erwin Panofsky scope for monographic treatment. M. L. West writes that the story of Pandora and her jar is from a pre-Hesiodic myth, and that this explains the confusion and problems with Hesiod's version and its inconclusiveness. He writes that in earlier myths, Pandora was married to Prometheus, and cites the ancient Hesiodic \"Catalogue of Women\" as preserving this older tradition, and that the jar may have at one point contained only good things for humanity. He also writes that it may have been that Epimetheus and Pandora and their roles were transposed in the pre-Hesiodic myths, a \"mythic inversion\". He remarks that there is a curious correlation between Pandora being made out of earth in Hesiod's story, to what is in the \"Bibliotheca\" that Prometheus created man from water and earth. Hesiod's myth of Pandora's jar, then, could be an amalgam of many variant early myths. The meaning of Pandora's name, according to the myth provided in \"Works and Days\", is \"all-gifted\". However, according to others Pandora more properly means \"all-giving\". Certain vase paintings dated to the 5th century BC likewise indicate that the pre-Hesiodic myth of the goddess Pandora endured for centuries after the time of Hesiod. An alternative name for Pandora attested on a white-ground kylix (ca. 460 BC) is \"Anesidora\", which similarly means \"she who sends up gifts.\" This vase painting clearly depicts Hephaestus and Athena putting the finishing touches on the first woman, as in the \"Theogony\". Written above this figure (a convention in Greek vase painting) is the name \"Anesidora\". More commonly, however, the epithet \"anesidora\" is applied to Gaea or Demeter. In view of such evidence, William E. Phipps has pointed out, \"Classics scholars suggest that Hesiod reversed the meaning of the name of an earth goddess called Pandora (all-giving) or Anesidora (one-who-sends-up-gifts). Vase paintings and literary texts give evidence of Pandora as a mother earth figure who was worshipped by some Greeks. The main English commentary on \"Works and Days\" states that Hesiod shows no awareness [of this].\" Jane Ellen Harrison also turned to the repertory of vase-painters to shed light on aspects of myth that were left unaddressed or disguised in literature. On a fifth-century amphora in the Ashmolean Museum (her fig.71) the half-figure of Pandora emerges from the ground, her arms upraised in the epiphany gesture, to greet Epimetheus. A winged \"ker\" with a fillet hovers overhead: \"Pandora rises from the earth; she \"is\" the Earth, giver of all gifts,\" Harrison observes. Over time this \"all-giving\" goddess somehow devolved into an \"all-gifted\" mortal woman. A.H. Smith, however, noted that in Hesiod's account Athena and the Seasons brought wreaths of grass and spring flowers to Pandora, indicating that Hesiod was conscious of Pandora's original \"all-giving\" function. For Harrison, therefore, Hesiod's story provides \"evidence of a shift from matriarchy to patriarchy in Greek culture. As the life-bringing goddess Pandora is eclipsed, the death-bringing human Pandora arises.\" Thus, Harrison concludes \"in the patriarchal mythology of Hesiod her great figure is strangely changed and diminished. She is no longer Earth-Born, but the creature, the handiwork of Olympian Zeus.\" (Harrison 1922:284). Robert Graves, quoting Harrison, asserts of the Hesiodic episode that \"Pandora is not a genuine myth, but an anti-feminist fable, probably of his own invention.\" H.J. Rose wrote that the myth of Pandora is decidedly more illiberal than that of epic in that it makes Pandora the origin of all of Man's woes with her being the exemplification of the bad wife. The Hesiodic myth did not, however, completely obliterate the memory of the all-giving goddess Pandora. A scholium to line 971 of Aristophanes' \"The Birds\" mentions a cult \"to Pandora, the earth, because she bestows all things necessary for life\". And in fifth-century Athens, Pandora made a prominent appearance in what, at first, appears an unexpected context, in a marble relief or bronze appliqués as a frieze along the base of the \"Athena Parthenos\", the culminating experience on the Acropolis. Jeffrey M. Hurwit has interpreted her presence there as an \"anti-Athena.\" Both were motherless, and reinforced via opposite means the civic ideologies of patriarchy and the \"highly gendered social and political realities of fifth-century Athens\"—Athena by rising above her sex to defend it, and Pandora by embodying the need for it. Meanwhile, Pausanias (i.24.7) merely noted the subject and moved on.", "Images of Pandora began to appear on Greek pottery as early as the 5th century BCE, although identification of the scene represented is sometimes ambiguous. An independent tradition that does not square with any of the Classical literary sources is in the visual repertory of Attic red-figure vase-painters, which sometimes supplements, sometimes ignores, the written testimony; in these representations the upper part of Pandora is visible rising from the earth, \"a chthonic goddess like Gaia herself.\" Sometimes, but not always, she is labeled \"Pandora\". In some cases the figure of Pandora emerging from the earth is surrounded by figures carrying hammers in what has been suggested as a scene from a satyr play by Sophocles, \"Pandora, or The Hammerers\", of which only fragments remain. But there have also been alternative interpretations of such scenes. In a late Pre-Raphaelite painting by John D. Batten, hammer-wielding workmen appear through a doorway, while in the foreground Hephaestus broods on the as yet unanimated figure of “Pandora”. There were also earlier English paintings of the newly created Pandora as surrounded by the heavenly gods presenting gifts, a scene also depicted on ancient Greek pottery. In one case it was part of a decorative scheme painted on the ceiling at Petworth House by Louis Laguerre in about 1720. William Etty’s \"Pandora Crowned by the Seasons\" of a century later is similarly presented as an apotheosis taking place among the clouds. In between these two had come James Barry’s huge \"Birth of Pandora\", on which he laboured for over a decade at the turn of the nineteenth century. Well before that he was working on the design, which was intended to reflect his theoretical writings on the interdependence between history painting and the way it should reflect the ideal state. An early drawing, only preserved now in the print made of it by Luigi Schiavonetti, follows the account of Hesiod and shows Pandora being adorned by the Graces and the Hours while the gods look on. Its ideological purpose, however, was to demonstrate an equal society unified by the harmonious function of those within it. But in the actual painting which followed much later, a subordinated Pandora is surrounded by gift-bearing gods and Minerva stands near her, demonstrating the feminine arts proper to her passive role. The shift is back to the culture of blame whenever she steps outside it. In the individual representations of Pandora that were to follow, her idealisation is as a dangerous type of beauty, generally naked or semi-naked. She is only differentiated from other paintings or statues of such females by being given the attribute of a jar or, increasingly in the 19th century, a straight-sided box. As well as the many European paintings of her from this period, there are examples in sculptures by Henri-Joseph Ruxthiel (1819),John Gibson (1856), Pierre Loison (1861, see above) and Chauncy Bradley Ives (1871).", "There is an additional reason why Pandora should appear nude, in that it was a theological commonplace going back to the early Church Fathers that the Classical myth of Pandora made her a type of Eve. Each is the first woman in the world; and each is a central character in a story of transition from an original state of plenty and ease to one of suffering and death, a transition which is brought about as a punishment for transgression of divine law. It has been argued that it was as a result of the Hellenisation of Western Asia that the misogyny in Hesiod's account of Pandora began openly to influence both Jewish and then Christian interpretations of scripture. The doctrinal bias against women so initiated then continued into Renaissance times. Bishop Jean Olivier's long Latin poem \"Pandora\" drew on the Classical account as well as the Biblical to demonstrate that woman is the means of drawing men to sin. Originally appearing in 1541 and republished thereafter, it was soon followed by two separate French translations in 1542 and 1548. At the same period appeared a 5-act tragedy by the Protestant theologian Leonhard Culmann (1498-1568) titled \"Ein schön weltlich Spiel von der schönen Pandora\" (1544), similarly drawing on Hesiod in order to teach conventional Christian morality. The equation of the two also occurs in the 1550 allegorical painting by Jean Cousin the Elder, \"Eva Prima Pandora\" (Eve the first Pandora), in which a naked woman reclines in a grotto. Her right elbow rests on a skull, indicating the bringing of death, and she holds an apple branch in that hand – both attributes of Eve. Her left arm is wreathed by a snake (another reference to the temptation of Eve) and that hand rests on an unstopped jar, Pandora's attribute. Above hangs the sign from which the painting gains its name and beneath it is a closed jar, perhaps the counterpart of the other in Olympus, containing blessings. In Juan de Horozco's Spanish emblem book, \"Emblemas morales\" (1589), a motive is given for Pandora's action. Accompanying an illustration of her opening the lid of an urn from which demons and angels emerge is a commentary that condemns “female curiosity and the desire to learn by which the very first woman was deceived”. In the succeeding century that desire to learn was equated with the female demand to share the male prerogative of education. In Nicolas Regnier’s painting “The Allegory of Vanity” (1626), subtitled “Pandora”, it is typified by her curiosity about the contents of the urn that she has just unstopped and is compared to the other attributes of vanity surrounding her (fine clothes, jewellery, a pot of gold coins). Again, Pietro Paolini’s lively Pandora of about 1632 seems more aware of the effect that her pearls and fashionable headgear is making than of the evils escaping from the jar she holds. There is a social message carried by these paintings too, for education, no less than expensive adornment, is only available to those who can afford it. But an alternative interpretation of Pandora’s curiosity makes it merely an extension of childish innocence. This comes out in portrayals of Pandora as a young girl, as in Walter Crane’s “Little Pandora” spilling buttons while encumbered by the doll she is carrying, in Arthur Rackham’s book illustration and Frederick Stuart Church’s etching of an adolescent girl taken aback by the contents of the ornamental box she has opened. The same innocence informs Odilon Redon’s 1910/12 clothed figure carrying a box and merging into a landscape suffused with light, and even more the 1914 version of a naked Pandora surrounded by flowers, a primaeval Eve in the Garden of Eden. Such innocence, “naked and without alarm” in the words of an earlier French poet, portrays Pandora more as victim of a conflict outside her comprehension than as temptress.", "Early dramatic treatments of the story of Pandora are works of musical theatre. \"La Estatua de Prometeo\" (1670) by Pedro Calderón de la Barca is made an allegory in which devotion to learning is contrasted with the active life. Prometheus moulds a clay statue of Minerva, the goddess of wisdom to whom he is devoted, and gives it life from a stolen sunbeam. This initiates a debate among the gods whether a creation outside their own work is justified; his devotion is in the end rewarded with permission to marry his statue. In this work, Pandora, the statue in question, plays only a passive role in the competition between Prometheus and his brother Epimetheus (signifying the active life), and between the gods and men. Another point to note about Calderón’s musical drama is that the theme of a statue married by her creator is more suggestive of the story of Pygmalion. The latter is also typical of Voltaire’s ultimately unproduced opera \"Pandore\" (1740). There too the creator of a statue animates it with stolen fire, but then the plot is complicated when Jupiter also falls in love with this new creation but is prevented by Destiny from consummating it. In revenge the god sends Destiny to tempt this new Eve into opening a box full of curses as a punishment for Earth’s revolt against Heaven. If Pandora appears suspended between the roles of Eve and of Pygmalion’s creation in Voltaire’s work, in Charles-Pierre Colardeau’s erotic poem \"Les Hommes de Prométhée\" (1774) she is presented equally as a love-object and in addition as an unfallen Eve: Having been fashioned from clay and given the quality of “naïve grace combined with feeling”, she is set to wander through an enchanted landscape. There she encounters the first man, the prior creation of Prometheus, and warmly responds to his embrace. At the end the couple quit their marriage couch and survey their surroundings “As sovereigns of the world, kings of the universe”. One other musical work with much the same theme was Aumale de Corsenville's one-act verse melodrama \"Pandore\", which had an overture and incidental music by Franz Ignaz Beck. There Prometheus, having already stolen fire from heaven, creates a perfect female, “artless in nature, of limpid innocence”, for which he anticipates divine vengeance. However, his patron Minerva descends to announce that the gods have gifted Pandora with other qualities and that she will become the future model and mother of humanity. The work was performed on 2 July 1789, on the very eve of the French Revolution, and was soon forgotten in the course of the events that followed.", "Over the course of the 19th century, the story of Pandora was interpreted in radically different ways by four dramatic authors in four countries. In two of these she was presented as the bride of Epimetheus; in the two others she was the wife of Prometheus. The earliest of these works was the lyrical dramatic fragment by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, written between 1807 and 1808. Though it bears the title \"Pandora\", what exists of the play revolves round Epimetheus’ longing for the return of the wife who has abandoned him and has yet to arrive. It is in fact a philosophical transformation of Goethe's passion in old age for a teenaged girl. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s \"The Masque of Pandora\" dates from 1876. It begins with her creation, her refusal by Prometheus and acceptance by Epimetheus. Then in the latter’s house an “oaken chest, Carven with figures and embossed with gold” attracts her curiosity. After she eventually gives in to temptation and opens it, she collapses in despair and a storm destroys the garden outside. When Epimetheus returns, she begs him to kill her but he accepts joint responsibility. The work was twice used as the basis for operas by Alfred Cellier in 1881 and by Eleanor Everest Freer in 1933. Iconographical elements from the masque also figure in Walter Crane's large watercolour of Pandora of 1885. She is pictured as sprawled over a carved wooden chest on which are embossed golden designs of the three fates who figure as a chorus in Longfellow's scene 3. Outside the palace, a high wind is bending the trees. But on the front of the chest, a medallion showing the serpent wound about the tree of knowledge recalls the old interpretation of Pandora as a type of Eve. In England the high drama of the incident was travestied in James Robinson Planché’s \"Olympic Revels or Prometheus and Pandora\" (1831), the first of the Victorian burlesques. It is a costume drama peppered with comic banter and songs during which the gods betroth Pandora to a disappointed Prometheus with “only one little box” for dowry. When she opens it, Jupiter descends to curse her and Prometheus, but Hope emerges from the box and negotiates their pardon. At the other end of the century, Gabriel Fauré’s ambitious opera Prométhée (1900) had a cast of hundreds, a huge orchestra and an outdoor amphitheatre for stage. It was based in part on the \"Prometheus Bound\" of Aeschylus but was rewritten so as to give the character of Pandore an equal part with his. This necessitated her falling “as if dead” on hearing the judgement against Prométhée in Act 1; a funeral procession bearing her body at the start of Act 2, after which she revives to mourn the carrying out of Prométhée's sentence; while in Act 3 she disobeys Prométhée by accepting a box, supposedly filled with blessings for mankind, and makes the tragedy complete.", "The pattern during the 19th century had only repeated that of the nearly three millennia before it. The ancient myth of Pandora never settled into one accepted version, was never agreed to have a single interpretation. It was used as a vehicle to illustrate the prevailing ideologies or artistic fashions of the time and eventually became so worn a coinage that it grew confused with other, sometimes later, stories. Best known in the end for a single metaphorical attribute, the box with which she was not even endowed until the 16th century, depictions of Pandora have been further confused with other holders of receptacles – with one of the trials of Psyche, with Sophonisba about to drink poison or Artemisia with the ashes of her husband. Nevertheless, her very polyvalence has been in the end the guarantor of her cultural survival." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mythology.", "In modern culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "According to Plato's use of the old myth in his \"Protagoras\" (320d–322a), the twin Titans were entrusted with distributing the traits among the newly created animals. Epimetheus was responsible for giving a positive trait to every animal, but when it was time to give man a positive trait, lacking \"foresight\" he found that there was nothing left. Prometheus decided that humankind's attributes would be the civilising arts and fire, which he stole from Athena and Hephaestus. Prometheus later stood trial for his crime. In the context of Plato's dialogue, \"Epimetheus, the being in whom thought follows production, represents nature in the sense of materialism, according to which thought comes later than thoughtless bodies and their thoughtless motions.\" According to Hesiod, who related the tale twice (\"Theogony\", 527ff; \"Works and Days\" 57ff), Epimetheus was the one who accepted the gift of Pandora from the gods. Their marriage may be inferred (and was by later authors), but it is not made explicit in either text. In later myths, the daughter of Epimetheus and Pandora was Pyrrha, who married Deucalion, a descendant of Prometheus. Together they are the only two humans who survived the deluge. In some accounts, Epimetheus had another daughter, Metameleia, whose name means \"regret of what has occurred\" for those that do not plan ahead will only feel sorrow when calamity strikes.", "In his seminal book Psychological Types, in chapter X, \"General description of the types\", Carl Jung uses the image of Epimetheus (with direct reference to Carl Spitteler's Epimetheus) to refer to the false application of a mental function, as opposed to its whole, healthy, and creative use. Carl Schmitt, in his book \"Ex captivitate salus\" describes himself as a \"Christian Epimetheus\". Ivan Illich devotes a chapter of \"Deschooling Society\" to the \"Rebirth of Epimethean Man\". Epimetheus plays a key role in the philosophy of Bernard Stiegler, and in particular in terms of his understanding of the relation between technogenesis and anthropogenesis; according to Stiegler, it is significant that Epimetheus is entirely forgotten in the philosophy of Martin Heidegger. Les Amis, in his book \"Commemorating Epimetheus\" (2009), reinstates the value of Epimetheus. He is credited with bringing to the world our knowledge of dependency on each other described phenomenologically in terms of sharing, caring, meeting and dwelling and loving. Epimetheus is also mentioned in the Japanese Light Novel \"Campione!\" as the father of god-slayers, because it would take someone with no foresight to fight a god." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Themes.", "Source material.", "New Testament.", "Old Testament.", "Traditional iconography and stories.", "Catholic devotional writings.", "Production.", "Script and language.", "Filming.", "Music.", "Title change.", "Distribution and marketing.", "Evangelical support.", "Release.", "Box office.", "Theatrical re-release.", "Home media.", "Television broadcast.", "Reception.", "Critical response.", "Independent promotion and discussion.", "Accolades.", "Controversies.", "Questions of historical and biblical accuracy.", "Disputed papal endorsement.", "Allegations of antisemitism.", "Reactions to allegations of antisemitism.", "Criticism of excessive violence.", "Sequel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In the late hours of the night at the forested garden of Gethsemane, at the height of his cause, Jesus prays while his disciples Saint Peter, James, son of Zebedee James, and John the Evangelist sleep. While he prays in seclusion, Satan appears to Jesus in an androgynous form, and tempts him, stating that no one can bear the burden that God asks of him: to suffer and die for humanity's sins. Jesus' sweat turns into blood and drips to the ground while a serpent emerges from Satan's guise. Jesus hears his disciples call for him, and rebukes Satan by crushing the snake's head. Judas Iscariot, another of Jesus' disciples, having received a bribe of 30 pieces of silver, leads a group of temple guards to the forest and betrays Jesus' identity. As the guards arrest Jesus, a fight erupts wherein Peter draws his dagger and slashes the ear of Malchus, one of the guards and a servant of the high priest Caiaphas. Jesus heals Malchus' injury while reprimanding Peter. As the disciples flee, the guards secure Jesus, and beat him during the journey to the Sanhedrin. John informs Mary, mother of Jesus and Mary Magdalene of the arrest, while Peter follows Jesus and his captors. Magdalene begs a passing Roman patrol to intervene, but a temple guard assures them that she is insane. Caiaphas holds trial over the objection of some of the other priests, who are expelled from the court. False accusations and witnesses are brought against him. When asked by Caiaphas whether he is the Son of God, Jesus answers \"I am\". Caiaphas tears his robes in outrage and Jesus is condemned to death for blasphemy. Peter is confronted by the surrounding mob for being a follower of Jesus.", "In \"The Passion: Photography from the Movie \"The Passion of the Christ\"\", director Mel Gibson says, \"This is a movie about Love, Hope, Faith and forgiveness. Jesus died for all mankind, suffered for all of us. It's time to get", "", "According to Mel Gibson, the primary source material for \"The Passion of the Christ\" is the four canonical Gospel narratives of Christ's passion. The film includes a trial of Jesus at Herod's court, which is only found in the Gospel", "The film also refers to the Old Testament. The film begins with an epigraph from the Fourth Song of the Suffering Servant from Isaiah. In", "Many of the depictions in the film deliberately mirror traditional representations of the Passion in art. For example, the 14 Stations of the Cross are central to the depiction of the Via Dolorosa in \"The Passion of the Christ.\" All the stations are portrayed except for the eighth station (Jesus meets the women of Jerusalem, a deleted scene on the DVD) and the fourteenth station (Jesus is laid in the tomb). Gibson was inspired", "Screenwriters Gibson and Benedict Fitzgerald said that they read many accounts of Christ's Passion for inspiration, including the devotional writings of Roman Catholic mystics. A principal source is \"The Dolorous Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ\" the visions of Anne Catherine Emmerich (1774–1824), as written by the poet Clemens Brentano. A careful reading of Emmerich's book shows", "", "Gibson originally announced that he would use two old languages without subtitles and rely on \"filmic storytelling\". Because the story of the Passion is so well known, Gibson felt the need to avoid vernacular languages in order to surprise audiences: \"I think it's almost counterproductive to say some of these things in a modern language. It makes you want to stand up and shout out the next line, like when you hear 'To be or not to be' and you instinctively say to yourself, 'That", "The film was produced independently and shot in Italy at Cinecittà Studios in Rome, and on location in the city of Matera and the ghost town of Craco, both in the Basilicata region. The estimated US$30 million production cost, plus an additional estimated $15 million in marketing costs, were fully borne by Gibson and his company Icon Productions. According to the DVD special feature, Martin Scorsese recently finished his film \"Gangs of New York\",", "Three albums were released with Mel Gibson's co-operation: (1) the film soundtrack of John Debney's original orchestral score conducted by Nick Ingman; (2) \"\", by producers Mark Joseph and Tim Cook, with original compositions by various artists, and (3) \"Songs Inspired by The Passion", "Although Mel Gibson wanted to call his film \"The Passion\", on October 16, 2003, his spokesman announced that the title used in the United States would", "Gibson began production on his film without securing outside funding or distribution. In 2002, he explained why he could not get backing from the Hollywood studios: \"This is a film about something that nobody wants to touch, shot in two dead languages.\" Gibson and his company Icon Productions provided the film's sole backing, spending about $30 million on production costs and an estimated $15 million on marketing. After early accusations of antisemitism, it became difficult for Gibson to find an American distribution company. 20th Century Fox initially had a first-look deal with Icon but decided to pass on the film in response to public protests. In order to avoid the spectacle of other studios turning down the film and to avoid subjecting the distributor", "\"The Passion of the Christ\" received enthusiastic support from the American evangelical community. Before the film's release, Gibson actively reached out to evangelical leaders seeking their support and feedback. With their help, Gibson organized and attended a series of pre-release screenings for evangelical audiences and discussed the making of the film and his personal faith. In June 2003 he screened the film for 800 pastors attending a leadership conference at New Life", "", "\"The Passion of the Christ\" opened in the United States on February 25, 2004 (Ash Wednesday, the beginning of Lent). It earned $83,848,082 from 4,793 screens at 3,043 theaters in its opening weekend and a total of $125,185,971 since its Wednesday opening, ranking it fourth overall in domestic opening weekend earnings for 2004 as well as the biggest weekend debut for a February release (until \"Fifty Shades of Grey\" was released). It went on to earn $370,782,930 overall in the United States, and remaines the highest grossing R-rated film in the domestic market. (U.S. & Canada). The film", "An edited version titled \"The Passion Recut\" was released on March 11, 2005, with five minutes of the most explicit violence deleted to broaden the audience. Gibson explained his reasoning for the new version of the film: Despite the attempt", "On August 31, 2004, the film was released on VHS and DVD in North America by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment, which initially passed on theatrical distribution. As with the original theatrical release, the film's release on home video formats proved to be very popular. Early estimates indicated that over 2.4 million copies of the film were sold by 3 PM Eastern Time, with a total of 4.1 million copies on its first day of sale. The film was available on DVD with English and Spanish subtitles and on VHS tape with English subtitles. The film was released on Blu-ray in North America as a two-disc Definitive Edition set on February 17, 2009. It was also released on Blu-ray in Australia a week before Easter. Although the original DVD release sold well, it contained no bonus features other than a trailer, which provoked speculation about how many buyers would wait for a special edition to be released. On January 30, 2007, a two-disc Definitive Edition was released in the North American markets, and March", "On April 17, 2011 (Palm Sunday), Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN) presented the film at 7:30 pm ET/PT, with multiple showings scheduled. The network has continued to air the film throughout the year, and particularly around Easter. On March 29, 2013 (Good Friday), as a part of their special Holy Week programming, TV5 presented the Filipino-dubbed version of the film at 2:00 pm (PST,", "", "On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 49% based on 278 reviews, with an average rating of 5.91/10. The website's critical consensus reads: \"Director Mel Gibson's zeal is unmistakable, but \"The Passion of the Christ\" will leave many viewers emotionally drained rather than spiritually uplifted.\" On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average of 47 out of 100, based on 44 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare \"A+\" grade. In a positive review for \"Time\", its critic Richard Corliss called \"The Passion of the Christ\" \"a serious, handsome, excruciating film that radiates total commitment.\" \"New York Press\" film critic Armond White praised Gibson's direction, comparing him to Carl Theodor Dreyer in how he transformed art into spirituality. White also noted that it was odd to see Director Mel Gibson offer audiences \"an intellectual challenge\" with the film. Roger Ebert from the \"Chicago Sun-Times\" gave the movie four out of four stars, calling it \"the", "A number of independent websites, such as MyLifeAfter.com and Passion-Movie.com, were launched to promote the film and its message and to allow people to discuss the film's effect on their lives. Documentaries such as \"Changed Lives: Miracles of the Passion\" chronicled", "Wins Nominations Other honors The film was nominated in the following categories", "", "Despite criticisms that Gibson deliberately added material to the historical accounts of first-century Judea and biblical accounts of Christ's crucifixion, some scholars defend the film as not being primarily concerned with historical accuracy. Biblical scholar Mark Goodacre protested that he could not find one documented example of Gibson explicitly claiming the film to be historically accurate. Gibson has been quoted as saying: \"I think that my first duty is to be as faithful as possible in telling the story so that it doesn't contradict the Scriptures. Now, so long", "On December 5, 2003, \"Passion of the Christ\" co-producer Stephen McEveety gave the film to Archbishop Stanisław Dziwisz, the pope's secretary. John Paul II watched the film in his private apartment with Archbishop Dziwisz on Friday and Saturday, December 5 and 6, and later met with McEveety. Jan Michelini, an Italian and the movie's assistant director, was also there when Dziwisz and McEveety met. On December 16, \"Variety\" reported the pope, a movie buff, had watched a rough version of the film. On December 17, \"Wall Street Journal\" columnist Peggy Noonan reported John Paul II had said \"It is as it was\", sourcing McEveety, who said he heard it from Dziwisz. Noonan had emailed Joaquín Navarro-Valls, the head of the Vatican's press office, for confirmation before writing her", "Before the film was released, there were prominent criticisms of perceived antisemitic content in the film. 20th Century Fox told New York Assemblyman Dov Hikind it had passed on distributing the film in response to a protest outside the News Corporation building. Hikind warned other companies that \"they should not distribute this film. This is unhealthy for Jews all over the world.\" A joint committee of the Secretariat for Ecumenical and Inter-religious Affairs of the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops and the Department of Inter-religious Affairs of the Anti-Defamation League obtained a version of the script before it was released in theaters. They released a statement, calling it one of the most troublesome texts, relative to anti-Semitic potential, that any of us had seen in 25", "Asked by Bill O'Reilly if his movie would \"upset Jews\", Gibson responded \"It's not meant to. I think it's meant to just tell the truth. I want to be as truthful as possible.\" In an interview for \"The Globe and Mail\", he added: \"If anyone has distorted Gospel passages to rationalize cruelty towards Jews or anyone, it's in defiance of repeated Papal condemnation. The Papacy has condemned racism in any form...Jesus died for the sins of all times, and I'll be the first on the line for culpability.\" Conservative columnist Cal Thomas also disagreed with allegations of antisemitism, stating \"To those in the Jewish community who worry that the film might contain anti-Semitic elements, or encourage people to persecute Jews, fear not. The film does not indict Jews for the death of Jesus.\" Two Orthodox Jews, Rabbi Daniel Lapin and conservative talk-show host and author Michael Medved, also vocally rejected claims that the film is antisemitic. They said the film contains many sympathetic portrayals of Jews: Simon of Cyrene (who helps Jesus carry the cross), Mary Magdalene,", "Several critics were troubled by the film's extensive, detailed violence, and especially cautioned parents to avoid taking their children to the cinema. Film critic Roger Ebert, who gave the film a 4/4 star rating, wrote in his review: The movie is 126 minutes long, and I would guess that at least 100 of those minutes, maybe more, are concerned specifically and graphically with the details of the torture and death of Jesus. This is the most violent film I have ever seen. Ebert also stated that the R-rated film should have instead been rated NC-17 in a \"Movie Answer Man\" response, adding that no level-minded parent should ever allow children to see it. In 2008, writer Michael Gurnow in American Atheists stated much the same, labeling the work a mainstream snuff film. A.O. Scott in \"The New York Times\" wrote \"\"The Passion of", "In June 2016, writer Randall Wallace stated that he and Gibson had begun work on a sequel to \"The Passion of the Christ\" focusing on the resurrection of Jesus. Wallace previously worked with Gibson as the screenwriter for \"Braveheart\" and director of \"We Were Soldiers\". In September of that year, Gibson expressed his interest in directing it. He estimated that release of the film was still \"probably three years off\", stating that \"it is a big project\". Also in November, Gibson confirmed the title to be \"The Resurrection of the Christ\". He also implied that part of the movie would be taking place in Hell and, while talking to Raymond Arroyo, implied that it also may show flashbacks depicting the fall of the Angels. The film will explore the three-day period starting on Good Friday, the day of Jesus' death. In January 2018, Caviezel was in agreements with Mel Gibson to reprise his role as Jesus in the sequel. In March 2020, Jim Caviezel said to Fox Nation that the film is on \"Fifth draft and it's going to be a masterpiece. It's coming.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "The profession.", "Multi-discipline collaboration.", "Working environments.", "Research.", "Education and training.", "United States.", "Salary information.", "Methods of assessment.", "Clients and patients.", "Infants and children.", "United States.", "United Kingdom." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) provide a wide range of services, mainly on an individual basis, but also as support for individuals, families, support groups, and providing information for the general public. SLPs work to prevent, assess, diagnose, and treat speech, language, social communication, cognitive-communication, voice, fluency, and swallowing disorders in children and adults. Speech services begin with initial screening for communication and swallowing disorders and continue with assessment and diagnosis, consultation for the provision of advice regarding management, intervention, and treatment, and providing counseling and other follow up services for these disorders. Services are provided in the following areas: Speech, language, and swallowing disorders result from a variety of causes, such as a stroke, brain injury, hearing loss, developmental delay, a cleft palate, cerebral palsy, or emotional issues. A common misconception is that speech-language pathology is restricted to the treatment of articulation disorders (e.g. helping English speaking individuals enunciate the traditionally difficult \"r\") and/or the treatment of individuals who stutter but, in fact, speech-language pathology is concerned with a broad scope of speech, language, literacy, swallowing, and voice issues involved in communication, some of which include: The components of speech production include: (i) phonation (producing sound), (ii) resonance, (iii) fluency, (iv) intonation, (iv) pitch variance; (v) voice (including aeromechanical components of respiration). The components of language include: (i) Phonology (manipulating sound according to the rules of a language); (ii) Morphology (understanding components of words and how they can modify meaning); (iii) Syntax (constructing sentences according to the grammatical rules of a target language), (iv) semantics (interpreting signs or symbols of communication such as words or signs to construct meaning); (v) Pragmatics (social aspects of communication). Primary pediatric speech and language disorders include: (i) receptive and (ii) expressive language disorders, (iii) speech sound disorders, (iv) childhood apraxia of speech (CAS), (v) stuttering, and (vi) language-based learning disabilities. Speech pathologists work with people of all ages. Swallowing disorders include difficulties in any system of the swallowing process (\"i.e.\" oral, pharyngeal, esophageal), as well as functional dysphagia and feeding disorders. Swallowing disorders can occur at any age and can stem from multiple causes.", "SLPs collaborate with other health care professionals, often working as part of a multidisciplinary team. They can provide information and referrals to audiologists, physicians, dentists, nurses, nurse practitioners, occupational therapists, rehabilitation psychologists, dietitians, educators, behavior consultants (applied behavior analysis) and parents as dictated by the individual client's needs. For example, the treatment for patients with cleft lip and palate, often requires multidisciplinary collaboration. Speech-language pathologists can be very beneficial to help resolve speech problems associated with cleft lip and palate. Research has indicated that children who receive early language intervention are less likely to develop compensatory error patterns later in life, although speech therapy outcomes are usually better when surgical treatment is performed earlier. Another area of collaboration relates to auditory processing disorders, where SLPs can collaborate in assessments and provide intervention where there is evidence of speech, language, and/or other cognitive-communication disorders.", "SLPs work in a variety of clinical and educational settings. SLPs work in public and private hospitals, private practices, skilled nursing facilities (SNFs), long-term acute care (LTAC) facilities, hospice, and home healthcare. SLPs may also work as part of the support structure in the education system, working in both public and private schools, colleges, and universities. Some SLPs also work in community health, providing services at prisons and young offenders' institutions or providing expert testimony in applicable court cases. Following the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association's (ASHA's) 2005 approval of the delivery of speech/language services via video conference or telepractice, SLPs in the United States have begun to use this service model.", "SLPs conduct research related to communication sciences and disorders, swallowing disorders, or other upper aerodigestive functions.", "", "In the United States, speech-language pathology is a Master's entry-level professional degree field. Clinicians must hold a master's degree in Communicative Disorders/Speech-Language Pathology (\"e.g.\" M.A., M.S., or M.Ed.) that is from a university that holds regional accreditation and from a communication sciences and disorders program that is accredited by the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA), the profession's national governing body as well as individual state's governing board. Programs that offer the M.Ed. degree are often housed within a university's College of education, but offer the same education and training as programs with a M.A. or M.S. degree. Beyond the master's degree, some SLPs may choose to earn a clinical doctorate in Speech-Language Pathology (\"e.g.\" CScD or SLPD), or a doctoral degree that has a research and/or professional focus (\"e.g.\", Ph.D., or Ed.D.). All degrees must be from a university that holds regional accreditation, but only the master's degree is accredited by the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA). All clinicians are required to complete 400 clinical hours (25 observation hours often completed during the undergraduate degree and 375 hours of graduate Clinical Practicum). They must pass multiple comprehensive exams also called Knowledge and Skills Acquisition (KASA) exams. After all the above requirements have been met during the SLP's path to earning the graduate degree, SLPs must state licensure and national certification by: Maintaining licensure through continuing education: Continuing education and training obligations: Professional suffix:", "Salaries of SLPs in the United States depend on a variety of factors including educational background, work experience, and location. The ASHA 2016 Schools Survey revealed that SLPs received a median academic year salary of $62,000, which is a 2% increase from the latest Schools Survey done in 2014. The 2015 SLP Health Care Survey placed the median salary for SLPs working within the health care industry at $75,000. However, salaries can range from $60,570–97,770. In Australia, the basic salary that a Graduate SLP would earn is estimated at AU$59,500 and around AU$55,000 for a Private SLP.", "For many parents, the decision of whether or not to enroll students into school-based speech therapy or privately practiced therapy is challenging. Speech Pathologists work as part of a team alongside teachers, counselors, social workers and parents when in a school setting. Because school-based speech therapy is run under state guidelines and funds, the process of assessment and qualification is more strict. To qualify for in-school speech therapy, students must meet the state's criteria on language testing and speech standardization. Due to such requirements, some students may not be assessed in an efficient time frame or their needs may be undermined by criteria. For a private clinic, students are more likely to qualify for therapy because it is a paid service with more availability.", "Speech-language pathologists work with clients and patients who may present with a wide range of issues.", "", "In the US, some children are eligible to receive speech therapy services, including assessment and lessons through the public school system. If not, private therapy is readily available through personal lessons with a qualified Speech-Language Pathologist or the growing field of telepractice. Teleconferencing tools such as Skype are being used more commonly as a means to access remote locations in private therapy practice, such as in the geographically diverse south island of New Zealand. More at-home or combination treatments have become readily available to address specific types of articulation disorders. The use of mobile applications in speech therapy is also growing as an avenue to bring treatment into the home.", "In the UK, children are entitled to an assessment by local NHS Speech and Language Therapy teams, usually after referral by health visitors or education settings, but parents are also entitled to request an assessment directly. If treatment is appropriate, an educational plan will be drawn up. Speech therapists often play a role in multi-disciplinary teams where a child has speech delay or disorder as part of a wider health condition. The Children's Commissioner for England reported in June 2019 that there was a postcode lottery. £291.65 a year per head was spent on services in some areas, while the budget in some areas was £30.94 or less. In 2018, 193,971 children in English primary schools were on the special educational needs register needing speech therapy services." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Mythology.", "Punishment.", "Encounter with Perseus.", "Encounter with Heracles.", "Other Variations.", "King of Atlantis.", "King of Mauretania.", "Other.", "Genealogy.", "Cultural influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The etymology of the name \"Atlas\" is uncertain. Virgil took pleasure in translating etymologies of Greek names by combining them with adjectives that explained them: for Atlas his adjective is \"durus\", \"hard, enduring\", which suggested to George Doig that Virgil was aware of the Greek τλῆναι \"to endure\"; Doig offers the further possibility that Virgil was aware of Strabo's remark that the native North African name for this mountain was \"Douris\". Since the Atlas mountains rise in the region inhabited by Berbers, it has been suggested that the name might be taken from one of the Berber, specifically \"ádrār\"'mountain'. Traditionally historical linguists etymologize the Ancient Greek word Ἄτλας (genitive: Ἄτλαντος) as comprised from copulative α- and the Proto-Indo-European root \"*telh2-\" 'to uphold, support' (whence also τλῆναι), and which was later reshaped to an nt-stem. However, Robert S. P. Beekes argues that it cannot be expected that this ancient Titan carries an Indo-European name, and that the word is of Pre-Greek origin, and such words often end in \"-ant\".", "", "Atlas and his brother Menoetius sided with the Titans in their war against the Olympians, the Titanomachy. When the Titans were defeated, many of them (including Menoetius) were confined to Tartarus, but Zeus condemned Atlas to stand at the western edge of Gaia (the Earth) and hold up the sky on his shoulders. Thus, he was \"Atlas Telamon\", \"enduring Atlas,\" and became a doublet of Coeus, the embodiment of the celestial axis around which the heavens revolve. A common misconception today is that Atlas was forced to hold the Earth on his shoulders, but Classical art shows Atlas holding the celestial spheres, not the terrestrial globe; the solidity of the marble globe borne by the renowned Farnese Atlas may have aided the conflation, reinforced in the 16th century by the developing usage of \"atlas\" to describe a corpus of terrestrial maps.", "The Greek poet Polyidus c. 398 BC tells a tale of Atlas, then a shepherd, encountering Perseus who turned him to stone. Ovid later gives a more detailed account of the incident, combining it with the myth of Heracles. In this account Atlas is not a shepherd but a King. According to Ovid, Perseus arrives in Atlas' Kingdom and asks for shelter, declaring he is a son of Zeus. Atlas, fearful of a prophecy which warned of a son of Zeus stealing his golden apples from his orchard, refuses Perseus hospitality. In this account, Atlas is turned not just into stone by Perseus, but an entire mountain range: Atlas' head the peak, his shoulders ridges and his hair woods. The prophecy did not relate to Perseus stealing the golden apples but Heracles, another son of Zeus, and Perseus' great-grandson.", "One of the Twelve Labours of the hero Heracles was to fetch some of the golden apples which grow in Hera's garden, tended by Atlas' reputed daughters, the Hesperides which were also called the Atlantides, and guarded by the dragon Ladon. Heracles went to Atlas and offered to hold up the heavens while Atlas got the apples from his daughters. Upon his return with the apples, however, Atlas attempted to trick Heracles into carrying the sky permanently by offering to deliver the apples himself, as anyone who purposely took the burden must carry it forever, or until someone else took it away. Heracles, suspecting Atlas did not intend to return, pretended to agree to Atlas' offer, asking only that Atlas take the sky again for a few minutes so Heracles could rearrange his cloak as padding on his shoulders. When Atlas set down the apples and took the heavens upon his shoulders again, Heracles took the apples and ran away. In some versions, Heracles instead built the two great Pillars of Hercules to hold the sky away from the earth, liberating Atlas much as he liberated Prometheus.", "", "According to Plato, the first king of Atlantis was also named Atlas, but that Atlas was a son of Poseidon and the mortal woman Cleito. The works of Eusebius and Diodorus also give an Atlantean account of Atlas. In these accounts, Atlas' father was Uranus and his mother was Gaia. His grandfather was Elium \"King of Phoenicia\" who lived in Byblos with his wife Beruth. Atlas was raised by his sister, Basilia.", "Atlas was also a legendary king of Mauretania, the land of the Mauri in antiquity roughly corresponding with modern Maghreb. In the 16th century Gerardus Mercator put together the first collection of maps to be called an \"Atlas\" and devoted his book to the \"King of Mauretania\". Atlas became associated with Northwest Africa over time. He had been connected with the Hesperides, \"Nymphs\" which guarded the golden apples, and Gorgons both of which lived beyond Ocean in the extreme west of the world since Hesiod's Theogony. Diodorus and Palaephatus mention that the Gorgons lived in the Gorgades, islands in the Aethiopian Sea. The main island was called Cerna and modern day arguments have been advanced that these islands may correspond to Cape Verde due to Phoenician exploration. The Northwest Africa region emerged as the canonical home of the King via separate sources. In particular, according to Ovid, after Perseus turns Atlas into a mountain range, he flies over Aethiopia, the blood of Medusa's head giving rise to Libyan snakes. By the time of the Roman Empire the habit of associating Atlas' home to a chain of mountains, the Atlas mountains, which were near Mauretania and Numidia, was firmly entrenched.", "The identifying name \"Aril\" is inscribed on two 5th-century BC Etruscan bronze items: a mirror from Vulci and a ring from an unknown site. Both objects depict the encounter with Atlas of Hercle—the Etruscan Heracles—identified by the inscription; they represent rare instances where a figure from Greek mythology was imported into Etruscan mythology, but the name was not. The Etruscan name \"Aril\" is etymologically independent. According to Robert Graves' \"The Greek Myths\", the Pelasgians believed the creator goddess Eurynome assigned Atlas and Phoebe to govern the moon.", "Sources describe Atlas as the father, by different goddesses, of numerous children, mostly daughters. Some of these are assigned conflicting or overlapping identities or parentage in different sources. Hyginus emphasises the primordial nature of Atlas by making him the son of Aether and Gaia.", "Atlas' best-known cultural association is in cartography. The first publisher to associate the Titan Atlas with a group of maps was the print-seller Antonio Lafreri, on the engraved title-page he applied to his \"ad hoc\" assemblages of maps, \"Tavole Moderne Di Geografia De La Maggior Parte Del Mondo Di Diversi Autori\" (1572); however, he did not use the word \"Atlas\" in the title of his work, an innovation of Gerardus Mercator, who dedicated his \"atlas\" specifically to honour the Titan, Atlas, King of Mauretania, a learned philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer. In psychology, Atlas is used metaphorically to describe the personality of someone whose childhood was characterized by excessive responsibilities." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins.", "Orontid Dynasty." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "After the collapse of the Kingdom of Urartu (Ararat), the region was placed under the administration of the Median Empire and the Scythians. Later the territory was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire, which incorporated it as a satrapy, and thus named it the land of \"Armina\" (in Old Persian; \"\"Harminuya\"\" in Elamite; \"\"Urashtu\"\" in Babylonian).", "The Orontid Dynasty, or known by their native name, Eruandid or Yervanduni, was a hereditary dynasty of ancient Armenia, and the rulers of the successor state to the Iron Age kingdom of Urartu (Ararat). Historians state that the dynasty was of Iranian origin, and suggest, albeit not clearly, that it held dynastic familial linkages to the ruling Achaemenid dynasty. Throughout their existence, the Orontids stressed their lineage from the Achaemenids in order to strengthen their political legitimacy. Members of the dynasty ruled Armenia intermittently during the period spanning from the 6th to at least the 2nd centuries BC, first as client kings or satraps of the Median and Achaemenid empires and later, after the collapse of the Achaemenid empire, as rulers of an independent kingdom, and later as kings of Sophene and Commagene, which eventually succumbed to the Roman Empire. The Orontids established their supremacy over Armenia around the time of the Scythian and Median invasion in the 6th century BC. Its founder was Orontes I Sakavakyats (Armenian: Երվանդ Ա Սակավակյաց, Yervand I Sakavakyats). His son, Tigranes Orontid, united his forces with Cyrus the Great and killed Media's king. Moses of Chorene called him \"the wisest, most powerful and bravest of Armenian kings.\" From 553 BC to 521 BC, Armenia was a subject kingdom of the Achaemenid Empire, but when Darius I was king, he decided to conquer Armenia. He sent an Armenian named Dâdarši to stop a revolt against Persian rule, later replacing him with the Persian general, Vaumisa, who defeated the Armenians in 521 BC. Around the same time, another Armenian by the name of Arakha, son of Haldita, claimed to be the son of the last king of Babylon, Nabonidus, and renamed himself Nebuchadnezzar IV. His rebellion was short lived and was suppressed by Intaphrenes, Darius' bow carrier. After the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BC), Orontes III was able to regain independence for Armenia. But in 201 BC, Armenia was conquered by Artashes, a general from the Seleucid Empire, and also said to be a member of Orontid dynasty. The last Orontid king Orontes IV was killed, but the Orontids continued to rule in Sophene and Commagene until the 1st century BC. In two inscriptions of king Antiochus I of Commagene on his monument at Mount Nemrut, Orontes I (son of Artasouras and husband of Artaxerxes' daughter Rhodogoune), is reckoned as an ancestor of the Orontids ruling over Commagene, who traced back their family to Darius the Great." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Beginnings.", "\"Evangelion\".", "21st century.", "Other works.", "Relationship to fan community." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The studio was formed in the early 1980s as \"Daicon Film\" by university students Hideaki Anno, Yoshiyuki Sadamoto, Hiroyuki Yamaga, Takami Akai, Toshio Okada, Yasuhiro Takeda and Shinji Higuchi. Their first project was an animated short for the 20th Annual Japan National SF Convention, also known as Daicon III, held in 1981 in Osaka, Japan. The short film is about a girl who fights monsters, robots, and spaceships from early science fiction TV shows and films (including \"Ultraman\", \"Gundam\", \"Space Runaway Ideon\", \"Space Battleship Yamato\", \"Star Trek\", \"Star Wars\", and \"Godzilla\") until she finally reaches a desert plain and pours a glass of water on a dried-out daikon radish, which immediately resurrects itself, grows into a huge spaceship, and beams her aboard. Though the short had an ambitious scope, the animation was rough and low-quality. The group made a much bigger splash with the short they produced for the 22nd Annual Japan National SF Convention, Daicon IV, in 1983. Starting with a better animated recap of their original 1981 short, the short then moves to the girl as a grown woman, wearing a bunny suit and fighting an even wider range of science fiction creatures (including various Mobile Suits from the Gundam series, Darth Vader, an Alien, a \"Macross\" Valkyrie, a Pern dragon, Aslan, a Klingon battle cruiser, Spider-Man, and a pan across a vast array of hundreds of other characters) while surfing through the sky on the sword Stormbringer. The action was all set to the Electric Light Orchestra song \"Twilight\", though the group's failure to properly license the song would prevent the short's official release on DVD (and make the limited laserdisc release of the Daicon shorts very rare and highly sought after items). The Daicon IV short firmly established Daicon Film as a talented new anime studio (albeit small and with only 20 million yen or about US$200,000). The studio changed its name to Gainax in 1985, basing the term \"Gainax\" on an obscure Tottori Prefecture term for \"giant\", with the English suffix \"-x\" added because it sounded \"good and was international\". Gainax's first work as a commercial entity was \"\", released in 1987. \"Honneamise\" was (and still is) critically acclaimed and a classic anime movie; however, it had a tepid commercial reaction (Gainax did attempt to develop a sequel beginning in March 1992, but was unable to do it due to lack of funds). The next release, the 1988 OVA \"Gunbuster\", was a commercial success and put Gainax on a stabler footing to produce works like \"\" and \"Otaku no Video\". During this period, Gainax also produced a number of items such as garage kit and adult video games (a major earner which kept Gainax afloat on occasion, though they were sometimes banned).", "In 1995, Gainax produced perhaps their best known series, the commercially successful and critically lauded \"Neon Genesis Evangelion\". In the wake of \"Evangelion<nowiki>'s</nowiki>\" success, however, Gainax was audited by the National Tax Agency at the urging of the Tokyo Regional Taxation Bureau on suspicion of committing tax evasion on the massive profits accruing from various \"Evangelion\" properties. It was later revealed that Gainax had concealed 1.56 billion yen worth of income (thereby failing to pay 560 million yen due in corporate taxes) which it had earned between the release of \"Evangelion\" and July 1997 by paying closely related companies various large fees, ostensibly to pay for animation expenses, but then immediately withdrawing 90% of the sums from the other company's accounts as cash and storing it in safe deposit boxes (leaving 10% as a reward for the other company's assistance). Gainax president Takeshi Sawamura and tax accountant Yoshikatsu Iwasaki were arrested on July 13, 1999 and later jailed for accounting fraud. Yasuhiro Takeda later defended Sawamura's actions as being a reaction to Gainax's perpetually precarious finances and the shaky accounting procedures internally: Sawamura understood our financial situation better than anyone, so when \"Evangelion\" took off and the money really started rolling in, he saw it as possibly our one and only opportunity to set something aside for the future. I guess he was vulnerable to temptation at that point, because no one knew how long the \"Evangelion\" goose would keep laying golden eggs. I don't think he purposely set out with the goal of evading taxes. It was more that our level of accounting knowledge wasn't up to the task of dealing with revenues on such a large scale.", "In 2004, Gainax marked their 20th anniversary with the production of \"Diebuster\", the sequel to \"Gunbuster\". Gainax's most recent successes on television have been the popular anime series \"Gurren Lagann\" (2007) and \"Panty & Stocking with Garterbelt\" (2010). In August 2011, Gainax was sued by A.D. Vision, which claimed Gainax's refusal to accept an option payment for the perpetual live-action rights to \"Evangelion\" was a breach of contract and had resulted in losing an opportunity to produce the film with a major studio. A.D. Vision has asked to be awarded the live-action rights to \"Evangelion\" and any accruing legal fees. In 2012, Gainax announced it would be producing its first live-action television series, EA's Rock, with director Nobuhiro Yamashita. At the 2013 Tokyo Anime Fair, Gainax announced that they would be making once-dead \"Blue Uru\" film with Hiroyuki Yamaga as the director and screenwriter and Yoshiyuki Sadamoto as the character designer. In March 2015, a new studio and museum were opened in Miharu, Fukushima, with the studio named Fukushima Gainax. In 2016, Gainax was sued by Studio Khara for 100 million yen in unpaid royalties from an agreement that Khara would earn royalties from income received on works and properties that founder Hideaki Anno had worked on. The suit alleged that Gainax delayed on paying royalties and incurred a large debt with Khara, which had loaned 100 million yen in August 2014, but had yet to receive payment on the loan. In 2017 the suit was ruled on by a judge at the Tokyo District Court which ordered Gainax to pay the full amount in debt owed to Khara. Further, it was reported that Gainax was not expected to appeal the ruling. Gainax President, Hiroyuki Yamaga posted a public apology on the Gainax website stating the company was now undergoing restructuring. To date, Anno claims nobody from Gainax has contacted him personally with any kind of apology or explanation. In August 2018, it was announced that Fukushima Gainax had been acquired by Kinoshita Group Holdings on July 26, making it Kinoshita's new subsidiary. Fukushima Gainax changed its studio name to Gaina and relocated to Koganei, Tokyo on August 9. In December 2019, representative director Tomohiro Maki was arrested on allegations of quasi-forcible indecency on an aspiring voice actress. Maki had been appointed representative director in October, but had been a board director of the company since 2015 and previously served as head of Gainax International, a separate company that trained voice actors and other talents, at the time of the alleged incidents. In February 2020, Yasuhiro Kamimura was appointed the company's new director and a new board was hired on to the company.", "Gainax has also teamed with other groups to create various works, such as a 1987 promotional video for the song \"Marionette\" by Boøwy and the 2006 Momoko-based \"Gainax Girls\" fashion dolls created in collaboration with a Japanese fashion doll. Gainax also collaborated with Game Arts in 1992, resulting in the video game \"Alisia Dragoon\". Gainax has also produced a number of computer games, including a strip mahjong game featuring \"Evangelion\" characters and its most famous, the \"Princess Maker\" series (later adapted as \"Puchi Puri Yūshi\"). Gainax also collaborated with Saudi Arabian media content company ARiNAT on a three-minute anime trailer titled \"Desert Knight\" (Sabaku no Kishi), which debuted at the \"ANI:ME\" Japanese pop culture festival in Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates. Gainax also created the \"Mahoromatic Digital Maiden\" 1 - 3 PC game series in 1998 which allowed Konami to publish the PS2 game exclusive \"Mahoromatic\" in Japan that is lesser known to the public.", "Since Gainax originated as a group of fans, it has maintained ties to the general otaku community, allowing dōjinshi of its work, fan-made action figures, promoting series like \"Evangelion\" at private festivals, and so on. The term \"Gainaxing\" has been coined by fans to describe exaggerated bouncing of a female character's breasts. Similarly, the term \"Gainax ending\" has been used in reference to several Gainax productions to describe an ending to a work which is surreal, or seems to come out of nowhere and resolve little." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "History.", "The Marques family.", "Thomas Bohier.", "Diane de Poitiers.", "Catherine de' Medici.", "Louise de Lorraine.", "Duc de Vendôme.", "Louise Dupin.", "Marguerite Pelouze.", "Recent history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "An architectural mixture of late Gothic and early Renaissance, Château de Chenonceau and its gardens are open to the public. Other than the Royal Palace of Versailles, it is the most visited château in France. The château has been classified as a \"Monument historique\" since 1840 by the French Ministry of Culture. Today, Chenonceau is a major tourist attraction and in 2007 received around 800,000 visitors.", "", "In the 13th century, the fief of Chenonceau belonged to the Marques family. The original château was torched in 1412 to punish owner Jean Marques for an act of sedition. He rebuilt a château and fortified mill on the site in the 1430s. Jean Marques's indebted heir Pierre Marques found it necessary to sell.", ", Chamberlain to King Charles VIII of France, purchased the castle from Pierre Marques in 1513 and demolished most of it (resulting in 2013 being considered the 500th anniversary of the castle: MDXIII–MMXIII), though its 15th-century keep was left standing. Bohier built an entirely new residence between 1515 and 1521. The work was overseen by his wife Katherine Briçonnet, who delighted in hosting French nobility, including King Francis I on two occasions.", "In 1535 the château was seized from Bohier's son by King Francis I of France for unpaid debts to the Crown; after Francis' death in 1547, Henry II offered the château as a gift to his mistress, Diane de Poitiers, who became fervently attached to the château along the river. In 1555 she commissioned Philibert de l'Orme to build the arched bridge joining the château to its opposite bank. Diane then oversaw the planting of extensive flower and vegetable gardens along with a variety of fruit trees. Set along the banks of the river, but buttressed from flooding by stone terraces, the exquisite gardens were laid out in four triangles. Diane de Poitiers was the unquestioned mistress of the castle, but ownership remained with the crown until 1555, when years of delicate legal maneuvers finally yielded possession to her.", "After King Henry II died in 1559, his strong-willed widow and regent Catherine de' Medici forced Diane to exchange it for the Château Chaumont. Queen Catherine then made Chenonceau her own favorite residence, adding a new series of gardens. As Regent of France, Catherine spent a fortune on the château and on spectacular nighttime parties. In 1560, the first ever fireworks display seen in France took place during the celebrations marking the ascension to the throne of Catherine's son Francis II. The grand gallery, which extended along the existing bridge to cross the entire river, was dedicated in 1577. Catherine also added rooms between the chapel and the library on the east side of the \"corps de logis\", as well as a service wing on the west side of the entry courtyard. Catherine considered an even greater expansion of the château, shown in an engraving published by Jacques Androuet du Cerceau in the second (1579) volume of his book \"Les plus excellents bastiments de France\". If this project had been executed, the current château would have been only a small portion of an enormous manor laid out \"like pincers around the existing buildings.\"", "On Catherine's death, in January 1589, the château went to her daughter-in-law, Louise of Lorraine, wife of King Henry III. Louise was at Chenonceau when she learned of her husband's assassination, in August 1589, and she fell into a state of depression. Louise spent the next 11 years, until her death in January 1601, wandering aimlessly along the château's corridors dressed in mourning clothes, amidst somber black tapestries stitched with skulls and crossbones.", "Henri IV obtained Chenonceau for his mistress Gabrielle d'Estrées by paying the debts of Catherine de' Medici, which had been inherited by Louise and were threatening to ruin her. In return Louise left the château to her niece Françoise de Lorraine, at that time six years old and betrothed to the four-year-old César de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme, the natural son of Gabrielle d'Estrées and Henri IV. The château belonged to the Duc de Vendôme and his descendants for more than a hundred years. The Bourbons had little interest in the château, except for hunting. In 1650, Louis XIV was the last king of the \"ancien régime\" to visit. The Château de Chenonceau was bought by the Duke of Bourbon in 1720. Little by little, he sold off all of the castle's contents. Many of the fine statues ended up at Versailles.", "In 1733 the estate was sold for 130,000 livres to a wealthy squire named. His wife, Louise Dupin, was the natural daughter of the financier Samuel Bernard and the actress, whose mother was also an actress who had joined the Comédie Française in 1684. Louise Dupin was \"an intelligent, beautiful, and highly cultivated woman who had the theater in her blood.\" Claude Dupin, a widower, had a son, Louis Claude, from his first wife Marie Aurore of Saxony, who was the grandmother of George Sand (born Aurore Dupin). Louise Dupin's literary salon at Chenonceau attracted such leaders of the Enlightenment as the writers Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Fontenelle, the naturalist Buffon, the playwright Marivaux, the philosopher Condillac, as well as the Marquise de Tencin and the Marquise du Deffand. Jean-Jacques Rousseau was Dupin's secretary and tutored her son. Rousseau, who worked on \"Émile\" at Chenonceau, wrote in his \"Confessions\": \"We played music there and staged comedies. I wrote a play in verse entitled \"Sylvie's Path\", after the name of a path in the park along the Cher.\" The widowed Louise Dupin saved the château from destruction during the French Revolution, preserving it from being destroyed by the Revolutionary Guard because \"it was essential to travel and commerce, being the only bridge across the river for many miles.\"", "In 1864, a rich heiress, acquired the château. Around 1875 she commissioned the architect Félix Roguet to restore it. He almost completely renewed the interior and removed several of Catherine de' Medici's additions, including the rooms between the library and the chapel and her alterations to the north facade, among which were figures of Hercules, Pallas, Apollo, and Cybele that were moved to the park. With the money Marguerite spent on these projects and elaborate parties, her finances were depleted, and the château was seized and sold.", "José-Emilio Terry, a Cuban millionaire, acquired Chenonceau from Madame Pelouze in 1891. Terry sold it in 1896 to a family member, Francisco Terry. In 1913, the château was acquired by Henri Menier, a member of the Menier family, famous for their chocolates, who still own it to this day. During World War I Gaston Menier set up the gallery to be used as a hospital ward. During the Second World War the château was bombed by the Germans in June 1940. It was also a means of escaping from the Nazi occupied zone on one side of the River Cher to the \"free\" zone on the opposite bank. Occupied by the Germans, the château was bombed by the Allies on 7 June 1944, when the chapel was hit and its windows destroyed. In 1951, the Menier family entrusted the château's restoration to Bernard Voisin, who brought the dilapidated structure and the gardens (ravaged in the Cher River flood in 1940) back to a reflection of its former glory." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Naʼvi.", "Appearance.", "Culture and language.", "Fauna.", "Flora.", "List of flora." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In \"Avatar\", the Naʼvi are an indigenous species that live on Pandora. They are humanoid in appearance and are tall, having pairs of eyes, ears, arms, legs and feet like humans, as well as a nose, a mouth, and expressions recognizable to humans. The Naʼvi differ from humans in having blue striped skin, pointed and mobile ears, large eyes, catlike noses and tails, and hands each with three fingers and a thumb (hybrid avatars, on the other hand, retain the five-fingered hands of their human DNA). While taller than humans, they have narrower proportions in body frame. Their bones are reinforced with naturally occurring carbon fiber. The Naʼvi also have a distinctive tendril feature protruding from the back of their heads, surrounded by hair (resembling a long plait or queue), feeding directly into the brain. This organ allows them to connect with other organisms around them, transferring electrochemical signals such as thoughts and memories to the trees, plants, and other creatures. In the original script, Cameron refers to these as \"Jubilees\", although the word is not used in the film and may be changed by the time the novel is published. The Naʼvi were initially conceived to be more alien in appearance. Cameron recalled that when one of the main characters, Neytiri, was originally drawn, she had gills and other protuberances. In addition to feline features, the species was redesigned to seem more human so that audiences could better relate to it. According to Cameron, the appearance of the Naʼvi character Neytiri had some specific inspirations and requirements: she was inspired by Raquel Welch's character in \"Fantastic Voyage\" and by Vampirella, noting in the latter's case, \"the fact [Vampirella] didn't exist didn't bother me because we have these quintessential female images in our mind, and in the case of the male mind, they're grossly distorted. When you see something that reflects your id, it works for you... Right from the beginning I said, 'She's got to have tits,' even though that makes no sense because her race, the Naʼvi, aren't placental mammals. I designed her costumes based on a \"taparrabo\", a loincloth worn by Mayan Indians.\" This is somewhat of a non-sequitor because both marsupials (kangaroos, etc.) and monotremes (platypuses, etc.) are non-placental and yet both lactate. This objective of making the Na'vi as humanlike as possible can also be seen as an explanation as to why they are quadrupedal despite having evolved from common ancestors of the hexapodal lemurs seen in the film. Cameron has described \"Avatar\" as more \"science fantasy\" than true science fiction and has said that he would explain in the novel for the film why in the fictional universe the Naʼvi look like humans.", "According to \"Entertainment Weekly\", \"The Naʼvi can commune with animals on their planet by literally plugging their braid into the creatures' nerve systems. To become a warrior, a Naʼvi must tame and ride a flying creature known as Ikran.\" The Naʼvi also use this neural bonding system, called \"tsaheylu\", to mate with a \"life partner\", a bond that, when made, cannot be broken in the Naʼvi's lifetime. This is akin to human marriage. The Naʼvi way of life revolves around their religion, and the Home Tree. The Naʼvi sleep in hammocks in large groups for comfort and as a warning system. Conceived for the film was the Naʼvi language, a constructed language often spoken by the actors when they played Naʼvi characters. The Naʼvi language was created by communications professor emeritus and linguistics consultant Paul Frommer of the University of Southern California. He designed the language so as to be speakable by human actors, combining syntactic and grammatical rules from other existing languages. Frommer created over a thousand words for the Naʼvi language and coached the actors who narrated Naʼvi characters. When communicating to humans in the film, Naʼvi characters – especially Neytiri – speak in accented and broken English. Human visitors see the Naʼvi as possessing a religion, whose chief and possibly sole deity is a benevolent goddess known as Eywa. The Naʼvi are able to physically connect to Eywa when they use their braids to connect to the Tree of Souls and other similar flora which function as the global brain's interfaces. Eywa is said to have a connection to all things Pandoran. Political power is exceedingly diffused, with each clan being a sovereign entity under either the diarchical rule of both a temporal chieftain (known as an \"Olo'eyktan\") and a spiritual chieftain (known as a \"Tsahik\"), or the monarchical rule of a single individual who holds the two separate offices simultaneously. The numerous clans are seemingly only ever brought together as a tribe by \"Toruk Makto\", a messianic war chief whose office is both non-permanent and apparently the only one with an authority that covers the entire race of Naʼvi. By the time of the film, there had only been five Toruk Maktos in the history of the tribe, and the last one had ruled no fewer than four generations before the present day. This may be due to the fact that the Toruk Maktos seem to draw their power from a situation of explicitly external danger, and therefore are not really necessary for the day to day internal running of the tribal clans. Succession to the various offices is smooth, however, based more on popular recognition and customary worthiness than on anything else, and respect for hierarchical superiors appears to be high.", "James Cameron's core idea for the \"Avatar\"s fictional creatures was for them to be \"superslick and aerodynamic, and be like a race car with racing stripes\". Neville Page worked on \"Avatar\" as the lead creature designer. He, Wayne Barlowe (author, artist, and initial lead creature designer), and Yuri Bartoli (concept designer and supervising virtual art director) adapted Cameron's conceptions of the fauna into a design that served three purposes: to appear expressive, to function with animation technology, and to seem realistic. He and creature designer Wayne Barlowe sought to base the design of Pandora's creatures on race cars, but they struggled to adapt the concept. Page drew on his education in automotive design, recognizing the irony that race cars were based on real-life animals in having \"bone lines\". Existing automotive designs drew from seashells, turtle shells, and insects, so the designers returned the design to the fictional creatures. They found that the prime challenge in designing most creatures was to give them organic appearances, including skin texture. Some creatures were also designed to have special breathing holes located in the trachea, copying how cars have intakes. Challenges that the creatures posed for visual effects technicians were to form \"walk and run\" cycles for six-legged creatures and to impart credible flying for creatures that had four wings. Many of the animals also have four eyes, with an apparent major and minor eye on either side of their head. The fictional creatures are not connected telepathically according to Cameron and the designers. However, even though they discussed the idea of the creatures being part of Pandora's \"Worldmind\", they preferred to interpret the creatures as having heightened instincts. Page explained, \"Animals are hooked up to this planet. We're the ones who are detached... The way I dealt with it was, We have so much rich [material] here to reference, that we don't have to dream up a whole new process of animal awareness.\" The fictional moon has less gravity than Earth, so the creatures' larger sizes match their environment. Most Pandoran wildlife is hexapodal, or six-legged. Much of the fauna and flora is bioluminescent, which is seen in creatures on Earth such as fireflies, many deep sea animals, and some microscopic algae. The aforementioned breathing holes, located on multiple parts of a creature's body other than the mouth, are similar to spiracles in some of Earth's animals. The flying reptile-like creatures in the film can be compared to extinct flying reptiles such as pterosaurs and to the modern gliding lizard \"Draco sumatranus\".", "Flora on Pandora are of a tropical type several times taller than that existing on Earth. Many, if not all, plant and animal species have bioluminescent properties. The flora specimens seen in the film were all designed by Jodie Holt, a professor of botany at the University of California, Riverside. According to Holt, Pandoran flora are able to communicate with each other through signal transduction and are larger in size than Earth flora due to greater atmospheric thickness, weaker gravity, and stronger magnetism on Pandora.", "Various other plants and trees that look like Earth's ferns, palm trees, mosses, grasses, bamboo, and succulents. Several forest plants of Pandora resemble the Earth's zoanthid soft corals, which can be bioluminescent as in the movie." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background and release.", "Composition and critical response.", "Chart performance.", "Music video.", "Live performances.", "Accolades.", "Lawsuit." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "On October 19, 2002, American rapper LL Cool J revealed that he had just recorded a song for Lopez's then-upcoming album two days prior, saying: \"We did a new song for her album. Well it's actually going to be her next single, I think – it's a lot of fun, a lot of fun.\" He stated that, \"It's got like a mid-tempo beat, pretty melody, you know what I'm saying. I'm rapping, she's singing. We go back and forth with stuff. It's kind of cool, it's fly.\" Initially, Lopez did not want \"All I Have\" to be released as a single, as she believed it was too musically similar to her previous singles such as \"Ain't It Funny\" and \"I'm Real\"; she felt like she was \"visiting old territory\". \"Those tracks were like a different era for me, and I didn't want people to perceive it like I'm just trying to capitalize on the same thing. But the record company was like, 'Who cares what they think, those are hits mama!'\". Lopez, who said she \"calls the shots\", eventually agreed. The song was officially sent to urban radio in the United States on December 14, 2002 as the second single from \"This Is Me... Then\". It was later released on February 11, 2003 in some regions, and on March 10, 2003 around the world.", "\"All I Have\" was written by Lopez, James Todd Smith, Makeba Riddick, Curtis Richardson, Ron G and Dave McPherson, while production was handled by Cory Rooney, Ron G and McPherson. The song was originally titled \"I'm Good\", and heavily samples Debra Laws's song \"Very Special\", written by Lisa Peters and William Jeffrey. Featuring LL Cool J, \"All I Have\" is a midtempo R&B and hip hop ballad about moving on after a break up. On the track, Lopez decides to end her relationship due to her lover's infidelity, while LL Cool J attempts to \"make up\" with her. MTV observed the song to conjure up her own public split with P. Diddy. Amy Sciarretto of PopCrush characterized Lopez's vocals as \"cooed\" and found the song to have a \"classic feel\", with LL Cool J heard rapping, grunting and pleading \"Baby don't go\" over a \"subtle\" urban beat. Tom Sinclair of \"Entertainment Weekly\" praised LL Cool J as being a \"high-spirited guest\" on the song, while Sal Cinquemani of \"Slant Magazine\" wrote that both \"playfully interpolate Debra and Ronnie Laws' 'Very Special'.\" About.com's Bill Lamb wrote, \"There is a relaxed, charming elegance here that sounds timeless.\" Sam Lansky of \"MTV Buzzworthy\" described the duet as \"icy-cool\". Erika Ramirez of \"Vibe\" wrote that the song \"deftly conceals Lopez's whispery sighs, but she still generates heat with partner LL on this effervescent collabo\".", "For the week of December 28, 2002, \"All I Have\" entered the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100 at number 25, earning the \"Hot Shot Debut\" of the week. It not only became highest-debuting song of Lopez's career at the time, but was also the highest-debuting song on the chart since September 2001. For the week of January 30, 2003, the single reached number one on the Hot 100, giving Lopez her fourth and LL Cool J his first number one song on the chart. It was also the Hot 100's fastest-growing track at radio. It remained at the summit of the Hot 100 for four weeks, later being displaced by 50 Cent's \"In Da Club\". It also attained the top position on the Pop Songs chart, and it reached number four on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. Due to the song's success, LL Cool J included it on a reissue of his album \"10\" (2002). This allowed the album to register a 491% week-to-week sales gain and re-enter the top ten of the US \"Billboard\" 200, jumping from number 84 to number nine for the issue dated February 22, 2003. On the UK Singles Chart, \"All I Have\" peaked at number two, becoming Lopez's highest-charting single there since \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\", which reached number one the previous year. Years later, Lopez's collaboration with LL Cool J on his track \"Control Myself\" also peaked at number two, on May 13, 2006. In New Zealand, \"All I Have\" debuted at number 42 on the RIANZ chart, on March 2, 2003. After climbing to number 35 and 33, the song climbed to number two, while the next week the song peaked at number one, becoming Lopez's second number-one single; the first being \"If You Had My Love\". It was later certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand, for sales of 7,500 copies. In Australia, the song debuting at number three on the ARIA Charts, becoming her fastest debut there. It later spent three weeks at number five, before climbing and remaining for two weeks at number four. Finally, the song peaked at number two on May 4, 2003. It was later certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association, for selling over 70,000 units.", "The music video for \"All I Have\" was directed by Dave Meyers, and was shot in New York City in November 2002. MTV News revealed that Lopez and LL Cool J would be playing ex-lovers in the music video. According to a synopsis provided by Meyers' production company, \"They keep seeing visions of each other, and you get the feeling that they are still very much in love, yet they don't get back together because they feel that this is the best thing for them. It will have a very happy winter wonderland-type feel, but a sad vibe.\" The video was shot right before Thanksgiving, but did not premiere on television until after Christmas. The video features Lopez and LL as former lovers now broken up. The two recall the good and bad times while dealing with being alone for the holidays. Lopez shows up to LL's house with a gift. With him not there, she puts the gift under the tree. He later sees the gift under the tree and realizes it was from Lopez. He opens the gift and sees a golden key. Upset at the relationship being over, he throws the key in the fireplace while a tearful Lopez gets help from her friends with her things. The music video became one of the most played clips on networks such as MTV, VH1 and BET. While analyzing her DVD \"The Reel Me\", Jason Shawhan of About.com called it a \"Christmastime breakup theme\" and \"a nice shout-out to \"No Me Ames\" in terms of its hyperexaggerated emotions, but the most notable aspect of the audiovisual experience is the Debra Laws's \"Very Special\" sample which runs counterpoint to the Lopez/LL Cool J interplay.\"", "Lopez and LL Cool J performed \"All I Have\" on \"The Today Show\" for the episode dated December 6, 2002. The performance took place during her concert at Kips Bay High School, Lopez's alma mater. The song was included on the set list for her Dance Again World Tour (2012), including the song as part of a \"Back-to-Bronx\" hip hop medley. Lopez included the song on the set list for her 2016 Las Vegas residency show,. She performed it as a duet with surprise guest Ne-Yo during the show's opening night on January 20, 2016, with Ne-Yo taking on LL Cool J's verses. The two also covered \"Very Special\" together. Prince Royce joined Lopez on stage days later during another night of the residency, where the two performed \"Very Special\" and \"All I Have\". Lopez later performed the song as part of her medley during the 2018 MTV Video Music Awards on August 20, 2018 at Radio City Music Hall in New York City.", "The song was nominated for two Teen Choice Awards in 2003 on the categories, \"Choice Music Single\" and \"Choice Music Hook-Up\", but lost it for Avril Lavigne's \"Sk8er Boi\" and 50 Cent and Nate Dogg's \"21 Questions\", respectively. In May 2003, \"All I Have\" received a BDSCertified Spin Award, signifying 200,000 radio spins. In 2004, it received an ASCAP Pop Music Award and a BMI Pop Award.", "In March 2003, Debra Laws sued Sony Music Entertainment/Epic Records in the United States District Court for the Central District of California, claiming that the use of samples from \"Very Special\" without her consent (even though the writers of \"Very Special\" and Elektra Entertainment Group—successor to Elektra/Asylum Records, which had released the original recording of \"Very Special\"—had given their consent to the use of the samples) violated her statutory and common law right of publicity under California law. In November 2003, Judge Lourdes Baird granted Sony Music's motion for summary judgment on the ground that Laws's state law claims were preempted by Section 301 of the United States Copyright Act. In 2006, that decision was affirmed by the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background and release.", "Production and lyrics.", "Critical response.", "Chart performance.", "Music video.", "Live performances.", "Impact.", "Track listings.", "Cover versions.", "Becky G (\"Becky from the Block\")." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "\"This Is Me... Then\" was released in November 2002. However, \"Jenny from the Block\" featuring rappers Jadakiss and Styles P of The LOX was leaked by a pop station in Hartford, Connecticut, and later distributed to other stations owned by Infinity Broadcasting. In response, Lopez and Epic Records pushed forward the album's release date to November 26. Unlike her previous studio albums: \"On the 6\" (1999) and \"J.Lo\" (2001), Lopez had a more \"hands-on\" role on \"This Is Me... Then\". The album also had more of an adult-R&B sound. Musically, majority of the songs on \"This Is Me... Then\" were lyrically \"dedicated\" to her relationship with then-fiancé, actor Ben Affleck. \"The Age\" newspaper said the album was a \"declaration\" of love for Affleck. During an interview, Lopez said \"I wrote a lot of songs inspired, in a way, by what I was going through at the time that this album was being made, and he [Affleck] was definitely a big part of that.\" Several critics highlighted that the album showed how \"smitten\" she was, and that the content was borderline \"annoying\". During the production of the album, Affleck and Lopez were a prominent super couple in the media, and were dubbed \"Bennifer\". Lopez stated \"We try to make the best of it I'm not saying there's not times that we wish [we] could just be going to the movies and come out and there's not a crowd there waiting. You just want to spend your Sunday afternoon not working, but at the same time we both love what we do. If that's something that's part of it, then that's fine. We feel the love and we're very happy about it.\" The overexposure from the media and public interest in their relationship resulted in less admiration for their work and negatively affected their careers, in particular affecting the video for \"Jenny from the Block\".", "\"Jenny from the Block\" is an uptempo R&B and old school hip hop song. It was produced by Troy Oliver, written by Andre Deyo, remixed by Samuel Barnes, Jean-Claude Olivier, and contained samples by Enoch Light, Lawrence Parker, Scott Sterling and Michael Oliver. Trackmasters produced the song alongside Oliver and Cory Rooney. The song \"intones her modest childhood roots\", with Lopez singing in the chorus: \"Don't be fooled by the rocks that I got / I'm still, I'm still Jenny from the Block / Used to have a little now I have a lot / No matter where I go, I know where I came from\". She implores the listener not to be fooled by the types of rocks that she now possesses, because she is still Jennifer from the same block. She now owns many rocks and despite this, she still knows where she comes from. At the start of her career, J.Lo's first big break was as a backup dancer for New Kids on the Block. \"Jenny from the Block\" samples a number of songs. The opening line of the track, \"Children grow and women producing, men go working, some go stealing, everyone's got to make a living\", is derived from 20th Century Steel Band's 1975 song \"Heaven and Hell Is on Earth\". It also contains an interpolation of Enoch Light's \"Hi-Jack\" (1975), and samples Boogie Down Productions' \"South Bronx\" (1987). Trackmasters allegedly incorporated the sample of The Beatnuts' song \"Watch Out Now\" from their album \"A Musical Massacre\" (1999), which also sampled \"Hi-Jack\", on the track. Believing Lopez and the song's producers had stolen their sample of \"Hi-Jack\" without consent, they subsequently insulted Lopez on the song \"Confused Rappers\", from their album \"Milk Me\" (2004). The group said: \"Anybody familiar with our music who heard Jenny From The Block knew it was a Beatnuts beat. There’s no getting around it. That’s a straight-up bite. It’s the same drums, the same flute, the same tempo... everything is our idea. If we never flipped that sample, there would be no Jenny From The Block.\"", "\"Jenny from the Block\" generated a polarized reception among music critics and pop music fans, with some applauding it as a \"strong self statement\" and homage to Lopez's roots, and others dismissing it as \"silly\". Sal Cinquemani of \"Slant Magazine\" called the song \"infectious\", but noted that it is \"more like a disease than a chunky casserole\". Tom Sinclair of \"Entertainment Weekly\" was favorable, writing: \"Lopez insists that fame hasn't changed her, and seduced by the breezy pleasure of her new music, we're almost inclined to believe her\". Arion Berger of \"Rolling Stone\" opined that the song \"is worth listening to — its windup/wind-down chorus is as sly and curvy as Lopez\". On a list of \"17 of the Best Songs About NYC\", \"Time\" magazine placed \"Jenny from the Block\" at number twelve. \"Complex\" magazine praised the inclusion of the \"South Bronx\" sample, writing: \"After becoming a full-blown superstar whose entire life was different in every way, J. Lo was still trying to convince us she was \"real\" and still the same old girl from the block. What better way to connect to her roots musically than to put on for her hometown with the greatest Bronx anthem ever put to wax, BDP's \"South Bronx\"?\" Allmusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the song an unfavorable review, calling it \"silly\" and describing the lyrics as \"laughable\". James Poletti of Yahoo! Music was also negative, calling it \"agonizing\" and a \"cynical appropriation of hip-hop culture\". Writing for \"The Village Voice\", Jon Caramanica was highly unfavorable of \"Jenny from the Block\", stating that \"Jenny aims to fast-talk herself into authenticity\". AOL Radio deemed it one of the \"100 Worst Songs Ever\" in 2010, remarking: \"Yup, just your average girl, willing to risk a national TV gig over the size of her 'dressing-room compound.'\" In a countdown of \"50 Most Awesomely Bad Songs... Ever\", VH1 and \"Blender\" ranked \"Jenny from the Block\" at number thirty-three. \"Her Campus\" included the song on a list of \"15 Songs We're Embarrassed to Still Know All the Lyrics To\". In a television special titled \"The 100 Most Annoying Pop Songs...We Hate To Love\", BBC ranked \"Jenny from the Block\" at number one-hundred. On a similar special for Channel 4 titled \"The 100 Worst Pop Records\", the song was named the tenth worst song ever. Amy Sciarretto of PopCrush observed in 2012: \"'Jenny From the Block' is quite a polarizing track (...) Either you love the 'J. Lo' tune because it's boastful and oozes confidence or you hate it because it's cheesy and makes use of flutes.\"", "On the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100, \"Jenny from the Block\" debuted at number 67 for the week of October 12, 2002. By its third week on the Hot 100, the song had propelled to the top twenty, reaching number 17. For the \"Billboard\" issue dated November 23, 2002, it entered the top ten of the Hot 100, jumping to number eight. It also reached the top ten of the Hot 100 Airplay chart, at number nine. The following week, the song continued climbing the Hot 100, moving to number six, while also reaching the top five of the Hot 100 Airplay chart. By December 14, it peaked at three on the Hot 100, where it remained for three weeks, and also jumped to three on the Airplay chart. Three weeks later, on December 28, \"Jenny from the Block\" remained stalling at three on the Hot 100 and the Airplay chart. For three weeks it had been blocked from the top spot of both charts by Eminem's \"Lose Yourself\" and Missy Elliott's \"Work It\". It peaked at two on the US Mainstream Top 40 Pop Songs and 22 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. In Australia, \"Jenny from the Block\" made its debut inside the top ten at number eight on December 1, 2002. On January 5, 2003, it moved to its peak of five, where it remained for two weeks, and spent a total of sixteen weeks on the chart. The song peaked atop the \"Billboard\" Canadian Hot 100, becoming her third number-one there following \"If You Had My Love\" (1999) and \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" (2001). In Italy, it debuted at its peak of number four on December 21, and remained on the chart for sixteen weeks, all of which it remained in the top ten for; exiting on March 6, 2003. In New Zealand, it debuted at 49 on November 11, 2002; it peaked at number six on December 8 and spent a total of sixteen weeks on the chart. It was certified Gold by RIANZ for sales of 7,500 copies. It peaked at number two in Spain on December 24, 2002. In the United Kingdom it peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart, becoming her ninth top-ten hit in Britain, as well as her fourth song to peak at three. In April 2020, the song was certified gold for shipments of over 400,000 copies in the country, her third after If You Had My Love and Get Right. In Norway, the song debuted at number six and peaked at five. It has been certified Platinum there for sales of 10,000 copies.", "The song's accompanying music video was directed by Francis Lawrence. Its theme revolves around the media invading Lopez's life, particularly her relationship with then-boyfriend, Ben Affleck. The video was filmed entirely in Los Angeles, CA from October 18–20, 2002. It premiered on MTV's \"TRL\" on November 5, 2002, and on BET's \"106 & Park\" on December 9, 2002. The video begins with surveillance camera footage of Lopez and Affleck in their apartment. Lopez is then shown dancing in the apartment to music on her Mp3 player, which is captured by the paparazzi. She is also seen performing the song (clothed in different outfits) amid bright lights on the streets of New York City with Jadakiss and Styles P. Separate scenes depict Lopez and Affleck on a yacht, sun baking, and swimming in the ocean. Footage of the couple having lunch at a restaurant and stopping at a gas station is also captured by the paparazzi. Lopez later visits a jewelry store, and sings \"Loving You\" in a recording studio. Finally, the couple are shown spending time together by a pool. Speaking of the video, Melissa Ng of \"The Spectator\" wrote: \"Before celebrities become stars, they dream about gaining fame, fortune, and being in the spotlight [sic] Jennifer Lopez released a video for her single, Jenny From the Block. The video is basically about how she cannot find privacy with her fiance Ben Affleck. A lot of glamour is associated with fame and fortune; however, along with that glamour comes the loss of privacy.\" Speaking of the video, Justine Ashley Costanza of \"International Business Times\" wrote in 2012: \"Back when Lopez was engaged to the wholesome actor, she decided it would be best to make a video about how hard their lives were. Poor J-Lo couldn't lounge on her yacht, be adored in a hot tub, or wear her $1 million engagement ring without someone taking her picture. It's not easy being overly wealthy superstars. The video's premise shows Lopez dealing with the perils of fame the only way she knows how...by taking off most of what she's wearing.\"", "\"Jenny from the Block\" was performed at the 2018 MTV Video Music Awards on August 20, 2018. The song was performed by Lopez during the Super Bowl LIV halftime show.", "\"Jenny from the Block\" is considered one of Lopez's signature songs and most iconic single. The lyrical content of country artist Faith Hill's 2005 song \"Mississippi Girl\" was considered to be influenced by the song, with \"Rolling Stone\" describing it as \"country music's version\" of the single; \"Billboard\" called it \"a countrified 'Jenny from the Block'\". Other songs that were noted to have followed the theme of \"Jenny from the Block\" were Gwen Stefani's \"Orange County Girl\" and Fergie's \"Glamorous\". Mexican-American recording artist Becky G recorded a cover version of the song, entitled \"Becky from the Block\". The song's accompanying music video was shot in Inglewood, California. Lopez made a cameo appearance towards the end of the music video. The lyrics of this version are significantly different from the original. \"Entertainment Tonight\" described the version to have \"give[n] Jenny's NY-based tune a West Coast slant\". Australian rapper Iggy Azalea referenced the song in her verse from Lopez's 2014 song \"Booty\", stating: \"The last time the world seen a booty this good, it was on Jenny from the block.\" In her 2018 single, \"Dinero\" featuring DJ Khaled, American rapper Cardi B ends her verse by referencing rapper's and Lopez's beginnings: \"Two bad bitches that came from the Bronx, Cardi from the pole and Jenny from the block\". Rapper Drake, who Lopez was believed to have been romantically involved with in the past, references her and the song in his 2018 single \"In My Feelings\", stating: \"From the block like you Jenny/ I know you special, girl, 'cause I know too many.\" Ben Affleck's appearance in the song's music video became notorious, having been released at the peak of the couple's \"frenzied\" tabloid coverage. \"Paper\" magazine wrote: \"Love makes people do crazy things, and that's our only explanation for this.\" Following Lopez's marriage to Marc Anthony, she was reportedly attempting to have the music video blocked from television networks such as VH1 and MTV. During an interview in 2008, Affleck stated that he nearly \"ruined\" his career by starring in the clip, \"If I have a big regret, it was doing the music video. But that happened years ago. I've moved on.\" He also stated: \"It not only makes me look like a petulant fool (to blame Lopez), but it surely qualifies as ungentlemanly? For the record, did she hurt my career? No.\" In response, \"Latina\" magazine wrote: \"Riiiigght. So it wasn't a string of bad movies starting with \"Reindeer Games\" in 2000 and a general lack of on-screen appeal that ruined your career, right Ben? It was a music video. What else can we blame on a music video? Global warming?\" In the past decade since the song's release, Lopez has been nicknamed \"Jenny from The Block\" in the media, a name news reporters and journalists often use. At the 68th Golden Globe Awards in 2011, comedian Ricky Gervais referenced the song: \"She's just Jenny from the block. If the block in question is that one on Rodeo Drive between Cartier and Prada.\" In October 2015, a video clip filmed in Afghanistan years ago surfaced online of two U.S. Marines singing \"Jenny from the Block\" moments before being fired at by the Taliban.", "", "", "Becky G released a cover-like version of the song, titled \"Becky from the Block\" with Gomez rap-singing about her life before fame. Jennifer Lopez appeared in Gomez's music video for the song, which has over 81 million views on YouTube as of November 2019. The song is Gomez's official debut single, and third overall after three collaborations." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Architecture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Construction was started in 1791 or 1794 by Molla Bey and it was finished in 1819 or 1821 by his son Haxhi Ethem Bey, grand-grandson of Sulejman Pasha. At the time it was built it was part of complex buildings that compose the historical center of Tirana. In front of mosque was the old Bazaar, in east the Sulejman Pasha Mosque, which was built on 1614 and destroyed during World War II, and in the north-west the Karapici mosque. During the totalitarianism of the Socialist People's Republic of Albania, the mosque was closed. On January 18, 1991, despite opposition from communist authorities, 10,000 people entered carrying flags. This was at the onset of the fall of communism in Albania. The event was a milestone in the rebirth of religious freedom in Albania. The Mosque today, constitutes of an architectural complex together with the Clock Tower of Tirana. Tours of the mosque are given daily, though not during prayer service. Visitors must take their shoes off before entering the inner room.", "The Et'hem Bey Mosque is composed by prayer hall, a portico that surrounds its north and the minaret. On the north side is the entrance to the prayer hall, which is a squared plan and is constructed in a unique volume. It is covered with dome and the dome is semi-spherical and has no windows. The frescoes of the mosque depict trees, waterfalls and bridges; still life paintings are a rarity in Islamic art." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Product Line." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "TEMSA (Termomekanik Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş.) Global was founded in 1968 by Sabancı Holding to supply steel to the construction industry. Manufacture of coaches began in 1984 with licensing and distribution agreements from Mitsubishi Motors. Service bus products were introduced in 1987. The products have their own bodywork and include Mitsubishi Fuso, MAN, DAF, Cummins and Caterpillar engines and parts that meet the European emission standards (Euro4, Euro5). Since 2000, a full range of coaches has been developed for Western European markets, utilizing MAN engines and axles and ZF transmissions. TEMSA became independent and flexible in using different engines with its own developments and started carrying out tailor-made production. A subsidiary, TEMSA Europe, has been established in Belgium and several rep offices have been established in 46 different countries of the world (Germany, France, Italy, Spain...), under the management of Temsa Europe. Temsa has obtained over 7% of market share in its segment in Europe. Of the 1000 buses produced every year, 75% are exported. Temsa is represented by three models in the US. The TS 30, TS 35 and TS 45 are motor coaches of 30, 35 and 45 ft respectively. TEMSA AR-GE ve Teknoloji Merkezi (Temsa Research & Development Center) is a branch of TEMSA Global that is responsible of new vehicle production and technology development. In June 2019, TEMSA was purchased by True Value Capital Partners of Switzerland.", "Temsa main markets are divided as Turkish (domestic), Europe, USA and Non-Europe. Most domestic vehicles from Temsa are sold in export markets with or without domestic model names as well." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Epigraphic evidence.", "Semantics of the theonym." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Abandinus is represented in Britain on a single altarstone. He is unknown throughout the rest of the Roman Empire and is therefore thought to have been a local god of the Roman fort at Godmanchester in Cambridgeshire, possibly associated with either a natural spring or a stream in the neighbourhood The Roman fort at Godmanchester, a strategic site on Ermine Street at the crossing of the River Great Ouse, is thought to have been called Durovigutum. The god is known only from an inscribed bronze feather, very likely some sort of votive object, dedicated to him The inscription on the bronze feather reads: \"DEO ABANDINO VATIAVCVS D S D\"", "The semantics of the theonym are unknown. All the same, linguistic knowledge of Proto-Celtic lexis permits a narrowing of the likely possibilities of the theonym's semantics. The name could be interpreted as an extended form of a stem composed of Proto-Celtic elements deriving from Proto-Indo-European roots *\"ad\"- ‘to’ + either *\"bhend\"- ‘sing, rejoice’ or *\"bhendh\"- ‘bind’. Along these lines, the name would mean ‘(the god) who sings to (something/someone)’ or ‘(the god) who binds (something/someone) to (something/someone).’ However, it is also possible to see the name as an extended form of a variant form of the Proto-Celtic word *\"abon\"- ‘river,’ derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *\"ab\"-, *\"h2eb-\" ‘water, river’. The shorter element *\"abo\"- likely existed in the Proto-Celtic hydronomy as a word for ‘river’ or ‘water.’ It is evident in Romano-Celtic as an unspecific variant name for the rivers flowing into the Humber, documented as \"Abus\". This element developed in Modern Welsh as \"aber\"- meaning ‘river estuary’. This *\"abo\"- element could have been the source of the \"Ab-\"- element in the theonym \"Abandinus\". So the name can also be analysed as *\"Ab-Andinus\" ‘Andinus of the River,’ Andinus being a theonym attested elsewhere in the ancient Roman Empire." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Function.", "Taikonauts.", "Administrators.", "Departments." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "CNSA is an agency created in 1993 when the Ministry of Aerospace Industry was split into CNSA and the China Aerospace Corporation (CASC). The former was to be responsible for policy, while the latter was to be responsible for execution. This arrangement proved somewhat unsatisfactory, as these two agencies were, in effect, one large agency, sharing both personnel and management. As part of a massive restructuring in 1998, CASC was split into a number of smaller state-owned companies. The intention appeared to have been to create a system similar to that characteristic of Western defense procurement in which entities which are government agencies, setting operational policy, would then contract out their operational requirements to entities which were government-owned, but not government-managed.", "CNSA was established as a government institution to develop and fulfill China's due international obligations, with the approval by the 8th National People's Congress of China (NPC). The Ninth NPC assigned CNSA as an internal structure of the Commission of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense (COSTIND). CNSA assumes the following main responsibilities: signing governmental agreements in the space area on behalf of organizations, inter-governmental scientific and technical exchanges; and also being in charge of the enforcement of national space policies and managing the national space science, technology and industry. Up to now, China has signed governmental space cooperation agreements with Brazil, Chile, France, Germany, India, Italy, Pakistan, Russia, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, the United States, and some other countries. Significant achievements have been scored in the bilateral and multilateral and technology exchanges and cooperation. Administrators of CNSA are appointed by the State Council.", "As of 2013, eleven Chinese people have traveled to space (alphabetical order):", "The most recent administrator is Zhang Kejian. Wu Yanhua is vice-administrator and Tian Yulong is secretary general.", "There are four departments under the CNSA: CNSA's logo is a similar design to that of China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation. The arrow in the middle is similar to the Chinese character 人 which means 'human' or 'people', to state that humans are the center of all space exploration. The three concentric ellipses stand for three types of Escape Velocity (minimum speed needed to reach sustainable orbits, to escape the earth system, and to escape the solar system) which are milestones of space exploration. The second ring is drawn with a bold line, to state that China has passed the first stage of exploration (earth system) and is undergoing the second stage exploration (within the solar system). The 人 character stands above the three rings to emphasize humanity's capability to escape and explore. Olive branches were added to state that China's space exploration is peaceful in nature." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Domestic uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The leaves are evergreen and well-developed in a basal aggregation on an erect stem. They are alternate and tristichous (i.e., with three rows of leaves up the stem, each row of leaves arising one-third of the way around the stem from the previous leaf). Only in the genus \"Distichia\" are the leaves distichous. The rushes of the genus \"Juncus\" have flat, hairless leaves or cylindrical leaves. The leaves of the wood-rushes of the genus \"Luzula\" are always flat and bear long white hairs. The plants are hermaphroditic or, rarely, dioecious. The small flowers are arranged in inflorescences of loose cymes, but also in rather dense heads or corymbs at the top of the stem or at its side. This family typically has reduced perianth segments called tepals. These are usually arranged in two whorls, each containing three thin, papery tepals. They are not bright or flashy in appearance, and their color can vary from greenish to whitish, brown, purple, black, or hyaline. The three stigmas are in the center of the flowers. As is characteristic of monocots, all of the flower parts appear in multiples of three. The fruit is usually a nonfleshy, three-sectioned dehiscent capsule containing many seeds.", "The dried pith of plants of this family were used to make a type of candle known as a rushlight. The soft rush (\"Juncus effusus\") is called \"igusa\" in Japanese and is used to weave the soft surface cover of tatami mats. In medieval Europe, loose fresh rushes would be strewn on earthen floors in dwellings for cleanliness and insulation. Particularly favored for such a purpose was \"Acorus calamus\" (sweet flag), but despite its alternate vernacular name \"sweet rush\", it is a plant from a different monocot order, Acorales." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Governance.", "Presidents.", "Area associations.", "Partner organisations.", "Rules and regulations.", "Age.", "Doping.", "Sex.", "Competitions.", "One-day events.", "Awards.", "Doping controversy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The process to found World Athletics began in Stockholm, Sweden on 17 July 1912 soon after the completion of the 1912 Summer Olympics in that city. At that meeting, 27 representatives from 17 national federations agreed to meet at a congress in Berlin, Germany the following year, overseen by Sigfrid Edström who was to become the fledgling organisation's first president. The 1913 congress formally completed the founding of what was then known as the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF). It was headquartered in Stockholm from 1912 to 1946, in London from 1946 to 1993, and thereafter moved to its current location in Monaco. Beginning in 1982, the IAAF passed several amendments to its rules to allow athletes to receive compensation for participating in international competitions. However, the organization retained the word \"amateur\" in its name until its 2001 congress, at which it changed its name to the International Association of Athletics Federations. In June 2019 the organization chose to rebrand as \"World Athletics\", with a rollout beginning after the 2019 World Championships in Doha. Following repeated requests, World Athletics became the last body within the Association of Summer Olympic International Federations to make public its financial reports in 2020. It revealed the organisation had revenue of around US$200 million spread over a four-year Olympic cycle, with around a fifth of that revenue coming from Olympic broadcasting rights. The reports showed a deficit in each of the non-Olympic years of 2017 and 2018 of around US$20 million. It also showed heavy dependence on its partnership with Japanese marketing agency Dentsu, which made up half of 2018's revenue. It also highlighted reserves of US$45 million at the end of 2018, which would allow the organisation to remain solvent in the face of delays to the 2020 Summer Olympics due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "World Athletics is headed by a president. The World Athletics Council has a total of 26 elected members, comprising one president, four vice-presidents (one senior), the presidents of the six area associations, two members of the Athletes' Commission and 13 Council members. Each member of the Council is elected for a four-year period by the World Athletics Congress, a biennial gathering of athletics officials that consists of the Council, Honorary Members, and up to three delegates from each of the national member federations. Chairpersons and member of Committees, which manage specialist portfolios, are also elected by the Congress. There are four committees: the Cross Country Committee, the Race Walking Committee, the Technical Committee, and the Women's Committee. A further three committees were launched in 2019: Development, Governance and Competitions. The governance structure is outlined in the World Athletics Constitution, which may be amended by the Congress. The World Athletics Council appoints a chief executive officer (CEO), who is focused on improving the coverage of the sport and the organisation's commercial interests. This role was created and merged with the General Secretary role that had existed previously. British former athlete and businessman Jon Ridgeon was appointed to the role in December 2018. Olivier Gers was the first person to officially hold the position in 2016, succeeding the interim CEO/General Secretary Jean Gracia. In order to give active athletes a voice in the governance of the sport, World Athletics created the Athletes' Commission. Athletes are elected to the commission by other athletes, typically held at the Congress attached to the World Athletics Championships. The commission chairperson and one other athlete of the opposite sex are giving voting rights on the Council. The last election was held in October 2019 at the 2019 World Athletics Championships. Following doping and corruption issues, a Code of Ethics was agreed in 2013 and an Ethics Commission was appointed in 2014. The Council appoints the chairperson from the elected members, and in turn the chairperson appoints a deputy chair. The Ethics Board's scope was limited in 2017 with the creation of the independent Athletics Integrity Unit, headed by Australia's Brett Clothier, to oversee ethical issues and complaints at arm's length. The International Athletics Foundation is a charity closely associated with World Athletics that engages in projects and programmes to develop the sport. Albert II, Prince of Monaco is the Honorary President and the role of IAF President is held by the World Athletics President. A World Athletics Heritage department was created in 2018 to maintain historic artefacts and display them through a physical gallery in Monaco, a virtual online gallery, and a travelling exhibition. The department also issues World Athletics Heritage Plaques to commemorate locations of historic interest to the sport.", "There have been six presidents since the establishment of World Athletics:", "World Athletics has a total of 214 member federations divided into 6 area associations.", "As of 1 November 2015:", "", "To allow athletes of different ages to compete against athletes of similar ability, several age categories are maintained. The open class of competition without age limit is defined as \"senior\". For younger athletes, World Athletics organises events for under-20 athletes (athletes aged 18 or 19 years on 31 December of the year of the competition) as well as under-18 athletes (athletes aged 16 or 17 years on 31 December of the year of the competition), historically referred to as \"junior\" and \"youth\" age groups, respectively. Age-group competitions over the age of 35 are organised by World Masters Athletics and are divided into five-year groupings.", "The organisation is a signatory to the World Anti-Doping Agency's World Anti-Doping Code and applies sanctions to athletes, coaches and other sportspeople who breach the code through doping or impeding any anti-doping actions.", "International level athletics competitions are mostly divided by sex and World Athletics applies eligibility rules for the women's category. World Athletics has regulations for intersex and transgender athletes. The differences of sex development (DSD) regulations apply to athletes who are legally female or intersex and have certain physiology. Currently, such DSD limitations only apply to athletes competing in track running events from 400 metres to the mile run, though World Athletics publicly remains open to extending this to other events based on new scientific study. A DSD athlete who is legally female or intersex will be subjected to specific rules if she has XY male chromosomes, testes rather than ovaries, have circulating testosterone within the typical male range (7.7 to 29.4 nmol/L), and are androgen-sensitive so that their body makes use of that testosterone. World Athletics requires that any such athlete must reduce their blood testosterone level to 5 nmol/L or lower for a six-month period before becoming eligible for international competition. World Athletics created these rules as a way to ensure fair competition in the women's category. In October 2019, World Athletics changed the testosterone limit for transgender competitors, setting it at 5 nmol/L, from the previous 10 nmol/L, in order to bring it in line with the DSD regulations. According to regulations from October 2019, in order for a transwoman to compete in the women's category: \"3.2.1 she must provide a written and signed declaration, in a form satisfactory to the Medical Manager, that her gender identity is female; 3.2.2 she must demonstrate to the satisfaction of the Expert Panel (on the balance of probabilities), in accordance with clause 4, that the concentration of testosterone in her serum has been less than 5 nmol/L3 continuously for a period of at least 12 months; and 3.2.3 she must keep her serum testosterone concentration below 5 nmol/L for so long as she wishes to maintain her eligibility to compete in the female category of competition.\" The rules have been challenged by affected athletes in the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS), though no athlete has done so successfully. In May 2019, CAS upheld the rules on the basis that discrimination against the minority of DSD athletes was proportional as a method of preserving access to the female category to a much larger majority of women without DSDs.", "World Athletics organizes many major athletics competitions worldwide.", "World Athletics became involved in annual one-day meetings as the sport began to professionalise in the late 1970s. Between 1978 and 1982, World Athletics staged twelve Golden Events, all for men and principally in track running, which saw World Athletics offer prizes to encourage competition. Three years later in 1985, an annual track and field circuit was created in the form of the IAAF Grand Prix, which linked existing top-level one-day meetings with a season-ending IAAF Grand Prix Final for a selection of men's and women's events. The IAAF World Cross Challenge followed in 1990 and began an annual series for cross country running. The track and field circuit was expanded in 1993 with the creation of the IAAF Grand Prix II level, and the IAAF Golden League in 1998. World Athletics began recognising annual indoor track meets via the IAAF Indoor Permit Meetings series in 1997, and in 1998 decathletes and heptathletes found seasonal support with the creation of the IAAF Combined Events Challenge. The World Cross Challenge was disbanded in 2000 and cross country reverted to a permit format via the IAAF Cross Country Permit Meetings. The IAAF Race Walking Challenge was initiated in 2003 to provide a seasonal calendar for racewalking. World Athletics reformed its track and field circuit in 2003, with the IAAF World Outdoor Meetings series grouping five tiers of annual track and field competitions: the Golden League, IAAF Super Grand Prix, Grand Prix, Grand Prix II, and the IAAF World Athletics Final. The new final format was introduced with a new global performance ranking system for qualification and featured an increased programme of track and field events, mirroring the World Championships in Athletics programme bar the road events, combined events, relays, and the 10,000 metres. The final achieved gender parity in events in 2005, with the inclusion of a women's 3000 metres steeplechase. The track and field circuit was rebranded as the IAAF World Athletics Tour in 2006, which removed the global rankings and the IAAF Grand Prix II (replaced with a level of meetings given permit status by continental governing bodies). With World Athletics having recognised the sport of mountain running in 2002, the annual WMRA World Cup meetings received official sanctioning in 2006. The IAAF Race Walking Challenge Final was created in 2007 to serve as a seasonal final for the Race Walking Challenge. World Athletics designed a sanctioning process for the road running competitions in 2008, with races having to meet organisational requirements to achieve Gold or Silver status under the IAAF Road Race Label Events brand. This incorporated the World Marathon Majors (a privately run series for major marathons initiated in 2006) within the Gold Label category. Road running was the last sport governed by World Athletics to receive seasonal sanctioning. The 2010 season saw several changes to World Athletics' one-day governance. The World Athletics Tour was made defunct and replaced with three separate series: the 14-meet Diamond League as the top level of track meetings, the IAAF World Challenge as a second tier of track meetings, and the IAAF Hammer Throw Challenge as the top level of hammer throwing contests (as hammer was not included in the Diamond League). The Road Race Label grouping was also expanded that year with the creation of a Bronze label status. The Race Walking Challenge Final was removed from the racewalking schedule after 2012, as the series focused on international championship performances. In 2016, the IAAF World Indoor Tour was introduced as a replacement of the Indoor Permit Meetings series. The track and field circuit is due for further changes in 2020, including an increase in the number of Diamond League meetings, the reduction of Diamond League events from 32 to 24, reduction of the Diamond League television running time to 90 minutes, the creation of a one-day Diamond League final, and the relaunch of the World Challenge series as the World Athletics Continental Tour.", "The organisation hosts the annual World Athletics Awards, formerly the World Athletics Gala until 2017, at the end of each year to recognise the achievements of athletes and other people involved in the sport. Members may also be inducted into the IAAF Hall of Fame as part of the ceremony. The following awards are given:", "In 2015, a whistleblower leaked World Athletics' blood test records from major competitions. The records revealed that, between 2001 and 2012, athletes with suspicious drug test results won a third of the medals in endurance events at the Olympics and World Championships—a total of 146 medals including 55 golds—but the World Athletics caught none of them. After reviewing the results, Robin Parisotto, a scientist and leading \"anti-doping\" expert, said, \"Never have I seen such an alarmingly abnormal set of blood values. So many athletes appear to have doped with impunity, and it is damning that the IAAF appears to have idly sat by and let this happen.\" Craig Reedie, president of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), said his organisation was \"very disturbed by these new allegations... which will, once again, shake the foundation of clean athletes worldwide\", and that its \"independent commission will investigate the claims\". Around the same time, the University of Tübingen in Germany claimed that World Athletics suppressed publication of a 2011 report in which \"[h]undreds of athletes\", as many as a third of the world's top athletes, \"admitted violating anti-doping rules\". On 1 November 2015, former World Athletics president Lamine Diack was arrested in France and is under investigation on suspicion of corruption and money laundering. Diack allegedly accepted \"$1.2 million from the Russian athletics federation to cover up the positive doping tests of at least six Russian athletes in 2011.\" In November 2015, WADA published its report, which found \"systemic failures\" in the World Athletics had prevented an \"effective\" anti-doping programme and concluded that Russia should be banned from competing in international competitions because of its athletes' test results. The report continued that \"the World Athletics allowed the conduct to occur and must accept its responsibility\" and that \"corruption was embedded\" in the organization. In January 2016, as a result of the doping scandal and WADA's report, the World Athletics' biggest sponsor, Adidas, announced that it was ending its sponsorship deal with the World Athletics four years early. The BBC reported that as a result World Athletics would lose $33 million (£23 million) worth of revenue. The 11-year sponsorship deal with Adidas was due to run until 2019. World-record holding sprinter Michael Johnson described the scandal as more serious than that faced by FIFA. In February 2016, Nestlé announced that it was ending its World Athletics sponsorship. In June 2016, following a meeting of the IAAF's ruling council, World Athletics upheld its ban on Russia's track and field team from entering the Rio de Janeiro Olympics. In February 2017, All-Russia Athletic Federation was disqualified by decision of the World Athletics Council for 8 years for the creation of a doping system. World Athletics has since resisted demands that Russia be re-instated, on the basis that the country repeatedly failed to satisfy all the agreed criteria. The decision was supported by Sean Ingle of \"The Guardian\" who wrote in a column that World Athletics should maintain their ban on Russia through the 2016 Olympics in Rio. That meant Russian athletes could compete at all major events in the following years, including the 2017 IAAF World Championships in London and the 2018 European Championships in Berlin only as neutral athletes. In September 2018, World Athletics faced a legal challenge by Russia to overturn the suspension after the reinstatement of the Russian Anti-Doping Agency, but Hugo Lowell of the \"i newspaper\" reported the country's status would not change. The legal case was later dropped." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Career.", "Professor in Leiden.", "Electrodynamics and relativity.", "Lorentz and special relativity.", "Lorentz and general relativity.", "Lorentz and quantum mechanics.", "Assessments.", "Change of priorities.", "Civil work.", "Family life.", "Death.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Hendrik Lorentz was born in Arnhem, Gelderland, Netherlands, the son of Gerrit Frederik Lorentz (1822–1893), a well-off horticulturist, and Geertruida van Ginkel (1826–1861). In 1862, after his mother's death, his father married Luberta Hupkes. Despite being raised as a Protestant, he was a freethinker in religious matters. From 1866 to 1869, he attended the \"Hogere Burger School\" in Arnhem, a new type of public high school recently established by Johan Rudolph Thorbecke. His results in school were exemplary; not only did he excel in the physical sciences and mathematics, but also in English, French, and German. In 1870, he passed the exams in classical languages which were then required for admission to University. Lorentz studied physics and mathematics at the Leiden University, where he was strongly influenced by the teaching of astronomy professor Frederik Kaiser; it was his influence that led him to become a physicist. After earning a bachelor's degree, he returned to Arnhem in 1871 to teach night school classes in mathematics, but he continued his studies in Leiden in addition to his teaching position. In 1875, Lorentz earned a doctoral degree under Pieter Rijke on a thesis entitled \"\"\"\" (On the theory of reflection and refraction of light), in which he refined the electromagnetic theory of James Clerk Maxwell.", "", "On 17 November 1877, only 24 years of age, Hendrik Antoon Lorentz was appointed to the newly established chair in theoretical physics at the University of Leiden. The position had initially been offered to Johan van der Waals, but he accepted a position at the Universiteit van Amsterdam. On 25 January 1878, Lorentz delivered his inaugural lecture on \"\"\"\" (The molecular theories in physics). In 1881, he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. During the first twenty years in Leiden, Lorentz was primarily interested in the electromagnetic theory of electricity, magnetism, and light. After that, he extended his research to a much wider area while still focusing on theoretical physics. Lorentz made significant contributions to fields ranging from hydrodynamics to general relativity. His most important contributions were in the area of electromagnetism, the electron theory, and relativity. Lorentz theorized that atoms might consist of charged particles and suggested that the oscillations of these charged particles were the source of light. When a colleague and former student of Lorentz's, Pieter Zeeman, discovered the Zeeman effect in 1896, Lorentz supplied its theoretical interpretation. The experimental and theoretical work was honored with the Nobel prize in physics in 1902. Lorentz' name is now associated with the Lorentz-Lorenz formula, the Lorentz force, the Lorentzian distribution, and the Lorentz transformation.", "In 1892 and 1895, Lorentz worked on describing electromagnetic phenomena (the propagation of light) in reference frames that move relative to the postulated luminiferous aether. He discovered that the transition from one to another reference frame could be simplified by using a new time variable that he called \"local time\" and which depended on universal time and the location under consideration. Although Lorentz did not give a detailed interpretation of the physical significance of local time, with it, he could explain the aberration of light and the result of the Fizeau experiment. In 1900 and 1904, Henri Poincaré called local time Lorentz's \"most ingenious idea\" and illustrated it by showing that clocks in moving frames are synchronized by exchanging light signals that are assumed to travel at the same speed against and with the motion of the frame (see Einstein synchronisation and Relativity of simultaneity). In 1892, with the attempt to explain the Michelson-Morley experiment, Lorentz also proposed that moving bodies contract in the direction of motion (see length contraction; George FitzGerald had already arrived at this conclusion in 1889). In 1899 and again in 1904, Lorentz added time dilation to his transformations and published what Poincaré in 1905 named Lorentz transformations. It was apparently unknown to Lorentz that Joseph Larmor had used identical transformations to describe orbiting electrons in 1897. Larmor's and Lorentz's equations look somewhat dissimilar, but they are algebraically equivalent to those presented by Poincaré and Einstein in 1905. Lorentz's 1904 paper includes the covariant formulation of electrodynamics, in which electrodynamic phenomena in different reference frames are described by identical equations with well defined transformation properties. The paper clearly recognizes the significance of this formulation, namely that the outcomes of electrodynamic experiments do not depend on the relative motion of the reference frame. The 1904 paper includes a detailed discussion of the increase of the inertial mass of rapidly moving objects in a useless attempt to make momentum look exactly like Newtonian momentum; it was also an attempt to explain the length contraction as the accumulation of \"stuff\" onto mass making it slow and contract.", "In 1905, Einstein would use many of the concepts, mathematical tools and results Lorentz discussed to write his paper entitled \"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\", known today as the special theory of relativity. Because Lorentz laid the fundamentals for the work by Einstein, this theory was originally called the \"Lorentz-Einstein theory\". In 1906, Lorentz's electron theory received a full-fledged treatment in his lectures at Columbia University, published under the title The Theory of Electrons. The increase of mass was the first prediction of Lorentz and Einstein to be tested, but some experiments by Kaufmann appeared to show a slightly different mass increase; this led Lorentz to the famous remark that he was \"au bout de mon latin\" (\"at the end of my [knowledge of] Latin\" = at his wit's end) The confirmation of his prediction had to wait until 1908 and later (see Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments). Lorentz published a series of papers dealing with what he called \"Einstein's principle of relativity\". For instance, in 1909, 1910, 1914. In his 1906 lectures published with additions in 1909 in the book \"The theory of electrons\" (updated in 1915), he spoke affirmatively of Einstein's theory: Though Lorentz still maintained that there is an (undetectable) aether in which resting clocks indicate the \"true time\": Lorentz also gave credit to Poincaré's contributions to relativity.", "Lorentz was one of few scientists who supported Einstein's search for general relativity from the beginning – he wrote several research papers and discussed with Einstein personally and by letter. For instance, he attempted to combine Einstein's formalism with Hamilton's principle (1915), and to reformulate it in a coordinate-free way (1916). Lorentz wrote in 1919:", "Lorentz gave a series of lectures in the Fall of 1926 at Cornell University on the new quantum mechanics; in these he presented Erwin Schrödinger's wave mechanics.", "Einstein wrote of Lorentz: Poincaré (1902) said of Lorentz's theory of electrodynamics: Paul Langevin (1911) said of Lorentz: Lorentz and Emil Wiechert had an interesting correspondence on the topics of electromagnetism and the theory of relativity, and Lorentz explained his ideas in letters to Wiechert. Lorentz was chairman of the first Solvay Conference held in Brussels in the autumn of 1911. Shortly after the conference, Poincaré wrote an essay on quantum physics which gives an indication of Lorentz's status at the time:", "In 1910, Lorentz decided to reorganize his life. His teaching and management duties at Leiden University were taking up too much of his time, leaving him little time for research. In 1912, he resigned from his chair of theoretical physics to become curator of the \"Physics Cabinet\" at Teylers Museum in Haarlem. He remained connected to Leiden University as an external professor, and his \"Monday morning lectures\" on new developments in theoretical physics soon became legendary. Lorentz initially asked Einstein to succeed him as professor of theoretical physics at Leiden. However, Einstein could not accept because he had just accepted a position at ETH Zurich. Einstein had no regrets in this matter, since the prospect of having to fill Lorentz's shoes made him shiver. Instead Lorentz appointed Paul Ehrenfest as his successor in the chair of theoretical physics at the Leiden University, who would found the Institute for Theoretical Physics which would become known as the Lorentz Institute.", "After World War I, Lorentz was one of the driving forces behind the founding of the \"Wetenschappelijke Commissie van Advies en Onderzoek in het Belang van Volkswelvaart en Weerbaarheid\", a committee which was to harness the scientific potential united in the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) for solving civil problems such as food shortage which had resulted from the war. Lorentz was appointed chair of the committee. However, despite the best efforts of many of the participants the committee would harvest little success. The only exception being that it ultimately resulted in the founding of TNO, the Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research. Lorentz was also asked by the Dutch government to chair a committee to calculate some of the effects of the proposed Afsluitdijk (Enclosure Dam) flood control dam on water levels in the Waddenzee. Hydraulic engineering was mainly an empirical science at that time, but the disturbance of the tidal flow caused by the Afsluitdijk was so unprecedented that the empirical rules could not be trusted. Originally Lorentz was only supposed to have a coordinating role in the committee, but it quickly became apparent that Lorentz was the only physicist to have any fundamental traction on the problem. In the period 1918 till 1926, Lorentz invested a large portion of his time in the problem. Lorentz proposed to start from the basic hydrodynamic equations of motion and solve the problem numerically. This was feasible for a \"human computer\", because of the quasi-one-dimensional nature of the water flow in the Waddenzee. The Afsluitdijk was completed in 1932, and the predictions of Lorentz and his committee turned out to be remarkably accurate. One of the two sets of locks in the Afsluitdijk was named after him.", "In 1881, Lorentz married Aletta Catharina Kaiser. Her father was J.W. Kaiser, a professor at the Academy of Fine Arts. He was the Director of the museum which later became the well-known Rijksmuseum (National Gallery). He also was the designer of the first postage stamps of The Netherlands. There were two daughters, and one son from this marriage. Dr. Geertruida Luberta Lorentz, the eldest daughter, was a physicist. She married Professor W.J. de Haas, who was the Director of the Cryogenic Laboratory at the University of Leiden.", "In January 1928, Lorentz became seriously ill, and died shortly after on 4 February. The respect in which he was held in the Netherlands is apparent from Owen Willans Richardson's description of his funeral: Unique 1928 film footage of the funeral procession with a lead carriage followed by ten mourners, followed by a carriage with the coffin, followed in turn by at least four more carriages, passing by a crowd at the Grote Markt, Haarlem from the Zijlstraat to the Smedestraat, and then back again through the Grote Houtstraat towards the Barteljorisstraat, on the way to the \"Algemene Begraafplaats\" at the Kleverlaan (northern Haarlem cemetery) has been digitized on YouTube. Amongst others, the funeral was attended by Albert Einstein and Marie Curie. Einstein gave a eulogy at a memorial service at Leiden University.", "Lorentz is considered one of the prime representatives of the \"Second Dutch Golden Age\", a period of several decades surrounding 1900 in which the natural sciences flourished in the Netherlands. Richardson describes Lorentz as: A man of remarkable intellectual powers Although steeped in his own investigation of the moment, he always seemed to have in his immediate grasp its ramifications into every corner of the universe. The singular clearness of his writings provides a striking reflection of his wonderful powers in this respect. He possessed and successfully employed the mental vivacity which is necessary to follow the interplay of discussion, the insight which is required to extract those statements which illuminate the real difficulties, and the wisdom to lead the discussion among fruitful channels, and he did this so skillfully that the process was hardly perceptible. M. J. Klein (1967) wrote of Lorentz's reputation in the 1920s: For many years physicists had always been eager \"to hear what Lorentz will say about it\" when a new theory was advanced, and, even at seventy-two, he did not disappoint them. In addition to the Nobel prize, Lorentz received a great many honours for his outstanding work. He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1905. The Society awarded him their Rumford Medal in 1908 and their Copley Medal in 1918. He was elected an Honorary Member of the Netherlands Chemical Society in 1912." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Operational history.", "Surviving aircraft." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "At the same time the type's predecessor, the Kawanishi H6K, was entering service in 1938 the Navy ordered the development of a larger, longer-ranged patrol aircraft under the designation Navy Experimental 13-\"Shi\" Large-size Flying Boat. The result was a large, shoulder-winged design that is widely regarded as the best flying boat of the war. Despite this, initial development was troublesome, with the prototype displaying terrible handling on the water. Deepening of the hull, redesigning of the planing bottom and the addition of spray strips under the nose rectified the water handling problems. Two further prototypes — actually pre-production aircraft — joined the development program in December 1941. The IJNAS accepted the first production version as the H8K1, Navy Type 2 Flying Boat, Model 11, of which 14 would be built. The improved H8K2 variant soon appeared, and its extremely heavy defensive armament earned it deep respect among Allied aircrews. The H8K2 was an upgrade over the H8K1 with more powerful engines, slightly revised armament, and an increase in fuel capacity. This was to be the definitive variant, with 112 produced. 36 examples of a dedicated transport version, the H8K2-L, were also built, capable of carrying 62 troops. This aircraft was also known as \"Seikū\" (晴空, \"Clear Sky\"). The side defensive blisters, ventral defensive hatch, and dorsal turret were discarded. To increase the available space within the aircraft its hull tanks were removed, thus reducing its range.", "The H8K entered production in 1941 and first saw operational use on the night of 4 March 1942 in a second raid on Pearl Harbor. Since the target lay out of range for the flying boats, this audacious plan involved a refuelling by submarine at French Frigate Shoals, some north-west of Hawaii, \"en route\". Two planes from the Yokohama Kōkūtai (Naval Air Corps) attempted to bomb Pearl Harbor but, due to poor visibility, did not accomplish any significant damage. Six days after the second Pearl Harbor raid one of the Emilys was sent on a daylight photo-reconnaissance mission of Midway Atoll. It was intercepted by radar directed Brewster F2A Buffalo fighters of Marine Fighting Squadron 221 (VMF-221) and shot down. All aboard were killed including Lt. Hashizume Hisao, the lead pilot of the second Pearl Harbor raid. H8K2s were used on a wide range of patrol, reconnaissance, bombing, and transport missions throughout the Pacific War. The H8K2 was given the Allied code name \"Emily\".", "Four aircraft survived until the end of the war. One of these, an H8K2 (work number 426), was captured by U.S. forces at the end of the war and was evaluated before being eventually returned to Japan in 1979. It was on display at Tokyo's Museum of Maritime Science until 2004, when it was moved to Kanoya Air Field in Kagoshima. The submerged remains of an H8K can be found off the west coast of Saipan, where it is a popular scuba diving attraction known erroneously as the \"B-29\", or the \"Emily\". Another wrecked H8K lies in Chuuk Lagoon, Chuuk, in Micronesia. This aircraft is located off the south-western end of Dublon Island." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design of DSLR cameras.", "Phase-detection autofocus.", "Features commonly seen in DSLR designs.", "Mode dial.", "Dust reduction systems.", "Interchangeable lenses.", "HD video capture.", "Live preview.", "Larger sensor sizes and better image quality.", "Depth-of-field control.", "Wider angle of view.", "Unusual features.", "History.", "DSLRs compared with other digital cameras.", "Optical view image and digitally created image.", "Performance differences.", "Sensor size.", "Fixed or interchangeable lenses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "Like SLRs, \"DSLRs\" typically use interchangeable lenses (1) with a proprietary lens mount. A movable mechanical mirror system (2) is switched down (exact 45-degree angle) to direct light from the lens over a matte focusing screen (5) via a condenser lens (6) and a pentaprism/pentamirror (7) to an optical viewfinder eyepiece (8). Most of the entry-level DSLRs use a pentamirror instead of the traditional pentaprism. Focusing can be manual, by twisting the focus on the lens; or automatic, activated by pressing half-way on the shutter release or a dedicated auto-focus (AF) button. To take an image, the mirror swings upwards in the direction of the arrow, the focal-plane shutter (3) opens, and the image is projected and captured on the image sensor (4), after which actions, the shutter closes, the mirror returns to the 45-degree angle, and the built-in drive mechanism re-tensions the shutter for the next exposure. Compared with the newer concept of mirrorless interchangeable-lens cameras, this mirror/prism system is the characteristic difference providing direct, accurate optical preview with separate autofocus and exposure metering sensors. Essential parts of all digital cameras are some electronics like amplifier, analog-to-digital converter, image processor and other microprocessors for processing the digital image, performing data storage and/or driving an electronic display.", "DSLRs typically use autofocus based on phase detection. This method allows the optimal lens position to be calculated, rather than \"found\", as would be the case with autofocus based on contrast maximisation. Phase-detection autofocus is typically faster than", "", "Digital SLR cameras, along with most other digital cameras, generally have a mode dial to access standard camera settings or automatic scene-mode settings. Sometimes called a \"PASM\" dial, they typically provide modes such as program, aperture-priority, shutter-priority, and full manual modes.", "A method to prevent dust entering the chamber, by using a \"dust cover\" filter right behind the lens mount, was used by Sigma in its first DSLR, the Sigma SD9, in 2002. Olympus used a built-in sensor cleaning", "The ability to exchange lenses, to select the best lens for the current photographic need, and to allow the attachment of specialised lenses, is one of the key factors in the popularity of DSLR cameras, although this feature is not unique to the DSLR design and mirrorless interchangeable lens cameras are becoming increasingly popular. Interchangeable lenses for SLRs and DSLRs are built to operate correctly with a specific lens mount that is generally unique to each brand. A photographer will often use lenses made by the same manufacturer as the camera body (for example, Canon EF lenses on a Canon body) although there are also many independent lens manufacturers, such as Sigma, Tamron, Tokina, and", "Since 2008, manufacturers have offered DSLRs which offer a movie mode capable of recording high definition motion video. A DSLR with this feature is often known as an HDSLR or DSLR video shooter. The first DSLR introduced with an HD movie mode, the Nikon D90, captures video at 720p24 (1280x720 resolution at 24 frame/s). Other early HDSLRs capture video using a nonstandard video resolution or frame rate. For example, the Pentax K-7 uses a nonstandard resolution of 1536×1024, which matches the imager's 3:2 aspect ratio. The", "Early DSLRs lacked the ability to show the optical viewfinder's image on the LCD display – a feature known as live preview. Live preview is useful in situations where the camera's eye-level viewfinder cannot be used, such as underwater photography where the camera is enclosed in a plastic waterproof case. In 2000, Olympus introduced the Olympus E-10, the first DSLR with live preview – albeit with an atypical fixed lens design., some DSLRs from Canon, Nikon, Olympus, Panasonic, Leica, Pentax, Samsung and Sony all provided continuous live preview as an option. Additionally, the Fujifilm FinePix S5 Pro offers 30 seconds of live preview. On almost all DSLRs that offer live preview via the primary sensor, the phase-detection autofocus", "Image sensors used in DSLRs come in a range of sizes. The very largest are the ones used in \"medium format\" cameras, typically via a \"digital back\" which can be used as an alternative to a film back. Because of the manufacturing costs of these large sensors, the price of these cameras is typically over $6,500. \"Full-frame\" is the same size as 35 mm film (135 film, image format 24×36 mm); these sensors are used in DSLRs such as the Canon EOS-1D X Mark II, 5DS/5DSR, 5D Mark IV and 6D Mark II, and the Nikon D5, D850, D750, D610 and Df. Most modern DSLRs use a smaller sensor that is APS-C sized, which is approximately 22×15 mm, slightly smaller than the size of an APS-C film frame, or about 40% of the area of a full-frame sensor. Other sensor sizes", "The lenses typically used on DSLRs have a wider range of apertures available to them, ranging from as large as 0.9 to about 32. Lenses for smaller sensor cameras rarely have true available aperture sizes much larger than 2.8 or much smaller than 5.6. To help extend the exposure range, some smaller sensor cameras will also incorporate", "The angle of view of a lens depends upon its focal length and the camera's image sensor size; a sensor smaller than 35 mm film format (36×24 mm frame) gives a narrower angle of view for a lens of a given focal length than a camera equipped with a full-frame (35 mm) sensor. As of 2017, only a few current DSLRs have full-frame sensors, including the Canon EOS-1D X Mark II, EOS 5D Mark IV, EOS 5DS/5DS R, and EOS 6D Mark II; Nikon's D5, D610, D750, D850, and Df; and the Pentax K-1. The scarcity of full-frame DSLRs is partly a result of the cost of such large sensors. Medium format size sensors, such as those used in the Mamiya ZD among others, are even larger than full-frame (35 mm) sensors, and capable of even greater resolution, and are correspondingly more", "On July 13, 2007, FujiFilm announced the FinePix IS Pro, which uses Nikon F-mount lenses. This camera, in addition to having live preview, has the ability to record in the infrared and ultraviolet spectra", "In 1969, Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith invented the first successful imaging technology using a digital sensor, a CCD (Charge-Coupled Device). CCD would allow the rapid development of digital photography. For their contribution to digital photography Boyle and Smith were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2009. In 1975 Kodak engineer Steven Sasson invented the first digital still camera, which used a Fairchild 100×100 pixel CCD. On August 25, 1981, Sony unveiled a prototype of the Sony Mavica. This camera was an analogue electronic camera that featured interchangeable lenses and an SLR viewfinder. At Photokina in 1986, Japanese company Nikon revealed a prototype for the first DSLR camera, the Nikon SVC. In 1988, Nikon released the first commercial DSLR camera, the QV-1000C. In 1986, the Kodak Microelectronics Technology Division developed a 1.3 MP CCD image sensor, the first with more than 1 million pixels. In 1987, this sensor was integrated with a Canon F-1 film SLR body at the Kodak Federal Systems Division to create an early DSLR camera. The digital back monitored the camera body battery current to sync the image sensor exposure to the film body shutter. Digital images were stored on a tethered hard drive and processed for histogram feedback to the user. This camera was created for the U.S. Government, and was followed by several other models intended for government use, and eventually a commercial DSLR, launched by Kodak in 1991. In 1995, Nikon co-developed the Nikon E series with Fujifilm. The E series included the Nikon E2/E2S, Nikon E2N/E2NS and the Nikon E3/E3S, with the E3S released in December 1999. In 1999, Nikon announced the Nikon D1. The D1's body was similar to Nikon's professional 35 mm film SLRs, and it had the same Nikkor lens mount, allowing the D1 to use Nikon's existing line of AI/AIS manual focus and AF lenses. Although Nikon and other manufacturers had produced digital SLR cameras for several years prior, the D1 was the first professional digital SLR that displaced Kodak's then-undisputed reign over the professional market. Over the next decade, other camera manufacturers entered the DSLR market, including Canon, Kodak, Fujifilm, Minolta (later Konica Minolta, and ultimately acquired by Sony), Pentax (whose camera division is now owned by Ricoh), Olympus, Panasonic, Samsung, Sigma, and Sony. In January 2000, Fujifilm announced the FinePix S1 Pro, the first consumer-level DSLR. In November 2001, Canon released its 4.1 megapixel EOS-1D, the brand's first professional digital body. In 2003, Canon introduced the 6.3 megapixel EOS 300D SLR camera (known in the United States and Canada as the Digital Rebel and in Japan as the Kiss Digital) with an MSRP of US$999, aimed at the consumer market. Its commercial success encouraged other manufacturers to produce competing digital SLRs, lowering entry costs and allowing more amateur photographers to purchase DSLRs. In 2004, Konica Minolta released the Konica Minolta Maxxum 7D, the first DSLR with in-body image stabilization which later on become standard in Pentax, Olympus and Sony Alpha cameras. In early 2008, Nikon released the D90, the first DSLR to feature video recording. Since then all major companies offer cameras with this functionality. Since then, the number of megapixels in imaging sensors has increased steadily, with most companies focusing on high ISO performance, speed of focus, higher frame rates, the elimination of digital 'noise' produced by the imaging sensor, and price reductions to lure new customers. In June 2012, Canon announced the first DSLR to feature a touchscreen, the EOS 650D/Rebel T4i/Kiss X6i. Although this feature had been widely used on both compact cameras and mirrorless models, it had not made an appearance in a DSLR until the 650D.", "The reflex design scheme is the primary difference between a DSLR and other digital cameras. In the reflex design scheme, the image captured on the camera's sensor is also the image that is seen through the viewfinder. Light travels through a single lens and a mirror is used to reflect a portion of that light through the viewfinder – hence the name \"single-lens reflex\". While there are variations among point-and-shoot cameras, the typical design exposes the sensor constantly to the light projected by the lens, allowing the camera's screen to be used as an electronic viewfinder. However, LCDs can be difficult to see in very bright sunlight. Compared with some low-cost cameras that provide an optical viewfinder that uses a small auxiliary lens, the DSLR design has the advantage of being parallax-free: it never provides an off-axis view. A disadvantage of the DSLR optical viewfinder system is that when it is used, it prevents using the LCD for viewing and composing the picture. Some people prefer to compose pictures on the display – for them, this has become the de facto way to use a camera. Depending on the viewing position of the reflex mirror (down or up), the light from the scene can only reach either the viewfinder or the sensor. Therefore, many early DSLRs did not provide \"live preview\" (i.e., focusing, framing, and depth-of-field preview using the display), a facility that is always available on digicams. Today most DSLRs can alternate between live view and viewing through an optical viewfinder.", "The larger, advanced digital cameras offer a non-optical electronic through-the-lens (TTL) view, via an eye-level electronic viewfinder (EVF) in addition to the rear LCD. The difference in view compared with a DSLR is that the EVF shows a digitally created image, whereas the viewfinder in a DSLR shows an actual optical image via the reflex viewing system. An EVF image has the lag time (that is, it reacts with a delay to view changes) and has a lower resolution than an optical viewfinder but achieves parallax-free viewing using less bulk and mechanical complexity than a DSLR", "DSLR cameras often have image sensors of much larger size and often higher quality, offering lower noise, which is useful in low light. Although mirrorless digital cameras with APS-C and full frame sensors exist, most full frame and medium format sized image sensors are still seen in DSLR designs. For a long time, DSLRs offered faster and more responsive performance, with less shutter lag, faster autofocus systems, and higher frame rates. Around 2016–17, some mirrorless camera models started offering competitive or superior specifications in these aspects. The downside of these cameras being that they do not have an optical viewfinder, making it difficult to focus on moving subjects or in situations where a fast burst mode would be beneficial. Other digital cameras were once significantly slower in image capture (time measured from pressing the shutter release to the writing of the digital image to the storage medium) than DSLR cameras, but this situation is changing with the introduction of faster capture memory cards and faster in-camera processing chips. Still, compact digital cameras are not suited for action, wildlife, sports and other photography requiring a high burst rate (frames per second). Simple point-and-shoot cameras rely almost exclusively on their built-in automation and machine intelligence for capturing images under a variety of situations and offer no manual control over their functions, a trait which makes them unsuitable for use by professionals, enthusiasts and proficient consumers (also known as \"prosumers\"). Bridge cameras provide some degree of manual control over the camera's shooting modes, and some even have hot shoes and the option to attach lens accessories such as filters and secondary converters. DSLRs typically provide the photographer with full control over all the important parameters of photography and have the option to attach additional accessories using the hot shoe. including hot shoe-mounted flash units, battery grips for additional power and hand positions, external light meters, and remote controls. DSLRs typically also have fully automatic shooting modes. DSLRs have a larger focal length for the same field of view, which allows creative use of depth of field effects. However, small digital cameras can focus better on closer objects than typical DSLR lenses.", "The sensors used in current DSLRs (\"Full-frame\" which is the same size as 35 mm film (135 films, image format 24×36 mm), APS-C sized, which is approximately 22×15 mm, and Four Thirds System) are typically much larger than the sensors found in other types of digital cameras. Entry-level compact cameras typically use sensors known as 1/2.5′′, which is 3% the size of a full-frame sensor. There are bridge cameras (also known as premium compact cameras or enthusiast point-and-shoot cameras) that offer sensors larger than", "Unlike DSLRs, most digital cameras lack the option to change the lens. Instead, most compact digital cameras are manufactured with a zoom lens that covers the most commonly used fields of view. Having fixed lenses, they are limited to the focal lengths they are manufactured with, except for what is available from attachments. Manufacturers have attempted (with increasing success) to overcome this disadvantage by offering extreme ranges of focal length on models known as superzooms, some of which offer far longer focal lengths than readily available DSLR lenses. There are now available perspective-correcting (PC) lenses for DSLR cameras, providing some of the attributes of view cameras. Nikon introduced the first PC lens, fully manual, in 1961. Recently, however, some manufacturers have introduced advanced lenses that both shift and tilt and are operated with automatic aperture control. However, since the introduction of the Micro Four Thirds system by Olympus and Panasonic in late 2008, mirrorless interchangeable lens cameras are now widely available so the option to change lenses is no longer unique to DSLRs. Cameras for the micro four-thirds system are designed with the option of a replaceable lens and accept" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Legal career.", "Political career.", "Policy positions.", "Senate tenure.", "Post-Senate activities.", "Political campaigns.", "Electoral history.", "2004 presidential campaign.", "2004 vice presidential nomination.", "2008 presidential campaign.", "Personal life.", "Family.", "Residence.", "Extramarital affair.", "Indictment and trial.", "Return to law practice." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Edwards was born June 10, 1953, to Wallace Reid Edwards and Catharine Juanita \"Bobbie\" Edwards (née Wade) in Seneca, South Carolina. The family moved several times during Edwards' childhood, eventually settling in Robbins, North Carolina, where his father worked as a textile mill floor worker and was eventually promoted to supervisor. His mother had a", "After law school, Edwards clerked for federal judge Franklin Dupree in North Carolina, and in 1978 became an associate at the Nashville law firm of Dearborn & Ewing, doing primarily trial work, defending a Nashville bank and other corporate clients. Lamar Alexander, a Republican and future governor of and U.S. Senator from Tennessee, was among Edwards's co-workers. The Edwards family returned to North Carolina in 1981, settling in the capital of Raleigh where he joined the firm of Tharrington, Smith & Hargrove. In 1984, Edwards was assigned to a medical malpractice lawsuit that had been perceived to be unwinnable; the firm had accepted it only as a favor to an attorney and state senator who did not want to keep it. Nevertheless, Edwards won a $3.7 million verdict on behalf of his client, who had suffered permanent brain and nerve damage after a doctor prescribed an overdose of the anti-alcoholism drug Antabuse during alcohol aversion therapy. In other cases, Edwards sued the American Red Cross three times, alleging transmission of AIDS through tainted blood products, resulting in a confidential settlement each time, and defended a North Carolina newspaper against a libel charge. In 1985, Edwards represented a five-year-old child born with cerebral palsy – a child whose mother's doctor did not choose to perform an immediate Caesarean delivery when a fetal monitor showed she was in distress. Edwards won a $6.5 million verdict for his client, but five weeks later, the presiding judge sustained the verdict, but overturned the award on grounds that it was \"excessive\" and that it appeared \"to have been given under the influence of passion and prejudice,\" adding that in his opinion \"the evidence was insufficient to support the verdict.\" He offered the plaintiffs $3.25 million, half of the jury's award, but the child's family appealed the case and received $4.25 million in a settlement. Winning this case established the North Carolina precedent of physician and hospital liability for failing to determine if the patient understood the risks of a particular procedure. After this trial, Edwards gained national attention as a plaintiff's lawyer. He filed at least twenty similar lawsuits in the years following", "", "Edwards promotes programs to eliminate poverty in the United States, including arguing in favor of creating one million housing vouchers over five years in order to place poor people in middle-class neighborhoods. Edwards has stated, \"If we truly believe that we are all equal, then we should live together too.\" He also supports \"College for Everyone\" initiatives. Although Edwards initially supported the Iraq War, he later changed his position and in November 2005 wrote an op-ed in \"The Washington Post\" in which he said he expressed regret for", "Edwards won election to the U.S. Senate in 1998 as a Democrat running against incumbent Republican Senator Lauch Faircloth. Despite originally being the underdog, Edwards beat Faircloth by 51.2% to 47.0% — a margin of some 83,000 votes. During President Bill Clinton's 1999 impeachment trial in the Senate, Edwards was responsible for the deposition of witnesses Monica Lewinsky and fellow Democrat Vernon Jordan, Jr. During the 2000 presidential campaign, Edwards was on Democratic nominee Al Gore's vice presidential nominee short list (along with John Kerry and Joe Lieberman, Gore's eventual pick). In his time in the Senate, Edwards co-sponsored 203 bills. Among them was Lieberman's 2002 Iraq War Resolution (S.J.Res.46), which he co-sponsored along with 15 other senators, but which did not go to a vote. He voted for replacement resolution (H.J Res. 114) in the full Senate to authorize the use of military force against Iraq, which passed by a vote of 77 to 23, On October 10, 2002, he stated that: He defended", "The day after his concession speech, he announced his wife Elizabeth had been diagnosed with breast cancer. Edwards told interviewer Larry King that he doubted he would return to practice as a trial lawyer and showed no interest in succeeding Terry McAuliffe as the Democratic National Committee chairman. In February 2005, Edwards headlined the \"100 Club\" Dinner, a major fundraiser for the New Hampshire Democratic Party. That same month, Edwards was appointed as director of the Center on Poverty, Work and Opportunity at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill for studying ways to move people out of", "", "North Carolina United States Senate election, 1998 (Democratic primary) North Carolina United", "In 2000, Edwards unofficially began his presidential campaign when he began to seek speaking engagements in Iowa, the site of the nation's first party caucuses. On January 2, 2003, Edwards began fundraising without officially campaigning by forming an exploratory committee. On September 15, 2003, Edwards fulfilled a promise he made a year earlier as a guest on \"The Daily Show with Jon Stewart\" to unofficially announce his intention to seek the 2004 Democratic presidential nomination. The next morning, Edwards made the announcement officially from his hometown. He", "On July 6, 2004, Kerry announced that Edwards would be his running mate; the decision was widely hailed in public opinion polls and by Democratic leaders. Though many Democrats supported Edwards' nomination, others criticized the selection for Edwards' perceived lack of experience. In the vice presidential debate, Dick Cheney told Edwards they had never met because of Edwards' frequent absences from the Senate, but that was later proven to be incorrect. Videotape later surfaced of Cheney and Edwards shaking hands", "On December 28, 2006, John Edwards officially announced his candidacy for President in the 2008 election from the yard of a home in New Orleans, Louisiana, that was being rebuilt after Hurricane Katrina destroyed it. Edwards stated that his main goals were eliminating poverty, fighting global warming, providing universal health care, and withdrawing troops from Iraq. National polls had Edwards placing third among the Democratic field beginning in January 2007, behind Senator Hillary Clinton and Senator Barack Obama. By July 2007, the Edwards campaign had raised $23 million from nearly 100,000 donors, placing him behind Obama and Clinton in fundraising. Edwards was first to boycott a Fox News-sponsored presidential debate in March 2007. Hillary Clinton, Bill Richardson, and Barack Obama followed suit. On January 3, 2008, in the Iowa caucuses, the first contest of the nomination process, Edwards placed second with 29.75% of the vote to Obama (37.58%), with Clinton coming in third", "", "While at UNC, he met Elizabeth Anania. They married in 1977 and had four children (Wade in 1979, Cate in 1982, Emma Claire in 1998, and Jack in 2000). Edwards also has a child out of wedlock, born in 2008, named Frances Quinn Hunter, conceived with his former mistress Rielle Hunter. Edwards denied being the father for over two years before finally admitting to it in 2010. Wade was killed in a car accident when strong winds swept his Jeep off a North Carolina highway in 1996. Three weeks before his death, Wade was honored by First Lady Hillary Clinton at The White House as one of the 10 finalists in an essay contest sponsored by the National Endowment for the Humanities and the Voice of America for an essay he wrote on entering the voting booth with his father. Wade, accompanied by his parents and sister, went on to meet North Carolina Sen. Jesse Helms, who later entered Wade's essay and his obituary into the \"Congressional Record\". Edwards and his wife began the Wade Edwards Foundation in their son's memory; the purpose of the non-profit organization is \"to reward, encourage, and inspire young", "In Washington. D.C. he lived in Embassy Row, 2215 30th Street. His next-door neighbor", "In October 2007, \"The National Enquirer\" began a series of reports alleging an adulterous affair between Edwards and former campaign worker Rielle Hunter. By July 2008, several news media outlets speculated that Edwards' chances for the Vice Presidency as well as other positions such as the Attorney General were harmed by the allegations, which now included that he fathered a child with Hunter and had visited her and the baby girl at the Beverly Hilton Hotel in Beverly Hills, California. However, the story was not widely covered by the press for some time, until, after initially denying the allegations, Edwards admitted the affair. On January 21, 2010, John Edwards issued a press release to admit that he", "On May 24, 2011, ABC News and the \"New York Times\" reported that the U.S Department of Justice's Public Integrity Section had conducted a two-year investigation into whether Edwards had used more than $1 million in political donations to hide his affair and planned to pursue criminal charges for alleged violations of campaign finance laws. On June 3, 2011, Edwards was indicted by a federal grand jury in North Carolina on six felony charges, including four counts of collecting illegal campaign contributions, one count of conspiracy, and one count of making false statements. After postponing the start of the trial while Edwards was treated for a heart condition in February 2012, Judge Catherine Eagles of the", "Edwards returned to the practice of law after his political career ended. Together with attorneys David Kirby and William Bystrynski, he founded the law firm Edwards Kirby in Raleigh. His daughter Cate is the managing attorney of the San Diego office of the firm. Vidant Health and Pitt County, North Carolina, was the venue for Edwards' 2014 return to the malpractice arena." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history.", "War on Terror.", "Training.", "Organization.", "Known operations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "GROM, which stands for \"Grupa Reagowania Operacyjno-Manewrowego\" (English: \"Group (for) Operational Maneuvering Response\"), which also means \"thunder\", is one of the five special operation forces units of the Polish Armed Forces. It was officially activated on July 13, 1990. It is deployed in a variety of special operations and unconventional warfare roles, including anti-terrorist operations and projection of force behind enemy lines. The unit was named after the Silent Unseen (Polish: \"Cichociemni Spadochroniarze Armii Krajowej\") – Poland's elite World War II special-operations unit. In the 1970s and 1980s, there were several formations of special forces units within Poland, but these were either trained in purely military tasks (sabotage, disruption of communications and such) or in purely counter-terrorist roles. After the Polish embassy in Bern was taken over by a group of four Polish emigrants calling themselves Polish Revolutionary Home Army in 1982, General Edwin Rozłubirski proposed that a clandestine military unit be established to counter the threat from terrorism and other unconventional threats. This proposal, however, was initially rejected by the People's Army of Poland. In 1989, many Jews were allowed to emigrate from the Soviet Union to Israel. Poland was one of the handful of countries that provided aid in the form of organization for the operation, later dubbed Operation Bridge (\"Operacja Most\"). After two Polish diplomats were shot in Beirut, Lt. Col. Sławomir Petelicki was sent to Lebanon to secure the transfer of civilians and the Polish diplomatic outposts. Upon his return to Poland, he presented his plan for the creation of a special military unit to the Ministry of Interior, a force that would be trained in special operations to be deployed in the defense of Polish citizens in situations similar to the one in Lebanon. Petelicki's ideas were well received, and on June 13, 1990, GROM was formally established as JW 2305. Sławomir Petelicki was chosen as the first commander of the newly formed unit. As a Polish intelligence officer from Służba Bezpieczeństwa specializing in sabotage and subversion, he seemed perfectly suited to oversee the unit's initial formation. He gathered around himself a group of like-minded and professional soldiers, functionaries and set about choosing soldiers that would be fit for special operations. Due to the high risks involved in special service, it was decided that all men should be from professional service. The first batch of recruits all came from a variety of already-existing special units within the Polish Armed Forces. Among these were: Out of the possible recruits, only a small group passed the training. Many of these initial instructors were trained by the Special Forces of the United States and the United Kingdom. Currently, Jednostka Wojskowa GROM is co-operating with similar units of other NATO countries. During its formative first few years, JW 2305 remained completely secret and hidden from the public. It was first reported to the press in 1992 and became known to the public in 1994, after their first major military operation in Haiti. Before October 1, 1999, JW 2305 was subordinate to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, after which time command was transferred to the Minister of National Defence, until 2007. Since 2007 JW GROM is under the command of Dowódca Wojsk Specjalnych (Commander of Polish Special Forces).", "A 40-man GROM element deployed to Afghanistan in early 2002. For the 2003 invasion of Iraq, GROM formed the part of the core of the Naval Special Operations Task Group, along with US Navy SEALs, British Royal Marines and attached US Psy Ops and civil affairs teams. On March 20, 2003, US Marines from 1st F.A.S.T. Company and GROM operators assaulted the KAAOT Oil Terminals, whilst US Marines from 1st F.A.S.T. Company and US Navy SEALs from SEAL Team 8 and 10 seized the MABOT oil terminal, both terminals were seized with no casualties and explosives which were found on the terminals were made safe by GROM and SEAL operators. A mixed team of 35 GROM operators and 20 US Navy SEALs from SEAL Team 5 seized the Mukatayin hydroelectric dam, 57 miles northeast of Baghdad. Iraqi troops guarding the dam surrendered without a fight, there were no casualties to the team (with the exception of one GROM soldier, who broke an ankle during the insertion from a US Air Force MH-53J Pave Low helicopter. SEAL and GROM units continued to cooperate throughout the rest of the invasion phase, with raids and anti-sniper missions in Baghdad. Following the invasion, GROM operators formed the core of Task Unit Thunder, as an element of CJSOTF-AP (Combined Joint Special Operations Task Force-Arabian Peninsula), providing a Tier-1 counterterrorism unit for the task force. Along with Task Unit Raider (consisting of Det One operators), both units became the task force's primary direct action assets, operating in conjunction on multiple occasions. A GROM sniper aided Det One's in its first \"real\" mission - a close target reconnaissance operation - in which the sniper apprehended the target, (a suspected insurgent sniper). GROM's early success in Iraq made it a valuable contributor to CJSOTF-AP. In September 2004, US Navy SEAL sniper Chris Kyle was temporarily assigned to GROM's Combat Team B in Baghdad for a week. The CIA reportedly found GROM snipers useful due to their low rules of engagement threshold. In 2007, US Army Special Forces, Polish GROM conducted Operation Jackal against insurgents in Diwaniyah. In 2007, GROM and JW Komandosów were deployed to Kandahar (after earlier successful tours of Iraq operating alongside US Navy SEALs) under direct US Command. They weren't restricted by any national caveats-the only restriction placed on them was regarding cross-border operations into Pakistan. Along with Direct Action successes, they were considered very effective in training and mentoring Afghan National Police units.", "Candidates applying to serve in JW GROM have to pass psychological and durability tests, along with the so-called truth test, a physically and psychologically exhausting field test designed to filter out the weaker applicants. GROM soldiers train with the best special operation units in the world. The training of GROM soldiers includes a variety of disciplines. All of them undergo the same specialized training in anti-terrorism and special operations, as well as frogman, sniping, and parachuting. In four-man teams, each soldier must be prepared to assume the respective responsibilities of his colleagues, should it become necessary. JW GROM receives basic special operations training from the Swedish Navy's Special Command for Tactical Operations based in Karlskrona, Sweden's primary Naval Base. Approximately 75% of GROM personnel are trained as medics or paramedics. In addition, each group is supported by several professional physicians. GROM soldiers are trained in capture or kill methods.", "Command and support staff in Warsaw", "Most of unit's operations remain classified, the known ones are listed below." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Formula One career.", "Sauber (2002, 2004–2005).", "Ferrari (2006–2013).", "2006.", "2007.", "2008.", "2009.", "2010.", "2011.", "2012.", "2013.", "Williams (2014–2017).", "2014.", "2015.", "2016.", "2017.", "Formula E.", "Racing record.", "Career summary.", "Complete Formula One results.", "Complete Formula E results.", "Personal life.", "Helmet." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Massa was born in São Paulo and grew up in Botucatu, in the interior of the state of São Paulo. He is of Italian descent. His grandparents come from the town of Cerignola, in the province of Foggia, Italy. He began karting when he was 8 years old, finishing fourth in his first season. He continued in national and international championships for 7 years, and in 1998 moved into Formula Chevrolet,", "", "In his rookie year in Formula 1, Massa was paired with 1999 International Formula 3000 champion Nick Heidfeld. He proved he was a competitive driver, but made several mistakes, including spinning off the track several times. Nevertheless, Massa scored 4 championship points in his first season, his best result a 5th place at the at the Circuit de Catalunya. He suffered a one race suspension late in the season, forcing him to miss the. Heinz-Harald Frentzen, Sauber's former driver, drove for Massa in his place. Massa returned", "", "Massa started well at Ferrari, qualifying second at the opening race in Bahrain, and coming from 21st position to 5th in Malaysia, beating teammate Michael Schumacher, who had started from 14th. In Bahrain, however, in both Saturday practice and the race, Massa resumed his tendency to spin, narrowly missing Fernando Alonso, the eventual winner of the race. At the Australian GP he crashed his Ferrari in qualifying, then collided with Christian Klien and Nico Rosberg at the first corner of the race. Nevertheless, Massa", "Massa topped the time sheets on five occasions and set the fastest lap for four circuits during the pre-season testing. However, his 2007 season began with problems. At the season opening, he suffered a gearbox problem during qualifying and required an engine change. Massa started the race from 22nd position due to these problems and a 10-grid-slot penalty for the engine change. He employed a one pitstop strategy for the race and finished in sixth place. Massa's problems continued in Malaysia, where despite qualifying on pole position, the McLarens of Fernando Alonso and Lewis Hamilton overtook him at turn one.", "Massa endured a terrible first race weekend of his third year at Ferrari. The team, surprisingly, looked off the pace as Massa qualified fourth and his race was even less successful, spinning off at the first corner of the first lap, on lap 26 he collided with David Coulthard and eventually retired due to engine failure. Things brightened up in Malaysia as he qualified on pole, half a second clear of Räikkönen in P2, but the race itself did not go as well. Massa led from pole in the first 16 laps but was jumped by Räikkönen in the pitstops. He was still in contention for the victory battle and was chasing Räikkönen until he spun off on lap 31 while in second and retired. After these two races people began to speculate that Massa had returned to his mistake-prone ways of when he first entered F1, and that he could not handle F1 cars without the help of traction control (which had been outlawed from the start of the 2008 season), but the next race put those thoughts on hold. Massa went into the (where he won in ) with no points. He dominated the weekend, but Robert Kubica beat him to pole in qualifying. In the start, Massa beat Kubica even before the first corner. Räikkönen soon got up to second but he could not do a repeat of Malaysia. Massa was quicker and easily won by 3 seconds to open up his account. In Spain, Massa qualified third behind Räikkönen and Fernando Alonso. He passed Alonso at the start and got up to second behind Räikkönen. He stayed on his teammate's shadow for the whole race, but there was no way he could pass or get ahead in the stops. He had to settle for second. Massa took pole position at the next round at Turkey. He led from the start, and maintained the lead during the round of pitsops, but was passed by Lewis Hamilton's three-stopping McLaren at the start of the second stint. Hamilton pulled away, but he did not have the pace to take the lead that was needed to make his third stop and still come out ahead of Massa.", "Felipe Massa gave Ferrari's 2009 challenger – the F60 – its shakedown test at Mugello on 12 January 2009. Ferrari confirmed that it would equip the F60 with KERS several days before the season opening. Friday practice session did not begin so well for Massa as he recorded the 7th and 10th fastest times. Saturday qualifying fared little better as he lined up 7th (although was promoted to 6th as Glock's Toyota was disqualified). In the race the Ferrari's poor ability to handle its tyres lead to their aggressive race strategy of super soft/medium/medium compounds paying little dividends after the first 6 laps (where the Ferraris moved to the front of the pack). Although Massa managed to stay in the top 3 for the first half of the race, the exceptionally quick graining of the super soft tyres forced him into a 3 stop strategy. Before he was able to complete the race a mechanical problem forced him to retire. In Malaysia, an error of judgement by Ferrari meant that Massa failed to make it through the first session of qualifying. In an interview to Rede Globo, Massa revealed that he and the team believed that his initial time was quick enough to proceed into Q2, and", "Massa started the season with a second-place qualifying place, and a second-place finish in Bahrain behind teammate Fernando Alonso, despite having to save fuel in the last 22 laps. At the, Massa was appointed a director of the Grand Prix Drivers' Association. Massa qualified fifth for the race, which was marked by changeable weather conditions and ten non-finishers. He finished third, largely managing to steer clear of the chaos. After the race, Massa commented cheerfully that it had been an unusually good start to the season for him. Third was his", "Massa remained with Scuderia Ferrari in, and again was partnered with Fernando Alonso. He drove his new car – the Ferrari 150o Italia – for the first time on 29 January 2011, undertaking a shakedown of the car at the Fiorano Circuit. At the, Massa endured a poor start to the season at what has traditionally been his bogey race. Qualifying eighth, over 0.6 seconds behind teammate Alonso, Massa managed to get ahead of Alonso and several other drivers at the start and ran in fifth place for a while, much to the frustration of Jenson Button, who had a much quicker car", "Despite his disappointing 2011, Massa remained with Ferrari for 2012. At the, Massa qualified 16th – a second behind teammate Alonso, who qualified twelfth – for his worst qualifying result since the 2010 Singapore Grand Prix, and the first time he qualified outside the top ten since the 2010 Japanese Grand Prix. Massa gained six places on the first lap, running as high as eighth in the early stages of the race, but suffered badly from tyre degradation and fell down the order before retiring from the race after a collision with Williams driver Bruno Senna; both drivers later agreed that it was a racing incident. In the, Massa qualified 12th and finished 15th, 1-minute 37", "Massa started his season strongly with the new F138 at the. He qualified fourth, one place ahead of teammate Alonso. He was able to stay very competitive, especially during the early laps of the race but finished the race in fourth place, two places behind Alonso. At the following race in Malaysia, Massa started on the front row of the grid, out-qualifying Alonso for the fourth time in a row. Massa had a poor start and bad first stint on the intermediate tyres resulting him falling down the order, but as the track dried out, he recovered places on the slick tyres and finished fifth. Three weeks later at the Chinese Grand Prix Massa qualified fifth, beaten by his teammate, who qualified third, for the first time in 5 races. In the race Massa got up to second place before the first round of pitstops, but he pitted a lap later than the other leaders, so he fell back down the order, so despite the early pace that he showed, only managed to finish sixth. At the next race in Bahrain, Massa qualified 6th but moved up to 4th alongside his teammate due to penalties for Webber and Hamilton. Massa was the only car in Q3 to qualify on the hard tyres indicating he was on a different strategy. In the race, the strategy gamble did not pay off as he did not run as far as he wanted and needed before the first stop. Along with two punctures in the race, this resulted in Massa finishing 15th. In Spain, Massa received a three-place grid penalty for blocking Mark Webber in qualifying, and started 9th. He made an excellent start, coming up to 6th, and then leapfrogged more cars during the pitstops, eventually finishing 3rd. His first podium of the year", "", "On 11 November 2013, Williams announced that Massa would partner Valtteri Bottas for the season replacing Pastor Maldonado. He suffered an unlucky start to his campaign in Australia, when he retired after being hit hard by Kamui Kobayashi's Caterham. The string of bad luck continued in Malaysia after a team orders debacle, being caught out by the safety car in Bahrain, a botched pitstop in China and a collision with Sergio Pérez in Canada. However, at the, he took his first pole position since the 2008 Brazilian Grand Prix and finished fourth. But the next two races, in Britain and", "Massa's season started strongly, with a fourth-place finish in Australia. After some further strong results in Malaysia and China, Massa had troubles in the next stage of the season. He suffered from mechanical issues both on the grid in Bahrain and in qualifying in Canada, meaning he had to fight from towards the back on each occasion, albeit eventually finishing both races in the points. In Austria, Massa took his first podium of the year, a third-place finish, taking advantage of a delayed pitstop for Vettel. It was the fortieth podium of his career. Massa qualified third for the but started well and jumped to first leading", "The season started well for Massa; after qualifying in a solid sixth place for the first race of the season in Australia, he drove a lonely race to finish fifth, collecting 10 points. In the second round of the season, in Bahrain, Massa qualified in seventh, 0.002 seconds behind his teammate. After an excellent start, Massa climbed up to second until the first round of pit stops, which saw Williams followed a conservative 2-stop strategy, using the medium compound. The strategy did not work out, and Massa finished the race in eighth, after being overtaken on the last lap by Red Bull Racing driver Daniil Kvyat. The next round, the 2016 Chinese Grand Prix, saw Massa qualifying a disappointing eleventh, after a red flag prevented Massa from having a final run in Q2. In the race, Massa followed a two stop strategy, which helped him finish in a solid sixth place, after a long fight with Lewis Hamilton. Round 4, the Russian Grand Prix, saw Massa qualifying in fifth place, but he was promoted to fourth after Scuderia Ferrari driver Sebastian Vettel was given a five-place grid penalty after changing his gearbox. In the race, Massa stayed out of trouble on the first lap, and drove a quiet race to finish a solid fifth. At round 5 of the season, the Spanish Grand Prix,", "On 16 January 2017, Massa rejoined Williams after Valtteri Bottas signed with Mercedes. In the first race of the season, the Australian Grand Prix, Massa qualified in seventh and finished in sixth. In China, he qualified in sixth. In the race, he struggled with the changing conditions to finish in 14th. Next, in Bahrain, Massa qualified in eighth and finished a strong sixth. In Russia, he qualified in sixth. In the race, he suffered 2 punctures and finished in ninth. Moving on to Spain, Massa qualified in ninth. In the race, he made a good start but made contact with McLaren driver Fernando Alonso and suffered a puncture. As a result, he finished out of the points, in 13th. In Monaco, Massa qualified only in 15th, as he was caught by yellow flags caused by Stoffel Vandoorne. In the race, he kept out of trouble to finish in ninth, collecting 2 points. In Montreal, Massa qualified a solid 7th. His race was short lived, as he was taken out by a spinning Carlos Sainz Jr. at turn 3. Two weeks later in Azerbaijan, Massa qualified in 9th behind his teammate Lance Stroll for the first time that season and ahead of the eventual race winner Daniel Ricciardo. In the race, Massa had a good start, avoiding the turn 2", "In April 2018 it was announced that Massa would be taking part", "", "As Massa was a", "Driver failed to finish the race, but was", "Did not finish, but was classified as", "Felipe Massa married Anna Raffaela Bassi on 30 November 2007, in São Paulo, Brazil. The couple's first son, Felipinho (Bassi Massa), was born on 30 November 2009. Massa is a friend of Swiss watchmaker Richard Mille, who has dedicated several models of his watches to him (RM-005FM, RM-011). Nicolas Todt, son of Ferrari's past team principal and current FIA president Jean Todt, is Massa's manager. Though Massa supports Brazilian football team São Paulo FC, he also supports the Turkish football team Fenerbahçe that was formerly coached by Zico. On 24 August 2007, Massa said: \"Zico was my childhood idol, Roberto Carlos is my best friend. I am a Fenerbahçe fan, because it is just like a Brazilian team.", "Massa's helmet was blue with a fluorescent yellow X on the sides and a yellow triangle that covers the upper helmet with the top section coloured with a green gradient (prior to F1, this section was blue), in Ferrari early years until 2010, Massa's helmet featured also a white ring surrounding the top. In 2008 the tips of the fluoro yellow X were more ramified. In 2011 on the yellow triangle covered the entire upper front with 2 blue lines in the sides. For his 100th race with Ferrari at the 2011 Brazilian Grand Prix, Massa sported a chrome and gold prancing horse on the top with a further 100 horses representing the races Massa contested with Ferrari. The design also featured gold, blue and green spreading out over the helmet." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Design.", "Deployment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Initially, the Type 11 Light Machine Gun was modified by the Army Technical Bureau for use in tanks and other armored vehicles, and was produced for this application under the designation \"Type 91 Mobile Machine Gun\". However, the basic design issues with the Type 11 remained, including its tendency to jam because of the slightest amount of grit or dirt, and the low lethality and lack of stopping power of its 6.5x50mm Arisaka cartridges. During the early stages of the Second Sino-Japanese War, Japanese forces captured a number of Czech ZB vz/26 light machine guns from China’s National Revolutionary Army; its numerous design advantages led to the development of the Type 97. This was used in a modified form for armored vehicles until 1940, when the Japanese Army switched to a rimless 7.7 mm cartridge.", "The Type 97 was mechanically similar to the Czech ZB vz. 26, with a different stock and pistol grip. It had a straight, vertical, 20-round box magazine and used the same 7.7 mm cartridges used in the Type 99 rifle. The gun barrel could easily overheat, which meant the gunner had to fire in bursts, or the barrel would be shot out. When fitted in a tank, a fixed focus 1.5x telescopic sight with a 30° field of view was used. To prevent injury to the gunner, a rubber eye pad was attached to the rear of the sight. When used as an infantry weapon, a bipod was employed. Without the bipod, it weighed.", "The Type 97 came into service in 1937, and was used on all Japanese tanks and other armored vehicles until the end of the war. The Imperial Japanese Navy also used the weapon in their combat vehicles such as the Type 92 Jyu-Sokosha Heavy Armored Car (tankette). It was much less common as a stand-alone infantry gun due to its weight. As a result of this weight problem, the similar looking but different internally Type 99 light machine gun was developed in the same caliber and deployed instead. It was used by Communist forces during the Korean War." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development and production.", "Origins.", "Initial production.", "Manufacturing at Castle Bromwich, Birmingham.", "Production dispersal.", "Flight testing.", "Design.", "Airframe.", "Elliptical wing design.", "Improved late wing designs.", "Carburetion versus fuel injection.", "Armament.", "Operational history.", "Service operations.", "Speed and altitude records.", "Variants.", "Overview.", "Seafire.", "Griffon-engined variants.", "Surviving aircraft.", "Search for reported surviving Spitfires in Burma.", "Restorations and replicas.", "Notable appearances in media.", "Specifications (Spitfire Mk VB)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In 1931 the Air Ministry released specification F7/30, calling for a modern fighter capable of a flying speed of. R. J. Mitchell designed the Supermarine Type 224 to fill this role. The 224 was an open-cockpit monoplane with bulky gull-wings and a large, fixed, spatted undercarriage powered by the, evaporatively cooled Rolls-Royce Goshawk engine. It made its first flight in February 1934. Of the seven designs tendered to F7/30, the Gloster Gladiator biplane was accepted for service. The Type 224 was a big disappointment to Mitchell and his", "The British public first saw the Spitfire at the RAF Hendon air display on Saturday 27 June 1936. Although full-scale production was supposed to begin immediately, numerous problems could not be overcome for some time, and the first production Spitfire, \"K9787\", did not roll off the Woolston, Southampton assembly line until mid-1938. In February 1936 the director of Vickers-Armstrong, Sir Robert MacLean guaranteed production of five aircraft a week, beginning 15 months after an order was placed. On 3 June 1936, the Air Ministry placed an order for 310 aircraft, at a cost of £1,395,000. Full-scale production of the Spitfire began at Supermarine's facility in Woolston, but the order clearly could not be completed in the 15 months promised. Supermarine was a small company, already busy building Walrus and Stranraer flying boats, and Vickers was busy building Wellington bombers. The initial solution was to subcontract the work. Although", "In 1935, the Air Ministry approached Morris Motors Limited to ask how quickly their Cowley plant could be turned to aircraft production. In 1936, this informal request for major manufacturing facilities was replaced by a formal scheme, known as the shadow factory plan, to boost British aircraft production capacity under the leadership of Herbert Austin. He was given the task of building nine new factories, and to supplement the British car manufacturing industry by either adding to overall capacity or increasing the potential for reorganisation to produce aircraft and their engines. In 1938, construction began on the Castle Bromwich Aircraft Factory (CBAF), next to the aerodrome, and the installation of the most modern machine tools then available began two months after work started on the site. Although Morris Motors, under Lord Nuffield (an expert in mass motor-vehicle construction), managed and equipped the factory, it was funded by the government. By the beginning of 1939, the factory's original estimated cost of £2,000,000 had more than", "During the Battle of Britain, the Luftwaffe made concerted efforts to destroy the main manufacturing plants at Woolston and Itchen, near Southampton. The first bombing raid, which missed the factories, came on 23 August 1940. Over the next month, other raids were mounted until, on 26 September 1940, both factories were destroyed, with 92 people killed and a large number injured. Most of the casualties were experienced aircraft production workers. Fortunately for the future of the Spitfire, many of the production jigs and machine tools had already been relocated by 20 September, and steps were being taken to disperse production to small facilities throughout the Southampton area. To this end, the British government requisitioned the likes of Vincent's Garage in Station Square, Reading, which", "All production aircraft were flight tested before delivery. During the Second World War, Jeffrey Quill was Vickers Supermarine's chief test pilot, in charge of flight testing all aircraft types built by Vickers Supermarine. He oversaw a group of 10 to 12 pilots responsible for testing all developmental and production Spitfires built by the company in the Southampton area. Quill devised the standard testing procedures, which with variations for specific aircraft designs operated from 1938. Alex Henshaw, chief test pilot at Castle Bromwich from 1940, was placed in charge of testing all Spitfires built at that factory. He co-ordinated a team of 25 pilots and assessed all Spitfire developments. Between 1940 and 1946, Henshaw flew a total of 2,360 Spitfires and Seafires, more than 10% of total production. Henshaw wrote about flight testing Spitfires: After a thorough preflight check, I would take off and, once at circuit height, I would trim the aircraft and try to get her to fly straight and level with hands off the stick... Once the trim was satisfactory, I would take the Spitfire up in a full-throttle climb at 2,850 rpm to the rated altitude of one or both supercharger blowers. Then I would", "", "In the mid-1930s, aviation design teams worldwide began developing a new generation of fighter aircraft. The French Dewoitine D.520 and the German Messerschmitt Bf 109, for example, were designed to take advantage of new techniques of monocoque construction, and the availability of new, high-powered, liquid-cooled, in-line aero engines. They also featured refinements such as retractable undercarriages, fully enclosed cockpits, and low-drag, all-metal wings. These advances had been introduced on civil airliners years before, but were slow to be adopted by the military, who favoured the biplane's simplicity and manoeuvrability. Mitchell's design aims were to create a well-balanced, high-performance fighter aircraft capable of fully exploiting", "In 1934, Mitchell and the design staff decided to use a semi-elliptical wing shape to solve two conflicting requirements; the wing needed to be thin to avoid creating too much drag, but it had to be thick enough to house the retractable undercarriage, armament, and ammunition. An elliptical planform is the most efficient aerodynamic shape for an untwisted wing, leading to the lowest amount of induced drag. The ellipse was skewed so that the centre of pressure, which occurs at the quarter-chord position, aligned with the main spar, preventing the wings from twisting. Mitchell has sometimes been accused of copying the wing shape of the Heinkel He 70, which first flew in 1932, but as Beverley Shenstone, the aerodynamicist on Mitchell's team, explained: \"Our wing was much thinner and had quite a different section to that of the Heinkel. In any case, it would have been simply asking for trouble to have copied a wing shape from an aircraft designed for an entirely different purpose.\" The wing section used was from the NACA 2200 series, which had been adapted to create a thickness-to-chord", "As the Spitfire gained more power and was able to manoeuvre at higher speeds, the possibility that pilots would encounter aileron reversal increased, and the Supermarine design team set about redesigning the wings to counter this. The original wing design had a \"theoretical\" aileron reversal speed of, which was somewhat lower than that of some contemporary fighters. The Royal Aircraft Establishment noted that, at indicated airspeed, roughly 65% of aileron effectiveness was lost due to wing twist. The new wing of the Spitfire F Mk 21 and its successors was designed to help alleviate this problem. Its stiffness was increased by 47%, and a new aileron design using piano hinges and geared", "Early in its development, the Merlin engine's lack of fuel injection meant that Spitfires and Hurricanes, unlike the Bf 109E, were unable to simply nose down into a steep dive. This meant a Luftwaffe fighter could simply \"bunt\" into a high-power dive to escape an attack, leaving the Spitfire behind, as its fuel was forced out of the carburettor by negative \"g\". RAF fighter pilots soon learned to \"half-roll\" their aircraft before diving to pursue their opponents. Sir Stanley Hooker", "Due to a shortage of Brownings, which had been selected as the new standard rifle calibre machine gun for the RAF in 1934, early Spitfires were fitted with only four guns, with the other four fitted later. Early tests showed that, while the guns worked perfectly on the ground and at low altitudes, they tended to freeze at high altitude, especially the outer wing guns, because the RAF's Brownings had been modified to fire from an open bolt. While this prevented overheating of the cordite used in British ammunition, it allowed cold air to", "", "The operational history of the Spitfire with the RAF began with the first Mk Is \"K9789\", which entered service with 19 Squadron at RAF Duxford on 4 August 1938. The Spitfire achieved legendary status during the Battle of Britain, a reputation aided by the \"Spitfire Fund\" organised and run by Lord Beaverbrook, the Minister of Aircraft Production. In fact, the Hurricane outnumbered the Spitfire throughout the battle, and shouldered the burden of the defence against the Luftwaffe; however, because of its higher performance, the overall attrition rate of the Spitfire squadrons was lower than that of the Hurricane units, and the Spitfire units had a higher victory-to-loss ratio. The key aim of Fighter Command was to stop the Luftwaffe's bombers; in practice, whenever possible, the tactic was to use Spitfires to counter German escort fighters, by then based in northern France, particularly the Bf", "Beginning in late 1943, high-speed diving trials were undertaken at Farnborough to investigate the handling characteristics of aircraft travelling at speeds near the sound barrier (i.e., the onset of compressibility effects). Because it had the highest limiting Mach number of any aircraft at that time, a Spitfire XI was chosen to take part in these trials. Due to the high altitudes necessary for these dives, a fully feathering Rotol propeller was fitted to prevent overspeeding. During these trials, \"EN409\", flown by Squadron Leader J. R. Tobin, reached (Mach 0.891) in a 45° dive. In April 1944, the same aircraft suffered engine failure in another dive while being flown by Squadron Leader Anthony F. Martindale, Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve, when the propeller and reduction gear broke off. The dive put the aircraft to Mach 0.92, the fastest ever recorded in a piston-engined aircraft, but when the propeller came off, the Spitfire, now tail-heavy, zoom-climbed back to altitude. Martindale blacked out under the 11 g loading, but when he resumed consciousness, he found the aircraft at about 40,000 feet with its (originally straight)", "", "Although R. J. Mitchell is justifiably known as the engineer who designed the Spitfire, his premature death in 1937 meant that all development after that date was undertaken by a team led by his chief draughtsman, Joe Smith, who became Supermarine's chief designer on Mitchell's death. As Jeffrey Quill noted: \"If Mitchell was born to design the Spitfire, Joe Smith was born to defend and develop it.\" There were 24 marks of Spitfire and many sub-variants. These covered the Spitfire in development", "The Seafire, a name derived from \"sea\", and \"Spitfire\", was a naval version of the Spitfire specially adapted for operation from aircraft carriers. Although the Spitfire was not designed for the rough-and-tumble of carrier-deck operations, it was considered the best available fighter at the time. The basic Spitfire design did impose some limitations on the use of the aircraft as a carrier-based fighter; poor visibility over the nose, for example, meant that pilots had to be trained to land with their heads out of the cockpit and looking along the port cowling of their Seafire. Like the", "The first Rolls-Royce Griffon-engined Mk XII flew in August 1942, and first flew operationally with 41 Squadron in April 1943. This mark could nudge in level flight and climb to an altitude of in under nine minutes. As American fighters took over the long-range escorting of United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) daylight bombing raids, the Griffon-engined Spitfires progressively took up the tactical air superiority role, and played a major role in intercepting V-1 flying bombs, while the Merlin-engined variants (mainly the Mk IX and the Packard-engined Mk XVI) were adapted to the fighter-bomber role. Although the later Griffon-engined marks lost some of", "There are 54 Spitfires and a few Seafires in airworthy condition worldwide, although many air museums have examples on static display, for example, Chicago's Museum of Science and Industry has paired a static Spitfire with a static Ju 87 R-2/Trop. Stuka dive bomber. The oldest surviving Spitfire is a Mark 1, serial number \"K9942\"; it is preserved at the Royal Air Force Museum Cosford in Shropshire. This aircraft was the 155th built and first flew in April 1939. It flew operationally with No. 72 Squadron RAF until June 1940, when it was damaged in a wheels-up landing. After repair, it was used for training until August 1944, when it became one of several Battle of Britain aircraft veterans that were allocated to the Air Historical Branch for future museum preservation. What may be the most originally restored Spitfire in the world is maintained at Fantasy of Flight in Polk City, Florida. Over a six-year period in the 1990s, this aircraft was slowly restored by Personal Plane Services in England using almost 90% of its original aircraft skins. Owner Kermit Weeks insisted that the aircraft be restored as closely as possible to its original condition. Machine guns, cannon, gun sight and original working radios are all installed. Two MK 1 Supermarine Spitfires, originally restored by the Aircraft Restoration Company, remain in flying condition at the Imperial War Museum Duxford, in Cambridgeshire, England. Both restored by American billionaire Thomas Kaplan, one has been donated to the Imperial War Museum and the second was auctioned in July 2015 at Christie's, London. It is one of only four flying MK 1 Spitfires in the world. The aircraft fetched a record £3.1 million at auction on 9 July, beating the previous record for a Spitfire of £1.7 million set in 2009. One Spitfire is kept in airworthy condition in the Israeli Air Force Museum.", "After hostilities ceased in Asia in 1945, a number of Spitfire Mk.XIVs were reportedly buried, after being greased, tarred and prepared for long-term storage, in crates in Burma. Excavations carried out at Yangon International Airport (formerly RAF Mingaladon) in", "British company Historic Flying Limited has either restored or built from scratch a significant proportion of the Spitfires that are now airworthy. Several other manufacturers have produced replica Spitfires, either as complete aircraft or as kits for self-building. These range in scale from 60% scale to full-size, and most use wooden construction rather than the original all-metal monocoque design. These include the Jurca Spit", "During and after the Battle of Britain, the Spitfire became a symbol of British resistance: for example, Lord Beaverbrook's \"Spitfire Fund\" of 1940 was one campaign which drew widespread public attention to the Spitfire. The Spitfire", "The Spitfire's performance improved greatly as WWII progressed, for more information see." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology and translations.", "History.", "Construction.", "Decoration and symbolism.", "In Central Asia.", "Buddhist symbolism in the Mongolian Gers.", "Western yurts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Yurt\" is from a Turkic word referring to the imprint left in the ground by a yurt, and sometimes to a person's homeland or kinsmen. The word came to be used in reference to the physical tent-like dwellings only in other languages. In modern Turkish, the word \"yurt\" is used as the synonym of \"homeland\" or a \"dormitory\". In Russian, the structure is called \"yurta\" (юрта), whence the word came into English.", "Yurts have been a distinctive feature of life in Central Asia for at least three thousand years. It is suggested that the Indo-European nomads (mostly Slavic and Indo-Iranians) were the first that used yurts and similar tents in Central Asia and parts of Russia and Ukraine. The first written description of a yurt used as a dwelling was recorded by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus. He described yurt-like tents as the dwelling place of the Scythians, a horse riding-nomadic nation who lived in the northern Black Sea and Central Asian region from around 600 BC to AD 300.", "Traditional yurts consist of an expanding wooden circular frame carrying a felt cover. The felt is made from the wool of the flocks of sheep that accompany the pastoralists. The timber to make the external structure is not to be found on the treeless steppes, and must be obtained by trade in the valleys below. The frame consists of one or more expanding lattice wall-sections, a door-frame, bent roof poles and a crown. The Mongolian Ger has one or more columns to support the crown and straight roof poles. The (self-supporting) wood frame is covered with pieces of felt. Depending on availability, felt is additionally covered with canvas and/or sun-covers. The frame is held together with one or more ropes or ribbons. The structure is kept under compression by the weight of the covers, sometimes supplemented by a heavy weight hung from the center of the roof. They vary with different sizes, and relative weight. They provide a surprisingly large amount of insulation and protection from the outside cold of winters, and they are easily changed to keep the yurts cool for summertime. A yurt is designed to be dismantled and the parts carried compactly on camels or yaks to be rebuilt on another site. Complete construction takes around 2 hours.", "The traditional decoration within a yurt is primarily pattern-based. These patterns are generally not according to taste, but are derived from sacred ornaments with certain symbolism. Symbols representing strength are among the most common, including the khas (swastika) and four powerful beasts (lion, tiger, garuda, and dragon), as well as stylized representations of the five elements (fire, water, earth, metal, and wood), considered to be the fundamental, unchanging elements of the cosmos. Such patterns are commonly used in the home with the belief that they will bring strength and offer protection. Repeating geometric patterns are also widely used. The most widespread geometric pattern is the continuous hammer or walking pattern (alkhan khee). Commonly used as a border decoration, it represents unending strength and constant movement. Another common pattern is the ulzii, a symbol of long life and happiness. The khamar ugalz (nose pattern) and ever ugalz (horn pattern) are derived from the shape of the animal's nose and horns, and are the oldest traditional patterns. All patterns can be found among not only the yurts themselves, but also on embroidery, furniture, books, clothing, doors, and other objects.", "The \"shangyrak\" or wooden crown of the yurt (, ; ; ; ) is itself emblematic in many Central Asian cultures. In old Kazakh communities, the yurt itself would often be repaired and rebuilt, but the shangyrak would remain intact, passed from father to son upon the father's death. A family's length of heritage could be measured by the accumulation of stains on the shangrak from decades of smoke passing through it. A stylized version of the crown is in the center of the coat of arms of Kazakhstan, and forms the main image on the flag of Kyrgyzstan. Today the yurt is seen as a nationalistic symbol among many Central Asian groups, and as such, yurts may be used as cafés (especially those specialising in traditional food), museums (especially relating to national culture), and souvenir shops. In celebration of the city of Mary's year as Cultural Capital of the Turkic World, the government of Turkmenistan constructed a yurt-shaped structure, called Ak Öýi (White Building) and described as \"The World's Largest Yurt\", of concrete, granite, aluminum, and glass. Dedicated on November 27, 2015, the structure is 35 meters high and 70 meters in diameter. According to the Turkmenistan state news agency, \"A white yurt is a symbol of an age-old, distinctive historical-cultural legacy, a sign of preservation of our roots and origins.\" This three-story structure includes a café, offices, and VIP apartments as well as a large auditorium with 3,000 seats.", "The design of the Mongolian Ger developed from its ancient simple forms to actively integrate with Buddhist culture. The crown—toono adopted the shape of Dharmachakra. The earlier style of toono, nowadays more readily found in Central Asian yurts, is called in Mongolia \"sarkhinag toono\" while the toono representing Buddhist dharmachakra is called \"khorlo\" (Tibetan འཀོར་ལོ།) toono. Also the shapes, colors and ornaments of the wooden elements—toono, pillars and poles of the Mongolian yurt are in accord with the artistic style found in Buddhist monasteries of Mongolia. Such yurts are called \"uyangiin ger\", literally meaning \"home of lyrics\" or \"home of melodies\".", "Enthusiasts in other countries have adapted the visual idea of the yurt, a round, semi-permanent tent. Although those structures may be copied to some extent from the originals found in Central Asia, they often have some different features in their design to adapt them to different climate and use. In Canada and the United States, yurts are made using hi-tech materials. They are highly engineered and built for extreme weather conditions. In addition, erecting one can take days and they are not intended to be moved often. These North American yurts are better named yurt derivations, as they are no longer round felt homes that are easy to mount, dismount and transport. North American yurts and yurt derivations were pioneered by William Coperthwaite in the 1960s, after he was inspired to build them by a National Geographic article about Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas's visit to Mongolia. In 1978, American company, Pacific Yurts, became the first to manufacture yurts using architectural fabrics and structural engineering, paving the way for yurts to become popular attractions at ski resorts and campgrounds. Yurts are also popular in Northern Canada. In 1993, Oregon became the first state to incorporate yurts into its Parks Department as year round camping facilities. Since then, at least 17 other US States have introduced yurt camping into their own parks departments. In Europe, a closer approximation to the Mongolian and Central Asian yurt is in production in several countries. These tents use local hardwood, and often are adapted for a wetter climate with steeper roof profiles and waterproof canvas. In essence they are yurts, but some lack the felt cover and ornate features across the exterior that is present in traditional yurt. There are UK-made yurts that feature a metal frame in use in at least two glamping sites in Somerset and Dorset. The palloza is a traditional building found in the Serra dos Ancares in Galicia (NW Spain). Pallozas have stone walls and a conical roof made of stalks of rye. Different groups and individuals use yurts for a variety of purposes, from full-time housing to school rooms. In some provincial parks in Canada, and state parks in several US states, permanent yurts are available for camping." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Origins.", "Further development.", "Assessment.", "Operational history.", "Wartime service.", "Post war service.", "Survivors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Admiralty first showed an interest in the idea of a carrier-borne Spitfire in May 1938 when, during a meeting with Richard Fairey (of Fairey Aviation), Fairey proposed that his company could design and build such an aircraft. The idea met with a negative response and the matter was dropped. As a result, the Fleet Air Arm (FAA), at that point still part of the Royal Air Force, was forced into having to order Blackburn Rocs and Gloster Sea Gladiators, both of which proved to be woefully inadequate in the circumstances in which they were subsequently used. Upon the outbreak of the Second World War, many of the aircraft operated by the FAA had been designed on the assumption that, Germany possessing no aircraft carriers, overall performance was to be of a secondary nature compared to the other duties required, such as observation and spotting, but, by 1941, these aircraft had become obsolete in comparison to the German and Italian land-based fighters they were occasionally required to operate against; thus, the need for more capable aircraft was readily apparent. As the Hawker Hurricane had quickly proven to be adaptable to carrier-based operations, there was considerable interest in navalising the Spitfire as well. The matter of a seaborne Spitfire was raised again in November 1939 when the Air Ministry allowed a Commander Ermen to fly a Spitfire I. After his first flight in \"R6718\", Ermen soon learned that Joseph Smith, Chief Designer at Supermarine, had been instructed to fit an \"A-frame\" arrestor hook on a Spitfire and that this had flown on 16 October; a drawing of this aircraft had been shown to the FAA on 27 October. After further discussions, Supermarine submitted a drawing of a Spitfire with folding wings and an arrestor hook. In this case, the wings had been designed with a fold just outboard of the undercarriage bays; as such, the outer wings would have swivelled and folded backwards to face parallel with the fuselage. On 29 February 1940, the Admiralty requested that the Air Ministry formally sanction the production of 50 folding-wing Spitfires, the first of which was to be delivered in July that year. For various reasons, Winston Churchill, who was First Lord of the Admiralty, cancelled the order, writing to Lord Beaverbrook: \"I regard it as of very great importance that the production of Fulmars should be kept going\". At a time of considerable demand for land-based Spitfires, due to the Fall of France and the subsequent Battle of Britain, the diversion of resources to facilitate the development and manufacture of a naval variant would have naturally reduced Spitfire production. To partially cover the gap until the Fulmar's replacement (Specification N.5/40 – which would be the Fairey Firefly) was able to enter service, it was decided to instead order a number of Grumman Wildcats from America to equip the FAA. These aircraft would enter service towards the end of 1940 as the \"Martlet\". During late 1941 and early 1942, the Admiralty again assessed the Spitfire for possible conversion. In late 1941, a total of 48 Spitfire Mk Vb were converted by Air Training Service Ltd. at Hamble to become \"hooked Spitfires\". This was the Seafire Mk Ib and would be the first of several Seafire variants to reach the Fleet Air Arm. This version of the Seafire was mainly used to allow the Royal Navy to gain experience in operating the Spitfire on aircraft carriers. The main structural change was made to the lower rear fuselage which incorporated an A-frame style arrestor hook and strengthened lower longerons. It was soon discovered that the fuselage, especially around hatches, was too weak for carrier operations. In an attempt to alleviate this condition, reinforcing strips were riveted around hatch openings and along the main fuselage longerons. A further 118 Seafire Mk Ibs incorporating the fuselage reinforcements were modified from Spitfire Vbs by Cunliffe-Owen at Eastleigh and Air Training Service. These aircraft were equipped with Naval HF radio equipment and IFF equipment as well as a Type 72 homing beacon. In these and all subsequent Seafires the instruments were re-calibrated to read kn and nmi rather than mph and mi. The fixed armament was the same as that of the Spitfire Vb; two 20 mm (.79 in) Hispano Mk II cannon with 60 rpg fed from a \"drum\" magazine and four.303 in (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns with 350 rpg. Provision was also made to carry a 30 gal (136 l) \"slipper\" fuel tank under the fuselage. In June 1942, the first deliveries of the Seafire took place to 807 Squadron. Another front line unit, 801 Squadron operated this version on board from October 1942 through to September 1944.", "The second semi-naval variant of the Seafire and the first to be built as such, was the Seafire F Mk IIc which was based on the Spitfire Vc. The Vc had several refinements over the Spitfire Vb. Apart from the modifications included in the main batch of Seafire Ibs this version incorporated catapult spools, and a single slinging lug on either side of the fuselage, just behind the engine bulkhead. Three subtypes were produced, the F Mk IIc and FR Mk IIc (fighter reconnaissance), powered by a Merlin 46, and the L Mk IIc powered by a low altitude Merlin 32 specifically manufactured for naval use. This version of the Merlin used a \"cropped\" supercharger impellor to provide greater power at low altitudes than the standard engines; delivering 1,585 hp (1,182 kW) at 2,750 ft (838 m). Both engine models drove a four bladed 10 ft 9 in (3.28 m) diameter Rotol propeller. Because this version used the \"C\" wing the Hispano cannon were fed from a 120-round belt magazine, otherwise the armament was the same as that of the Ib; the FR also carried two F24 cameras. After trials of \"Rocket Assisted Take Off Gear\" (RATOG) apparatus (small solid-fuel rocket motors which could be attached to the fuselage or wings of aircraft to help shorten the take-off run) in February 1943, this equipment became a standard fitting available for all Seafires. However, many FAA pilots rarely used RATOG, in part as there was little need for it, and due to the risks posed by an instance of asymmetric ignition. The IIc model was the first of the Seafires to be deployed operationally in large numbers, Supermarine constructed 262 of this model and a further 110 being built by Westland, who also built 30 Seafire Mk III (Hybrid) (Mk IIIs without folding wings). Although developed for aircraft carrier use, this version still lacked the folding wings needed to allow them to be used on board some Royal Navy carriers, some of which had small aircraft elevators unable to accommodate the full wingspan of the Seafires. The Seafire F Mk III was the first true carrier adaptation of the Spitfire design. It was developed from the Seafire Mk IIC, but incorporated manually folding wings allowing more of these aircraft to be spotted on deck or in the hangars below. Supermarine devised a system of two straight chordwise folds; a break was introduced immediately outboard of the wheel-wells from which the wing hinged upwards and slightly angled towards the fuselage. A second hinge at each wingtip join allowed the tips to fold down (when the wings were folded the wingtips were folded outwards). This version used the more powerful Merlin 55 (F Mk III and FR Mk III) or Merlin 55M (L Mk III), driving the same four-bladed propeller unit used by the IIC series; the Merlin 55M was another version of the Merlin for maximum performance at low altitude. Other modifications that were made on the Spitfire made their way to the Seafire as well including a slim \"Aero-Vee\" air filter and six-stack \"ejector type\" exhausts. The shorter barrelled, lightweight Hispano Mk V cannon were introduced during production as were overload fuel tank fittings in the wings This Mark was built in larger numbers than any other Seafire variant; of the 1,220 manufactured Westland built 870 and Cunliffe Owen 350. In 1947 12 Mk IIIs were stripped of their naval equipment by Supermarine and delivered to the Irish Air Corps. After the Mk III series, the next Seafire variant to appear was the Seafire F Mk XV, which was powered by a Griffon VI – single-stage supercharger, rated at 1,850 hp (1,379 kW) at 2,000 ft (610 m) driving a 10 ft 5 in Rotol propeller. Designed in response to Specification N.4/43 this appeared to be a naval Spitfire F Mk XII; in reality the Mk XV was an amalgamation of a strengthened Seafire III airframe and wings with the wing fuel tanks, retractable tailwheel, larger elevators and broad-chord \"pointed\" rudder of the Spitfire VIII. The engine cowling was different to that of the Spitfire XII series, being secured with a larger number of fasteners and lacking the acorn shaped blister behind the spinner. The final 30 Mk XVs were built with the blown \"teardrop\" cockpit canopy and cut down rear fuselage introduced on the Spitfire Mk XVI. On the first 50 aircraft manufactured by Cunliffe-Owen a heavier, strengthened A-frame arrestor hook was fitted to cope with the greater weight. On subsequent Mk XVs a new form of \"sting\" type arrestor hook was used; this version was attached to the reinforced rudder post at the rear of the fuselage and was housed in a fairing below the base of the shortened rudder. A vee-shaped guard forward of the tailwheel prevented arrestor wires getting tangled up with the tailwheel. 390 Seafire XVs were built by Cunliffe-Owen and Westland from late 1944. Six prototypes had been built by Supermarine. One problem which immediately surfaced was the poor deck behaviour of this mark, especially on take-off. At full power the slipstream of the propeller, which swung to the left (as opposed to the Merlin, which swung to the right), often forced the Seafire to swing to starboard, even with the rudder hard over on opposite lock. This sometimes led to a collision with the carrier's island. The undercarriage oleo legs were still the same of those of the much lighter Merlin engined Spitfires, meaning that the swing was often accompanied by a series of hops. As an interim measure it was recommended that pilots avoid using full power on take-off (+10 lb \"boost\" maximum was recommended). There were also problems involved with this swing being strongly accentuated in the event of an asymmetric firing of the RATOG equipment. In the event, none of the \"first generation\" Griffon-engine Seafires were to use RATOG at sea unless they were ranged forward of the first crash barrier on deck. The Seafire F Mk XVII was a modified Mk XV; the most important change was the reinforced main undercarriage which used longer oleos and a lower rebound ratio. This went some way towards taming the deck behaviour of the Mk XV, reduced the propensity of the propeller tips \"pecking\" the deck during an arrested landing and the softer oleos stopped the aircraft from occasionally bouncing over the arrestor wires and into the crash barrier. Most production XVIIs had the cut down rear fuselage and teardrop canopy (the windscreen was modified to a rounded section, with narrow quarter windows, rather than the flat windscreen used on Spitfires) and an extra 33 gallon fuel tank fitted in the rear fuselage. The wings were reinforced, with a stronger mainspar necessitated by the new undercarriage, and they were able to carry heavier underwing loads than previous Seafire variants. 232 of this variant were built by Westland (212) and Cunliffe-Owen(20). The Seafire F Mk 45 and FR Mk 45 was the next version of the Seafire to be built and the first to use a Griffon 60 series engine with a two-stage, two speed supercharger. The prototype \"TM379\" had been modified from a Spitfire F Mk 21 prototype by Cunliffe-Owen and featured a \"sting\" arrestor hook. Because this version was considered to be an \"interim\" type the wing, which was unchanged from that of the Spitfire 21, was non-folding. The fuel capacity of this variant was 120 gal (545 l) distributed in two main forward fuselage tanks: the lower tank carried 48 gal (218 l) while the upper tank carried 36 gal (163 l), plus two fuel tanks built into the leading edges of the wings with capacities of 12.5 (57 l) and 5.5 gal (25 l) respectively. The Seafire F Mk 45 entered service with 778 Squadron in November 1946 and a few were modified to FR Mk 45s in March 1947 by being fitted with two F24 cameras in the rear fuselage. Fifty F Mk 45s were built by the Castle Bromwich factory. The Seafire F Mk 46 and FR Mk 46 was a Spitfire F Mk 22 modified to naval standard and featured the cut down rear fuselage and \"teardrop\" canopy. Again the wing had not been modified to fold. The electrical equipment was changed from a 12 volt system to 24 volts. The fuel system was modified over that of the Seafire 45 to incorporate an extra 32 gal (145 l) fuel tank in the rear fuselage, while the wings were plumbed to allow for a 22.5 gal (102 l) combat tank to be carried underneath each wing. In addition a 50 gal (227 l) drop tank could be carried under the fuselage. In April 1947, a decision was made to replace the Griffon 61s or 64s driving a five bladed Rotol propeller unit with Griffon 85s or 87s driving two three bladed Rotol contra-rotating propellers. All but the first few incorporated larger tail units from the Spiteful and Seafang. These two changes transformed the handling of the aircraft by eliminating the powerful swing to starboard of previous Griffon engined variants. 200 of the Mk 46s were ordered but only 24 were built, all by Supermarine. The final version of the Seafire was the Seafire F Mk 47 and FR Mk 47. There was no true prototype, instead the first production aircraft \"PS944\" and \"PS945\" served as trials aircraft. As the \"definitive\" carrier based Seafire, the Mk 47 incorporated several refinements over earlier variants. After the first four aircraft, with manually folded wings, the Mk 47 incorporated hydraulically powered wing folding, the outer wings folding upwards in one piece, without the folding wingtips of earlier marks. All Mk 47s adopted the Rotol contra-rotating propellers. The Mk 47 also featured a long supercharger air-duct, the intake of which started just behind the spinner and a modified curved windscreen, similar to that used on the Mk XVII. Other features unique to the Mk 47s were spring-loaded elevator tabs, a large inertia weight in the elevator control system and beading on the trailing edges of the elevators. These changes improved longitudinal stability, especially when the aircraft was fully loaded. The modified windscreen proved to be unpopular with pilots because of continual problems with misting and the thicker, repositioned frames obstructed visibility during deck landings. In spite of recommendations to change the windscreen back to a standard Spitfire 24 unit, this was never done. Performance tests showed that the Mk 47 was slightly slower than the Mk 46 in maximum and climbing speeds, mainly due to the long supercharger air intake, which was less efficient than the shorter type fitted to earlier Seafires. The Seafire 47 saw action with 800 Squadron on board during the Malayan Emergency of 1949 and during the Korean War in 1950. However, in 1951 all Seafires were withdrawn from front-line service. In all 90 F Mk 47s and FR Mk 47s were built, all by Supermarine. \"VR971,\" the last of the 22,000 aircraft built under the Spitfire/Seafire program, left the production line at Supermarine on 28 January 1949.", "The Spitfire's original role, in which it proved formidable, was that of short-range land-based interceptor. As a carrier based fighter, the design was a compromise and suffered many losses through structural damage that was inflicted by heavy landings on carrier decks: a problem that continued even with the strengthening introduced by the Mk II. The Seafire had a narrow undercarriage track, which meant that it was not well suited to deck operations. The many modifications had shifted the centre-of-gravity aft, making low-speed control difficult and the aircraft's gradual stall characteristics meant that it was difficult to land accurately on the carrier, resulting in many accidents. Other problems included the basic Spitfire's short range and endurance (fine for an interceptor fighter but not for carrier operation), limited weapons load and that it was dangerous in ditching. The first Seafire variant to overcome many of these problems was the Mk XVII with its new undercarriage design, reinforced structure and extra fuel tanks, although there were still some compromises and it entered service well after the war was over. The low point of Seafire operations came during Operation Avalanche the invasion of Salerno in September 1943. Of the 106 Seafires available to the British escort carriers on 9 September only 39 were serviceable by the dawn of D-Day plus Two (11 September). Part of this was attributed to the flat, calm conditions present, which meant that there had not been enough headwind in order to adequately slow down the Seafires on landing. Many aircraft missed picking up the arrestor wires and flew into the crash barriers while others had their arrestor hooks pulled off the fuselage because they caught the wires at too high a speed. In spite of these problems, the Seafires (especially the L Mk IIs and L Mk IIIs, with their low altitude rated Merlin engines) were used to patrol the vicinity of the carrier fleet as protection against low altitude attackers, while the longer ranging fighters, such as the Grumman F6F Hellcat, took on a similar role further out and at higher altitudes. The Seafire II outperformed the A6M5 Zero at low altitudes when the two types were tested against each other. Contemporary Allied aircraft which had been specifically designed for carrier use, such as the Grumman F6F Hellcat and the Vought F4U Corsair, were considerably larger, more robust and generally more powerful. The more powerful Seafire III enjoyed better climb rates and acceleration than these other fighters. Late-war Seafire models equipped with Griffon engines enjoyed a considerable increase of performance compared to their Merlin-engined predecessors. The Griffon-powered Seafires had some serious faults, the main problem being a result of the increased power yielded by the new engine. The concomitant increase in torque meant the pilot had to continuously correct the flight of the aircraft to prevent the frame of the aircraft rotating in the other direction to that of the propeller. This was a considerable problem when attempting to take off and land from an aircraft carrier. The torque also affected the lift of the right wing (the Griffon engines rotated anti-clockwise) which would lose lift and even stall at moderate speeds. The increased weight of the engine meant that the take-off had to be longer, which proved very dangerous from most British carriers. The increased weight of the engine further affected the centre of gravity that Mitchell had concentrated on so carefully in the original Spitfire. As a result, the handling of the aircraft suffered. Eventually most of these problems were resolved in Seafire 47 when the 6 bladed contra-rotating propeller was adopted.", "", "During 1942 and into 1943, FAA squadrons progressively converted to the Seafire, eventually replacing the Sea Hurricane in front-line service. In the Fleet Air Arm, Spitfires and Seafires were used by a number of squadrons, the Spitfires used by training and land based squadrons. Twelve 800 series squadrons used Spitfires and Seafires (Numbers 801 NAS, 802 NAS, 808 NAS, 809 NAS, 879 NAS, 880 NAS, 884 NAS, 885 NAS, 886 NAS, 887 NAS, 897 NAS and 899 NAS). Several units of the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve also flew Seafires postwar, including 1831, 1832 and 1833 squadrons. In November 1942, the first combat use of the Seafire occurred during Operation Torch, the Allied landings in North Africa, from the decks of several escort and fleet carriers; unusually, Seafires flew with American star markings during the operation, these were removed following their withdrawal from the theatre. In July 1943, the Seafire was used to provide air cover for the Allied invasion of Sicily; and reprised this role in September 1943 during the subsequent Allied invasion of Italy, being used to maintain continuous air cover of the beachheads, the type being almost entirely responsible for this task. During the latter operation, around half of the taskforce's Seafires were inoperable within four days, primarily due to landing accidents. During 1944, Seafires were used for air cover in support of several aerial bombing missions against the German battleship \"Tirpitz\". In June 1944, multiple Seafire squadrons were used during the Normandy landings for the purpose of locating in-land targets for naval gunnery batteries to attack; during this operation, these aircraft had been placed under RAF control and were operated from shore bases, these were returned to FAA control in July 1944. In August 1944, Seafires were used to support Allied ground forces during Operation Dragoon in Southern France. During the latter half of the war, the Seafire saw increasing service as part of Britain's contribution to the Far East Pacific campaigns, serving with No. 887 and 894 Squadrons, Fleet Air Arm, aboard and joining the British Pacific Fleet late in 1944. As range quickly became a detrimental factor in Pacific operations, Seafires in this theatre were often fitted with additional fuel tanks previously used by Curtiss P-40 Warhawks. Due to their good high altitude performance and lack of ordnance-carrying capabilities (compared to the Hellcats and Corsairs of the Fleet) the Seafires were allocated the vital defensive duties of Combat Air Patrol (CAP) over the fleet. During May 1945, Seafires were used to cover the Allied landings at Rangoon for Operation Crimson. Seafires were thus heavily involved in countering the \"kamikaze\" attacks during the Okinawa landings and beyond. The Seafire was operational in the Pacific Fleet right up to VJ Day, being used off the coast of Japan during the final months of the war. The Seafires' best day was 15 August 1945, shooting down eight attacking aircraft for one loss. During the campaign 887 NAS claimed 12 kills and 894 NAS claimed 10 kills (with two more claims earlier in 1944 over Norway). The top scoring Seafire pilot of the war was Sub-Lieutenant R.H. Reynolds DSC of 894, who claimed 4.5 air victories in 1944–5.", "During the immediate post-war service, the Fleet Air Arm quickly replaced its Merlin-powered Seafires with Griffon-powered counterparts. Accordingly, the service initially adopted the Seafire Mk XV and Mk 17; from 1948, the FAA began accepting the definitive model of the Seafire, the Mk 47. In 1950, HMS \"Triumph\" started a tour of the Far East, embarking 800 Naval Air Squadron with Seafire 47s along with 827 Naval Air Squadron equipped with the Fairey Firefly following the outbreak of the Korean War, HMS \"Triumph\" was diverted to operations to try to stem the North Korean offensive, Seafires were engaged in performing ground attack and combat air patrols from July until September 1950, when HMS \"Triumph\" was replaced by, equipped with the newer Hawker Sea Furys. During operations off Korea, Seafires flew 360 operational sorties, losing one aircraft shot down by friendly fire from a Boeing B-29 Superfortress and a second aircraft lost when its arrestor hook failed to extend. The Seafire proved more vulnerable to the stresses of carrier operation with many aircraft suffering wrinkling of the rear fuselage brought about by heavy landings. Following the end of operations, when peacetime airworthiness rules were re-imposed, all but three of 800 Squadron's Seafires were declared unserviciable owing to wrinkling. The Royal Canadian Navy and French Aviation Navale also obtained Seafires to operate from ex-Royal Navy aircraft carriers following the end of the Second World War. Canada's Seafire Mk XVs were flown from and before being replaced by Sea Furies in 1948. France received 65 Seafire Mk IIIs, 24 of these being deployed on the carrier in 1948 when it sailed for Vietnam to fight in the First Indochina War, the Seafires operating from land bases and from \"Arromanches\" on ground attack missions against the Viet Minh before being withdrawn from combat operations in January 1949. After returning to European waters, the Seafire units were re-equipped with Seafire XVs but these were quickly replaced by Grumman F6F Hellcats from 1950. The Irish Air Corps operated Seafires for a time after the war, despite having no naval air service nor aircraft carriers. The aircraft were operated from Baldonnel (Casement Aerodrome) much in the same way as normal Spitfires but retaining the folding wings. During the 1950s, an unsuccessful attempt to recycle the Merlin engines was made, by replacing the ailing Bedford engine in a Churchill tank with an engine from a scrapped Seafire. On 19 June 1954, the last Spitfire in Irish service was withdrawn.", "There at at least two surviving Seafires. One is on display at the Stonehenge Air Museum in Fortine, Montana, another is with Air Leasing Ltd. The Naval section of the Military Museums of Canada in Calgary, Alberta, has Seafire XV (PR451)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Volcanic ash.", "Breccias.", "Igneous rock.", "Types.", "Welded tuff.", "Rhyolitic tuff.", "Trachyte tuff.", "Andesitic tuff.", "Basaltic tuff.", "Ultramafic tuff.", "Folding and metamorphism.", "Importance.", "In Armenia." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The material that is expelled in a volcanic eruption can be classified into three types: Tephra is made when magma inside the volcano is blown apart by the rapid expansion of hot volcanic gases. Magma commonly explodes as the gas dissolved in it comes out of solution as the pressure decreases when it flows to the surface. These violent explosions produce solid chunks of material that can then fly from the volcano. Chunks smaller than 2 mm in diameter (sand-sized or smaller) are called volcanic ash.", "Among the loose beds of ash that cover the slopes of many volcanoes, three classes of materials are represented. In addition to true ashes of the kind described above, lumps of the old lavas and tuffs form the walls of the crater, which have been torn away by the violent outbursts of steam, and pieces of sedimentary rocks from the deeper parts of the volcano that were dislodged by the rising lava and are often intensely baked and recrystallized by the heat to which they have been subjected. In some great volcanic explosions, nothing but lumps of the old lavas and tuffs forming the walls of the crater etc. are emitted, as at Mount Bandai in Japan in 1888. Many eruptions also have occurred in which the quantity of broken sedimentary rocks that mingled with the ash is very great; instances include the volcanoes of the Eifel and the Devonian tuffs, known as \"Schalsteins\", in Germany. In the Scottish coalfields, some old volcanoes are plugged with masses consisting entirely of sedimentary debris; in such cases, supposedly no lava was ejected, but the cause of the eruption was the sudden liberation and expansion of a large quantity of steam. These accessory or adventitious materials, however, as distinguished from the true ash, tend to occur in angular fragments, and when they form a large part of the mass, the rock is more properly a \"volcanic breccia\" than a tuff. The ash ejecta vary in size from large blocks 20 ft or more in diameter to the minutest impalpable dust. The large masses are called \"volcanic bombs\"; they have mostly a rounded, elliptical, or pear-shaped form owing to rotation in the air before they solidified. Many of them have ribbed or nodular surfaces, and sometimes they have a crust intersected by many cracks like the surface of a loaf of bread. Any ash in which they are very abundant is called an agglomerate. In those layers and beds of tuff that have been spread out over considerable tracts of land and which are most frequently encountered among the sedimentary rocks, smaller fragments dominate and bombs more than a few inches in diameter may be absent altogether. A tuff of recent origin is generally loose and incoherent, but the older tuffs have been, in most cases, cemented together by pressure and the action of infiltrating water, making rocks which, while not very hard, are strong enough to be extensively used for building purposes (e.g. in the neighborhood of Rome). If they have accumulated subaerially, like the ash beds found on Mt. Etna or Vesuvius at the present day, tuffs consist almost wholly of volcanic materials of different degrees of fineness with pieces of wood and vegetable matter, land shells, etc., but many volcanoes stand near the sea, and the ash cast out by them is mingled with marine sediments. In this way, ashy muds, sands, or even in some cases ashy limestones are formed. Most of the tuffs found in the older marine formations contain admixtures of clay, sand, and sometimes fossil shells, which prove that they were beds spread out under water. During some volcanic eruptions, a layer of ash several feet in thickness is deposited over a considerable area; such beds thin out rapidly as the distance from the crater increases, and ash deposits covering many square miles are usually very thin. The showers of ash often follow one another after longer or shorter intervals, hence thick masses of tuff, whether of subaerial or of marine origin, have mostly a stratified character. The coarsest materials or agglomerates show this least distinctly; in the fine beds, it is often well developed.", "Apart from adventitious material, such as fragments of the older rocks, pieces of trees, etc., the contents of an ash deposit may be described as consisting of more or less crystalline igneous rocks. If the lava within the crater has been at such a temperature that solidification has commenced, crystals are usually present. They may be of considerable size like the grey, rounded leucite crystals found on the sides of Vesuvius. Many of these are very perfect and rich in faces because they grew in a medium that was liquid and not very viscous. Good crystals of augite and olivine are also to be obtained in the ash beds of Vesuvius and of many other volcanoes, ancient and modern. Blocks of these crystalline minerals (anorthite, olivine, augite, and hornblende) are common objects in the tuffs of many of the West Indian volcanoes. Where crystals are very abundant, the ashes are called \"crystal tuffs\". In St. Vincent and Martinique in 1902, much of the dust was composed of minute crystals enclosed in thin films of glass because the lava at the moment of eruption had very nearly solidified as a crystalline mass. Some basaltic volcanoes, though, have ejected great quantities of black glassy scoria, which, after consolidation, weather to a red soft rock known as palagonite; tuffs of this kind occur in Iceland and Sicily. In the Lipari Islands and Hungary, acid (rhyolitic) tuffs, of pale grey or yellow color, largely composed of lumps and fragments of pumice, occur. Over a large portion of the sea bottom, the beds of fine mud contain small, water-worn, rounded pebbles of very spongy volcanic glass; these have been floated from the shore or cast out by submarine volcanoes, and may have travelled for hundreds of miles before sinking; some kinds of pumice have been shown to float on seawater for more than a year. The deep sea-deposit known as the \"red clay\" is largely of volcanic origin and might be suitably described as a \"submarine tuff-bed\".", "", "Welded tuff is a pyroclastic rock, of any origin, that was sufficiently hot at the time of deposition to weld together. Strictly speaking, if the rock contains scattered, pea-sized fragments or fiamme in it, it is called a welded lapilli-tuff. Welded tuffs (and welded lapilli-tuffs) can be of fallout origin, or deposited from pyroclastic density currents, as in the case of ignimbrites. During welding, the glass shards and pumice fragments adhere together (necking at point contacts), deform, and compact together, resulting in a eutaxitic fabric. Welded ignimbrites can be highly voluminous, such as the Lava Creek Tuff erupted from Yellowstone Caldera in Wyoming 640,000 years ago. Lava Creek tuff is known to be at least 1000 times as large as the deposits of the May 18, 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, and it had a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 8, greater than any eruption known in the last 10,000 years. The intensity of welding may decrease towards the upper margin of a deposit, towards areas in which the deposit is thinner, and with distance from source. Welded tuff is commonly rhyolitic in composition, but examples of all compositions are known.", "For petrographical purposes, tuff is generally classified according to the nature of the volcanic rock of which it consists; this may be the same as the accompanying lavas if any were emitted during an eruption, and if a change occurs in the kind of lava which is poured out, the tuffs also indicate this equally clearly. Rhyolite tuffs contain pumiceous, glassy fragments and small scoriae with quartz, alkali feldspar, biotite, etc. Iceland, Lipari, Hungary, the Basin and Range of the American southwest, and New Zealand are among the areas where such tuffs are prominent. The broken pumice is clear and isotropic, and very small particles commonly have crescentic, sickle-shaped, or biconcave outlines, showing that they are produced by the shattering of a vesicular glass, sometimes described as ash-structure. The tiny glass fragments derived from broken pumice are called shards; the glass shards readily deform and flow when the deposits are sufficiently hot, as shown in the accompanying image of welded tuff. In the ancient rocks of Wales, Charnwood, the Pentland Hills, etc., similar tuffs are known, but in all cases, they are greatly changed by silicification (which has filled them with opal, chalcedony, and quartz) and by devitrification. The frequent presence of rounded corroded quartz crystals, such as occur in rhyolitic lavas, helps to demonstrate their real nature. An example of this tuff, \"Rochlitz Porphyr\", can be seen in the Mannerist-style sculpted portal outside the chapel entrance in Colditz Castle. The trade name \"Rochlitz Porphyr\" is the traditional designation for a dimension stone of Saxony with an architectural history over 1,000 years in Germany. The quarries are located near Rochlitz.", "Trachyte tuffs contain little or no quartz, but much sanidine or anorthoclase and sometimes oligoclase feldspar, with occasional biotite, augite, and hornblende. In weathering, they often change to soft red or yellow clay-stones, rich in kaolin with secondary quartz. Recent trachyte tuffs are found on the Rhine (at Siebengebirge), in Ischia, near Naples, Hungary, etc.", "Andesitic tuffs are exceedingly common. They occur along the whole chain of the Cordilleras and Andes, in the West Indies, New Zealand, Japan, etc. In the Lake District, North Wales, Lorne, the Pentland Hills, the Cheviots, and many other districts of Great Britain, ancient rocks of exactly similar nature are abundant. In color, they are red or brown; their scoriae fragments are of all sizes from huge blocks down to minute granular dust. The cavities are filled with many secondary minerals, such as calcite, chlorite, quartz, epidote, or chalcedony; in microscopic sections, though, the nature of the original lava can nearly always be made out from the shapes and properties of the little crystals which occur in the decomposed glassy base. Even in the smallest details, these ancient tuffs have a complete resemblance to the modern ash beds of Cotopaxi, Krakatoa, and Mont Pelé.", "Basaltic tuffs are also of widespread occurrence both in districts where volcanoes are now active and in lands where eruptions have long since ended. They are found in Skye, Mull, Antrim, and other places, where Paleogene volcanic rocks are found; in Scotland, Derbyshire, and Ireland among the Carboniferous strata, and among the still older rocks of the Lake District, the southern uplands of Scotland, and Wales. They are black, dark green, or red in colour; vary greatly in coarseness, some being full of round spongy bombs a foot or more in diameter; and being often submarine, may contain shale, sandstone, grit, and other sedimentary material, and are occasionally fossiliferous. Recent basaltic tuffs are found in Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Jan Mayen, Sicily, the Hawaiian Islands, Samoa, etc. When weathered, they are filled with calcite, chlorite, serpentine, and especially where the lavas contain nepheline or leucite, are often rich in zeolites, such as analcite, prehnite, natrolite, scolecite, chabazite, heulandite, etc.", "Ultramafic tuffs are extremely rare; their characteristic is the abundance of olivine or serpentine and the scarcity or absence of feldspar and quartz. Rare occurrences may include unusual surface deposits of maars of kimberlites of the diamond-fields of southern Africa and other regions. The principal rock of kimberlite is a dark bluish-green, serpentine-rich breccia (blue-ground) which when thoroughly oxidized and weathered becomes a friable brown or yellow mass (the \"yellow-ground\"). These breccias were emplaced as gas–solid mixtures and are typically preserved and mined in diatremes that form intrusive pipe-like structures. At depth, some kimberlite breccias grade into root zones of dikes made of unfragmented rock. At the surface, ultramafic tuffs may occur in maar deposits. Because kimberlites are the most common igneous source of diamonds, the transitions from maar to diatreme to root-zone dikes have been studied in detail. Diatreme-facies kimberlite is more properly called an ultramafic breccia rather than a tuff.", "In course of time, changes other than weathering may overtake tuff deposits. Sometimes, they are involved in folding and become sheared and cleaved. Many of the green slates of the lake district in Cumberland are finely cleaved ashes. In Charnwood Forest also, the tuffs are slaty and cleaved. The green color is due to the large development of chlorite. Among the crystalline schists of many regions, green beds or green schists occur, which consist of quartz, hornblende, chlorite or biotite, iron oxides, feldspar, etc., and are probably recrystallized or metamorphosed tuffs. They often accompany masses of epidiorite and hornblende – schists which are the corresponding lavas and sills. Some chlorite-schists also are probably altered beds of volcanic tuff. The \"Schalsteins\" of Devon and Germany include many cleaved and partly recrystallized ash-beds, some of which still retain their fragmental structure, though their lapilli are flattened and drawn out. Their steam cavities are usually filled with calcite, but sometimes with quartz. The more completely altered forms of these rocks are platy, green chloritic schists; in these, however, structures indicating their original volcanic nature only sparingly occur. These are intermediate stages between cleaved tuffs and crystalline schists.", "Tuff's primary economic value is as a building material. In the ancient world, tuff's relative softness meant that it was commonly used for construction where it was available. Tuff is common in Italy, and the Romans used it for many buildings and bridges. For example, the whole port of the island of Ventotene (still in use), was carved from tuff. The Servian Wall, built to defend the city of Rome in the fourth century BC, is also built almost entirely from tuff. The Romans also cut tuff into small, rectangular stones that they used to create walls in a pattern known as \"opus reticulatum\". The Romans thought bees nested in tuff. The substance is mentioned in the \"Aeneid\" (Book XII, ln 805). The peperino, much used at Rome and Naples as a building stone, is a trachyte tuff. Pozzolana also is a decomposed tuff, but of basic character, originally obtained near Naples and used as a cement, but this name is now applied to a number of substances not always of identical character. In the Eifel region of Germany, a trachytic, pumiceous tuff called trass has been extensively worked as a hydraulic mortar. Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository, a U.S. Department of Energy terminal storage facility for spent nuclear reactor and other radioactive waste, is in tuff and ignimbrite in the Basin and Range Province in Nevada. In Napa Valley and Sonoma Valley, California, areas made of tuff are routinely excavated for storage of wine barrels. Tuff from Rano Raraku was used by the Rapa Nui people of Easter Island to make the vast majority of their famous moai statues.", "Tuff is used extensively in Armenia and Armenian architecture. It is the dominant type of stone used in construction in Armenia's capital Yerevan, Gyumri, Armenia's second largest city, and Ani, the country's medieval capital now in Turkey. A small village in Armenia was renamed Tufashen (literally \"built of tuff\") in 1946." ] }

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{ "title": [ "In vascular endothelial tissue.", "Disruption and disease.", "In bacteria and nature.", "In the digestive tract." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The glycocalyx is located on the apical surface of vascular endothelial cells which line the lumen. When vessels are stained with cationic dyes such as Alcian blue stain, transmission electron microscopy shows a small, irregularly shaped layer extending approximately 50–100 nm into the lumen of a blood vessel. Another study used cryotransmission electron microscopy and showed that the endothelial glycocalyx could be up to 11 μm thick. It is present throughout a diverse range of microvascular beds (capillaries) and macrovessels (arteries and veins). The glycocalyx also consists of a wide range of enzymes and proteins that regulate leukocyte and thrombocyte adherence, since its principal role in the vasculature is to maintain plasma and vessel-wall homeostasis. These enzymes and proteins include: The enzymes and proteins listed above serve to reinforce the glycocalyx barrier against vascular and other diseases. Another main function of the glycocalyx within the vascular endothelium is that it shields the vascular walls from direct exposure to blood flow, while serving as a vascular permeability barrier. Its protective functions are universal throughout the vascular system, but its relative importance varies depending on its exact location in the vasculature. In microvascular tissue, the glycocalyx serves as a vascular permeability barrier by inhibiting coagulation and leukocyte adhesion. Leukocytes must not stick to the vascular wall because they are important components of the immune system that must be able to travel to a specific region of the body when needed. In arterial vascular tissue, the glycocalyx also inhibits coagulation and leukocyte adhesion, but through mediation of shear stress-induced nitric oxide release. Another protective function throughout the cardiovascular system is its ability to affect the filtration of interstitial fluid from capillaries into the interstitial space. The glycocalyx, which is located on the apical surface of endothelial cells, is composed of a negatively charged network of proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and glycolipids.", "Because the glycocalyx is so prominent throughout the cardiovascular system, disruption to this structure has detrimental effects that can cause disease. Certain stimuli that cause atheroma may lead to enhanced sensitivity of vasculature. Initial dysfunction of the glycocalyx can be caused by hyperglycemia or oxidized low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), which then causes atherothrombosis. In microvasculature, dysfunction of the glycocalyx leads to internal fluid imbalance, and potentially edema. In arterial vascular tissue, glycocalyx disruption causes inflammation and atherothrombosis. Experiments have been performed to test precisely how the glycocalyx can be altered or damaged. One particular study used an isolated perfused heart model designed to facilitate detection of the state of the vascular barrier portion, and sought to cause insult-induced shedding of the glycocalyx to ascertain the cause-and-effect relationship between glycocalyx shedding and vascular permeability. Hypoxic perfusion of the glycocalyx was thought to be sufficient to initiate a degradation mechanism of the endothelial barrier. The study found that flow of oxygen throughout the blood vessels did not have to be completely absent (ischemic hypoxia), but that minimal levels of oxygen were sufficient to cause the degradation. Shedding of the glycocalyx can be triggered by inflammatory stimuli, such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Whatever the stimulus is, however, shedding of the glycocalyx leads to a drastic increase in vascular permeability. Vascular walls being permeable is disadvantageous, since that would enable passage of some macromolecules or other harmful antigens. Fluid shear stress is also a potential problem if the glycocalyx is degraded for any reason. This type of frictional stress is caused by the movement of viscous fluid (i.e. blood) along the lumen boundary. Another similar experiment was carried out to determine what kinds of stimuli cause fluid shear stress. The initial measurement was taken with intravital microscopy, which showed a slow-moving plasma layer, the glycocalyx, of 1 μm thick. Light dye damaged the glycocalyx minimally, but that small change increased capillary hematocrit. Thus, fluorescence light microscopy should not be used to study the glycocalyx because that particular method uses a dye. The glycocalyx can also be reduced in thickness when treated with oxidized LDL. These stimuli, along with many other factors, can cause damage to the delicate glycocalyx. These studies are evidence that the glycocalyx plays a crucial role in cardiovascular system health.", "A glycocalyx, literally meaning \"sugar coat\" (\"glykys\" = sweet, \"kalyx\" = husk), is a network of polysaccharides that project from cellular surfaces of bacteria, which classifies it as a universal surface component of a bacterial cell, found just outside the bacterial cell wall. A distinct, gelatinous glycocalyx is called a capsule, whereas an irregular, diffuse layer is called a slime layer. This coat is extremely hydrated and stains with ruthenium red. Bacteria growing in natural ecosystems, such as in soil, bovine intestines, or the human urinary tract, are surrounded by some sort of glycocalyx-enclosed microcolony. It serves to protect the bacterium from harmful phagocytes by creating capsules or allowing the bacterium to attach itself to inert surfaces, such as teeth or rocks, via biofilms (e.g. \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\" attaches itself to either lung cells, prokaryotes, or other bacteria which can fuse their glycocalices to envelop the colony).", "A glycocalyx can also be found on the apical portion of microvilli within the digestive tract, especially within the small intestine. It creates a meshwork 0.3 μm thick and consists of acidic mucopolysaccharides and glycoproteins that project from the apical plasma membrane of epithelial absorptive cells. It provides additional surface for adsorption and includes enzymes secreted by the absorptive cells that are essential for the final steps of digestion of proteins and sugars." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot summary.", "Theme.", "Film adaptation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The narrative begins with the auction by the US Government of fictional Spencer Island, located 460 miles off the California coast (). The island is uninhabited and there are only two bidders, William W. Kolderup, a very wealthy San Franciscan, and his arch-rival J. R. Taskinar, a resident of Stockton, California. Kolderup wins the auction, buying Spencer Island for four million dollars. J. R. Taskinar mutters, \"I will be avenged!\" before retiring to his hotel. Godfrey, an idle twenty-two-year-old, lives with Kolderup, his uncle, and Kolderup's adopted goddaughter, Phina, whom Godfrey has grown to love. Prior to marrying Phina, Godfrey asks to undertake a world tour. Acceding to his desire, his uncle sends Godfrey on a sea voyage around the world on board one of his steamships, the \"Dream\", commanded by Captain Turcott. Godfrey is accompanied by his mentor, teacher, and dance instructor, Professor T. Artelett aka \"Tartlet\". After some time at sea, Godfrey is awakened one foggy night and told to abandon ship as the \"Dream\" is foundering. After jumping into the sea, Godfrey is washed ashore on a deserted island, where he soon finds Tartlet has also been marooned. Godfrey, with scant help from Tartlet, will have to learn to survive, to organize his life, face hostile intruders, and overcome other obstacles. Eventually, they are also joined by Carefinotu, whom Godfrey rescues from Polynesians visiting the island. By the end of the story the formerly jaded young man has discovered the value of independent effort, and he gains poise and courage. The marooned group are rescued and returned to San Francisco, where Godfrey is reunited with Phina. They agree to marry before continuing the world tour, this time together.", "Although the setting is different, the robinsonade plot is a variation on the theme of rational self-sufficiency that Verne developed earlier in \"The Mysterious Island\" (1874). At the time of publication, it was common for a young man of wealth to undertake travel as an educational rite of passage, for example the California heir Leland Stanford, Jr. who took two European Grand Tours, one in 1880-81, and died on the second in 1884. The original French version of Verne's novel was published in 1882, after Stanford's first tour.", "The novel was adapted (very loosely so, as the film adaptation in question is actually a mishmash of several different stories of Verne's that were spliced together to make a full-length motion picture feature, instead of being a direct and fully faithful adaptation of the Godfrey Morgan story in particular) for a 1981 USA/Spain co-production by director Juan Piquer Simón, titled Jules Verne's Mystery on Monster Island (), and starring Peter Cushing and Terence Stamp, with David Hatton, Ian Sera, Paul Naschy, Blanca Estrada, Ana Obregón and Frank Braña in supporting roles. Monsters were prominently included as an element in the film, but were absent from the novel, in which the villain J. R. Taskinar introduces non-indigenous carnivores to the island to take revenge on Kolderup's auction win. In 2007 the film was released on DVD as part of a double feature. Despite the similar title, the film has no connection with the better-known Verne novel \"The Mysterious Island\", though some reviewers have disregarded this." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Serer people.", "Yoruba people.", "Ayangalu.", "How they \"talk\".", "Example.", "Talking drum variance.", "Dimensions.", "Playing styles.", "Use in popular music.", "In popular culture.", "Drum names.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hourglass-shaped talking drums are some of the oldest instruments used by West African griots and their history can be traced back to the Yoruba people, the Ghana Empire and the Hausa people. The Yoruba people of south western Nigeria and Benin and the Dagomba of northern Ghana have both developed a highly sophisticated genre of griot music centering on the talking drum. Many variants of the talking drums evolved, with most of them having the same construction mentioned above. Soon, many non-hourglass shapes showed up and were given special names, such as the Dunan, Sangban, Kenkeni, Fontomfrom and Ngoma drums. This construction is limited to within the contemporary borders of West Africa, with exceptions to this rule being northern Cameroon and western Chad; areas which have shared populations belonging to groups predominant in their bordering West African countries, such as the Kanuri, Djerma, Fulani and Hausa.", "In Senegalese and Gambian history, the tama (Serer) was one of the music instruments used in the Serer people's \"\"Woong\"\" tradition (the \"dance performed by Serer boys yet to be circumcised\" or the future circumcised, also known as the \"\"Xaat\"\" in the Serer language). The tama drum, has Serer religious connotations (which predates the Ghana Empire). In the \"Xaat\" tradition, the tama makes up the fourth musical drum ensemble. The Serer drums played include : Perngel, Lamb, Qiin and Tama. From a historical perspective, the tama (just like the Serer junjung), was beaten by the griots of Senegambian kings on special occasions, such as during wars (a call for arms), when the kings wanted to address their subjects, and on special circumstances in Serer country – a call for martyrdom, such as the mayhem at Tahompa (a 19th-century surprise attack) and the Battle of Naoudourou, where the defeated Serers (by the Muslim-marabouts of Senegambia), committed suicide rather than be conquered by the Muslim forces or forced to submit to Islam. Suicide is permitted in Serer religion only if it satisfies the Serer principle of Jom (see Serer religion). The word \"\"Jom\"\" means \"honour\" in the Serer language.", "", "Ayangalu is believed to have been the first Yoruba drummer. Upon his death he was deified, and so now he is counted among the ranks of the Orishas. It is believed by followers of the Yoruba religion that he is the patron spirit of all drummers, and that in the guise of a muse he inspires the drummers to play well. The word \"\"Ayan\"\" means drummer in the Yoruba language. This is why some Yoruba family names contain the prefix \"Ayan\", such as Ayangbade, Ayantunde, Ayanwande etc. This prefix marks its bearers out as hereditary custodians of the mysteries of Ayangalu.", "The pitch of the drum is varied to mimic the tone patterns of speech. This is done by varying the tension placed on the drumhead: the opposing drum heads are connected by a common tension cord. The waist of the drum is held between the player's arm and ribs, so that when squeezed the drumhead is tightened, producing a higher note than when it's in its relaxed state; the pitch can be changed during a single beat, producing a warbling note. The drum can thus capture the pitch, volume, and rhythm of human speech, though not the qualities of vowels or consonants. The use of talking drums as a form of communication was noticed by Europeans in the first half of the 18th century. Detailed messages could be sent from one village to the next faster than could be carried by a person riding a horse. In the 19th century Roger T. Clarke, a missionary, realised that \"the signals represent the tones of the syllables of conventional phrases of a traditional and highly poetic character.\" Like Chinese, many African languages are tonal; that is, the pitch is important in determining the meaning of a particular word. The Yoruba language, for instance, is mostly defined by the tri-tonic scale, consisting only of the tonic sol-fa notes, do, re, mi, different inflections of which are then used to convey different messages, the same principle also applies to how the drum talks in all of the Yoruba's music and culture. However, the Serer language and its relative Senegambian languages are not tonal, unlike almost all other Niger-Congo languages. The problem was how to communicate complex messages without the use of vowels or consonants but simply using tone. An English emigrant to Africa, [[John F. Carrington]], in his 1949 book \"The Talking Drums of Africa\", explained how African drummers were able to communicate complex messages over vast distances. Using low tones referred to as male and higher female tones, the drummer communicates through the phrases and pauses, which can travel upwards of 4–5 miles. The process may take eight times longer than communicating a normal sentence but was effective for telling neighboring villages of possible attacks or ceremonies. He found that to each short word that was beaten on the drums, an extra phrase was added, which would be redundant in speech but provided context to the core drum signal.", "The message \"Come back home\" might be translated by the drummers as: \"Make your feet come back the way they went, make your legs come back the way they went, plant your feet and your legs below, in the village which belongs to us\". Single words would be translated into phrases. For example, \"moon\" would be played as \"the Moon looks towards earth\", and \"war\" as \"war which causes attention to ambushes\". The extra phrases provide a context in which to make sense of the basic message or drum beats. These phrases could not be randomized, when learning to play the drum students were taught the particular phrase that coincided with each word. This reason alone made learning to talk in drum language very difficult and not many were willing to take the time to do so. The extra drum beats reduce the ambiguity of the meaning. Ironically, when the West understood the mechanism of the drums, they had already begun to be used less often in Africa. Also, words often lost their meaning. In an interview with Carrington, he explained that when words that are not used often, the phrases that correspond to them are forgotten. When given the beat for young girl, the drummers thought the phrase played was in fact the one for fishing nets. As emphasized by Finnegan, the messages sent via drums were not confined to utilitarian messages with a marginally literary flavour. Drum languages could also be used for specifically literary forms, for proverbs, panegyrics, historical poems, dirges, and in some cultures practically any kind of poetry. The ritualized forms and drum names constituted a type of oral literature. Among some peoples such as the [[Ashanti people|Ashanti]] or the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]], drum language and literature were very highly developed. In these cultures, drumming tended to be a specialized and often hereditary activity, and expert drummers with a mastery of the accepted vocabulary of drum language and literature were often attached to a king's court.", "", "Various sizes of hourglass talking drum exist, with the dimensions of the drum differing between ethnic groups, but all following the same template. The \"Tama\" of the Serer, Wolof and Mandinka peoples is typified by its smaller dimensions, having a total drum length typical of 13 centimeters (5 inches) with a 7 centimeter (2.75 inch) drum head [[diameter]]. This produces a much higher pitched tone than other talking drums of the same construction. The Yoruba and Dagomba peoples on the other hand have some of the largest dimensions for drums in their \"Lunna\" and \"Dùndún\" ensembles, with a length typical of 23–38 centimeters (9–15 inches) and a drum head diameter of between 10–18 centimeters (4–7 inches). In Yoruba talking-drum ensembles, this is used alongside smaller talking drums similar to the \"Tama\", called \"Gangan\" in [[Yoruba language]]. [[Image:tama front.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Senegalese Tama player, Yamar Thiam of the Finnish group Galaxy, performing at the Imatra Big band Festival at Imatra, July 2005]]", "[[File:WIKI LOVES AFRICA 2016 HYPERFOCALSTUDIOS.jpg|thumb|WIKI LOVES AFRICA 2016 HYPERFOCALSTUDIOS| Drummers on parade]] Playing styles are closely linked with the drum's construction and the tonal qualities of each language. There is a clear difference in playing styles between areas with predominantly [[Fulani]] and [[Mande languages|Mande]]-speaking populations and traditionally non-Mande areas further east. The predominant style of playing in areas further west such as [[Senegal]], [[Gambia]], western [[Mali]] and [[Guinea]] is characterized by rapid rolls and short bursts of sound between the stick holding hand and accompanying free hand, and correlates with the various [[pitch accent]] and non-tonal languages heard in this area. This is a style typically heard in the popular [[Mbalax]] genre of Senegal. From eastern [[Mali]], [[Burkina Faso]] and [[Ghana]], towards [[Niger]], western-[[Chad]] and [[Nigeria]], (with the exceptions of areas with [[Fulani]] and [[Mande languages|Mande]]-speaking majorities) the playing style of the talking drum is centered on producing long and sustained notes by hitting the drum head with the stick-holding hand and the accompanying free hand used to dampen and change tones immediately after being hit. This produces a rubbery sounding texture to its playing, which mimics the heavy and complex tones used in languages from this area (see [[Niger–Congo languages#Tone|Niger–Congo tonal language chart]]). This characteristic style can be clearly heard in the popular music of this area, particularly in those where the talking drum is the lead instrument, such as [[Fuji music]] of the Yoruba of [[Nigeria]].", "In the 20th century the talking drum became a part of popular [[music of Africa|music in West Africa]]. It is used in playing [[Mbalax]] music of Senegal and in [[Fuji music|Fuji]] and [[Jùjú music]] of [[Nigeria]] (where it is known as a [[dùndún]], not to be confused with the [[dunun|dundun]] bass drum of the [[Mandé]] peoples.) [[King Crimson]] used the talking drum on its album \"[[Larks' Tongues in Aspic]]\", for the track \"The Talking Drum\". [[Tom Waits]] used the talking drum on his song \"Trouble's Braids,\" a track from the album \"[[Swordfishtrombones]]\". [[Erykah Badu]] used the talking drum on her song \"My People\", from the album \"[[New Amerykah Part One (4th World War)]]\". [[Sikiru Adepoju]] is a master of the talking drum from Nigeria who has collaborated with artists from the [[Grateful Dead]] to [[Stevie Wonder]] and [[Carlos Santana]]. [[Naná Vasconcelos]], master of percussion, started playing the talking drum in the early 1980s and has used it ever since. [[Mick Fleetwood]] of [[Fleetwood Mac]] has used the talking drum on the track \"World Turning\" on the band's 1975 [[Fleetwood Mac (1975 album)|eponymous]] album and in concert performances of the song.", "[[File:Bill-Kreutzmann-and Djembe.gif|thumb|220px|[[Bill Kreutzmann]], a drummer with the [[Grateful Dead]] with a talking drum, 1982. Photo by: [[David Gans (musician)|David Gans]]]] In the game series [[Patapon]] the player is a god who communicates with his or her followers using four Talking Drums. Each has its own unique sound: 'Pata,' 'Pon,' 'Don' and 'Chaka.' In the television series [[Dead Like Me]], the talking drum is discussed as a means of celebrating the lives of the dead. They can also be heard in the 1959 movie \"[[The Nun's Story (film)|The Nun's Story]]\", starring [[Audrey Hepburn]], when she arrives in what was at that time the Belgian Congo. [[Bill Kreutzmann]], a drummer for the [[Grateful Dead]], occasionally played a talking drum at the band's live shows during the \"drums\" segment of their shows in the second set. The talking drum features prominently in the [[Wakanda (song)|score]] of the 2018 film \"[[Black Panther (film)|Black Panther]]\". The score, composed by [[Ludwig Göransson]], uses talking drums at the core of a [[leitmotif]] associated with the film's protagonist, T'Challa (played by [[Chadwick Boseman]]).", "In some ethnic groups, each individual was given a \"drum name\". Examples from among the [[Beti-Pahuin|Bulu]] of [[Cameroon]] are \"Even if you dress up finely, love is the only thing\" or \"The giant wood rat has no child, the house rat has no child\". Talking drum players sent messages by drumming the recipient's name, followed by the sender's name and the message.", "[[Category:Serer culture]] [[Category:Serer history]] [[Category:Senegalese culture]] [[Category:Gambian culture]] [[Category:Senegalese musical instruments]] [[Category:Ghanaian musical instruments]] [[Category:African drums]] [[Category:West African music]] [[Category:Ivorian musical instruments]] [[Category:Malian culture]] [[Category:Nigerian culture]] [[Category:Nigerien culture]] [[Category:Yoruba musical instruments]] [[Category:Lists of musical instruments]] [[Category:Drums]]" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Geography.", "Zuiderzee Works.", "Politics.", "Economy.", "Transport.", "Rail.", "Airport." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Flevoland was named after Lacus Flevo, a name recorded in Roman sources for a large inland lake at the southern end of the later-formed Zuiderzee; it was mentioned by the Roman geographer Pomponius Mela in his \"De Chorographia\" in 44 AD. Due to the slowly rising sea level, a number of lakes gradually developed in the Zuiderzee region, which eventually became contiguous. Pomponius wrote about this: \"The northern branch of the Rhine extends to Lake Flevo, which encloses an island of the same name and then flows to the sea like a normal river.\" Other sources speak of Flevum, which means 'flow'. The process continued and gradually the Zuiderzee arose from this lake. The names \"Flevoland\" and \"Vlieland\" have the same origin. Between 790 and 1250, Lake Flevo became connected with the North Sea. As a result, a number of villages were swallowed by the sea. The newly created inland sea was called Almere. The city of Almere is named after this lake.", "After a flood in 1916, the Zuiderzee, an inland sea within the Netherlands, was decided to be enclosed and reclaimed: the Zuiderzee Works started. Other sources indicate other times and reasons, but also agree that in 1932, the Afsluitdijk was completed, which closed off the sea completely. The Zuiderzee was subsequently divided into IJsselmeer (lake at the end of the river IJssel) and Markermeer, which in itself was planned to be mostly drained to make the Markerwaard. However, for economic reasons, the Markerwaard never went ahead. The first part of the new lake that was reclaimed was the Noordoostpolder (English: Northeast polder) in 1942. This new land included the former islands of Urk and Schokland and it was included in the province of Overijssel. After this, other parts were reclaimed - the southeastern part in 1957 and the southwestern part in 1968. An important change occurred in these postwar projects from the earlier Noordoostpolder reclamation: a narrow body of water was preserved along the old coast to stabilise the water table and to prevent coastal towns from losing their access to the sea. Thus, the Flevopolder became an artificial island joined to the mainland by bridges. The municipalities on the three parts voted to become a separate province, which happened in 1986.", "", "Eastern Flevoland (\"Oostelijk Flevoland\" or \"Oost-Flevoland\") and Southern Flevoland (\"Zuidelijk Flevoland\" or \"Zuid-Flevoland\"), unlike the Noordoostpolder, have peripheral lakes between them and the mainland: the Veluwemeer and Gooimeer, respectively, making them, together, the world's largest artificial island. They are two polders with a joint hydrological infrastructure, with a dividing dike in the middle, the \"Knardijk\", that will keep one polder safe if the other is flooded. The two main drainage canals that traverse the dike can be closed by floodgates in such an event. The pumping stations are the \"Wortman\" (diesel powered) at Lelystad-Haven, the \"Lovink\" near Harderwijk on the eastern dike and the \"Colijn\" (both electrically powered) along the northern dike beside the Ketelmeer. A new element in the design of Eastern Flevoland is the larger city Lelystad (1966), named after Cornelis Lely, the man who had played a crucial role in designing and realising the Zuiderzee Works. Other more conventional settlements already existed by then; Dronten, the major local town, was founded in 1962, followed by two smaller satellite villages, Swifterbant and Biddinghuizen, in 1963. These three were incorporated in the new municipality of Dronten on 1 January 1972. Southern Flevoland has only one pumping station, the diesel-powered \"De Blocq van Kuffeler\". Because of the hydrological union of the two Flevolands, it simply joins the other three in maintaining the water level of both polders. Almere relieves the housing shortage and increasing overcrowding on the old land. Its name is derived from the early medieval name for Lake Almere. Almere was to be divided into three major settlements initially; the first, \"Almere-Haven\" (1976) situated along the coast of the Gooimeer (one of the peripheral lakes), the second and largest was to fulfill the role of city centre as \"Almere-Stad\" (1980), and the third was \"Almere-Buiten\" (1984) to the northwest towards Lelystad. In 2003, the municipality made a new \"Structuurplan\" which started development of three new settlements: \"Overgooi\" in the southeast, \"Almere-Hout\" in the east, and \"Almere-Poort\" in the West. In time, \"Almere-Pampus\" could be developed in the northwest, with possibly a new bridge over the IJmeer towards Amsterdam. The Oostvaardersplassen is a landscape of shallow pools, islets, and swamps. Originally, this low part of the new polder was destined to become an industrial area. Spontaneous settlement of interesting flora and fauna turned the area into a nature park, of such importance that the new railway line was diverted. The recent decline in agricultural land use will in time make expanding \"natural\" land use possible, and connect the Oostvaardersplassen to the Veluwe. The centre of the polder most closely resembles the prewar polders in that it is almost exclusively agricultural. In contrast, the southeastern part is dominated by extensive forests. Here is also found the only other settlement of the polder, Zeewolde (1984), again a more conventional town acting as the local centre. Zeewolde became a municipality at the same time as Almere on 1 January 1984, which in the case of Zeewolde meant that the municipality existed before the town itself, with only farms in the surrounding land to be governed until the town started to grow.", "The King's Commissioner of Flevoland is Leen Verbeek, who is a member of the Labour Party (Netherlands) (PvDA). The States of Flevoland have 41 seats. At the provincial elections in March 2019, Forum for Democracy was the big winner of the elections. The party came new in the States with 8 seats, and is with those the biggest party. The People's Party for Freedom and Democracy is second largest with 6 seats, after which the Party for Freedom and GreenLeft both have 4 seats. Christian Democratic Appeal, Labour Party, and ChristianUnion all have 3 seats. Socialist Party, 50PLUS, Democrats 66 and Party for the Animals have 2 seats, where the Reformed Political Party and Denk, another new party in the States, have 1 seat.", "The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the province was 14 billion € in 2018, accounting for 1.8% of the Netherlands economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 29,500 € or 98% of the EU27 average in the same year.", "", "The Flevopolder is served by the Flevolijn, running from Weesp to Lelystad, and the Hanzelijn, continuing from Lelystad towards Zwolle. The two railways stations of the province with intercity services are Almere Centrum and Lelystad Centrum. Furthermore, Lelystad Zuid is a planned railway station between Almere Oostvaarders and Lelystad Centrum. It has been partially constructed preceding the opening of the railway in 1988, but construction has been put on indefinite hold because of slower-than-expected development of the city of Lelystad. Amongst the cities with direct train connections to Flevoland are Amsterdam, Utrecht, The Hague, Zwolle, Groningen, Leeuwarden and Schiphol Airport.", "There is one airport in the province: Lelystad Airport. A second airport, Noordoostpolder Airport near Emmeloord, was closed in the late 1990s due to town expansion." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Population.", "Prefectures.", "History.", "Transportation.", "Economy.", "Food.", "Winter Olympics.", "Tourism.", "Lakes.", "Gastronomy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Rhône-Alpes is located in the southeast of France. The neighboring (pre-2016) regions are Bourgogne (Burgundy) and Franche-Comté to the north, Auvergne to the west, Languedoc-Roussillon to the southwest, and Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur to the south. The eastern part of the region is in the Alps, and borders Switzerland and Italy. The highest peak is Mont Blanc, on the French-Italian border. The central part of the region comprises the river valleys of the Rhône and the Saône. The confluence of these two rivers is at Lyon. The western part of the region contains the start of the Massif Central mountain range. The region also borders or contains major lakes such as Lake Geneva (\"Lac Léman\") and Lake Annecy. The Ardèche flows through the southwest portion of the region, where it has carved the deepest gorge in Europe. As with the rest of France, French is the only official language of the region. Until the mid-20th century, Arpitan was widely spoken in the whole region, while many of the inhabitants of the south spoke varieties of Occitan; both are in steep decline in this region. There are immigrant populations from Armenia, Italy, North Africa, Poland and Portugal, and elsewhere. Rhône-Alpes is made up of the following departments: And, since 2015, Metropolis with territorial collectivity statute:", "Rhône-Alpes contains 3 major cities in France. It forms the triangle Lyon - Grenoble - Saint-Étienne. This triangle is the economic core of the region. These three urban areas are very complementary, and have smaller cities around, like satellites.", "This list is from biggest agglomeration to the smallest:", "Although there have been people in Rhône-Alpes since pre-historic times, the earliest recorded settlers of the region were the Gauls (Celts). Cities such as Lyon were founded by them and the region traded with both northern and southern Europe. Most of the area became part of Roman territory during the invasion of Celtic Gaul led by Julius Caesar and was at various times part of the regions of Lugdunensis and Gallia. Lyon itself became a major city in the Roman Empire. The region, excepting Savoy, was part of the Merovingian and Carolingian Kingdoms before becoming a royal territory under the Capetians. As it became a royal territory early on in French history, its cultural, political and economic influences and developments paralleled those of greater France. (See History of France.)", "Rhône-Alpes is a major European transit hub, linking northern France and Europe to the Mediterranean area. Millions travel along its motorways in summertime from Paris to holidays at the sea. The E15 Euroroute (Britain to Spain) runs through the region. There are international airports at Lyon, Grenoble and Saint-Étienne and many other minor airports and airfields. The region is also a transport hub for the rail network with the TGV running through Lyon from Paris and the north, to the Mediterranean. A high-speed rail link is planned from Lyon to Turin.", "Rhône-Alpes is a prosperous region which can be seen by its per capita GDP of about €31,231 ($40,000), which is higher than the French average, and an average income of €35,910 ($50,246), its economy second in size only to Île-de-France in France. This can be attributed to the diversity of the production in different sectors. The region is one of the Four Motors for Europe. In the past mining, especially coal mining was an important sector, particularly around Saint-Étienne, although this has declined since the 1970s. The area of the region that lies close to Switzerland has an economy linked to that of Geneva. This area forms a hinterland for the Geneva hub. The Triangle of Lyon, Saint-Étienne and Grenoble contribute a GDP of €145 billion to the region. Add Valence to it, it is almost €150 billion. In addition, Lyon alone has a Gross Metropolitan Product of about €85 billion. The region has been part of Alps–Mediterranean Euroregion since 10 July 2007.", "Lyon is noted as a gastronomic centre of France and specialities served in its traditional \"bouchons\" include Lyon sausage, sophisticated salami (known there as \"\"rosette\"\"), tripe and quenelles. In the east of the region the food has an Alpine flavour with dishes such as fondue, raclette common, gratin dauphinois and gratin savoyard. The region is also famous for its Bresse poultry and the many varieties of cheese including Tomme de Savoie, Bleu de Bresse, Reblochon, Saint-Marcellin and Vacherin. Wines in this region include the very famous Beaujolais, Côtes du Rhône and Savoy wine. Chartreuse liqueur is made in the region.", "Rhône-Alpes region has hosted the Winter Olympics three times; in 1924 at Chamonix, 1968 at Grenoble, and 1992 at Albertville. Annecy tried to be 4th city, but it failed, getting outvoted by Pyeong-Chang.", "Situated between Paris and the Côte d’Azur, on the border with both Switzerland and Italy, and offering access to two international airports (Lyon and Geneva), impressive rail connections and a vast motorway network, the Rhône-Alpes region is at \"the crossroads of Europe\". Boasting eight natural parks and peerless sites such as Mont Blanc and the Gorges de l’Ardèche, Rhône-Alpes offers a wide range of different landscapes: mountains, vineyards and gentle valleys, fields of lavender and olive groves. Every form of sport is readily available, set against an impressive natural backdrop: skiing, hiking, mountain biking or even paragliding and canoeing. Besides hosting three Winter Olympics games due to its being the largest ski area in the world, Rhône-Alpes is the second most important golfing region in France with over 60 courses. Enthusiasts of art and culture will not be disappointed by the region's Villes d’Art: Lyon, which is classified by UNESCO as a World Heritage site, Annecy, Grenoble, Chambéry, and Saint-Étienne. And last but not least, connoisseurs of good food and wine will be spoilt for choice by the range of local specialties available to taste along with a Beaujolais or a Côtes du Rhône, and by the sheer number of famous restaurants (with Paul Bocuse at the top of the list) in the region.", "There are six main lakes in Rhône-Alpes", "For several centuries Lyon, capital of Rhône-Alpes, has been known as the French capital of gastronomy, due, in part, to the presence of many of France's finest chefs in the city and its surroundings (e.g. Paul Bocuse). This reputation also comes from the fact that two of France's best known wine-growing regions are located near Lyon: the Beaujolais to the North, and the Côtes du Rhône to the South. Beaujolais wine is very popular in Lyon and remains the most common table wine served with local dishes. Lyon is the home of very typical and traditional restaurants: the \"bouchons\". \"Bouchons\" are usually convivial restaurants serving local dishes, and local wines. Lyon is famous for its morning snacks, the \"mâchons\", made up of local charcuterie, especially the rosette and usually accompanied by Beaujolais red wine. Traditional local dishes include \"saucisson de Lyon\" (sausage), andouillette, coq au vin, esox (pike) quenelle, \"gras double\" (tripe cooked with onions), \"salade lyonnaise\" (lettuce with bacon, croûtons and a poached egg), marrons glacés and cardoon \"au gratin\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Acoustic properties.", "Amplification.", "Types.", "Body shape." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The guitar is an ancient instrument, whose history can be traced back over 4000 years. Many theories have been advanced about the instrument's ancestry, but the modern acoustic guitar comes from a long progression of stringed musical instruments. It has often been claimed that the guitar is a development of the medieval instrument vihuela, which evolved from the ancient lute. Gitterns, (small, plucked guitars) were the first small, guitar-like instruments created during the Spanish Middle Ages with a round back, like that of the lute. Modern guitar-shaped instruments were not seen until the Renaissance era, when the body and size began to take a guitar-like shape. The earliest string instruments that related to the guitar and its structure were broadly known as the vihuelas within Spanish musical culture. Vihuelas were string instruments that were commonly seen in the 16th century during the Renaissance. Later, Spanish writers distinguished these instruments into two categories of vihuelas. The vihuela de arco was an instrument that mimicked the violin, and the vihuela de penola was played with a plectrum or by hand. When it was played by hand it was known as the vihuela de mano. Vihuela de mano shared extreme similarities with the Renaissance guitar as it used hand movement at the sound hole or sound chamber of the instrument to create music. By 1790 only six-course vihuela guitars (six unison-tuned pairs of strings) were being created and had become the main type and model of guitar used in Spain. Most of the older 5-course guitars were still in use but were also being modified to a six-coursed acoustical guitar. Fernando Ferandiere's book \"Arte de tocar la guitarra espanola por musica\" (Madrid, 1799) describes the standard Spanish guitar from his time as an instrument with seventeen frets and six courses with the first two 'gut' strings tuned in unison called the \"terceras\" and the tuning named to 'G' of the two strings. The acoustic guitar at this time began to take the shape familiar in the modern acoustic guitar. The coursed pairs of strings eventually became less common in favor of single strings. Finally, circa 1850, the form and structure of the modern Guitar is credited to Spanish guitar maker Antonio Torres Jurado, who increased the size of the guitar body, altered its proportions, and made use of fan bracing, which first appeared in guitars made by Francisco Sanguino in the late 18th century. The bracing pattern, which refers to the internal pattern of wood reinforcements used to secure the guitar's top and back to prevent the instrument from collapsing under tension, is an important factor in how the guitar sounds. Torres' design greatly improved the volume, tone, and projection of the instrument, and it has remained essentially unchanged since.", "The acoustic guitar's soundboard, or top, also has a strong effect on the loudness of the guitar. Woods that are good at transmitting sound, like spruce, are commonly used for the soundboard. No amplification occurs in this process, because musicians add no external energy to increase the loudness of the sound (as would be the case with an electronic amplifier). All the energy is provided by the plucking of the string. Without a soundboard, however, the string would just \"cut\" through the air without moving it much. The soundboard increases the surface of the vibrating area in a process called mechanical impedance matching. The soundboard can move the air much more easily than the string alone, because it is large and flat. This increases the entire system's energy transfer efficiency, and musicians emit a much louder sound. In addition, the acoustic guitar has a hollow body, and an additional coupling and resonance effect increases the efficiency of energy transmission in lower frequencies. The air in a guitar's cavity resonates with the vibrational modes of the string and soundboard. At low frequencies, which depend on the size of the box, the chamber acts like a Helmholtz resonator, increasing or decreasing the volume of the sound again depending on whether the air in the box moves in phase or out of phase with the strings. When in phase, the sound increases by about 3 decibels. In opposing phase, it decreases about 3 decibels. As a Helmholtz resonator, the air at the opening is vibrating in or out of phase with the air in the box and in or out of phase with the strings. These resonance interactions attenuate or amplify the sound at different frequencies, boosting or damping various harmonic tones. Ultimately, the cavity air vibrations couple to the outside air through the sound hole, though some variants of the acoustic guitar omit this hole, or have formula_1 holes, like a violin family instrument (a trait found in some electric guitars such as the ES-335 and ES-175 models from Gibson). This coupling is most efficient because here the impedance matching is perfect: it is air pushing air. A guitar has several sound coupling modes: string to soundboard, soundboard to cavity air, and both soundboard and cavity air to outside air. The back of the guitar also vibrates to some degree, driven by air in the cavity and mechanical coupling to the rest of the guitar. The guitar—as an acoustic system—colors the sound by the way it generates and emphasizes harmonics, and how it couples this energy to the surrounding air (which ultimately is what we perceive as loudness). Improved coupling, however, comes costing decay time, since the string's energy is more efficiently transmitted. Solid body electric guitars (with no soundboard at all) produce very low volume, but tend to have long sustain. All these complex air coupling interactions, and the resonant properties of the panels themselves, are a key reason that different guitars have different tonal qualities. The sound is a complex mixture of harmonics that give the guitar its distinctive sound.", "Classical gut-string guitars lacked adequate projection, and were unable to displace banjos until innovations introduced helped to increase their volume. Two important innovations were introduced by US firm C.F. Martin: the steel strings and the increasing of the guitar top area; the popularity of Martin's larger \"dreadnought\" body size amongst acoustic performers is related to the greater sound volume produced. These innovations allowed guitars to compete with and often displace the banjos that had previously dominated jazz bands. The steel-strings increased tension on the neck; for stability, Martin reinforced the neck with a steel truss rod, which became standard in later steel-string guitars. An acoustic guitar can be amplified by using various types of pickups or microphones. However, amplification of acoustic guitars had many problems with audio feedback. In the 1960s, Ovation's parabolic bowls dramatically reduced feedback, allowing greater amplification of acoustic guitars. In the 1970s, Ovation developed thinner sound-boards with carbon-based composites laminating a thin layer of birch, in its Adamas model, which has been viewed as one of the most radical designs in the history of acoustic guitars. The Adamas model dissipated the sound-hole of the traditional soundboard among 22 small sound-holes in the upper chamber of the guitar, yielding greater volume and further reducing feedback during amplification. Another method for reducing feedback is to fit a rubber or plastic disc into the sound hole. The most common type of pickups used for acoustic guitar amplification are piezo and magnetic pickups. Piezo pickups are generally mounted under the bridge saddle of the acoustic guitar and can be plugged into a mixer or amplifier. A Piezo pickup made by Baldwin was incorporated in the body of Ovation guitars, rather than attached by drilling through the body; the combination of the Piezo pickup and parabolic (\"roundback\") body helped Ovation succeed in the market during the 1970s. Magnetic pickups on acoustic guitars are generally mounted in the sound hole, and are similar to those in electric guitars. An acoustic guitar with pickups for electrical amplification is called an acoustic-electric guitar. In the 2000s, manufacturers introduced new types of pickups to try to amplify the full sound of these instruments. This includes body sensors, and systems that include an internal microphone along with body sensors or under-the-saddle pickups.", "Historical and modern acoustic guitars are extremely varied in their design and construction, far more so than electric guitars. Some of the most important varieties are the classical guitar (Spanish Guitar/Nylon-stringed), steel-string acoustic guitar and lap steel guitar.", "Common body shapes for modern acoustic guitars, from smallest to largest: Range – The smallest common body shape, sometimes called a \"mini jumbo\", is three-quarters the size of a jumbo-shaped guitar. A range shape typically has a rounded back to improve projection for the smaller body. The smaller body and scale length make the range guitar an option for players who struggle with larger body guitars. Parlor – Parlor guitars have small compact bodies and have been described as “punchy” sounding with a delicate tone. It normally has 12 open frets. The smaller body makes the parlor a more comfortable option for players who find large body guitars uncomfortable. Grand Concert – This mid-sized body shape is not as deep as other full-size guitars, but has a full waist. Because of the smaller body, grand concert guitars have a more controlled overtone and are often used for its sound projection when recording. Auditorium – Similar in dimensions to the dreadnought body shape, but with a much more pronounced waist. The shifting of the waist provides different tones to stand out. The auditorium body shape is a newer body when compared to the other shapes such as dreadnought. Dreadnought – This is the classic guitar body shape. The style was designed by Martin Guitars to produce a deeper sound than \"classic\"-style guitars, with very resonant bass. Used for over 100 years, it is still the most popular body style for acoustic guitars. The body is large and the waist of the guitar is not as pronounced as the auditorium and grand concert bodies. This allows mid-range frequencies to stand out, helping the guitar cut through an ensemble of instruments. Jumbo – The largest standard guitar body shape found on acoustic guitars. The large body provides more punch and volume, while accenting the \"boomy\" low end of the guitar. Jumbo is bigger than a Grand Auditorium but similarly proportioned, and is generally designed to provide a deep tone similar to a dreadnought's. It was designed by Gibson to compete with the dreadnought, but with maximum resonant space for greater volume and sustain. These come at the expense of being oversized, with a very deep sounding box, and thus somewhat more difficult to play. The foremost example of the style is the Gibson J-200, but like the dreadnought, most guitar manufacturers have at least one jumbo model." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Logical equivalences.", "Examples.", "In logic.", "In mathematics.", "Relation to material equivalence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In logic, many common logical equivalences exist and are often listed as laws or properties. The following tables illustrate some of these.", "", "The following statements are logically equivalent: Syntactically, (1) and (2) are derivable from each other via the rules of contraposition and double negation. Semantically, (1) and (2) are true in exactly the same models (interpretations, valuations); namely, those in which either \"Lisa is in Denmark\" is false or \"Lisa is in Europe\" is true.", "In mathematics, two statements formula_1 and formula_2 are often said to be logically equivalent, if they are provable from each other given a set of axioms and presuppositions. For example, the statement \"formula_26 is divisible by 6\" can be regarded as equivalent to the statement \"formula_26 is divisible by 2 and 3\", since one can prove the former from the latter (and vice versa) using some knowledge from basic number theory.", "Logical equivalence is different from material equivalence. Formulas formula_1 and formula_2 are logically equivalent if and only if the statement of their material equivalence (formula_8) is a tautology. The material equivalence of formula_1 and formula_2 (often written as formula_8) is itself another statement in the same object language as formula_1 and formula_2. This statement expresses the idea \"'formula_1 if and only if formula_2'\". In particular, the truth value of formula_8 can change from one model to another. On the other hand, the claim that two formulas are logically equivalent is a statement in the metalanguage, which expresses a relationship between two statements formula_1 and formula_2. The statements are logically equivalent if, in every model, they have the same truth value." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gameplay.", "\"GTA 2 – The Movie\".", "Soundtrack.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Like its predecessor \"Grand Theft Auto\", the game focuses on players completing a series of levels, each requiring a set target score being achieved in order to progress to the next stage. Points are awarded from various criminal actions such as destroying cars, selling vehicles, and completing missions for various crime syndicates, with the latter awarding more points than doing simple criminal actions. Unlike its predecessor, \"Grand Theft Auto 2\" is set in an unspecified time period—conflicting sources suggest anything from \"three weeks into the future\", to the year to be 2013, despite in-game references—and within a retrofuturistic metropolis referred to only as \"Anywhere, USA\", with each level focused on a different district of the city. Completing jobs earns points and a multiplier bonus, while failing them earns nothing. Creating chaos from their crimes will cause the player to be wanted by the police who will hound the player to arrest or kill them, with higher wanted levels increasing the level of response used. Being arrested or dying loses the player any equipment they found, and impacts their multiplier bonus. \"Grand Theft Auto 2\" introduced several new features and improvements to the game. Players can now save their game during a playthrough of a level by visiting the church they start at, but must pay a set number of points to do so. Jobs on offer come from three different syndicates—each level features two unique syndicates, alongside a third syndicate present in all levels. By doing jobs for a syndicate and successfully completing them, the player gains respect with that syndicate, allowing them to take on tougher jobs with enough respect, but lose it with their chief rivals, locking them out of their jobs and making the syndicate's members hostile to the player. Other improvements include vehicles and pedestrians being more interactive with the game's environment—such as gang members engaging in fights with police—the presence of other criminals (such as muggers), a health meter, garages that can modify vehicles with special improvements, a selection of side missions ranging from running a taxi to driving a semi-truck, and groups of 'hidden' packages to find across the level.", "The game was developed with an eight-minute short film of live-action footage, filmed within New York City. The movie was devised as an introductory sequence for the game, and was made available on Rockstar Games's website. The film focuses on the exploits of a criminal named Claude Speed (Scott Maslen), who conducts jobs around Anywhere City, before being killed by an assassin from one of the syndicates. The film was based on a screenplay by Dan Houser, and directed by Alex De Rakoff.", "Each area features five radio stations from a pool of eleven, one of which is heard as the player drives most vehicles in-game. Changing radio stations for preference is possible. \"Head Radio\" was present in the original \"Grand Theft Auto\", \"Grand Theft Auto III\" and \"Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories\". Each gang has its own radio station that transmits within a limited area. Police vehicles, ambulances, fire trucks and tanks had no ability to listen to the radio channels. Instead, the player would hear the radio transmitter of the emergency services. All the music and the ads included in the game are exclusive, following the tradition of previous games. People in charge of the musical content were Craig Conner, Stuart Ross, Paul Scargill, Colin Anderson, Bert Reid and Moving Shadow. Some of these producers would keep their work on subsequent GTA releases. The Game Boy Color version uses some real songs, one of which is a sped up version of Back in Black by AC/DC. The Character Selection theme is an old Brazilian song titled \"Chega de Saudade\".", "\"Grand Theft Auto 2\"s computer version received a \"Silver\" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 100,000 copies in the United Kingdom. The game's PlayStation version received a \"Platinum\" sales award (300,000 or more units in the United Kingdom) from ELSPA. \"Grand Theft Auto 2\" was released to mixed reviews. The game's graphics received mixed reactions from critics, who noted that they had barely any difference to the graphics in the original game. IGN's Tal Blevins called them \"average at best\", and that the scenery is \"hard to appreciate\". Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot said that the \"graphics look a bit plain.\" The game's soundtrack received positive feedback, with Jeff Gerstmann calling it a \"great soundtrack\", and that it \"closely [mirrors] the station-style of the original game\". Tal Blevins of IGN called it \"one of the best features\" of the game. \"Grand Theft Auto 2\"s gameplay elements received mixed reactions. IGN's Jeremy Dunham said that the gameplay is \"where the game really takes a punch to the stomach\", and that it \"could've been a lot better.\" Tal Blevins called it \"simple, but effective.\" Jeff Gerstmann said that \"even though the gameplay is largely the same as in the previous \"GTA\", it's still a lot of fun.\" \"Edge\" highlighted the game's story development and inventive missions, stating that \"Grand Theft Auto 2\" \"manages to draw you deep into the complexities of its world\". Blake Fischer reviewed the Dreamcast version of the game for \"Next Generation\", rating it two stars out of five, and stated that it is \"A great idea that, for one reason or another, never really gets into a must-play game.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History.", "Arab sources.", "Cartographic representation.", "European contact.", "Etymology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Senegal's headwaters are the Semefé (Bakoye) and Bafing rivers which both originate in Guinea; they form a small part of the Guinea–Mali border before coming together at Bafoulabé in Mali. From there, the Senegal river flows west and then north through Talari Gorges near Galougo and over the Gouina Falls, then flows more gently past Kayes, where it receives the Kolimbiné. After flowing together with the Karakoro, it prolongs the former's course along the Mali–Mauritania border for some tens of kilometers till Bakel where it flows together with the Falémé River, which also has its source in Guinea, subsequently runs along a small part of the Guinea-Mali frontier to then trace most of the Senegal-Mali border up to Bakel. The Senegal further flows through semi-arid land in the north of Senegal, forming the border with Mauritania and into the Atlantic. In Kaedi it accepts the Gorgol from Mauritania. Flowing through Boghé it reaches Richard Toll where it is joined by the Ferlo coming from inland Senegal's Lac de Guiers. It passes through Rosso and, approaching its mouth, around the Senegalese island on which the city of Saint-Louis is located, to then turn south. It is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by a thin strip of sand called the Langue de Barbarie before it pours into the ocean itself. The river has two large dams along its course, the multi-purpose Manantali Dam in Mali and the Maka-Diama Dam downstream on the Mauritania-Senegal border, near the outlet to the sea, preventing access of salt water upstream. In between Manantali and Maka-Diama is the Félou Hydroelectric Plant which was originally completed in 1927 and uses a weir. The power station was replaced in 2014. In 2013, construction of the Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream of Felou at Gouina Falls began. The Senegal River has a drainage basin of 270,000 km, a mean flow of 680 m/s and an annual discharge of 21.5 km. Important tributaries are the Falémé River, Karakoro River, and the Gorgol River. Downstream of Kaédi the river divides into two branches. The left branch called the Doué runs parallel to the main river to the north. After 200 km the two branches rejoin a few kilometres downstream of Pondor. The long strip of land between the two branches is called the Île á Morfil. In 1972 Mali, Mauritania and Senegal founded the Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) to manage the river basin. Guinea joined in 2005. At the present time, only very limited use is made of the river for the transport of goods and passengers. The OMVS have looked at the feasibility of creating a navigable channel 55 m in width between the small town of Ambidédi in Mali and Saint-Louis, a distance of 905 km. It would give landlocked Mali a direct route to the Atlantic Ocean. The aquatic fauna in the Senegal River basin is closely associated with that of the Gambia River basin, and the two are usually combined under a single ecoregion known as the Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Although the species richness is moderately high, only three species of frogs and one fish are endemic to this ecoregion.", "The existence of the Senegal River was known to the early Mediterranean civilizations. It or some other river was called \"Bambotus\" by Pliny the Elder (possibly from Phoenician \"behemoth\" for hippopotamus) and \"Nias\" by Claudius Ptolemy. It was visited by Hanno the Carthaginian around 450 BCE at his navigation from Carthage through the pillars of Herakles to Theon Ochema (Mount Cameroon) in the Gulf of Guinea. There was trade from here to the Mediterranean World, until the destruction of Carthage and its west African trade net in 146 BCE.", "In the Early Middle Ages (c. 800 CE), the Senegal River restored contact with the Mediterranean world with the establishment of the Trans-Saharan trade route between Morocco and the Ghana Empire. Arab geographers, like al-Masudi of Baghdad (957), al-Bakri of Spain (1068) and al-Idrisi of Sicily (1154), provided some of the earliest descriptions of the Senegal River. Early Arab geographers believed the upper Senegal River and the upper Niger River were connected to each other, and formed a single river flowing from east to west, which they called the \"Western Nile\". (In fact, some of the headwaters of the Senegal River are near the Niger River in Mali and Guinea.) It was believed to be either a western branch of the Egyptian Nile River or drawn from the same source (variously conjectured to some great internal lakes of the Mountains of the Moon, or Ptolemy's Gir (Γειρ) or the Biblical Gihon stream). Arab geographers Abd al-Hassan Ali ibn Omar (1230), Ibn Said al-Maghribi (1274) and Abulfeda (1331), label the Senegal as the \"Nile of Ghana\" (Nil Gana or Nili Ganah). As the Senegal River reached into the heart of the gold-producing Ghana Empire and later the Mali Empire, Trans-Saharan traders gave the Senegal its famous nickname as the \"River of Gold\". The Trans-Saharan stories about the \"River of Gold\" reached the ears of Sub-Alpine European merchants that frequented the ports of Morocco and the lure proved irresistible. Arab historians report at least three separate Arab maritime expeditions - the last one organized by a group of eight \"mughrarin\" (\"wanderers\") of Lisbon (before 1147) - that tried to sail down the Atlantic coast, possibly in an effort find the mouth of the Senegal.", "Drawing from Classical legend and Arab sources, the \"River of Gold\" found its way into European maps in the 14th century. In the Hereford Mappa Mundi (c. 1300), there is a river labelled \"Nilus Fluvius\" drawn \"parallel\" to the coast of Africa, albeit without communication with Atlantic (it ends in a lake). It depicts some giant ants digging up gold dust from its sands, with the note \"\"Hic grandes formice auream serican [or servant] arenas\"\" (\"Here great ants guard gold sands\"). In the mappa mundi made by Pietro Vesconte for the c. 1320 atlas of Marino Sanuto, there is an unnamed river stemming from the African interior and opening in the Atlantic ocean. The 1351 Medici-Laurentian Atlas shows both the Egyptian Nile and the western Nile stemming from the same internal mountain range, with the note that \"\"Ilic coligitur aureaum\"\". The portolan chart of Giovanni da Carignano (1310s-20s) has the river with the label, \"iste fluuis exit de nilo ubi multum aurum repperitur\". In the more accurately-drawn portolan charts, starting with the 1367 chart of Domenico and Francesco Pizzigano and carried on in the 1375 Catalan Atlas, the 1413 chart of the Catalan \"converso\", etc. the \"River of Gold\" is depicted (if only speculatively), draining into the Atlantic Ocean somewhere just south of Cape Bojador. The legend of Cape Bojador as a terrifying obstacle, the 'cape of no return' to European sailors, emerged around the same time (possibly encouraged by Trans-Saharan traders who did not want to see their land route sidestepped by sea). The river is frequently depicted with a great river island midway, the \"Island of Gold\", first mentioned by al-Masudi, and famously called \"\"Wangara\"\" by al-Idrisi and \"\"Palolus\"\" in the 1367 Pizzigani brothers chart. It is conjectured that this riverine \"island\" is in fact just the Bambuk-Buré goldfield district, which is practically surrounded on all sides by rivers - the Senegal river to the north, the Falémé River to the west, the Bakhoy to the east and the Niger and Tinkisso to the south. The 1413 portolan chart of gives perhaps the most detailed depiction of the early state of European knowledge about the Senegal River prior to the 1440s. Viladestes labels it \"River of Gold\" (\"\"riu del or\"\") and locates it a considerable distance south of Cape Bojador (\"buyeter\") - indeed, south of a mysterious \"\"cap de abach\"\" (possibly Cape Timris). There are extensive notes about the plentifulness of ivory and gold in the area, including a note that reads The galley of Jaume Ferrer is depicted off the coast on the left, with a quick note about his 1346 voyage. The golden round island at the mouth of the Senegal River is the indication (customary on portolan charts) of river mouth bars or islands - in this case, probably a reference to the Langue de Barbarie or the island of Saint-Louis). The first town, by the mouth of the Senegal, is called \"\"isingan\"\" (arguably the etymological source of the term \"Senegal\"). East of that, the Senegal forms a riverine island called \"\"insula de bronch\"\" (Île à Morfil). By its shores lies the city of \"\"tocoror\"\" (Takrur). Above it is a depiction of the Almoravid general Abu Bakr ibn Umar (\"\"Rex Bubecar\"\") on a camel. Further east, along the river, is the seated emperor (mansa) of Mali (\"\"Rex Musa Meli\"\", prob. Mansa Musa), holding a gold nugget. His capital, \"\"civitat musa meli\"\" is shown on the shores of the river, and the range of the Emperor of Mali's sway is suggested by all the black banners (an inscription notes \"This lord of the blacks is called Musa Melli, Lord of Guinea, the greatest noble lord of these parts for the abundance of the gold which is collected in his lands\". Curiously, there is a defiant gold-bannered town south of the river, labelled \"\"tegezeut\"\" (probably the Ta'adjast of al-Idrisi), and might be an ichoate reference to Djenné. East of Mali, the river forms a lake or \"Island of Gold\" shown here studded with river-washed gold nuggets (this is what the Pizzigani brothers called the island of \"\"Palolus\"\", and most commentators take to indicate the Bambuk-Buré goldfields). It is connected by many streams to the southerly \"mountains of gold\" (labelled \"\"montanies del lor\"\", the Futa Djallon/Bambouk Mountains and Loma Mountains of Sierra Leone). It is evident the Senegal river morphs east, unbroken, into the Niger River - the cities of \"\"tenbuch\"\" (Timbuktu), \"\"geugeu\"\" (Gao) and \"\"mayna\"\" (Niamey? or a misplaced Niani?) are denoted along the same single river. South of them (barely visible) are what seem like the towns of Kukiya (on the eastern shore of the Island of Gold), and east of that, probably Sokoto (called \"Zogde\" in the Catalan Atlas) and much further southeast, probably Kano. North of the Senegal-Niger are the various oases and stations of the trans-Saharan route (\"\"Tutega\"\" = Tijigja, \"\"Anzica\"\" = In-Zize, \"\"Tegaza\"\" = Taghaza, etc.) towards the Mediterranean coast. There is an unlabeled depiction of a black African man on a camel traveling from \"\"Uuegar\"\" (prob. Hoggar) to the town of \"Organa\" (\"\"ciutat organa\"\", variously identified as Kanem or Ouargla or possibly even a misplaced depiction of Ghana - long defunct, but, on the other hand, contemporaneous with the depicted Abu Bakr). Nearby sits its Arab-looking king (\"\"Rex Organa\"\") holding a scimitar. The River of Gold is sourced at a circular island, what seem like the Mountains of the Moon (albeit unlabeled here). From this same source also flows north the White Nile towards Egypt, which forms the frontier between the Muslim \"king of Nubia\" (\"\"Rex Onubia\"\", his range depicted by crescent-on-gold banners) and the Christian Prester John (\"\"Preste Joha\"\"), i.e. the emperor of Ethiopia in the garb of a Christian bishop (coincidentally, this is the first visual depiction of Prester John on a portolan chart). Uniquely, the Viladestes map shows another river, south of the Senegal, which it labels the \"\"flumen gelica\"\" (poss. \"angelica\"), which some have taken to depict the Gambia River. In the 1459 mappa mundi of Fra Mauro, drawn a half-century later, after the Portuguese had already visited the Senegal (albeit still trying to respect Classical sources), shows \"two\" parallel rivers running east to west, both of them sourced from the same great internal lake (which, Fra Mauro asserts, is also the same source as the Egyptian Nile). Mauro names the two parallel rivers differently,calling one \"\"flumen Mas\" (\"Mas River\"), the other the \"\"canal dal oro\"\" (\"Channel of Gold\"), and makes the note that \"\"Inne larena de questi do fiume se trova oro de paiola\"\" (\"In the sands of both these rivers gold of 'palola' may be found\"), and nearer to the sea, \"\"Qui se racoce oro\"\" (\"Here gold is collected\"), and finally, on the coast, \"\"Terra de Palmear\"\" (\"Land of Palms\"). It is notable that Fra Mauro knew of the error of Henry the Navigator's captains about the Daklha inlet, which Mauro carefully labels \"\"Reodor\"\" (\"Rio do Ouro\", Western Sahara), distinctly from the \"Canal del Oro\" (Senegal River).", "Christian Europeans soon began attempting to find the sea route to the mouth of the Senegal. The first known effort may have been by the Genoese brothers Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi, who set out down the coast in 1291 in a pair of ships (nothing more is heard of them). In 1346, the Majorcan sailor, Jaume Ferrer set out on a galley with the explicit objective of finding the \"River of Gold\" (\"Riu de l'Or\"), where he heard that most people along its shores were engaged in the collection of gold and that the river was wide and deep enough for the largest ships. Nothing more is heard of him either. In 1402, after establishing the first European colony on the Canary Islands, the French Norman adventurers Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle set about immediately probing the African coast, looking for directions to the mouth of Senegal. The project of finding the Senegal was taken up in the 1420s by the Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator, who invested heavily to reach it. In 1434, one of Henry's captains, Gil Eanes, finally surpassed Cape Bojador and returned to tell about it. Henry immediately dispatched a follow up mission in 1435, under Gil Eanes and Afonso Gonçalves Baldaia. Going down the coast, they turned around the al-Dakhla peninsula in the Western Sahara and emerged into an inlet, which they excitedly believed to be the mouth of the Senegal River. The name they mistakenly bestowed upon the inlet - \"Rio do Ouro\" - is a name it would remain stuck with down to the 20th century. Realizing the mistake, Henry kept pressing his captains further down the coast, and in 1445, the Portuguese captain Nuno Tristão finally reached the Langue de Barbarie, where he noticed the desert end and the treeline begin, and the population change from 'tawny' Sanhaja Berbers to 'black' Wolof people. Bad weather or lack of supplies prevented Tristão from actually reaching the mouth of the Senegal River, but he rushed back to Portugal to report he had finally found the \"Land of the Blacks\" (\"Terra dos Negros\"), and that the \"Nile\" was surely nearby. Shortly after (possibly still within that same year) another captain, Dinis Dias (sometimes given as Dinis Fernandes) was the first known European since antiquity to finally reach the mouth of the Senegal River. However, Dias did not sail upriver, but instead kept sailing down the Grande Côte to the bay of Dakar. The very next year, in 1446, the Portuguese slave-raiding fleet of Lançarote de Freitas arrived at the mouth of the Senegal. One of its captains, Estêvão Afonso, volunteered to take a launch to explore upriver for settlements, thus becoming the first European to actually enter the Senegal river. He didn't get very far. Venturing ashore at one point along the river bank, Afonso tried to kidnap two Wolof children from a woodsman's hut. But he ran into their father, who proceeded to chase the Portuguese back to their launch and gave them such a beating that the explorers gave up on going any further, and turned back to the waiting caravels. Sometime between 1448 and 1455, the Portuguese captain Lourenço Dias opened regular trade contact on the Senegal River, with the Wolof statelets of Waalo (near the mouth of the Senegal River) and Cayor (a little below that), drumming up a profitable business exchanging Mediterranean goods (notably, horses) for gold and slaves. Chronicler Gomes Eanes de Zurara, writing in 1453, still called it the \"Nile River\", but Alvise Cadamosto, writing in the 1460s, was already calling it the \"Senega\", and it is denoted as \"Rio do Çanagà\" on most subsequent Portuguese maps of the age. Cadamosto relates the legend that both the Senegal and the Egyptian Nile were branches of the Biblical Gihon River that stems from the Garden of Eden and flows through Ethiopia. He also notes that the Senegal was called \"the Niger\" by the ancients - probably a reference to Ptolemy's legendary 'Nigir' (Νιγειρ) (below the Gir), which would be later identified by Leo Africanus with the modern Niger River. Much the same story is repeated by Marmol in 1573, with the additional note that both the Senegal River and Gambia River were tributaries of the Niger River. However, the contemporary African atlas of Venetian cartographer Livio Sanuto, published in 1588, sketches the Senegal, the Niger and the Gambia as three separate, parallel rivers. Portuguese chronicler João de Barros (writing in 1552) says the river's original local Wolof name was \"Ovedech\" (which according to one source, comes from \"vi-dekh\", Wolof for \"this river\"). His contemporary, Damião de Góis (1567) records it as \"Sonedech\" (from \"sunu dekh\", Wolof for \"our river\"). Writing in 1573, the Spanish geographer Luis del Marmol Carvajal asserts that the Portuguese called it \"Zenega\", the 'Zeneges' (Berber Zenaga) called it the \"Zenedec\", the 'Gelofes' (Wolofs) call it \"Dengueh\", the 'Tucorones' (Fula Toucouleur) called it \"Mayo\", the 'Çaragoles' (Soninke Sarakole of Ngalam) called it \"Colle\" and further along (again, Marmol assuming Senegal was connected to the Niger), the people of Bagamo' (Bambara of Bamako?) called it \"Zimbala\" (Jimbala?) and the people of Timbuktu called it the \"Yça\".", "The 16th-century chronicler Joao de Barros asserts the Portuguese renamed it \"Senegal\" because that was the personal name of a local Wolof chieftain who frequently conducted business with the Portuguese traders. But this etymology is doubtful (e.g. the ruler of Senegalese river state of Waalo bears the title 'Brak', and Cadamosto gives the personal name of the Senegal river chieftain as \"Zucholin\"). The confusion may have arisen because Cadamosto says the Portuguese interacted frequently with a certain Wolof chieftain south of the river, somewhere on the Grande Côte, which he refers to as \"Budomel\". \"Budomel\" is almost certainly a reference to the ruler of Cayor, a combination of his formal title (\"Damel\"), prefixed by the generic Wolof term \"bor\" (\"lord\"). Curiously, Budomel is reminiscent of \"Vedamel\" already used by the Genoese back in the 14th century as an alternative name of the Senegal River. It is almost certain that the Genoese \"Vedamel\" are corruptions from the Arabic, either \"Wad al-mal\" (\"River of Treasure\", i.e. Gold) or, alternatively, \"Wad al-Melli\" (\"River of Mali\") or even, by transcription error, \"Wad al-Nill\" (\"River of Nile\"). Other etymological theories for \"Senegal\" abound. A popular one, first proposed by Fr. David Boilat (1853), was that \"Senegal\" comes from the Wolof phrase \"sunu gaal\", meaning \"our canoe\" (more precisely, \"our pirogue\"). Bailot speculates the name probably arose as a misunderstanding, that when a Portuguese captain came across some Wolof fishermen and asked them what the name of the river was, they believed he was asking who their fishing boat belonged to, and replied simply \"it is our canoe\" (\"sunu gaal\"). The \"our canoe\" theory has been popularly embraced in modern Senegal for its charm and appeal to national solidarity (\"we're all in one canoe\", etc.). More recent historians suggest the name \"Senegal\" is probably a derivation of \"Azenegue\", the Portuguese term for the Saharan Berber Zenaga people that lived north of it. A strong challenge to this theory is that \"Senegal\" is much older, and might derive from \"Sanghana\" (also given as Isenghan, Asengan, Singhanah), a city described by the Arab historian al-Bakri in 1068 as located by the mouth of the Senegal River (straddling both banks) and the capital of a local kingdom. The location \"Senegany\" is depicted in 1351 Genoese map known as the Medici Atlas (Laurentian Gaddiano portolan). This town (\"Isingan\") is fantastically depicted in the 1413 portolan map of Majorcan cartographer. The name itself might be of Berber Zenaga origin, speculatively related to 'Ismegh' ('black slave', analogous to the Arabic 'abd) or'sagui nughal' ('border'). Some sources claim 'Isinghan' remained the usual Berber term to refer to the Wolof kingdom of Cayor. Some Serer people from the south have advanced the claim that the river's name is originally derived from the compound of the Serer term \"Sene\" (from Rog Sene, Supreme Deity in Serer religion) and \"O Gal\" (meaning \"body of water\")." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Past water flows.", "Past habitability." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Four large Noachian epoch channels lie radial to the basin. Three of these channels (Surius Valles, Dzígai Valles, and Palacopas Valles) flowed into Argyre from the south and east through the rim mountains. The fourth, Uzboi Vallis, appears to have flowed out from the basin's north rim to the Chryse region and may have drained a lake of melting ice within the basin. A smaller outflow channel named Nia Valles is relatively fresh-looking, and probably formed during the early Amazonian after the major fluvial and lacustrine episodes had finished. The original basin floor is buried with friable, partially deflated layered material that may be lake sediment. No inner rings are visible; however, isolated massifs within the basin may be remnants of an inner ring.", "The impact that formed the Argyre basin probably struck an ice cap or a thick permafrost layer. Energy from the impact melted the ice and formed a giant lake that eventually sent water to the North. The lakes's volume was equal to that of Earth's Mediterranean Sea. The deepest part of the lake may have taken more than a hundred thousand years to freeze, but with the help of heat from the impact, geothermal heating, and dissolved solutes it may have had liquid water for many millions of years. The basin would have supported a regional environment favorable for the origin and the persistence of life. This region shows a great deal of evidence of glacial activity with flow features, crevasse-like fractures, drumlines, eskers, tarns, aretes, cirques, horns, U-shaped valleys, and terraces. Because of the shapes of Argyre sinuous ridges, the authors agree with previous publications in that they are eskers. Based on morphometrical and geomorphological analysis of the Argyre eskers and their immediate surroundings, it was suggested that they formed beneath an approximately 2 km thick, stagnant (i.e., stationary) ice sheet around 3.6 billion years ago. This stagnant body of ice might have resembled a Piedmont-style glacier comparable to today's Malaspina Glacier in Alaska." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Politics.", "Economy.", "Religion.", "Municipalities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Governor is the representative or \"commissioner\" of the Federal and the Flemish Government in Flemish Brabant. He is appointed by the Flemish Government, on the unanimous advice of the Federal Council of Ministers. The current Governor is Lodewijk De Witte, he has been the Governor of Flemish Brabant since it was created in 1995 as a result of the splitting up of the Province of Brabant. The Governor is responsible for supervising the local authorities, ensuring that laws and decrees are observed, maintaining public order and security, and coordinating the response to a disaster which has occurred in his province. He also presides over the Deputation, however, he doesn't have the right to vote in the Deputation except in those cases where the Deputation exercises a judicial function. Flemish Brabant is the only province that has a Deputy Governor as well. The Deputy Governor is appointed by the Flemish Government on the unanimous advice of the Federal Council of Ministers and must have a considerable knowledge of both the Dutch and the French language. He is responsible for ensuring that the language legislation is observed in the peripheral municipalities of Flemish Brabant. The Provincial Council of Flemish Brabant consists of 72 members (84 members until 2012) elected for a term of office of 6 years. The last election was held on Sunday 14 October 2012. Seven political parties have seats in the Provincial Council: The current President of the Provincial Council is An Hermans (CD&V). She is assisted by a Bureau which consists of two Vice-Presidents, four Secretaries, three Quaestors and the floor leaders of the fractions in the Provincial Council. The governing majority in the Provincial Council for 2013–2018 is formed by CD&V, Open VLD, sp.a and Groen. These parties together have a majority of 43 out of 72 seats. The Deputation is the executive organ responsible for the daily administration of the province. It consists of the Governor and six Deputies elected by the Provincial Council from among its midst. For the 2013–2018 legislative term, the Deputies are divided among the majority parties as follows: two for CD&V, two for Open Vld, one for sp.a and one for Groen.", "The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the province was 49.8 billion € in 2018. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 38,600 € or 128% of the EU27 average in the same year.", "According to the \"International Social Survey Programme 2008: Religion III\" by the Association of Religion Data Archives, 73.9% of Flemish Brabant's population identify themselves as Catholics, 23.1% as non-religious, 3% identify themselves in other religions.", "Flemish Brabant has 65 municipalities: 35 in the Arrondissement of Halle-Vilvoorde and 30 in Leuven." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Notation.", "Definition.", "Examples.", "Simple example.", "Equivalence relations.", "Well-definedness under an equivalence relation.", "Equivalence class, quotient set, partition.", "Equivalence class.", "Quotient set.", "Projection.", "Equivalence kernel.", "Partition.", "Counting partitions.", "Fundamental theorem of equivalence relations.", "Comparing equivalence relations.", "Generating equivalence relations.", "Algebraic structure.", "Group theory.", "Categories and groupoids.", "Lattices.", "Equivalence relations and mathematical logic.", "Euclidean relations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Various notations are used in the literature to denote that two elements and of a set are equivalent with respect to an equivalence relation ; the most common are \"\" and \"\", which are used when is implicit, and variations of \"\", \"\", or \"\" to specify explicitly. Non-equivalence may be written \"\" or \"formula_1\".", "A given binary relation ~ on a set \"X\" is said to be an equivalence relation if and only if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. That is, for all \"a\", \"b\" and \"c\" in \"X\": \"X\" together with the relation ~ is called a setoid. The equivalence class of formula_2 under ~, denoted formula_3, is defined as formula_4.", "", "Let the set formula_5 have the equivalence relation formula_6. The following sets are equivalence classes of this relation: The set of all equivalence classes for this relation is formula_8. This set is a partition of the set formula_5.", "The following are all equivalence relations:", "If ~ is an equivalence relation on \"X\", and \"P\"(\"x\") is a property of elements of \"X\", such that whenever \"x\" ~ \"y\", \"P\"(\"x\") is true if \"P\"(\"y\") is true, then the property \"P\" is said to be well-defined or a \"class invariant\" under the relation ~. A frequent particular case occurs when \"f\" is a function from \"X\" to another set \"Y\"; if \"x\" ~ \"x\" implies \"f\"(\"x\") = \"f\"(\"x\") then \"f\" is said to be a \"morphism\" for ~, a \"class invariant under\" ~, or simply \"invariant under\" ~. This occurs, e.g. in the character theory of finite groups. The latter case with the function \"f\" can be expressed by a commutative triangle. See also invariant. Some authors use \"compatible with ~\" or just \"respects ~\" instead of \"invariant under ~\". More generally, a function may map equivalent arguments (under an equivalence relation ~) to equivalent values (under an equivalence relation ~). Such a function is known as a morphism from ~ to ~.", "Let formula_12. Some definitions:", "A subset \"Y\" of \"X\" such that \"a\" ~ \"b\" holds for all \"a\" and \"b\" in \"Y\", and never for \"a\" in \"Y\" and \"b\" outside \"Y\", is called an equivalence class of \"X\" by ~. Let formula_13 denote the equivalence class to which \"a\" belongs. All elements of \"X\" equivalent to each other are also elements of the same equivalence class.", "The set of all equivalence classes of \"X\" by ~, denoted formula_14, is the quotient set of \"X\" by ~. If \"X\" is a topological space, there is a natural way of transforming \"X\"/~ into a topological space; see quotient space for the details.", "The projection of ~ is the function formula_15 defined by formula_16 which maps elements of \"X\" into their respective equivalence classes by ~.", "The equivalence kernel of a function \"f\" is the equivalence relation ~ defined by formula_17. The equivalence kernel of an injection is the identity relation.", "A partition of \"X\" is a set \"P\" of nonempty subsets of \"X\", such that every element of \"X\" is an element of a single element of \"P\". Each element of \"P\" is a \"cell\" of the partition. Moreover, the elements of \"P\" are pairwise disjoint and their union is \"X\".", "Let \"X\" be a finite set with \"n\" elements. Since every equivalence relation over \"X\" corresponds to a partition of \"X\", and vice versa, the number of equivalence relations on \"X\" equals the number of distinct partitions of \"X\", which is the \"n\"th Bell number \"B\":", "A key result links equivalence relations and partitions: In both cases, the cells of the partition of \"X\" are the equivalence classes of \"X\" by ~. Since each element of \"X\" belongs to a unique cell of any partition of \"X\", and since each cell of the partition is identical to an equivalence class of \"X\" by ~, each element of \"X\" belongs to a unique equivalence class of \"X\" by ~. Thus there is a natural bijection between the set of all equivalence relations on \"X\" and the set of all partitions of \"X\".", "If ~ and ≈ are two equivalence relations on the same set \"S\", and \"a\"~\"b\" implies \"a\"≈\"b\" for all \"a\",\"b\" ∈ \"S\", then ≈ is said to be a coarser relation than ~, and ~ is a finer relation than ≈. Equivalently, The equality equivalence relation is the finest equivalence relation on any set, while the universal relation, which relates all pairs of elements, is the coarsest. The relation \"~ is finer than ≈\" on the collection of all equivalence relations on a fixed set is itself a partial order relation, which makes the collection a geometric lattice.", "Given any binary relation formula_19 on formula_20, the equivalence relation generated by formula_21 is the intersection of the equivalence relations on formula_22 that contain formula_23. (Since formula_24 is an equivalence relation, the intersection is nontrivial.)", "Much of mathematics is grounded in the study of equivalences, and order relations. Lattice theory captures the mathematical structure of order relations. Even though equivalence relations are as ubiquitous in mathematics as order relations, the algebraic structure of equivalences is not as well known as that of orders. The former structure draws primarily on group theory and, to a lesser extent, on the theory of lattices, categories, and groupoids.", "Just as order relations are grounded in ordered sets, sets closed under pairwise supremum and infimum, equivalence relations are grounded in partitioned sets, which are sets closed under bijections that preserve partition structure. Since all such bijections map an equivalence class onto itself, such bijections are also known as permutations. Hence permutation groups (also known as transformation groups) and the related notion of orbit shed light on the mathematical structure of equivalence relations. Let '~' denote an equivalence relation over some nonempty set \"A\", called the universe or underlying set. Let \"G\" denote the set of bijective functions over \"A\" that preserve the partition structure of \"A\": ∀\"x\" ∈ \"A\" ∀\"g\" ∈ \"G\" (\"g\"(\"x\") ∈ [\"x\"]). Then the following three connected theorems hold: In sum, given an equivalence relation ~ over \"A\", there exists a transformation group \"G\" over \"A\" whose orbits are the equivalence classes of \"A\" under ~. This transformation group characterisation of equivalence relations differs fundamentally from the way lattices characterize order relations. The arguments of the lattice theory operations meet and join are elements of some universe \"A\". Meanwhile, the arguments of the transformation group operations composition and inverse are elements of a set of bijections, \"A\" → \"A\". Moving to groups in general, let \"H\" be a subgroup of some group \"G\". Let ~ be an equivalence relation on \"G\", such that \"a\" ~ \"b\" ↔ (\"ab\" ∈ \"H\"). The equivalence classes of ~—also called the orbits of the action of \"H\" on \"G\"—are the right cosets of \"H\" in \"G\". Interchanging \"a\" and \"b\" yields the left cosets. Related thinking can be found in Rosen (2008: chpt. 10).", "Let \"G\" be a set and let \"~\" denote an equivalence relation over \"G\". Then we can form a groupoid representing this equivalence relation as follows. The objects are the elements of \"G\", and for any two elements \"x\" and \"y\" of \"G\", there exists a unique morphism from \"x\" to \"y\" if and only if \"x\"~\"y\". The advantages of regarding an equivalence relation as a special case of a groupoid include:", "The equivalence relations on any set \"X\", when ordered by set inclusion, form a complete lattice, called Con \"X\" by convention. The canonical map ker: \"X\"^\"X\" → Con \"X\", relates the monoid \"X\"^\"X\" of all functions on \"X\" and Con \"X\". ker is surjective but not injective. Less formally, the equivalence relation ker on \"X\", takes each function \"f\": \"X\"→\"X\" to its kernel ker \"f\". Likewise, ker(ker) is an equivalence relation on \"X\"^\"X\".", "Equivalence relations are a ready source of examples or counterexamples. For example, an equivalence relation with exactly two infinite equivalence classes is an easy example of a theory which is ω-categorical, but not categorical for any larger cardinal number. An implication of model theory is that the properties defining a relation can be proved independent of each other (and hence necessary parts of the definition) if and only if, for each property, examples can be found of relations not satisfying the given property while satisfying all the other properties. Hence the three defining properties of equivalence relations can be proved mutually independent by the following three examples: Properties definable in first-order logic that an equivalence relation may or may not possess include:", "Euclid's \"The Elements\" includes the following \"Common Notion 1\": Nowadays, the property described by Common Notion 1 is called Euclidean (replacing \"equal\" by \"are in relation with\"). By \"relation\" is meant a binary relation, in which \"aRb\" is generally distinct from \"bRa\". A Euclidean relation thus comes in two forms: The following theorem connects Euclidean relations and equivalence relations: with an analogous proof for a right-Euclidean relation. Hence an equivalence relation is a relation that is \"Euclidean\" and \"reflexive\". \"The Elements\" mentions neither symmetry nor reflexivity, and Euclid probably would have deemed the reflexivity of equality too obvious to warrant explicit mention." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Works.", "Family." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Of the German Jewish family of Gompertz of Emmerich, he was born in London, where his father and grandfather had been successful diamond merchants. Debarred, as a Jew, from a university education, he studied on his own from an early age, in the writings of Isaac Newton, Colin Maclaurin, and William Emerson. From 1798 he was a prominent contributor to the \"Gentleman's Mathematical Companion\", and for a period won the annual prizes in the magazine for the solutions of problems. In line with his father's wishes, he entered the London Stock Exchange. He became a member of the Mathematical Society of Spitalfields, and served as its president when it was merged with the Astronomical Society of London. In 1819 he was elected a F.R.S., and in 1832 became a member of the council. The Astronomical Society was founded in 1820, and he was elected a member of the council in 1821. On the death of his only son he retired from the Stock Exchange, and absorbed himself in mathematics. When the Guardian Insurance Office was established in 1821, he was a candidate for the actuaryship, but the directors objected to him on the grounds that he was a Jew. His brother-in-law Sir Moses Montefiore with his relative Nathan Mayer Rothschild then founded the Alliance Assurance Company (1824), and Gompertz was appointed actuary under the deed of settlement. His management of the Alliance Company was successful, he was consulted by government, and made computations for the Army medical board. In 1848 he retired from active work and returned to his scientific labours. He was a member of many learned societies, and was also one of the promoters of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Of the leading Jewish charities he was a prominent member, and he worked out a plan of poor relief, which was afterwards adopted by the Jewish board of guardians. Gompertz died from a paralytic seizure on 14 July 1865. From 1806 he was a frequent contributor to the \"Philosophical Transactions\" of the Royal Society; but his early tracts on complex numbers and porisms (1817–18) were self-published. Gompertz was an old-fashioned Newtonian who retained and defended the notation of fluxions. For ten years he actively participated in the work of the Astronomical Society, contributing papers on the theory of astronomical instruments, the aberration of light, the differential sextant, and the convertible pendulum. With Francis Baily he began in 1822 the construction of tables for the mean places of the fixed stars; the work was left uncompleted, because of the publication of the \"Fundamenta Astronomiæ\" of Friedrich Bessel. Their efforts, however, led to the complete catalogue of stars of the Royal Astronomical Society. He worked out a new series of tables of mortality for the Royal Society, and these suggested to him in 1825 his law of human mortality, which he first expounded in a letter to Francis Baily. The law rests on an \"a priori\" assumption that a person's resistance to death decreases as his years increase. The model can be written in this way:", "where \"N\"(\"t\") represents the number of individuals at time \"t\", and \"c\" and \"a\" are constants. This model is a refinement of a demographic model of Robert Malthus. It was used by insurance companies to calculate the cost of life insurance. The equation, known as a Gompertz curve, is now used in many areas to model a time series where growth is slowest at the start and end of a period. The model has been extended to the Gompertz–Makeham law of mortality.", "He married Abigail Montefiore in 1810." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Euclid's original version.", "Applications.", "Canonical representation of a positive integer.", "Arithmetic operations.", "Arithmetic functions.", "Proof.", "Existence.", "Uniqueness.", "Elementary proof of uniqueness.", "Generalizations.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Book VII, propositions 30, 31 and 32, and Book IX, proposition 14 of Euclid's \"Elements\" are essentially the statement and proof of the fundamental theorem. (In modern terminology: if a prime \"p\" divides the product \"ab\", then \"p\" divides either \"a\" or \"b\" or both.) Proposition 30 is referred to as Euclid's lemma, and it is the key in the proof of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic. (In modern terminology: every integer greater than one is divided evenly by some prime number.) Proposition 31 is proved directly by infinite descent. Proposition 32 is derived from proposition 31, and proves that the decomposition is possible. (In modern terminology: a least common multiple of several prime numbers is not a multiple of any other prime number.) Book IX, proposition 14 is derived from Book VII, proposition 30, and proves partially that the decomposition is unique – a point critically noted by André Weil. Indeed, in this proposition the exponents are all equal to one, so nothing is said for the general case. Article 16 of Gauss' \"Disquisitiones Arithmeticae\" is an early modern statement and proof employing modular arithmetic.", "", "Every positive integer \"n\" > 1 can be represented in exactly one way as a product of prime powers: where \"p\" < \"p\" <... < \"p\" are primes and the \"n\" are positive integers. This representation is commonly extended to all positive integers, including 1, by the convention that the empty product is equal to 1 (the empty product corresponds to \"k\" = 0). This representation is called the canonical representation of \"n\", or the standard form of \"n\". For example, Factors \"p\" = 1 may be inserted without changing the value of \"n\" (e.g., 1000 = 2×3×5). In fact, any positive integer can be uniquely represented as an infinite product taken over all the positive prime numbers: where a finite number of the \"n\" are positive integers, and the rest are zero. Allowing negative exponents provides a canonical form for positive rational numbers.", "The canonical representations of the product, greatest common divisor (GCD), and least common multiple (LCM) of two numbers \"a\" and \"b\" can be expressed simply in terms of the canonical representations of \"a\" and \"b\" themselves: However, integer factorization, especially of large numbers, is much more difficult than computing products, GCDs, or LCMs. So these formulas have limited use in practice.", "Many arithmetic functions are defined using the canonical representation. In particular, the values of additive and multiplicative functions are determined by their values on the powers of prime numbers.", "The proof uses Euclid's lemma (\"Elements\" VII, 30): If a prime divides the product of two integers and, then must divide at least one of those integers and.", "It must be shown that every integer greater than 1 is either prime or a product of primes. First, 2 is prime. Then, by strong induction, assume this is true for all numbers greater than 1 and less than \"n\". If \"n\" is prime, there is nothing more to prove. Otherwise, there are integers \"a\" and \"b\", where \"n\" = \"ab\", and. By the induction hypothesis, and are products of primes. But then is a product of primes.", "Suppose, to the contrary, there is an integer that has two distinct prime factorizations. Let \"n\" be the least such integer and write \"n\" = \"p\" \"p\"... \"p\" = \"q\" \"q\"... \"q\", where each \"p\" and \"q\" is prime. (Note \"j\" and \"k\" are both at least 2.) We see \"p\" divides \"q\" \"q\"... \"q\", so \"p\" divides some \"q\" by Euclid's lemma. Without loss of generality, say \"p\" divides \"q\". Since \"p\" and \"q\" are both prime, it follows that \"p\" = \"q\". Returning to our factorizations of \"n\", we may cancel these two terms to conclude \"p\"... \"p\" = \"q\"... \"q\". We now have two distinct prime factorizations of some integer strictly smaller than \"n\", which contradicts the minimality of \"n\".", "The fundamental theorem of arithmetic can also be proved without using Euclid's lemma, as follows: Assume that \"s\" > 1 is the smallest positive integer which is the product of prime numbers in two different ways. If \"s\" were prime then it would factor uniquely as itself, so \"s\" is not prime and there must be at least two primes in each factorization of \"s\": If any \"p\" = \"q\" then, by cancellation, \"s\"/\"p\" = \"s\"/\"q\" would be another positive integer, different from s, which is greater than 1 and also has two distinct factorizations. But \"s\"/\"p\" is smaller than \"s\", meaning \"s\" would not actually be the smallest such integer. Therefore every \"p\" must be distinct from every \"q\". Without loss of generality, take \"p\" < \"q\" (if this is not already the case, switch the \"p\" and \"q\" designations.) Consider and note that 1 < \"q\" ≤ \"t\" < \"s\". Therefore \"t\" must have a unique prime factorization. By rearrangement we see, Here \"u\" = ((\"p\"... \"p\") - (\"q\"... \"q\")) is positive, for if it were negative or zero then so would be its product with \"p\", but that product equals \"t\" which is positive. So \"u\" is either 1 or factors into primes. In either case, \"t\" = \"p\"\"u\" yields a prime factorization of \"t\", which we know to be unique, so \"p\" appears in the prime factorization of \"t\". If (\"q\" - \"p\") equaled 1 then the prime factorization of \"t\" would be all \"q\"'s, which would preclude \"p\" from appearing. Thus (\"q\" - \"p\") is not 1, but is positive, so it factors into primes: (\"q\" - \"p\") = (\"r\"... \"r\"). This yields a prime factorization of which we know is unique. Now, \"p\" appears in the prime factorization of \"t\", and it is not equal to any \"q\", so it must be one of the \"r\"'s. That means \"p\" is a factor of (\"q\" - \"p\"), so there exists a positive integer \"k\" such that \"p\"\"k\" = (\"q\" - \"p\"), and therefore But that means \"q\" has a proper factorization, so it is not a prime number. This contradiction shows that \"s\" does not actually have two different prime factorizations. As a result, there is no smallest positive integer with multiple prime factorizations, hence all positive integers greater than 1 factor uniquely into primes.", "The first generalization of the theorem is found in Gauss's second monograph (1832) on biquadratic reciprocity. This paper introduced what is now called the ring of Gaussian integers, the set of all complex numbers \"a\" + \"bi\" where \"a\" and \"b\" are integers. It is now denoted by formula_9 He showed that this ring has the four units ±1 and ±\"i\", that the non-zero, non-unit numbers fall into two classes, primes and composites, and that (except for order), the composites have unique factorization as a product of primes. Similarly, in 1844 while working on cubic reciprocity, Eisenstein introduced the ring formula_10, where formula_11 formula_12 is a cube root of unity. This is the ring of Eisenstein integers, and he proved it has the six units formula_13 and that it has unique factorization. However, it was also discovered that unique factorization does not always hold. An example is given by formula_14. In this ring one has Examples like this caused the notion of \"prime\" to be modified. In formula_14 it can be proven that if any of the factors above can be represented as a product, e.g., 2 = \"ab\", then one of \"a\" or \"b\" must be a unit. This is the traditional definition of \"prime\". It can also be proven that none of these factors obeys Euclid's lemma; e.g., 2 divides neither (1 + ) nor (1 − ) even though it divides their product 6. In algebraic number theory 2 is called irreducible in formula_14 (only divisible by itself or a unit) but not prime in formula_14 (if it divides a product it must divide one of the factors). The mention of formula_14 is required because 2 is prime and irreducible in formula_20 Using these definitions it can be proven that in any integral domain a prime must be irreducible. Euclid's classical lemma can be rephrased as \"in the ring of integers formula_21 every irreducible is prime\". This is also true in formula_22 and formula_23 but not in formula_24 The rings in which factorization into irreducibles is essentially unique are called unique factorization domains. Important examples are polynomial rings over the integers or over a field, Euclidean domains and principal ideal domains. In 1843 Kummer introduced the concept of ideal number, which was developed further by Dedekind (1876) into the modern theory of ideals, special subsets of rings. Multiplication is defined for ideals, and the rings in which they have unique factorization are called Dedekind domains. There is a version of unique factorization for ordinals, though it requires some additional conditions to ensure uniqueness.", "The \"Disquisitiones Arithmeticae\" has been translated from Latin into English and German. The German edition includes all of his papers on number theory: all the proofs of quadratic reciprocity, the determination of the sign of the Gauss sum, the investigations into biquadratic reciprocity, and unpublished notes. The two monographs Gauss published on biquadratic reciprocity have consecutively numbered sections: the first contains §§ 1–23 and the second §§ 24–76. Footnotes referencing these are of the form \"Gauss, BQ, § \"n\"\". Footnotes referencing the \"Disquisitiones Arithmeticae\" are of the form \"Gauss, DA, Art. \"n\"\". These are in Gauss's \"Werke\", Vol II, pp. 65–92 and 93–148; German translations are pp. 511–533 and 534–586 of the German edition of the \"Disquisitiones\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Ecology.", "Threats.", "Habitat.", "Distribution and population.", "Distribution.", "Population size.", "Population justification.", "Trend justification.", "Appearance.", "Status and conservation.", "Conservation actions underway.", "Conservation actions proposed." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "During the breeding season the hooded grebe is found on basaltic lakes in the Patagonian steppes at elevations of 500–1,200 m. Both saline and bitter salt lakes are used by non breeding flocks and some birds which winter on the coast of Argentina. The grebe requires aquatic vegetation in its breeding lakes (primarily \"Myriophyllum elatinoides\") which it uses to build its nest. The vegetation is also the habitat of the aquatic invertebrates on which the hooded grebe feeds. For example, in the week after hatching the chicks are fed aquatic beetles (Limnaea spp.). Nesting takes place in colonies of up to 130 pairs from October to March. However, its rate of reproduction is very low as the average number of young reared per adult is 0.2 annually. Despite the lack of breeding success, the resources required for adult survival are abundant and this has resulted in a low adult mortality rate.", "At all stages of the grebe's life it is vulnerable to predation by the American Mink. When the Mink first arrived in 2010-2011 on the Buenos Aires plateau, it killed more than half the adults in a breeding colony of two dozen nests. In 2012 to 2013 more losses to one Mink occurred with 15 adults and 7 juveniles killed at El Cervecero and 10 adults and 5 chicks killed at the C199 colony in La Siberia plateau. As most of the grebe population is currently in the Buenos Aires plateau the grebe is under serious threat by the Mink. The American Mink also carries out surplus killing, thus meaning that a single Mink may result in the loss of whole grebe colonies. Other threats to the grebe population are; excessive grazing by sheep (this leads to erosion at land shores and limits the growth of vegetation), attacks by Flying steamer ducks (\"Tachyeres patachonicus\") and predation by Kelp Gulls. Volcanic eruptions in the area may have a negative short term effect on population size due to heavy ash fall. However, ash also results in a long term increase in the productivity of the wetlands.", "The hooded grebe can be found in basaltic lakes during the breeding season. At the moment, the only recorded wintering sites are estuaries on the Atlantic coast of Argentina.", "", "The breeding sites of this species are basaltic lakes in Santa Cruz, south-west Argentina and the wintering grounds are the río Coyle, río Gallegos and río Chico estuaries on the Atlantic coast of Santa Cruz. The species is also thought to be accidental in Magallanes, south Chile. Observations of two individuals have also been made from a lake in Laguna Blanca in October 2013.", "In 1997 the total population size was estimated to be 3,000-5,000 individuals and half of these were on Meseta de Strobel. However, recent counts on wintering grounds have suggested a 40% decline occurring on the wintering grounds over a period of seven years. Additionally, surveys that were conducted in December 2006 and January 2009 revisited key known breeding sites initially surveyed in 1987 and 1998 also uncovered sharp population declines with numbers falling from 452 to 51 at Laguna del Sello, 700 to 0 at Laguna del Islote, 90 to 0 at Tolderia Grande and from 198 to 0 at Lagunas Encadenadas. Similarly, individuals were counted during the 2010-2011 breeding season and it was found that there has been a population decline of over 80% occurring over the last 26 years. In 2013 a simultaneous count across all plateaus known to have ever held grebes and virtually every lake which has historic records of the species was made. The results of this study indicated a count of 691 adults and 144 chicks in 12 colonies. Furthermore, in the summer of 2014/2015 771 adults, 138 juveniles and 12 colonies were counted across 18 lakes and 3 new lakes holding the species were identified. On the other hand, on the Strobel plateau the number of lakes holding the species decreased. In the 2009/2010 and 2010/2011 breeding seasons the species was the most abundant on the plateaus Buenos Aires, Strobel and Siberia - where five lakes contained almost 85% of the population. There was no population decline recorded on the Buenos Aires plateau between 1984/1985 and 2010/2011, however a very strong decline was detected on the Strobel plateau (96%). However, it is speculated that the annual fluctuating numbers at breeding sites are driven by movements rather than an increase or decrease in population size. Despite this, the overall decline in population which was detected on wintering and breeding grounds appears to be real and is rapidly occurring.", "The population size was estimated by O'Donnell and Fjeldsa (1997) to consist of 3,000-5,000 individuals. However, recent winter counts deduced that the minimum population size was 759 in 2010/2011. In new surveys, which occurred after recent and rapid declines in population size, the new estimation is 1,000-1,200 individuals. With 660-800 of those individuals having reached full maturity. In 2013, a survey reported at total of 771 adults and 138 chicks.", "Studies on the wintering grounds concluded that, since the 1990s, the population may have declined by as much as 40%. If we assume an exponential rate of decline then we can predict that there is a rapid population decline of above 80% over 21 years (three generations). This trend is supported by surveys on the breeding grounds, as when the breeding grounds were counted in the winter of 2010 and 2011 no juvenile Hooded Grebes were found.", "The main features of the hooded grebe's appearance which can be used for identification.", "The hooded grebe is threatened by climate change and the introduction of trout and salmon to the Strobel plateau. Surveys made in 2006, 2009 and 2010–2011, found some lakes completely dry and with water levels lower than in previous years. In addition, winter snowfall has reduced without a corresponding increase in precipitation at other times of the year. Predation by kelp gulls (\"Larus dominicanus\") at some lakes, predation by the recently introduced American mink, the excessive grazing by sheep and low breeding potential have been cited as threats.", "Laguna Los Escarchados (the site where the species was discovered in 1974) was declared a reserve in 1979, but hold only a marginal population. In 1992, six individuals were recorded within Perito Moreno National Park. The key breeding lakes in the core of its range, lack any kind of legal protection, but the population of the hooded grebe on Meseta de Strobel have some protection due to its inaccessibility. A 30-minute documentary called 'Tango in the Wind' outlines conservation actions to save the hooded grebe.", "The recommendations below all come from the final report of the Hooded Grebe Project Continue to survey the breeding colonies and winter censuses of estuaries and unfrozen lakes. Expand the 'Colony Guardian' approach to all active colonies. Devise and carry out a species recovery plan. Remove the American Mink from the high plateau habitats and control the size of Kelp Gull populations on breeding sites. Increase the area ban on the introduction of salmonids to grebe breeding locations and help raise awareness of the impacts of introducing salmonids. Study the grebe's ecology in more detail in order to understand its population movements. There is planned research into the grebe's migration which is supported by the Zoological Society of London's EDGE of Existence programme and Cornell University. Gather empirical data on population size and trends in population size. Continue to study the main threats to the grebe population and the reasons behind recent declines. The use of Patagonia National Park as a protected area where species management activities occur. The establishment of the species as a National Natural Monument." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Biology.", "Status." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The silvery grebe is about in length. There are two different subspecies which differ in the colouring on their head and facial plumes. The southern form has a black cap and the sides of its head are grey. The neck, chest and belly are white while the back is dark grey and the sides and flanks blackish. The beak and feet are black and the eye red. It is similar in appearance to the Junin grebe (\"Podiceps taczanowskii\").", "The silvery grebe nests in Argentina, the Falkland Islands, Chile, and the western parts of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. It is a migrant in Paraguay and southern Brazil and possibly also in Uruguay. Its habitat is freshwater lakes, lagoons, reservoirs and ponds at altitudes between sea level and. In the Andes it is sometimes found foraging on hypersaline lakes and also inhabits saline lakes in Patagonia where it is found in the company of flamingoes.", "The silvery grebe is found in small groups and feeds on aquatic invertebrates which it catches while diving under the water. Its diet includes adults and larvae of caddisflies, water beetles, chironomid midges and water boatmen. The silvery grebe tends to breed in colonies on freshwater lakes. The nest is often composed of floating mats of vegetation. Nesting has been recorded in February in Colombia and between September and March in Peru with most eggs being laid between November and January.", "The silvery grebe has an extremely wide range and large total population. Although the population trend is downward, the rate of decline is insufficient for the IUCN to rate the bird as \"vulnerable\" and it is therefore listed as being of \"least concern\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Places of interest.", "The ruins of Dalečín castle.", "The chateau." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The first (and often questioned) reference to Dalečín dates back to 1086 in a document from at Opatovice nad Labem, where it is referred to as Daletice. The first reliable reference dates back to 1349 when Dalečín was passed to Znat from Tasov from his wife Klára. In that period Dalečín functioned as a center of a separate dominion, which was in 1358 gained by Jimram from Pernštejn. Further known historical events are based on the Moravian land tables (Czech: Moravské zemské desky). In 1588 Jan from Pernštejn sold the village to Pavel Katharyn from Kathar. Two years later it was gained by his wife Krizelda Čejkovna from Olbramovice. In 1603 Dalečín was sold by Petr a Jan Katharyns together with surrounding villages to Vilém Dubský from Třebomyslice. The property of Vilém Dubský from Třebomyslice was confiscated after the Battle of White Mountain (Czech: Bitva na Bílé hoře) and Štěpán Schmidt from Freihofen became the new owner. Between 1624 and 1633 Dalečín dominion became part of Kunštát dominion thanks to countess Šliková from Salm. A hop garden was present in Dalečín in the middle of 17th century. The village stayed part of Kunštát dominion until the abolition of manorialism. The last owner was free lord Honrichs.", "", "Dalečín castle is situated in a valley on the left side of Svratka river which protects it from three sides. The castle makes part of a series of castles along Svratka river which were constructed in the 13th or the 14th century. Dalečín castle was supposedly built around 1340. This estimation is based on the archictonical features of the castle (Luxembourgian gothics). The first reference about the castle dates back to 1358 when the castle was passed to Pernštejn family. The following period appears to have been relatively calm as there are few reference to the castle found in the literature. However, since the beginning of the 16th century the castle experienced turbulent times because it was probably a seat of robber knights. In 1519 the castle was devastated by an army which was led by Artleb Vranovský from Boskovice. From then on the castle was stated as deserted. The original form of the castle is not known. It is assumed that it had a cylinder shape with an outer diameter of 30 meters with a prismatic tower on the southwestern side. The castle had three floors. To the current times only parts of the castle were preserved (parts of perimeter walls with windows and battlement, small part of the tower and parts of walls).", "The chateau was built around 1590 by Pavel Katharyn from Kathar close to deserted Dalečín castle. Masonry of the castle was used for the construction of the chateau. The Renaissance chateau had a number of owners and at the end of 19th century it was rebuilt in the style of Tirol cottage. The last owner from nobility was young countess Františka Coudenhove-Honrichs. In the 1919 land reform the chateau was confiscated by the state. However, the chateau and the castle were returned to Františka Coudenhove-Honrichs in 1924. She donated the chateau to Congregation of the Consolatory Sisters of the Jesus Divine Heart (Czech: Kongregace těšitelek Božského srdce Ježíšova). During the World War II the chateau functioned for training of Hitlerjungend. After the end of the war the chateau was returned to the Rajhrad Convent. However, the chateau was transferred into the use of the state in the early 1950s. The exteriors were renovated in 1998 and 1999. The chateau nowadays hosts the municipality office, doctor’s office and municipality housing. Other places of interest are St. James the Great Church or Villa Jarošek." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Taxonomy, systematics and evolution.", "Relationship with flamingos.", "Fossil grebes.", "Phylogeny.", "Taxonomy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Grebes are small to medium-large in size, have lobed toes, and are excellent swimmers and divers. Although they can run for a short distance, they are prone to falling over, since they have their feet placed far back on the body. Grebes have narrow wings, and some species are reluctant to fly; indeed, two South American species are completely flightless. They respond to danger by diving rather than flying, and are in any case much less wary than ducks. Extant species range in size from the least grebe, at 120 grams (4.3 oz) and 23.5 cm (9.3 inches), to the great grebe, at 1.7 kg (3.8 lbs) and 71 cm (28 inches). The North American and Eurasian species are all, of necessity, migratory over much or all of their ranges, and those species that winter at sea are also seen regularly in flight. Even the small freshwater pied-billed grebe of North America has occurred as a transatlantic vagrant to Europe on more than 30 occasions. Bills vary from short and thick to long and pointed, depending on the diet, which ranges from fish to freshwater insects and crustaceans. The feet are always large, with broad lobes on the toes and small webs connecting the front three toes. The hind toe also has a small lobe. Recent experimental work has shown that these lobes work like the hydrofoil blades of a propeller. Curiously, the same mechanism apparently evolved independently in the extinct Cretaceous-age Hesperornithiformes, which are totally unrelated birds. Grebes have unusual plumage. It is dense and waterproof, and on the underside the feathers are at right-angles to the skin, sticking straight out to begin with and curling at the tip. By pressing their feathers against the body, grebes can adjust their buoyancy. Often, they swim low in the water with just the head and neck exposed. They swim by simultaneously spreading out the feet and bring them inward with the webbing expanded to produce the forward thrust in much the same way as frogs. In the non-breeding season, grebes are plain-coloured in dark browns and whites. However, most have ornate and distinctive breeding plumages, often developing chestnut markings on the head area, and perform elaborate display rituals. The young, particularly those of the genus \"Podiceps\", are often striped and retain some of their juvenile plumage even after reaching full size. In the breeding season, they mate at freshwater lakes and ponds, but some species spend their non-breeding season along seacoasts. When preening, grebes eat their own feathers, and feed them to their young. The function of this behaviour is uncertain but it is believed to assist with pellet formation, and to reduce their vulnerability to gastric parasites. Grebes make floating nests of plant material concealed among reeds on the surface of the water. The young are precocial, and able to swim from birth.", "The grebes are a radically distinct group of birds as regards their anatomy. Accordingly, they were at first believed to be related to the loons, which are also foot-propelled diving birds, and both families were once classified together under the order Colymbiformes. However, as recently as the 1930s, this was determined to be an example of convergent evolution by the strong selective forces encountered by unrelated birds sharing the same lifestyle at different times and in different habitat. Grebes and loons are now separately classified orders of Podicipediformes and Gaviiformes, respectively. The cladistics vs. phenetics debate of the mid-20th century revived scientific interest in generalizing comparisons. As a consequence, the discredited grebe-loon link was discussed again. This even went as far as proposing monophyly for grebes, loons, and the toothed Hesperornithiformes. In retrospect, the scientific value of the debate lies more in providing examples that a cladistic \"methodology\" is not incompatible with an overall phenetical scientific \"doctrine\", and that thus, simply because some study \"uses cladistics\", it does not guarantee superior results. Molecular studies such as DNA-DNA hybridization (Sibley & Ahlquist, 1990) and sequence analyses fail to resolve the relationships of grebes properly due to insufficient resolution in the former and long-branch attraction in the latter. Still – actually \"because\" of this – they do confirm that these birds form a fairly ancient evolutionary lineage (or possibly one that was subject to selective pressures down to the molecular level even), and they support the \"non-\"relatedness of loons and grebes. The most comprehensive study of bird phylogenomics, published in 2014, found that grebes and flamingos are members of Columbea, a clade that also includes doves, sandgrouse, and mesites.", "Recent molecular studies have suggested a relation with flamingos while morphological evidence also strongly supports a relationship between flamingos and grebes. They hold at least eleven morphological traits in common, which are not found in other birds. Many of these characteristics have been previously identified in flamingos, but not in grebes. The fossil Palaelodids can be considered evolutionarily, and ecologically, intermediate between flamingos and grebes. For the grebe-flamingo clade, the taxon Mirandornithes (\"miraculous birds\" due to their extreme divergence and apomorphies) has been proposed. Alternatively, they could be placed in one order, with Phoenocopteriformes taking priority.", "The fossil record of grebes is incomplete; there are no transitional forms between more conventional birds and the highly derived grebes known from fossils, or at least none that can be placed in the relationships of the group with any certainty. The enigmatic waterbird genus \"Juncitarsus\", however, may be close to a common ancestor of flamingos and grebes. The Early Cretaceous (Berriasian, around 143 mya) genus \"Eurolimnornis\" from NW Romania was initially believed to be a grebe. If it is indeed related to this lineage, it must represent a most basal form, as it almost certainly predates any grebe-flamingo split. On the other hand, the single bone fragment assigned to this taxon is not very diagnostic and may not be of a bird at all. \"Telmatornis\" from the Navesink Formation – also Late Cretaceous – is traditionally allied with the Charadriiformes and/or Gruiformes. However, a cladistic analysis of the forelimb skeleton found it highly similar to the great crested grebe and unlike the painted buttonquail (now known to be a basal charadriiform lineage), the black-necked stilt (a more advanced charadriiform), or the limpkin (a member of the Grui suborder of Gruiformes), namely in that its dorsal condyle of the humerus was not angled at 20°–30° away from long axis of the humerus. The analysis did not result in a phylogenetic pattern but rather grouped some birds with similar wing shapes together while others stood separate. It is thus unknown whether this apparent similarity to grebes represents an evolutionary relationship, or whether \"Telmatornis\" simply had a wing similar to that of grebes and moved it like they do. True grebes suddenly appear in the fossil record in the Late Oligocene or Early Miocene, around 23–25 mya. While there are a few prehistoric genera that are now completely extinct; \"Thiornis\" (Late Miocene -? Early Pliocene of Libros, Spain) and \"Pliolymbus\" (Late Pliocene of WC USA – Early? Pleistocene of Chapala, Mexico) date from a time when most if not all extant genera were already present. Because grebes are evolutionarily isolated and they only started to appear in the Northern Hemisphere fossil record in the Early Miocene, they are likely to have originated in the Southern Hemisphere. A few more recent grebe fossils could not be assigned to modern or prehistoric genera: Grebes date back very far and the Late Cretaceous bird \"Neogaeornis wetzeli\" may be their ancestor.", "Living Podicipediformes based on the work by John Boyd.", "Compiled from the following websites: Extinct species assignment follows the Mikko's Phylogeny Archive and Paleofile.com websites. and subspecies names from \"English Names of Birds\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Geography.", "Villages.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Swedish name of the islands \"Rågöarna\" means \"Rye Islands\" - historically rye was the primary crop grown on the island. Thus \"Stora Rågö\" and \"Lilla Rågö\" mean \"Big Rye Island\" and \"Small Rye Island\", respectively. Alternative names for the two islands are \"Västra Rågö\"/\"Västerö\" and \"Östra Rågö\"/\"Österö\" (\"West Island\" and \"East Island\"). In terms of area Väike-Pakri (\"Small-Pakri\") is actually somewhat larger than Suur-Pakri (\"Big-Pakri\"). The reason for this contradiction is probably that Suur-Pakri had more inhabitants and better farming lands and was reckoned as more important.", "The islands lie a few kilometers off the Estonian coast. Väike-Pakri lies 3 km west of Paldiski, separated from it by Paldiski (Pakri) Bay (), over 20 m deep. The shallow 3 km wide Kurkse strait separates the islands from the mainland in south. The area of Väike-Pakri, the eastern island, is 12.9 km, Suur-Pakri covers 11.6 km (8th and 9th largest islands in Estonia). Väike-Pakri is also higher than Suur-Pakri (17 m and 8 m, respectively). Both islands are about 6 km long (in southeast-northwest direction) and 2-2.5 km wide. A few islets are situated in the 1-1.5 km wide and shallow (2–4 m deep) strait between the two islands. In 1952, an embankment connecting the two islands over some of the islets was built by the Soviet army. A limestone cliff borders the northern coast of both islands and also the eastern coast of Väike-Pakri. Part of the Baltic Klint, it rises up to 4 m on Suur-Pakri and up to 13 m on Väike-Pakri. Both islands are essentially part of a larger limestone plateau in Northern Estonia.", "Before the Second World War the two islands had 5 villages, three on Suur-Pakri and two on Väike-Pakri. Suur-Pakri Väike-Pakri", "When the people started to live in the islands, is unknown. In 1345, five Swedish families bought the western island from Padise monastery. According to the 1934 Estonian census, the islands had 354 inhabitants, all of them Swedes except for 13 Germans. There were 5 villages, a total of 119 households, a small folk museum (opened in 1935, closed in 1940) and both islands had their own church and school. Following the signing of Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the subsequent action of the Soviet Union (see Soviet ultimatums in 1939), in 1940 all the islanders were forced to leave - the islands were designated as a military base for the Soviet Army. Most of Pakri Swedes left for Sweden before 1944, during the German occupation of Estonia. After the Second World War Väike-Pakri had a few inhabitants until 1965. During the Soviet Era, until 1992, the islands were used as a proving ground for aerial bombardment by Warsaw Pact countries. After control of the islands was returned to Estonia in 1994, the main aim became to clear the area of unexploded bombs. Thousands of explosive devices were destroyed and the work was mostly completed by 1997. During the land reform following the restoration of independence in Estonia some of the land was returned to its pre-war owners. The northern parts of the islands and the southern part of Väike-Pakri were incorporated to Pakri Landscape Conservation Area, created in 1998 to protect the limestone cliffs, alvars and rare species. In 2004, the islands got their first permanent inhabitant over decades, when a person born there during the Second World War returned to rebuild his parents' farm. At the end of 2009 the islands had 6 permanent inhabitants." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Concept and development.", "VISOR.", "In universe.", "Reality.", "Fictional character biography.", "Alternate time lines.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Gene Roddenberry created the character in honor of George La Forge, a quadriplegic fan of the, who died in 1975. He was not the first to honor La Forge in the \"Star Trek\" franchise; a character directly named for George La Forge was written into the 1980 \"Star Trek\" novel \"The Galactic Whirlpool\" by David Gerrold. A casting call was placed with agencies for the role, which described him as friends with Data, and specified that La Forge should have \"perfect diction and might even have a Jamaican accent\" and instructed those agencies not to submit \"any'street' types.\" LeVar Burton auditioned for the role in 1986. He had previously appeared in \"Roots\" and other major network shows. He stated that \"years ago I was doing a TV movie called \"Emergency Room\" and it was a fairly miserable experience. But there was a producer on that show, a man named Bob Justman... six, seven years later, I get this call from Bob Justman and he’s working at Paramount on this new Star Trek series and he said I remember your love of the show, we’ve got this character, would you be interested in coming in and seeing us? And I said was [franchise creator] Gene Roddenberry involved? He said he is. And I said I’ll be right there.\" Roddenberry was very pleased with Burton at his first audition. Among the other actors considered for the role were Wesley Snipes, Reggie Jackson, Kevin Peter Hall, Clarence Gilyard, and Tim Russ, who would later play Tuvok on \"\". Burton also commented that he was anxious about his role, because he feared that \"ST:TNG\" was going to flop: \"At the beginning, you know, there was a lot of conversation in the press at what a bad idea this was [but] I thought that since Gene was involved we had a real good shot of making a good show that would carry on in that tradition of Star Trek.\" Throughout the series, Burton was equipped with Geordi La Forge's trademark VISOR, which he found extremely unpleasant to wear: \"It's pretty much a living hell. 85 to 90% of my vision is taken away when the VISOR goes on. I bumped into everything the first season—light stands, overhead microphones, cables at my feet—I tripped over it all. So it's a sort of conundrum. The blind man, who puts on the VISOR and sees much more than everyone else around him, when the actor actually does that he's turned into a blind person. Then there was the pain. In the second season, we re-designed the VISOR and made it heavier and the way we actually affixed it was that we screwed it, we literally screwed it into my head and so there were screws that we would turn and there were flanges on the inside that would press into my temples and so after fifteen or twenty minutes of that I got headaches. So I had a daily headache for about six years. Which was also no fun.\" During the series, Burton's character was Chief Engineering Officer, and thus was often portrayed repairing machines or discovering new scientific phenomena. Burton commented how hard it sometimes was to deliver the Treknobabble used by La Forge in these scenes with a straight face: \"Technobabble brings with it its own challenge. I'm not an engineer, I just played one on TV. The methodology that I found most successful was to really spit it out as fast as I possibly could. Giving the illusion that I knew what I was talking about when, in fact, I really didn't.\" Asked about his favorite scenes, Burton answered that he especially liked holodeck adventures: \"The Holmes and Watson episodes for Data and Geordi, the Robin Hood episode, you know, those were a lot of fun for us. I think the holodeck was a very cool concept, you know. You can create a three dimensional reality. I mean, how cool is that?\" Following the end of the series, Burton has stated how much he gained from \"The Next Generation\"; \"When I got married my best man was Brent (Spiner, who portrayed the \"ST:TNG\" character Lieutenant Commander Data) and my groomsmen were Michael (Dorn, Lieutenant Worf) and Jonathan (Frakes, Commander Riker) and Patrick (Stewart, Captain Picard). No matter what, we will always be family to each other. I mean in every respect. There have been times when there have been feuds within the family, when it hasn't been all hugs and kisses. But we have stuck together.\"", "", "In the \"Star Trek\" fictional universe, a VISOR is a device used by the blind to artificially provide them with a sense of sight. A thin, curved device worn over the face like a pair of sunglasses, the VISOR scans the electromagnetic spectrum, creating visual input, and transmits it into the brain of the wearer via the optic nerves. The sensors are located on the convex side, that covers the eyes and attaches at small input jacks implanted in the temples. The only VISOR seen on screen was used by Geordi La Forge, who was blind from birth. VISOR is an acronym for \"Visual Instrument and Sight Organ Replacement\"; however, the complete term never appeared in the series, but only in novelizations and other written tie-in products. The VISOR also caused LaForge some persistent pain, which could not be treated without interfering with the device. Beverly Crusher and Katherine Pulaski, the two high-ranking doctors who served on the ship, were unfamiliar with the device when first meeting La Forge. The device does not reproduce normal human vision, but does allow the character to \"see\" energy phenomena visible to the naked human eye while expanding the wearer's full perceived spectrum to 1 Hz — 100 PHz. This also allowed the character to see human vital signs such as heart rate and temperature, giving him the ability to monitor moods and even detect lies in humans (but not aliens). In the episode Heart of Glory, Captain Picard keys the main viewer to Geordi's visor allowing him to see the way he does. Seeing all the overlapping and different wavelengths was highly confusing to the Captain, prompting him to ask Geordi how he was able to differentiate between them all. Geordi's response made the comparison of a child hearing many different sounds at once and eventually being able to pick out what they needed; it is a learned talent. In the episode, the access to Geordi's brain through the interface makes him a target of Romulan brainwashing. In the episode, Geordi uses an experimental interface to his VISOR. In an environment too dangerous for humans to be in, Geordi sees, hears, feels and acts through a robot. Twice in the series, Geordi refused to be granted natural vision, first by Commander Riker, who had been given extraordinary amounts of power by Q, because it would have come at the cost of Riker's humanity, and later by Doctor Katherine Pulaski. Sometime between 2371 and 2373, before the time of the film \"\", Geordi's VISOR was replaced by cybernetic eyes, performing the same functions. On film, they are depicted using a combination of cosmetic contact lenses and CGI. There was a short time period in \"\" where Geordi gained actual eyesight, due to the effects of fictional metaphasic radiation, in the atmosphere of the planet Ba'ku. However, the effects of the metaphasic radiation wore off after leaving the planet, and the cybernetic eyes were once again used in the film \"Star Trek Nemesis\".", "\"New Scientist\" magazine reported on research as to whether a device similar to a VISOR can actually be created for blind or visually impaired people. Partial sight has been successfully restored to blind rats by installing an implant behind the retina. Several types of visual prosthesis are in development or trials in humans, and one device has been approved for sale in the European market., 16 blind people worldwide have had sight partially restored in a procedure where electrodes implanted in their brains take impulses from a camera to allow patients to see lights and outlines of objects. There is a device developed by NASA called a Joint Optical Reflective Display, or JORDY, that is presumably named for Geordi La Forge. On August 14, 2012, the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences published an article stating the encoding of image information by the retina into patterns of action potentials has been replicated successfully by a prosthetic device and scientists have successfully restored full vision to blind mice. Scientists were able to mimic this ocular response using glasses, and speculate that a similar pair of glasses may be available for human use within two years. LeVar Burton, who played the character of Geordi La Forge, disliked the VISOR prop because it restricted his peripheral vision – albeit less than its prototypes – and the constant pressure of the prop's arms on his temples caused headaches. In commentary for \"Star Trek Generations\", film writers Ronald D. Moore and Brannon Braga noted Burton also felt the prop limited him as an actor, as it denied him the use of his eyes in conveying emotion. The original prop was inspired by a one-piece women's hair clip brought to production by Michael Okuda during the initial conceptual development of the VISOR prop.", "In the series, we learn that Geordi was born blind and wears a VISOR, an arc-shaped prosthetic attached at the temples that provides him with vision. Interfacing directly with his brain, the device enables him to \"see\" much of the electromagnetic spectrum – radio waves, infrared, ultraviolet, and beyond, but not normal light perception, though it does allow Geordi to see the visible light section of the EM spectrum. La Forge was born February 16, 2335 in Mogadishu, Somalia of the African Confederation on Earth to Silva La Forge, a Starfleet command track officer and eventual Captain of the USS \"Hera\" (NCC-62006) and Edward M. La Forge, a Starfleet exozoologist. He has also mentioned having a sister, Arianna. La Forge stated that with two parents in Starfleet he was an \"army brat\", frequently moving homes depending on where his parents were stationed around Earth (or other planets), which mirror's Burton own youth (he was born on an American base in Germany). He attended Zefram Cochrane High School and then Starfleet Academy from 2353 to 2357. In 2357, he was assigned as an ensign aboard the USS \"Victory\" under Captain Zimbata. After his first cruise, he was transferred to the USS \"Hood\" serving with then Lt. Commander William Riker for her 2361-64 cruise, during which he was promoted to lieutenant junior grade. La Forge once impressed Captain Jean-Luc Picard by staying up all night to fix a shuttle craft that Picard mentioned had a superficial problem. Upon learning this, Picard decided he wanted Geordi on his next command which ended up being the \"Enterprise\"-D where Geordi was assigned to him as a helmsman. At the beginning of, he was promoted to Lieutenant and named Chief Engineer; in, he rose to Lieutenant Commander, a rank that he held for the duration of the series and movies. In 2372, Geordi is transferred to the new \"Sovereign\" class starship \"Enterprise\"-E. When the ship travels back in time to the 21st century, he works alongside Dr. Zefram Cochrane and helps him successfully launch Earth's first warp-capable vessel and achieve first contact with the Vulcans. During the Ba'ku incident, La Forge began to experience pain in his eyes after sojourning on the planet. Doctor Crusher removes his ocular implants to discover that his optic nerves have regenerated and he has gained normal sight. This effect is caused by the healing properties of the Ba'ku ring system and, at the time, it is speculated that the effect will fade after La Forge leaves Ba'ku. This diagnosis proved correct; La Forge again wears the implants in \"\". During the non-canon events of the comic book mini-series \"\" (a prequel to the 2009 \"Star Trek\" film), Geordi (now a civilian) is reunited with Data and Picard during an effort to stop a massive supernova that threatens all of existence. Geordi ultimately designs the \"Jellyfish\", the advanced spacecraft that is piloted by Ambassador Spock in the film.", "In the alternate timeline of \"TNG\" series finale \"\", La Forge has, by 2395, married \"Leah\" and had three children (Alandra, Brett, and Sydney) with her. He had left Starfleet and became a novelist. However, these events may never happen because of the divergence of the time line at the episode's end. In the alternate 2390 future in \"\"s \"\", La Forge is a captain and the commanding officer of the USS \"Challenger\", doing his best to stop Harry Kim and Chakotay from altering the time line. He had micro-implants in his eyes, allowing him to see without wearing his visor. However, Kim and Chakotay succeed in their mission, erasing the alternate time line. Despite trying his best to stop them, La Forge is sympathetic to their actions and even offers a full pardon if they stop. When they refuse, La Forge is forced to attack, but wishes them good luck and says that in their place, he'd probably do the same. When the group's ship suffers a warp core breach and is going to explode, he offers to beam them aboard his ship so they can survive, but they refuse and tell him to move off to a safe distance which he does. In the holographic alternate history depicted in \"Future Imperfect\", a fictitious La Forge had cloned eye implants and had no need of his VISOR.", "Critics and fans have responded favorably to the character. Burton himself has complained on DVD featurettes about the lack of romantic interests for his character. At least one scholar, however, decries that out of seven principal black characters across the \"Star Trek\" series, only La Forge and Tuvok \"really qualify as nerds, and neither of them compares with the extraordinary geekiness of the teenaged Wesley Crusher.\" According to Dr. Ron Eglash, the construction of the La Forge character stands up to the standards of Afrofuturism. In David Greven's book \"Gender and Sexuality in Star Trek\" (2009), he described the use of the VISOR as a means to obscure the face of the character, describing it as a \"surprisingly clunky symbol of blindness\". However, he felt that the bionic eyes used in the film series were an improvement but followed a pattern of African American eye modifications in fantasy and science fiction films such as Halle Berry as Storm in \"X-Men\" (2000). Greven suggested that these changes were to create the impression that the wearer was alien in nature and to highlight the difference between that character/actor and the others in the film. In 2018, TheWrap ranked Geordi as the 11th best main cast character of \"Star Trek\" shows, noting his ability to come up with technical solutions on short notice and his friendship with Data. In 2016, the character of Geordi was ranked as the 21st most important character of Starfleet within the \"Star Trek\" science fiction universe by Wired magazine. One of the noted episode with Geordi is \"\", which was ranked in 2016 by Hollywood Reporter as the 62nd greatest of the \"Star Trek\" franchise up to that time. They note that LeVar Burton has many great scenes as Geordi, with original cast veteran James Doohan reprising his famous character Scotty. Another noted Geordi episode, which they place as the 26th greatest episode of Star Trek, is \"Elementary, Dear Data\", where he is paired with Data and Pulaski on a holographic Sherlock Holmes inspired adventure on the holodeck of the Enterprise, with Daniel Davis playing the role of digital Moriarty. In 2017, IndieWire rated Geordi as the 8th best character on \"Star Trek: The Next Generation\". CBR ranked La Forge as the 13th best Starfleet character of \"Star Trek\", in 2018; they note he had roles of starship helmsman and engineer aboard the Enterprise 1701-D. They note how he keeps the warp core running and enjoys using the spacecraft's holodeck. In 2017, Screen Rant ranked La Forge the 9th most attractive person in the \"Star Trek\" universe. In 2018, \"The Wrap\" placed La Forge as 11th out 39 in a ranking of main cast characters of the \"Star Trek\" franchise prior to \"\". In 2019, Screen Rant suggest that the Geordi character could be utilized for new \"Star Trek\" television show." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Formal statement.", "Implications of the axiom.", "Zermelo's models and the axiom of limitation of size.", "The model \"V\".", "The models \"V\" where κ is a strongly inaccessible cardinal.", "Limitation of size doctrine.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The usual version of the axiom of limitation of size—a class is a proper class if and only if there is a function that maps it onto \"V\"—is expressed in the formal language of set theory as: Gödel introduced the convention that uppercase variables range over all the classes, while lowercase variables range over all the sets. This convention allows us to write: With Gödel's convention, the axiom of limitation of size can be written:", "Von Neumann proved that the axiom of limitation of size implies the axiom of replacement, which can be expressed as: If \"F\" is a function and \"A\" is a set, then \"F\"(\"A\") is a set. This is proved by contradiction. Let \"F\" be a function and \"A\" be a set. Assume that \"F\"(\"A\") is a proper class. Then there is a function \"G\" that maps \"F\"(\"A\") onto \"V\". Since the composite function \"G\" ∘ \"F\" maps \"A\" onto \"V\", the axiom of limitation of size implies that \"A\" is a proper class, which contradicts \"A\" being a set. Therefore, \"F\"(\"A\") is a set. Since the axiom of replacement implies the axiom of separation, the axiom of limitation of size implies the axiom of separation. Von Neumann also proved that his axiom implies that \"V\" can be well-ordered. The proof starts by proving by contradiction that \"Ord\", the class of all ordinals, is a proper class. Assume that \"Ord\" is a set. Since it is transitive set that is well-ordered by ∈, it is an ordinal. So \"Ord\" ∈ \"Ord\", which contradicts \"Ord\" being well-ordered by ∈. Therefore, \"Ord\" is a proper class. So von Neumann's axiom implies that there is a function \"F\" that maps \"Ord\" onto \"V\". To define a well-ordering of \"V\", let \"G\" be the subclass of \"F\" consisting of the ordered pairs (α, \"x\") where α is the least β such that (β, \"x\") ∈ \"F\"; that is, \"G\" = {(α, \"x\") ∈ \"F\": ∀β((β, \"x\") ∈ \"F\" ⇒ α ≤ β)}. The function \"G\" is a one-to-one correspondence between a subset of \"Ord\" and \"V\". Therefore, \"x\" < \"y\" if \"G\"(x) < \"G\"(y) defines a well-ordering of \"V\". This well-ordering defines a global choice function: Let \"Inf\"(\"x\") be the least element of a non-empty set \"x\". Since \"Inf\"(\"x\") ∈ \"x\", this function chooses an element of \"x\" for every non-empty set \"x\". Therefore, \"Inf\"(\"x\") is a global choice function, so Von Neumann's axiom implies the axiom of global choice. In 1968, Azriel Levy proved that von Neumann's axiom implies the axiom of union. First, he proved without using the axiom of union that every set of ordinals has an upper bound. Then he used a function that maps \"Ord\" onto \"V\" to prove that if \"A\" is a set, then ∪A is a set. The axioms of replacement, global choice, and union (with the other axioms of NBG) imply the axiom of limitation of size. Therefore, this axiom is equivalent to the combination of replacement, global choice, and union in NBG or Morse–Kelley set theory. These set theories only substituted the axiom of replacement and a form of the axiom of choice for the axiom of limitation of size because von Neumann's axiom system contains the axiom of union. Levy's proof that this axiom is redundant came many years later. The axioms of NBG with the axiom of global choice replaced by the usual axiom of choice do not imply the axiom of limitation of size. In 1964, William B. Easton used forcing to build a model of NBG with global choice replaced by the axiom of choice. In Easton's model, \"V\" cannot be linearly ordered, so it cannot be well-ordered. Therefore, the axiom of limitation of size fails in this model. \"Ord\" is an example of a proper class that cannot be mapped onto \"V\" because (as proved above) if there is a function mapping \"Ord\" onto \"V\", then \"V\" can be well-ordered. The axioms of NBG with the axiom of replacement replaced by the weaker axiom of separation do not imply the axiom of limitation of size. Define formula_7 as the formula_8-th infinite initial ordinal, which is also the cardinal formula_9; numbering starts at formula_10, so formula_11 In 1939, Gödel pointed out that L, a subset of the constructible universe, is a model of ZFC with replacement replaced by separation. To expand it into a model of NBG with replacement replaced by separation, let its classes be the sets of L, which are the constructible subsets of L. This model satisfies NBG's class existence axioms because restricting the set variables of these axioms to L produces instances of the axiom of separation, which holds in L. It satisfies the axiom of global choice because there is a function belonging to L that maps ω onto L, which implies that L is well-ordered.</math> because it is a constructible subset of formula_12. Gödel uses the notation formula_13 for formula_14. (.)}} The axiom of limitation of size fails because the proper class {ω : \"n\" ∈ ω} has cardinality formula_15, so it cannot be mapped onto L, which has cardinality formula_16. In a 1923 letter to Zermelo, von Neumann stated the first version of his axiom: A class is a proper class if and only if there is a one-to-one correspondence between it and \"V\". The axiom of limitation of size implies von Neumann's 1923 axiom. Therefore, it also implies that all proper classes are equinumerous with \"V\".", "In 1930, Zermelo published an article on models of set theory, in which he proved that some of his models satisfy the axiom of limitation of size. These models are built in ZFC by using the cumulative hierarchy \"V\", which is defined by transfinite recursion: Zermelo worked with models of the form \"V\" where κ is a cardinal. The classes of the model are the subsets of \"V\", and the model's ∈-relation is the standard ∈-relation. The sets of the model are the classes \"X\" such that \"X\" ∈ \"V\". Zermelo identified cardinals κ such that \"V\" satisfies: Since every class is a subset of \"V\", Theorem 2 implies that every class \"X\" has cardinality ≤ κ. Combining this with Theorem 1 proves: every proper class has cardinality κ. Hence, every proper class can be put into one-to-one correspondence with \"V\". This correspondence is a subset of \"V\", so it is a class of the model. Therefore, the axiom of limitation of size holds for the model \"V\". The theorem stating that \"V\" has a well-ordering can be proved directly. Since κ is an ordinal of cardinality κ and |\"V\"| = κ, there is a one-to-one correspondence between κ and \"V\". This correspondence produces a well-ordering of \"V\". Von Neumann's proof is indirect. It uses the Burali-Forti paradox to prove by contradiction that the class of all ordinals is a proper class. Hence, the axiom of limitation of size implies that there is a function that maps the class of all ordinals onto the class of all sets. This function produces a well-ordering of \"V\".", "To demonstrate that Theorems 1 and 2 hold for some \"V\", we first prove that if a set belongs to \"V\" then it belongs to all subsequent \"V\", or equivalently: \"V\" ⊆ \"V\" for α ≤ β. This is proved by transfinite induction on β: Sets enter the cumulative hierarchy through the power set \"P\"(\"V\") at step β+1. The following definitions will be needed: Zermelo's smallest model is \"V\". Mathematical induction proves that \"V\" is finite for all \"n\" < ω: Proof of Theorem 1: A set \"X\" enters \"V\" through \"P\"(\"V\") for some \"n\" < ω, so \"X\" ⊆ \"V\". Since \"V\" is finite, \"X\" is finite. Conversely: If a class \"X\" is finite, let \"N\" = sup {rank(\"x\"): \"x\" ∈ \"X\"}. Since rank(\"x\") ≤ \"N\" for all \"x\" ∈ \"X\", we have \"X\" ⊆ \"V\", so \"X\" ∈ \"V\" ⊆ \"V\". Therefore, \"X\" ∈ \"V\". Proof of Theorem 2: \"V\" is the union of countably infinitely many finite sets of increasing size. Hence, it has cardinality formula_15, which equals ω by von Neumann cardinal assignment. The sets and classes of \"V\" satisfy all the axioms of NBG except the axiom of infinity.", "Two properties of finiteness were used to prove Theorems 1 and 2 for \"V\": To find models satisfying the axiom of infinity, replace \"finite\" by \"< κ\" to produce the properties that define strongly inaccessible cardinals. A cardinal κ is strongly inaccessible if κ > ω and: These properties assert that κ cannot be reached from below. The first property says κ cannot be reached by power sets; the second says κ cannot be reached by the axiom of replacement. Just as the axiom of infinity is required to obtain ω, an axiom is needed to obtain strongly inaccessible cardinals. Zermelo postulated the existence of an unbounded sequence of strongly inaccessible cardinals. If κ is a strongly inaccessible cardinal, then transfinite induction proves |\"V\"| < κ for all α < κ: Proof of Theorem 1: A set \"X\" enters \"V\" through \"P\"(\"V\") for some α < κ, so \"X\" ⊆ \"V\". Since |\"V\"| < κ, we obtain |\"X\"| < κ. Conversely: If a class \"X\" has |\"X\"| < κ, let β = sup {rank(\"x\"): \"x\" ∈ \"X\"}. Because κ is strongly inaccessible, |\"X\"| < κ and rank(\"x\") < κ for all \"x\" ∈ \"X\" imply β = sup {rank(\"x\"): \"x\" ∈ \"X\"} < κ. Since rank(\"x\") ≤ β for all \"x\" ∈ \"X\", we have \"X\" ⊆ \"V\", so \"X\" ∈ \"V\" ⊆ \"V\". Therefore, \"X\" ∈ \"V\". Proof of Theorem 2: |\"V\"| = |∪ \"V\"| ≤ sup {|\"V\"| : α < κ}. Let β be this supremum. Since each ordinal in the supremum is less than κ, we have β ≤ κ. Assume β < κ. Then there is a cardinal λ such that β < λ < κ; for example, let λ = 2. Since λ ⊆ \"V\" and |\"V\"| is in the supremum, we have λ ≤ |\"V\"| ≤ β. This contradicts β < λ. Therefore, |\"V\"| = β = κ. The sets and classes of \"V\" satisfy all the axioms of NBG.", "The limitation of size doctrine is a heuristic principle that is used to justify axioms of set theory. It avoids the set theoretical paradoxes by restricting the full (contradictory) comprehension axiom schema: to instances \"that do not give sets 'too much bigger' than the ones they use.\" If \"bigger\" means \"bigger in cardinal size,\" then most of the axioms can be justified: The axiom of separation produces a subset of \"x\" that is not bigger than \"x\". The axiom of replacement produces an image set \"f\"(\"x\") that is not bigger than \"x\". The axiom of union produces a union whose size is not bigger than the size of the biggest set in the union times the number of sets in the union. The axiom of choice produces a choice set whose size is not bigger than the size of the given set of nonempty sets. The limitation of size doctrine does not justify the axiom of infinity: which uses the empty set and sets obtained from the empty set by iterating the ordinal successor operation. Since these sets are finite, any set satisfying this axiom, such as ω, is much bigger than these sets. Fraenkel and Levy regard the empty set and the infinite set of natural numbers, whose existence is implied by the axioms of infinity and separation, as the starting point for generating sets. Von Neumann's approach to limitation of size uses the axiom of limitation of size. As mentioned in Implications of the axiom, von Neumann's axiom implies the axioms of separation, replacement, union, and choice. Like Fraenkel and Levy, von Neumann had to add the axiom of infinity to his system since it cannot be proved from his other axioms. The differences between von Neumann's approach to limitation of size and Fraenkel and Levy's approach are: There is disagreement on whether the limitation of size doctrine justifies the power set axiom. Michael Hallett has analyzed the arguments given by Fraenkel and Levy. Some of their arguments measure size by criteria other than cardinal size—for example, Fraenkel introduces \"comprehensiveness\" and \"extendability.\" Hallett points out what he considers to be flaws in their arguments. Hallett then argues that results in set theory seem to imply that there is no link between the size of an infinite set and the size of its power set. This would imply that the limitation of size doctrine is incapable of justifying the power set axiom because it requires that the power set of \"x\" is not \"too much bigger\" than \"x\". For the case where size is measured by cardinal size, Hallett mentions Paul Cohen's work. Starting with a model of ZFC and formula_9, Cohen built a model in which the cardinality of the power set of ω is formula_9 if the cofinality of formula_9 is not ω; otherwise, its cardinality is formula_23. Since the cardinality of the power set of ω has no bound, there is no link between the cardinal size of ω and the cardinal size of \"P\"(ω). Hallett also discusses the case where size is measured by \"comprehensiveness,\" which considers a collection \"too big\" if it is of \"unbounded comprehension\" or \"unlimited extent.\" He points out that for an infinite set, we cannot be sure that we have all its subsets without going through the unlimited extent of the universe. He also quotes John L. Bell and Moshé Machover: \"... the power set \"P\"(\"u\") of a given [infinite] set \"u\" is proportional not only to the size of \"u\" but also to the 'richness' of the entire universe...\" After making these observations, Hallett states: \"One is led to suspect that there is simply \"no link\" between the size (comprehensiveness) of an infinite \"a\" and the size of \"P\"(\"a\").\" Hallett considers the limitation of size doctrine valuable for justifying most of the axioms of set theory. His arguments only indicate that it cannot justify the axioms of infinity and power set. He concludes that \"von Neumann's explicit assumption [of the smallness of power-sets] seems preferable to Zermelo's, Fraenkel's, and Levy's obscurely hidden \"implicit\" assumption of the smallness of power-sets.\"", "Von Neumann developed the axiom of limitation of size as a new method of identifying sets. ZFC identifies sets via its set building axioms. However, as Abraham Fraenkel pointed out: \"The rather arbitrary character of the processes which are chosen in the axioms of Z [ZFC] as the basis of the theory, is justified by the historical development of set-theory rather than by logical arguments.\" The historical development of the ZFC axioms began in 1908 when Zermelo chose axioms to eliminate the paradoxes and to support his proof of the well-ordering theorem. In 1922, Abraham Fraenkel and Thoralf Skolem pointed out that Zermelo's axioms cannot prove the existence of the set {\"Z\", \"Z\", \"Z\",...} where \"Z\" is the set of natural numbers, and \"Z\" is the power set of \"Z\". They also introduced the axiom of replacement, which guarantees the existence of this set. However, adding axioms as they are needed neither guarantees the existence of all reasonable sets nor clarifies the difference between sets that are safe to use and collections that lead to contradictions. In a 1923 letter to Zermelo, von Neumann outlined an approach to set theory that identifies sets that are \"too big\" and might lead to contradictions. Von Neumann identified these sets using the criterion: \"A set is 'too big' if and only if it is equivalent with the set of all things.\" He then restricted how these sets may be used: \"... in order to avoid the paradoxes those [sets] which are 'too big' are declared to be impermissible as \"elements\".\" By combining this restriction with his criterion, von Neumann obtained his first version of the axiom of limitation of size, which in the language of classes states: A class is a proper class if and only if it is equinumerous with \"V\". By 1925, Von Neumann modified his axiom by changing \"it is equinumerous with \"V\"\" to \"it can be mapped onto \"V\"\", which produces the axiom of limitation of size. This modification allowed von Neumann to give a simple proof of the axiom of replacement. Von Neumann's axiom identifies sets as classes that cannot be mapped onto \"V\". Von Neumann realized that, even with this axiom, his set theory does not fully characterize sets. Gödel found von Neumann's axiom to be \"of great interest\":" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Description.", "In Belgium." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The \"Oxford English Dictionary\", citing Du Cange, gives the origin of the word \"beguine\" in the name of Lambert le Bègue, \"Lambert the Stammerer\", an early supporter of the movement who died around 1180.", "While a small beguinage usually constituted just one house where women lived together, a Low Countries court beguinage typically comprised one or more courtyards surrounded by houses, and also included a church, an infirmary complex, and a number of communal houses or 'convents'. From the twelfth through eighteenth centuries, every city and large town in the Low Countries had at least one court beguinage: the communities dwindled and came to an end, over the course of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. They were encircled by walls and separated from the town proper by several gates, closed at night, but through which during the day the beguines could come and go as they pleased. Beguines came from a wide range of social classes, though truly poor women were admitted only if they had a wealthy benefactor who pledged to provide for their needs. The understanding of women's motivations for joining the beguinages has changed dramatically in recent decades. The development of these communities is clearly linked to a preponderance of women in urban centers in the Middle Ages, but while earlier scholars like the Belgian historian Henri Pirenne believed that this \"surplus\" of women was caused by men dying in war, that theory has been debunked. Since the groundbreaking work of John Hajnal, who demonstrated that, for much of Europe, marriage occurred later in life and at a lower frequency than had previously been believed, historians have established that single women moved to the newly developed cities because those cities offered them work opportunities. has shown how the smaller beguinages as well as the court beguinages answered such women's social and economic needs, in addition to offering them a religious life coupled with personal independence, which was a difficult thing to have for a woman.", "Thirteen Flemish beguinages have been listed by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites since 1998." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Uses.", "Types.", "Musical performance.", "Tone production and acoustics.", "Musical notation and tablature.", "Articulation.", "Similar instruments." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The ocarina belongs to a very old family of instruments, believed to date back over 12,000 years. Ocarina-type instruments have been of particular importance in Chinese and Mesoamerican cultures. For the Chinese, the instrument played an important role in their long history of song and dance. The ocarina has similar features to the Xun (塤), another important Chinese instrument (but is different in that Ocarina uses an internal duct, whereas Xun is blown across the outer edge). In Japan, the traditional ocarina is known as the \"tsuchibue\" (kanji: 土笛; literally \"earthen flute\"). Different expeditions to Mesoamerica, including the one conducted by Cortés, resulted in the introduction of the ocarina to the courts of Europe. Both the Mayans and Aztecs produced versions of the ocarina, but it was the Aztecs who brought Europe the song and dance that accompanied the ocarina. The ocarina went on to become popular in European communities as a toy instrument. One of the oldest ocarinas found in Europe is from Runik, Kosovo. The Runik ocarina is a Neolithic flute-like wind instrument, and is the earliest prehistoric musical instrument ever recorded in Kosovo. The modern European ocarina dates back to the 19th century, when Giuseppe Donati from Budrio, a town near Bologna, Italy, transformed the ocarina from a toy, which played only a few notes, into a more comprehensive instrument (known as the first \"classical\" ocarina). The word \"ocarina\" in the Bolognese dialect of the Emiliano-Romagnolo language means \"little goose.\" The earlier form was known in Europe as a gemshorn, which was made from animal horns of the chamois (). In 1964, John Taylor, an English Mathematician, developed a fingering system that allowed an ocarina to play a full chromatic octave using only four holes. This is now known as the English fingering system, and is used extensively for pendant ocarinas. It is also used in several multi-chamber ocarinas, especially in ones that are designed to play more than one note at a time. The titular Ocarina of Time (and the wooden Fairy Ocarina) feature prominently in, an adventure game released in 1998 for the Nintendo 64. The game was credited with increasing sales of ocarinas. In the 1953 Finnish children's book \"Tirlittan\", the title character also plays an ocarina.", "Hungarian-Austrian composer György Ligeti (1923–2006) called for four ocarinas (to be performed by woodwind players doubling their own instruments) in his Violin Concerto, completed in 1993. In 1974, the Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki (b. 1933) incorporated 12 ocarinas in his composition \"The Dream of Jacob\". Later, he incorporated 50 in the final section of his Symphony No. 8, completed in 2008, where they are meant to be played by members of the choir.", "There are many different styles of ocarinas varying in shape and the number of holes: Beginning in the late 19th century, several makers have also produced ocarinas with keys and slides. These mechanisms either expand the instrument's range, help fingers reach holes that are widely spaced, or make it easier to play notes that are not in the native key of the instrument.", "", "How an ocarina works: The airstream is directed on the labium by a fipple or internal duct, which is a narrowing rectangular slot in the mouthpiece, rather than relying on the player's lips as in a transverse flute. Like other flutes, the airstream alternates quickly between the inner and outer face of the labium as the pressure in the ocarina chamber oscillates. At first, the sound is a broad-spectrum \"noise\" (i.e. \"chiff\"), but those frequencies that are identical with the fundamental frequency of the resonating chamber (which depends on the fingering), are selectively amplified. A Helmholtz resonating chamber is unusually selective in amplifying a single frequency. Most resonators also amplify more overtones. As a result, ocarinas and other vessel flutes have a distinctive overtoneless sound. Unlike many flutes, ocarinas do not rely on pipe length to produce a particular tone. Instead, the tone is dependent on the ratio of the total surface area of opened holes to the total cubic volume enclosed by the instrument. This means that, unlike a transverse flute or recorder, sound is created by resonance of the entire cavity and the placement of the holes on an ocarina is largely irrelevant – their size is the most important factor. Instruments that have toneholes close to the voicing/embouchure should be avoided, however; as an ocarina is a Helmholtz resonator, this weakens tonal production. The resonator in the ocarina can create overtones, but because of the common \"egg\" shape, these overtones are many octaves above the keynote scale. In similar Helmholtz resonator instruments with a narrow cone shape, like the Gemshorn or Tonette, some partial overtones are available. The technique of overblowing to get a range of higher-pitched notes is possible with the ocarina but not widely used because the resulting note is not \"clean\" enough, so the range of pitches available is limited to a 12th. Some ocarina makers bypass these physical limitations by creating ocarinas that have two or three resonating chambers, each with their own windway and labium. There are two main systems that dictate how these additional chambers are tuned: the Asian system and the Pacchioni system. the Asian system maximizes range by beginning each chamber one semitone higher than the highest note of the previous chamber. The Pacchioni system instead focuses on smoothing the transition between chambers by overlapping their ranges slightly, thereby making it easier to play melodies that fall in that range.", "Ocarina music is written in three main ways. The most apparent is the use of sheet music. There are archives of sheet music either specifically written for ocarinas, or adapted from piano sheet music. Since some ocarinas are fully chromatic and can be played in professional musical situations, including classical and folk, sheet music is an ideal notation for ocarinas. Second is the use of numerical tablature, which expresses the musical notes as numbers. Some makers have developed their own system of numerical tablature for their ocarinas, while others follow a more universal system where numbers correspond to different notes on the scale. This method is typically used by beginners who have not learned to read sheet music. A third method uses a pictorial tablature similar to the ocarina's finger hole pattern, with blackened holes that represent holes to cover. The tablature represents the holes on the top of the ocarina, and, where necessary, the holes on the underside. This enables easy playing, particularly for beginners. The two most popular tablature systems are: Depending on the artist, some may write a number or figure over the picture to depict how many beats to hold the note.", "Due to its lack of keys, the ocarina shares many articulations with the tin whistle, such as cuts, strikes, rolls, and slides. However, tonguing is used more often on ocarina than on tin whistle, and vibrato is always achieved through adjusting breath pressure instead of with the fingers.", "Other vessel flutes include the Chinese xun and African globe flutes. The xun (simplified Chinese: 埙; traditional: 塤; pinyin: xūn) is a Chinese vessel flute made of clay or ceramic. It is one of the oldest Chinese instruments. Shaped like an egg, it differs from the ocarina in being side-blown, like the Western concert flute, rather than having a recorder-like mouthpiece (a fipple or beak). Similar instruments exist in Korea (the \"hun\") and Japan (the \"tsuchibue\"). A related family of instruments is the closed-pipe family, which includes the panpipes and other instruments that produce their tone by vibrating a column of air within a stopped cylinder. The old fashioned jug band jug also has similar properties. The traditional German gemshorn works nearly the same way as an ocarina. The only difference is the material it is made from: the horn of a chamois, goat, or other suitable animal. The borrindo is a simple hollow clay ball with three to four fingering holes, one hole slightly larger than the other three, which are smaller and of equal size to one another. The holes are arranged in an isosceles triangular form. The borrindo is made out of soft alluvial clay available in plenty everywhere in the central Indus Valley. Being of the simplest design, it is made even by children. Some adults make fine borrindos of larger size, put pottery designs on them, and bake them. These baked borrindos, with pottery designs, are the later evolved forms of this musical instrument, which appears to have previously been used in its simple unbaked form for a long time. The sound notes are produced by blowing somewhat horizontally into the larger hole. Finger tips are placed on smaller holes to regulate the notes. Its ease of play makes it popular among children and the youth." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "A mainstay fixed machine gun in German built aircraft (many of which were sold to other countries) well before World War II, by 1940 it was starting to be replaced with heavier caliber machine gun and cannons. By 1945 very few if any aircraft mounted the MG 17. The MG 17 was installed in the Messerschmitt Bf 109, Messerschmitt Bf 110, Focke-Wulf Fw 190, Junkers Ju 87, Junkers Ju 88C Nightfighter, Heinkel He 111, Dornier Do 17/215 Nightfighter, Focke-Wulf Fw 189 and many other aircraft. Many MG 17s were later modified for infantry use, as the Luftwaffe replaced them with the heavier-calibre MG 131, which replaced both the MG 15 in bomber defense applications and the MG 17 as the standard fighter's forward-firing offensive armament (unless the machine guns were replaced by autocannons, such as the MG 151/20, altogether). Official numbers of conversions was about 24,271 by January 1, 1944, although additional conversions may have been done as well. Modifications to the design included removal of the buttstock, switching from magazine to belt-fed ammunition, and from open-bolt operation to closed bolt operation, to allow it to be installed in synchronized applications, firing through the propeller arc. The MG 15 retained open bolt operation, but used 75 round saddle-type drum magazines, and likewise lost its buttstock, to fit better in the tight confines of an aircraft. The MG 30 was also the basis for the famed MG 34 and MG 42 designs; variants of the latter are still in service in certain areas. Dimensions" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Playing career.", "International play.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hnilička played for Poldi SONP Kladno in the Czechoslovak Extraliga for several years. At the 1991 NHL Entry Draft he was selected 70th overall by the New York Islanders, and moved to North America in 1992, spending one season in major junior with the Swift Current Broncos of the Western Hockey League, helping them reach the 1993 Memorial Cup. He then spent 2 seasons in the minor leagues before returning to the Czech Extraliga, where he played a further 4 seasons. Signed by the New York Rangers of the National Hockey League in 1999, he made his NHL debut on October 14, 1999 against the Pittsburgh Penguins. He played 2 games for the Rangers, spending the majority of the season with their American Hockey League affiliate the Hartford Wolf Pack, winning the Calder Cup with them as AHL champions. Signing as a free agent with the Atlanta Thrashers, he would spend 3 seasons with them, before being traded to the Los Angeles Kings in 2003. Hnilička mainly played for the Kings' AHL affiliate, the Manchester Monarchs, appearing in 2 games for the Kings. He returned to the Czech Republic in 2004 and played 5 seasons with Bílí Tygři Liberec, as well as briefly playing for Salavat Yulaev Ufa of the Russian Superleague in [[2007–08 Russian Superleague season|2007–08. Hnilička's last games were in [[2009–10 Czech Extraliga season|2009–10]] when he played 3 games for [[HC Slavia Praha|Slavia Praha]].", "Hnilička played his first game for the [[Czechoslovakia national junior ice hockey team|Czechoslovak junior team]] in 1990 at the [[1990 IIHF European U18 Championship|1990 European Junior Championships]], winning a bronze medal. He played again for the Czechoslovakian junior team at the [[1991 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships|1991 World Junior Championships]], again winning bronze. He was named to the [[Czechoslovakia national ice hockey team|Czechoslovakian senior team]] for both the [[1991 Canada Cup]] and [[1991 Men's Ice Hockey World Championships|1991 World Championships]], but did not play in either tournament. Hnilička's final tournament for Czechoslovakia was the [[1992 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships|1992 World Junior Championships]], where the team finished fifth. With the [[dissolution of Czechoslovakia]] he began to represent the [[Czech Republic national men's ice hockey team|Czech national team]], playing in 7 [[ice hockey world championships|World Championships]] and the [[1998 Winter Olympics|1998]] and [[2006 Winter Olympics]] (though he did not play in 1998). He won gold at the [[1999 IIHF World Championship|1999]], [[2001 IIHF World Championship|2001]], and [[2005 IIHF World Championship|2005 World Championships]], as well as a silver in [[2006 IIHF World Championship|2006]] and bronze in both [[1997 Men's Ice Hockey World Championships|1997]] and [[1998 IIHF World Championship|1998]].", "[[Category:1973 births]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:People from Litoměřice]] [[Category:Atlanta Thrashers players]] [[Category:Chicago Wolves players]] [[Category:Czech ice hockey goaltenders]] [[Category:Denver Grizzlies players]] [[Category:Expatriate ice hockey players in Russia]] [[Category:Hartford Wolf Pack players]] [[Category:HC Bílí Tygři Liberec players]] [[Category:Rytíři Kladno players]] [[Category:HC Slavia Praha players]] [[Category:HC Sparta Praha players]] [[Category:Ice hockey players at the 1998 Winter Olympics]] [[Category:Ice hockey players at the 2006 Winter Olympics]] [[Category:Los Angeles Kings players]] [[Category:Manchester Monarchs (AHL) players]] [[Category:New York Islanders draft picks]] [[Category:New York Rangers players]] [[Category:Olympic bronze medalists for the Czech Republic]] [[Category:Olympic gold medalists for the Czech Republic]] [[Category:Olympic ice hockey players of the Czech Republic]] [[Category:Richmond Renegades players]] [[Category:Salavat Yulaev Ufa players]] [[Category:Salt Lake Golden Eagles players]] [[Category:Swift Current Broncos players]] [[Category:Olympic medalists in ice hockey]] [[Category:Medalists at the 2006 Winter Olympics]] [[Category:Medalists at the 1998 Winter Olympics]] [[Category:ANO 2011 MPs]] [[Category:Members of the Chamber of Deputies of the Czech Republic (2017–2021)]]" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Composition and structure.", "Structure of surfactant phases in water.", "Dynamics of surfactants at interfaces.", "Characterization of interfaces and surfactant layers.", "Surfactants in biology.", "Safety and environmental risks.", "Biodegradation.", "Applications.", "Detergents in biochemistry and biotechnology.", "Quantum dot preparation.", "Surfactants in Droplet-based Microfluidics.", "Classification.", "Anionic: sulfate, sulfonate, and phosphate, carboxylate derivatives.", "Cationic head groups.", "Zwitterionic surfactants.", "Non-ionic.", "Ethoxylates.", "Fatty acid ethoxylates.", "Fatty acid esters of polyhydroxy compounds.", "Fatty acid esters of sorbitol." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "4", "3", "4" ], "content": [ "Surfactants are usually organic compounds that are amphiphilic, meaning they contain both hydrophobic groups (their \"tails\") and hydrophilic groups (their \"heads\"). Therefore, a surfactant contains both a water-insoluble (or oil-soluble) component and a water-soluble component. Surfactants will diffuse in water and adsorb at interfaces between air and water or at the interface between oil and water, in the case where water is mixed with oil. The water-insoluble hydrophobic group may extend out of the bulk water phase, into the air or into the oil phase, while the water-soluble head group remains in the water phase. World production of surfactants is estimated at 15 Mton/y, of which about half are soaps. Other surfactants produced on a particularly large scale are linear alkylbenzene sulfonates (1700 kton/y), lignin sulfonates (600 kton/y), fatty alcohol ethoxylates (700 ktons/y), and alkylphenol ethoxylates (500 kton/y).", "In the bulk aqueous phase, surfactants form aggregates, such as micelles, where the hydrophobic tails form the core of the aggregate and the hydrophilic heads are in contact with the surrounding liquid. Other types of aggregates can also be formed, such as spherical or cylindrical micelles or lipid bilayers. The shape of the aggregates depends on the chemical structure of the surfactants, namely the balance in size between the hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail. A measure of this is the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB).Surfactants reduce the surface tension of water by adsorbing at the liquid-air interface. The relation that links the surface tension and the surface excess is known as the Gibbs isotherm.", "The dynamics of surfactant adsorption is of great importance for practical applications such as in foaming, emulsifying or coating processes, where bubbles or drops are rapidly generated and need to be stabilized. The dynamics of absorption depend on the diffusion coefficient of the surfactant. As the interface is created, the adsorption is limited by the diffusion of the surfactant to the interface. In some cases, there can exist an energetic barrier to adsorption or desorption of the surfactant. If such a barrier limits the adsorption rate, the dynamics are said to be ‘kinetically limited'. Such energy barriers can be due to steric or electrostatic repulsions. The surface rheology of surfactant layers, including the elasticity and viscosity of the layer, play an important role in the stability of foams and emulsions.", "Interfacial and surface tension can be characterized by classical methods such as the -pendant or spinning drop method. Dynamic surface tensions, i.e. surface tension as a function of time, can be obtained by the maximum bubble pressure apparatus The structure of surfactant layers can be studied by ellipsometry or X-Ray reflectivity. Surface rheology can be characterized by the oscillating drop method or shear surface rheometers such as double-cone, double-ring or magnetic rod shear surface rheometer.", "The human body produces diverse surfactants. Pulmonary surfactant is produced in lungs in order to facilitate breathing by increasing total lung capacity, TLC, and lung compliance. In respiratory distress syndrome or RDS surfactant replacement therapy helps patients have normal respiration by using pharmaceutical forms of the surfactants. One example of pharmaceutical pulmonary surfactants is Survanta (beractant) or its generic form Beraksurf produced by Abbvie and Tekzima respectively. Bile salts play important role in digestion.", "Most anionic and non-ionic surfactants are nontoxic, having LD50 comparable to sodium chloride. The toxicity of quaternary ammonium compounds, which are antibacterial and antifungal, varies. Dialkyldimethylammonium chlorides (DDAC, DSDMAC) used as fabric softeners have low LD50 (5 g/kg) and are essentially non-toxic, while the disinfectant alkylbenzyldimethylammonium chloride has an LD50 of 0.35 g/kg. Prolonged exposure to surfactants can irritate and damage the skin because surfactants disrupt the lipid membrane that protects skin and other cells. Skin irritancy generally increases in the series non-ionic, amphoteric, anionic, cationic surfactants. Surfactants are routinely deposited in numerous ways on land and into water systems, whether as part of an intended process or as industrial and household waste. Anionic surfactants can be found in soils as the result of sludge application, wastewater irrigation, and remediation processes. Relatively high concentrations of surfactants together with multimetals can represent an environmental risk. At low concentrations, surfactant application is unlikely to have a significant effect on trace metal mobility. In the case of Deepwater Horizon oil spill, unprecedented amounts of Corexit were sprayed directly into the ocean at the leak and on the sea-water's surface. The apparent theory being that the surfactants isolate droplets of oil, making it easier for petroleum-consuming microbes to digest the oil. The active ingredient in Corexit is dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate (DOSS), sorbitan monooleate (Span 80), and polyoxyethylenated sorbitan monooleate (Tween-80)).", "Because of the volume of surfactants released into the environment, their biodegradation is of great interest. Strategies to enhance degradation include ozone treatment and biodegradation. Two major surfactants, linear alkylbenzene sulfonates (LAS) and the alkyl phenol ethoxylates (APE) break down under aerobic conditions found in sewage treatment plants and in soil to nonylphenol, which is thought to be an endocrine disruptor. Interest in biodegradable surfactants has led to much interest in \"biosurfactants\" such as those derived from amino acids. Attracting much attention is the non-biodegradability of fluorosurfactant, e.g. perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA).", "The annual global production of surfactants was 13 million tonnes in 2008. In 2014, the world market for surfactants reached a volume of more than 33 billion US-dollars. Market researchers expect annual revenues to increase by 2.5% per year to around 40.4 billion US-dollars until 2022. The commercially most significant type of surfactants is currently the anionic surfactant alkyl benzene sulfonate (LAS), which is widely used in cleaners and detergents. Surfactants play an important role as cleaning, wetting, dispersing, emulsifying, foaming and anti-foaming agents in many practical applications and products, including detergents, fabric softeners, motor oils, emulsions, soaps, paints, adhesives, inks, anti-fogs, ski waxes, snowboard wax, deinking of recycled papers, in flotation, washing and enzymatic processes, laxatives. Also agrochemical formulations such as Herbicides (some), insecticides, biocides (sanitizers), and spermicides (nonoxynol-9). Personal care products such as cosmetics, shampoos, shower gel, hair conditioners (after shampoo), toothpastes. Surfactants are used in firefighting and pipelines (liquid drag reducing agents). Alkali surfactant polymers are used to mobilize oil in oil wells. The displacement of air from the matrix of cotton pads and bandages so that medicinal solutions can be absorbed for application to various body areas; the displacement of dirt and debris by the use of detergents in the washing of wounds; and the application of medicinal lotions and sprays to surface of skin and mucous membranes.", "In solution, detergents help solubilize a variety of chemical species by dissociating aggregates and unfolding proteins. Popular surfactants in the biochemistry laboratory are sodium lauryl sulfate (SDS) and cetyl trimethylammonium bromide (CTAB). Detergents are key reagents to extract protein by lysis of the cells and tissues: They disorganize the membrane's lipid bilayer (SDS, Triton X-100, X-114, CHAPS, DOC, and NP-40), and solubilize proteins. Milder detergents such as octyl thioglucoside, octyl glucoside or dodecyl maltoside are used to solubilize membrane proteins such as enzymes and receptors without denaturing them. Non-solubilized material is harvested by centrifugation or other means. For electrophoresis, for example, proteins are classically treated with SDS to denature the native tertiary and quaternary structures, allowing the separation of proteins according to their molecular weight. Detergents have also been used to decellularise organs. This process maintains a matrix of proteins that preserves the structure of the organ and often the microvascular network. The process has been successfully used to prepare organs such as the liver and heart for transplant in rats. Pulmonary surfactants are also naturally secreted by type II cells of the lung alveoli in mammals.", "Surfactants are used with quantum dots in order to manipulate the growth,assembly, and electrical properties of quantum dots, in addition to mediating reactions on their surfaces. Research is ongoing in how surfactants arrange on the surface of the quantum dots.", "Surfactants play an important role in Droplet-based Microfluidics in the stabilization of the droplets, and the prevention of the fusion of droplets during incubation.", "The \"tails\" of most surfactants are fairly similar, consisting of a hydrocarbon chain, which can be branched, linear, or aromatic. Fluorosurfactants have fluorocarbon chains. Siloxane surfactants have siloxane chains. Many important surfactants include a polyether chain terminating in a highly polar anionic group. The polyether groups often comprise ethoxylated (polyethylene oxide-like) sequences inserted to increase the hydrophilic character of a surfactant. Polypropylene oxides conversely, may be inserted to increase the lipophilic character of a surfactant. Surfactant molecules have either one tail or two; those with two tails are said to be \"double-chained\". Most commonly, surfactants are classified according to polar head group. A non-ionic surfactant has no charged groups in its head. The head of an ionic surfactant carries a net positive, or negative charge. If the charge is negative, the surfactant is more specifically called anionic; if the charge is positive, it is called cationic. If a surfactant contains a head with two oppositely charged groups, it is termed zwitterionic. Commonly encountered surfactants of each type include:", "Anionic surfactants contain anionic functional groups at their head, such as sulfate, sulfonate, phosphate, and carboxylates. Prominent alkyl sulfates include ammonium lauryl sulfate, sodium lauryl sulfate (sodium dodecyl sulfate, SLS, or SDS), and the related alkyl-ether sulfates sodium laureth sulfate (sodium lauryl ether sulfate or SLES), and sodium myreth sulfate. Others include: Carboxylates are the most common surfactants and comprise the carboxylate salts (soaps), such as sodium stearate. More specialized species include sodium lauroyl sarcosinate and carboxylate-based fluorosurfactants such as perfluorononanoate, perfluorooctanoate (PFOA or PFO).", "pH-dependent primary, secondary, or tertiary amines; primary and secondary amines become positively charged at pH < 10: octenidine dihydrochloride. Permanently charged quaternary ammonium salts: cetrimonium bromide (CTAB), cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC), benzalkonium chloride (BAC), benzethonium chloride (BZT), dimethyldioctadecylammonium chloride, and dioctadecyldimethylammonium bromide (DODAB).", "Zwitterionic (amphoteric) surfactants have both cationic and anionic centers attached to the same molecule. The cationic part is based on primary, secondary, or tertiary amines or quaternary ammonium cations. The anionic part can be more variable and include sulfonates, as in the sultaines CHAPS (3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate) and cocamidopropyl hydroxysultaine. Betaines such as cocamidopropyl betaine have a carboxylate with the ammonium. The most common biological zwitterionic surfactants have a phosphate anion with an amine or ammonium, such as the phospholipids phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylcholine, and sphingomyelins.", "Non-ionic surfactants have covalently bonded oxygen-containing hydrophilic groups, which are bonded to hydrophobic parent structures. The water-solubility of the oxygen groups is the result of hydrogen bonding. Hydrogen bonding decreases with increasing temperature, and the water solubility of non-ionic surfactants therefore decreases with increasing temperature. Non-ionic surfactants are less sensitive to water hardness than anionic surfactants, and they foam less strongly. The differences between the individual types of non-ionic surfactants are slight, and the choice is primarily governed having regard to the costs of special properties (e.g., effectiveness and efficiency, toxicity, dermatological compatibility, biodegradability) or permission for use in food.", "", "Fatty acid ethoxylates are a class of very versatile surfactants, which combine in a single molecule the characteristic of a weakly anionic, pH-responsive head group with the presence of stabilizing and temperature responsive ethyleneoxide units.", "", "Spans: Tweens:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design.", "Features.", "Algorithm.", "Examples.", "Successors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "T9's objective is to make it easier to enter text messages. It allows words to be formed by a single keypress for each letter, which is an enormous improvement over the multi-tap approach used in conventional mobile phone text entry at the time, in which several letters are associated with each key, and selecting one letter often requires multiple keypresses. T9 combines the groups of letters on each phone key with a fast-access dictionary of words. It will then look up in the dictionary all words corresponding to the sequence of keypresses and order them by frequency of use. As T9 \"gains familiarity\" with the words and phrases the user commonly uses, it speeds up the process by offering the most frequently used words first and then letting the user access other choices with one or more presses of a predefined \"Next\" key. The dictionary is expandable. After introducing a new word, the next time the user tries to produce that word, T9 adds it to the predictive dictionary. The user database (UDB) can be expanded via multi-tap. The implementation of the user database is dependent on the version of T9 and how T9 is actually integrated on the device. Some phone manufacturers supply a permanent user database, while others do so for the duration of the session.", "Some T9 implementations feature \"smart punctuation\". This feature allows the user to insert sentence and word punctuation using the '1'-key. Depending on the context, smart punctuation inserts sentence punctuation (period or 'full stop') or embedded punctuation (period or hyphen) or word punctuation (apostrophe in can't, won't, isn't, and the possessive \"'s\"). Depending on the language, T9 also supports word breaking after punctuation to support clitics such as \"l' \" and \"n' \"in French and \"'s\" in English. The UDB is an optional feature that allows words that were explicitly entered by the user to be stored for future reference. The number of words stored depend on the implementation and the language. In later versions of T9, the order of the words presented is adapted to the usage pattern. For instance, in English, 4663 matches \"good\", \"home\", \"gone\", \"hood\", etc. Such combinations are known as \"textonyms\"; e.g., \"home\" is referred to as a \"textonym\" of \"good\". T9 is encoded to prefer the word that its programmers determined to be the most common \"textonym\", such as \"good\" over \"home\" or \"gone\", \"hand\" over \"game\", or \"bad\" over \"cad\" or \"ace\". When the user tends to use \"home\" more often than \"good\", eventually the two words switch position, and \"home\" is presented as the default option instead. Information about common word combinations can also be learned and stored for future predictions (so, \"I'm feeling\" followed by 4663 will be offered as \"good\" instead of \"home\", whereas \"I went back\" and 4663 would be \"home\", not \"good\"). For words entered by the user, word completion can be enabled. When the user enters matching keypresses, in addition to words and stems, the system also provides completions. In later versions of T9, the user can select a primary and secondary language and access matches from both languages. This enables users to write messages in their native language, as well as a foreign one. Some implementations learn commonly used word pairs and provide word prediction (e.g. if one often writes \"eat food\", after entering \"eat\" the phone will suggest \"food\", which can be confirmed by pressing Next). T9 can automatically recognize and correct typing/texting errors, by looking at neighboring keys on the keypad to determine an incorrect keypress. For example, the word \"testing\" is entered with the key combination \"8378464\". Entering the same number but with two incorrect keypresses of neighboring keys, e.g., \"8278494\" results in T9 suggesting the words \"tasting\" (8278464), \"testing\" (8378464), and \"tapping\" (8277464).", "In order to achieve compression ratios of close to 1 byte per word, T9 uses an optimized algorithm that maintains word order and partial words (also known as stems); however, because of this compression, it over-generates words that are sometimes visible as \"junk words\". This is a side effect of the requirements for small database sizes on the lower end embedded devices.", "On a phone with a numeric keypad, each time a key (1-9) is pressed (when in a text field), the algorithm returns a guess for what letters are most likely for the keys pressed to that point. For example, to enter the word 'the', the user would press 8 then 4 then 3, and the display would display 't' then 'th' then 'the'. If the less-common word 'fore' is intended (3673) the predictive algorithm may select 'Ford'. Pressing the 'next' key (typically the '*' key) might bring up 'dose', and finally 'fore'. If 'fore' is selected, then the next time the user presses the sequence 3673, fore will be more likely to be the first word displayed. If the word \"Felix\" is intended, however, when entering 33549, the display shows 'E', then 'De', 'Del', 'Deli', and 'Felix.' This is an example of a letter changing while entering words.", "Many smart keyboards now exist, such as Swype or Swiftkey, that have taken the idea of T9 and married it with the advanced touchscreen technology found in Android phones and iPhones. These advances have made T9 obsolete in newer cellphones for many users, since it is predicated on the use of a keypad with nothing besides numbers, the asterisk and the pound key (known as the hash key in Commonwealth countries). Many features, such as predictive text, have been adopted by and improved by future generations of keyboard software. However, T9 remains viable. For example, those with larger fingertips still use the T9 based keyboard on smartphones for text entry, because key press accuracy increases with the larger screen area per key on a numeric-style 4×3 keyboard. Such T9 formats for text entry therefore remain viable in all latest iterations of LG keyboards (called \"phone layout\") as well as certain Samsung keyboards and third party T9 keyboards that also provide keyboard and dictionary customization, such as Go keyboard for Androids and Type Nine for iPhones -- for this feature that most smartphone keyboards still can't address, even with their otherwise full-featured chiclet qwerty keyboards." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Stem and roots.", "Leaves.", "Flowers.", "Pollination.", "Asexual reproduction.", "Fruits and seeds.", "Taxonomy.", "Evolution.", "Genera.", "Etymology.", "Distribution.", "Ecology.", "Uses.", "Perfumery.", "Horticulture.", "Use as food.", "Cultural symbolism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Orchids are easily distinguished from other plants, as they share some very evident derived characteristics or synapomorphies. Among these are: bilateral symmetry of the flower (zygomorphism), many resupinate flowers, a nearly always highly modified petal (labellum), fused stamens and carpels, and extremely small seeds.", "All orchids are perennial herbs that lack any permanent woody structure. They can grow according to two patterns: Terrestrial orchids may be rhizomatous or form corms or tubers. The root caps of terrestrial orchids are smooth and white. Some sympodial terrestrial orchids, such as \"Orchis\" and \"Ophrys\", have two subterranean tuberous roots. One is used as a food reserve for wintry periods, and provides for the development of the other one, from which visible growth develops. In warm and constantly humid climates, many terrestrial orchids do not need pseudobulbs. Epiphytic orchids, those that grow upon a support, have modified aerial roots that can sometimes be a few meters long. In the older parts of the roots, a modified spongy epidermis, called a velamen, has the function of absorbing humidity. It is made of dead cells and can have a silvery-grey, white or brown appearance. In some orchids, the velamen includes spongy and fibrous bodies near the passage cells, called tilosomes. The cells of the root epidermis grow at a right angle to the axis of the root to allow them to get a firm grasp on their support. Nutrients for epiphytic orchids mainly come from mineral dust, organic detritus, animal droppings and other substances collecting among on their supporting surfaces. The base of the stem of sympodial epiphytes, or in some species essentially the entire stem, may be thickened to form a pseudobulb that contains nutrients and water for drier periods. The pseudobulb has a smooth surface with lengthwise grooves, and can have different shapes, often conical or oblong. Its size is very variable; in some small species of \"Bulbophyllum\", it is no longer than two millimeters, while in the largest orchid in the world, \"Grammatophyllum speciosum\" (giant orchid), it can reach three meters. Some \"Dendrobium\" species have long, canelike pseudobulbs with short, rounded leaves over the whole length; some other orchids have hidden or extremely small pseudobulbs, completely included inside the leaves. With ageing, the pseudobulb sheds its leaves and becomes dormant. At this stage, it is often called a backbulb. Backbulbs still hold nutrition for the plant, but then a pseudobulb usually takes over, exploiting the last reserves accumulated in the backbulb, which eventually dies off, too. A pseudobulb typically lives for about five years. Orchids without noticeable pseudobulbs are also said to have growths, an individual component of a sympodial plant.", "Like most monocots, orchids generally have simple leaves with parallel veins, although some Vanilloideae have reticulate venation. Leaves may be ovate, lanceolate, or orbiculate, and very variable in size on the individual plant. Their characteristics are often diagnostic. They are normally alternate on the stem, often folded lengthwise along the centre (\"plicate\"), and have no stipules. Orchid leaves often have siliceous bodies called stegmata in the vascular bundle sheaths (not present in the Orchidoideae) and are fibrous. The structure of the leaves corresponds to the specific habitat of the plant. Species that typically bask in sunlight, or grow on sites which can be occasionally very dry, have thick, leathery leaves and the laminae are covered by a waxy cuticle to retain their necessary water supply. Shade-loving species, on the other hand, have long, thin leaves. The leaves of most orchids are perennial, that is, they live for several years, while others, especially those with plicate leaves as in \"Catasetum\", shed them annually and develop new leaves together with new pseudobulbs. The leaves of some orchids are considered ornamental. The leaves of the \"Macodes sanderiana\", a semiterrestrial or rock-hugging (\"lithophyte\") orchid, show a sparkling silver and gold veining on a light green background. The cordate leaves of \"Psychopsis limminghei\" are light brownish-green with maroon-puce markings, created by flower pigments. The attractive mottle of the leaves of lady's slippers from tropical and subtropical Asia (\"Paphiopedilum\"), is caused by uneven distribution of chlorophyll. Also, \"Phalaenopsis schilleriana\" is a pastel pink orchid with leaves spotted dark green and light green. The jewel orchid (\"Ludisia discolor\") is grown more for its colorful leaves than its white flowers. Some orchids, such as \"Dendrophylax lindenii\" (ghost orchid), \"Aphyllorchis\" and \"Taeniophyllum\" depend on their green roots for photosynthesis and lack normally developed leaves, as do all of the heterotrophic species. Orchids of the genus \"Corallorhiza\" (coralroot orchids) lack leaves altogether and instead wrap their roots around the roots of mature trees and use specialized fungi to harvest sugars.", "The Orchidaceae are well known for the many structural variations in their flowers. Some orchids have single flowers, but most have a racemose inflorescence, sometimes with a large number of flowers. The flowering stem can be basal, that is, produced from the base of the tuber, like in \"Cymbidium\", apical, meaning it grows from the apex of the main stem, like in \"Cattleya\", or axillary, from the leaf axil, as in \"Vanda\". As an apomorphy of the clade, orchid flowers are primitively zygomorphic (bilaterally symmetrical), although in some genera, such as \"Mormodes\", \"Ludisia\", and \"Macodes\", this kind of symmetry may be difficult to notice. The orchid flower, like most flowers of monocots, has two whorls of sterile elements. The outer whorl has three sepals and the inner whorl has three petals. The sepals are usually very similar to the petals (thus called tepals, 1), but may be completely distinct. The medial petal, called the labellum or lip (6), which is always modified and enlarged, is actually the upper medial petal; however, as the flower develops, the inferior ovary (7) or the pedicel usually rotates 180°, so that the labellum arrives at the lower part of the flower, thus becoming suitable to form a platform for pollinators. This characteristic, called resupination, occurs primitively in the family and is considered apomorphic, a derived characteristic all Orchidaceae share. The torsion of the ovary is very evident from the longitudinal section shown (\"below right\"). Some orchids have secondarily lost this resupination, e.g. \"Epidendrum secundum\". The normal form of the sepals can be found in \"Cattleya\", where they form a triangle. In \"Paphiopedilum\" (Venus slippers), the lower two sepals are fused into a synsepal, while the lip has taken the form of a slipper. In \"Masdevallia\", all the sepals are fused. Orchid flowers with abnormal numbers of petals or lips are called peloric. Peloria is a genetic trait, but its expression is environmentally influenced and may appear random. Orchid flowers primitively had three stamens, but this situation is now limited to the genus \"Neuwiedia\". \"Apostasia\" and the Cypripedioideae have two stamens, the central one being sterile and reduced to a staminode. All of the other orchids, the clade called \"Monandria\", retain only the central stamen, the others being reduced to staminodes (4). The filaments of the stamens are always adnate (fused) to the style to form cylindrical structure called the gynostemium or column (2). In the primitive Apostasioideae, this fusion is only partial; in the Vanilloideae, it is more deep; in Orchidoideae and Epidendroideae, it is total. The stigma (9) is very asymmetrical, as all of its lobes are bent towards the centre of the flower and lie on the bottom of the column. Pollen is released as single grains, like in most other plants, in the Apostasioideae, Cypripedioideae, and Vanilloideae. In the other subfamilies, which comprise the great majority of orchids, the anther (3) carries two pollinia. A pollinium is a waxy mass of pollen grains held together by the glue-like alkaloid viscin, containing both cellulosic strands and mucopolysaccharides. Each pollinium is connected to a filament which can take the form of a caudicle, as in \"Dactylorhiza\" or \"Habenaria\", or a \"stipe\", as in \"Vanda\". Caudicles or stipes hold the pollinia to the viscidium, a sticky pad which sticks the pollinia to the body of pollinators. At the upper edge of the stigma of single-anthered orchids, in front of the anther cap, is the rostellum (5), a slender extension involved in the complex pollination mechanism. As mentioned, the ovary is always inferior (located behind the flower). It is three-carpelate and one or, more rarely, three-partitioned, with parietal placentation (axile in the Apostasioideae). In 2011, \"Bulbophyllum nocturnum\" was discovered to flower nocturnally.", "The complex mechanisms that orchids have evolved to achieve cross-pollination were investigated by Charles Darwin and described in \"Fertilisation of Orchids\" (1862). Orchids have developed highly specialized pollination systems, thus the chances of being pollinated are often scarce, so orchid flowers usually remain receptive for very long periods, rendering unpollinated flowers long-lasting in cultivation. Most orchids deliver pollen in a single mass. Each time pollination succeeds, thousands of ovules can be fertilized. Pollinators are often visually attracted by the shape and colours of the labellum. However, some \"Bulbophyllum\" species attract male fruit flies (\"Bactrocera\" and \"Zeugodacus\" spp.) solely via a floral chemical which simultaneously acts as a floral reward (e.g. methyl eugenol, raspberry ketone, or zingerone) to perform pollination. The flowers may produce attractive odours. Although absent in most species, nectar may be produced in a spur of the labellum (8 in the illustration above), or on the point of the sepals, or in the septa of the ovary, the most typical position amongst the Asparagales. In orchids that produce pollinia, pollination happens as some variant of the following sequence: when the pollinator enters into the flower, it touches a viscidium, which promptly sticks to its body, generally on the head or abdomen. While leaving the flower, it pulls the pollinium out of the anther, as it is connected to the viscidium by the caudicle or stipe. The caudicle then bends and the pollinium is moved forwards and downwards. When the pollinator enters another flower of the same species, the pollinium has taken such position that it will stick to the stigma of the second flower, just below the rostellum, pollinating it. The possessors of orchids may be able to reproduce the process with a pencil, small paintbrush, or other similar device. Some orchids mainly or totally rely on self-pollination, especially in colder regions where pollinators are particularly rare. The caudicles may dry up if the flower has not been visited by any pollinator, and the pollinia then fall directly on the stigma. Otherwise, the anther may rotate and then enter the stigma cavity of the flower (as in \"Holcoglossum amesianum\"). The slipper orchid \"Paphiopedilum parishii\" reproduces by self-fertilization. This occurs when the anther changes from a solid to a liquid state and directly contacts the stigma surface without the aid of any pollinating agent or floral assembly. The labellum of the Cypripedioideae is poke bonnet-shaped, and has the function of trapping visiting insects. The only exit leads to the anthers that deposit pollen on the visitor. In some extremely specialized orchids, such as the Eurasian genus \"Ophrys\", the labellum is adapted to have a colour, shape, and odour which attracts male insects via mimicry of a receptive female. Pollination happens as the insect attempts to mate with flowers. Many neotropical orchids are pollinated by male orchid bees, which visit the flowers to gather volatile chemicals they require to synthesize pheromonal attractants. Males of such species as \"Euglossa imperialis\" or \"Eulaema meriana\" have been observed to leave their territories periodically to forage for aromatic compounds, such as cineole, to synthesize pheromone for attracting and mating with females. Each type of orchid places the pollinia on a different body part of a different species of bee, so as to enforce proper cross-pollination. A rare achlorophyllous saprophytic orchid growing entirely underground in Australia, \"Rhizanthella slateri\", is never exposed to light, and depends on ants and other terrestrial insects to pollinate it. \"Catasetum\", a genus discussed briefly by Darwin, actually launches its viscid pollinia with explosive force when an insect touches a seta, knocking the pollinator off the flower. After pollination, the sepals and petals fade and wilt, but they usually remain attached to the ovary.", "Some species, such as \"Phalaenopsis\", \"Dendrobium\", and \"Vanda\", produce offshoots or plantlets formed from one of the nodes along the stem, through the accumulation of growth hormones at that point. These shoots are known as \"keiki\".", "The ovary typically develops into a capsule that is dehiscent by three or six longitudinal slits, while remaining closed at both ends. The seeds are generally almost microscopic and very numerous, in some species over a million per capsule. After ripening, they blow off like dust particles or spores. They lack endosperm and must enter symbiotic relationships with various mycorrhizal basidiomyceteous fungi that provide them the necessary nutrients to germinate, so all orchid species are mycoheterotrophic during germination and reliant upon fungi to complete their lifecycles. As the chance for a seed to meet a suitable fungus is very small, only a minute fraction of all the seeds released grow into adult plants. In cultivation, germination typically takes weeks. Horticultural techniques have been devised for germinating orchid seeds on an artificial nutrient medium, eliminating the requirement of the fungus for germination and greatly aiding the propagation of ornamental orchids. The usual medium for the sowing of orchids in artificial conditions is agar gel combined with a carbohydrate energy source. The carbohydrate source can be combinations of discrete sugars or can be derived from other sources such as banana, pineapple, peach, or even tomato puree or coconut water. After the preparation of the agar medium, it is poured into test tubes or jars which are then autoclaved (or cooked in a pressure cooker) to sterilize the medium. After cooking, the medium begins to gel as it cools.", "The taxonomy of this family is in constant flux, as new studies continue to clarify the relationships between species and groups of species, allowing more taxa at several ranks to be recognized. The Orchidaceae is currently placed in the order Asparagales by the APG III system of 2009. Five subfamilies are recognised. The cladogram below was made according to the APG system of 1998. It represents the view that most botanists had held up to that time. It was supported by morphological studies, but never received strong support in molecular phylogenetic studies. In 2015, a phylogenetic study showed strong statistical support for the following topology of the orchid tree, using 9 kb of plastid and nuclear DNA from 7 genes, a topology that was confirmed by a phylogenomic study in the same year.", "A study in the scientific journal \"Nature\" has hypothesised that the origin of orchids goes back much longer than originally expected. An extinct species of stingless bee, \"Proplebeia dominicana\", was found trapped in Miocene amber from about 15-20 million years ago. The bee was carrying pollen of a previously unknown orchid taxon, \"Meliorchis caribea\", on its wings. This find is the first evidence of fossilised orchids to date and shows insects were active pollinators of orchids then. This extinct orchid, \"M. caribea\", has been placed within the extant tribe Cranichideae, subtribe Goodyerinae (subfamily Orchidoideae). An even older orchid species, \"Succinanthera baltica\", was described from the Eocene Baltic amber by Poinar & Rasmussen (2017). Genetic sequencing indicates orchids may have arisen earlier, 76 to 84 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous. According to Mark W. Chase \"et al.\" (2001), the overall biogeography and phylogenetic patterns of Orchidaceae show they are even older and may go back roughly 100 million years. Using the molecular clock method, it was possible to determine the age of the major branches of the orchid family. This also confirmed that the subfamily Vanilloideae is a branch at the basal dichotomy of the monandrous orchids, and must have evolved very early in the evolution of the family. Since this subfamily occurs worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions, from tropical America to tropical Asia, New Guinea and West Africa, and the continents began to split about 100 million years ago, significant biotic exchange must have occurred after this split (since the age of \"Vanilla\" is estimated at 60 to 70 million years). Genome duplication occurred prior to the divergence of this taxon.", "There are around 800 genera of orchids. The following are amongst the most notable genera of the orchid family:", "The type genus (i.e. the genus after which the family is named) is \"Orchis\". The genus name comes from the Ancient Greek (\"\"), literally meaning \"testicle\", because of the shape of the twin tubers in some species of \"Orchis\". The term \"orchid\" was introduced in 1845 by John Lindley in \"School Botany\", as a shortened form of \"Orchidaceae\". In Middle English, the name \"bollockwort\" was used for some orchids, based on \"bollock\" meaning testicle and \"wort\" meaning plant.", "Orchidaceae are cosmopolitan, occurring in almost every habitat apart from glaciers. The world's richest diversity of orchid genera and species is found in the tropics, but they are also found above the Arctic Circle, in southern Patagonia, and two species of \"Nematoceras\" on Macquarie Island at 54° south. The following list gives a rough overview of their distribution:", "A majority of orchids are perennial epiphytes, which grow anchored to trees or shrubs in the tropics and subtropics. Species such as \"Angraecum sororium\" are lithophytes, growing on rocks or very rocky soil. Other orchids (including the majority of temperate Orchidaceae) are terrestrial and can be found in habitat areas such as grasslands or forest. Some orchids, such as \"Neottia\" and \"Corallorhiza\", lack chlorophyll, so are unable to photosynthesise. Instead, these species obtain energy and nutrients by parasitising soil fungi through the formation of orchid mycorrhizae. The fungi involved include those that form ectomycorrhizas with trees and other woody plants, parasites such as \"Armillaria\", and saprotrophs. These orchids are known as myco-heterotrophs, but were formerly (incorrectly) described as saprophytes as it was believed they gained their nutrition by breaking down organic matter. While only a few species are achlorophyllous holoparasites, all orchids are myco-heterotrophic during germination and seedling growth, and even photosynthetic adult plants may continue to obtain carbon from their mycorrhizal fungi.", "", "The scent of orchids is frequently analysed by perfumers (using headspace technology and gas-liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry) to identify potential fragrance chemicals.", "The other important use of orchids is their cultivation for the enjoyment of the flowers. Most cultivated orchids are tropical or subtropical, but quite a few that grow in colder climates can be found on the market. Temperate species available at nurseries include \"Ophrys apifera\" (bee orchid), \"Gymnadenia conopsea\" (fragrant orchid), \"Anacamptis pyramidalis\" (pyramidal orchid) and \"Dactylorhiza fuchsii\" (common spotted orchid). Orchids of all types have also often been sought by collectors of both species and hybrids. Many hundreds of societies and clubs worldwide have been established. These can be small, local clubs, or larger, national organisations such as the American Orchid Society. Both serve to encourage cultivation and collection of orchids, but some go further by concentrating on conservation or research. The term \"botanical orchid\" loosely denotes those small-flowered, tropical orchids belonging to several genera that do not fit into the \"florist\" orchid category. A few of these genera contain enormous numbers of species. Some, such as \"Pleurothallis\" and \"Bulbophyllum\", contain approximately 1700 and 2000 species, respectively, and are often extremely vegetatively diverse. The primary use of the term is among orchid hobbyists wishing to describe unusual species they grow, though it is also used to distinguish naturally occurring orchid species from horticulturally created hybrids. New orchids are registered with the International Orchid Register, maintained by the Royal Horticultural Society.", "The dried seed pods of one orchid genus, \"Vanilla\" (especially \"Vanilla planifolia\"), are commercially important as a flavouring in baking, for perfume manufacture and aromatherapy. The underground tubers of terrestrial orchids [mainly \"Orchis mascula\" (early purple orchid)] are ground to a powder and used for cooking, such as in the hot beverage \"salep\" or in the Turkish frozen treat \"dondurma\". The name \"salep\" has been claimed to come from the Arabic expression ', \"fox testicles\", but it appears more likely the name comes directly from the Arabic name '. The similarity in appearance to testes naturally accounts for \"salep\" being considered an aphrodisiac. The dried leaves of \"Jumellea fragrans\" are used to flavour rum on Reunion Island. Some saprophytic orchid species of the group \"Gastrodia\" produce potato-like tubers and were consumed as food by native peoples in Australia and can be successfully cultivated, notably \"Gastrodia sesamoides\". Wild stands of these plants can still be found in the same areas as early Aboriginal settlements, such as Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park in Australia. Aboriginal peoples located the plants in habitat by observing where bandicoots had scratched in search of the tubers after detecting the plants underground by scent.", "Orchids have many associations with symbolic values. For example, the orchid is the City Flower of Shaoxing, China. \"Cattleya mossiae\" is the national Venezuelan flower, while \"Cattleya trianae\" is the national flower of Colombia. \"Vanda\" 'Miss Joaquim' is the national flower of Singapore, \"Guarianthe skinneri\" is the national flower of Costa Rica and \"Rhyncholaelia digbyana\" is the national flower of Honduras. \"Prosthechea cochleata\" is the national flower of Belize, where it is known as the \"black orchid\". \"Lycaste skinneri\" has a white variety (alba) that is the national flower of Guatemala, commonly known as \"Monja Blanca\" (White Nun). Panama's national flower is the \"Holy Ghost orchid\" (\"Peristeria elata\"), or 'the flor del Espiritu Santo'. \"Rhynchostylis\" \"retusa\" is the state flower of the Indian state of Assam where it is known as \"Kopou Phul.\" Orchids native to the Mediterranean are depicted on the \"Ara Pacis\" in Rome, until now the only known instance of orchids in ancient art, and the earliest in European art." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Behaviour and ecology.", "Breeding.", "Feeding.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Status." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "With a size of approximately 35 cm, the Junin grebe has a dark grey crown extending down the back of its neck to a black back. It has white lower parts of the face, neck and underparts, with a narrow grey bill. Perhaps the most striking feature is its bright red eyes. On the side of the head of adults there are silvery grey feathers, which are absent on non-breeding adults and juveniles. Its calls include melodic whistles \"doo’ ith, wit,\" and a longer \"phooee-th\" when trying to attract a mate.", "", "Courtship involves two grebes facing breast to breast and turning their head quickly from side to side, called ‘head-shaking’. The nests of Junin grebes are built in reed beds around the border of Lake Junin, and a typical clutch size is two eggs, laid in December or January. In years when the water level of the lake is particularly low, no young are raised.", "The Junin grebe's exceptional diving skills allows it to feed on small fish and invertebrates. They can be often seen feeding and diving simultaneously in small groups.", "Junin grebes are endemic to Lake Junin, in west-central Peru. The lake covers approximately 140 km and at its deepest is 10m deep, although most of the lake is less than 5m deep. Around the borders of the lake are substantial reed marshes, where the grebes nest and roost.", "Lake Junin has been classed as a national reserve since 1974, which has restricted the amount of fishing and hunting that can take place there. More recently, in 2002, the Peruvian government made an emergency law to place harsher restrictions on water extraction and provisions for cleaning of the lake, but so far this has not been properly enforced. Attempts have been made to translocate the grebes to a lake just north of Lake Junin, however gill nets used to catch rainbow trout in this lake meant it was unsuccessful. Further studies are being carried out to locate other lakes that the Junin grebe could successfully be translocated to. Large fluctuations in water levels, caused by a nearby hydroelectric plant, and water pollution from mining activities have caused the population of grebes to fall from 1000 in 1961 to around 200 in 2007. Contamination of the lake from mining waste products kills the small fish that are the Junin grebes main source of food. The hydroelectric plant can cause the water level to drop below 5m, which prevents the birds from raising chicks, and can cause damage to the bordering reed marshes. A local organisation, Asociaciόn Ecosistemas Andinos, is working to educate local people about the Junin grebe and the Junin rail – which is also endemic to the lake. The aim is to raise awareness of the issue, and get the mining and hydroelectric plant organisations to understand the issue." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Formal statement.", "Use.", "Equivalent statements.", "Relation with other axioms." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A binary relation formula_3 on formula_4 is called \"entire\" if, for every formula_5, there exists some formula_6 such that formula_7 is true. The axiom of dependent choice can be stated as follows: For every nonempty set formula_4 and every entire binary relation formula_3 on formula_10 there exists a sequence formula_11 in formula_4 such that If the set formula_4 above is restricted to be the set of all real numbers, then the resulting axiom is denoted by formula_16", "Even without such an axiom, for any formula_17, one can use ordinary mathematical induction to form the first formula_17 terms of such a sequence. The axiom of dependent choice says that we can form a whole (countably infinite) sequence this way. The axiom formula_1 is the fragment of formula_2 that is required to show the existence of a sequence constructed by transfinite recursion of countable length, if it is necessary to make a choice at each step and if some of those choices cannot be made independently of previous choices.", "Over Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory formula_21, formula_1 is equivalent to the Baire category theorem for complete metric spaces. It is also equivalent over formula_21 to the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem. formula_1 is also equivalent over formula_21 to the statement that every pruned tree with formula_26 levels has a branch (\"proof below\").", "Unlike full formula_2, formula_1 is insufficient to prove (given formula_21) that there is a non-measurable set of real numbers, or that there is a set of real numbers without the property of Baire or without the perfect set property. This follows because the Solovay model satisfies formula_30, and every set of real numbers in this model is Lebesgue measurable, has the Baire property and has the perfect set property. The axiom of dependent choice implies the axiom of countable choice and is strictly stronger." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Demographics.", "Twin towns — sister cities.", "Genealogical resources." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Settlement at Kežmarok dates back to the Upper Stone Age. In the 13th century the region contained a community of Saxons, a Slovak fishing village, a Hungarian border post and a Carpathian German settlement. Its Latin name was first mentioned in 1251 as \"Villa (Saxonum apud Ecclesiam) Sancte Elisabeth\". In 1269 Kežmarok received its town charter. It also had the right to organize a cheese market (hence the German name \"Kesmark\" (\"Käsemarkt\" - \"cheese market\"). In 1433 the town was severely damaged by a Hussite raid. After 1440, the count of Spiš had a seat in Kežmarok. In the 15th century (and then once more in 1655), Kežmarok became a free royal town. The town was a stronghold of the noble Thököly family. The Hungarian magnate and warrior Imre Thököly was born in the town in 1657. He died in exile in Turkey in 1705 but in the 20th century his body was returned to Kežmarok and he is buried in a noble mausoleum in the town's Lutheran church. The town's other monuments include a castle, many Renaissance merchant houses, and a museum of ancient books. In pride of place is the Protestant church built in 1688 entirely of wood. The church also contains an organ of 1719 with wooden pipes. The church has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2008. Kežmarok had an ethnic German majority until around 1910, and Germans stayed a large minority until the end of World War II. It also had a large and active Jewish community. During World War II, under the auspices of the First Slovak Republic, nearly 3,000 of the town's Jews were deported to German death camps. The town's pre-war Jewish cemetery has now been restored.", "According to the 2001 census, the town had 17,383 inhabitants. 95.21% of inhabitants were Slovaks, 1.59% Roma, 0.83% Czechs and 0.43% Germans. The religious makeup was 77.50% Roman Catholics, 10.98% people with no religious affiliation, 4.83% Lutherans and 2.63% Greek Catholics.", "Kežmarok is twinned with:", "The records for genealogical research are available at the state archive \"Statny Archiv in Levoca, Slovakia\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Viking and medieval society.", "Norway.", "Sweden.", "Iceland.", "Greenland.", "British Isles.", "Place names.", "Unanswered questions.", "National legislatures and current institutions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Old Norse, Old Frisian, and Old English \"þing\" with the meaning \"assembly\" is identical in origin to the English word \"thing\", German \"Ding\", Dutch \"ding\", and modern Scandinavian \"ting\" when meaning \"object\". All of these terms derive from Proto-Germanic *\"þingą\" meaning \"appointed time\", and some suggest an origin in Proto-Indo-European *\"ten-\", \"stretch\", as in a \"stretch of time for an assembly\". The word shift in the meaning of the word \"thing\" from \"assembly\" to \"object\" is mirrored in the evolution of the Latin \"causa\" (\"judicial lawsuit\") to modern French \"chose\", Spanish/Italian/Catalan \"cosa\", and Portuguese \"coisa\" (all meaning \"object\" or \"thing\"). A word with similar meaning, the cognate to English \"sake\" (purpose), \"sak\" in Norwegian and Swedish, \"sag\" in Danish, \"zaak\" in Dutch, \"saak\" in Afrikaans, and \"Sache\" in German, still retains the meaning \"affair, matter\" alongside \"thing, object\". In English the term is attested from 685 to 686 CE in the older meaning \"assembly\"; later it referred to a being, entity or matter (sometime before 899), and then also an act, deed, or event (from about 1000). The early sense of \"meeting, assembly\" did not survive the shift to Middle English. The meaning of personal possessions, commonly in the plural, first appears in Middle English around 1300.", "In the Viking Age, things were the public assemblies of the free men of a country, province, or a hundred (, ). They functioned as both parliaments and courts at different levels of society—local, regional, and supra-regional. Their purpose was to solve disputes and make political decisions, and thing sites were also often the place for public religious rites. According to Norway's Law of the Gulathing, only free men of full age could participate in the assembly. According to written sources, women were clearly present at some things despite being left out of the decision making bodies, such as the Icelandic Althing. In the pre-Christian clan-culture of Scandinavia, the members of a clan were obliged to avenge injuries against their dead and mutilated relatives. As a result, feuding is often seen as the most common form of conflict resolution used in Viking society. However, things are in a more general sense balancing structures used to reduce tribal feuds and avoid social disorder in North-Germanic cultures. They played an important role in Viking society as forums for conflict resolution, marriage alliances, power display, honor, and inheritance settlements. From Sweden and England, it is well known that assemblies were held both at natural and man-made mounds, often burial mounds. Specifically in Scandinavia, unusually large rune-stones and inscriptions suggesting a local family's attempt to claim supremacy are common features of thing sites. It is also common for assembly sites to be located close to communication routes, such as navigable water routes and clear land routes. The thing met at regular intervals, legislated, elected chieftains and kings, and judged according to the law, which was memorized and recited by the \"lawspeaker\" (the judge). The thing's negotiations were presided over by the lawspeaker and the chieftain or the king. More and more scholarly discussions center around the things being forerunners to democratic institutions as we know them today. The Icelandic Althing is considered to be the oldest surviving parliament in the world, the Norwegian Gulathing also dating back to 900-1300 AD. While the things were not democratic assemblies in the modern sense of an elected body, they were built around ideas of neutrality and representation, effectively representing the interests of larger numbers of people. In Norway, the thing was a space where free men and elected officials met and discussed matters of collective interest, such as taxation. Though some scholars say that the things were dominated by the most influential members of the community, the heads of clans and wealthy families, other scholars describe how every free man could put forward his case for deliberation and share his opinions. History professor Torgrim Titlestad describes how Norway, with the thing sites, displayed an advanced political system over a thousand years ago, one that was characterized by high participation and democratic ideologies. These things also served as courts of law, and if one of the smaller things could not reach agreement, the matter at hand would be brought to one of the bigger things, which encompassed larger areas. The legislature of Norway is still known as the Storting (Big Thing) today. Towards the end of the Viking age, royal power became centralized and the kings began to consolidate power and control over the assemblies. As a result, things lost most of their political role and began to function largely as courts in the later Middle Ages.", "In the period between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries, Norway went through a state-formation process that elevated the control and power of the king. On the regional level, it has been assumed that the king would have taken control of the organization of assemblies via local representatives. Today, few thing sites from Norway are known for certain, and as new assembly sites are found, scholars question whether these are old jurisdiction districts which the king used as a foundation for his organization or whether he created new administrative units. In southeast Norway in particular, one hypothesis for why the king would have established new thing sites might be that they were a “strategic geopolitical response to the threat from the Danish king in the beginning of the 11th century.” Since the record of Norwegian thing sites is not comprehensive, it is not favorable to rely on archeological and topographical characteristics to determine whether they were established prior to the state-formation period. In northern and southwestern Norway, there appears to have been a close association between chieftains’ farms and sites interpreted to be assemblies or court sites. These areas were considered neutral ground where the landowning elite could meet for political and religious activities. This view is based partly on Saga narratives of Viking chieftains as well as the distribution of large grave mounds. Ultimately, this neutrality was important for thing participants’ cooperation; royal officials required cooperation in order to look after the king's interests in local areas. In this regard, Norwegian things became an arena for cooperation between the royal representatives and the farmers. Based on what is known from later medieval documents, one deep-rooted custom of Norwegian law areas was the bearing of arms coming from the old Germanic tradition of the “weapon-take,” which refers to the rattling of weapons at meetings to express agreement. The Law of the Gulathing provides that the handling of these weapons should be controlled and regulated. This is seen at Haugating, the thing for Vestfold in Norway, which was located in Tønsberg at Haugar (from the Old Norse \"haugr\" meaning hill or mound). This site was one of Norway's most important places for the proclamation of kings. In 1130, Harald Gille called together a meeting at the Haugating at which he was declared to be King of Norway. Sigurd Magnusson was proclaimed king in 1193 at Haugating. Magnus VII was acclaimed hereditary King of Norway and Sweden at the Haugating in August 1319.", "Similar to Norway, thing sites in Sweden also experienced changes in administrative organization beginning in the late tenth and eleventh century. This was a result of the power struggle between the rising Christian royal power in the process of establishing itself and the old, local magnate families attempting to maintain power. The battle for power between the king and local magnates is most visible through runic inscriptions at thing sites, which were used to make important power statements. Swedish assembly sites could be characterized by a number of typical features: large mounds, rune-stones, and crossings between roads by land or water to allow for greater accessibility. A famous incident took place when Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker told the Swedish king Olof Skötkonung (c. 980–1022) that the people, not the king, held power in Sweden; the king realized that he was powerless against the thing and gave in. Main things in Sweden were the Thing of all Swedes, the Thing of all Geats and the Lionga thing. The island of Gotland had twenty things in late medieval times, each represented at the island-thing called \"landsting\" by its elected judge. New laws were decided at the \"landsting\", which also took other decisions regarding the island as a whole. The \"landsting\"s authority was successively eroded after the island was occupied by the Teutonic Order in 1398. In late medieval times the thing was made up of twelve representatives for the farmers, free-holders or tenants.", "As a representative legislative body, the things in Iceland were similar to those in greater Scandinavia, but they had a very clear organizational structure. Iceland was divided into four administrative quarters during the Viking Age with a fixed number of thirty-nine \"goðis\": twelve \"goðis\" in the northern quarter and nine each in the eastern, southern, and western quarters. The main distinction between Iceland and greater Scandinavia lies in the organization of the Icelandic Althing, the main assembly during the Viking period and the Middle Ages. Unlike other European societies in the Middle Ages, Iceland was unique for relying on the Althing's legislative and judicial institutions at the national level rather than an executive branch of government. Þingvellir was the site of the Althing, and it was a place where people came together once a year to bring cases to court, render judgments, and discuss laws and politics.” At the annual Althing, the thirty-nine \"goðis\" (lawmen) along with nine others served as voting members of the Law Council (Lögrétta), a legislative assembly. The Lögrétta reviewed the laws which the lawspeaker recited, made new laws, set fines and punishments and were informed of sentences of outlawry and banishment that were passed by the courts in local spring assemblies. Besides the Althing, there were local assembly districts in each of the four quarters of Iceland, and each year a Spring Assembly (\"vorþing\") was brought together by three \"goðis\" who lived in each local assembly district (\"samþingsgoðar\"). The four quarters also had courts (\"fjórðungsdómar\") that met at the Althing after a constitutional reform around 965. The \"goðis\" appointed the judges for these courts from the farmers in their districts.", "In the early twentieth century, scholars identified two potential Greenlandic thing sites at Brattahlíð in Eiríksfjörður and Garðar in Einarsfjörður; both are located in the Eastern Settlement of Greenland. These two sites were located through a combination of written sources and archeological evidence. Between these two Greenlandic sites, there are a number of overlapping characteristics that support the hypothesis that these booth sites are assemblies. However, not all “assembly features” previously seen in Scandinavia appear at every assembly site, and there are also characteristics that have either not been recorded in Greenland or are unique to Greenland. The temporary turf structures of the Greenlandic booths have only been recorded in Iceland and would not have been seen at the assembly sites of Viking Age Sweden. Further, the booth sites at Brattahlíð and Garðar were located close to high-status farms. Taken together, it indicates that trade would have taken place at these sites, and given the sparse nature of the Greenlandic settlement, it is reasonable that the participants of the thing would have taken the opportunity for social interaction or trade when gathered with others.", "As a part of the Germanic world, thing sites were also found in the British Isles. In England, there is Thingwall on the Wirral. In the Yorkshire and former Danelaw areas of England, wapentakes—another name for the same institution—were used in public records. Several places ending in the \"-by\" ('village') place name suffix originally possessed their own laws, by-laws, and jurisdiction subject to the wapentake in which they served, which often extended over a surrounding ground called a thorpe (\"hamlet\"). If there was a riding surrounding the wapentake, the wapentake would merely be a local assembly coordinating the power of the riding. In Scandinavian York's case, it would be under the king's command at what is now King's Square in York. The Kingdom of East Anglia was in control of the Danelaw which had been organised as the Five Boroughs. The Five were fortifications defending land against Wessex, or against the Vikings, depending on who ruled there; together with Lindsey, Lincolnshire, which was divided into three ridings like Yorkshire. Again, the naming of the two roads named Inner and Outer Ting Tong on a hill-top in Devon between Budleigh Salterton, Woodbury and Exmouth is widely derided as fanciful, but may be derived from Thing-Tun, a \"dun\" (hill fort) or \"tun\" (settlement) around the place where the Thing used to meet. Thynghowe was an important Danelaw meeting place, or thing, located in Sherwood Forest, Nottinghamshire, England. It was lost to history until its rediscovery in 2005–06 by local history enthusiasts Lynda Mallett and Stuart Reddish. The site lies amidst the old oaks of an area known as the Birklands in Sherwood Forest. Experts believe it may also yield clues as to the boundary of the Anglo Saxon kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria. English Heritage has recently inspected the site, and has confirmed it was known as \"Thynghowe\" in 1334 and 1609. It functioned as a place where people came to resolve disputes and settle issues. Thynghowe is an Old Norse name, although the site may be older than the Danelaw, perhaps even Bronze Age. The word \"howe\" is derived from the Old Norse word \"haugr\" meaning'mound'. This often indicates the presence of a prehistoric burial mound.", "The assembly of things were typically held at a specially designated place, often a field or common, like Þingvellir, the old location of the Icelandic thing (Alþingi). The parliament of the Isle of Man is still named after the meeting place of the thing, Tynwald, which etymologically is the same word as \"\"þingvellir\"\" (there is still an annual public assembly at Tynwald Hill each July 5, where the new Manx laws are read out and petitions delivered). Other equivalent place names can be found across northern Europe: in Scotland, there is Dingwall in the Scottish Highlands and Tingwall, occurring both in Orkney and Shetland, and further south there is Tinwald, in Dumfries and Galloway and – in England – Thingwall, a village on the Wirral Peninsula. In Sweden, there are several places named Tingvalla, which is the modern Swedish form of \"Þingvellir\", and the Norwegian equivalent is found in the place name Tingvoll. In Dublin, Ireland, the \"Thingmote\" was a raised mound, 40 foot high and 240 foot in circumference, where the Norsemen assembled and made their laws. It stood on the south of the river, adjacent to Dublin Castle, until 1685.", "It is contested between scholars to what extent things were sites of economic transactions and commerce as well as arenas for political and legal decisions. In Norway, it is clear that the assemblies functioned as an administrative level for economic transactions and taxes to the king. The role of commerce at the thing is more undetermined in Iceland in particular because of the role of saga literature in influencing conclusions about things. Þingvellir was thought of as a trading place as a result of saga passages and law texts that refer to trade: As shown in the \"Laxdæla saga\", meetings at Þingvellir required people to travel from long distances and gather together for an extended period of time, thus it was inevitable that entertainment, food, tools, and other goods would have played a role in the gatherings. The main question lies in whether trade was conducted in the assembly or on the margins of the gathering. Similarly, there are unanswered questions about the connection between trade and assembly in Greenland. Research on Scandinavian trade and assembly is burgeoning, and thus far evidence has mostly been found in written sources, such as the sagas, and place names, \"such as the 'Disting' market that is said to have been held during the thing meetings at Gamla Uppsala in Sweden.\"", "The national legislatures of Iceland, Norway and Denmark all have names that incorporate \"thing\": The legislatures of the self-governing territories of the Åland Islands, Faroe Islands, Greenland and Isle of Man also have names that refer to \"thing\": In addition, \"thing\" can be found in the name of the Swedish Assembly of Finland (\"Svenska Finlands folkting\"), a semi-official body representing the Finland Swedish, and those of the three distinct elected Sámi assemblies which are all called \"Sameting\" in Norwegian and Swedish. The Swedish national legislature, since medieval times, has borne a different style, Riksdag, which is cognate to the old name of the German national assembly, Reichstag. In Sweden, however, \"ting\" is used to name the subnational county councils, which are called Landsting. That name was also used in medieval times for the tings that governed the historical Landskap provinces, that were superseded by the counties in the 17th century. The name \"ting\" is also found in the names of the first level instances of the Swedish and Finnish court system, which are called \"tingsrätt\" (), the 'court of the thing'. Similarly, prior to 1953, the Danish legislature was known as Rigsdagen, which comprised the two houses of the Folketing \"People's Thing\" and Landsting \"Land Thing\". The latter, which was reserved for people of means, was abolished by the constitution of 1953. The Norwegian parliament, the \"Storting\", has historically been divided into two chambers named the \"Lagting\" and the \"Odelsting\", which translates loosely into the \"Thing of the Law\" and the \"Thing of the Allodial rights\". However, for much of the Storting's recent history, the division into Lagting and Odelsting has been mostly ceremonial, and the Storting has generally operated as a unicameral parliament. A constitutional amendment passed in February 2007 abolished the Lagting and Odelsting, making this \"de facto\" unicameralism official following the 2009 election. On the lower administrative level the governing bodies on the county level in Norway are called Fylkesting, the Thing of the County. The names of the judicial courts of Norway contain for the most part the affix \"ting\". The primary level of courts is called the \"Tingrett\", with the same meaning as the Swedish \"Tingsrätt\", and four of the six Norwegian Courts of Appeal are named after historical Norwegian regional Things (\"Frostating\", \"Gulating\", \"Borgarting\" and \"Eidsivating\")." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Public Works Ministry.", "The Nazi Occupation 1939–1945.", "Post-war." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "After finishing secondary school in Tábor he began studying at the Imperial-Royal Technical University (now ČVUT) in Prague. In 1914, during the 1st World War, he was sent to Eastern Front and 1915 Bervida was taken prisoner by Russians, and later as a private of the Czechoslovak Legion he took part in a march to the United States via Vladivostok. Upon returning to his home country he graduated from the University of Technology, receiving an MA (Ing.) in Aeronautic Engineering.", "In 1927–29 he worked at the Public Works Ministry in Prague, where he became Head of the Aviation Department in 1929. By some sources short time before the occupation of Czechoslovakia by the Army of the Nazi Germany in 1938, President Edvard Beneš promoted him to Army General in Reserve. There is not any remark in Czech military archives about it.", "During the Nazi Occupation of Czechoslovakia from 1939 to 1945, Bervida, as a former member of Czechoslovak Legion, was fired in 1939 and became a teacher. He taught at a secondary school specializing in engineering. Later he was arrested and interrogated. Because he collaborated with the Czechoslovak government-in-exile in London, he was sentenced to death. He was saved by the end of World War II in May 1945.", "In 1945–47, Bervida became Department Head at the Ministry of Transport (Civilian Airways) and Czechoslovak Airlines (ČSA) Director. In 1946 was Bervida elected vice president of the FAI and one year later 1947 was he elected vice president to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). He was unjustly charged in a court case brought against him, but the case was dropped after the intervention of President Edvard Beneš. During Communist takeover in 1948 he was in France, where applied for citizenship. In Paris he was involved with Czechoslovak exile authorities (Council of Free Czechoslovakia). Shortly thereafter he emigrated to the United States, where he worked with the ICAO in New York and in Montreal. See also List of Czechs" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "University of Arizona.", "Freshman.", "Sophomore.", "Junior.", "Senior.", "Legacy.", "2004 Olympics.", "2008 Olympics.", "National Pro Fastpitch.", "Manager.", "Media.", "Personal life.", "Retirement." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Jennie was born in La Mirada, California. Finch has two older brothers, Shane and Landon finch they are all born in California. She began playing softball at age five and pitching at age eight. Her father was her first pitching coach. Growing up, Finch was a bat girl for the University of California, Los Angeles. At La Mirada High School, Finch lettered four times in softball and twice each in basketball and volleyball. As a senior, she was the captain of all three sports. As a sophomore, she was an All-California Interscholastic Federation Division II choice in softball and All-Suburban League selection. In 2016, La Mirada retired her jersey number—the school's first for a softball player.", "Finch majored in communications.", "Finch began her career on February 5, 1999, winning a run-rule game against the UIC Flames. She achieved a career high in doubles and threw her first career no-hitter during the NCAA tournament on May 21 vs. the Texas State Bobcats. Though they made the World Series, Finch and the Wildcats were eventually eliminated by the DePaul Blue Demons on May 29.", "For her sophomore year, Jennie Finch was named a 2000 National Fastpitch Coaches Association First Team All-American and First Team All-Pac-10. She also threw three no-hitters and led the Wildcats in home runs and slugging percentage and achieved a career best in hits and batting average. Finch began the year with a 21 consecutive game win streak; in a 10–2 run-rule over the Southern Miss Golden Eagles on February 6 to a shutout win over Cal State Northridge Matadors on April 13. After suffering her only losses in back-to-back games, Finch finished the year 8–0 starting a new streak with an April 29 victory vs. the Oregon Ducks that would span the next two seasons. Finch's 23rd and 29th wins were over the No. 1 Washington Huskies, the latter began a 35 scoreless inning streak, after allowing runs in the fourth inning she shutout the team the rest of the way for a 4–2 margin on May 27.", "As a junior in 2001, Finch was again named First Team for the NFCA and the conference, adding the Pitcher of The Year award. She would also hoist the Honda Sports Award for Softball Player of the Year. Finch's season ERA, wins and shutouts were and still do rank top 10 for the school. Along with a no-hitter and career highs in WHIP and RBIs, Finch opened the season with 31 consecutive scoreless innings spanning 6 wins that combined with the innings from her last game in 2000, was a career best 35 before being snapped in the second inning by a leadoff home run vs. McNeese State Cowgirls on February 24. On March 30, Finch hit two home runs and a double in an 11–1 romp of the Oregon Ducks to drive in a career best 9 RBIs, which tied her third all-time in the NCAA for a single game. On April 8, Finch won her third game over a No. 1 team, the UCLA Bruins. Finch and the Wildcats were the No. 1 seed in the NCAA tournament and made it to the World Series for a third straight year with Finch in the circle. She recorded victories over the California Golden Bears and the Oklahoma Sooners to reach the finals. In a 1–0 shutout of the UCLA Bruins, Finch set an NCAA record with a perfect season capped with the National Championship. Finch also had a hit in the game and was named MVP for the series. The victory extended her win streak to 40 consecutive games along with the 8 to end the 2000 season.", "For a final season, Finch was named 2002 First Team for the NFCA and the Pac-10 conference as well as Pitcher of The Year and Honda Sports Award for softball. Finch tossed three no-hitters and broke the season strikeouts record, while her wins and shutouts were and remain top-10 school records. Beginning on February 9 vs. the Cal State Fullerton Titans, Finch matched her own record of 35 consecutive scoreless innings that was broken in a 13–1 mercy win over the Northern Iowa Panthers on February 23.", "Finch set several records in single games beginning with a new NCAA record by winning her 51st consecutive game. A near-capacity crowd filled Rita Hillenbrand Memorial Stadium and chants of \"Jennie\" echoed throughout the crowd in the 6–0 victory over Cal State Northridge. Finch said, \"It's significant and it's nice. But it doesn't even come close to the team goal of winning a national championship.\" For one of her no-hitters, Finch posted her 100th career victory over the Notre Dame Fighting Irish on March 14. Later on March 24, she struck out 15 of the ULL Ragin' Cajuns for a career best in regulation; the Wildcats won, 7–2. On April 17, Finch won a 1–0 shutout in 9-innings and struck out 19 Oklahoma Sooners to tie a then school record. The Wildcat then beat the No. 1 UCLA Bruins by one run on April 6 to start the year 20–0 and set an NCAA record with 60 straight wins dating back to the 2000 season, including four wins over the No. 1 ranked team. To open a return trip to the WCWS as defending champion, Finch shutout the Nebraska Cornhuskers and ended the game with her 1,000th career strikeout. In the semifinals of the World Series, Finch hit her 50th career home run off Leslie Malerich to score the winning run and help herself beat the FSU Seminoles in 11-innings. The Wildcats suffered a 6–0 loss in the championship to the California Golden Bears. Finch left the program the career leader in strikeouts, shutouts, innings pitched and tied for no-hitters (8), while ranking in the top-10 in most other pitching categories. She also was top-10 in home runs, RBIs and walks; she remains top-10 in several pitching and the walks all-time lists. She currently is 6th and 7th in winning percentage (0.881%) for a career in the now-named Pac-12 and the NCAA. Her jersey number, 27 (the date of her parents' first date), was retired by the University of Arizona in a pre-game ceremony at Hillenbrand Stadium on May 9, 2003.", "Finch had a 2–0 win–loss record in the 2004 Athens Summer Olympics, striking out 13 batters in eight innings while giving up only one hit, one walk and no runs. Her pitching helped lead the American team to the gold medal.", "The U.S.A. team started its bid for a fourth straight gold medal at the 2008 Olympic games in Beijing with Finch pitching four no-hit innings in an 11–0 victory over Venezuela. Finch then pitched 5 shutout innings in a 7–0 victory over Chinese Taipei and two more shut out innings in a 9–0 victory over China. However, the U.S. lost 3–1 to Japan in the final game and came home with a silver medal. After the loss, Finch said, \"I feel like we let USA softball down. Many women have worn this uniform, and accepted nothing but gold.\" Along with baseball, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) decided in 2005 to drop softball from the Olympics, making 2008 possibly the last time the sport is played in the Olympics, before it will be reinstated in 2020. A crusader for softball's reinstatement for the 2016 Olympics, Finch said that \"[i]t deserves to be an Olympic sport.\" After the final game, Finch said:", "Finch pitched for the Chicago Bandits of the National Pro Fastpitch (NPF) softball league. She was named NPF's Co-Pitcher of the Year in 2005, sharing the award with teammate Lauren Bay. She also threw her first career no-hitter in a win over the Stratford Brakettes that same year. With a perfect season, Finch extended the streak in 2006 before opening 2007 with a loss. Finch won 15 consecutive games with 104.1 innings pitched, allowing 51 hits, 12 earned runs, 21 walks and whiffing 127 batters to post a 0.80 ERA and 0.69 WHIP. Finch holds the league's season ERA crown, which she set in 2007. On May 29, in a 1–0 12-inning loss to the Rockford Thunder, Finch struck out 17 and combined with Cat Osterman for a total of 41 strikeouts to set a single game record for the combined total. On August 1, she set a career high with 16 strikeouts in a regulation win against the Michigan Ice. August 15, she set a career best with 18 more strikeouts to defeat the Rockford Thunder in 9-innings. She pitched a perfect game for the Bandits in 2009 against the Philadelphia Force and another perfect game on July 9, 2010 against the Akron Racers. That year, Finch was named All-NPF. Finch currently leads in career WHIP and is top-10 all-time in strikeouts, ERA, strikeout ratio and fielding percentage. The Chicago Bandits played their home games in Rosemont, Illinois, at 27 Jennie Finch Way where her jersey is also retired.", "On May 29, 2016, Finch was the guest manager of the Atlantic League's Bridgeport Bluefish for the day, thus becoming the first woman to manage a professional baseball team. The team played and won one game.", "In 2002, ESPN called Finch the \"runaway winner\" of the Best Dressed competition at the Excellence in Sports Performance Yearly Awards. In 2003, Finch received the most votes in an ESPN online poll as the most attractive female athlete. In 2004, \"People\" magazine named Finch one of its \"50 Most Beautiful People\", the only female athlete in the list. \"This is truly amazing to be recognized by \"People\" magazine for this honor,\" Finch said. \"It is really special to be included among some of the most famous and beautiful people in the world. I still have a hard time believing that I was selected as part of this group.\" Finch has modeled swimwear for the \"Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Edition\" in 2005. Finch was offered lucrative contracts to disrobe for \"Playboy\" and \"Maxim\" magazine, but turned them down. \"This Week in Baseball\" signed Finch as a co-host. In a segment called the \"Jennie Challenge\", Finch pitches to Major League Baseball players and often strikes them out. In softball, the mound is closer to home plate than baseball and Finch's pitches are the equivalent of a 98 mph pitch. \"Some big-timers refuse to face her,\" Cal Ripken Jr. says. \"Many feel it could be embarrassing.\" In an interview with ESPN, Finch explained, \"I was throwing them mostly rise balls and change-ups. They've never seen a pitch like that, you know? With the closer distance from the mound, I think it really surprises them how fast the pitch gets there. And especially with the rise – when they're used to that over-the-top release point – there is nothing else like it. The ball movement throws them off.\" In the 2004 Pepsi All-Star Softball Game, Finch struck out Albert Pujols, Mike Piazza and Brian Giles. \"I never touched a pitch,\" said Giles. \"Her fastball was the fastest thing I've ever seen, from that distance. It rises and cuts at the same time.\" In 2006, Finch appeared in Season One of \"Pros vs Joes\" on Spike TV, a show in which sports stars compete with ordinary people. She was the first woman to appear on the show. Finch appeared on an episode of \"The Real Housewives of Orange County\". In 2008, Finch was featured as a contestant on \"The Celebrity Apprentice\" where she selected International Breast Cancer Research Foundation as her charity. She was fired by Donald Trump in the fourth week of the season. In 2008, Finch also served as the Grand Marshal of the nationally televised McDonald's Thanksgiving Parade in downtown Chicago. Finch pitched for the National League in the 2010 Legends and Celebrities Softball Game, at Angel Stadium, the 2011 game at Chase Field, and the 2015 game at Great American Ballpark in Cincinnati, in 2017 at Marlins Park in Miami, and in 2018 at Nationals Park in Washington. In 2011, Finch co-authored \"Throw Like a Girl: How to Dream Big and Believe in Yourself\", with Ann Killion. The book is a collection of life lessons Finch learned growing up playing sports. On November 6, 2011, just four and a half months after giving birth to son Diesel, Finch finished the New York Marathon with a time of 4:05:26, raising $30,000 for the New York Road Runners Youth Program. In April 2018, Finch was announced as one of the celebrities who will compete on season 26 of \"Dancing with the Stars\". She was partnered with professional dancer Keo Motsepe.", "Finch married Casy Daigle on January 15, 2005. Daigle proposed to Finch on the softball field at the University of Arizona, her alma mater. According to Finch, \"He blindfolded me and took me to the mound and said, 'You have been the queen of the diamond for four years. Now I want you to be the queen of my heart.'\" They have two sons; Ace Shane, born on May 4, 2006 and Diesel Dean, born on June 19, 2011. Finch welcomed her daughter Paisley Faye on January 12, 2013. Finch is an avid fan of the Los Angeles Dodgers. Finch is a Christian. Finch turned down large financial offers to appear in magazines like Playboy because of her Christian faith, saying she wanted to be a role model for young women. Finch has spoken about her faith, saying: \"It's so important to find hope in [Jesus] and live for a higher purpose: to share about Him.\" Finch cited her Christian faith while on the show Dancing With the Stars when she refused to dance to a Janelle Monáe song because she deemed it too risque.", "On July 20, 2010, Finch announced her retirement from softball to focus on her family. \"I just feel like it gets harder and harder every year with Ace getting older and time away from my husband and even family events such as birthdays and friends' weddings and things that I've always just missed out on because of softball,\" Finch said in an interview with the Associated Press. Said Finch, \"This whole career has been way more than I ever even imagined or dreamed. The opportunities that I'd be able to enjoy and appreciate and be a part of, it's been incredible.\" In her final start with the US National Team, Finch struck out 12 and only allowed three singles including two infield ones. She continued playing with the Chicago Bandits until the National Pro Fastpitch season ended in August. Finch was the most dominant and recognizable softball pitcher of her era. \"She set the standard for softball in a new era of being able to be feminine and play this sport,\" U.S. outfielder Jessica Mendoza said. \"Not that you have to be feminine to play this sport, but I see hundreds of thousands of little girls now with glitter headbands, hot pink bats, makeup.... when I was growing up, it wasn't like that.\" According to Mike Candrea, her coach at Arizona and through two Olympics, \"Jennie has transformed this sport, touched millions of young kids in many different ways – whether it's fashion, whether it's the way she plays the game – but through it all she's been very humble.\" A \"Chicago Tribune\" editorial commented, \"She leaves with a spotless personal reputation, an intent to keep promoting softball, and the knowledge that she has inspired other girls and women who play for the love of the game.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Fictional character biography.", "Character.", "Emblem.", "Origin.", "Chronological discrepancies.", "Portrayals.", "In culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Nemo\" is Latin for \"no one\" or \"nobody\". Moreover \"Nemo\" is itself the Latin translation of the Ancient Greek \"Outis\" (\"Nobody\"), the pseudonym adopted by Odysseus, in Greek mythology—a ruse employed to outwit the Cyclops Polyphemus. This appears to be the intended meaning, since in \"The Mysterious Island\", when Cyrus Smith addresses him as Captain Nemo, the latter replies, \"I have no name!\"", "Chief among the few details of Nemo's history given in \"Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas\" are his hatred of imperialism and his grief over the loss of his loved ones in years past. In \"The Mysterious Island\", Captain Nemo identifies himself as Prince Dakkar, son of the Hindu raja of Bundelkhand, and a descendant of the Muslim Sultan Fateh Ali Khan Tipu of the Kingdom of Mysore, famous for the Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767–1799) and Mysorean rocket technology. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, in which Dakkar lost both his family and his kingdom, the prince devoted himself to scientific research, ultimately building the \"Nautilus\" and cruising the seven seas with a crew of devoted followers. They gather bullion from various shipwrecks in the ocean, most notably from the hulks of the Spanish treasure fleet sunk during the Battle of Vigo Bay. Nemo claims to have no interest in terrestrial affairs but occasionally intervenes to aid people in distress, e.g., by giving salvaged treasure to participants in the Cretan Revolt (1866–1869) against the island's Turkish rulers... by saving (both physically and financially) a Ceylonese or Tamil pearl diver from a shark attack... by rescuing the castaways in \"Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas\"... and by covertly protecting another set of castaways in \"The Mysterious Island\". Like many actual East Indian princes of the era, Nemo received a Western education, during which, as he states, he spent his youth touring and studying throughout Europe. In his first meeting with Professor Aronnax and his companions, the three castaways speak to him in French, English, Latin, and German; Nemo later reveals that he is fluent in all of these tongues. Aronnax praises the captain's French, noting that he \"expressed himself with perfect ease and without any accent.\" Relying on his intuition and knowledge of ethnology, the professor concludes that \"there's southern blood\" in him but can't determine the captain's exact origin. The \"Nautilus\" library, lounge, and art collections reveal that Nemo is intimately acquainted with European culture, also that he's an accomplished performer on the organ. Nemo dies of unspecified natural causes on board the \"Nautilus\", docked permanently inside Dakkar Grotto on Lincoln Island in the South Pacific. Cyrus Smith, leader of the castaways whom Nemo protected, administered the last rites, then submerged the \"Nautilus\" in the grotto's waters.", "Nemo's characteristics are largely presented through the observations of Professor Pierre Aronnax, narrator of \"Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas\". At their first meeting, the professor remarks: \"Whether this individual was thirty-five or fifty years of age, I couldn't tell.\" He goes on to describe Nemo as a tall, self-contained man with a straight nose, broad brow, and wide-set eyes—\"certainly the most wonderful physical specimen I'd ever met up with.\" In \"The Mysterious Island\", the captain is in his late sixties and sports a long white beard. He avoids dry land, except for desert islands and uninhabited regions such as Antarctica. In keeping with his contempt for surface civilization, he uses few commodities that aren't marine in origin, be they food, clothing, or even tobacco. As for his political views, he reveals an intense hatred of oppression, which he associates with the world's imperialistic nations. He therefore identifies himself with the Earth's oppressed, whether Ceylonese pearl divers, Cretans rising against the Turks, or even right whales attacked by sperm whales. When Professor Aronnax suggests that Nemo violates maritime and international law by sinking warships, Nemo responds that he does so in self-defense when attacked. What's more, he insists that terrestrial laws no longer apply to him, exclaiming in one scene: Nemo is devoted to his crew and grieves deeply when members are killed after a mysterious collision with a surface vessel or during a giant squid attack in the Caribbean Sea. He's equally compassionate in his treatment of the castaways in \"The Mysterious Island\", also retaining a deep attachment to his deceased wife and children. Despite these tragic losses, he rarely expresses his anger. Moreover he's a man of immense courage, taking the lead in every emergency, from fighting sharks and squid to releasing the \"Nautilus\" from Antarctic ice—an ordeal that entailed reduced oxygen stores and consecutive eight-hour shifts. Aronnax also credits him with discovering Atlantis. An innovative engineer, Nemo both designed and manufactured the \"Nautilus\", including her electric propulsion units and navigational systems. Utilizing them with extraordinary skill, he negotiated some of the ocean's most difficult underwater passages, such as those beneath the Antarctic ice barrier, as well as a fictitious tunnel under the Isthmus of Suez. He has an exhaustive knowledge of marine biology, and it's his respect for Professor Aronnax's preeminence in the field that led to his befriending the professor once the latter was cast aboard the \"Nautilus\". Further, Nemo seems to have been a genuine polyglot, able to read all the books in the \"Nautilus\" vast library, regardless of their language. The captain has an exquisite taste in the fine arts, possessing many masterpieces of both painting and sculpture, from old masters to moderns. They're housed in the main lounge of the \"Nautilus\" along with Nemo's collection of pearls, corals, seashells, and other marine items, all gathered with his own hands. \"No museum in Europe,\" Aronnax tells the captain,\"has such a collection of exhibits.\" Yet, despite the opulence visible throughout the \"Nautilus\", Nemo's stateroom was furnished with little more than a bed, a worktable, and the navigational instruments essential to the \"Nautilus\". Even so, Captain Nemo claims to be extremely wealthy, boasting that \"without the slightest trouble I could pay off the two-billion dollar French national debt!\" Nemo later tells Aronnax that he will enclose his scientific findings and autobiography in a small unsinkable container: \"The last one of us left on the \"Nautilus\" will throw that container into the sea, and it will drift wherever the waves take it.\" Subsequently, however, a rather different container does wash ashore in \"The Mysterious Island\", bearing tools, firearms, navigational instruments, an atlas, books, blank paper, and even clothing. They're found in a crate lashed to empty barrels, its contents sealed in a waterproof zinc envelope and showing careful preparation and packing. Throughout the same book, Nemo repeatedly acts in this providential way, as when the sailor Pencroff pines for tobacco, then the young naturalist Harbert actually identifies some among the island's plant life.", "Captain Nemo's emblem, as reproduced on the flag he raised when claiming the South Pole, is a large golden N on a black field. The motto of the \"Nautilus\" was \"Mobilis in mobili\", a Latin phrase which Aronnax translates as \"Moving within a moving element\". It also has been rendered as \"Moving within motion\" and \"Changing with change\".", "In early drafts of \"Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas\", Nemo appears as a Polish noble, a member of the szlachta bent on avenging the murder of his family during Russia's violent suppression of the January Uprising. However Verne's editor Pierre-Jules Hetzel feared that the book not only would offend the Russian Empire, a major French ally, but would also be banned from that country's bookstores. Accordingly Hetzel insisted that Verne revise the novel to conceal Nemo's background and political motivations. Even so, one of the captain's remarks in the published book could hint at an East Indian ancestry: during the episode where he rescues a Ceylonese pearl fisherman in the Gulf of Mannar, Nemo describes the man as living \"in the land of the oppressed, and till my last breath I'll remain a native of that same land.\"", "\"Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas\" was first published in 1870 and reports the activities of the \"Nautilus\" over the years 1866 to 1868. \"The Mysterious Island\" was published in 1875 but is set in the years after the close of the American Civil War, i.e, 1865 to 1869. Described as an elderly man in his late sixties, Captain Nemo claims in its pages to have conducted his undersea travels some sixteen years earlier than the dates given in the prior novel. It's true that the first French hardcover issue of \"Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas\" (an octavo edition published in 1871 by Pierre-Jules Hetzel) contains minor errors that may have been perpetrated by its printers or even by Hetzel himself—who, at times, seems to have made edits without querying Verne. However the chronological discrepancies between this book and \"The Mysterious Island\" appear to have been present since its publication. They may have arisen from Hetzel's insistence that Verne drastically revise his original concept for the latter novel, in which, some scholars speculate, he hadn't initially planned to include Captain Nemo at all.", "In most subsequent media adaptations of \"20,000 Leagues\" and \"Mysterious Island\", Captain Nemo is depicted as a European, in accordance with the earlier of the two novels. Actors who have played him include:", "Nemo is the official file manager for the Cinnamon desktop environment; the name plays off of the Nautilus file manager from which it was forked. A Polish singer - Bogdan Gajkowski - popular especially during the 1980s, started recording song under the name \"Kapitan Nemo\" the Polish name of Captain Nemo. The Japanese otome visual novel, \"\", features a scientist named Nemo. Nemo created an airship named the \"Nautilus\" within the game. He considers the engineer Impey Barbicane, a reference to another Jules Verne novel, his ultimate scientific rival." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Foundation and early years.", "1969 to present.", "Logo.", "Lancia family.", "Automotive.", "Current car models.", "Lancia Ypsilon.", "Past car models.", "Other models.", "Concept cars.", "Special cars.", "Export markets.", "United States.", "United Kingdom.", "Japan.", "Lancia in motorsport.", "Formula One.", "Rallying.", "Sports car racing.", "Commercial vehicles.", "Engines.", "Media and sponsorship." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Lancia & C. Fabbrica Automobili was founded on 29 November 1906 in Turin by Fiat racing drivers, Vincenzo Lancia (1881-1937) and his friend, Claudio Fogolin (1872-1945). The first car manufactured by Lancia was the \"Tipo 51\" or \"12 HP\" (later called \"Alfa\"), which remained in production from 1907 to 1908. It had a small four-cylinder engine with a power output of. In 1910, Lancia components were exported to the United States where they were assembled and sold as SGVs by the SGV Company. In 1915, Lancia also manufactured its first truck, the Jota that continued as a dedicated series. In 1937, Vincenzo died of a heart attack. His wife, Adele Miglietti Lancia, and his son, Gianni Lancia, took over control of the company. They persuaded Vittorio Jano to join as an engineer. Jano had already made a name for himself by designing various Alfa Romeo models, including some of its most successful race cars ever such as the 6C, P2 and P3. Lancia is renowned in the automotive world for introducing cars with numerous innovations. These include the Theta of 1913, which was the first European production car to feature a complete electrical system as standard equipment. Lancia's first car adopting a monocoque chassis – the Lambda produced from 1922 to 1931 - featured 'Sliding Pillar' independent front suspension that incorporated the spring and hydraulic damper into a single unit (a feature that would be employed in subsequent Lancias, up to the Appia that was replaced in 1963). In 1948, the first 5-speed gearbox was fitted to a production car (Series 3 Ardea). Lancia premiered the first full-production V6 engine, in the 1950 Aurelia, after earlier industry-leading experiments with V8 and V12 engine configurations. It was also the first manufacturer to produce a V4 engine. Other innovations involved the use of independent suspension in production cars (in an era where live axles were common practice for both the front and rear axles of a car), and rear transaxles, which were first fitted to the Aurelia and Flaminia range. This drive for innovation, constant quest for excellence, fixation of quality, complex construction processes and antiquated production machinery meant that all cars essentially had to be hand-made. With little commonality between the various models, the cost of production continued to rise, while flat demand eventually affected Lancia's viability. Gianni Lancia, a graduate engineer, was president of Lancia from 1947 to 1955. In 1956, the Pesenti family took over control of Lancia with Carlo Pesenti (1907–1984) in charge of the company.", "Fiat launched a take-over bid in October 1969. It was accepted by Lancia as the company was losing significant sums of money, with losses in 1969 being 20 million. This was not the end of the distinctive Lancia marque, and new models in the 1970s such as the Stratos, Gamma and Beta proved that Fiat wished to preserve the image of the brand it had acquired. Autobianchi, bought by Fiat Group just a year before, was put under the control of Lancia. During the 1970s and 1980s, Lancia had great success in rallying, winning many World Rally Championships. During the 1980s, the company cooperated with Saab Automobile, with the Lancia Delta being sold as the Saab 600 in Sweden. The 1985 Lancia Thema also shared a platform with the Saab 9000, Fiat Croma and the Alfa Romeo 164. During the 1990s, all models were closely related to other Fiat models. Starting from 1 February 2007, Fiat's automotive operations were reorganised. Fiat Auto became Fiat Group Automobiles S.p.A., Fiat S.p.A.'s branch handling mainstream automotive production. Simultaneously the current company, \"Lancia Automobiles S.p.A.\", was created from the pre-existing brand, and controlled 100% by FCA. In 2011, Lancia moved in a new direction and added new models manufactured by Chrysler and sold under the Lancia badge in many European markets. Conversely, Lancia built models began to be sold in right-hand drive markets under the Chrysler badge. In 2015 Lancia's parent company Fiat Group Automobiles S.p.A. became FCA Italy S.p.A., reflecting the earlier incorporation of Fiat S.p.A. into Fiat Chrysler Automobiles. From 1907 to 1910 Lancia cars didn't bear a true badge, but rather a brass plaque identifying the manufacturer (Lancia & C.) and chassis code; although some models did have a brass Lancia script on the grille. The original Lancia logo was designed by Count Carlo Biscaretti di Ruffia.", "In 1910 Vincenzo Lancia asked Biscaretti di Ruffia to design a badge for the company; the Count submitted six watercolour proposal sketches. Vincenzo Lancia chose a round one, composed by a blue lance and flag bearing a Lancia script (\"Lancia\" means \"lance\" in Italian) in gold, over a four-spoke steering wheel, with a hand throttle detail on the right spoke. The first car to bear the Lancia logo was the Gamma 20 HP in 1911. In 1929 the logo acquired its final layout: the previous round badge was superimposed on a blue shield in the shape of a Reuleaux triangle (as found in one of Biscaretti di Ruffia's six original proposals). Though first applied on the 1929 Dikappa, this badge was only used consistently starting with the 1936 Aprilia. Beginning with the 1957 Flaminia, Lancia cars switched from the traditional vertical split grille to an horizontal, full-width one. The logo was moved inside the grille opening, and changed to a more stylized chromed metal open-work design; shield and steering wheel became chrome frames, the only remaining enameled surface being the blue field of the flag. This new metal logo was used on most models with some exceptions, namely Zagato-bodied Lancia Fulvias and Flavias, the Lancia 2000 Berlina (which reprised the traditional upright grille and the round enameled badge) and the Stratos HF (whose ornaments lacked the triangular shield). In 1974 the badge was redesigned on Umberto Agnelli's request; it went back to a modernised silver, white and blue version of the 1929 design. Flag and lance were unified in a single shape and dispensed with the earlier minute detailing, the Lancia letters became all of the same size, and the steering wheel became also outlined in blue and lost the hand throttle detail. This logo debuted on the 1979 Lancia Delta, and made its way on the other models as they adopted the split grille introduced by the Delta. Though lightly revised in 2000 with the addition of a chrome shield surround, the 1974 logo was used through four decades, up to 2006. The current logo, designed by Robilant Associati, was presented at the 2007 Geneva Motor Show—a couple of months after the creation of Lancia Automobiles. While the traditional chrome-framed blue shield has been retained and made three-dimensional, for the first time since 1911 lance and flag are absent; the steering wheel has been stylized into a chromed circle, from which two spikes converge towards the modern Lancia logotype in the centre.", "Cavalier Giuseppe Lancia (1860 (Cuneo) - 1919 (Bordighera)) was an Italian businessman and father of Vincenzo Lancia. When he was sixteen he started a business with food in Italy. Later, for a few years, he made relationships with South America and he created a food industry in Argentina. His efforts and innovations made his company a great success. His company was one of the first food companies in the country and showed new methods in this sector. When he made a fortune, he returned to Italy. By his education, Giuseppe was a translator. In 1875, he married Marianna Orazzi. In 1876, their first son Giovanni was born. In 1879 their daughter Margherita was born. She died in 1894. In 1881 their third child Vincenzo Lancia was born. Their second daughter, Anna Maria (later Anna-Maria-Giacobinni), was born in 1884. The Lancia family at that time was important for Turin. The members of the family liked to go on opera and theatre. In their free time. the Lancias spend their time at a villa near Turin. Vincenzo Lancia was born on 24 of August 1881 in Fobello near Turin. His father wanted Vincenzo to be a lawyer, but didn't have much interest in the humanities. He met the Battista brothers as well as Giovanni Ceirano and became interested in science and technology, especially automobiles. He saw his first cars in Turin and Milan. One of his friends Carlo Bishareti di Ruffia had a Benz and that was the first important automobile in his life. When FIAT was founded in 1899 Vincenzo was very active in the company and later became one of the most famous test drivers of Italian automobile brands. In 1922, Vincenzo married his secretary - Adele Miglietti. Vincenzo and Adele had three children Gianni, Eleonora and Maria. He died on February 15, 1937. Gianni Lancia was born on 24 November 1924 in Turin. He finished his education with his sisters at the Technical University of Pisa. From the time he was a little boy Gianni loved sports, but his greatest passion was motor racing. This led him to become a driver for the Lancia team. Gianni became the boss of Lancia in 1950. He invested a lot of money in expensive prototypes and other unprofitable ventures that led him to sell a big part of the company to Carlo Pesenti in 1957. After that he started a business in the food industry. For a few years he lived in Brazil. He had two sons, Mariele and Vincenzo from his first marriage and had one son (Lorenzo Lancia) from his marriage to Jacqueline Sassard. He died on 30 June 2014.", "", "", "The Ypsilon is a premium 5-door supermini car produced since 2011. It is based on an updated Fiat 500 platform. It was previously available for sale in many European markets, however since 2017 it has only been available in Italy. In the United Kingdom and Ireland it was previously sold as the \"Chrysler Ypsilon\". Although it is the only Lancia car in production and only for sale in Italy, the Ypsilon continues to be popular there; it was the second best-selling car in Italy in 2019.", "", "The Lancia Aurelia introduced the front engine rear transmission configuration later used by Ferrari, Alfa Romeo, Porsche, GM, Volvo and Maserati, as well as the V6 engine, which is now common. It had inboard rear brakes, an important way of reducing un-sprung weight. The Lancia Stratos was a successful rally car during the 1970s, and helped the company to improve its sporting credentials. The Lancia Thema executive car was a re-branded second generation Chrysler 300 unveiled in 2011 to replace the Thesis. It re–used the name of the Italian made 1984–94 Thema saloon. It used to be available in various European markets, but for the United Kingdom and Ireland it was only sold as the \"Chrysler 300C\". It was discontinued in 2015. The Lancia Voyager was a large MPV unveiled in 2011, which was based on the Chrysler Town & Country. It was marketed in various European markets, but for the United Kingdom and Ireland it was only sold as the \"Chrysler Grand Voyager\". It was discontinued in 2015.", "Lancia has shown several concept cars to the public including the Flaminia Loratmo (1958), Stratos Zero (1970), the Megagamma by Italdesign Giugiaro and Sibilo by Bertone in 1978, Hit (1988) by Pininfarina, the Bertone designed Kayak (1995), the Dialogos (1998) and Nea in 2000. The company showed the Granturismo Stilnovo and Fulvia. concepts in 2003.", "In the end of 1960, Lancia made their first landaulet-limousine for the President of Italy, called the Lancia Flaminia 335 Presidenziale. In 1989, Lancia made a limousine version of the Thema. 24 examples for Fiat-Group executives. In 1999, Lancia made a one-off limousine version of the Kappa and at the 2004 Geneva Motor Show, Stola showed a limousine version of the Thesis.", "In January 2014, in an interview with \"La Repubblica\", Fiat CEO Sergio Marchionne foreshadowed that Lancia would become an Italy–only brand, and focus only on the Ypsilon supermini range.", "While some models had been imported on a small scale during the 1950s to the 1960s, Lancias were sold in the United States from 1975. Sales were comparatively slow, and the range was withdrawn at the same time as Fiat in 1982. In 2009, following Fiat's acquisition of a stake in United States-based Chrysler and part of Chrysler's restructuring plans, it was stated that Fiat plans for the Chrysler brand and Lancia to co–develop products, with some vehicles being shared. Olivier Francois, Lancia's CEO, took over as CEO of the Chrysler division in October 2009. Fiat has also announced that, depending on the market, some Chrysler cars would be sold as Lancias and vice versa. Francois' plans to re-establish the Chrysler brand as an upscale brand were somewhat muddied by the discontinuance of the Plymouth brand. At the 2010 Detroit Auto Show, a Chrysler badged Lancia Delta was on display, but this did not result in sales in the United States, with proposals to instead modify an Alfa Romeo for sale by 2013.", "Lancia's reputation was significantly undermined in 1980, when defective Lancia Beta models, suffering from significant suspension sub-frame corrosion problems, were purchased back from owners by the company in a highly publicised campaign. These cars were later crushed. The brand never recovered from the damage inflicted during the Beta recall and, combined with a range of related factors (including poor residual values, which made their range uncompetitive), decided to withdraw from the right-hand drive market in February 1994. The last model be sold in the United Kingdom was the Delta, boosted by its rallying reputation, withdrawn from sale in 1995, although a small number of left-hand drive Lancia models have since reached the UK as personal imports. After 1995, there were continuous rumours suggesting Lancia's return to the United Kingdom. In November 2005, \"What Car?\" reported rumours over the alleged return, to rival \"affordable\" premium makes, such as Saab and Volvo. In September 2006, \"What Car?\" reported that Lancia were returning to the United Kingdom. The relaunch date was set for August 2008. In April 2008, \"Car\" reported that Lancia had postponed the relaunch. In June 2009, \"Autocar\" reported that the relaunch of Lancia was now “very unlikely”. These were credible since Lancia models, by that time, shared common parts with Fiat and Alfa Romeo models that were imported, sold and maintained by an existing dealership network. The cost to reestablish the brand were therefore minimal. In December 2008, however, Fiat cancelled relaunch plans, due to financial concerns coinciding with the global financial crisis, and the recession. In 2011, Lancia Ypsilon and Delta models were eventually re-introduced to the United Kingdom, but were sold under the Chrysler marque. In January 2014, the slow-selling Delta model was dropped from this line up. In March 2015, Fiat Group announced that the Chrysler brand would be discontinued in the United Kingdom in 2017, citing a desire to focus largely on the Jeep brand instead.", "A small number of Lancia models were previously sold in Japan, such as Fulvia, Stratos and Delta. More recently, some models have been sold under the Chrysler brand, such as the Ypsilon.", "", "After Vincenzo Lancia's son Gianni became director of the firm, it started to take part more frequently in motorsport, eventually deciding to build a Grand Prix car. Vittorio Jano was the new designer for Lancia and his Lancia D50 was entered into the 1954 Spanish Grand Prix, where Alberto Ascari took the pole position and drove the fastest lap. In the 1955 Monaco Grand Prix Ascari crashed into the harbour after missing a chicane. One week later Ascari was killed in an accident driving a Ferrari sports car at Monza. With Ascari's death and Lancia's financial problems the company withdrew from Grand Prix racing. Altogether Lancia took two victories and ten podiums in Formula One. Remnants of the Lancia team were transferred to Scuderia Ferrari, where Juan Manuel Fangio won the 1956 championship with a Lancia-Ferrari car.", "Lancia has been very successful in motorsport over the years, and mostly in the arena of rallying. Prior to the forming of the World Rally Championship, Lancia took the final International Championship for Manufacturers title with the Fulvia in 1972. In the WRC, they remain the most statistically successful marque (despite having withdrawn at the end of the 1993 season), winning constructors' titles with the Stratos (1974, 1975 and 1976), the 037 (1983) and the Delta (six consecutive wins from 1987 to 1992). The Delta is also the most successful individual model designation ever to compete in rallying. All this gave Lancia a total of 11 Championships over the years and 15 European Championship from 1969 to 1992. Juha Kankkunen and Miki Biasion both won two drivers' titles with the Delta. Among other drivers to take several World Rally Championship wins with Lancia were Markku Alén, Didier Auriol, Sandro Munari, Bernard Darniche, Walter Röhrl, Björn Waldegård and Henri Toivonen. The history of the brand in rallying is also tainted with tragedy, with deaths of Italian driver Attilio Bettega at the 1985 Tour de Corse in a Lancia 037 and then Finnish championship favourite Toivonen in a Lancia Delta S4 at the same rally exactly a year later. These deaths would eventually lead to the end of Group B rallying.", "In 1951 Mille Miglia, Lancia Aurelia B20 GT came second overall. The car was driven by Thornley Kelham.. In 1953, Umberto Maglioli won the Targa Florio at the wheel of the Lancia D20. The same year Lancia introduced the D24 sports racer, which was an evolution of D23 model, but rebodied as a spider by Pinin Farina. Its most significant victories were: the 1953 Carrera Panamericana, the 1954 Mille Miglia and the 1954 Targa Florio. During Lancia's dominance of rallying, the company also expanded into sports cars in the late 1970s until the mid-1980s. It first ran the Stratos HF in Group 4, and for a brief interlude with a rare Group 5 version. The car was replaced with the successful Beta Montecarlo Turbo winning the FIA's 1980 World Championship for Makes and 1981 World Endurance Championship for Makes and the 1980 Deutsche Rennsport Meisterschaft. In 1982 the team moved up to Group 6 with the LC1 Spyder, followed by the Group C LC2 coupé which featured a Ferrari powerplant in 1983. The LC2 was a match for the standard-setting Porsche 956 in terms of raw speed, securing 13 pole positions over its lifetime, however its results were hampered by poor reliability and fuel economy and it only managed to win three European and World Endurance Championship races. The team's inability to compete against the dominant Porsche 956 and 962 sports cars led it to drop out of sportscar racing at the end of 1986 in order to concentrate on rallying, although private teams continued to enter LC2s with declining results until the early 1990s.", "Lancia produced a wide range of vans, trucks, buses and military vehicles from the beginning, forming Lancia Veicoli Industriali in 1912. Lancia slowly withdrew from the commercial sectors during the late 1960s and production of commercial vehicles ended in the early 1970s, shortly after Fiat's takeover of the company, with some models transferred to Iveco.", "The company has also made industrial engines.", "In 2009, the British motoring television show \"Top Gear\" suggested that Lancia had more 'great' models than any other car company. The presenters went on to test the Gamma Coupé, Fulvia Coupé, Aprilia, Montecarlo, Beta Coupé, HPE, Stratos, 037, Delta Integrale Evo II and Thema 8.32. They also stated during their review that Lancia made the best looking cars, even though they are unreliable. Lancia sponsored the Venice Film Festival for five years, ending in 2012, with the Lancia Thema used to transport stars to the festival. Lancia was sponsor of ninth and eleventh World Summit of Nobel Peace Prize Laureates." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Administration.", "City administration.", "National government.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Demography.", "Ethnicity and religion.", "Places of interest.", "Historical sites.", "The Royal Ceremonial Hall or Lapau.", "The Royal Mausoleum (Kubah Makam Di Raja).", "Dang Ayang Mausoleum.", "Istana Darussalam.", "Istana Nurul Iman.", "Kampong Ayer.", "Parks and trails.", "The Waterfront.", "Persiaran Damuan.", "Jalan Tasek Lama.", "Bukit Subok Recreational Park.", "Transportation.", "Land.", "Air.", "Water.", "Economy.", "Shopping.", "Traditional markets.", "Tamu Kianggeh.", "Pasar Pelbagai Barangan Gadong / Pasar Malam (night market).", "Education.", "Primary and secondary.", "Religious.", "Sixth form.", "Universities and colleges.", "Technical and vocational.", "Higher.", "International relations.", "Sister city." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "'Bandar Seri Begawan' is derived from the official Malay name which is translatable as 'Seri Begawan City', with Seri Begawan being derived from Sanskrit (śrī \"bhagavan\") meaning 'the aura of the gods'. It was named after Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III, who was the previous Sultan of Brunei and the late father of the current Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah. 'Seri Begawan' is part of the royal title bestowed on the late Sultan upon his abdication from the throne in 1967. The city was renamed in 1970 to commemorate his contribution to the development of the country during his reign, especially on the modernisation of Brunei in the 20th century. Prior to this, the city had been known as \" (literally 'Brunei City') or 'Brunei Town'. The city is colloquially known by the local people as \" which is the Malay word for '(the) Port'. However, the exact area that the name refers to may differ in conversational context: apart from referring to the same areas as the city's official jurisdiction, 'Bandar' may also refer exclusively to the Pusat Bandar (literally 'City Centre') area of the capital to distinguish from other named areas within the city, whereby they were not part of the capital prior to 2007. Meanwhile, it may sometimes extend beyond the city's proper area, encompassing its surrounding urbanised areas and even to the extent of covering the whole of Brunei-Muara District. The reference of the latter is commonly being used by the residents outside of the district.", "Human settlement in Brunei can be traced back to the 6th and 7th century with a Malay trading centre and fishing port near the current site of the city. The first settlement on the banks of the Brunei River can be traced to the 8th century where there had been settlements similar to those in Kampong Ayer, near the present site of the Brunei Museum with the modern city on the opposite shore. During the Bruneian Empire period from 15th–17th century, the Sultanate ruled much part of Borneo including the southern part of the Philippines and its capital of Manila, with the water settlement near the city area became the third centre of the administration (after moving twice from Kota Batu and Kampong Ayer). When the Sultanate rule declined through the 18th century due to the arrival of Western powers such as the Spanish, Dutch, and the British, the settlement population decreased from its peak of 20,000 inhabitants. From 1888 until its independence in 1984, Brunei was a British protectorate and land development began in 1906 when the British resident encouraged the Sultanate citizens to move onto reclaimed land on the western bank of the inlet. In 1899, first oil well was drilled at Ayer Bekunchi near Kampung Kasat, Bandar Seri Begawan. Although the well was drilled to a depth of 259 metres (850 feet), no oil was found. Oil exploration in Brunei later shifted to Seria and Belait District in 1924. Sultan Muhammad Jamalul Alam II established a new palace on the west bank in 1909 after being persuaded by the British, along with the arrival of Chinese traders to boost the economy. A mosque and government buildings were built along the western shores in 1920. In the same year, the new settlement was declared the new capital of Brunei and became a municipal area. However, the city's prosperity was almost ended when it was captured by the Japanese in 1941, before being recaptured by the Allied forces in 1945. During the war, most infrastructure was destroyed by Japanese and Allied bombing. The British began reconstructing most of their possessions in Borneo at the end of 1945 with the restoration of law and order and the reopening of schools. In 1950, Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III, upon his ascension to the throne, negotiated with the British for an increase in corporate taxes, growing from 10% to 30% in 1953. A M$1.2 million (US$0.39 million) allotment to Brunei for war damages during the Japanese occupation increased from M$1 million in 1946 to M$100 million (US$32.6 million) in 1952. A five-year development plan with a budget of M$100 million was also implemented in 1953, with infrastructure receiving the largest percentage (80%) and the rest going toward social programmes. Together with the expansion of the oil and gas industry, commercialisation began to transform Brunei's capital and a large number of public buildings were constructed, along with the development of a central business district in the 1970s and 1980s. On 1 August 2007, Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah gave consent for the expansion of the city from to.", "", "The city is administered by the Bandar Seri Begawan Municipal Board within Bandar Seri Begawan Municipal Department, a government department within the Ministry of Home Affairs. The Municipal Board was established in 1921, originally as a Sanitary Board (') which was, and is still, responsible for maintaining the cleanliness to the then Brunei Town. It achieved the status of'(municipality) in 1935 with the conversion of the Sanitary Board into the current Municipal Board (\"\"). Bandar Seri Begawan is de facto a city but it is officially a municipality, thus has the same status as the towns of Tutong, Kuala Belait and Seria. The city is located in Brunei-Muara District, the smallest yet the most populous district in the country. The spatial jurisdiction of the city overlaps with the administrative divisions, namely mukims and villages (). Since 2007, the city's official area has been expanded from to and covers, either fully or partially, the following mukims: The mukims of Burong Pingai Ayer, Peramu, Saba, Sungai Kebun, Sungai Kedayan and Tamoi de facto constitute the areas of Kampong Ayer, that is the historical stilt settlement on the Brunei River in the heart of the capital.", "Bandar Seri Begawan is the capital city of Brunei and the seat of the Brunei government. It houses Istana Nurul Iman, whereby aside from the residential palace of Hassanal Bolkiah, the current Sultan of Brunei, it is also a seat of the Prime Minister's Office, in which the Prime Minister is also the Sultan himself. The Prime Minister's Office also has a second seat within the capital, that is located at Jalan Perdana Menteri. Bandar Seri Begawan also houses the headquarters of all government ministries and most departments and agencies.", "Bandar Seri Begawan is located at 4°53'25\"N, 114°56'32\"E, on the northern bank of the Brunei River.", "Brunei has an equatorial, tropical rainforest climate more subject to the Intertropical Convergence Zone than to the trade winds, and with rare cyclones. The climate is hot and wet. The city sees heavy precipitation throughout the course of the year, with the northeast monsoon blowing from December to March and the southeast monsoon from around June to October.", "", "The Bruneian Census 2011 Report estimated the population of Bandar Seri Begawan to be approximately 20,000, while the metropolitan area has around 279,924. The majority of Bruneians are Malays, with Chinese being the most significant minority group. Aboriginal groups such as the Bisaya, Belait, Dusun, Kedayan, Lun Bawang, Murut and Tutong also exist. They are classified as part of the Malay ethnic groups and have been given the Bumiputera privileges. Large numbers of foreign workers are also found within Brunei and the capital city, with the majority being from Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, Indonesia (mostly Betawi, Batak, Ambon, Minahasa and Minangkabau) and the Indian subcontinent.", "", "", "Located in Jalan Kianggeh, the Lapau (Royal Ceremonial Hall) is used for royal traditional ceremonies. It was here that the sultan Hassanal Bolkiah was crowned on 1 August 1968. The interior of the Lapau and sultan's throne are decorated in exquisite gold. Within the precincts of the Lapau is the Dewan Majlis where the legislative assembly used to sit. Official permission is required by visitors to enter this building. With the completion of the new legislative council building in Jalan Mabohai, the Lapau will soon become a symbol of the sultanate's constitutional history.", "Located away from the banks of Brunei River, behind the Freshco Shopping Centre at Mile One, Jalan Tutong, the Royal Mausoleum and the graveyard have been used by succeeding generations of sultans. Inside the Mausoleum itself are the remains of the last ten sultans, Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin (1950–1967), who died in 1986, Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin (1924–1950), Sultan Muhammad Jamalul Alam II (1906–1924), Sultan Hashim (1885–1906), Sultan Abdul Momin (1852-1885), Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II (1828-1852), Sultan Muhammad Kanzul Alam (1807-1826), Sultan Muhammad Jamalul Alam I who ruled less than a year in 1804, Sultan Muhammad Tajuddin (1778-1804,1804-1807), and Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin I (1740-1778). Other members of the royal families from those times are also buried there.", "A legendary figure who was chased away from Kampong Ayer for committing adultery. Adultery was a taboo in Bruneian society. She died in what we know today as Pusat Bandar (Central City). However some sources say that she was a Queen of Brunei.", "This \"istana\", or palace, is located near the river. Among the oldest non-residential palaces in Brunei, this palace was where the Begawan sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin III resided and where Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah was born. It is not open to the public.", "The Istana Nurul Iman palace is the residence of the sultan of Brunei. It is located 3 km southwest of the city centre. Its name is taken from Arabic, meaning \"Palace of the Light of Faith.\" The palace was designed by Leandro V. Locsin and built by the Filipino firm Ayala Corporation, mixing Malay and Islamic elements in the building architecture. It contains 1,788 rooms, with 257 bathrooms, and a banquet hall that can accommodate up to 5,000 guests. The palace only opens to public during the yearly three-day Hari Raya Adilfitri celebration.", "The city's suburb incorporates nearby Kampong Ayer (water village), in which houses were built on stilts. It stretches about along the Brunei River. Founded 1,000 years ago, the village is considered the largest stilt settlement in the world, with approximately 30,000 residents and 2,000 houses. The term \"Venice of the East\" was coined by Antonio Pigafetta in honour of the water village that he encountered at Kota Batu (just east of city's central business district). Pigafetta was on Ferdinand Magellan's last voyages when he visited Brunei in 1521.", "", "This latest addition to Bandar Seri Begawan strategically overlooks the historical Kampong Ayer. The approximately site took almost three years to be completed and was officially opened to the public on 28 May 2011. The Waterfront is accessible 24 hours a day for the public to enjoy sightseeing and visit outdoor cafes.", "This narrow strip of landscaped park between Jalan Tutong and the Sungei Brunei was created in 1986 as a \"Square\". It has a permanent display of the work of a sculptor from each of the original ASEAN countries. The -long park has pleasant walkways bordered by shrubs and the mangrove-fringed Pulau Ranggu, where two species of monkeys live, including the notable proboscis monkey only found in Borneo. The park also offers some of the best views of the Istana Nurul Iman.", "Located just a few minutes' walk from the city centre, this is a popular trekking trail for the city's residents. There are well-made walkaways through the small park, which has benches and picnic spots as well as a waterfall and ponds with water lilies.", "The park offers a great view of the Kampong Ayer and downtown Bandar Seri Begawan. There is a well-maintained wooden walkaway with viewing huts along the way. These huts provide good vantage points for Kampong Ayer and its surroundings.", "", "The capital is connected to Bus of Bandar Seri Begawan the western part of the country by road. To get to the eastern part of Brunei (Temburong) it is necessary to travel through Sarawak which is in Malaysia, via the town of Limbang which is accessed by the Kuala Lurah Bus terminal. To get to Bandar Seri Begawan from the west, access is via Miri town in Sarawak via the Sungai Tujuh Bus terminal and then along the coastal highway. The main bus station in the city is located in Jalan Cator underneath a multi-story car park. There are six bus routes servicing Bandar Seri Begawan area; the Central Line, Circle Line, Eastern Line, Southern Line, Western Line and Northern Line. The buses operate from 6.30 am till 6.00pm except for Bus No. 1 and 20 which have extended to the night. All bus routes begin and terminate their journey at the main bus terminal. Buses heading to other towns in Brunei such as Tutong, Seria and Kuala Belait also depart from the main bus terminal and Taxicab.", "Brunei International Airport serves the whole country. It is located from the town centre and can be reached in 10 minutes via the Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Highway. Royal Brunei Airlines, the national airline, has its head office in the RBA Plaza in the city.", "A water taxi service known as 'penambang' is used for transportation between downtown Bandar Seri Begawan and Kampong Ayer. Water taxis are the most common means of negotiating the waterways of Kampong Ayer. They can be hailed from the numerous \"docking parts\" along the banks of the Brunei River. Fares are negotiable. Regular water taxi and boat services depart for Temburong between 7:45 am and 4 pm daily, and also serve the Malaysian towns of Limbang, Lawas, Sundar and Labuan. A speedboat is used for passengers travelling to Penambang Ferry Service and from Bangar and Limbang.", "The city produces furniture, textiles, handicrafts, and timber.", "Brunei has a number of shopping areas, including the following:", "", "The open market brings together numerous small entrepreneurs selling local vegetables, fruits, live chickens and fish, potted plants, assorted food and beverages.", "Located a few metres away from the Mall Gadong, the market brings together numerous small entrepreneurs just like in Tamu Kianggeh. However, it focuses more on selling foods such as sate, soto, national dishes like nasi katok and ambuyat, fruits and beverages, and wooden handicrafts. During the day, it is where local botanists sell their potted plants.", "All levels of education are available in Bandar Seri Begawan from kindergarten to the tertiary level.", "There are several primary and secondary schools in Bandar Seri Begawan which may be government or private. Nevertheless, the curriculum in all of the schools, except Seri Mulia Sarjana International School, are standardised and set by the Ministry of Education, as with the schools elsewhere in the country.", "There are also several religious schools which provide Islamic education for the Muslim pupils. The schools that can be found in the capital include primary religious schools as well as Arabic preparatory schools, which provide preparatory education in Arabic medium for entry into the secondary level of the Arabic religious stream. There is also a specialised secondary religious school, \"Institut Tahfiz Al-Qur'an Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah\", which aims to produce local \"hafiz\". The curriculum in these schools is set by the Ministry of Religious Affairs.", "There are two sixth form centres in the capital and they are government schools. Duli Pengiran Muda Al-Muhtadee Billah College provides sixth form in the general stream where as Hassanal Bolkiah Boys' Arabic Secondary School is for leavers of Arabic secondary religious schools.", "", "Technical and vocational education are available in the two campuses of the Institute of Brunei Technical Education () as well as the main campus of Brunei Polytechnic. The Business Campus and Sultan Saiful Rijal Campus, which are part of IBTE, were once separate schools, known as Business School (\"Sekolah Perdagangan\") and Sultan Saiful Rijal Technical College (\"Maktab Teknik Sultan Saiful Rijal\") respectively. Vocational education is also available in a few private institutions, which provide diploma- and certificate-level courses.", "Two of the four national universities of the country can be found in the capital. Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University, located in Gadong area, offers degree programmes in Islamic studies, where as Seri Begawan Religious Teachers University College is a teacher training college which produces teachers in Islamic religious education mainly for the religious schools in the country. The other two universities, University of Brunei Darussalam and University of Technology Brunei, are located in Tungku, which is not part of Bandar Seri Begawan but located on its outskirts. There are also two private colleges which offer bachelor programmes, namely International Graduate Studies College and Laksamana College of Business.", "Several countries have set up their embassies, commissions or consulates in Bandar Seri Begawan, including Australia, Bangladesh, Belgium, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Canada, Chile, China, Finland, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Netherlands, New Zealand, North Korea, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Poland, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, United Kingdom, United States and Vietnam.", "Bandar Seri Begawan currently has only one sister city:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Physical traits.", "Size.", "Color.", "Tail.", "Temperament.", "Health.", "Feeding.", "Grooming.", "Mortality.", "Morbidity.", "Hip dysplasia.", "Double merle.", "Available health tests.", "History.", "Recent history.", "Activities.", "Miscellaneous." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Australian Shepherd is traditionally a medium-sized breed. They can weigh from and stand from in height. The Australian Shepherd Club of America (ASCA) standard calls for the Australian shepherd to stand between at the withers, females being and males measuring ; however, quality is not to be sacrificed in favor of size.", "Recognized Aussie colors are solid black, solid red (liver), blue merle, and red/liver merle; each of these colors may also have copper (tan) points or white markings in various combinations on the face, chest, and legs. A black or red dog with copper and white trim is called 'tricolor' or 'tri', while a black or red dog with white trim but no copper is called 'bicolor' or 'bi'. White, rather than pigment, on or around the ears is an indicator of increased risk for white-related deafness. Excessive white on the face and ears can place an individual dog at greater risk for sunburn and subsequent skin cancer. The wide variety of color combinations comes from the interaction between the color allele, which is either black (B) dominant or red (b) recessive, and the dominant merle allele (M). Together, these provide four coat-color aspects that can appear in any combination: The merle allele, which produces a mingled or patchwork combination of dark and light areas, is the coat pattern most commonly associated with the breed. This merle (M) is dominant, so heterozygous dogs (Mm) show the pigmentation pattern; however, when two merles are bred, the statistical risk is 25% of the offspring will end up with the two copies of the merle gene (homozygous). These dogs usually have a mostly white coat and blue irises, and are often deaf, blind, or both. In this case, the deafness and blindness are linked to having two copies of the merle gene, which disrupts pigmentation and produces these health defects. All black and blue merle dogs have black noses, eye rims, and lips. All red and red merle dogs have liver or brown noses, eye rims, and lips. Also, great variety is seen in the Aussie's eye color, and they are often heterochromatic. An early nickname for the breed was \"ghost-eye dog\". Aussie eyes may be any shade of brown, or blue; they may have two differently colored eyes, or even have bicolored or \"split eyes\" (for example, a half-brown, half-blue eye), which appear to be linked to the merle coloration. Merled eyes occur, as well, where one color is mixed in and swirled with another. Any combination of eye color is acceptable in the breed standard, so long as the eyes are healthy. In general, however, black Aussies (self, bi-color, or tri-color) tend to have brown eyes, while red (self, bi-color, or tri-color) Aussies tend to have amber eyes, though these Aussies may also carry the blue-eyed gene. The merle phenotype in Australian Shepherds is very similar to the coat color in Mitf mouse mutants.", "Although some Aussies are born with naturally bobbed or partially bobbed (stubby) tails, the majority are born with full, long tails. Breeders have historically docked the tails when the puppies are born. In the United States and Canada, the standard calls for a natural bob or docked tail not to exceed four inches as a defining characteristics. Any natural tail length is permitted when showing in Europe, where docking has been banned in most countries, including the United Kingdom.", "The breed is typically highly energetic, requiring a great deal of exercise and attention. An Australian Shepherd enjoys working, whether it is learning and practicing tricks, competing in dog agility, or engaging in any other physically and mentally involving activity. Dogs may show reserved behaviors. They are kind, loving, and devoted to those they know. They are very loyal to their owners, and are rewarding dogs if treated well. The breed was developed to serve on the ranch, a job which includes being protective of its property. It is not inclined toward obsessive barking. The Aussie is intelligent, learns quickly, and loves to play. This means that a bored, neglected, unexercised Aussie may invent its own games, activities, and jobs, which to Aussies also do best with plenty of human companionship: they are often called \"Velcro dogs\" for their strong desire to always be near their owners and for their tendency to form intense, devoted bonds with select people. With children, they work best with children over the age of eight: this is absolutely not because they do not like children or have a short temper with kids (most are quite friendly to children). The Australian Shepherd has a reputation as a highly intelligent and versatile stock dog with a range of working styles. A good working Aussie is quick, thoughtful, and easy with its stock: there are working lines in the American West that still herd sheep, smaller cattle, and goats. They are fast runners with a loose eye style of working livestock. The ability for the breed to adapt to the situation and to think for itself makes it an excellent all-around worker. For this reason, the Aussie is often chosen to work unusual livestock such as ducks, geese, and commercially raised rabbits. These dogs require a minimum of one hour a day of play, exercise, and attention. They need space to run and play in an urban setting. The Australian Shepherd is a high-spirited dog that requires much attention and work. Teaching them tricks keeps them focused and happy, which also keeps their minds working. The breed also has great stamina and can live in a variety of terrain. Because of this, they are popularly used as trail and working dogs. Australian Shepherds need roughly 30–60 minutes of exercise each day.", "Australian Shepherds are generally a pretty healthy breed, but they can have several health problems. Vision problems are common, and epilepsy is also a concern. In merle-to-merle breeding, the puppies that have inherited two copies of the merle gene have an increased risk of being born blind or deaf. Australian Shepherds are the most common dog breed to acquire Epilepsy.", "The recommended amount of food an Australian Shepherd should eat is 1-1/2 to 2 cups of dry food a day, But size, exercise level, and age should be considered. With proper diet and exercise, the Australian Shepherd can stay in good shape.", "Australian Shepherds have a medium-length, water-resistant coat. With the coat being somewhat long and wavy or curly, this breed does shed, mostly in the spring to get rid of the winter coat. The shepherd should be brushed weekly to maintain a healthy and clean coat and also to prevent matting. Being a \"working dog\", this breed should be outside to get its needed exercise. If a dog is dirty, a basic bath can be given, but not frequently, for it can dry out the skin and coat.", "The median lifespans for breeds similar in size to Australian Shepherds are mostly between 11 and 13 years, so, assuming the results of the UK study are not representative of the population there, Aussies appear to have a typical lifespan for a breed their size. Results of a 1998 internet survey with a sample size of 614 Australian Shepherds indicated a median longevity around 12.5 years, but that longevity may be declining.", "Based on a sample of 48 still-living dogs, the most common health concerns noted by owners were eye problems (red eye, epiphora, conjunctivitis, and cataracts). Dermatological and respiratory problems also ranked high. Collie eye anomaly (CEA) is rare in the breed, but it and cataracts are a concern in Aussies. Other conditions of note include iris coloboma, canine hip dysplasia, Pelger-Huet anomaly, hypothyroidism, and nasal solar dermatitis. Prior to breeding, the Aussie should be checked for hip and elbow dysplasia and DNA tests performed to show the dog to be free of the MDR1 mutation, cataract mutation, and CEA. Tests should also include those for thyroidism and clearances for other known eye diseases like colobomas, progressive retinal atrophy, and retinal folds. Some Australian Shepherds (as well as Collies, German Shepherds, and many other herding dogs) are susceptible to a genetic mutation of the \"MDR1\" gene. Dogs with the mutation can suffer toxicity from antiparasitics such as ivermectin in high doses, and other drugs. A test is available to determine if a particular dog carries the mutated gene.", "Hip dysplasia is a heritable condition where the femur does not fit securely in the pelvic socket of the hip joint. This problem can exist with or without clinical signs, meaning some dogs feel pain in one or both rear legs.", "Double merle or homozygous merle occurs when the offspring of two merled parents inherit two copies of the dominant merle gene. The odds of this are 25% for each pup born from such a litter. Double merles often have excessive light or white areas and can have hearing and vision problems as a result of having two copies of the merle gene. Homozygous merles can be deaf or blind, or express iris colobomas, retinal detachment, cataracts, persistent pupillary membrane, a displacement of the lens, equatorial staphyloma, night blindness and microphthalmia. Audio impairment or deafness usually develops after the birth of a puppy with their ear canal still closed. The white color of double merles is produced due to the lack of melanocytes which provide high potassium levels in the endolymph surrounding the cochlea's hair cells. There is no surgery or treatment that can reduce the damage. Loss of hearing is directly linked to the amount of pigmentation cells a dog has. The same pigment that is lacking in the ear can also be lacking in the eyes, affecting its development. Although many believe that only dogs with blue eyes have eye problems, it is not correct. Due to the contrast between eye problems and blue eyes, eye conditions in blue-eyed dogs are much easier to spot. Not all homozygous merles are affected, but most are, making the breeding of two merles a very touchy subject. Some breeders euthanize mostly white pups, while others may attempt to sell them as \"rare\" white Aussies without disclosing the potential for health defects. A large percentage of homozygous merles sold eventually end up in rescue and shelters, as the average family is ill-prepared to take on a deaf or blind pet. However, deaf or blind Australian shepherds can make wonderful pets given a home prepared for their special needs. They are an intelligent breed, which generally learn hand signals with ease. The term \"lethal white\" originated from horses born with lethal white syndrome, and has since evolved to often describe dogs born with the double merle trait. This trait is found in many breeds, but most commonly found in Australian Shepherds. The name \"lethal white\" is a misnomer, as this genetic condition is not lethal to the dogs; it is often the breeder who is lethal to the pups by culling them immediately after birth. Many consider the term \"lethal white\" to be derogatory.", "Many diagnostic tests are available for concerned Aussie owners to check the overall health of a dog. Also, the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals (OFA) has an extensive database to track results and provide statistics for these concerns: hips, elbows, heart, patellar luxation (knees), and thyroid (autoimmune) disease. The OFA database also includes the results for eye exams performed by a Canine Eye Registration Foundation veterinarian, but only if the owner of the Aussie submits the results. This database is a great resource to investigate the lineage and related health of the progenitors of some dogs, at least regarding hip ratings. Many tests have been developed by, or are processed at, laboratories to check for the 11 health concerns that plague the Australian Shepherd breed. Some of those labs are Optigen, Animal Health Trust, Endocrine Diagnostic Center, Animal Health Laboratory, Washington State University Veterinary Clinic, Vet DNA Center, and HealthGene. These labs might perform one or many of the tests that have been developed. Tests or evaluations have been developed for: Other areas that are currently not health concerns, but tests have been developed for, are: DNA testing to either certify parentage or to verify parentage) for Australian Shepherds can be performed, and as of January 2010, all adults producing a litter will be required to be DNA tested to allow a breeder to register a litter with the Australian Shepherd Club of America (ASCA).", "The Australian Shepherd's history is vague, as is the reason for its misleading name. The breed was initially called by many names, including Spanish Shepherd, Pastor Dog, Bob-Tail, New Mexican Shepherd, California Shepherd, and Austrian Shepherd. It is believed by some that the breed has Basque origins in Spain and was used there by shepherds. Those shepherds might then have emigrated to the West Coast of the United States via Australia. What is known is that it developed in western North America in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The Australian Shepherd was a particularly tireless sheep herder in the Rocky Mountains because it is relatively unaffected by altitude. Ranchers in Boulder, Colorado, began breeding the dogs which would attract purchasers from as far west as California for their legendary sheep-herding abilities. A theory suggests that they were named for the imported sheep that they herded. It is also possible that many of the dogs coming from Australia were blue merle and the adjective \"Australian\" became associated with any dogs of that coat color.", "Development of the breed began in the American West. The breed's foundation bloodlines are depicted in the \"Australian Shepherd Genealogy Chart\" showing the relationship between the early families of dogs. The American Kennel Club (AKC) ranked the Australian Shepherd as the 17th-most popular breed in the United States in 2016. Selective breeding for many generations focused on aspects of the dog that enabled it to function as an effective stockdog in the American West. It had to handle severe weather; have plenty of speed, athleticism, energy, and endurance; and be intelligent, flexible, and independent; while remaining obedient. The actual foundation for the Australian Shepherd was established between the 1940s and the early 1970s, when the Australian Shepherd Club of America was formed and the registry was started. Their stunts and skills earned them places in several Disney films, including \"Run Appaloosa Run\" and \"Stub: The Greatest Cowdog in the West\". An Australian shepherd was featured in the film \"Flight of the Navigator\" (1986) and the TV series \"Flash Forward\" (1996). More recently, an Australian Shepherd starred in the film \"Famous Five\" (2012) and its sequels. In June 2017, U.S. Vice President Mike Pence and his family adopted a Blue Merle Australian Shepherd named Harley.", "Like other herding breeds, these dogs excel at many dog sports, especially herding, dog agility, frisbee, and flyball. Herding instincts and trainability can be measured at noncompetitive instinct tests. Aussies that exhibit basic herding instincts can be trained to compete in ASCA stock dog trials or AKC herding events. The dog has a stride in which its front and back legs cross over, making for an appearance of \"on the edge\" speed. The dogs instinctively use a \"pounce\" position to deal with cattle trying to kick them. They also have strong hips and legs, allowing for fast acceleration and high jumping, sometimes as high as 4 ft (1.3 m). An Australian shepherd named Pockets is credited as being the oldest dog to earn a title in AKC history, having earned the Rally Novice title at the age of 15 years, 5 weeks.", "The Australian Shepherd Club of America (ASCA) was founded in 1957 to promote the breed. The National Stock Dog Registry became its official breed registry, which continued until ASCA took over in 1972. In 1975, ASCA created a breed standard, describing exactly how an Australian shepherd should look and be constructed (its conformation to the Standard). It developed more uniformity in the breed and standardized the type. In the United States, the American Kennel Club (AKC) is the primary registry for purebred dogs, and first recognized the Australian Shepherd in 1991 as a member of the Herding group. However, many Aussie breeders felt the AKC put too much emphasis on breed conformity and not enough on performance, so the ASCA declined to join the AKC. Those breeders who felt that AKC membership had its advantages split off from ASCA to form their own Australian Shepherd club, the United States Australian Shepherd Association, created their own breed standard, and joined the AKC in 1993. The decision about affiliation with the AKC remains controversial, as it does with many performance breeds. The Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI-World Canine Organization) recognized the Australian Shepherd for international competition in 2007, in Group 1 Sheepdogs and Cattle Dogs as breed number 342. The Miniature Australian Shepherd was developed by breeders looking for smaller dogs ranging in size from 14 inches to the Aussie standard. In 2010, NAMASCUSA renamed the breed Miniature American Shepherds and subsequently changed their name to MASCUSA, The Miniature American Shepherd Club of the USA. This new breed gained acceptance into the AKC Miscellaneous class in June 2012 with the sizes written in the standard as females from 13–17 inches and males from 14–18 inches. In addition, an emergence of an even smaller version occurred, referred to as the Toy Australian Shepherd, with adult males weighing 12–15 pounds (5.5–7 kg) and all dogs falling under a 14-inch height at the withers. Many breeders and owners of Australian Shepherds consider the Mini and Toy to be separate breeds; others consider them to be down-sized versions of the same breed. While the Mini size can be attained through selective breeding of small Australian Shepherds, the Toy size is typically a result of cross breeding with other toy breeds. ASCA and AKC consider both variants to be separate breeds." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Comparisons and silver content.", "Influence.", "Value.", "Use in the Bible." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A predecessor of the \"denarius\" was first struck in 269 or 268 BC, five years before the First Punic War, with an average weight of 6.81 grams, or of a Roman pound. Contact with the Greeks had prompted a need for silver coinage in addition to the bronze currency that the Romans were using at that time. This predecessor of the \"denarius\" was a Greek-styled silver coin of \"didrachm\"weight, which was struck in Neapolis and other Greek cities in southern Italy. These coins were inscribed with a legend that indicated that they were struck for Rome, but in style they closely resembled their Greek counterparts. They were rarely seen at Rome, to judge from finds and hoards, and were probably used either to buy supplies or pay soldiers. The first distinctively Roman silver coin appeared around 226 BC. Classical historians have sometimes called these coins \"heavy denarii\", but they are classified by modern numismatists as \"quadrigati\", a term which survives in one or two ancient texts and is derived from the quadriga, or four-horse chariot, on the reverse. This, with a two-horse chariot or \"biga\" which was used as a reverse type for some early denarii, was the prototype for the most common designs used on Roman silver coins for a number of years. Rome overhauled its coinage shortly before 211 BC, and introduced the denarius alongside a short-lived denomination called the victoriatus. The denarius contained an average 4.5 grams, or of a Roman pound, of silver, and was at first tariffed at ten asses, hence its name, which means 'tenner'. It formed the backbone of Roman currency throughout the Roman republic and the early empire. The denarius began to undergo slow debasement toward the end of the republican period. Under the rule of Augustus (27 BC to AD 14) its weight fell to 3.9 grams (a theoretical weight of of a Roman pound). It remained at nearly this weight until the time of Nero (AD 37–68), when it was reduced to of a pound, or 3.4 grams. Debasement of the coin's silver content continued after Nero. Later Roman emperors also reduced its weight to 3 grams around the late 3rd century. The value at its introduction was 10 asses, giving the denarius its name, which translates as \"containing ten\". In about 141 BC, it was re-tariffed at 16 asses, to reflect the decrease in weight of the as. The denarius continued to be the main coin of the Roman Empire until it was replaced by the so-called antoninianus in the early 3rd century AD. The coin was last issued, in bronze, under Aurelian between AD 270 and 275, and in the first years of the reign of Diocletian. ('Denarius', in \"A Dictionary of Ancient Roman Coins\", by John R. Melville-Jones (1990)).", "It is difficult to give even rough comparative values for money from before the 20th century, as the range of products and services available for purchase was so different. Classical historians often say that in the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire () the daily wage for an unskilled laborer and common soldier was 1 denarius (with no tax deductions) or about US$20 in bread. During the republic (509 BC–27 BC), legionary pay was 112.5 denarii per year (0.3 per day), later doubled by Julius Caesar to 225 denarii (0.6 per day), with soldiers having to pay for their own food and arms. Centurions received considerably higher pay: under Augustus, the lowest rank of centurion was paid 3,750 denarii per year, and the highest rank, 15,000 denarii. The silver content of the denarius under the Roman Empire (after Nero) was about 50 grains, 3.24 grams, or (0.105ozt) troy ounce. On June 6, 2011, this was about US$3.62 in value if the silver were 0.999 pure. The fineness of the silver content varied with political and economic circumstances. From a purity of greater than 90% silver in the 1st century AD, the denarius fell to under 60% purity by AD 200, and plummeted to 5% purity by AD 300. By the reign of Gallienus, the \"antoninianus\" was a copper coin with a thin silver wash. By comparison, a laborer earning the minimum wage in the United States in January 2014 made US$58 for an 8-hour day, before taxes (based on the mode value of $7.25 per hour, which was true then in 20 states) and an employee earning the minimum wage in the United Kingdom in 2014 made £52 for an 8-hour day, before taxes.", "In the final years of the 1st century BC Tincomarus, a local ruler in southern Britain, started issuing coins that appear to have been made from melted down \"denarii\". The coins of Eppillus, issued around Calleva Atrebatum around the same time, appear to have derived design elements from various \"denarii\" such as those of Augustus and M. Volteius. Even after the \"denarius\" was no longer regularly issued, it continued to be used as a unit of account, and the name was applied to later Roman coins in a way that is not understood. The Arabs who conquered large parts of the land that once belonged to the Eastern Roman Empire issued their own gold dinar. The lasting legacy of the \"denarius\" can be seen in the use of \"d\" as the abbreviation for the British penny until 1971. It also survived in France as the name of a coin, the denier. The denarius also survives in the common Arabic name for a currency unit, the \"dinar\" used from pre-Islamic times, and still used in several modern Arab nations. The major currency unit in former Principality of Serbia, Kingdom of Serbia and former Yugoslavia was \"dinar\", and it is still used in present-day Serbia. The Macedonian currency \"denar\" is also derived from the Roman denarius. The Italian word \"denaro\", the Spanish word \"dinero\", the Portuguese word \"dinheiro\", and the Slovene word \"\", all meaning money, are also derived from Latin \"denarius\".", "1 gold aureus = 2 gold quinarii = 25 silver denarii = 50 silver quinarii = 100 bronze sestertii = 200 bronze dupondii = 400 copper asses = 800 copper semisses = 1,600 copper quadrantes At the height of the Roman Empire a sextarius (546ml) of ordinary wine cost roughly one Dupondius (1⁄8 of a Denarius), after Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices were issued in 301 AD, the same cost 8 debased common denarii. This was roughly an increase of £1 to £3.20 in the modern equivalent.", "In the New Testament, the gospels refer to the denarius as a day's wage for a common laborer (Matthew 20:2, John 12:5). In the Book of Revelation, during the Third Seal: Black Horse, a choinix (or quart) of wheat and three quarts of barley were each valued at one denarius. Bible scholar Robert H. Mounce says the price of the wheat and barley as described in the vision appears to be ten to twelve times their normal cost in ancient times. Revelation describes a condition where basic goods are sold at greatly inflated prices. Thus, the black horse rider depicts times of deep scarcity or famine but not of starvation. The English word \"quart\" translates \"choinix\". Apparently, a choinix of wheat was the daily ration of one adult. Thus, in the conditions pictured by Revelation 6 the normal income for a working-class family would buy enough food for only one person. The less costly barley would feed three people for one day's wages. The denarius is also mentioned in the Parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37). The Render unto Caesar passage in Matthew 22:15–22 and Mark 12:13–17 uses the word δηνάριον to describe the coin held up by Jesus, translated in the King James Bible as \"tribute penny\". It is commonly thought to be a denarius with the head of Tiberius." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Character development.", "Appearances.", "\"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\".", "\"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\".", "\"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban\".", "\"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\".", "\"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix\".", "\"Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince\".", "\"Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows\".", "Epilogue.", "Film portrayal.", "Characterisation.", "Outward appearance.", "Personality.", "Magical abilities and skills.", "Family.", "Grawp.", "Parents.", "Hagrid's pets.", "Aragog.", "Buckbeak.", "Fang.", "Fluffy.", "Norbert.", "Reception.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hagrid was among the characters that Rowling says she created on \"the very first day\". She has explained the source of his name as \"another old English word, meaning – if you were hagrid – it’s a dialect word – you’d had a bad night. Hagrid is a big drinker – he has a lot of bad nights.\" His first name, Rubeus, was named after red in Latin to reflect alchemy and his paternal contrast to Albus Dumbledore: his \"passion\" to Dumbledore's \"asceticism\". In her article \"Harry’s Fame\", Rosemary Goring notes the Forest of Dean is an influence on Rowling’s work, and Hagrid is the only character that is \"directly drawn from the Forest of Dean\". According to Goring, Hagrid’s \"dropped word-endings are a Chepstow speciality.\" She also claims that Hagrid is physically \"modeled on the Welsh chapter of Hells Angels who’d swoop down on the town and hog the bar, 'huge mountains of leather and hair\". The character of Hagrid and conversations between him, Harry Potter, Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger in his hut are expository through the series, due to the fact that the trio frequently discover things about Albus Dumbledore and Hogwarts by talking with Hagrid, as", "", "Hagrid is introduced in the opening chapter of the first novel. Following the death of James and Lily Potter, Dumbledore entrusts Hagrid with rescuing the infant Harry from his parents' house after they have been murdered by Lord Voldemort. When Minerva McGonagall expresses her concern about the fact that it was Hagrid who would carry Harry to the Dursleys', Dumbledore says that he would trust Hagrid with his life, a fact that is demonstrated several times during the series, as Dumbledore frequently asks him to carry out secret tasks. Ten years later, he is tasked to bring the Philosopher’s Stone from Gringotts to Hogwarts, and", "Readers first discover why Hagrid was expelled from Hogwarts in the second novel. It is revealed that Hagrid was a student at Hogwarts at the same time as Tom Marvolo Riddle, the wizard who later became Lord Voldemort. Hagrid was expelled during his third year, after being caught in the company of Aragog, a dangerous Acromantula: this already serious crime seemed worse than it was, due to the belief that the acromantula was \"The Monster of Slytherin\", and that Hagrid had released it from the Chamber of Secrets and allowed it to", "Following the resignation of Silvanus Kettleburn, who, according to Dumbledore, wanted to spend time with his remaining limbs, Hagrid is assigned to teach the subject of Care of Magical Creatures in the third novel. He is also allowed to perform magic again since his name has been cleared after the events of the previous book. During his first", "In the fourth novel it is revealed that Hagrid is of mixed wizard and giant parentage, his mother having been the giantess Fridwulfa, who left his wizard father when Hagrid was a baby. Since giants have a reputation for being brutal, and were once allies of Voldemort, Hagrid keeps his parentage a secret and allows people to imagine other reasons for his great size (such as drinking a bottle of Skele-Gro when he did not need it). Hagrid’s parentage is exposed in the", "Hagrid is absent during the first part of the fifth novel. The character later reveals to Harry, Ron and Hermione that he and Madame Maxime travelled across Europe together on a mission from the Order, planning to find giants and convince them to ally themselves with the good side and with Dumbledore; however, Death Eaters also found the giants and managed to get them to Voldemort’s side. Hagrid is attacked by giants during the mission, and saved by Maxime. Hagrid and Maxime eventually part on the journey home because", "In the sixth novel, Harry, Ron, and Hermione are no longer students of Care of Magical Creatures, and Hagrid is both angry and disappointed with them during the first part of the book, but he soon realises that it is not because they do not like him. Later in the novel, Aragog dies, and Hagrid risks", "In the seventh novel, Hagrid is part of the Order of the Phoenix delegation assigned to remove Harry from the Dursleys' home to the magic-protected Burrow. Hagrid takes Harry on the flying motorcycle he inherited from Sirius but the plan goes awry when the Order delegation is ambushed by Death Eaters. The pair narrowly make it to the Burrow after being attacked by Voldemort himself. After attending Bill Weasley and Fleur Delacour’s wedding reception, Hagrid does not appear again until near the end of the book when it is revealed he has been driven into hiding in the mountains by the new Death Eater regime at Hogwarts. During the climactic battle, Hagrid attempts to come to the defence of Aragog's carnivorous children, who have been driven out of the Forbidden Forest by", "Nineteen years after Voldemort’s defeat, Hagrid is still at Hogwarts and invites Harry and Ginny Weasley's second son Albus Severus Potter to his hut for tea, just as he had once done for Harry himself, implying that he and Harry are still close. During an interview in 2007, when asked if Hagrid did marry, Rowling answered that Hagrid developed a relationship with a giantess but it did not work out.", "Scottish actor Robbie Coltrane has portrayed Hagrid in all of the film adaptations of the \"Harry Potter\" novels. Robin Williams was interested for the role and approached Chris Columbus, the director of the first two films, about participating in the project but Columbus rejected him due to the \"all-British and Irish cast\" policy. Rowling had wanted Coltrane for the role from the start, responding \"RobbieColtraneforHagrid\" all in one quick breath when asked who was the top of her list of casting choices. Coltrane was already a fan of the books and has commented that being part", "", "In \"Philosopher’s Stone\", Hagrid is mentioned as being twice as tall as the average man and nearly five times as wide but in the film, he is portrayed as being and in later books he is said to be three times as wide. Hagrid is known for his thick West Country accent. Being a half-giant, he is less", "He has a friendly, softhearted personality and is easily driven to tears, as seen in his very first scene, when he drops Harry off at the Dursleys' in \"Philosopher’s Stone\". He is very loyal to his peers, especially Dumbledore, to whom he refers as the greatest wizard in the world multiple times. As first seen in \"Philosopher’s Stone\",", "Following his expulsion from Hogwarts, the Ministry of Magic broke Hagrid’s oak wand and forbade him to perform magic. Hagrid keeps the pieces of his wand in a pink umbrella, and performs small spells from time to time; however, he was technically forbidden to do magic until the third book, and since he is not a fully qualified wizard, he \"will always", "", "Grawp is the giant half-brother of Hagrid. Grawp and Hagrid were born of the same mother, the giantess Fridwulfa. Grawp is about tall, which Hagrid claims is small for a giant. His knuckles are the size of cricket balls (~ in circumference). The other giants were bullying Grawp because of his diminutive size, and this is a factor in Hagrid’s decision to bring him to the Forbidden Forest. Big and dim, he only knows a few words in English and his manners are wild and unpredictable, but he is also a child in giant years. In the film, this is elaborated on more as he is visibly portrayed as a big, excitable child who simply doesn't know his own strength or developed proper social cues yet. He responds to Hermione, who approaches him like a strict but caring mother figure, scolding him when doing something wrong, but giving him praise and playing with him when he does something good. At first, Grawp seems indifferent to his brother’s attempts to civilise him, preferring to spend", "In \"the Goblet of Fire\", the truth about Hagrid’s parents is revealed: his father, who is never named in the stories, married a giantess, Fridwulfa. Fridwulfa left Rubeus to his father’s care after his birth; according to Hagrid, she was not very maternal. Later she gave birth to Grawp. She", "Hagrid keeps and has kept a variety of pets, including some which the Wizarding community considers impossible to domesticate. They are not always wrong. Rowling has said that Hagrid has little interest in tamer magical creatures because of the lack of a challenge, although he has a large but cowardly boarhound named Fang. Hagrid’s love of dangerous magical creatures is central to the plot of several books of the series.", "Aragog was an Acromantula, an enormous, sentient spider capable of speech, who made a unique clicking noise as he moved in search of prey. Hagrid raised Aragog from an egg as a Hogwarts student, keeping him inside a cupboard. In his third year at Hogwarts, Hagrid was caught talking to Aragog in the dungeons by Tom Riddle, who alleged that Aragog was the \"Monster of Slytherin\", and that Hagrid had opened the Chamber of Secrets. In fact, it was Riddle who", "Buckbeak, along with eleven other hippogriffs, is introduced during one of Hagrid’s Care of Magical Creatures classes. Hagrid explains that hippogriffs are very calm, powerful, proud creatures, but are sensitive and demand respect. Harry successfully approaches Buckbeak, who allows him to ride him around the paddock. Draco, in an arrogant attempt to show up his school nemesis, endeavours to approach Buckbeak as well. It becomes obvious that Draco neither listens to nor cares about Hagrid's warnings about the hippogriffs' sensitivity, as he makes contemptuous remarks about Buckbeak. Quickly angered, Buckbeak slashes Draco’s arm with his claws. Pretending to be injured much more severely than he truly is, Draco persuades his father, Lucius Malfoy, to use his political power to sentence Buckbeak to death. Hagrid’s numerous appeals fail, and members of the Committee", "Fang is a large boarhound (portrayed in the films by a Neapolitan Mastiff) that, aside from his enormous size, appears to be an entirely ordinary dog. While Fang's appearance is intimidating, he is, in Hagrid's words, \"a bloody coward.\" Boisterous and loving with people he knows, he seems to enjoy licking Harry, Ron, or Hermione around the face or ears. In \"the Philosopher’s Stone\" he accompanies Harry, Hagrid, Draco, and Hermione into the Forbidden Forest to look for an injured unicorn. In the", "Fluffy is a giant three-headed dog provided by Hagrid to guard the trapdoor leading to the underground chamber where the Philosopher's Stone was hidden until the end of \"Philosopher's Stone\". The only known way to get past Fluffy is to lull him to sleep by playing music. Fluffy is based on Cerberus, the three-headed dog from Greek mythology that guards the gates to the underworld. As with Fluffy, Cerberus was lulled to sleep with music by Orpheus. In \"Philosopher’s Stone\", Harry, Ron, Hermione and Neville accidentally run", "Norbert is a Norwegian Ridgeback dragon that Hagrid had acquired as an egg from a mysterious, hooded stranger in the Hog's Head, who turned out to be Professor Quirrell. Hagrid helps the dragon hatch from the egg. Norbert becomes very dangerous and much bigger in the weeks following. Norbert bit", "IGN listed Hagrid as their thirteenth top \"Harry Potter\" character, saying that Hagrid had become a surrogate for the audience and that the short scene", "Hagrid has appeared in various animated and non-animated parodies of Harry Potter. He was featured in US skit comedy \"Saturday Night Live\", portrayed by Horatio Sanz, in the same episode in which Lindsay Lohan played Hermione; Bobby Moynihan later portrayed Hagrid in 2012, when Daniel Radcliffe hosted the show. In Alistair McGowan's \"Big Impression\" show, Hagrid appeared in a sketch called \"Louis Potter and the Philosopher’s Scone\", in which he was portrayed by Robbie Coltrane himself. Hagrid is also parodied in \"Harry Potter and the Secret Chamberpot of Azerbaijan\", a story released by Comic Relief in 2003, and he was played by Ronnie Corbett. In the \"Potter Puppet Pals\" parodies by Neil Cicierega, Hagrid appeared in the episode \"Ron's Disease\", and later in the episode \"Neville's Birthday\". Hagrid also appears in the parody stage production \"Harry Potter and the Obnoxious Voice\", interacting with Draco Malfoy and a dementor. In one episode of the second series of \"Tracey Ullman's State of the Union\", Tracey Ullman parodies Rowling as bossy and very keen on keeping her creations copyrighted, believing a hobo is impersonating Hagrid. Hagrid makes an appearance in the theme park attraction Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey at The Wizarding World of Harry Potter in Orlando, Japan and Hollywood. A new rollercoaster, Hagrid's Magical Creatures Motorbike Adventure, will open at Universal Orlando's Islands of Adventure theme park on 13 June 2019, replacing the Dragon Challenge dual roller coasters. It will be themed around Hagrid and his love for magical creatures." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Fictional history.", "Reception.", "Norse Æsir.", "Christian angels.", "In culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Before the Creation, Eru Ilúvatar made the Ainur or \"holy ones\". The Universe was created through the \"Music of the Ainur\" or \"Ainulindalë\", music sung by the Ainur in response to themes introduced by Eru. This universe, the song endowed with existence by Eru, was called Eä in Quenya. The Earth was called Arda. Those of the Ainur who felt concern for the Creation entered it, and became the Valar and the Maiar, the guardians of Creation. The Vala Melkor claimed the Earth for himself. His brother, Manwë, and several other Valar decided to confront him. Melkor fell into evil and became known as Morgoth, the dark enemy. The conflict between the Valar and Morgoth marred much of the world. According to \"The Silmarillion\", the Valar and Maiar—with the aid of the Vala Tulkas, who entered the Creation last—succeeded in exiling Morgoth into the Void, though his maleficent influence remained ingrained in the fabric of the world.", "", "Critics have noted that the Valar resemble the Æsir, the gods of Asgard. Thor, for example, physically the strongest of the gods, can be seen both in Oromë, who fights the monsters of Melkor, and in Tulkas, the strongest of the Valar. Manwë, the head of the Valar, has some similarities to Odin, the \"Allfather\", while the wizard Gandalf, one of the Maiar, resembles Odin the wanderer.", "The theologian Ralph C. Wood describes the Valar and Maiar as being what Christians \"would call angels\", intermediaries between the creator, named as Eru Ilúvatar in the \"Silmarillion\", and the created cosmos. Like angels, they have free will and can therefore rebel against him. Grant C. Sterling, writing in \"Mythlore\", states that the Maiar resemble the Valar in being unable to die, but differ in being able to choose to incarnate fully in forms such as men's bodies. This means that, like Gandalf and the Balrogs, they can be killed. He notes that Sauron's inability ever to take bodily form again after his defeat could be the result of having given his power to the One Ring, but that the fate of killed Maiar remains unclear. Jonathan Evans, writing in the \"J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia\", calls the Maiar semidivine spirits, and notes that each one is linked with one of the Valar. He states that they have \"perpetual importance in the cosmic order\", noting the statement in the \"Silmarillion\" that their joy \"is as an air that they breathe in all their days, whose thought flows in a tide untroubled from the heights to the deeps.\" Evans notes, too, that Arien and Tilion are central in Tolkien's myth of the Sun and Moon.", "In astronomy, the Kuiper belt object 385446 Manwë is named for the king of the Valar." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Operational history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The aircraft was designed in response to a Navy requirement of 1934 for a long range flying boat and incorporated knowledge gleaned by a Kawanishi team that visited the Short Brothers factory in the UK, at that time one of the world's leading producers of flying boats, and from building the Kawanishi H3K, a license-built, enlarged version of the Short Rangoon. The \"Type S\", as Kawanishi called it, was a large, four-engine monoplane with twin tails, and a hull suspended beneath the parasol wing by a network of struts. Three prototypes were constructed, each one making gradual refinements to the machine's handling both in the water and in the air, and finally fitting more powerful engines. The first of these flew on 14 July 1936 and was originally designated \"Navy Type 97 Flying Boat\", later \"H6K\". Eventually, 217 would be built.", "H6Ks were deployed from 1938 onwards, first seeing service in the Sino-Japanese War and were in widespread use by the time the full-scale Pacific War erupted, in December 1941. At that time of the war, four \"Kōkūtai\" (air groups) operated a total of 66 H6K4s. The type had some success over South East Asia and the South West Pacific. H6Ks had excellent endurance, being able to undertake 24-hour patrols, and were often used for long-range reconnaissance and bombing missions. From bases in the Dutch East Indies, they were able to undertake missions over a large portion of Australia. However, the H6K became vulnerable to a newer generation of heavier armed and faster fighters. It continued in service throughout the war, in areas where the risk of interception was low. In front-line service, it was replaced by the Kawanishi H8K." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Codec.", "History.", "Other players." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Apple Lossless supports up to 8 channels of audio at 16, 20, 24 and 32 bit depth with a maximum sample rate of 384kHz. Apple Lossless data is frequently stored within an MP4 container with the filename extension \".m4a\". This extension is also used by Apple for lossy AAC audio data in an MP4 container (same container, different audio encoding). However, Apple Lossless is not a variant of AAC (which is a lossy format), but rather a distinct lossless format that uses linear prediction similar to other lossless codecs. These other lossless codecs, such as FLAC and Shorten, are not natively supported by Apple's iTunes nor the later Music applications (either the Mac OS or Windows versions) or by older iOS devices, but there are free converter tools available to change the format from FLAC to ALAC or vice versa. More modern devices such as the iPhone 7 and above, running iOS11, support FLAC playback, but not inside the iTunes or Music applications. Users of iTunes or Music applications who want to use a lossless format which allows the addition of metadata (unlike WAV/AIFF or other PCM-type formats, where metadata is usually ignored) have to use ALAC. All current iOS devices can play ALAC–encoded files. ALAC also does not use any DRM scheme; but by the nature of the MP4 container, it is feasible that DRM could be applied to ALAC much in the same way it is applied to files in other QuickTime containers. According to Apple, audio files compressed with its lossless codec will use up \"about half the storage space\" that the uncompressed data would require. Testers using a selection of music have found that compressed files are about 40% to 60% the size of the originals depending on the kind of music, which is similar to other lossless formats. Furthermore, compared to some other formats, it is not as difficult to decode, making it practical for a limited-power device, such as older iOS devices. Partly because of the use of an MP4 container, Apple Lossless does not contain integrated error checking. While not nearly as common, the ALAC format can also use the.CAF file type container.", "The data compression software for encoding into ALAC files, Apple Lossless Encoder, was introduced into the Mac OS X Core Audio framework on April 28, 2004 together with the QuickTime 6.5.1 update, thus making it available in iTunes since version 4.5 and above, and its replacement, the Music application. The codec is also used in the AirPort and AirPlay implementation. The Apple Lossless Encoder (and decoder) were released as open source software under the Apache License version 2.0 on October 27, 2011; however, an independent reverse-engineered open-source encoder and decoder were already available before the release.", "David Hammerton and Cody Brocious have analyzed and decoded this codec without any documents on the format. On March 5, 2005, Hammerton published a simple open source decoder written in the C programming language on the basis of the reverse engineering work. The open source library libavcodec incorporates both a decoder and an encoder for the Apple Lossless format, which means that (including VLC media player and MPlayer, as well as many media center applications for home theater computers, such as Plex, XBMC, and Boxee) are able to play Apple Lossless files. Windows 10 supports ALAC encoding and decoding since 2015, thereby enabling other media players to use it, e.g. Windows Media Player when ripping CDs or the Spotify desktop client for playback of local.m4a files. The library was subsequently optimized for ARM processors and included in Rockbox. Foobar2000 will also play Apple Lossless files as will JRiver Media Center and BitPerfect." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Cooperation with other groups.", "Joint Video Team.", "Joint Collaborative Team on Video Coding.", "Joint Video Exploration Team.", "Standards.", "Standardization process." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Joint Video Team (JVT) is joint project between ITU-T SG16/Q.6 (Study Group 16 / Question 6) – VCEG (Video Coding Experts Group) and ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 29/WG 11 – MPEG for the development of new video coding recommendation and international standard. It was formed in 2001 and its main result has been H.264/MPEG-4 AVC (MPEG-4 Part 10).", "Joint Collaborative Team on Video Coding (JCT-VC) is a group of video coding experts from ITU-T Study Group 16 (VCEG) and ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 29/WG 11 (MPEG). It was created in 2010 to develop High Efficiency Video Coding, a new generation video coding standard that further reduces (by 50%) the data rate required for high quality video coding, as compared to the current ITU-T H.264 / ISO/IEC 14496-10 standard. JCT-VC is co-chaired by Jens-Rainer Ohm and Gary Sullivan.", "Joint Video Exploration Team (JVET) is a joint group of video coding experts from ITU-T Study Group 16 (VCEG) and ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 29/WG 11 (MPEG) created in 2017 after an exploration phase in 2015. It seeks to develop Versatile Video Coding (VVC). Like JCT-VC, JVET is co-chaired by Jens-Rainer Ohm and Gary Sullivan.", "The MPEG standards consist of different \"Parts\". Each \"part\" covers a certain aspect of the whole specification. The standards also specify \"Profiles\" and \"Levels\". \"Profiles\" are intended to define a set of tools that are available, and \"Levels\" define the range of appropriate values for the properties associated with them. Some of the approved MPEG standards were revised by later amendments and/or new editions. MPEG has standardized the following compression formats and ancillary standards. All of the MPEG formats listed below use discrete cosine transform (DCT) based lossy video compression algorithms. MPEG-4 has been chosen as the compression scheme for over-the-air in Brazil (ISDB-TB), based on original digital television from Japan (ISDB-T). In addition, the following standards, while not sequential advances to the video encoding standard as with MPEG-1 through MPEG-4, are referred to by similar notation: Moreover, more recently than other standards above, MPEG has started following international standards; each of the standards holds multiple MPEG technologies for a way of application. (For example, MPEG-A includes a number of technologies on multimedia application format.)", "A standard published by ISO/IEC is the last stage of a long process that starts with the proposal of new work within a committee. Here are some abbreviations used for marking a standard with its status: Other abbreviations: A proposal of work (New Proposal) is approved at Subcommittee and then at the Technical Committee level (SC29 and JTC1 respectively – in the case of MPEG). When the scope of new work is sufficiently clarified, MPEG usually makes open requests for proposals – known as \"Call for proposals\". The first document that is produced for audio and video coding standards is called a Verification Model (VM). In the case of MPEG-1 and MPEG-2 this was called Simulation and Test Model, respectively. When a sufficient confidence in the stability of the standard under development is reached, a Working Draft (WD) is produced. This is in the form of a standard but is kept internal to MPEG for revision. When a WD is sufficiently solid, becomes Committee Draft (CD) (usually at the planned time). It is then sent to National Bodies (NB) for ballot. The CD becomes Final Committee Draft (FCD) if the number of positive votes is above the quorum. After a review and comments issued by NBs, FCD is again submitted to NBs for the second ballot. If the FCD is approved, it becomes Final Draft International Standard (FDIS). ISO then holds a ballot with National Bodies, where no technical changes are allowed (yes/no ballot). If approved, the document becomes International Standard (IS). ISO/IEC Directives allow also the so-called \"Fast-track procedure\". In this procedure a document is submitted directly for approval as a draft International Standard (DIS) to the ISO member bodies or as a final draft International Standard (FDIS) if the document was developed by an international standardizing body recognized by the ISO Council." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plumbing or piping.", "Pipe flanges.", "ASME standards (U.S.).", "European Dimensions (EN / DIN).", "Other countries.", "Compact flanges.", "Applications of compact flanges.", "Train wheels.", "Vacuum flanges.", "Microwave.", "Ski boots.", "Further reading." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A flange can also be a plate or ring to form a rim at the end of a pipe when fastened to the pipe (for example, a closet flange). A blind flange is a plate for covering or closing the end of a pipe. A flange joint is a connection of pipes, where the connecting pieces have flanges by which the parts are bolted together. Although the word flange generally refers to the actual raised rim or lip of a fitting, many flanged plumbing fittings are themselves known as 'flanges': Common flanges used in plumbing are the Surrey flange or Danzey flange, York flange, Sussex flange and Essex flange. Surrey and York flanges fit to the top of the hot water tank allowing all the water to be taken without disturbance to the tank. They are often used to ensure an even flow of water to showers. An Essex flange requires a hole to be drilled in the side of the tank. There is also a Warix flange which is the same as a York flange but the shower output is on the top of the flange and the vent on the side. The York and Warix flange have female adapters so that they fit onto a male tank, whereas the Surrey flange connects to a female tank. A closet flange provides the mount for a toilet.", "There are many different flange standards to be found worldwide. To allow easy functionality and interchangeability, these are designed to have standardised dimensions. Common world standards include ASA/ASME (USA), PN/DIN (European), BS10 (British/Australian), and JIS/KS (Japanese/Korean). In the USA, ANSI stopped publishing B16.5 in 1996, and the standard is ASME B16.5. In most cases these are interchangeable as most local standards have been aligned to ISO standards, however, some local standards still differ (e.g. an ASME flange will not mate against an ISO flange). Further, many of the flanges in each standard are divided into \"pressure classes\", allowing flanges to be capable of taking different pressure ratings. Again these are not generally interchangeable (e.g. an ASME 150 will not mate with an ASME 300). These pressure classes also have differing pressure and temperature ratings for different materials. Unique pressure classes for piping can also be developed for a process plant or power generating station; these may be specific to the corporation, engineering procurement and construction (EPC) contractor, or the process plant owner. The ASME pressure classes for Flat-Face flanges are Class 125 and Class 250. The classes for Ring-Joint, Tongue & Groove, and Raised-Face flanges are Class 150, Class 300, (Class 400 - unusual), Class 600, Class 900, Class 1500, and Class 2500. The flange faces are also made to standardized dimensions and are typically \"flat face\", \"raised face\", \"tongue and groove\", or \"ring joint\" styles, although other obscure styles are possible. Flange designs are available as \"weld neck\", \"slip-on\", \"lap joint\", \"socket weld\", \"threaded\", and also \"blind\".", "Pipe flanges that are made to standards called out by ASME B16.5 or ASME B16.47, and MSS SP-44. They are typically made from forged materials and have machined surfaces. ASME B16.5 refers to nominal pipe sizes (NPS) from 1⁄2\" to 24\". B16.47 covers NPSs from 26\" to 60\". Each specification further delineates flanges into pressure classes: 150, 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500 and 2500 for B16.5, and B16.47 delineates its flanges into pressure classes 75, 150, 300, 400, 600, 900. However these classes do not correspond to maximum pressures in psi. Instead, the maximum pressure depends on the material of the flange and the temperature. For example, the maximum pressure for a Class 150 flange is 285 psi, and for a Class 300 Flange it is 740 psi (both are for ASTM A105 Carbon Steel and temperatures below 100F). The gasket type and bolt type are generally specified by the standard(s); however, sometimes the standards refer to the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (B&PVC) for details (see ASME Code Section VIII Division 1 – Appendix 2). These flanges are recognized by ASME Pipe Codes such as ASME B31.1 Power Piping, and ASME B31.3 Process Piping. Materials for flanges are usually under ASME designation: SA-105 (Specification for Carbon Steel Forgings for Piping Applications), SA-266 (Specification for Carbon Steel Forgings for Pressure Vessel Components), or SA-182 (Specification for Forged or Rolled Alloy-Steel Pipe Flanges, Forged Fittings, and Valves and Parts for High-Temperature Service). In addition, there are many \"industry standard\" flanges that in some circumstance may be used on ASME work. The product range includes SORF, SOFF, BLRF, BLFF, WNRF (XS, XXS, STD & Schedule 20, 40, 80), WNFF (XS, XXS, STD & Schedule 20, 40, 80), SWRF (XS & STD), SWFF (XS & STD), Threaded RF, Threaded FF & LJ, with sizes from 1/2\" to 16\". The bolting material used for flange connection is stud bolts mated with two nut (washer when required). In Petrochemical industries, ASTM A193 B7 STUD & ASTM A193 B16 Stud Bolts are used as these have high tensile strength.", "Most countries in Europe mainly install flanges according to standard DIN EN 1092-1 (forged Stainless or Steel Flanges). Similar to the ASME flange standard, the EN 1092-1 standard has the basic flange forms, such as weld neck flange, blind flange, lapped flange, threaded Flange (Thread ISO7-1 instead of NPT), weld on collar, pressed collars, and adapter flange such as flange coupling GD press fittings. The different forms of flanges within the EN 1092-1 (European Norm Euronorm) is indicated within the flange name through the type. Similar to ASME flanges, EN1092-1 steel and stainless flanges, have several different versions of raised or none raised faces. According to the European form the seals are indicated by different form:", "Flanges in the rest of the world are manufactured according to the ISO standards for materials, pressure ratings, etc. to which local standards including DIN, BS, and others, have been aligned.", "As the Compact flange size increase it becomes relatively increasingly heavy and complex resulting in high procurement, installation and maintenance costs. Large flange diameters in particular are difficult to work with, and inevitably require more space and have a more challenging handling and installation procedure, particularly on remote installations such as oil rigs. The design of the flange face includes two independent seals. The first seal is created by application of seal seating stress at the flange heel, but it is not straight forward to ensure the function of this seal. Theoretically, the heel contact will be maintained for pressure values up to 1,8 times the flange rating at room temperature. Theoretically, the flange also remains in contact along its outer circumference at the flange faces for all allowable load levels that it is designed for. The main seal is the IX seal ring. The seal ring force is provided by the elastic stored energy in the stressed seal ring. Any heel leakage will give internal pressure acting on the seal ring inside intensifying the sealing action. This however requires the IX ring to be retained in the theoretical location in the ring groove which is difficult to ensure and verify during installation. The design aims at preventing exposure to oxygen and other corrosive agents. Thus, this prevents corrosion of the flange faces, the stressed length of the bolts and the seal ring. This however depends on the outer dust rim to remain in satisfactory contact and that the inside fluid is not corrosive in case of leaking into the bolt circle void.", "The initial cost of the theoretical higher performance compact flange is inevitably higher than a regular flange due to the closer tolerances and significantly more sophisticated design and installation requirements. By way of example, compact flanges are often used across the following applications: subsea oil and gas or riser, cold work and cryogenics, gas injection, high temperature, and nuclear applications.", "Trains stay on their tracks primarily due to the conical geometry of their wheels. They also have a flange on one side to keep the wheels, and hence the train, running on the rails, when the limits of the geometry based alignment are reached, e.g. due to some emergency or defect.", "A vacuum flange is a flange at the end of a tube used to connect vacuum chambers, tubing and vacuum pumps to each other.", "In microwave telecommunications, a flange is a type of cable joint which allows different types of waveguide to connect. Several different microwave RF flange types exist, such as CAR, CBR, OPC, PAR, PBJ, PBR, PDR, UAR, UBR, UDR, icp and UPX.", "Ski boots use flanges at the toe or heel to connect to the binding of the ski. The size and shape for flanges on alpine skiing boots is standardized in ISO 5355. Traditional telemark and cross country boots use the 75 mm Nordic Norm, but the toe flange is informally known as the \"duckbill\". New cross country bindings eliminate the flange entirely and use a steel bar embedded within the sole instead. A flange is a method of connecting pipes, valves, pumps and other equipment to form a piping system. It also provides easy access for cleaning, inspection or modification. Flanges are usually welded or screwed. Flanged joints are made by bolting together two flanges with a gasket between them to provide a seal.", "A flange is a method of connecting pipes, valves, pumps and other equipment to form a piping system. It also provides easy access for cleaning, inspection or modification. Flanges are usually welded or screwed. Flanged joints are made by bolting together two flanges with a gasket between them to provide a seal." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Algorithm.", "Procedure.", "Alternative procedure.", "Duplicate elements.", "Procedure for finding the leftmost element.", "Procedure for finding the rightmost element.", "Approximate matches.", "Performance.", "Space complexity.", "Derivation of average case.", "Successful searches.", "Unsuccessful searches.", "Performance of alternative procedure.", "Running time and cache use.", "Binary search versus other schemes.", "Linear search.", "Trees.", "Hashing.", "Set membership algorithms.", "Other data structures.", "Variations.", "Uniform binary search.", "Exponential search.", "Interpolation search.", "Fractional cascading.", "Generalization to graphs.", "Noisy binary search.", "Quantum binary search.", "History.", "Implementation issues.", "Library support." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Binary search works on sorted arrays. Binary search begins by comparing an element in the middle of the array with the target value. If the target value matches the element, its position in the array is returned. If the target value is less than the element, the search continues in the lower half of the array. If the target value is greater than the element, the search continues in the upper half of the array. By doing this, the algorithm eliminates the half in which the target value cannot lie in each iteration.", "Given an array formula_5 of formula_2 elements with values or records formula_7sorted such that formula_8, and target value formula_9, the following subroutine uses binary search to find the index of formula_9 in formula_5. This iterative procedure keeps track of the search boundaries with the two variables formula_12 and formula_14. The procedure may be expressed in pseudocode as follows, where the variable names and types remain the same as above, codice_1 is the floor function, and codice_2 refers to a specific value that conveys the failure of the search. Alternatively, the algorithm may take the ceiling of formula_18. This may change the result if the target value appears more than once in the array.", "In the above procedure, the algorithm checks whether the middle element (formula_17) is equal to the target (formula_9) in every iteration. Some implementations leave out this check during each iteration. The algorithm would perform this check only when one element is left (when formula_33). This results in a faster comparison loop, as one comparison is eliminated per iteration. However, it requires one more iteration on average. Hermann Bottenbruch published the first implementation to leave out this check in 1962. Where codice_3 is the ceiling function, the pseudocode for this version is:", "The procedure may return any index whose element is equal to the target value, even if there are duplicate elements in the array. For example, if the array to be searched was formula_51 and the target was formula_52, then it would be correct for the algorithm to either return the 4th (index 3) or 5th (index 4) element. The regular procedure would return the 4th element (index 3) in this case. It does not always return the first duplicate (consider formula_53 which still returns the 4th element). However, it is sometimes necessary to find the leftmost element or the rightmost element for a target value that is duplicated in the array. In the above example, the 4th element is the leftmost element of the value 4, while the 5th element is the rightmost element of the value 4. The alternative procedure above will always return the index of the rightmost element if such an element exists.", "To find the leftmost element, the following procedure can be used: If formula_69 and formula_70, then formula_71 is the leftmost element that equals formula_9. Even if formula_9 is not in the array, formula_12 is the rank of formula_9 in the array, or the number of elements in the array that are less than formula_9. Where codice_1 is the floor function, the pseudocode for this version is:", "To find the rightmost element, the following procedure can be used: If formula_92 and formula_93, then formula_94 is the rightmost element that equals formula_9. Even if \"formula_9\" is not in the array, formula_97 is the number of elements in the array that are greater than \"formula_9\". Where codice_1 is the floor function, the pseudocode for this version is:", "The above procedure only performs \"exact\" matches, finding the position of a target value. However, it is trivial to extend binary search to perform approximate matches because binary search operates on sorted arrays. For example, binary search can be used to compute, for a given value, its rank (the number of smaller elements), predecessor (next-smallest element), successor (next-largest element), and nearest neighbor. Range queries seeking the number of elements between two values can be performed with two rank queries.", "In terms of the number of comparisons, the performance of binary search can be analyzed by viewing the run of the procedure on a binary tree. The root node of the tree is the middle element of the array. The middle element of the lower half is the left child node of the root, and the middle element of the upper half is the right child node of the root. The rest of the tree is built in a similar fashion. Starting from the root node, the left or right subtrees are traversed depending on whether the target value is less or more than the node under consideration. In the worst case, binary search makes formula_103 iterations of the comparison loop, where the formula_104 notation denotes the floor function that yields the greatest integer less than or equal to the argument, and formula_105 is the binary logarithm. This is because the worst case is reached when the search reaches the deepest level of the tree, and there are always formula_103 levels in the tree for any binary search. The worst case may also be reached when the target element is not in the array. If formula_107 is one less than a power of two, then this is always the case. Otherwise, the search may perform formula_103iterations if the search reaches the deepest level of the tree. However, it may make formula_109 iterations, which is one less than the worst case, if the search ends at the second-deepest level of the tree. On average, assuming that each element is equally likely to be searched, binary search makes formula_110 iterations when the target element is in the array. This is approximately equal to formula_111 iterations. When the target element is not in the array, binary search makes formula_112 iterations on average, assuming that the range between and outside elements is equally likely to be searched. In the best case, where the target value is the middle element of the array, its position is returned after one iteration. In terms of iterations, no search algorithm that works only by comparing elements can exhibit better average and worst-case performance than binary search. The comparison tree representing binary search has the fewest levels possible as every level above the lowest level of the tree is filled completely. Otherwise, the search algorithm can eliminate few elements in an iteration, increasing the number of iterations required in the average and worst case. This is the case for other search algorithms based on comparisons, as while they may work faster on some target values, the average performance over \"all\" elements is worse than binary search. By dividing the array in half, binary search ensures that the size of both subarrays are as similar as possible.", "Binary search requires three pointers to elements, which may be array indices or pointers to memory locations, regardless of the size of the array. However, it requires at least formula_113 bits to encode a pointer to an element of an array with formula_2 elements. Therefore, the space complexity of binary search is formula_1. In addition, it takes formula_116 space to store the array.", "The average number of iterations performed by binary search depends on the probability of each element being searched. The average case is different for successful searches and unsuccessful searches. It will be assumed that each element is equally likely to be searched for successful searches. For unsuccessful searches, it will be assumed that the intervals between and outside elements are equally likely to be searched. The average case for successful searches is the number of iterations required to search every element exactly once, divided by formula_2, the number of elements. The average case for unsuccessful searches is the number of iterations required to search an element within every interval exactly once, divided by the formula_118 intervals.", "In the binary tree representation, a successful search can be represented by a path from the root to the target node, called an \"internal path\". The length of a path is the number of edges (connections between nodes) that the path passes through. The number of iterations performed by a search, given that the corresponding path has length formula_119, is formula_120 counting the initial iteration. The \"internal path length\" is the sum of the lengths of all unique internal paths. Since there is only one path from the root to any single node, each internal path represents a search for a specific element. If there are formula_2 elements, which is a positive integer, and the internal path length is formula_122, then the average number of iterations for a successful search formula_123, with the one iteration added to count the initial iteration. Since binary search is the optimal algorithm for searching with comparisons, this problem is reduced to calculating the minimum internal path length of all binary trees with formula_2 nodes, which is equal to: formula_125 For example, in a 7-element array, the root requires one iteration, the two elements below the root require two iterations, and the four elements below require three iterations. In this case, the internal path length is: formula_126 The average number of iterations would be formula_127 based on the equation for the average case. The sum for formula_122 can be simplified to: formula_129 Substituting the equation for formula_122 into the equation for formula_131: formula_132 For integer formula_2, this is equivalent to the equation for the average case on a successful search specified above.", "Unsuccessful searches can be represented by augmenting the tree with \"external nodes\", which forms an \"extended binary tree\". If an internal node, or a node present in the tree, has fewer than two child nodes, then additional child nodes, called external nodes, are added so that each internal node has two children. By doing so, an unsuccessful search can be represented as a path to an external node, whose parent is the single element that remains during the last iteration. An \"external path\" is a path from the root to an external node. The \"external path length\" is the sum of the lengths of all unique external paths. If there are formula_2 elements, which is a positive integer, and the external path length is formula_135, then the average number of iterations for an unsuccessful search formula_136, with the one iteration added to count the initial iteration. The external path length is divided by formula_137 instead of formula_2 because there are formula_137 external paths, representing the intervals between and outside the elements of the array. This problem can similarly be reduced to determining the minimum external path length of all binary trees with formula_2 nodes. For all binary trees, the external path length is equal to the internal path length plus formula_141. Substituting the equation for formula_122: formula_143 Substituting the equation for formula_135 into the equation for formula_145, the average case for unsuccessful searches can be determined: formula_146", "Each iteration of the binary search procedure defined above makes one or two comparisons, checking if the middle element is equal to the target in each iteration. Assuming that each element is equally likely to be searched, each iteration makes 1.5 comparisons on average. A variation of the algorithm checks whether the middle element is equal to the target at the end of the search. On average, this eliminates half a comparison from each iteration. This slightly cuts the time taken per iteration on most computers. However, it guarantees that the search takes the maximum number of iterations, on average adding one iteration to the search. Because the comparison loop is performed only formula_103 times in the worst case, the slight increase in efficiency per iteration does not compensate for the extra iteration for all but very large formula_107.", "In analyzing the performance of binary search, another consideration is the time required to compare two elements. For integers and strings, the time required increases linearly as the encoding length (usually the number of bits) of the elements increase. For example, comparing a pair of 64-bit unsigned integers would require comparing up to double the bits as comparing a pair of 32-bit unsigned integers. The worst case is achieved when the integers are equal. This can be significant when the encoding lengths of the elements are large, such as with large integer types or long strings, which makes comparing elements expensive. Furthermore, comparing floating-point values (the most common digital representation of real numbers) is often more expensive than comparing integers or short strings. On most computer architectures, the processor has a hardware cache separate from RAM. Since they are located within the processor itself, caches are much faster to access but usually store much less data than RAM. Therefore, most processors store memory locations that have been accessed recently, along with memory locations close to it. For example, when an array element is accessed, the element itself may be stored along with the elements that are stored close to it in RAM, making it faster to sequentially access array elements that are close in index to each other (locality of reference). On a sorted array, binary search can jump to distant memory locations if the array is large, unlike algorithms (such as linear search and linear probing in hash tables) which access elements in sequence. This adds slightly to the running time of binary search for large arrays on most systems.", "Sorted arrays with binary search are a very inefficient solution when insertion and deletion operations are interleaved with retrieval, taking formula_149 time for each such operation. In addition, sorted arrays can complicate memory use especially when elements are often inserted into the array. There are other data structures that support much more efficient insertion and deletion. Binary search can be used to perform exact matching and set membership (determining whether a target value is in a collection of values). There are data structures that support faster exact matching and set membership. However, unlike many other searching schemes, binary search can be used for efficient approximate matching, usually performing such matches in formula_150 time regardless of the type or structure of the values themselves. In addition, there are some operations, like finding the smallest and largest element, that can be performed efficiently on a sorted array.", "Linear search is a simple search algorithm that checks every record until it finds the target value. Linear search can be done on a linked list, which allows for faster insertion and deletion than an array. Binary search is faster than linear search for sorted arrays except if the array is short, although the array needs to be sorted beforehand. All sorting algorithms based on comparing elements, such as quicksort and merge sort, require at least formula_151 comparisons in the worst case. Unlike linear search, binary search can be used for efficient approximate matching. There are operations such as finding the smallest and largest element that can be done efficiently on a sorted array but not on an unsorted array.", "A binary search tree is a binary tree data structure that works based on the principle of binary search. The records of the tree are arranged in sorted order, and each record in the tree can be searched using an algorithm similar to binary search, taking on average logarithmic time. Insertion and deletion also require on average logarithmic time in binary search trees. This can be faster than the linear time insertion and deletion of sorted arrays, and binary trees retain the ability to perform all the operations possible on a sorted array, including range and approximate queries. However, binary search is usually more efficient for searching as binary search trees will most likely be imperfectly balanced, resulting in slightly worse performance than binary search. This even applies to balanced binary search trees, binary search trees that balance their own nodes, because they rarely produce the tree with the fewest possible levels. Except for balanced binary search trees, the tree may be severely imbalanced with few internal nodes with two children, resulting in the average and worst-case search time approaching formula_107 comparisons. Binary search trees take more space than sorted arrays. Binary search trees lend themselves to fast searching in external memory stored in hard disks, as binary search trees can be efficiently structured in filesystems. The B-tree generalizes this method of tree organization. B-trees are frequently used to organize long-term storage such as databases and filesystems.", "For implementing associative arrays, hash tables, a data structure that maps keys to records using a hash function, are generally faster than binary search on a sorted array of records. Most hash table implementations require only amortized constant time on average. However, hashing is not useful for approximate matches, such as computing the next-smallest, next-largest, and nearest key, as the only information given on a failed search is that the target is not present in any record. Binary search is ideal for such matches, performing them in logarithmic time. Binary search also supports approximate matches. Some operations, like finding the smallest and largest element, can be done efficiently on sorted arrays but not on hash tables.", "A related problem to search is set membership. Any algorithm that does lookup, like binary search, can also be used for set membership. There are other algorithms that are more specifically suited for set membership. A bit array is the simplest, useful when the range of keys is limited. It compactly stores a collection of bits, with each bit representing a single key within the range of keys. Bit arrays are very fast, requiring only formula_153 time. The Judy1 type of Judy array handles 64-bit keys efficiently. For approximate results, Bloom filters, another probabilistic data structure based on hashing, store a set of keys by encoding the keys using a bit array and multiple hash functions. Bloom filters are much more space-efficient than bit arrays in most cases and not much slower: with formula_154 hash functions, membership queries require only formula_155 time. However, Bloom filters suffer from false positives.", "There exist data structures that may improve on binary search in some cases for both searching and other operations available for sorted arrays. For example, searches, approximate matches, and the operations available to sorted arrays can be performed more efficiently than binary search on specialized data structures such as van Emde Boas trees, fusion trees, tries, and bit arrays. These specialized data structures are usually only faster because they take advantage of the properties of keys with a certain attribute (usually keys that are small integers), and thus will be time or space consuming for keys that lack that attribute. As long as the keys can be ordered, these operations can always be done at least efficiently on a sorted array regardless of the keys. Some structures, such as Judy arrays, use a combination of approaches to mitigate this while retaining efficiency and the ability to perform approximate matching.", "", "Uniform binary search stores, instead of the lower and upper bounds, the difference in the index of the middle element from the current iteration to the next iteration. A lookup table containing the differences is computed beforehand. For example, if the array to be searched is, the middle element (formula_17) would be. In this case, the middle element of the left subarray () is and the middle element of the right subarray () is. Uniform binary search would store the value of as both indices differ from by this same amount. To reduce the search space, the algorithm either adds or subtracts this change from the index of the middle element. Uniform binary search may be faster on systems where it is inefficient to calculate the midpoint, such as on decimal computers.", "Exponential search extends binary search to unbounded lists. It starts by finding the first element with an index that is both a power of two and greater than the target value. Afterwards, it sets that index as the upper bound, and switches to binary search. A search takes formula_157 iterations before binary search is started and at most formula_158 iterations of the binary search, where formula_159 is the position of the target value. Exponential search works on bounded lists, but becomes an improvement over binary search only if the target value lies near the beginning of the array.", "Instead of calculating the midpoint, interpolation search estimates the position of the target value, taking into account the lowest and highest elements in the array as well as length of the array. It works on the basis that the midpoint is not the best guess in many cases. For example, if the target value is close to the highest element in the array, it is likely to be located near the end of the array. A common interpolation function is linear interpolation. If formula_5 is the array, formula_161 are the lower and upper bounds respectively, and formula_9 is the target, then the target is estimated to be about formula_163 of the way between formula_12 and formula_14. When linear interpolation is used, and the distribution of the array elements is uniform or near uniform, interpolation search makes formula_166 comparisons. In practice, interpolation search is slower than binary search for small arrays, as interpolation search requires extra computation. Its time complexity grows more slowly than binary search, but this only compensates for the extra computation for large arrays.", "Fractional cascading is a technique that speeds up binary searches for the same element in multiple sorted arrays. Searching each array separately requires formula_167 time, where formula_154 is the number of arrays. Fractional cascading reduces this to formula_169 by storing specific information in each array about each element and its position in the other arrays. Fractional cascading was originally developed to efficiently solve various computational geometry problems. Fractional cascading has been applied elsewhere, such as in data mining and Internet Protocol routing.", "Binary search has been generalized to work on certain types of graphs, where the target value is stored in a vertex instead of an array element. Binary search trees are one such generalization—when a vertex (node) in the tree is queried, the algorithm either learns that the vertex is the target, or otherwise which subtree the target would be located in. However, this can be further generalized as follows: given an undirected, positively weighted graph and a target vertex, the algorithm learns upon querying a vertex that it is equal to the target, or it is given an incident edge that is on the shortest path from the queried vertex to the target. The standard binary search algorithm is simply the case where the graph is a path. Similarly, binary search trees are the case where the edges to the left or right subtrees are given when the queried vertex is unequal to the target. For all undirected, positively weighted graphs, there is an algorithm that finds the target vertex in formula_1 queries in the worst case.", "Noisy binary search algorithms solve the case where the algorithm cannot reliably compare elements of the array. For each pair of elements, there is a certain probability that the algorithm makes the wrong comparison. Noisy binary search can find the correct position of the target with a given probability that controls the reliability of the yielded position. Every noisy binary search procedure must make at least formula_171 comparisons on average, where formula_172 is the binary entropy function and formula_173 is the probability that the procedure yields the wrong position. The noisy binary search problem can be considered as a case of the Rényi-Ulam game, a variant of Twenty Questions where the answers may be wrong.", "Classical computers are bounded to the worst case of exactly formula_174 iterations when performing binary search. Quantum algorithms for binary search are still bounded to a proportion of formula_175 queries (representing iterations of the classical procedure), but the constant factor is less than one, providing for a lower time complexity on quantum computers. Any \"exact\" quantum binary search procedure—that is, a procedure that always yields the correct result—requires at least formula_176 queries in the worst case, where formula_177 is the natural logarithm. There is an exact quantum binary search procedure that runs in formula_178 queries in the worst case. In comparison, Grover's algorithm is the optimal quantum algorithm for searching an unordered list of elements, and it requires formula_179 queries.", "The idea of sorting a list of items to allow for faster searching dates back to antiquity. The earliest known example was the Inakibit-Anu tablet from Babylon dating back to. The tablet contained about 500 Sexagesimal numbers and their reciprocals sorted in Lexicographical order, which made searching for a specific entry easier. In addition, several lists of names that were sorted by their first letter were discovered on the Aegean Islands. \"Catholicon\", a Latin dictionary finished in 1286 CE, was the first work to describe rules for sorting words into alphabetical order, as opposed to just the first few letters. In 1946, John Mauchly made the first mention of binary search as part of the Moore School Lectures, a seminal and foundational college course in computing. In 1957, William Wesley Peterson published the first method for interpolation search. Every published binary search algorithm worked only for arrays whose length is one less than a power of two until 1960, when Derrick Henry Lehmer published a binary search algorithm that worked on all arrays. In 1962, Hermann Bottenbruch presented an ALGOL 60 implementation of binary search that placed the comparison for equality at the end, increasing the average number of iterations by one, but reducing to one the number of comparisons per iteration. The uniform binary search was developed by A. K. Chandra of Stanford University in 1971. In 1986, Bernard Chazelle and Leonidas J. Guibas introduced fractional cascading as a method to solve numerous search problems in computational geometry.", "When Jon Bentley assigned binary search as a problem in a course for professional programmers, he found that ninety percent failed to provide a correct solution after several hours of working on it, mainly because the incorrect implementations failed to run or returned a wrong answer in rare edge cases. A study published in 1988 shows that accurate code for it is only found in five out of twenty textbooks. Furthermore, Bentley's own implementation of binary search, published in his 1986 book \"Programming Pearls\", contained an overflow error that remained undetected for over twenty years. The Java programming language library implementation of binary search had the same overflow bug for more than nine years. In a practical implementation, the variables used to represent the indices will often be of fixed size, and this can result in an arithmetic overflow for very large arrays. If the midpoint of the span is calculated as formula_18, then the value of formula_181 may exceed the range of integers of the data type used to store the midpoint, even if formula_12 and formula_14 are within the range. If \"formula_12\" and \"formula_14\" are nonnegative, this can be avoided by calculating the midpoint as formula_186. An infinite loop may occur if the exit conditions for the loop are not defined correctly. Once \"formula_12\" exceeds \"formula_14\", the search has failed and must convey the failure of the search. In addition, the loop must be exited when the target element is found, or in the case of an implementation where this check is moved to the end, checks for whether the search was successful or failed at the end must be in place. Bentley found that most of the programmers who incorrectly implemented binary search made an error in defining the exit conditions.", "Many languages' standard libraries include binary search routines:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Formation (2000–2001).", "\"Audioslave\" (2002–2003).", "\"Out of Exile\" (2004–2005).", "\"Revelations\" and breakup (2006–2007).", "Post-breakup (2008–2016).", "Reunion and death of Chris Cornell (2017).", "Loss of materials (2019).", "Name.", "Musical style and influences.", "Songwriting and recording process.", "Politics.", "Discography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Audioslave's history dates back to October 18, 2000, when Rage Against the Machine broke up after lead vocalist Zack de la Rocha announced he was leaving the band, citing a breakdown in the band's \"decision-making process\". The remaining three members of the band—Tim Commerford, Tom Morello, and Brad Wilk—decided to stay together and announced plans to continue with a new vocalist. Several vocalists jammed with the three, including B-Real of Cypress Hill, but they did not want another rapper or anybody who sounded like de la Rocha. Contrary to popular belief, Layne Staley of Alice in Chains neither auditioned nor was asked to join the new project. Tom Morello denied this claim on his Twitter account in 2015. Music producer and friend Rick Rubin suggested that they play with Chris Cornell of Soundgarden. Rubin also persuaded the three of them to go into group therapy with performance coach Phil Towle after the breakup. Rubin was confident that with the right new voice, Rage Against the Machine had the potential to become a better band; he believed \"it could turn into a Yardbirds-into-Led Zeppelin scenario.\" Commerford later credited Rubin for being the catalyst that brought Audioslave together. He called him \"the angel at the crossroads\" because \"if it wasn't for him, I wouldn't be here today.\" The chemistry between Cornell and the other three was immediately apparent; as Morello described: \"He stepped to the microphone and sang the song and I couldn't believe it. It didn't just sound good. It didn't sound great. It sounded transcendent. And...when there is an irreplaceable chemistry from the first moment, you can't deny it.\" The quartet wrote 21 songs during 19 days of rehearsal, and began working in the studio in late May 2001 with Rubin as producer, while sorting out the label and management issues.", "On March 19, 2002, Audioslave was confirmed for the seventh annual Ozzfest; despite, at that time, having neither an official name nor a release date for their debut album. A few days later, reports surfaced that the band had broken up before they had played for a public audience. Cornell's manager confirmed that the frontman had left the band, with no explanation given. Initial rumors suggested that Cornell took issue with having two managers actively involved in the project (Jim Guerinot of Rebel Waltz represented Cornell, and Peter Mensch of Q Prime handled Rage Against the Machine). According to the band, however, the split was not triggered by personal conflicts, but by their quarreling managers. After the mixing of the album was finished, roughly six weeks later, the group reformed and simultaneously fired their former management companies and hired another, The Firm. Their previous labels, Epic and Interscope, settled their differences by agreeing to alternate who released the band's albums. Meanwhile, 13 rough mixes of songs the band had created months previously were leaked to peer-to-peer filesharing networks in May 2002, under the name \"Civilian\" (or \"The Civilian Project\"). According to Morello, the songs were unfinished and, in some cases, \"weren't even the same lyrics, guitar solos, performances of any kind.\" To MTV, he described them as \"inferior sketches of works-in-progress, sent to Seattle for Chris to work on. Someone at that studio helped themselves to a copy and, after eight months, it made its way to an Italian website. Then it went global and everyone thought they had the record, which was so frustrating.\" The band divulged their official name and launched their website in early September. The first single, \"Cochise\", was posted online in late September, and was on the radio in early October. Critics praised Cornell's vocal style, a distinct departure from the rapping of de la Rocha, and found that \"the former members of RAtM have gone and done a Paul Weller, retreating from the ground they broke back [to] the sounds that inspired them.\" Director Mark Romanek shot a music video for \"Cochise\", which shows the band playing atop a tower under construction in the midst of a giant fireworks display providing all the lighting. The firework explosions during filming prompted fears of a terrorist attack among residents living near Los Angeles' Sepulveda Dam, the shooting location. The self-titled debut album, \"Audioslave\", was released on November 19, 2002, and entered the \"Billboard\" 200 chart at No. 7 after selling 162,000 copies in its first week. It was certified gold by the RIAA within a month of release, and by 2006 achieved triple platinum status. It is the most successful Audioslave album to date, having sold more than three million copies in the United States alone. Despite its commercial success, \"Audioslave\" received mixed reviews. Some critics lambasted the group's effort as uninspired, and predictable. Pitchfork Media praised Cornell's voice, but criticized virtually every other aspect of the album, deeming the lyrics \"complete gibberish\" and Rubin's production \"a synthesized rock-like product that emits no heat.\" Other critics, however, praised the supergroup's style reminiscent of 1970s rock and compared it to Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath, saying they added much-needed sound and style to contemporary mainstream rock. Audioslave made their live debut on November 25, 2002, performing a brief concert on the roof of the Ed Sullivan Theater on Broadway in New York City for the \"Late Show with David Letterman\". This was the first time any band had appeared on Letterman's marquee. That year's KROQ Almost Acoustic Christmas was their first official paying concert, in which the band played on the first night, December 7, after giving a secret club show the night before. Toward the end of the band's six-song set, Cornell told the audience, \"These guys saved my life this year\", and the show ended with his bandmates hugging him. Afterwards, asked to expand on his comments, he would say only that he had dragged the trio \"through a trail of shit\" in the past months. During this time, there was a rumor that Cornell had checked himself into drug rehabilitation. He later confirmed it in an interview with \"Metal Hammer\" that was conducted from a clinic payphone. In a San Diego CityBEAT article, Cornell explained that he went through \"a horrible personal crisis\" during the making of the first record, staying in rehab for two months and separating from his wife. He credited Morello, Commerford and Wilk with helping him rebound from the difficult period. He dismissed the rumors about being in rehab for OxyContin or heroin, but when asked, offered only, \"Various things. I'm not picky. Mainly for drinking.\" \"Like a Stone\", the second single from \"Audioslave,\" was released in early 2003. It was the highest-charting single from the album, peaking at number one on \"Billboard\"s Mainstream Rock Tracks and Modern Rock Tracks charts. It was certified gold by the RIAA, making it Audioslave's most successful single. The music video for \"Like a Stone\" was written and directed by Meiert Avis. It was shot in the Los Angeles house where Jimi Hendrix wrote \"Purple Haze\". The video uses negative space to invoke the memory of musicians past. The music video for the third single, \"Show Me How to Live\", was banned from MTV, reportedly because it shows the band in a high-speed car chase running police cars and motorcycles off the road. The band's first DVD, \"Audioslave\", was released on July 29, 2003. The band toured extensively worldwide in 2003, gaining positive reviews for their live performances, including at the revived Lollapalooza. Their performance on the Lollapalooza tour was so well received by readers of \"Metal Edge\" that they won the magazine's 2003 Readers' Choice Award for \"Favorite Lollapalooza Band\" by a landslide.", "In 2004, Audioslave was among the nominees for the 46th Grammy Awards: \"Like a Stone\" was nominated for \"Best Hard Rock Performance\" and \"Audioslave\" for \"Best Rock Album.\" They spent the rest of 2004 on break from touring and working on the second album. This gave Morello time to concentrate on his solo project, The Nightwatchman, and also to take an active part in political activities. Cornell had time to focus on his personal life; after his divorce from his first wife was finalized, he married Vicky Karayiannis, a Paris-based publicist he met during Audioslave's first European tour. Work on a new album had started in 2003 during the Lollapalooza tour, and continued at the end of the year when band members entered the studio. Aside from writing new material, the band also had some leftover songs from the \"Audioslave\" sessions; according to Morello, they had \"almost another album's worth of stuff [already done].\" \"Be Yourself\", the first single from the still-untitled album, was panned by some critics, who felt it was \"limp, and the lyrics are bland and directionless.\" Nevertheless, it reached number one on the Mainstream and Modern Rock charts. In April 2005, the band launched a club tour, which lasted until late May. Although on previous tours Audioslave occasionally played cover songs, they deliberately avoided playing their former bands' songs to avoid using those songs as a \"crutch\" to \"help sell and break Audioslave\" as their aim was to establish the band as an \"independent entity.\" After achieving that goal, they thought it was \"time to own those histories,\" and began performing a selection of the two bands' most popular songs (such as \"Black Hole Sun\" and \"Bulls on Parade\") on the tour. The second single, \"Your Time Has Come\" was released through a unique promotion, lasting one week, which involved radio listeners around the world. Radio stations were asked to post a link on their websites to a special timed-out download of the song. Once one million people clicked on the link, the song was unlocked and became downloadable by all one million. On May 6, 2005, Audioslave played a free show in Havana, Cuba, in front of an estimated 50,000 people at the La Tribuna Antiimperialista José Martí (José Martí Anti-Imperialist Stand) venue, which was purpose-built in 2000 for mass protests against the U.S. government. Audioslave became the first American rock group to perform an open-air concert in the socialist republic of Cuba. The band traveled to Havana—bringing along their camera crew—on May 4 to spend two days visiting historic sites and interacting with Cuban musicians and youngsters. Morello and the rest of the band insisted that the trip was not to make a political statement, but to take part in a musical cultural exchange. Cornell commented: \"Hopefully, this concert will help to open the musical borders between our two countries.\" The trip was organized with the joint authorization of the United States Department of the Treasury and the Instituto Cubano de la Musica (Cuban Institute of Music), as travel by U.S. citizens to Cuba is restricted, but the authorization arrived so late that the band had to cancel and postpone several confirmed dates of their U.S. tour. The 26-song-set concert—which included several Soundgarden and Rage Against the Machine songs—was the longest the band had ever played. \"Out of Exile\" was released internationally on May 23, 2005, then a day later in the U.S. It debuted at the top of the Billboard 200 chart, the only Audioslave album to reach this position. The following week, however, it dropped to number three, with a 62-percent sales decrease—consequently reaching platinum. Cornell admitted to writing some of his most personal songs on the album, influenced by the positive changes in his life since 2002. He described the album as more varied than the debut and relying less on heavy guitar riffs. The album was received more favorably than Audioslave's debut; critics noted Cornell's stronger vocals, likely the result of quitting smoking and drinking, and pointed out that \"Out of Exile\" is \"the sound of a band coming into its own.\" AllMusic, which gave \"Audioslave\" a lukewarm review, praised the album as \"lean, hard, strong, and memorable.\" The lyrics, however, were still a common complaint. MusicOMH.com wrote that Cornell's lyrics \"continue to border on the ridiculous\"; the album's softer, slower approach was frequently criticized as well. Following the album's release, the band embarked on a European tour, performed at the Live 8 benefit concert in Berlin on July 2, 2005, and played their first North American headlining arena tour from late September to November 2005. The music video for \"Doesn't Remind Me\", the third single from \"Out of Exile,\" was posted online in September 2005. Audioslave's second DVD, \"Live in Cuba\", featuring the concert in Havana, was released on October 11, 2005. It was certified platinum in less than two months.", "In December 2005, Audioslave received its third Grammy nomination at the 48th Grammy Awards in the Best Hard Rock Performance category for \"Doesn't Remind Me.\" Audioslave began recording their next album; Cornell had already expressed his desire to make \"an album every year or year-and-a-half\" even before \"Out of Exile\" was released. In early July 2005, after the conclusion of the European tour, the band returned to the studio to write new songs; Morello said their aim was to \"blur the lines between rehearsing, recording and touring.\" The actual recording began in January 2006, with plans to release the album, \"Revelations\", in June.<ref name=\"MTV News - Audioslave Turn To Rage/Soundgarden Producer For Third LP\"></ref> This time, the band chose \"Out of Exile\"'s mixer, Brendan O'Brien, as producer. Audioslave had 20 songs written and recorded, 16 of those in only three weeks. The album's release date, however, was postponed to early September, and the band cancelled their previously announced European tour, to have a new album to support, when they embarked on touring. The first single off the album, \"Original Fire\", was made available online on Audioslave's official website for free streaming in early July. News about Cornell's departure emerged in July 2006, when insiders stated that after the third album was released, he would depart the band and restart his solo career. Cornell immediately denied the rumors, stating \"We hear rumors that Audioslave is breaking up all the time.... I always just ignore [them].\" In the same interview, he also discussed his intentions to record a new solo album, the second in seven years, before the end of August. A special marketing campaign preceded the new album's release in August, when the art concept was featured on Google Earth as a fictional utopian island, Audioslave Nation, created in the South Pacific. Several songs from the upcoming album appeared on movie and video game soundtracks; \"Wide Awake\" and \"Shape of Things to Come\" were featured in \"Miami Vice\", while \"Revelations\" was on the soundtrack of \"Madden NFL 07\". \"Revelations\" was released on September 5, 2006. The album entered the Billboard 200 at No. 2 and sold 142,000 copies during its first week of release. It became the band's least commercially successful album; dropping even faster than \"Out of Exile\", its sales were down 65 percent the following week, achieving gold certification a month later. The album showed funk, soul and R&B influences that were non-existent for the band before; Morello referred to the new sound as \"Led Zeppelin meets Earth, Wind & Fire.\" Additionally, several songs took a more overtly political stance than previous Audioslave releases. The album received a similar critical response to \"Out of Exile\" with the majority of reviewers praising the band's integrity on the record. The new funk and soul influences were also welcomed favorably; Allmusic called the album Audioslave's \"most colorful, diverse, and consistent record yet.\" Many others, however, saw it as \"just another rock record,\" and musically not much different from the previous album. Cornell decided to delay the Revelations tour until 2007, because he wanted to \"let the album come out \" and also concentrate on his second solo album. The rest of the band went along; Morello also revealed his plans to release his debut solo album in early 2007. The second, and final single from the album, \"Revelations\" was released in October 2006 with an accompanying music video a month later. On January 22, 2007, Rage Against the Machine was announced to reunite for one show only, at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, on April 29. Less than a month later, on February 15, Cornell officially announced his departure from Audioslave, issuing this statement: Due to irresolvable personality conflicts as well as musical differences, I am permanently leaving the band Audioslave. I wish the other three members nothing but the best in all of their future endeavors. He stated that, as far as he was concerned, Audioslave had disbanded, and that a greatest hits collection would be issued in the future, because of label commitments.", "Morello and Cornell initially disagreed over the particulars of Cornell quitting the group, with Morello claiming that Cornell did not communicate directly with him about leaving, while Cornell countered: \"Tom and I did have communications about the fact that I was gonna go make a record, and that I was tired of what ended up seeming like political negotiations toward how we were gonna do Audioslave business and getting nowhere with it.\" He also added that this process of \"doing Audioslave business\" led him to go solo. Contrary to some reports, Cornell has stated that the breakup was not about money, but that he was just not getting along with the other members during their later years. Said Cornell, \"Getting along as people is one thing. Getting along as a group of people that can work together in a band situation...We weren't particularly getting along well, no. Bands work in a way where everyone at some point has to have a similar idea of how you do things...Three albums into it, it started to seem like our interests weren't as conjoined anymore.\" In 2011, Cornell revealed further information about the band's breakup; \"Personally a lot of it was me trying to land on my feet again. I went through a lot of personal turmoil right around the time Audioslave formed and unfortunately I think that affected the band a little bit in terms of me not really being grounded...I think there was stuff that could have been resolved, and there was drama that was probably unnecessary, typical rock band stuff. I certainly played a role in it. I definitely feel like I was part of a lot of unnecessary stuff. It didn't need to become what it became. You learn with experience.\" In 2012, Morello said that unreleased material that was not on the three albums could be released in the future at an unspecified point. Cornell and Morello shared the stage together for the first time in seven years, among many musicians, at the 2013 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame concert. Cornell also joined Morello on stage on September 26, 2014, guesting on his solo Seattle show. They played together several Nightwatchman songs, Cornell's usual acoustic covers, and for the first time in eight years, some Audioslave songs. In August 2015, Cornell openly said in interview with \"Total Guitar\" that he was quite eager to reunite with Audioslave: \"I think it would be great. We did a lot of songs, and with the benefit of not having done anything with those guys for so long, I can't imagine what it would be. It would be a really amazing experience just to get back and work with the same guys again.\" Soon after, Morello said that he's interested in working with Cornell again, remembering their 2014 Seattle performance with great fondness: \"I love Chris and consider him a great friend. The Hall of Fame jam was nice, but a little chaotic. Playing with him in Seattle, that was just fantastic. I love that guy. He's one of the most talented vocalists in the history of vocalists. And to be able to play the songs that we wrote together, it was awesome and so much fun. I hope we do something like that again.\"", "On January 17, 2017, it was announced that Audioslave would reunite for their first show in 12 years at Prophets of Rage's Anti-Inaugural Ball, protesting President Donald Trump's inauguration. The event took place on January 20, 2017. Asked in February 2017 if there would be more Audioslave reunion shows in the future, Cornell replied, \"It's always a possibility. I mean, we've been talking about it for at least three or four years now. We were talking about actually picking dates, and it just ended up not working out because everybody's so busy. They have another band again, they all have separate bands that they do themselves, I have Soundgarden and a solo career that's taking up a lot of time, and I just did Temple of the Dog. So, it's really honestly as simple as we end up having a window of time where it's comfortable for everybody and we want to do it, because I definitely feel like everybody's up for it.\" However, on May 18, 2017, three months after making that statement, Cornell was found deceased in his Detroit hotel room, ending the possibility of any future Audioslave reunions with their original lead vocalist.", "On June 25, 2019, \"The New York Times Magazine\" listed Audioslave among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.", "The original idea for the band's name was \"Civilian,\" but it was dropped when members found out that it was already taken. Morello later discredited the story, contradicting Commerford and Cornell, and commented that \"Civilian\" was merely a rumor circulating at the time. He stated: \"The band has only ever had one name, and that is Audioslave.\" Morello described the origin of the \"Audioslave\" name to LAUNCHcast as follows: That was Chris' suggestion that sort of came to him in a vision. We're all on the two-way pagers, and Chris one night said, \"I got it. It's Audioslave.\" We were all, like, \"All right, fantastic.\"... To paraphrase Elvis Costello, talking about band names is like dancing about architecture—there's just no point in it because the band name becomes the music and the people. After the name was announced, it emerged that it was already being used by an unsigned band from Liverpool. The two bands worked out a settlement, with the American Audioslave paying $30,000 in a deal that allowed each band to use the name. To avoid confusion, the Liverpool band would rename themselves \"The Most Terrifying Thing.\" The name was mocked by critics due to its uninspired nature, and was regarded as one of the worst in contemporary rock music, or even of all time. \"Pitchfork\" called it the \"most asinine bandname of the year,\" and Chuck Klosterman of \"Spin\" magazine chided it as \"one of the dumbest band names in recent rock history.\"", "Audioslave's musical style has generally been regarded as hard rock, alternative metal, post-grunge, and alternative rock. By combining '70s style hard rock riffing with alternative rock, Audioslave created a distinctive sound. This mix was driven by Cornell's wide vocal range, Morello's innovative guitar solos and the robust rhythm section of Wilk and Commerford. Morello, although stating he \"never felt musically limited\" in Rage Against the Machine, did say that he had \"a lot more scope to explore with Audioslave\" and a \"wider musical territory.\" This meant that the instrumentalists had the opportunity to write slow and melodic songs, something they had not done before. As opposed to de la Rocha's lyrics, Cornell's were mostly apolitical; Morello referred to them as \"haunted, existential poetry.\" They were characterised by his cryptic approach, often dealing with themes of existentialism, love, hedonism, spirituality and Christianity. Audioslave's first two albums drew influences from 1970s hard rock and heavy metal such as Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath and from the members' previous bands (the grunge sound of Soundgarden and the funk metal sound of Rage Against the Machine). For \"Revelations\", which was influenced by 1960s and '70s funk, soul and R&B music, Morello used vintage guitars and amplifiers and Cornell adopted his \"seventies funk and R&B-flavor vocals.\" The guitarist also cited Sly & the Family Stone, James Brown and Funkadelic as a reason for the funk overtones on the album. Just as Rage Against the Machine did, Audioslave also included the statement \"All sounds made by guitar, bass, drums and vocals\" in their albums' booklets as Morello's guitar work often caused listeners to believe that the band used samples, synthesiser effects or different turntable techniques to produce certain sounds.", "All of Audioslave's lyrics were written by Cornell, while all four members—as a band—were credited with writing the music. Their songwriting process was described by Wilk as \"more collaborative\" and \"satisfying\" than Rage Against the Machine's, which was \"a battle creatively.\" Cornell also felt the same way; he saw Soundgarden's songwriting method inferior to Audioslave's. Rick Rubin, producer of the band's first two albums, was also lauded as \"a great collaborative partner\" and was likened to \"the fifth Beatle\" by Tom Morello. The time spent on songwriting by the band was always short. They wrote 21 songs in 19 days for the first album and exceeded that rate for the second album by having a song or sometimes two written every day. This method was adopted for the third album as well. Cornell's battle with drug addiction and alcoholism was a defining factor in the writing and recording process of the debut album. The singer admitted that he was \"never able to write effectively\" while drinking, and attended rehab after recording \"Audioslave\". Although Morello stated that \"Revelations\" was \"the first record [Cornell] didn't smoke, drink or take drugs through the recording,\" he later clarified his statement by saying: \"Chris was stone sober during the making of our \"Out of Exile\" album. Chris was also sober during the making of \"Revelations\" and prior to recording he gave up smoking as well.\"", "In contrast to Rage Against the Machine, Audioslave's music was mostly apolitical. Cornell stated he did not want to become the new singer of Rage Against the Machine or any political band, but he would play benefits the other band members wanted to play. Despite his reluctance to write political lyrics, he himself never discounted the possibility; he already touched upon political issues in \"Audioslave\"'s \"Set It Off\"—a song inspired by 1999's WTO riots (the \"Battle of Seattle\")—then later wrote an anti-war song, \"Sound of a Gun,\" and what Morello called \"the most political song Audioslave's ever written,\" \"Wide Awake\" for \"Revelations.\" \"Wide Awake\" was an attack on the Bush administration's perceived failures over the consequences of Hurricane Katrina. The band was openly anti-Bush and against the Iraq War from the beginning; on March 17, 2003, only hours after President Bush announced plans to invade Iraq, the band performed live in Hollywood with messages reading \"How many Iraqis per gallon?\" and \"Somewhere in Texas, a Village is Missing an Idiot,\" scrolled across the stage. The music video for \"Doesn't Remind Me\" was also critical of the Iraq war. Wilk called Bush \"a fucking scam\" in an interview, criticizing the Bush administration's rationale for war in Iraq. During the time of the second album's release, several politically charged Rage Against the Machine songs resurfaced in Audioslave's live set. Although the members committed to not making political statements during their Cuba tour, Commerford stated in an interview that the concert made Audioslave more politically active than Rage Against the Machine ever was. While in Cuba, Cornell said that he takes \"every aspect of human life\" into consideration, when it comes to writing lyrics, and that he would write about the experience in a song, or more songs. This culminated in the political influences on \"Revelations\", although he did not write about Cuba specifically. He asserted that he felt Audioslave can be a band like U2, which is \"not overtly political, but Bono gets a lot done.\" That year, the band played at two more concerts organized to raise political awareness: Live 8, which aimed to end global poverty, and the Hurricane Katrina benefit concert,. Audioslave was prominently involved in the Axis of Justice, a non-profit organization formed by Tom Morello and System of a Down's Serj Tankian to \"bring together musicians, fans of music, and grassroots political organizations to fight for social justice.\" Axis of Justice tents were set up at almost every Audioslave show, and with the exception of Commerford all band members appeared on the \"Concert Series Volume 1\" CD/DVD charity album released in 2004.", "Studio albums" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1990s.", "1997.", "1998.", "1999.", "2000s.", "2000.", "2001.", "2002.", "2003.", "2004.", "2005.", "2006.", "2007.", "2008.", "2009.", "2010s.", "2010.", "2011.", "2012.", "2013.", "2014.", "2015.", "2016.", "2017.", "2018.", "2019.", "2020s.", "2020.", "2021." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "", "", "The first festival organized on 29 June 1997 was called \"\"Kráľovská Pohoda\"\". It took place at the Trenčín town stadium. About 2,000 people attended the event but only 140 tickets were sold. Four Slovak, three Czech and one Russian bands played there.", "The festival called \"\"Dobre zvolená Pohoda\"\" was organized on 5 September. The new location was \"Pod Sokolicami\" again in Trenčín, which hosted the event until 2003. The festival had two stages - main and dance. Musicians from Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Poland, Austria and Finland attracted about 3,000 people.", "The event was significantly larger than the previous ones. It was held on 16 and 17 July, contained two stages and accompanying activities, such as tattooing and balloon rides. The first American band, Skulpey, performed at Pohoda. 8,000 people attended the festival each day.", "", "The festival organized on 21 and 22 July was significantly larger again. The venue was enlarged by the adjacent expo area. It contained four stages - main, dance 1 and 2 and rock and many accompanying activities and events. Notable performers included Bomfunk MC's and Propellerheads' Will White. 20,000 visitors were present each day.", "Organized on 20 and 21 July, the festival hosted 5 stages - main, rock/hip-hop, rock open-air, and three dance stages. Notable musicians included Fun Lovin' Criminals, and the event attracted 18,000 people each day.", "Seven stages offered a vast array of music genres on 19 and 20 July. Stereo MCs, Sneaker Pimps and Task Force were presented as headliners. Attendance was 20,000/day.", "The festival was organized on 18 and 19 July. Headliners included The Cardigans, Kosheen and Skatalites. Attendance: 20,000/day", "The festival was moved to a new venue, Trenčín Airport and took place on 16 and 17 July. Notable musicians included Chumbawamba, Moloko, The Wailers, Asian Dub Foundation, and IAMX. Attendance: 20,000/day", "Organized on 15 and 16 July, the event contained sitwo stages and 2 arena theatres. Headliners included The Prodigy, Garbage, Asian Dub Foundation, Little Louie Vega, Klezmatics, Roots Manuva, and Macka B. The festival attracted a record number of visitors - 25,000/day.", "On July 14 and 15, the headliners and notable musicians included Coldcut, Pixies, The Frames, Danko Jones, Dizzee Rascal, Gogol Bordello, Natacha Atlas, and Stereo MCs. Attendance: 22,000/day", "The festival took place on 20 and 21 July, and headliners included The Hives, Wu Tang Clan, Basement Jaxx, and Mando Diao. The event had a record-high attendance with about 27,000 visitors each day.", "The festival took place on July 18 and 19. Headliners for this year were Fatboy Slim, The Streets, Editors, Matthew Herbert Big Band, Unkle, Solomon Burke, Mnozil Brass, Richard Müller, Lou Rhodes, Blood Red Shoes and Audio Bullys. Other notable musicians were Joan Baez, The Royal Choral Society and Percujove, the Spanish percussion orchestra. For the first time in the history of Pohoda Festival it reached an attendance of over 30 000 visitors.", "The 2009 festival took place on 16, 17 and 18 July. Percujove, the Spanish percussion orchestra opened the Festival this year. Acts included Basement Jaxx, Patti Smith, Pendulum, The Ting Tings, and High Contrast. Saturday afternoon concerts of classical music at the main stage have become a tradition. After arias and choruses the Festival have prepared the symbolic fusion of two ensembles this year. A selection of Slavonic Dances (Dvořák), Hungarian Dances (J. Brahms) or Strauss's waltzes was performed by orchestras of the Opera of Slovak National Theatre and Hungarian State Opera. Travis, the Klaxons and Lamb were scheduled to play, but did not, after the festival was cancelled on Saturday, 18 July after the O2 Aréna tent collapsed due to heavy winds during a thunderstorm. The tent fell on hundreds of people, who took refuge from the rain, killing two and severely injuring dozens. The organizers of Pohoda Festival decided that despite the 2009 tragedy, the festival would still return in 2010.", "", "The 2010 festival took place on 8th, 9 and 10 July, on Trenčín Airport. The most notable artists included The xx, Klaxons, Crystal Castles, José González, Scissor Sisters, Friendly Fires, Digitalism (DJ set), The Stranglers, The Futureheads, New Young Pony Club, Does It Offend You, Yeah?, múm, Autechre, Jape, These New Puritans, Leftfield, Ian Brown and Collegium Musicum. Attendance was limited to 30,000 visitors.", "The Pohoda Festival 2011 took place from Thursday 7 until Saturday 9 July 2011. Most notable acts for 2011: Moby, Portishead, Madness, Pulp, Lamb, Peter Bjorn and John, Santigold, M.I.A., Public Image Ltd, Imogen Heap, Rusko, Magnetic Man, Beirut and Dirtyphonics.", "The Pohoda Festival 2012 took place from Thursday 5 until Saturday 7 July 2012. Most notable acts for 2012: Kasabian, Lou Reed, Kooks, Elbow, Two Door Cinema Club, Orbital, Anna Calvi, Emilíana Torrini, Aloe Blacc, Public Enemy, Yann Tiersen and Bat for Lashes.", "The Pohoda Festival 2013 took place from Thursday 11 until Saturday 13 July 2013. Most notable acts for 2013: Atoms for Peace, Kaiser Chiefs, Bloc Party, Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds, Smashing Pumpkins, Amon Tobin, Kate Nash, Justice and Django Django.", "The Pohoda Festival 2014 took place from Thursday 10 until Saturday 12 July 2014. Most notable acts for 2014: Kraftwerk, Suede, Kelis, Tame Impala, Travis, Tricky, Azealia Banks, Goldfrapp, Mogwai, Disclosure, Moderat.", "The Pohoda Festival 2015 took place from Thursday 9 until Saturday 11 July 2015. Most notable acts for 2015: Björk, Manu Chao, Die Antwoord, FFS, Einstürzende Neubauten, CocoRosie, Eagles of Death Metal, Of Montreal, Kate Tempest.", "Pohoda Festival 2016 took place from Thursday 7 until Saturday 9 July 2016. Most notable acts for 2016: The Prodigy, Sigur Rós, PJ Harvey, James Blake. Parov Stelar, Flying Lotus, The Vaccines, Savages, DJ Shadow. Róisín Murphy, Nina Kraviz, Gogol Bordello.", "Pohoda Festival 2017 took place from Thursday 6 July 2017 to Saturday 8 July 2017. Most notable acts for 2017: Solange, Alt-J, M.I.A., Ylvis, Birdy, The Jesus and Mary Chain, Jake Bugg, Boys Noize, Rodrigo y Gabriela, Slowdive, Future Islands.", "Pohoda Festival 2018 took place from Thursday 5 July 2018 to Saturday 7 July 2018. Most notable acts for 2018: The Chemical Brothers, St. Vincent, Jamie Cullum, Blossoms, Everything Everything, Ride, Jessie Ware, Ziggy Marley, Aurora, Rodriguez, LP, Danny Brown.", "Pohoda Festival 2019 took place from Thursday 11 July 2019 to Saturday 13 July 2019. Most notable acts for 2019: Liam Gallagher, The 1975, The Roots, Skepta, Charlotte Gainsbourg, Michael Kiwanuka, Mac DeMarco, Mura Masa, Little Big, Lola Marsh.", "", "The twenty-fourth edition of Pohoda was postponed by a year due to COVID-19. Pohoda 2020, will be replaced by online event Pohoda in the Air from 9 - 11 July 2020.", "Pohoda 2021 will take place from Thursday 8 July 2021 to Saturday 10 July 2021. Most notable acts for 2020:, FKA Twigs, The Libertines, Wolf Alice, Metronomy, Archive, Black Midi, Shame, Kokoroko," ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Formation and early years (1989–1992).", "Mainstream success (1993–1995).", "Middle era (1996–2000).", "Later years (2001–2003).", "Hiatus and solo careers (2004–2008).", "Reunion and \"Roses\" (2009–2015).", "O'Riordan's death, \"In the End\" and disbandment (2016–2019).", "Post-disbandment (mid-2019–present).", "Musical style and influences.", "Members.", "Discography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Brothers Noel Hogan and Mike Hogan, descendants of the nineteenth-century Irish poet Michael Hogan, met Fergal Lawler in the mid-1980s. The young kids who grew up together in Limerick, Ireland also shared their love of '80s English/indie music and were \"galvanised by punk's DIY ethic\". Lawler received his first drum kit as a Christmas present when he was about seventeen; two months later, Mike Hogan received his first bass and his brother his first guitar. Niall Quinn who lived in the region already played with his own group called Hitchers and occasionally came often to share his experiences with the trio. Thereafter, they were leaning towards the idea of a four piece ensemble and Quinn stayed with them. In mid-1989, brothers Mike, 16, and Noel Hogan, 18, formed the Cranberry Saw Us with drummer Fergal Lawler, 18, and singer Niall Quinn. In early 1990, Quinn left them to return to his previous group, although they remained on good terms. Despite this unexpected break up, the three musicians became an instrumental group during several months, continuing to improve ideas and song structures of instrumental pieces. Lawler and the two Hogan brothers then placed an advertisement for a female singer. Subsequently, Quinn suggested to introduce the trio to a friend of his girlfriend's sister, mentioning that she was a singer-songwriter looking for a group who would compose originals. On a Sunday afternoon in mid-1990, 18-year-old Dolores O'Riordan cycled to the audition at Xeric Studios dressed in a tracksuit and with a broken Casio keyboard under her arm. O'Riordan said of the first encounter \"I really liked what I heard; I thought they were very nice and tight. It was a lovely potential band but they needed a singer - and direction\". Noel Hogan gave her a rough cassette demo incorporating chord sequences of indie-jangly guitar sounds, then O'Riordan took home Hogan's tape and began writing lyrics and overlaying melodies which would underpin the group's future material. Within a week she returned to the musicians with whom she sang along a rough version of \"Linger\". Mike Hogan later described it as \"we were immediately blown away, her voice was something special\". Noel Hogan elaborated, \"she was so small and quiet... then she opened her mouth and this amazing voice, this huge voice came out for the size of her\"; and then acknowledged: \"how come she's not already in a band? [...] that day changed our lives\". A musical relationship rapidly developed between O'Riordan and Noel Hogan who had enough songs to design a demo. The fledgling band recorded a four-track demo EP called \"Water Circle\", released in cassette format by local record label Xeric Records. In July 1990, the group performed their first gig with O'Riordan at an hotel basement called Ruby's Club, Cruises Hotel, Limerick, performing six original songs to an audience of 60 people including three others local groups. The Cranberry Saw Us moved to Xeric Recording studio and recorded \"Nothing Left at All\", a first commercial three-track EP released on tape in 300 copies by Xeric Records, which sold out in local record shops in Limerick within a few days. The owner of Xeric Studios, Pearse Gilmore, became their manager and provided the group with studio time to complete a demo tape, which he produced. It featured early versions of \"Linger\" and \"Dreams\", which were sent directly to record companies in London by Noel Hogan, determined to leave the underground circuit of small Irish clubs and pubs. Rough Trade label founder Geoff Travis immediately gave his approval, although the Cranberries did not sign on his label the demo continued to earn the attention of both the UK press and record industry and sparked a bidding war between major British record labels. On 18 April 1991, the group played a decisive show in their hometown at Jetland Center as part of the University of Limerick's RAG Week to 1,400 students. In attendance was record producer Denny Cordell who was then A&R for Island Records, and thirty-two other A&R men who flew from London. Shortly thereafter, the band changed their name to \"The Cranberries\". \"Nothing Left at All\" began to circulate in the UK with the support of John Best PR agency. Then, they performed their first UK tour opening for the British band Moose throughout a series of three weeks. The Cranberries received more letters expressing interest from Virgin, EMI, Imago, CBS, and Warner, which led Hogan brothers to quit their jobs. Eventually the group signed to a six albums deal with Island Records who won the battle. In mid-1991, the Cranberries headed back into the studio with Gilmore as their producer to record \"hastily\" their first EP \"Uncertain\" and created a music video for the title track, which was not released. Gilmore, in an incoherent gesture, made various alterations to the album's rough cuts. 5,000 total copies of \"Uncertain\" were printed and released in October 1991 by Island Records under the Xeric name. The EP received poor reviews in the press and led to tension between the group and Gilmore. By this time, Gilmore began restricting information to the Cranberries and made separate arrangements with Island's U.S branch. In October 1991 the Cranberries performed at Underworld in London during a UK and Ireland tour. Adding to this period of doubt, touring conditions and money were lacking with maximum earnings of $25 a day. On 9 December 1991, the Cranberries was supposed to support Nirvana in Belfast's Conor Hall, but Nirvana canceled their tour at the last moment as well as the five remaining shows due to ill health of Kurt Cobain. After a difficult recording session, intended for their first album on Island Records in January 1992, the band scrapped their work and fired Gilmore. Noel Hogan stated \"we didn't have a problem with each other, we had a problem with this guy\". During that time period the Cranberries toured in Ireland and the UK as opening act for TOP, getting more attention of the British press. Subsequently, they hired Geoff Travis as their new manager, The Cranberries headed back into the studio in Dublin in March 1992 to restart working on their first LP with Stephen Street, who had previously worked with the Smiths. The Cranberries began a UK and Ireland headlining tour during the last four months of 1992 to promote the subsequent release of \"Everybody Else Is Doing It, So Why Can't We?\". In October 1992, \"Dreams\" was released in the UK, becoming \"Melody Maker\"'s Single of the week. In November 1992, they performed at the emblematic Royal Albert Hall supporting Miercury Rev and the House of Love. Between 1991 and 1993, the band also recorded several studio and live sessions intended for Irish and British radio and television shows, including 2fm's \"The Dave Fanning Show\" in Dublin and BBC Radio 1's \"John Peel Show\".", "Their first full-length album \"Everybody Else Is Doing It, So Why Can't We?\" was released in March 1993. Neither the album nor the single gained much attention, nor did a second single, \"Linger\". When the band embarked on a tour supporting Suede, they caught the attention of MTV, which put their videos into heavy rotation. The defining moment occurred when mid-way through the tour running order was reversed and the Cranberries replaced Suede as the tour headliners. During the U.S. tour, Linger received heavy rotation on college radio stations across the country. Although \"Linger\" was first released in the UK in February 1993, peaking at 74, it was later re-issued in February 1994 peaking at 14. \"Linger\", the band's first big hit, peaked at number three in Ireland and stayed on the Billboard Hot 100 list for 24 weeks. This was followed by \"Dreams\" released again in May 1994 peaking at No. 27 on the UK charts and top 15 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 list, which helped their debut album to top both the UK Albums Chart and Irish Albums Chart in June. In January 1994, Dolores injured her knee when skiing in the Swiss Alps. By 1994, the Cranberries world tour averaged 13,500 attendees at each performance. The group reunited with Street for \"No Need to Argue\", which was released in late 1994. It would go on to peak at No. 6 on the US charts and eventually outsold its predecessor. Within a year it went triple platinum, spawning the number one hit \"Zombie\" and the No. 11 \"Ode to My Family\" on the Modern Rock Tracks chart. By March 1994, the Cranberries won the Top International Act of Music Week (UK). On 13 August 1994, during their US tour, the Cranberries performed at Woodstock II festival, Saugerties, New York. In 1995, the band continued to tour, and released two more singles \"I Can't Be with You\" and \"Ridiculous Thoughts\". The album went 5× platinum in Canada, platinum in Switzerland, and 7× platinum in the United States. On 20 February 1995, the Cranberries received a nomination at the Brit Awards in the International Group category, at the 15th edition of the annual pop music awards in the United Kingdom. In mid-1995, the Cranberries had broken the American market, at that time the band was Ireland's biggest musical export since U2. On 15 May 1995, the Cranberries had planned an impromptu free acoustic set for 3,000 people at National Sylvan Theater, Washington, D.C., United States. The show was orchestrated by radio station WHFS, which had paid for the use of five U.S. Park Police officers. Before the show began, the organizers promptly realized how erroneous their original crowd estimates were when a frenzied crowd of over 10,000 devotees appeared. The Cranberries show started 40 minutes late, while stage diving started before the first guitar note was played. Park Police officers established that they couldn't control the crowd and stopped the show after one song and a half. The crowd were told the Cranberries would not be returning and the raging crowd sparked riots throwing rocks, food and beer bottles at the Park Police officers in riot helmets, some jumped onstage and O'Riordan's acoustic guitar was stolen. More Police officers in riot gear came in, dozens of mounted horse patrols established a perimeter and cleared the south quarter of the Washington Monument grounds as a helicopter circled overhead while the fracas continued outside. On 23 May 1995, at London's Grosvenor House, the Cranberries were nominated for Best Contemporary Song at the Ivor Novello Awards. In 1995 they performed \"Ode To my family\" at the World Music Awards, winning the Award for Best Irish Recording Artists. The Cranberries were named Best Irish Recording Artists at the 10th annual Irish Music awards, held at Dublin's Burlington Hotel. On 23 November 1995 the Cranberries won the \"Best Song\" award for \"Zombie\" at the 1995 MTV Europe Music Awards, beating out Michael Jackson's \"You Are Not Alone\". During the \"No Need To Argue\" European tour '95, the Cranberries performed to more than 500,000 people, with peak attendance reaching 20,000 people per night in United States.", "On 10 March 1996, the Cranberries received the Best-Selling Album Award for \"No Need to Argue\" at the 26th Annual Juno Awards. The band's third album \"To the Faithful Departed\" peaked at No. 2 in the UK and No. 4 on the \"Billboard\" 200. \"To the Faithful Departed\" sells to 4 million copies in six weeks. Despite favourable reviews, the album did not match the sales of \"No Need to Argue\". The album went double platinum in the US and Gold in the UK. The first single from the album was \"Salvation\" which topped the US Modern Rock Tracks chart. The second single from the album was \"Free to Decide\"; the single's peak in the UK was 33 and placing on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100. In September 1996, the Cranberries' video for \"Salvation\" was nominated for a MTV Video Music Award for Best Art Direction. In November 1996 \"When You're Gone\" was released as a single in the United States, peaking at 22 on the Hot 100. In late 1996, the group cancelled their Australian and European tour, O'Riordan re-injured her knee during a concert in Cairns. On 9 March 1997, Bruce Fairbairn and the Cranberries were nominees at the Juno Awards for their work on \"Free to Decide\" and \"When You're Gone\". The band received an Ivor Novello Award for International Achievement, on 19 May 1997, at London's Grosvenor House. On 12 November 1998 Dolores O'Riordan and Fergal Lawler made an appearance at the 1998 MTV Europe Music Awards in Milan and presented the award for best song. The band played \"Dreams\", \"Promises\" and \"Linger\" at the Nobel Peace Prize Concert 1998, on 11 December at Oslo Spektrum, Oslo, Norway. \"Promises\" was performed live for the first time, four months before the release of the album \"Bury the Hatchet\". In 1999, the Cranberries released \"Bury the Hatchet\". The first single \"Promises\" was released in February. \"Promises\" would be the only single from the album to chart in the US and last single before their hiatus. The album peaked at 7 in the UK and 13 in the US and was certified gold in the US. The second single from the album was \"Animal Instinct\", which did not chart in the UK, although it did chart in France, Austria and many others. The third and fourth singles were \"Just My Imagination\" and \"You & Me\", respectively. The band had a guest appearance on popular television series \"Charmed\", performing \"Just My Imagination\" on the fifth episode of the second season, \"She's a Man, Baby, a Man!\". The group started a world tour in April 1999 and it finished in July 2000. The group partnered with Ticketmaster.com to be the first artists to sell tickets for a national tour exclusively online. It was the biggest and most successful tour of the Cranberries' career. The tour brought them back to Ireland for their first date since May 2000. They performed at Millstreet in County Cork. As the tour rolled on, the band released \"Bury the Hatchet – The Complete Sessions\", a double CD featuring B-sides as well as live tracks taken from a show in Paris.", "In October 2001, the album \"Wake Up and Smell the Coffee\" was released. The band's old producer Stephen Street returned to produce the album. The album peaked at 46 on the US \"Billboard\" 200, and No. 2 on the Spanish, Italian and French album charts. It went to No. 8 on the \"Billboard\" Canadian Albums Chart and reached No. 61 in the UK. The first single released from the album was \"Analyse\", which charted in the US Adult Top 40 at a peak of 26. In January 2002, they released the second single \"Time Is Ticking Out\", and some months later another one, \"This Is the Day\". The Cranberries were managed by Timeless Management in London. The following year a greatest hits album was released entitled \"\", which was released alongside an of music videos. The album peaked in the UK at 20. The song \"Stars\" was released as a single from that album. They started a European tour in mid-October 2002 and ended in December. In January 2003, following advice from their legal advisors, the Cranberries parted ways with record label MCA, due to the band's dissatisfaction with the promotion of \"Wake Up and Smell the Coffee\". Noel Hogan observed \"with little effort from our label, we have been pleased to see top-10 sales in many countries\". Despite comments from MCA regarding that the album did not reach the \"Billboard\" 200's top 30, the 2002 concerts drew an average audience of 10,000 people, with many of the dates selling-out. O'Riordan told \"Billboard\": \"since we were signed in 1991 by Island Records, we have gradually seen our label dissolve from a pioneering independent spirited label into a corporate monolith that completely lost touch with the group's creative vision\". The Cranberries signed in 1991 with Island Records America, which was transferred to MCA in 2000 following a contract renegotiation. At the end of February 2003, the Cranberries started working with Stephen Street and debuted their work for the first time in Belfast, Northern Ireland, on 29 May 2003, performing the songs \"Astral Projection\" and \"In It Together\". In September 2003, the band announced they were taking some time to pursue individual careers, as well as concentrate on family, and scrapped sessions for a sixth studio release. Initially, a two-year sabbatical was confirmed, while O'Riordan assured that the group would just take a hiatus, she said \"we've been together for 13 years; it's a much needed break. It was getting predictable and lacking in a challenge; time to experiment\". Although a spokesperson for the Cranberries announced a \"temporary shutdown in activities\", the four members remained on good terms and in regular contact with each other. Between 1994 and 2003, the Cranberries undertook several world tours and performed in front of crowds of 10,000 to 20,000 each night.", "Dolores O'Riordan started collaborating with other musicians in 2004 before launching her solo career with the album \"Are You Listening?\" in 2007 and a world tour, following it with \"No Baggage\" in 2009. Dolores O'Riordan performed \"Linger\" in the 2006 movie \"Click\". Noel Hogan started a new project called Mono Band, writing all instrumentation in his own studio and developing a \"new way of working\" with programmer Matt Vaughan. The project, whose first full-length self-titled album saw a limited release in 2005, also featured diverse guest musicians, including Oxford singer-songwriter Richard Walters. Subsequently, Hogan decided to work mainly with Richard Walters, then Mono Band became Arkitekt whose two EPs were released in 2007 and 2009. He has also been working as a producer with Supermodel Twins, from his native Limerick and Remma. In April 2006, Mike Hogan and his wife Siobhán opened a café called \"The Sage Café\", on Catherine Street in the heart of Limerick City. The award-winning café closed on 25 September 2017. Mike Hogan also played bass with Mono Band. Fergal Lawler was a member of the Low Network, whose first album was released in 2007. He has also worked with Walter Mitty and the Realists as well as Last Days of Death Country as both producer and musician.", "The Cranberries reunited in January 2009 to celebrate O'Riordan becoming an Honorary Patron of University Philosophical Society (Trinity College, Dublin). The group indicated at the time that this did not signify an official reunion, but on 25 August 2009, in anticipation of the release of \"No Baggage\", O'Riordan announced that the Cranberries would be reuniting for a North American and European tour. O'Riordan indicated that the band would be playing songs from her solo albums and a lot of the Cranberries' classic hits as well as some new group compositions. At this point of their career, the Cranberries were managed by Danny Goldberg, former Nirvana and Kurt Cobain manager. In 2011, the actual \"Water Circle\" demo tape emerged, widely assumed to be the first appearance of the Cranberries with the vocal of Dolores O'Riordan. A private collector from United States submitted the bid to US$1499.95 via eBay store; the offer was eclipsed later. The Cranberries recorded \"Roses\" at the Metalworks Studios in Mississauga, Canada, from 18 April to 15 May 2011 with Stephen Street, who previously collaborated with the band on their first, second and fifth albums. The Cranberries worked on 15 tracks during the \"Roses\" session, although not all were included on the album. \"Roses\" was released on 27 February 2012. The sixth studio album \"Roses\" peaked at 51 on the \"Billboard\" 200 chart and achieved numerous placements on other \"Billboard\" charts, such as No. 4 on the Independent Albums, No. 6 on the Canadian Albums Chart, No. 9 on the Alternative Albums, No. 10 on the Rock Albums and No. 20 on Tastemaker Albums chart. On 18 February 2012 the Cranberries returned to the stage of the Ariston Theatre where they presented their new single \"Tomorrow\" in Sanremo at the 62nd Song Festival di Sanremo, Italy. They performed \"Tomorrow\" and \"Zombie\", having been invited on more than one occasion to the festival. On 18 April 2013, the Cranberries album designer Storm Thorgerson died. The English graphic designer, mainly influenced by surrealism, designed \"Bury the Hatchet\" and \"Wake Up and Smell the Coffee\". Thorgerson also created artworks for these two album's singles and \"Beneath the Skin – Live in Paris\". O'Riordan started legal proceedings against Noel Hogan in October 2013. The case was struck out in July 2015 and the cause was not divulged. O'Riordan began recording new material with D.A.R.K. in April 2014.", "In October 2016, the Cranberries received a BMI Award in London for three million radio plays in the United States of their single \"Dreams\" taken from their debut studio album. The award had been presented with a special citation of achievement. An acoustic Cranberries album titled \"Something Else\" was released on 28 April 2017, through BMG. \"Something Else\" featured orchestral arrangements of prior releases, re-recorded in 2016 acoustically with the Irish Chamber Orchestra, and three new songs: \"The Glory\", \"Why\", and \"Rupture\". With the release of the new album, the group announced a tour which was to include dates in Europe, parts of the UK, and North America. The shows were scheduled in smaller venues, with live orchestral accompaniment. However, in May 2017, shortly into the European tour, the Cranberries had to cancel the remainder of the European dates due to O'Riordan's health, with the band's website citing \"medical reasons associated with a back problem\". The North American tour dates were cancelled in July when her recovery had not progressed enough for her to participate. On 15 January 2018, O'Riordan died unexpectedly in London, England. The inquest into her death was adjourned until 3 April while the coroner awaited the results of \"various tests\". On 6 September 2018, it was ruled that she had drowned in her hotel room's bathtub due to sedation by alcohol poisoning. On 7 March 2018, the band announced they were releasing a special newly remastered 25th anniversary edition of their debut album \"Everybody Else Is Doing It, So Why Can't We?\", with previously unreleased material as well as other bonus material from the time of the album. However, with O'Riordan's death it was delayed until 19 October 2018. The band also decided to complete their new album underway at the time O'Riordan died, for which she had already recorded the vocals. In September 2018, Noel Hogan confirmed the Cranberries would not be continuing as a band, and their final album will be called \"In the End\" stating: \"We will do this album and then that will be it. No one wants to do this without Dolores... So there's a song called 'In the End', it's the last song on the album, and it just kind of summed up the whole album and the band. Because it's definitely the end of it for us. So we've called it that.\" On 15 January 2019, one year after O'Riordan's death, the band released the first single from \"In the End\", called \"All Over Now\". The Cranberries released \"In the End\" on 26 April 2019. The album peaked at No. 8 in Germany, No. 5 in France, No. 4 in Italy, No. 3 in Ireland and charted in the Top 10 of the UK Official Charts. \"In the End\" also went to No. 7 on the \"Billboard\" Independent Albums chart and No. 10 on the \"Billboard\" Top Alternative Albums chart. The band released the single \"Wake Me When It's Over\" on 19 June 2019. On 18 January 2019, Noel Hogan, Mike Hogan and Fergal Lawler were conferred with honorary doctorates by University of Limerick (UL). The posthumous award was presented to Eileen O'Riordan, mother of Dolores O'Riordan. They were all presented with an Honorary Doctorate of Letters.", "On 24 April 2019, Saint Sister, a duo from Northern Ireland, performed an a cappella rendition of the song \"Dreams\" at Lyra McKee's funeral in Belfast, who was murdered by the New IRA in April 2019. On 1 September 2019, Noel Hogan joined Kodaline on stage at the Electric Picnic Festival in Stradbally, Ireland, to play \"Zombie\" in tribute to Dolores O'Riordan. On 3 October 2019, the music video restoration campaign of the entire catalogue of the Cranberries on YouTube was launched, twenty-five years after the release of the album \"No Need to Argue\", with the debut of an early \"Zombie\" concert performance filmed in 1994 at London's Astoria and remastered in high definition. \"Zombie\" is performed seven months before the song was released as a single. In 2019, in an interview for \"Rock Art Fashion\", Fergal Lawler commented that the band would release a remastered edition of their album \"No Need to Argue\" as part of a 25th anniversary box set. On 20 November 2019, the Cranberries' final album \"In the End\" was nominated for Best Rock Album at the 62nd Annual Grammy Awards. On 18 April 2020, the official music video for \"Zombie\" became the first song by an Irish band to reach over one billion views on YouTube, becoming the third video from the 1990s, and the sixth from the 20th century, to reach the milestone on the video streaming service. The Cranberries now joined a club of artists to reach this landmark including Guns N' Roses, Nirvana, Queen and A-ha. On 20 April 2020, the official music video of the Cranberries' \"Zombie\" remastered in 4K resolution was officially released for YouTube, with previously unseen footage from the original video shoot.", "Their music has been likened to Sinéad O'Connor and Siouxsie and the Banshees. O'Riordan stated her singing style incorporating yodelling was inspired by her father who used to sing \"The Lonesome Cattle Call\": \"I just kept with my father all the time, just copying him and eventually I learned how to do it. Then over the years there were artists like Sinéad O'Connor and Siouxsie from Siouxsie and the Banshees and even Peter Harvey was doing it. It was something that you could work into The Cranberries' format because a lot of that was used in religious Irish music\". O'Riordan was influenced by Gregorian chant, Irish folk music, classical piano, listening to Duran Duran, the Cure, Depeche Mode, and the Smiths. Lawler, Mike and Noel Hogan, were inspired by the Cure, Joy Division, Echo & the Bunnymen, Siouxsie and the Banshees, the Clash, and the Smiths. Noel Hogan stressed that at their beginnings, \"All these roads led to the Smiths, who became very big in our lives later on.\"", "Touring musicians", "Studio albums" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Červený Hrádek Castle.", "Long cellar.", "St. Jiljí's Church.", "A Black rider.", "Education.", "ZUŠ.", "Twin towns — sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Červený Hrádek (formerly Borek Castle) was founded by the Kraa family prior to 1415. The castle was sacked by the Hussites in 1421 and, after renovation later in the 15th century, the façade was painted red – hence the name Červený Hrádek (or Red Castle). In 1687 and 1688, the baroque sculptor Jan Brokoff carved statues, fountains and other works at the castle. His son Ferdinand Maxmilian Brokoff, also a sculptor, was born there. The last aristocratic family to own the castle were the Hohenlohe-Langeburgs, Accessible areas of the castle include the castle's chapel, the hall of mirrors, the gallery and the study of Max Hohenlohe, the last owner. In August 1938, the British mediator in the dispute between Germany and Czechoslovakia over the Sudetenland, Lord Runciman, met the leader of the Sudeten German Party (SdP), Konrad Henlein, at the castle.", "Long cellar was built in year 1555. People built cellar for 40 years. It had 150 counters. Its second name is Sand cellar. Long cellar served to the brewery and to a beer storage. Thanks to this, the beer was better. Beer was brewed in Jirkov from year 1443. People brewed beer in the 16th and 17th centuries. A brewery was built near Long cellar in year 1841; thanks to this, Long cellar lost importance. Until 1918, the town was part of the Austrian monarchy (Austria side after the compromise of 1867), in the \"KOMOTAU\" (Chomutov) district, one of the 94 \"Bezirkshauptmannschaften\" in Bohemia. From 1938 to 1945 it was one of the municipalities in Sudetenland. After the surrender of Germany, nearly all of the town's hitherto inhabitants were expelled, and new Czech settlers found a new home in the depopulated city.", "The oldest monument in Jirkov. St. Jiljí's Church was originated in year 1300. It was rebuilt and improved in year 1538 again.", "It happened in year 1588. Jirkov juniors made a party of Masopust. When Masopust party stopped in front of the cemetery, a drunk capitan blew his trumpet, and called: “dead people,don’t be lazy, quickly wake up, it’s Masopust.’’The people went to Chomutov and back..", "", "ZUŠ is a type of Art School in the Czech Republic. ZUŠ Jirkov - formerly a primary school. In year 1950 the primary school became ZUŠ. The reason was: a town built four new primary schools, and one special school. Now, there are lessons of music, dancing and painting.", "Jirkov is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", ".uk right of registration.", "Second-level domains.", "Active.", "Allocation of domain names.", "sch.uk." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In October 1984, RFC 920 set out the creation of ccTLDs using country codes derived from the corresponding two-letter code in the ISO 3166-1 list. \"GB\" is the UK's ISO 3166 country code. However, the UK academic network Name Registration Scheme, JANET NRS, had defined \"UK\" as the top-level domain a few months before the compilation of the ISO-derived list. Consequently,. uk was chosen and registered on 24 July 1985..gb was reserved but never widely used and it is no longer possible to register domains under that ccTLD. As with other ccTLDs in the early days it was originally delegated by Jon Postel to a \"trusted person\" to manage. Andrew McDowell at UCL was assigned.uk, the first country code delegation. In time, he passed it to Willie Black at the UK Education and Research Networking Association (UKERNA). Originally, domain requests were emailed, manually screened by and then forwarded to the UK Naming Committee before being processed by UKERNA. Membership of this committee was restricted to a group of high-end ISPs who were part of a formal peering arrangement. The Naming Committee was organised as a mailing list to which all proposed names were circulated. The members would consider the proposals under a ruleset that insisted that all domain names should be very close if not identical to a registered business name of the registrant. Members of the Naming Committee could object to any name, and if at least a small number of objections were received, the name was refused. By the mid-1990s the growth of the Internet, and particularly the advent of the World Wide Web was pushing requests for domain name registrations up to levels that were not manageable by a group of part-time voluntary managers. Oliver Smith of Demon Internet forced the issue by providing the committee with a series of automated tools, called the \"automaton\", which formalised and automated the naming process end to end. This allowed many more registrations to be processed far more reliably and rapidly, and inspired individuals such as Ivan Pope to explore more entrepreneurial approaches to registration. Various plans were put forward for the possible management of the domain, mostly Internet service providers seeking to stake a claim, each of which were naturally unacceptable to the rest of the committee. In response to this Black, as the.uk Name, stepped up with a bold proposal for a not-for-profit commercial entity to deal with the.uk domain properly. Commercial interests initially balked at this, but with widespread support Nominet UK was formed in 1996 to be the.uk Network Information Centre, a role which it continues to this day. The general form of the rules (i.e. which domains can be registered and whether to allow second level domains) was set by the Naming Committee. Nominet has not made major changes to the rules, although it has introduced a new second level domain.me.uk for individuals. Until 10 June 2014 it was not possible to register a domain name directly under.uk (such as \"internet.uk\"); it was only possible as a third-level domain (such as \"internet.co.uk\"). However, some domains delegated before the creation of Nominet UK were in existence even before 10 June 2014, for example \"mod.uk\" (Ministry of Defence), \"parliament.uk\" (Parliament), \"bl.uk\" and \"british-library.uk\" (the British Library), \"nls.uk\" (the National Library of Scotland), \"nhs.uk\" (The National Health Service), and \"jet.uk\" (UKAEA as operator of the Joint European Torus experimental fusion tokamak). Currently the rights to the.uk domain name are owned by Nominet UK. It is possible to directly register a domain name with Nominet UK, but it is faster and cheaper to do it via a Nominet-accredited domain registrar.", "New registrations directly under.uk have been accepted by Nominet since 10 June 2014 08:00 BST, however there was a reservation period for existing customers who already had a.co.uk,.org.uk,.me.uk,.net.uk,.ltd.uk or.plc.uk domain to claim the corresponding.uk domain, which ran until 06:00 BST on 25 June 2019. If a domain was registered before 23:59 UTC on 28 October 2013 the user had the rights to the equivalent.uk domain (providing there was no other corresponding.co.uk,.org.uk, me.uk,.ltd.uk,.plc.uk or.net.uk registered). For example, if 'your-company.co.uk' was held since 2 October 2013, the registrant of 'your-company.co.uk' had the reserved right of registering 'your-company.uk', up until 06:00 BST on 25 June 2019. 123-reg and NamesCo both created such domains for their customers for free but then began demanding payment in September 2019.", "", ".co.uk,.ltd.uk,.me.uk,.net.uk,.nic.uk,.org.uk,.plc.uk and.sch.uk are managed by Nominet UK and except for.nic.uk are available for registration by the public (though they all carry various degrees of restrictions). Other second-level domains are managed by various government agencies, and generally more strongly controlled.", "Allocations are on a strict first-come, first-served basis to qualified applicants. There are no territorial restrictions: applicants need not have any connection to the UK other than those outlined below for.ltd.uk and other restricted domains. .co.uk is by far the most used of the domains, followed by.org.uk then.me.uk..plc.uk and.ltd.uk are only rarely used. The number of new registrations for each of the different.uk domains on a month by month basis can be seen on the Nominet UK website. The intended restriction of.co.uk to companies is purely nominal; in practice it is open to any and all applicants. Likewise, whilst.org.uk is for organisations, there are no restrictions on registering domains. While.me.uk originally had no restrictions on registrants it has since been tightened up to require registrants to be natural persons (i.e. not companies, etc.). However, registrants in.ltd.uk must be, and remain, private limited companies incorporated under the UK Companies Acts. In addition, names can only be registered if they correspond (in accordance with the algorithm in the rules of registration) with the exact company name, as recorded at the companies registry at Companies House. The same conditions apply for public limited companies which wish to use a.plc.uk domain name. Neither of these domains is widely used. .net.uk is more open, but the Nominet regulations still mean that a registrant must be an ISP, or a similar body, and that the domain is not used for providing services to end-users..nic.uk, however, is limited solely to domains operated by Nominet. .ac.uk domains are intended for the use of higher education institutions and further education colleges, and are also used by some academic support bodies such as the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service public research establishments, and learned societies such as the Royal Society. Primary and secondary education uses.sch.uk.", "Unusually,.sch.uk domains are allocated at the fourth level, with the third level being taken up by the name of the local authority (LA, previously LEA or local education authority) e.g. schoolname.leaname.sch.uk. For example, The Campion School in Hornchurch has the domain name campion.havering.sch.uk (currently redirects to thecampionschool.org.uk) and West Exe School in Exeter has the domain name westexe.devon.sch.uk. Previously applications were made in the normal way, but after Nominet came to an arrangement with the education authorities, one domain per school was issued automatically. Those that had already registered a.co.uk domain were still given one, and were able to redirect it to their.co.uk domain." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Music career.", "1987–1992: \"Alanis\" and \"Now Is the Time\".", "1993–1997: \"Jagged Little Pill\".", "1998–2000: \"Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie\" and \"Alanis Unplugged\".", "2001–2005: \"Under Rug Swept\" and \"So-Called Chaos\".", "2006–2010: \"Flavors of Entanglement\".", "2011–2016: \"Havoc and Bright Lights\" and \"Jagged Little Pill\" 20th anniversary.", "2017–present: \"Such Pretty Forks in the Road\".", "Acting career.", "Other work.", "Personal life.", "Relationships.", "Tours." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Morissette was born June 1, 1974 in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada to teacher Georgia Mary Ann (née Feuerstein) and high-school principal and French teacher Alan Richard Morissette. She has two brothers: older brother Chad is a business entrepreneur, and twin brother (12 minutes older) Wade is a musician. Her father is of French and Irish descent and her mother has Hungarian ancestry. Her parents were teachers in a military school and due to their work often had to move. Between the ages of three and six she lived with her parents in Lahr (Black Forest), Germany. When she was six years old, she returned to Ottawa and started to play the piano. In 1981, at the age of seven, she began dance lessons. Morissette had a Catholic upbringing. She attended Holy Family Catholic School for elementary school and Immaculata High School for Grades 7 and 8 before completing the rest of her high school at Glebe Collegiate Institute. She appeared on the children's television show \"You Can't Do That on Television\" for five episodes when she was in junior high school.", "", "Morissette recorded her first demo called \"Fate Stay with Me\", produced by Lindsay Thomas Morgan at Marigold Studios in Toronto, engineered by Rich Dodson of Canadian classic rock band The Stampeders. A second demo tape was recorded on cassette in August 1989 and sent to Geffen Records, but the tape has never been heard as it was stolen, among other records, in a burglary of the label's headquarters in October 1989. In 1991, MCA Records Canada released Morissette's debut album, \"Alanis\", in Canada only. Morissette co-wrote every track on the album with its producer, Leslie Howe. The dance-pop album went platinum, and its first single, \"Too Hot\", reached the top 20 on the \"RPM\" singles chart. Subsequent singles \"Walk Away\" and \"Feel Your Love\" reached the top 40. Morissette's popularity, style of music and appearance, particularly that of her hair, led her to become known as the Debbie Gibson of Canada; comparisons to Tiffany were also common. During the same period, she was a concert opening act for rapper Vanilla Ice. Morissette was nominated for three 1992 Juno Awards: Most Promising Female Vocalist of the Year (which she won), Single of the Year and Best Dance Recording (both for \"Too Hot\"). In 1992, she released her second album, \"Now Is the Time\", a ballad-driven record that featured less glitzy production than \"Alanis\" and contained more thoughtful lyrics. Morissette wrote the songs with the album's producer, Leslie Howe, and Serge Côté. She said of the album, \"People could go, 'Boo, hiss, hiss, this girl's like another Tiffany or whatever.' But the way I look at it... people will like your next album if it's a suck-ass one.\" As with \"Alanis\" (1991), \"Now Is the Time\" (1992) was released only in Canada and produced three top 40 singles—\"An Emotion Away\", the minor adult contemporary hit \"No Apologies\" as well as \"(Change Is) Never a Waste of Time\". The industry considered it a commercial failure, however, since it sold only a little more than half the copies of her first album. With her two-album deal with MCA Records Canada complete, Morissette was left without a major label contract.", "In 1993, Morissette's publisher Leeds Levy at MCA Music Publishing introduced her to manager Scott Welch. Welch told HitQuarters he was impressed by her \"spectacular voice\", her character and her lyrics. At the time she was still living at home with her parents. Together they decided it would be best for her career to move to Toronto and start writing with other people. After graduating from high school, Morissette moved from Ottawa to Toronto. Her publisher funded part of her development and when she met producer and songwriter Glen Ballard, he believed in her talent enough to let her use his studio. The two wrote and recorded Morissette's first internationally released album, \"Jagged Little Pill\", and by the spring of 1995, she had signed a deal with Maverick Records. In the same year she learned how to play guitar. According to manager Welch, every label they approached, apart from Maverick, declined to sign Morissette. Maverick Records released \"Jagged Little Pill\" internationally in 1995. The album was expected only to sell enough for Morissette to make a follow-up, but the situation improved quickly when KROQ-FM, an influential Los Angeles modern rock radio station, began playing \"You Oughta Know\", the album's first single. The song instantly garnered attention for its scathing, explicit lyrics, and a subsequent music video went into heavy rotation on MTV and MuchMusic. After the success of \"You Oughta Know\", the album's other hits helped send \"Jagged Little Pill\" to the top of the charts. \"All I Really Want\" and \"Hand in My Pocket\" followed, and the fourth U.S. single, \"Ironic\", became Morissette's biggest hit. \"You Learn\" and \"Head over Feet\", the fifth and sixth singles, kept \"Jagged Little Pill\" (1995) in the top 20 on the \"Billboard\" 200 albums chart for more than a year. \"Jagged Little Pill\" sold more than 16 million copies in the U.S.; it sold 33 million worldwide, making it the second biggest-selling album by a female artist (behind Shania Twain's \"Come On Over\"). Morissette's popularity grew significantly in Canada, where the album was certified twelve times platinum and produced four \"RPM\" chart-toppers: \"Hand in My Pocket\", \"Ironic\", \"You Learn\", and \"Head over Feet\". The album was also a bestseller in Australia and the United Kingdom. Morissette's success with \"Jagged Little Pill\" (1995) was credited with opening doors for female singers such as Shakira, Meredith Brooks and, in the early 2000s, Pink, Michelle Branch, and fellow Canadian Avril Lavigne. She was criticized for collaborating with producer and supposed image-maker Ballard, and her previous albums also proved a hindrance for her respectability. Morissette and the album won six Juno Awards in 1996: Album of the Year, Single of the Year (\"You Oughta Know\"), Female Vocalist of the Year, Songwriter of the Year and Best Rock Album. At the 1996 Grammy Awards, she won Best Female Rock Vocal Performance, Best Rock Song (both for \"You Oughta Know\"), Best Rock Album and Album of the Year. Later in 1996, Morissette embarked on an 18-month world tour in support of \"Jagged Little Pill\", beginning in small clubs and ending in large venues. Taylor Hawkins, who later joined the Foo Fighters, was the tour's drummer. \"Ironic\" was nominated for two 1997 Grammy Awards—Record of the Year and Best Music Video, Short Form—and won Single of the Year at the 1997 Juno Awards, where Morissette also won Songwriter of the Year and the International Achievement Award. The video \"Jagged Little Pill, Live\", which was co-directed by Morissette and chronicled the bulk of her tour, won a 1998 Grammy Award for Best Music Video, Long Form. Following the tour, Morissette began practicing Iyengar Yoga for balance. After the last December 1996 show, she went to India for six weeks, accompanied by her mother, two aunts and two friends. She said the trip was \"incredible\".", "Morissette was featured as a guest vocalist on Ringo Starr's cover of \"Drift Away\" on his 1998 album, \"Vertical Man\", and on the songs \"Don't Drink the Water\" and \"Spoon\" on the Dave Matthews Band album \"Before These Crowded Streets\". She recorded the song \"Uninvited\" for the soundtrack to the 1998 film \"City of Angels\". Although the track was never commercially released as a single, it received widespread radio airplay in the U.S. At the 1999 Grammy Awards, it won in the categories of Best Rock Song and Best Female Rock Vocal Performance, and was nominated for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media. Later in 1998, Morissette released her fourth album, \"Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie\", which she wrote and produced with Glen Ballard. The label hoped to sell 1 million copies of the album on initial release; instead, it debuted at number one on the \"Billboard\" 200 chart with first-week sales of 469,000 copies—a record, at the time, for the highest first-week sales of an album by a female artist. The wordy, personal lyrics on \"Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie\" alienated many fans, and after the album sold considerably less than \"Jagged Little Pill\" (1995), many labelled it an example of the sophomore jinx. However, it received positive reviews, including a four-star review from \"Rolling Stone\". In Canada, it won the Juno Award for Best Album and was certified four times platinum. \"Thank U\", the album's only major international hit single, was nominated for the 2000 Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance; the music video, which featured Morissette nude, generated mild controversy. Morissette herself directed the videos for \"Unsent\" and \"So Pure\", which won, respectively, the MuchMusic Video Award for Best Director and the Juno Award for Video of the Year. Morissette contributed vocals to \"Mercy\", \"Hope\", \"Innocence\" and \"Faith\", four tracks on Jonathan Elias's project \"The Prayer Cycle\", which was released in 1999. The same year, she released the live acoustic album \"Alanis Unplugged\", which was recorded during her appearance on the television show \"MTV Unplugged\". It featured tracks from her previous two albums alongside four new songs, including \"King of Pain\" (a cover of The Police song) and \"No Pressure over Cappuccino\", which Morissette wrote with her main guitar player, Nick Lashley. The recording of the \"Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie\" track \"That I Would Be Good\", released as a single, became a minor hit on hot adult contemporary radio in America. Also in 1999, Morissette released a live version of her song \"Are You Still Mad\" on the charity album \"Live in the X Lounge II\". For her live rendition of \"So Pure\" at Woodstock '99, she was nominated for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance at the 2001 Grammy Awards. During summer 1999, Morissette toured with singer-songwriter Tori Amos on the \"5 and a Half Weeks Tour\" in support of Amos' album \"To Venus and Back\" (1999).", "In 2001, Morissette was featured with Stephanie McKay on the Tricky song \"Excess\", which is on his album \"Blowback\". Morissette released her fifth studio album, \"Under Rug Swept\", in February 2002. For the first time in her career, she took on the role of sole writer and producer of an album. Her band, comprising Joel Shearer, Nick Lashley, Chris Chaney, and Gary Novak, played the majority of the instruments; additional contributions came from Eric Avery, Dean DeLeo, Flea, and Meshell Ndegeocello. \"Under Rug Swept\" debuted at number one on the \"Billboard\" 200 chart, eventually going platinum in Canada and selling one million copies in the U.S. It produced the hit single \"Hands Clean\", which topped the Canadian Singles Chart and received substantial radio play; for her work on \"Hands Clean\" and \"So Unsexy\", Morissette won a Juno Award for Producer of the Year. A second single, \"Precious Illusions\", was released, but it did not garner significant success outside Canada or U.S. hot AC radio. Later in 2002, Morissette released the combination package \"Feast on Scraps\", which includes a DVD of live concert and backstage documentary footage directed by her and a CD containing eight previously unreleased songs from the \"Under Rug Swept\" recording sessions. Preceded by the single \"Simple Together\", it sold roughly 70,000 copies in the U.S. and was nominated for a Juno Award for Music DVD of the Year. Morissette hosted the Juno Awards of 2004 dressed in a bathrobe, which she took off to reveal a flesh-colored bodysuit, a response to the era of censorship in the U.S. caused by Janet Jackson's breast-flash incident during the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show. Morissette released her sixth studio album, \"So-Called Chaos\", in May 2004. She wrote the songs on her own again, and co-produced the album with Tim Thorney and pop music producer John Shanks. The album debuted at number five on the \"Billboard\" 200 chart to generally mixed critical reviews, and it became Morissette's lowest seller in the U.S. The lead single, \"Everything\", achieved major success on Adult Top 40 radio in America and was moderately popular elsewhere, particularly in Canada, although it failed to reach the top 40 on the U.S. Hot 100. Because the first line of the song includes the word \"asshole\", American radio stations refused to play it, and the single version was changed to include the word \"nightmare\" instead. Two other singles, \"Out Is Through\" and \"Eight Easy Steps\", fared considerably worse, although a dance mix of \"Eight Easy Steps\" was a U.S. club hit. Morissette embarked on a U.S. summer tour with long-time friends and fellow Canadians Barenaked Ladies, working with the non-profit environmental organization Reverb. To commemorate the 10th anniversary of \"Jagged Little Pill\" (1995), Morissette released a studio acoustic version, \"Jagged Little Pill Acoustic\", in June 2005. The album was released exclusively through Starbucks' Hear Music retail concept through their coffee shops for a six-week run. The limited availability led to a dispute between Maverick Records and HMV North America, who retaliated by removing Morissette's other albums from sale for the duration of Starbucks's exclusive six-week sale., \"Jagged Little Pill Acoustic\" had sold 372,000 copies in the U.S., and a video for \"Hand in My Pocket\" received rotation on VH1 in America. The accompanying tour ran for two months in mid-2005, with Morissette playing small theatre venues. During the same period, Morissette was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame. The singer opened for The Rolling Stones for a few dates of their A Bigger Bang Tour in the autumn of 2005. Morissette released the greatest hits album \"\" in late 2005. The lead single and only new track, a cover of Seal's \"Crazy\", was an Adult Top 40 and dance hit in the U.S., but achieved only minimal chart success elsewhere. A limited edition of \"The Collection\" features a DVD including a documentary with videos of two unreleased songs from Morissette's 1996 Can't Not Tour: \"King of Intimidation\" and \"Can't Not\". (A reworked version of \"Can't Not\" had also appeared on \"Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie\".) The DVD also includes a ninety-second clip of the unreleased video for the single \"Joining You\"., \"The Collection\" had sold 373,000 copies in the U.S., according to Nielsen SoundScan. That same year, Morissette contributed the song \"Wunderkind\" to the soundtrack of the film \"\", and she was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song.", "2006 marked the first year in Morissette's musical career without a single concert appearance showcasing her own songs, with the exception of an appearance on \"The Tonight Show with Jay Leno\" in January when she performed \"Wunderkind\". On April 1, 2007, Morissette released a tongue-in-cheek cover of The Black Eyed Peas's selection \"My Humps\", which she recorded in a slow, mournful voice, accompanied only by a piano. The accompanying YouTube-hosted video, in which she dances provocatively with a group of men and hits the ones who act as if attempting to touch her breasts, had received 16,465,653 views as of February 15, 2009. Morissette did not take any interviews for a time to explain the song, and it was theorized that she did it as an April Fools' Day joke. Black Eyed Peas vocalist Stacy \"Fergie\" Ferguson responded by sending Morissette a buttocks-shaped cake with an approving note. On the verge of the release of her following album, she finally elaborated on how the video came to be, citing that she became very much emotionally loaded while recording her new songs one after the other and one day she wished she could do a simple song like \"My Humps\" and the joke just took a life of its own. Morissette performed at a gig for The Nightwatchman, a.k.a. Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine and Audioslave, at the Hotel Café in Los Angeles in April 2007. The following June, she performed \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" and \"O Canada\", the American and Canadian national anthems, in Game 4 of the Stanley Cup Finals between the Ottawa Senators and the Anaheim Ducks in Ottawa, Ontario. (The NHL requires arenas to perform both the American and Canadian national anthems at games involving teams from both countries.) In early 2008, Morissette participated in a tour with Matchbox Twenty and Mutemath as a special guest. Morissette's seventh studio album, \"Flavors of Entanglement\", which was produced by Guy Sigsworth, was released in mid-2008. She has stated that in late 2008, she would embark on a North American headlining tour, but in the meantime she would be promoting the album internationally by performing at shows and festivals and making television and radio appearances. The album's first single was \"Underneath\", a video for which was submitted to the 2007 Elevate Film Festival, the purpose of which festival was to create documentaries, music videos, narratives and shorts regarding subjects to raise the level of human consciousness on the earth. On October 3, 2008, Morissette released the video for her latest single, \"Not as We\". Morissette contributed to \"1 Giant Leap\", performing \"Arrival\" with Zap Mama and she has released an acoustic version of her song \"Still\" as part of a compilation from Music for Relief in support of the 2010 Haiti earthquake crisis. In 2008 she contributed a recording of \"Versions of Violence\" for the album to promote peace. Morissette has also recorded a cover of the 1984 Willie Nelson and Julio Iglesias hit, \"To All the Girls I've Loved Before\", re-written as \"To All the Boys I've Loved Before\". Nelson played rhythm guitar on the recording. In April 2010, Morissette released the song \"I Remain\", which she wrote for the \"\" soundtrack. On May 26, 2010, the season finale of \"American Idol\", Morissette performed a duet of her song \"You Oughta Know\" with Runner Up Crystal Bowersox. Morissette left Maverick Records after all promotion for \"Flavors\" was completed.", "On November 20, 2011, Morissette appeared at the American Music Awards. When asked about the new album during a short interview, she said she had recorded 31 songs, and that the album would \"likely be out next year, probably [in] summertime\". On December 21, 2011, Morissette performed a duet of \"Uninvited\" with finalist Josh Krajcik during the performance finale of the X-Factor. Morissette embarked on a European tour for the summer of 2012, according to Alanis.com. In early May 2012, a new song called \"Magical Child\" appeared on a Starbucks compilation called Every Mother Counts. On May 2, 2012, Morissette revealed through her Facebook account that her eighth studio album, entitled \"Havoc and Bright Lights\", would be released in August 2012, on new label Collective Sounds, distributed by Sony's RED Distribution. On the same day, \"Billboard\" specified the date as August 28 and revealed the album would contain twelve tracks. The album's lead single, \"Guardian\", was released on iTunes on May 15, 2012, and hit the radio airwaves four days prior to this. The single had minor success in North America, charting the \"Billboard\" Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles in the US and almost reaching the top 40 in Canada. However, the song did become a hit in several countries in Europe. \"Receive\", the second single off the album, was released early December the same year. Morissette received the UCLA Spring Sing's George and Ira Gershwin Award on May 16, 2014 at Pauley Pavilion. On her Web site starting in the summer of 2014, in celebration of her fortieth birthday, the LP record for her song \"Big Sur\" was offered for sale, which was previously available on the Target edition of her 2012 album, \"Havoc and Bright Lights\". July 25, 2014, was the start of the ten-show Intimate and Acoustic tour. In celebration of the twentieth anniversary of the release of \"Jagged Little Pill\", a new four-disc collector's edition was released on October 30, 2015. The four-disc edition includes remastered audio of the original album as well as an entire disc of 10 unreleased demos from the era, handpicked by Morissette from her archives, offering a deeper and more personal look at the classic album. Also included is a previously unreleased concert from 1995 as well as 2005's \"Jagged Little Pill Acoustic\".", "In August 2017, Morissette teased a song called \"Aftershow Afterglow\" while on tour. On October 27, 2017, she premiered a new song entitled \"Rest\" and performed \"Castle of Glass\" with members of the band No Doubt and Mike Shinoda at the Linkin Park and Friends – Celebrate Life in Honor of Chester Bennington memorial concert. In November 2017, she tweeted that she was writing 22 songs with Michael Farrell. On March 16, 2018, Morissette performed a new song called \"Ablaze\" during her 2018 tour. In October 2018, she revealed on social media that she had written 23 new songs, and hinted at a new album with hashtag \"#alanismorissettenewrecord2019\", after a six-year hiatus. Song titles from the writing session include \"Reckoning\", \"Diagnosis\", \"Her\" and \"Legacy\". Morissette also contributed to the Jagged Little Pill musical two new songs \"Smiling\" and \"Predator\", both of which she herself performed live later, on December 2, 2019. In June 2019, Morissette went into studio in Los Angeles. In an interview, she said that she had written all the songs, and that \"Smiling\" will be included on the new album, likely to be released early 2020. On August 8, 2019, she revealed that the new album was produced by Alex Hope and Catherine Marks. On December 1, 2019, Morissette announced her first studio album in eight years, \"Such Pretty Forks in the Road\", set for release on May 1, 2020. The first single off the record, \"Reasons I Drink\", was released on December 2, 2019. Morissette is featured on Halsey's song \"Alanis' Interlude\", released on January 17, 2020. On February 5, 2020, she revealed that her upcoming album was mixed by Chris Dugan. The second single from the album, \"Smiling\", was released on February 20, 2020. On April 15, 2020, Morissette announced that the album's release would be postponed due to concerns over the COVID-19 pandemic. Its new release date is set for July 31, 2020.", "In 1986, Morissette had her first stint as an actress in five episodes of the children's television show \"You Can't Do That on Television\". She appeared on stage with the Orpheus Musical Theatre Society in 1985 and 1988. In 1999, Morissette delved into acting again, for the first time since 1993, appearing as God in the Kevin Smith comedy \"Dogma\" and contributing the song \"Still\" to its soundtrack. Morissette reprised her role as God for a post-credits scene in Smith's next film, \"Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back\", to literally close the book on the View Askewniverse. She also appeared in the hit HBO comedies \"Sex and the City\" and \"Curb Your Enthusiasm\", appeared in the play \"The Vagina Monologues\", and had brief cameos playing herself in the Brazilian hit soap operas \"Celebridade\" and \"Malhação\". In late 2003, Morissette appeared in the Off-Broadway play \"The Exonerated\" as Sunny Jacobs, a death row inmate freed after proof surfaced that she was innocent. In April 2006, MTV News reported that Morissette would reprise her role in \"The Exonerated\" in London from May 23 until May 28. She expanded her acting credentials with the July 2004 release of the Cole Porter biographical film \"De-Lovely\", in which she performed the song \"Let's Do It (Let's Fall in Love)\" and had a brief role as an anonymous stage performer. In February 2005, she made a guest appearance on the Canadian television show \"\" with \"Dogma\" co-star Jason Mewes and director Kevin Smith. Also in 2005, Morissette, then engaged to Ryan Reynolds, made a cameo appearance as \"herself\" as a former client of Reynolds' character in the film \"Just Friends\". This scene was deleted from the theatrical release, and is only available on the DVD. In 2006, she guest-starred in an episode of Lifetime's \"Lovespring International\" as a homeless woman named Lucinda, three episodes of FX's \"Nip/Tuck\", playing a lesbian named Poppy, and the mockumentary-documentary \"Pittsburgh\" as herself. Morissette has appeared in eight episodes of \"Weeds\", playing Dr. Audra Kitson, a \"no-nonsense obstetrician\" who treats pregnant main character Nancy Botwin. Her first episode aired in July 2009. In early 2010, Morissette returned to the stage, performing a one-night engagement in \"An Oak Tree\", an experimental play in Los Angeles. The performance was a sell-out. In April 2010, Morissette was confirmed in the cast of \"Weeds\" season six, performing again her role as Dr. Audra Kitson. Morissette also starred in a film adaptation of Philip K. Dick's novel \"Radio Free Albemuth\". Morissette plays Sylvia, an ordinary woman in unexpected remission from lymphoma. Morissette stated that she is \"...a big fan of Philip K. Dick's poetic and expansively imaginative books\" and that she \"feel[s] blessed to portray Sylvia, and to be part of this story being told in film\". She appeared as Amanda, a former bandmate of main character Ava Alexander (played by Maya Rudolph), in one episode of NBC's \"Up All Night\" on February 16, 2012. Rudolph officiated as minister for Morissette's wedding with both performing the explicit version of their hit hip hop song \"Back It Up (Beep Beep)\". In 2014, Morissette played the role of Marisa Damia, the lover of architect and designer Eileen Gray, in the film \"The Price of Desire\", directed by Mary McGuckian.", "In October 2015, \"Conversation with Alanis Morissette\" features conversations with different individuals from different schools and walks of life discussing everything from psychology to art to spirituality to design to health and well-being, to relationships (whether they be romantic or colleagueship or parent with children relationships). The monthly podcast is currently available to download on iTunes and free to listen to on YouTube. In January 2016, she began an advice column in \"The Guardian\" newspaper. In May 2018, the American Repertory Theater (Cambridge, Massachusetts) premiered \"Jagged Little Pill,\" a musical with music by Morissette and Glen Ballard, lyrics by Morissette, book by Diablo Cody, and directed by Diane Paulus.", "Morissette was raised in a devout Roman Catholic family in Canada. She became a US citizen in 2005, while retaining her Canadian citizenship. Throughout her teen years and 20s, Morissette suffered from depression and various eating disorders. She recovered from them and started to eat a healthier diet. In 2009, she ran a marathon promoting awareness for the National Eating Disorders Association. Over a period of seven years, Morissette's business manager Jonathan Schwatz stole over $5 million from her. He admitted his guilt in April 2017 and was sentenced to six years in prison. On October 22, 2019, Morissette shared her nearly decade-long experience with postpartum depression on \"CBS This Morning\".", "Morissette dated actor and comedian Dave Coulier for a short time in the early 1990s. In a 2008 interview, Coulier said he was the ex-boyfriend who inspired Morissette's song \"You Oughta Know\"; Morissette has not commented on the subject of the song. Morissette met Canadian actor Ryan Reynolds at Drew Barrymore's birthday party in 2002, and the couple began dating soon afterwards. They announced their engagement in June 2004. In February 2007, representatives for Morissette and Reynolds announced they had decided to end their engagement. Morissette has stated that her album \"Flavors of Entanglement\" was created out of her grief after the breakup, saying that \"it was cathartic.\" On May 22, 2010, Morissette married rapper Mario \"Souleye\" Treadway in a private ceremony at their Los Angeles home. The couple have three children; a son born in 2010, a daughter born in 2016, and another son born in 2019.", "Opening act Headlining Co-headlining" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years: 1988–1991.", "Mainstream breakout and \"Siamese Dream\": 1992–1994.", "\"Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness\": 1995–1997.", "\"Adore\", \"Machina\", and breakup: 1998–2000.", "Post-breakup: 2001–2004.", "Reformation and \"Zeitgeist\": 2005–2008.", "\"Teargarden\" and \"Oceania\": 2009–2013.", "\"Monuments to an Elegy\": 2014–2016.", "Iha and Chamberlin's return and future: 2018–present.", "Musical style, influences, and legacy.", "Music videos.", "Band members.", "Awards.", "Discography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "After the breakup of his gothic rock band the Marked, singer and guitarist Billy Corgan left St. Petersburg, Florida, to return to his native city of Chicago, where he took a job in a record store and formed the idea of a new band to be called the Smashing Pumpkins. While working there, he met guitarist James Iha. Adorning themselves with paisley and other psychedelic trappings, the two began writing songs together (with the aid of a drum machine) that were", "With the breakthrough of alternative rock into the American mainstream due to the popularity of grunge bands such as Nirvana and Pearl Jam, the Smashing Pumpkins were poised for major commercial success. At this time, the Smashing Pumpkins were routinely lumped in with the grunge movement, with Corgan protesting, \"We've graduated now from 'the next Jane's Addiction' to 'the next Nirvana', now we're 'the next Pearl Jam'.\" Amid this environment of intense internal pressure for the band to break through to widespread popularity, the band relocated to Marietta, Georgia in late 1992 to begin work on their second album, with Butch Vig returning as producer. The decision to record so far away from their hometown was motivated partly by the band's desire to avoid friends and distractions during the recording, but largely as a desperate attempt to cut Chamberlin off from his known drug connections. The recording environment for \"Siamese Dream\" was quickly marred by discord within the band. As was the case with \"Gish\", Corgan and Vig decided that Corgan should play nearly all of the guitar and bass parts on the album, contributing to an air of resentment. The", "During 1995, Corgan wrote about 56 songs, following which the band went into the studio with producers Flood and Alan Moulder to work on what Corgan described as \"\"The Wall\" for Generation X\", and which became \"Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness\", a double album of twenty-eight songs, lasting over two hours (the vinyl version of the album contained three records, two extra songs, and an alternate track listing). The songs were intended to hang together conceptually as a symbol of the cycle of life and death. Praised by \"Time\" as \"the group's most ambitious and accomplished work yet\", \"Mellon Collie\" debuted at number one on", "After the release of \"Mellon Collie\", the Pumpkins contributed a number of songs to various compilations. Released in early 1997, the song \"Eye\", which appeared on the soundtrack to David Lynch's \"Lost Highway\", relied almost exclusively on electronic instruments and signaled a drastic shift from the Pumpkins' previous musical styles. At the time, Corgan stated his \"idea [was] to reconfigure the focus and get away from the classic guitars-bass-drum rock format.\" Later that year, the group contributed \"The End Is the Beginning Is the End\" to the soundtrack for the film \"Batman & Robin\". With Matt Walker on drums, the song featured a heavy sound similar to \"Bullet with Butterfly Wings\" while still having strong", "In 2001 the compilation \"Rotten Apples\" was released. The double-disc version of the album, released as a limited edition, included a collection of B-sides and rarities called \"Judas O\". The \"Greatest Hits Video Collection\" DVD was also released at the same time. This was a compilation of all of the Pumpkins promo videos from \"Gish\" to \"Machina\" along with unreleased material. \"Vieuphoria\" was released on DVD in 2002, as was the soundtrack album \"Earphoria\", previously released solely to radio stations", "On June 21, 2005, the day of the release of his album \"TheFutureEmbrace\", Corgan took out full-page advertisements in the \"Chicago Tribune\" and \"Chicago Sun-Times\" to announce that he planned to reunite the band. \"For a year now\", Corgan wrote, \"I have walked around with a secret, a secret I chose to keep. But now I want you to be among the first to know that I have made plans to renew and revive the Smashing Pumpkins. I want my band back, and my songs, and my dreams\". Corgan and Chamberlin were verified as participants in the reunion, but there was question as to whether other former members of the band would participate. In April 2007 Iha and Auf der Maur separately confirmed that they were not taking part in the reunion. Chamberlin would later state that Iha and Wretzky \"didn't want to be a part of\" the reunion. The Smashing Pumpkins performed live for the first time since 2000 on May 22, 2007, in Paris, France. There, the band", "In March 2009 Corgan announced on the band's website that Chamberlin had left the group and would be replaced. Chamberlin subsequently stated that his departure from the band is \"a positive move forward for me. I can no longer commit all of my energy into something that I don't fully possess.\" Chamberlin stressed that the split was amicable, commenting, \"I am glad [Corgan] has chosen to continue under the name. It is his right.\" Chamberlin soon formed the band Skysaw, which has released an album and toured in", "On March 25, 2014, Corgan announced he had signed a new record deal with BMG, for two new albums, titled \"Monuments to an Elegy\" and \"Day for Night\", respectively. In June, it was revealed that Mike Byrne was no longer in the band, to be replaced by Tommy Lee of Mötley Crüe on the new album, and Fiorentino would not be recording on the album either. \"Monuments to an Elegy\" was released on December 5, 2014, to generally positive reviews. The band toured in support of the album starting on November 26, with Rage Against the Machine's Brad Wilk filling in on drums and the Killers' Mark Stoermer filling in on bass. The follow-up proposed album \"Day For Night\" was cited", "On his birthday on March 26, 2016, original guitarist James Iha joined Billy Corgan, Jimmy Chamberlin, and Jeff Schroeder on stage unannounced at the Ace Hotel in downtown Los Angeles. He performed a few songs, including \"Mayonaise\", \"Soma\" and \"Whir\" marking his first appearance with the Smashing Pumpkins in 16 years. Iha also played at the second of the two Smashing Pumpkins shows at the Ace Hotel the following day, which was Easter Sunday. Iha joined the Pumpkins for a third time at their concert of April", "The direction of the band is dominated by lead guitarist, lead vocalist, keyboardist, bassist and principal songwriter Billy Corgan. Journalist Greg Kot wrote, \"The music [of the Smashing Pumpkins] would not be what it is without his ambition and vision, and his famously fractured relationships with his family, friends, and bandmembers.\" Melissa Auf der Maur commented upon news of the group's reunion, \"Everyone knows Billy doesn't need too many people to make a Pumpkins record, other than Jimmy [Chamberlin]—who he has on board.\" In a 2015 interview Corgan himself referred to the current iteration of the band \"as sort of an open source collective\" noting that \"It's whoever feels right at the time.\" Many of Corgan's lyrics for the Pumpkins are cathartic expressions of emotion, full of personal musings and strong indictments of himself and those close to him. Music critics were not often fans of Corgan's angst-filled lyrics. Jim DeRogatis wrote in a 1993 \"Chicago Sun-Times\" article that Corgan's lyrics \"too often sound like sophomoric poetry\", although he viewed the lyrics of later albums \"Adore\" and \"Machina\" as an improvement. The band's songs have been described as \"anguished, bruised reports from Billy Corgan's nightmare-land\" by journalist William Shaw. Smashing Pumpkins, unlike many alternative rock bands at the time, disavowed the influence of punk rock on their sound. Overall, they have a diverse, densely layered, and guitar-heavy sound, containing elements of gothic rock, heavy metal, dream pop, psychedelic rock, progressive rock, shoegazing, and electronica in later recordings. The Smashing Pumpkins' distinctive sound up until \"Adore\" involved layering numerous guitar tracks onto a song during the recording process, a tactic that \"Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness\" coproducer Flood called the \"Pumpkin guitar overdub army.\" Although there were a lot of overdubbed parts on \"Gish\", Corgan began to really explore the possibilities of overdubbing with \"Siamese Dream\"; Corgan has stated that \"Soma\" alone contains up to 40 overdubbed guitar parts. While Corgan knew many of the songs would be difficult or impossible to replicate from their recorded versions in concert (in fact, some songs were drastically altered for live performance), he has explained the use of overdubbing by posing the question \"When you are faced with making a permanent recorded representation of a song, why not endow it with the grandest possible vision?\" This use of multilayered sounds was inspired by Corgan's love of 1970s popular artists", "The Smashing Pumpkins have been praised as \"responsible for some of the most striking and memorable video clips\" and for having \"approached videos from a completely artistic standpoint rather than mere commercials to sell albums\". MTV's 2001 anniversary special \"Testimony: 20 Years of Rock on MTV\" credited the Pumpkins, along with Nine Inch Nails, with treating music videos as an art form during the 1990s. Corgan has said, \"We generally resisted the idea of what I call the classic MTV rock video, which is like lots of people jumping around and stuff.\" The band worked with video directors including Kevin Kerslake (\"Cherub Rock\"), Samuel Bayer (\"Bullet with Butterfly Wings\"), and, most frequently, the team of Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris (\"Rocket\", \"1979\", \"Tonight, Tonight\", \"The End Is the Beginning Is the End\", and \"Perfect\"). Corgan, who was frequently", "Current members", "American Music Awards Grammy Awards", "Studio albums Notes † Part of \"Teargarden by Kaleidyscope\" (2009–2014), an overarching project abandoned before completion." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Writing and journalism.", "Music.", "Television and radio.", "Personal life.", "Discography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "After high school, Hejma studied English and Chinese philology at the Faculty of Arts at Charles University in Prague, and he worked briefly in an advertising agency. In the 1970s, together with Štefan Rybár, he published the travelogue \"Autostopem do Nepálu\" (Hitchhiking to Nepal). In the 1980s, he worked as a freelance interpreter and translator, providing English-language films with Czech subtitles. He later became part of a samizdat network of film enthusiasts, for whom he provided dubbing of videotapes imported from abroad. In 1987, he became the Prague correspondent for AP. At the time, he covered key moments of the Velvet Revolution and the initial period of economic transformation. He left the agency in 2009. Hejma also wrote the \"Psí život\" section for \"Reflex\" magazine. In 2012, Hejma began writing and gradually publishing the autobiographical trilogy \"Fejsbuk\", \"Americký Blues\", and \"Srdce Zlomený\".", "In the 1960s, while still in his teens, Hejma played in the blues band Žízeň; he was also a member of Yo Yo Band and Combo FH. In 1978, he founded the group Žlutý pes. He has written most of the band's lyrics, as well as writing texts for other Czech musicians. Žlutý pes have recorded more than a dozen albums and scored a number of radio hits. In 1996, they won the Music Academy Award as Band of the Year. Hejma has also performed with the alternative project LL Jetel with Radim Hladík and Ernouš Šedivý. Since 2016, he has been a member of the acoustic group Marush.", "Hejma has been active on TV3, hosting the show \"Bez kravaty\", and in radio, hosting the program \"Press klub\" on Frekvence 1. On TV Nova, he hosted the Czech version of \"Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?\" called \"Chcete být milionářem?\" He was also a juror in the first and third series of \"Česko hledá SuperStar\", the Czech version of the \"Idol\" series.", "Ondřej is married, his wife Vladimíra Hejmová is a doctor. They have two children, son Jan and daughter Tereza. He lives in Řevnice.", "Žlutý pes Ondřej Hejma & L.L. Jetel Solo" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Military and journalism.", "Writing.", "Awards.", "Other appearances.", "Political views.", "Personal life.", "Bibliography.", "Filmography.", "Music." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The son of a furrier, Forsyth was born in Ashford, Kent. He was educated at Tonbridge School and later attended the University of Granada in Spain.", "", "Before becoming a journalist, Forsyth completed his National Service in the Royal Air Force as a pilot where he flew the de Havilland Vampire. He joined Reuters in 1961 and later the BBC in 1965, where he served as an assistant diplomatic correspondent. Forsyth reported on his early activities as a journalist. His early career was spent covering French affairs and the attempted assassination of Charles de Gaulle. He had never been to what he termed \"black Africa\" until reporting on the Nigerian Civil War between Biafra and Nigeria as a BBC correspondent. He was there for the first six months of 1967, but few expected the war to last very long considering the poor weaponry and preparation of the Biafrans when compared to the British-armed Nigerians. After his six months were over, however, Forsyth – eager to carry on reporting – approached the BBC to ask if he could have more time there. He noted their response: He thus returned to Biafra as a freelance reporter, writing his first book, \"The Biafra Story\", in 1969. In August 2015 Forsyth revealed that in Biafra he began work as a spy for MI6, a relationship that continued for 20 years. He claimed he was not paid. He is an occasional radio broadcaster on political issues, and has also written for newspapers throughout his career, including a weekly page in the \"Daily Express\". In 2003, he criticised \"gay-bashers in the churches\" in \"The Guardian\" newspaper. He has narrated several documentaries, including \"Jesus Christ Airlines\", \"\" and \"I Have Never Forgotten You: The Life & Legacy of Simon Wiesenthal\".", "Forsyth decided to write a novel using similar research techniques to those used in journalism. His first full-length novel, \"The Day of the Jackal\", was published in 1971. It became an international bestseller and gained its author the Edgar Allan Poe Award for Best Novel. In this book, the \"Organisation Armée Secrète\" hires an assassin to kill then-French President Charles de Gaulle. It was made into a film of the same name. In Forsyth's second full-length novel, \"The Odessa File\" (1972), a reporter attempts to track down an ex-Nazi SS officer in contemporary Germany. The reporter discovers him via the diary of a Jewish Holocaust survivor who committed suicide earlier, but he is being shielded by an organization that protects ex-Nazis, called ODESSA. This book was later made into a movie with the same name, starring Jon Voight, but there were substantial alterations. Many of the novel's readers assumed that ODESSA really existed, but historians disagree. In \"The Dogs of War\" (1974) a British mining executive hires a group of mercenaries to overthrow the government of an African country so that he can install a puppet regime that will allow him cheap access to a colossal platinum-ore reserve. This book was also adapted into the 1980 film starring Christopher Walken and Tom Berenger. \"The Shepherd\" was an illustrated novella published in 1975. It tells of a nightmare journey by an RAF pilot while flying home for Christmas in the late 1950s. His attempts to find a rational explanation for his eventual rescue prove as troublesome as his experience. Following this came \"The Devil's Alternative\" in 1979, which was set in 1982. In this book, the Soviet Union faces a disastrous grain harvest. The US is ready to help for some political and military concessions. A Politburo faction fight ensues. War is proposed as a solution. Ukrainian freedom fighters complicate the situation later. In the end, a Swedish oil tanker built in Japan, a Russian airliner hijacked to West Berlin and various governments find themselves involved. In 1982, \"No Comebacks\", a collection of ten short stories, was published. Some of these stories had been written earlier. Many were set in the Republic of Ireland where Forsyth was living at the time. One of them, \"There Are No Snakes in Ireland\", won him a second Edgar Allan Poe Award, this time for best short story. \"The Fourth Protocol\" was published in 1984 and involves renegade elements within the Soviet Union attempting to plant a nuclear bomb near an American airbase in the UK, intending to influence the upcoming British elections and lead to the election of an anti-NATO, anti-American, anti-nuclear, pro-soviet Labour government. The 1987 adaptation starred Pierce Brosnan and Michael Caine. Almost all of the political content was removed from the film. Forsyth's tenth book came in 1989 with \"The Negotiator\", in which the American President's son is kidnapped and one man's job is to negotiate his release. Two years later, in 1991, \"The Deceiver\" was published. It includes four short stories reviewing the career of British secret agent Sam McCready. At the start of the novel, the Permanent Under-Secretary of State (PUSS) of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office requires the Chief of the SIS to push Sam into early retirement. The four stories are presented to a grievance committee in an attempt to allow Sam to stay on active duty with the SIS. In 1994, Forsyth published \"The Fist of God\", a novel which concerns the first Gulf War. Next, in 1996, he published \"Icon\", about the rise of fascists to power in post-Soviet Russia. In 1999, Forsyth published \"The Phantom of Manhattan\", a sequel to \"The Phantom of the Opera\". It was intended as a departure from his usual genre; Forsyth's explanation was that \"I had done mercenaries, assassins, Nazis, murderers, terrorists, special forces soldiers, fighter pilots, you name it, and I got to think, could I actually write about the human heart?\" However, it did not achieve the same success as his other novels, and he subsequently returned to modern-day thrillers. In 2001, \"The Veteran\", another collection of short stories, was published, followed by \"Avenger\", published in September 2003, about a Canadian billionaire who hires a Vietnam veteran to bring his grandson's killer to the US. \"Avenger\" was released as a film starring Sam Elliott and Timothy Hutton. \"The Afghan\", published in August 2006, is an indirect sequel to \"The Fist of God\". Set in the very near future, the threat of a catastrophic assault on the West, discovered on a senior al-Qaeda member's computer, compels the leaders of the US and the UK to attempt a desperate gambit — to substitute a seasoned British operative, retired Col. Mike Martin (of \"The Fist of God\"), for an Afghan Taliban commander being held prisoner at Guantánamo Bay. \"The Cobra\", published in 2010, features some of the characters previously featured in \"Avenger\", and has as its subject an attempt to destroy the world trade in cocaine. On 20 August 2013, his novel, \"The Kill List\" was published. It was announced earlier in June that Rupert Sanders would be directing a film version of the story. On 10 September 2015, Forsyth's autobiography, \"The Outsider: My Life in Intrigue\", was published. In January 2018 it was announced that Forsyth would publish his eighteenth novel, a thriller about computer hackers, inspired by the Lauri Love and Gary McKinnon stories. In October 2018, \"The Fox\", was published in electronic format and was released in hardcover in November. \"The Fox\" is an espionage thriller about an autistic but gifted hacker.", "On 16 February 2012 the Crime Writers Association announced that Forsyth had won its Cartier Diamond Dagger award in recognition of his body of work. Forsyth was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1997 New Year Honours list for services to literature.", "In September 2005, Forsyth appeared on the ITV gameshow \"Who Wants To Be A Millionaire?\" and raised £250,000 for charity. He offered the answer for the £500,000 question but, despite being correct, he decided to take £250,000. On 8 February 2007, Forsyth appeared on BBC's political panel show \"Question Time\"; on it, he expressed scepticism on the subject of anthropogenic climate change. On 26 March 2008, he also appeared on BBC's \"The One Show\". On 17 June 2008, Forsyth was interviewed on BBC Radio 5 Live Midday News in relation to the restoration of the Military Covenant. On 2 February 2015, he appeared on \"Eggheads\" as a member of Rewarding Talent.", "Forsyth is a Eurosceptic Conservative. He has been Patron of The People's Book Prize since 2010. He is Patron of Better Off Out, an organisation calling for Britain's withdrawal from the European Union and supports Brexit. In 2003, he was awarded the One of Us Award from the Conservative Way Forward group for his services to the Conservative movement in Britain. He is also a patron of the Young Britons' Foundation. In 2005, he came out in opposition to Kenneth Clarke's candidacy for the leadership of the Conservative Party, calling Clarke's record in government \"unrivalled; a record of failure which at every level has never been matched\". Instead, he endorsed and donated money to David Davis's campaign.", "In 2016, he said he was giving up writing thrillers because his wife had told him he was too old to travel to dangerous places.", "The following four works listed above are not fictional novels or novellas: \"The Biafra Story\" (1969), \"Emeka\" (1982), \"Great Flying Stories\" (1991) and \"The Outsider\" (2015).", "As writer only (except for \"Soldiers\", as presenter)", "Forsyth wrote lyrics to a lament titled \"Fallen Soldier\", with music by Gareth Ellis Williams, which was released as a single by Royal Opera House soprano Melissa Adler in 2016." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Intelligence.", "Temperament.", "Aggression and biting.", "Modern breed.", "Controversy.", "Variants.", "East-European Shepherd.", "King Shepherd.", "Shiloh Shepherd.", "White Shepherd.", "White Swiss Shepherd Dog.", "Use as a working dog.", "History.", "Etymology.", "Popularity.", "Health.", "Skeletal health and supplementation.", "In popular culture.", "Notable German Shepherds.", "Dickin Medal recipients.", "PDSA Gold medal recipients." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "German Shepherds are medium to large-sized dogs. The breed standard height at the withers is for males, and for females. German Shepherds are longer than they are tall, with an ideal proportion of 10 to. The AKC official breed standard does not set a standard weight range. They have a domed forehead, a long square-cut muzzle with strong jaws and a black nose. The eyes are medium-sized and brown. The ears are large and stand erect, open at the front and parallel, but they often are pulled back during movement. A German Shepherd has a long neck, which is raised when excited and lowered when moving at a fast pace. The tail is bushy and reaches to the hock. German Shepherds have a double coat which is close and dense with a thick undercoat. The coat is accepted in two variants; medium and long. The long-hair gene is recessive, making the long-hair variety rarer. Treatment of the long-hair variation differs across standards; they are accepted but not competed with standard coated dogs under the German and UK Kennel Clubs while they can compete with standard coated dogs, but are considered a fault in the American Kennel Club. The FCI accepted the long-haired type in 2010, listing it as the variety b—while short-haired type is listed as the variety a. Most commonly, German Shepherds are either tan/black or red/black. Most color varieties have black masks and black body markings which can range from a classic \"saddle\" to an over-all \"blanket.\" Rarer color variations include the sable, pure-black, pure-white, liver, silver, blue, and panda varieties. The all-black and sable varieties are acceptable according to most standards; however, the blue and liver are considered to be serious faults and the all-white is grounds for instant disqualification from showing in conformation at All Breed and Specialty Shows.", "German Shepherds were bred specifically for their intelligence. In a list of breeds most likely to bark as watchdogs, Stanley Coren ranked the breed in second place. Coupled with their strength, this trait makes the breed desirable as police, guard and search and rescue dogs, as they are able to quickly learn various tasks and interpret instructions better than other breeds.", "German Shepherds are moderately active dogs and are described in breed standards as self assured. The breed is marked by a willingness to learn and an eagerness to have a purpose. They are curious, which makes them excellent guard dogs and suitable for search missions. They can become overprotective of their family and territory, especially if not socialized correctly. They are not inclined to become immediate friends with strangers. German Shepherds are highly intelligent and obedient, as well as protective of their owners.", "While an Australian report from 1999 provides statistics showing that German Shepherds are the breed third most likely to attack a person in some Australian locales, once their popularity is taken into account, the percentages of GSD attacks drops to 38th. According to the National Geographic Channel television show \"Dangerous Encounters\", the bite of a German Shepherd has a force of over (compared with that of a Rottweiler, over, a Pit bull,, a Labrador Retriever, of approximately, or a human, of approximately ).", "The modern German Shepherd breed is criticized by some for straying away from Max von Stephanitz's original ideology that German Shepherds should be bred primarily as working dogs and that breeding should be strictly controlled to eliminate defects quickly. He believed that, above all else, German Shepherds should be bred for intelligence and working ability.", "The Kennel Club, in the United Kingdom, is involved in a dispute with German Shepherd breed clubs about the issue of soundness in the show-strain of the breed. The show-strains have been bred with an extremely sloping topline (back) that causes poor gait in the hind legs. Working-pedigree lines, such as those in common use as service dogs, generally retain the traditional straight back of the breed. The debate was catalyzed when the issue was raised in the BBC documentary, \"Pedigree Dogs Exposed\", which said that critics of the breed describe it as \"half dog, half frog\". An orthopedic vet remarked on footage of dogs in a show ring that they were \"not normal\". The Kennel Club's position is that \"this issue of soundness is not a simple difference of opinion, it is the fundamental issue of the breed's essential conformation and movement.\" The Kennel Club has decided to retrain judges to penalize dogs suffering these problems. The Kennel Club also recommends testing for haemophilia and hip dysplasia, other common problems with the breed.", "", "The East-European Shepherd is a variety of the German Shepherd bred in the former Soviet Union with the purpose of creating a larger more cold resistant version of the German Shepherd, it lacks the physical deformities bred into western show lines of German Shepherds and has become one of Russia's most popular dog types.", "The King Shepherd is a variety of the German Shepherd bred in the United States, its breeders hoping to rectify the physical deformities that have been bred into the original breed.", "The Shiloh Shepherd is a variety of the German Shepherd bred in the United States, it was developed in the 1970s and 1980s to correct behavioural and conformational issues that have been bred into modern German Shepherds, it was bred for large size, length of their back, temperament and soundness of hips. It has been recognized by the American Rare Breed Association since 1990.", "The White Shepherd is a variety of the German Shepherd bred in the United States. White coated German Shepherds were once banned from registration in their native Germany, but in the United States and Canada the colouration gained a following and a breed club was formed specifically for white coloured German Shepherds, calling their variety the White Shepherd. The variety is recognized as a separate breed by the United Kennel Club.", "The White Swiss Shepherd Dog (,, ) is a variety of the German Shepherd bred in Switzerland, it descends from the American White Shepherds, the first stud dog of what became the breed was an American dog born in 1966 that was imported to Switzerland. The variety was recognised by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale as a separate breed in 2003, and it is now recognised by a number of national kennel clubs.", "German Shepherds are a popular selection for use as working dogs. They are known for being easy to train and good for performing tasks and following instructions. They are especially well known for their police work, being used for tracking criminals, patrolling troubled areas and detection and holding of suspects. Additionally, thousands of German Shepherds have been used by the military. Usually trained for scout duty, they are used to warn soldiers to the presence of enemies or of booby traps or other hazards. German Shepherds have also been trained by military groups to parachute from aircraft or as anti-tank weapons. They were used in World War II as messenger dogs, rescue dogs and personal guard dogs. A number of these dogs were taken home by foreign servicemen, who were impressed by their intelligence. The German Shepherd is one of the most widely used breeds in a wide variety of scent-work roles. These include search and rescue, cadaver searching, narcotics detection, explosives detection, accelerant detection and mine detection dog, among others. They are suited for these lines of work because of their keen sense of smell and their ability to work regardless of distractions. At one time the German Shepherd was the breed chosen almost exclusively to be used as a guide dog for the visually impaired. When formal guide dog training began in Switzerland in the 1920s under the leadership of Dorothy Eustis, all of the dogs trained were German Shepherd females. An experiment in temperament testing of a group of Labrador Retrievers and German Shepherds showed that the Retrievers scored higher on average in emotional stability and ability to recover promptly from frightening situations, cooperative behavior and friendliness; while the German Shepherds were superior in aggression and defensive behavior. These results suggested that Labrador Retrievers were more suited to guide dog work while German Shepherds were more suited to police work. Currently, Labradors and Golden Retrievers are more widely used for this work, although there are still German Shepherds being trained. In 2013, about 15% of the dogs trained by Guide Dogs of America are German Shepherds, while the remainder are Labrador Retrievers and Golden Retrievers. The Guide Dogs for the Blind Association in the United Kingdom states that crosses between Golden Retrievers and Labrador Retrievers make the best guide dogs, although they also train some German Shepherds, as well as some other breeds. Guide Dogs for the Blind in the United States trains only Labrador Retrievers, Golden Retrievers and crosses between these breeds. Guide Dogs Queensland in Australia also trains only Labrador Retrievers and Golden Retrievers. German Shepherds are still used for herding and tending sheep grazing in meadows next to gardens and crop fields. They are expected to patrol the boundaries to keep sheep from trespassing and damaging the crops. In Germany and other places these skills are tested in utility dog trials also known as HGH (Herdengebrauchshund) herding utility dog trials. One Mexican German Shepherd, Zuyaqui, was dissected and his body put on display at the Sedena's \"Narco Museum\" in Mexico. He is regarded to be the dog who has captured the most drugs in Mexican police and military history.", "In 2018, a genetic study found that, just prior to 1859, a broadly distributed European herding dog had given rise to the German Shepherd Dog, the French Berger Picard, and the five Italian herding breeds: the Bergamasco Shepherd, Cane Paratore, Lupino del Gigante, Pastore d'Oropa, and the Pastore della Lessinia e del Lagorai. During the 1850s, attempts were being made to standardize dog breeds. Dogs were being bred to preserve traits that assisted in their job of herding sheep and protecting their flocks from predators. In Germany this was practiced within local communities, where shepherds selected and bred dogs. It was recognized that the breed had the necessary skills for herding sheep, such as intelligence, speed, strength and keen senses of smell. The results were dogs that were able to do such things, but that differed significantly, both in appearance and ability, from one locality to another. To combat these differences, the Phylax Society was formed in 1891 with the intention of creating standardised development plans for native dog breeds in Germany. The society disbanded after only three years due to ongoing internal conflicts regarding the traits in dogs that the society should promote; some members believed dogs should be bred solely for working purposes, while others believed dogs should be bred also for appearance. While unsuccessful in their goal, the Phylax Society had inspired people to pursue standardising dog breeds independently. With the rise of large, industrialized cities in Germany, the predator population began to decline, rendering sheepdogs unnecessary. At the same time, the awareness of sheepdogs as a versatile, intelligent class of canine began to rise. Max von Stephanitz, an ex-cavalry captain and former student of the Berlin Veterinary College, was an ex-member of the Phylax Society who firmly believed dogs should be bred for working. He admired the intelligence, strength and ability of Germany's native sheepdogs, but could not find any one single breed that satisfied him as the perfect working dog. In 1899, Von Stephanitz was attending a dog show when he was shown a dog named \"Hektor Linksrhein\". Hektor was the product of few generations of selective breeding and completely fulfilled what Von Stephanitz believed a working dog should be. He was pleased with the strength of the dog and was so taken by the animal's intelligence, loyalty and beauty, that he purchased him immediately. After purchasing the dog he changed his name to Horand von Grafrath and Von Stephanitz founded the Verein für Deutsche Schäferhunde (Society for German Shepherd Dogs). Horand was declared to be the first German Shepherd Dog and was the first dog added to the society's breed register. In just a few decades of the Verein für Deutsche Schäferhunde's establishment, the breed became one of the world’s most popular and numerous, a position it has maintained to this day. By 1923, the Verein für Deutsche Schäferhunde claimed 50,000 dues-paying members in more than 500 branches in Germany alone. Horand became the center-point of the breeding programs and was bred with dogs belonging to other society members that displayed desirable traits and with dogs from Thuringia, Franconia and Wurttemberg. Fathering many pups, Horand's most successful was \"Hektor von Schwaben\". Hektor was inbred with another of Horand's offspring and produced \"Heinz von Starkenburg\", \"Beowulf\" and \"Pilot\", who later fathered a total of eighty-four pups, mostly through being inbred with Hektor's other offspring. This inbreeding was deemed necessary in order to fix the traits being sought in the breed. In the original German Shepherd studbook, Zuchtbuch für Deutsche Schäferhunde (SZ), within the two pages of entries from SZ No. 41 to SZ No. 76, there are four Wolf Crosses. Beowulf's progeny also were inbred and it is from these pups that all German Shepherds draw a genetic link. It is believed the society accomplished its goal mostly due to Von Stephanitz's strong, uncompromising leadership and he is therefore credited with being the creator of the German Shepherd Dog. Adolf Hitler acquired a German Shepherd named \"Prinz\" in 1921, during his years of poverty, but he had been forced to lodge the dog elsewhere. However, she managed to escape and return to him. Hitler, who adored the loyalty and obedience of the dog, thereafter developed a great liking for the breed. Holocaust victim Benjamin Jacobs described running away from German Shepherd dogs who harassed his family at Auschwitz extermination camp, where over 1 million people were murdered. During the first half of the twentieth century, the Shepherd Dog came to be strongly identified with Imperial and Nazi Germany, because of the breed's association with purity and militarism.", "The breed was named \"Deutscher Schäferhund\" by von Stephanitz, literally translating to \"German Shepherd Dog\". The breed was so named due to its original purpose of assisting shepherds in herding and protecting sheep. At the time, all other herding dogs in Germany were referred to by this name; they thus became known as \"Altdeutsche Schäferhunde\", or Old German herding dogs. The direct translation of the name was adopted for use in the official breed registry; however, at the conclusion of World War I, it was believed that the inclusion of the word \"German\" would harm the breed's popularity, due to the anti-German sentiment of the era. The breed was officially renamed by the UK Kennel Club to \"Alsatian Wolf Dog\", after the French region of Alsace bordering Germany. This name was also adopted by many other international kennel clubs. Eventually, the appendage \"wolf dog\" was dropped, after numerous campaigns by breeders who were worried that becoming known as a wolf-dog hybrid would affect the breed's popularity and legality. The name Alsatian remained for five decades, until 1977, when successful campaigns by dog enthusiasts pressured the British kennel clubs to allow the breed to be registered again as German Shepherds. The word \"Alsatian\" still appeared in parentheses as part of the formal breed name and was only removed in 2010.", "When the UK Kennel accepted registrations in 1919, 54 German Shepherds were registered. By 1926 this number had grown to over 8,000. The breed gained international recognition after the end of World War I. Returning soldiers spoke highly of the breed and animal actors Rin Tin Tin and Strongheart popularised the breed further. The first German Shepherd Dog registered in the United States was \"Queen of Switzerland\". Her offspring suffered from defects as the result of poor breeding, which caused the breed to suffer a decline in popularity during the late 1920s. Popularity increased again after the German Shepherd \"Sieger Pfeffer von Bern\" became the 1937 and 1938 Grand Victor in American Kennel club dog shows, only to suffer another decline at the conclusion of World War II, due to anti-German sentiment. Popularity increased gradually until 1993, when they became the third most popular breed in the United States., the German Shepherd is the second most popular breed in the US. Additionally, the breed is typically among the most popular in other registries. The German Shepherd Dog's physique is very well suited to competing in shows and competitions, such as agility trials.", "Many common ailments of the German Shepherd are a result of the inbreeding practiced early in the breed's life. One such common ailment is hip and elbow dysplasia which may cause the dog to experience pain later on in life and may cause arthritis. A study conducted by the University of Zurich found that 45% of the police working dogs were affected by degenerative spinal stenosis, although a small sample size was used. The Orthopedic Foundation for Animals found that 19.1% of German Shepherd are affected by hip dysplasia. There are however ways to help prevent hip dysplasia. They include making sure you get them from a good breeder, keeping them on a healthy diet, and limiting the amount of jumping or rough play.German Shepherds have low frequency of ear infections, since this breed is well-known for hyperactivity of its cerumen-producing glands. According to a recent survey in the UK, the median life span of German Shepherds is 10.95 years, which is normal for a dog of their size. Degenerative myelopathy, a neurological disease, occurs with enough regularity specifically in the breed to suggest that the breed is predisposed to it. A very inexpensive DNA saliva test is now available to screen for degenerative myelopathy. The test screens for the mutated gene that has been seen in dogs with degenerative myelopathy. A small study in the UK showed 16% of young asymptomatic GSDs to be homozygous for the mutation, with a further 38% being carriers. Now that a test is available the disease can be bred out of breeds with a high preponderance. The test is only recommended for predisposed breeds, but can be performed on DNA samples from any dog, collected through swabbing the inside of the animal's cheek with a sterile cotton swab. Prospective German Shepherd buyers can now request the test from the breeder or buy from a breeder that is known to test their dogs. Additionally, German Shepherds have a higher than normal incidence of Von Willebrand disease, a common inherited bleeding disorder, and exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), a degenerative disease of the pancreas. It is estimated that 1% of the UK GSD population suffers from this disease. Treatment is usually provided in the form of pancreatic supplements taken with food.", "Musculoskeletal disorders are debilitating conditions that are often associated with genetic makeup, malnutrition, and stress-related events. Some breeds like the German shepherd, are predisposed to a variety of different skeletal disorders, including but not limited to: canine hip dysplasia, Cauda equina syndrome, and osteoarthritis. These conditions can be a result of poor breeding or induced by intense exercise and poor diet. Canine hip dysplasia (CHD) is an orthopedic condition resulting from abnormal development of the hip joint and surrounding tissue causing the instability and partial dislocation of the hip joint, resulting in pain, inflammation, lameness, and potentially osteoarthritis of the joint. German shepherds are genetically predisposed to CHD and the University of Veterinary Medicine in Germany found its prevalence estimated to be approximately 35% of veterinary cases associated with the disorder. Osteoarthritis is one of the main contributors of musculoskeletal pain and disabilities that commonly affect German shepherds. Mechanical stress, oxidative damage and inflammatory mediators combine to induce the gradual degeneration of the articular cartilage in the joint, resulting in reduced muscle mass, pain, and locomotion. It is essential to feed a well-balanced diet designed for large breeds like the German shepherd, to ensure adequate growth rates and proper maintenance of musculoskeletal health. Dietary energy levels should be monitored and controlled throughout all life stages and activity levels of the German shepherd to assist in the prevention and treatment of musculoskeletal disorder symptoms. Several dietary factors play a crucial role in maintaining skeletal health and are described as follows. Appropriate calcium levels are vital in developing a strong skeletal system and aid in preventing orthopaedic diseases like Canine Hip Dysplasia. Furthermore, the ratio of calcium and phosphorus must be balanced and at a recommended ratio of 1.2:1 to ensure proper bone development and structure. Imbalances in calcium and phosphorus levels can result in various skeletal complications. Excess phosphorus can produce lesions in bones whereas excessive calcium can lead to hypocalcaemia and result in excess bone deposition, interfering with normal bone development. In extreme circumstances of insufficient calcium intake, bone resorption can occur due to the body withdrawing calcium deposits from the skeletal frame as a last resort to fulfill dietary needs. Omega-3 fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), have been shown to be highly effective in the prevention of cartilage catabolism in \"in vitro\" models, suggesting that its supplementation in food could aid in decreasing the symptoms of osteoarthritis in German shepherds. Furthermore, EPA and DHA inhibit key regulators of the inflammatory process and suppress their activation which can help alleviate pain and reduce inflamed joints associated with many skeletal disorders. Ensuring an appropriate ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids of approximately 5:1 is very important for inflammation processes. Animals source, specifically marine life such as fish, krill, and mussels, and plant sources such as flaxseed, soybean and canola oil, are particularly rich in omega-3 fatty acids. Glucosamine is an amino-monosaccharide that naturally occurs in all tissues, particularly in articular cartilage of joints and from the biosynthesis of glucose. Natural synthesis of glucosamine occurs in the extracellular matrix of articular cartilage in joints. However, as a result of damage to the joint or cartilage, there is decreased ability to synthesize glucosamine resulting in the deterioration of the joint, and supplementation is required. Clinical trials of long term administration of glucosamine in German Shepherds have reduced symptoms of degenerative joint disease and accelerated cartilage healing. Anti-inflammatory effects of glucosamine are believed to contribute to the reduction of pain, promote joint recovery and mobility, and prevent further cartilage degradation. Similarly, chondroitin supplementation is proposed to have comparable results in inhibiting degradative enzymes within the cartilage matrix to reduce the effects of osteoarthritis, but further research is required to assess long term benefits. Vitamins such as A and D also have crucial roles in bone development and maintenance by regulating bone and calcium metabolism. Adequate levels should be incorporated into a German shepherd diet to promote a healthy musculoskeletal system.", "German Shepherds have been featured in a wide range of media. In 1921 Strongheart became one of the earliest canine film stars, and was followed in 1922 by Rin Tin Tin, who is considered the most famous German Shepherd. Both have stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Batman's dog Ace the Bat-Hound appeared in the Batman comic books, initially in 1955, through 1964. Between 1964 and 2007, his appearances were sporadic. A German Shepherd named Inspector Rex is the star of an Austrian Police procedural drama program of the same name, which won many awards, where German Shepherd Rex assists the Vienna \"Kriminalpolizei\" homicide unit. The show was aired in many languages.", "Horand von Grafrath born January 1, 1895, was the first German Shepherd Dog and the genetic basis for modern German Shepherds", "Awarded the Dickin Medal for conspicuous gallantry or devotion to duty while serving in military conflict", "Awarded the PDSA Gold Medal for animal bravery" ] }

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{ "title": [ "In wartime.", "In peacetime.", "History.", "Antiquity and Middle Ages.", "Early modern period.", "Modern era." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Boarding is used in wartime as a way to seize a vessel without destroying it, or to remove its cargo (people or goods) before it is destroyed. It can also be used to aid in the collection of naval intelligence, as soldiers boarding a sinking, crippled, or surrendered vessel could possibly recover enemy plans, cipher codebooks or machines. For a boarding to be successful, it must occur without the knowledge of the crew of the defending ship, or the ship's defenses must be suppressed. In modern warfare, boarding by military forces may involve the use of small submarines or submersibles, inflatable boats or helicopters to carry troops to the deck of the ship, or may simply be carried out by scuba divers scaling the sides of the ship.", "In peacetime, boarding allows authorized inspectors of one nation or group, such as a coast guard or an international policing fleet (e.g. United Nations fleet), to examine a ship's cargo in a search for drugs, weapons, passengers which are unrecorded on the ship's manifest, or any other type of contraband that could possibly have been carried aboard. A nation's coast guard could also board any suspicious ships that have been overfishing in such a nation's territorial waters. Air ambulances often deploy paramedics to ships by using typical helicopter boarding procedures.", "Boarding is the oldest method of securing an opposing ship, as the first cases were depicted when the Sea Peoples and Egyptians fought. For cultures that lack effective shipboard artillery, boarding is the main technique of ship-to-ship combat. However, in the modern era, boarding is still used, particularly when stealth is desired. In all eras, boarding requires that the ship boarded be stable enough to withstand the impact of enemy personnel leaping or climbing onto the deck and a subsequent sustained fight. The target ship must also have enough deck space for boarders to be able to stand and fight effectively. Thus, Native American war canoes or New Zealand \"waka\" were not suitable boarding targets, and wars between sides equipped with such vessels have generally not seen boarding actions, or any other decisive form of ship-to-ship combat. Instead, such vessels were often used for the rapid transportation of troops and supplies, and decisive engagements were normally fought by landing forces.", "Throughout the classical and medieval periods, all naval ship-to-ship combat focused primarily on boarding, although ramming and incendiaries were secondary tactics. Greek and Persian naval tactics emphasized ramming and boarding, notably at the Battle of Salamis. The earliest Roman naval battles against Carthage also emphasized boarding. Since the Romans were primarily a land-based army, they could not effectively combat the Carthaginian navy, and subsequently lost several sea battles. The corvus, a boarding ramp with two steel spikes, was the Roman answer to this problem. Roman sailors piloted their ship alongside a Carthaginian ship, dropped the corvus from one deck to the other, and sent their soldiers across the board, assaulting the ship. The Carthaginian navy, unprepared for this \"land combat\" on the oceans, lost several ships to this tactic. This invention secured Roman naval dominance in the Mediterranean Sea for several centuries. During the medieval period, boarding continued to be the dominant form of ship-to-ship combat. The most prominent naval power of the period, the Vikings, rarely fought other seaborne peoples on the water, but they still depended on boarding on those rare occasions, often lashing their longships together to make a more stable platform for the upcoming battle. The maritime use of Greek fire made Byzantium less dependent on boarding than other medieval powers, but it was still used. To better resist boarding, medieval European ships began to be built with high wooden \"castles\" fore and aft, which boarders could scale only with great difficulty, while archers or arquebusiers could sweep the enemy decks. Medieval China, Korea, and Japan were also dependent on boarding tactics, with the flat expanse of a ship used as a battleground for the marine contingents on the ships. The Battle of Dan-no-ura in 1185 was one of the classic naval battles in medieval Asia to be decided by boarding. Boarding attacks also occurred beyond the medieval era in Asia. During the Imjin Wars in naval operations, both Korean and Japanese marines would attempt to board the other's ships for engagement in hand-to-hand combat. The Japanese used boarding attacks more often because of the imbalance of firepower between the two navies; at the time, the Koreans controlled a much more powerful navy, technically and tactically, than the Japanese. Though the Japanese were armed with the latest in European small firearms, Korean cannons were advanced and among the best in Asia at the time; therefore, it was very easy for Korean ships, using cannons, to destroy Japanese ships.", "The development in the early 16th century of shipboard gunports and gun carriages, and the consequent adoption of broadside tactics, gradually ended the primacy of boarding in naval warfare. The decline in boarding occurred faster in Northern and Western Europe than in the Mediterranean. While England and France quickly designed ships with heavy broadsides, the Mediterranean's lighter winds encouraged the Spaniards, Italians and Ottomans to retain the rowed galley, which was difficult to equip with heavy broadsides because the weight and size of the artillery interfered with the oar banks. As late as 1571, the Mediterranean Battle of Lepanto, while influenced by artillery, was still principally a battle determined by boarding. The defeat of Spain's Great Armada in 1588 struck the death knell for major fleets geared toward boarding. The Spanish galleons were intended primarily for boarding combat, their contingents of boarding soldiers far outnumbering the English and their decks provided with high castles for suppressive fire. But the Armada proved unable to close with the English vessels, partly because the Spanish castles rendered their ships more sluggish, while Drake and Hawkins stood off and bombarded the Spanish from long range, tearing up their rigging and decimating their crews with the superior firepower of their broadsides. This enabled the outnumbered English fleet to avoid being boarded and prevent a Spanish landing. While boarding would never again be the dominant tactic in Western naval warfare, it was not abandoned. Boarding was still used as the coup de grace against a crippled ship, enabling the victimized vessel to be recovered and used by the boarders' side rather than being sunk. Important information such as enemy plans, ciphers or rutters might also be recovered. Large quantities of soldiers were consigned to transports rather than \"pestering\" the decks of warships, but smaller units of specialized marines were kept aboard to aid in boarding (as well as to enforce naval discipline). Sailors themselves were now expected to play the major role in boarding combat. Boarding was of particular importance in the 17th and 18th centuries' \"guerre de course\", or commerce raiding, as well as to privateers and pirates. Because naval crews were paid prize money for bringing back enemy merchant shipping and cargoes intact, it was preferable to capture such ships rather than sink them, which ultimately required boarding, with or without a preliminary artillery duel. Privateers and pirates found boarding even more necessary, as both depended entirely on capturing merchant vessels for their livelihood, under the wageless system of \"no purchase, no pay.\" There were two chief techniques of boarding in the Age of Sail. One was to bring the two ships close enough to actually step from or leap from one's own gunwale to the enemy's deck. Grappling hooks and lines assisted in keeping the vessels side by side. The second option was to place a boarding party onto a dory, gig, or another type of small boat, row it alongside the target, and then climb aboard by using grappling hooks or the steps built into some ship's sides. The cinematic method of throwing a grappling line into the enemy's rigging or yards and then swinging aboard does not appear to have any historical support, as this could hardly have been practical, and brought a soldier within range of a large group of hostile combatants extremely quickly. In addition, it would be hard for large numbers sufficient to overwhelm the other ship's defenses to be brought onto the deck in this fashion. Boarding in the Age of Sail was more difficult and dangerous than in previous eras of open-decked sailing vessels. Defenders could seek cover in \"closed quarters\" in the ship's roundhouse or foredeck, shooting through small loopholes at the exposed boarders. The defenders could also place grenades on their gunwales or dangle them from their yards, detonating them by fuses of quick match that led back through the loopholes into the closed quarters. If not in closed quarters, defenders sometimes resorted to the naval boarding pike, trying to kill or wound boarders while keeping them at a distance, and of course might use any of the weapons that the boarders themselves used. Boarding weapons in the Age of Sail consisted of grenades, pistols, blunderbusses, muskets, bayonets, cutlasses, naval boarding axes, and naval boarding pikes, etc. Until the introduction of the percussion cap in the early 19th century, sailors preferred to use flintlocks whenever possible, as the lighted match of a matchlock was extremely dangerous to use on board a ship. Spanish and Portuguese sailors, especially officers, were known to use the rapier throughout the 17th and even into the 18th century, but the close-quarter nature of boarding combat rendered these lengthy swords very ineffective. An important multipurpose weapon was the boarding axe, useful for attacking the enemy, but also essential for chopping down doors and bulkheads to break into closed quarters where defenders of a ship could barricade themselves. The heavy blade could also cut grappling lines. The continued success throughout the 18th century of boarding tactics in a secondary role is best exemplified by John Paul Jones' assault against from the sinking in 1779, the only known case in the Age of Sail where a ship's captain captured an enemy ship while losing his own. in turn broke the United States' run of successful frigate battles during the War of 1812 by boarding and capturing in 1813.", "The adoption of ironclads and increasingly powerful naval artillery vastly increased the risk to boarding parties. Meanwhile, the suppression of piracy and the abandonment of privateering and prize money made boarding actions even against merchant vessels less rewarding. The massacre of Paraguayan canoe-borne boarding parties by Brazilian ironclads during the Paraguayan War demonstrated the futility of direct assault by boarding in the face of 19th-century technology. During World War I the Royal Navy created their own type of warship specifically designed for boarding. Several armed boarding steamers were converted from merchant ships and fought in engagements such as the Action of 16 March 1917. For the most part, boarding became a police action in which the attackers came on board only when no resistance could be expected, in order to search vessels and remove contraband. The target would be a ship that had hove to or surrendered. During wartime, the surrendering or sinking ship would be searched for any valuable information such as plans and ciphers. One prominent example would be during World War II, when British vessels crippled the in 1941, and sent a crew aboard after the U-boat commander, Kapitänleutnant Fritz-Julius Lemp, gave the order to abandon ship. The British would be rewarded with a fully operational Enigma cipher machine, left behind by the German sailors. On June 4, 1944 a United States Navy task force led by Captain Daniel V. Gallery boarded and captured. True boarding assaults in the 19th, 20th, and early 21st centuries became extremely rare, generally by small boats or by divers, who entered the target vessel surreptitiously and exploited total surprise to seize control before resistance could be effectively organized. Modern-day pirates in motorboats similarly depend on speed, stealth and surprise to take their targets, usually unarmed and poorly defended, without serious resistance. However, the use of boarding tactics has begun to revive in recent years, both as part of anti-piracy operations and in conflicts such as the ongoing aftermath of the Libyan Civil War, and the 2014 Crimean crisis." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Toponymy.", "Etymology.", "Pronunciation.", "History.", "Early history.", "Middle Ages.", "Early modern.", "Late modern.", "20th century.", "Contemporary.", "Geography.", "Location and topography.", "Climate.", "Brussels as a capital.", "Municipalities.", "Brussels-Capital Region.", "Political status.", "Institutions.", "Agglomeration of Brussels.", "French and Flemish communities.", "Common Community Commission.", "International institutions.", "European Union.", "Eurocontrol.", "North Atlantic Treaty Organisation.", "Demographics.", "Population.", "Nationalities.", "Languages.", "Religions.", "Culture.", "Architecture.", "Arts.", "Folklore.", "Cultural events and festivals.", "Cuisine.", "Shopping.", "Sports.", "Cycling.", "Association football.", "Economy.", "Media.", "Education.", "Tertiary education.", "Primary and secondary education.", "Libraries.", "Science and technology.", "Healthcare.", "Transport.", "Air.", "Water.", "Train.", "City public transport.", "Metro.", "Trams and buses.", "Ticketing.", "Other public transport.", "Road network.", "Security and emergency services.", "Police.", "Fire department.", "Parks and green spaces.", "International relations.", "Twin towns and sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The most common theory of the origin of the name \"Brussels\" is that it derives from the Old Dutch, or, meaning \"marsh\" ( / ) and \"home\" ( / /", "In French, is pronounced (the \"x\" is pronounced, like in English, and the final \"s\" is silent) and in Dutch, is pronounced. Inhabitants of Brussels are known in French as and in Dutch as. In the Brabantian dialect of Brussels, they are called \"Brusseleers\" or \"Brusseleirs\". Originally, the", "", "The history of Brussels is closely linked to that of Western Europe. Traces of human settlement go back to the Stone Age, with vestiges and place-names related to the civilisation of megaliths, dolmens and standing stones (\"Plattesteen\" in the City of Brussels and \"Tomberg\" in Woluwe-Saint-Lambert, for example). During late antiquity, the region was home to Roman occupation, as attested by archaeological evidence discovered on the", "Lambert I of Leuven, Count of Leuven, gained the County of Brussels around 1000, by marrying Charles' daughter. Because of its location on the shores of the Senne, on an important trade route between Bruges and Ghent, and Cologne, Brussels became a commercial centre specialised in the textile trade. The town grew quite rapidly and extended towards the upper town (\"Treurenberg\", \"Coudenberg\" and \"Sablon\"/\"Zavel\" areas), where there was a smaller risk of floods. As it grew to a population of around 30,000,", "In the 15th century, the marriage between heiress Margaret III of Flanders and Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, produced a new Duke of Brabant of the House of Valois (namely Antoine, their son). In 1477, the Burgundian duke Charles the Bold perished in the Battle of Nancy. Through the marriage of his daughter Mary of Burgundy (who was born in Brussels) to Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, the Low Countries fell under Habsburg sovereignty. Brabant was integrated into this composite state, and Brussels flourished as the Princely Capital of the prosperous Burgundian Netherlands, also known as the Seventeen Provinces. After the death of Mary in 1482, her son Philip the Handsome succeeded as Duke of Burgundy and Brabant. Philip died in 1506, and he was succeeded by his son Charles V who then also became King of Spain (crowned in the Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula) and even Holy Roman Emperor at the death of his grandfather Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor in 1519. Charles was now the ruler of a Habsburg Empire \"on which the sun never sets\" with Brussels serving as his main capital. It was in the Palace", "In 1830, the Belgian revolution began in Brussels, after a performance of Auber's opera \"La Muette de Portici\" at the Royal Theatre of La Monnaie. The city became the capital and seat of government of the new nation. South Brabant was renamed simply Brabant, with Brussels as its administrative centre. On 21 July 1831, Leopold I, the first King of the Belgians, ascended the throne, undertaking the destruction of the city walls and the construction of many buildings. Following independence, Brussels underwent many more changes. It became a financial centre, thanks to the dozens of companies launched by the \"Société Générale de Belgique\". The Industrial Revolution and the building of the Brussels-Charleroi Canal brought prosperity to the city through commerce and", "During the 20th century, the city hosted various fairs and conferences, including the Solvay Conference on Physics and on Chemistry, and three world fairs: the Brussels International Exposition of 1910, the Brussels International Exposition of 1935 and Expo '58. During World War I, Brussels was an occupied city, but German troops did not cause much damage. During World War II, it was again occupied by German forces, and spared major damage, before it was liberated by the British Guards Armoured Division on", "The Brussels-Capital Region was formed on 18 June 1989, after a constitutional reform in 1988. It is one of the three federal regions of Belgium, along with Flanders and Wallonia, and has bilingual status. The yellow iris is the emblem of the region (referring to the presence of these flowers on the city's original site) and a stylised version in shown", "", "Brussels lies in the north-central part of Belgium, about from the Belgian coast and about from Belgium's southern tip. It is located in the heartland of the Brabantian Plateau, about south of Antwerp (Flanders), and north of Charleroi (Wallonia). Its average elevation is above sea level, varying from a low point", "Brussels experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen: \"Cfb\") with warm summers and cool winters. Proximity to coastal areas influences the area's climate by sending marine air masses from the Atlantic Ocean. Nearby wetlands also ensure a", "Despite its name, the Brussels-Capital Region is not the capital of Belgium. Article 194 of the Belgian Constitution establishes that the capital of Belgium is the City of Brussels, the municipality in the region that is the city's core. The City of Brussels is the location of many national institutions. The Royal Palace, where the King of the Belgians exercises his prerogatives as head of state, is situated alongside Brussels' Park (not to be confused with the Royal Castle of Laeken, the official home of the Belgian Royal Family). The Palace of the Nation is", "The 19 municipalities (French:, Dutch: ) of the Brussels-Capital Region are political subdivisions with individual responsibilities for the handling of local level duties, such as law enforcement and the upkeep of schools and roads within its borders. Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor, a council, and an executive. In 1831, Belgium was divided into 2,739 municipalities, including the 19 in the Brussels-Capital Region. Unlike most of the municipalities in Belgium, the ones located in the Brussels-Capital Region were not merged with others during mergers occurring in 1964, 1970, and 1975. However, several municipalities outside the Brussels-Capital Region have been merged with the City of Brussels throughout its history, including Laeken, Haren and Neder-Over-Heembeek in 1921. The largest municipality in area and population is the City of", "", "The Brussels-Capital Region is one of the three federated regions of Belgium, alongside the Walloon Region and the Flemish Region. Geographically and linguistically, it is a bilingual enclave in the monolingual Flemish Region. Regions are one component of Belgium's institutions; the three communities being the other component. Brussels' inhabitants deal with either the French Community or the Flemish Community for matters such as culture", "The Brussels-Capital Region is governed by a parliament of 89 members (72 French-speaking, 17 Dutch-speaking – parties are organised on a linguistic basis) and an eight-member regional cabinet consisting of a minister-president, four ministers and three state secretaries. By law, the cabinet must comprise two French-speaking and two Dutch-speaking ministers, one Dutch-speaking secretary of state and two French-speaking secretaries of state. The minister-president does not count", "Before the creation of the Brussels-Capital Region, regional competences in the 19 municipalities were performed by the Brussels Agglomeration. The Brussels Agglomeration was an administrative division established in 1971. This decentralised administrative public body also assumed jurisdiction over areas which, elsewhere in Belgium, were exercised by municipalities or provinces. The", "The French Community and the Flemish Community exercise their powers in Brussels through two community-specific public authorities: the French Community Commission (French: or COCOF) and the Flemish Community Commission (Dutch: or VGC). These two bodies each have an assembly composed of the members of each linguistic group of the Parliament of the Brussels-Capital Region. They also have a board composed of the ministers and secretaries of state of each linguistic group in the Government of the Brussels-Capital Region. The French Community Commission has also another capacity: some legislative powers of the French Community have been devolved to the Walloon Region (for the French language area of Belgium) and to the French Community Commission (for the bilingual language area). The Flemish Community, however, did the opposite; it merged the Flemish Region into the Flemish Community. This is related to different conceptions in the two communities, one focusing more on the Communities and the other more on the Regions, causing an asymmetrical federalism. Because of this devolution, the French Community Commission can enact decrees, which are legislative acts.", "A bi-communitarian public authority, the Common Community Commission (French:, COCOM, Dutch:, GGC) also exists. Its assembly is composed of the members of the regional parliament, and its board are the ministers – not the secretaries of state – of the region, with the minister-president not having the right to vote. This Commission has two capacities: it is a decentralised administrative public body, responsible for implementing cultural policies of common interest. It can give subsidies and enact by-laws. In another capacity, it can also enact", "Brussels has, since World War II, become the administrative centre of many international organisations. The European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) have their main institutions in the city, along with many other international organisations such as the World Customs Organization and EUROCONTROL, as well as international corporations. Brussels is third in the number of international conferences it hosts, also becoming one of the largest convention centres in the world. The presence of the EU and the other international bodies has, for example, led to there being more ambassadors and journalists in Brussels than in Washington D.C. International schools have also been established to serve this presence. The \"international community\" in Brussels numbers at least 70,000 people. In 2009, there were an estimated 286 lobbying consultancies known to work in Brussels.", "Brussels serves as \"de facto\" capital of the European Union, hosting the major political institutions of the Union. The EU has not declared a capital formally, though the Treaty of Amsterdam formally gives Brussels the seat of the European Commission (the executive branch of government) and the Council of the European Union (a legislative institution made up from executives of member states). It locates the formal seat of European Parliament in Strasbourg, where votes take place, with the Council, on the proposals made by the Commission. However, meetings of political groups and committee groups are formally given to Brussels, along with a set number of plenary sessions. Three quarters of Parliament sessions now take place at its", "The European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation, commonly known as Eurocontrol, is an international organisation which coordinates and plans air", "The Treaty of Brussels, which was signed on 17 March 1948 between Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, was a prelude to the establishment of the intergovernmental military alliance which later became the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Today, the alliance consists of", "", "Brussels is located in one of the most urbanised regions of Europe, between Paris, London, the Rhine-Ruhr (Germany), and the Randstad (Netherlands). The Brussels-Capital Region has a population of around 1.2 million and has witnessed, in recent years, a remarkable increase in its population. In general, the population of Brussels", "Brussels is home to a large number of immigrants. At the last Belgian census in 1991, 63.7% of inhabitants in Brussels-Capital Region answered that they were Belgian citizens, born as such in Belgium. However, there have been numerous individual or familial migrations towards Brussels since the end of the 18th century, including political refugees (Karl Marx, Victor Hugo, Pierre Joseph Proudhon, Léon Daudet, for example), from neighbouring or more distant countries, as well as labour migrants, former foreign students or expatriates, and many", "Since the founding of the Kingdom of Belgium in 1830, Brussels has transformed from being almost entirely Dutch-speaking (Brabantian dialect to be exact), to being a multilingual city with French (specifically Belgian French) as the majority language and \"lingua franca\". This language shift, the \"Francisation\" of Brussels, is rooted in the 18th century and accelerated after Belgium became independent and Brussels expanded past its original boundaries. French-speaking immigration contributed to the \"Frenchification\" of Brussels; both Walloons and expatriates from other countries – mainly France – came to Brussels in great numbers. However, a more important cause for the \"Frenchification\" was the language change over several generations from Dutch to French that was carried out by Flemish inhabitants themselves. The main reason for this was a political, administrative and", "Historically, Brussels has been predominantly Roman Catholic, especially since the expulsion of Protestants in the 16th century. This is clear from the large number of historical churches in the region, particularly in the City of Brussels. The pre-eminent Catholic cathedral in Brussels is the Cathedral of Saint Michael and Saint Gudula, which serves as the co-cathedral of the Archdiocese of Mechelen-Brussels. On the northwestern side of the region, the National Basilica of the Sacred Heart is a Minor Basilica and parish church and the 14th largest church building in the world. The Church of Our Lady of Laeken holds the tombs of many members of the Belgian royal family, including all the former Belgian monarchs, within the Royal Crypt. In reflection of its multicultural makeup, Brussels hosts a variety of religious communities, as well as large", "", "The architecture in Brussels is diverse, and spans from the clashing combination of Gothic, Baroque, and Louis XIV styles on the Grand Place to the postmodern buildings of the EU institutions. Very little medieval architecture is preserved in Brussels. Buildings from that period are mostly found in the historic centre (called ), \"Saint Géry/Sint-Goriks\" and / neighbourhoods. The Brabantine Gothic Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula remains a prominent feature in the skyline of downtown Brussels. Isolated portions of the first city walls were saved from destruction and can be seen to this day. One of the only remains of the second walls is the Halle Gate. The Grand Place is the main attraction in the city centre and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1998. The square is dominated", "Brussels contains over 80 museums. The Royal Museums of Fine Arts has an extensive collection of various painters, such as Flemish old masters like Bruegel, Rogier van der Weyden, Robert Campin, Anthony van Dyck, Jacob Jordaens, and Peter Paul Rubens. The Magritte Museum houses the world's largest collection of the works of the surrealist René Magritte. Museums dedicated to the national history of Belgium include the BELvue Museum, the Royal Museums of Art and History, and the Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History. The Musical", "Brussels' identity owes much to its", "Many events are organised or hosted in Brussels throughout the year. In addition, many festivals animate the Brussels scene. The Iris Festival is the official festival of the Brussels-Capital Region and is held annually in spring. The International Fantastic Film Festival of Brussels (BIFFF) is organised during the Easter holidays and the Magritte Awards in February. The Festival of Europe, an open day and activities in and around the institutions of the European Union, is held on 9 May. On Belgian National Day, on 21 July, a military parade and celebrations take place on the / and in Brussels' Park, ending with a display of", "Brussels is known for its local waffle, its chocolate, its French fries and its numerous types of beers. The Brussels sprout, which has long been popular in Brussels, and may have originated there, is also named after the city. The gastronomic offer includes approximately 1,800 restaurants, and a number of high quality bars. Belgian cuisine is known among connoisseurs as one of the best in Europe. In addition to the traditional restaurants, there are many cafés, bistros and the usual range of international fast food chains. The cafés are similar to bars, and offer beer and light dishes; coffee houses are called. Also widespread are brasseries, which usually offer a variety of beers and typical", "Famous shopping areas in Brussels include the pedestrian-only Rue Neuve/Nieuwstraat, the second busiest shopping street in Belgium (after the Meir, in Antwerp) with a weekly average of 230,000 visitors, home to popular international chains (H&M, C&A, Zara, Primark), as well as the City 2 and Anspach galleries. The Royal Saint-Hubert Galleries hold a variety of luxury shops and some six million people stroll through them each year. The neighbourhood around / has become, in recent years, a focal point for fashion and design; this main street and its side streets also feature Belgium's young and most happening artistic", "Sport in Brussels is under the responsibility of the Communities. The (ADEPS) is responsible for recognising the various French-speaking sports federations and also runs three sports centres in the Brussels-Capital Region. Its Dutch-speaking counterpart is (formerly called BLOSO). The King Baudouin Stadium (formerly Heysel Stadium) is the largest in the country and home to the national teams in football and rugby union. It hosted the final of the 1972 UEFA European Football Championship, and the opening game of the 2000 edition. Several European club finals have been held at the ground, including the 1985 European Cup Final which saw 39 deaths due to hooliganism and structural collapse. The King Baudouin Stadium is also home of the annual Memorial Van Damme athletics event, Belgium's foremost track and field competition, which is part of the Diamond League. Other important athletics events are the Brussels Marathon and the 20 km of Brussels.", "Brussels is home to notable cycling races. The city is the arrival location of the Brussels Cycling Classic, formerly known as Paris–Brussels, which is one of the oldest", "R.S.C. Anderlecht, based in the Constant Vanden Stock Stadium in Anderlecht, is the most successful Belgian football club in the Belgian Pro League, with 34 titles. It has also won the most major European tournaments for a Belgian side, with 6 European titles. Brussels is also home to Union Saint-Gilloise, the most successful Belgian club before World War II, with 11 titles The club was founded in Saint-Gilles but is based", "Serving as the centre of administration for Belgium and Europe, Brussels' economy is largely service-oriented. It is dominated by regional and world headquarters of multinationals, by European institutions, by various local and federal administrations, and by related services companies, though it does have a number of notable craft industries, such as the Cantillon Brewery, a lambic brewery founded in 1900. Brussels has a robust economy. The region contributes to one fifth of Belgium's GDP, and its 550,000 jobs account for 17.7% of Belgium's employment. Its GDP per capita is nearly double that of Belgium as a whole, and it has the highest GDP per capita of any NUTS 1 region in the EU, at ~$80,000 in 2016. That being said, the GDP is boosted by a massive inflow of commuters from neighbouring regions; over half of those who work in", "Brussels is a centre of both media and communications in Belgium, with many Belgian television stations, radio stations, newspapers and telephone companies having their headquarters in the region. The Belgian French-language public broadcaster RTBF, the Belgian Dutch-speaking public broadcaster VRT, the two regional channels BX1 (formerly \"Télé Bruxelles\") and Bruzz (formerly \"TV Brussel\"), the encrypted BeTV channel and private channels RTL-TVI and VTM are headquartered", "", "There are several universities in Brussels. Except for the Royal Military Academy, a military college established in 1834, all universities in Brussels are private/autonomous. The Université libre de Bruxelles, a French-speaking university, with about 20,000 students, has three campuses in the city, and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, a Dutch-speaking university, has about 10,000 students. Both universities originate from a single ancestor university, founded in 1834, namely the Free University of Brussels, which was split in 1970, at about the same time the Flemish and French Communities gained legislative power over the organisation of higher education. Saint-Louis University, Brussels", "Most of Brussels pupils between the ages of 3 and 18 go to schools organised by the French-speaking Community or the Flemish Community, with close to 80% going to French-speaking schools, and roughly 20% to Dutch-speaking schools. Due to the post-war international presence in", "Brussels has a number of public or private-owned libraries on its territory. Libraries in", "Science and technology in Brussels is well developed with the presence of several universities and research institutes. The Royal Belgian Institute of", "Brussels is home to a thriving pharmaceutical and health care industry which includes pioneering biotechnology research. The health sector employs 70,000 employees in 30,000 companies. There", "", "The Brussels-Capital Region is served by several airports, all of which are located outside", "Since the 16th century, Brussels has had its own harbour, the port of Brussels. It has been enlarged throughout the centuries to become the second Belgian inland port. Historically situated near the /, it lies today to the northwest of the region, on the Brussels–Scheldt Maritime Canal (commonly called Willebroek Canal), which connects Brussels to Antwerp via the Scheldt. Ships and large barges up to 4,500 tons can penetrate deep into the country, avoiding break-ups and load transfers between Antwerp and the", "The Brussels-Capital Region has three main train stations: Brussels-South, Central and North, which are the busiest of the country. Brussels-South is also served by direct high-speed rail links: to London by Eurostar trains via the Channel Tunnel (1hr 51min); to Amsterdam by Thalys and \"InterCity\" connections; to Amsterdam, Paris (1hr 50min and 1hr 25min respectively ), and Cologne by Thalys; and to Cologne (1hr 50min) and Frankfurt (2hr 57min) by", "The Brussels Intercommunal Transport Company STIB/MIVB is the local public transport operator in Brussels. It covers the 19 municipalities of the Brussels-Capital Region and some surface routes extend to the near suburbs in the other regions.", "The Brussels Metro dates back to 1976, but underground lines known as \"premetro\" have been serviced by tramways since 1968. The network consists of four conventional metro lines and three \"premetro\" lines. The metro-grade lines are M1, M2, M5, and M6, with", "A comprehensive bus and tram network covers the region., the Brussels tram system consists of 17 tram lines (three of which – lines T3, T4 and T7 – qualify as \"premetro\" lines). The total route length is, making it one of the largest", "An interticketing system means that a STIB/MIVB ticket holder can use the train or long-distance buses inside the region. A single journey can include multiple stages across the different modes of", "Since 2003, Brussels has had a car-sharing service operated by the Bremen company Cambio, in partnership with the STIB/MIVB and local ridesharing company Taxi Stop. In 2006, a public bicycle-sharing programme was introduced. The scheme was subsequently taken over by Villo!. Since 2008, this night-time public transport service has been supplemented by Collecto, a shared taxi system, which operates on weekdays between 11 p.m. and 6 a.m. In 2012, the Zen Car electric car-sharing scheme was launched in the university and European areas.", "In medieval times, Brussels stood at the intersection of routes running north–south (the modern /) and east–west (/-/-/). The ancient pattern of streets, radiating from the Grand Place, in large part remains, but has been overlaid by boulevards built over the River Senne, over the city walls and over the railway connection between the North and South Stations. Today, Brussels has the most congested traffic in North America and Europe, according to US traffic information platform INRIX. Brussels is the hub of a range of old national roads, the main ones being clockwise: the N1 (N to Breda), N2 (E to Maastricht), N3 (E to Aachen), N4 (SE to Luxembourg) N5 (S to Rheims), N6 (S to Maubeuge), N7 (SW to Lille), N8 (W to Koksijde) and N9 (NW to Ostend). Usually named /, these", "", "The Brussels local police, supported by the federal police, is responsible for law enforcement", "The Brussels Fire and Emergency Medical Care Service, commonly known by its acronym SIAMU (DBDMH), operates in the 19 municipalities of Brussels. It is a class X fire department and the largest fire service in Belgium in terms of annual", "Brussels is one of the greenest capitals in Europe, with over 8,000 hectares of green spaces. Vegetation cover and natural areas are higher in the outskirts, where they have limited the peri-urbanisation of the capital, but they decrease sharply towards the centre of Brussels; 10% in the central \"pentagon\", 30% of the municipalities in the", "", "Brussels is" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and career.", "Early life and education.", "Career.", "Death.", "Writing analysis and criticism.", "Filmography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Ludlum was born in New York City, the son of Margaret (née Wadsworth) and George Hartford Ludlum. His maternal grandparents were English. He was educated at The Rectory School then Cheshire Academy and Wesleyan University in Middletown, Connecticut, where he earned a B.A. in Drama in 1951. While at Wesleyan, Ludlum joined the Alpha Delta Phi fraternity. After becoming an author later in life, Ludlum would set his mystery novel \"Matlock Paper\" at the fictitious Carlyle University in Connecticut, a thinly disguised Wesleyan.", "Prior to becoming an author, he had been a United States Marine, a theatrical actor and producer. In the 1950s, he produced shows at the Grant Lee theater in Fort Lee, New Jersey. From 1960 to 1970, he managed and produced shows at the Playhouse on the Mall at Bergen Mall in Paramus, New Jersey. His theatrical experience may have contributed to his understanding of the energy, escapism and action that the public wanted in a novel. He once remarked: \"I equate suspense and good theater in a very similar way. I think it's all suspense and what-happens-next. From that point of view, yes, I guess, I am theatrical.\" Many of Ludlum's novels have been made into films and mini-series, including \"The Osterman Weekend\", \"The Holcroft Covenant\", \"The Apocalypse Watch\", \"The Bourne Identity\", \"The Bourne Supremacy\" and \"The Bourne Ultimatum\". \"\", a book co-written with Gayle Lynds, was originally conceived as a mini-series; the book evolved from a short treatment Ludlum wrote for NBC. The Bourne movies, starring Matt Damon in the title role, have been commercially and critically successful (\"The Bourne Ultimatum\" won three Academy Awards in 2008), although the story lines depart significantly from the source material. During the 1970s, Ludlum lived in Leonia, New Jersey, where he spent hours each day writing at his home.", "Ludlum died on March 12, 2001, at his home in Naples, Florida, while recovering from severe burns caused by a mysterious fire which occurred on February 10, 2001.", "Ludlum's novels typically feature one heroic man, or a small group of crusading individuals, in a struggle against powerful adversaries whose intentions and motivations are evil and who are capable of using political and economic mechanisms in frightening ways. The world in his writings is one where global corporations, shadowy military forces and government organizations all conspired to preserve (if it was evil) or undermine (if it was law-abiding) the status quo. Ludlum's novels were often inspired by conspiracy theories, both historical and contemporary. He wrote that \"The Matarese Circle\" was inspired by rumors about the Trilateral Commission, and it was published only a few years after the commission was founded. His depictions of terrorism in books such as \"The Holcroft Covenant\" and \"The Matarese Circle\" reflected the theory that terrorists, rather than being merely isolated bands of ideologically motivated extremists, are actually pawns of governments or private organizations who are using them to facilitate the establishment of authoritarian rule.", "Many of Ludlum's novels have been made into films and mini-series, although the story lines might depart significantly from the source material. In general, a miniseries is more faithful to the original novel on which it is based. Adaptations of Ludlum's works are published under the trademark Treadstone, which is held by \"The Executor Of The Robert Ludlum Estate\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Names.", "Origin and diffusion.", "Loss of language.", "Dialect criteria.", "Dialect groups.", "Phonology.", "Syntax.", "Writing.", "Systems.", "Punctuation.", "Contact languages.", "Legal status.", "Support and revitalization." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Endonyms are'(Plains Cree),'(Woods Cree),'(Atikamekw),'(Western Montagnais, Piyekwâkamî dialect),'(Western Montagnais, Betsiamites dialect),'(Eastern Montagnais),'(Southern East Cree),'(Northern East Cree),'(Moose Cree),'(Eastern Swampy Cree), and \"\" (Western Swampy Cree).", "Cree is believed to have begun as a dialect of the Proto-Algonquian language spoken between 2,500 and 3,000 years ago in the original Algonquian homeland, an undetermined area thought to be near the Great Lakes. The speakers of the proto-Cree language are thought to have moved north, and diverged rather quickly into two different groups on each side of James Bay. The eastern group then began to diverge into separate dialects, whereas the western grouping probably broke into distinct dialects much later. After this point it is very difficult to make definite statements about how different groups emerged and moved around, because there are no written works in the languages to compare, and descriptions by Europeans are not systematic; as well, Algonquian people have a tradition of bilingualism and even of outright adopting a new language from neighbours. A traditional view among 20th century anthropologists and historians of the fur trade posits that the Western Woods Cree and the Plains Cree (and therefore their dialects) did not diverge from other Cree peoples before 1670, when the Cree expanded out of their homeland near James Bay because of access to European firearms. By contrast, James Smith of the Museum of the American Indian stated, in 1987, that the weight of archeological and linguistic evidence puts the Cree as far west as the Peace River Region of Alberta before European contact.", "Doug Cuthand argues three reasons for the loss of the Cree language. First, residential schools cultivated the prejudice that their language was inferior. While students were still speaking their native language at home, their learning stopped at school. When they left residential schools as adults, they went home and their vocabulary and knowledge of language did not include concepts or forms that an adult speaker who had not been taken to a residential school would have. Cuthand also argues that the loss of the Cree language can be attributed to the migration of native families away from the reserve, voluntarily or not. Oftentimes, the elders are left on the reserve. This breaks up the traditional intergenerational flow of lingual knowledge from elder to youth. The third point Cuthand argues is that Cree language loss was adopted by the speakers. Parents stopped teaching their children their native language in the belief that doing so would help their children find economic success or avoid discrimination.", "The Cree dialect continuum can be divided by many criteria. Dialects spoken in northern Ontario and the southern James Bay, Lanaudière, and Mauricie regions of Quebec differentiate (\"sh\" as in \"sh\"e) and, while those to the west have merged the two phonemes as and in east the phonemes are merged as either or. In several dialects, including northern Plains Cree and Woods Cree, the long vowels and have merged into a single vowel,. In the Quebec communities of Chisasibi, Whapmagoostui, and Kawawachikamach, the long vowel has merged with. However, the most transparent phonological variation between different Cree dialects are the reflexes of Proto-Algonquian *l in the modern dialects, as shown below: The Plains Cree, speakers of the y dialect, refer to their language as ', whereas Woods Cree speakers say ', and Swampy Cree speakers say \"\". Another important phonological variation among the Cree dialects involves the palatalisation of Proto-Algonquian *k: East of the Ontario–Quebec border (except for Atikamekw), Proto-Algonquian *k has changed into or before front vowels. See the table above for examples in the *kīla column. Very often the Cree dialect continuum is divided into two languages: Cree and Montagnais. Cree includes all dialects which have not undergone the *k > sound change (BC–QC) while Montagnais encompasses the territory where this sound change has occurred (QC–NL). These labels are very useful from a linguistic perspective but are confusing as \"East Cree\" then qualifies as Montagnais. For practical purposes, Cree usually covers the dialects which use syllabics as their orthography (including Atikamekw but excluding Kawawachikamach Naskapi), the term Montagnais then applies to those dialects using the Latin script (excluding Atikamekw and including Kawawachikamach Naskapi). The term Naskapi typically refers to Kawawachikamach (y-dialect) and Natuashish (n-dialect).", "The Cree dialects can be broadly classified into nine groups. Roughly from west to east:", "This table shows the possible consonant phonemes in the Cree language or one of its varieties. In dictionaries focused on Eastern Swampy Cree, Western Swampy Cree may readily substitute ⟨sh⟩ with ⟨s⟩, while Lowland Moose Cree may readily substitute ⟨ñ⟩ with their ⟨l⟩. In dictionaries focused on Southern Plains Cree, Northern Plains Cree may readily substitute ⟨ē⟩ with ⟨ī⟩, while materials accommodating Rocky Cree will indicate the Plains Cree that is in Rocky Cree as ⟨ý⟩. Similarly, in dictionaries focused on Western Swampy Cree, Woods Cree may readily substitute ⟨ē⟩ with ⟨ī⟩, while materials accommodating Woods Cree will indicate the Western Swampy Cree that is in Woods Cree as ⟨ń⟩. Atikamekw uses ⟨c⟩ [], ⟨tc⟩ [], and ⟨i⟩ [] (which also serves as ⟨i⟩ []). Eastern James Bay Cree prefers to indicate long vowels (other than ) by doubling the vowel, while the western Cree use either a macron or circumflex diacritic; as is always long, often it is written as just ⟨e⟩ without doubling or using a diacritic. While Western Cree dialects make use of ⟨o⟩ and either ⟨ō⟩ or ⟨ô⟩, Eastern Cree dialects instead make use of ⟨u⟩ and either ⟨uu⟩, ⟨ū⟩, or ⟨û⟩.", "Cree features a complex polysynthetic morphosyntax. A common grammatical feature in Cree dialects, in terms of sentence structure, is non-regulated word order. Word order is not governed by a specific set of rules or structure; instead, \"subjects and objects are expressed by means of inflection on the verb\". Subject, Verb, and Object (SVO) in a sentence can vary in order, for example, SVO, VOS, OVS, and SOV. Obviation is also a key aspect of the Cree language(s). In a sense, the obviative can be defined as any third-person ranked lower on a hierarchy of discourse salience than some other (proximate) discourse-participant. \"Obviative animate nouns, [in the Plains Cree dialect for instance], are marked by [a suffix] ending, and are used to refer to third persons who are more peripheral in the discourse than the proximate third person\". For example: The suffix \" marks Susan as the obviative, or 'fourth' person, the person furthest away from the discourse. The Cree language has grammatical gender in a system that classifies nouns as animate or inanimate. The distribution of nouns between animate or inanimate is not phonologically transparent, which means gender must be learned along with the noun. As is common in polysynthetic languages, a Cree word can be very long, and express something that takes a series of words in English. For example, the Plains Cree word for \"school\" is \", \"know...place\" or the \"knowing-it-together-by-example place\". This means that changing the word order in Cree can place emphasis on different pieces of the sentence. Wolfart and Carroll give the following example by transposing the two Cree words: \"kakwēcimēw kisēýiniwa\" → He asked the old man. \"kisēýiniwa kakwēcimēw\" → It was the old man he asked.", "", "Cree dialects, except for those spoken in eastern Quebec and Labrador, are traditionally written using Cree syllabics, a variant of Canadian Aboriginal syllabics, but can be written with the Latin script as well. Both writing systems represent the language phonetically. Cree is always written from left to right horizontally. The easternmost dialects are written using the Latin script exclusively. The dialects of Plains Cree, Woods Cree, and western Swampy Cree use Western Cree syllabics and the dialects of eastern Swampy Cree, East Cree, Moose Cree, and Naskapi use Eastern Cree syllabics. In this syllabic system, each symbol, which represents a consonant, can be written four ways, each direction representing its corresponding vowel. Some dialects of Cree have up to seven vowels, so additional diacritics are placed after the syllabic to represent the corresponding vowels. Finals represent stand-alone consonants. The Cree language also has two semivowels. The semivowels may follow other consonants or be on their own in a word. The following tables show the syllabaries of Eastern and Western Cree dialects, respectively: Speakers of various Cree dialects have begun creating dictionaries to serve their communities. Some projects, such as the Cree Language Resource Project (CLRP), are developing an online bilingual Cree dictionary for the Cree language.", "Cree has not commonly or traditionally used the period (.) at the end of sentences when syllabics are used. Instead, either a full-stop glyph (᙮) or a double em-width space have been used between words to signal the transition from one sentence to the next. In alphabetic writing, the use of punctuation has been inconsistent. For instance, in the Plains Cree dialect, the interrogative enclitic \"cî\" can be included in the sentence to mark a yes-no question such that this is sometimes considered to be sufficient without including a question mark (?). However, in many modern publications and text collections (cf.) full punctuation is used. Additionally, other interrogatives (\"where, when, what, why, who\") can be used, as in other languages, and questions marks can thus be used for such questions in Cree as well.", "Cree is also a component language in two contact languages, Michif and Bungi. Both languages were spoken by members of the Métis, the Voyageurs, and European settlers of Western Canada and parts of the Northern United States. Michif is a mixed language which combines Cree with French. For the most part, Michif uses Cree verbs, question words, and demonstratives while using French nouns. Michif is unique to the Canadian prairie provinces as well as to North Dakota and Montana in the United States. Michif is still spoken in central Canada and in North Dakota. Bungi is a creole based on Scottish English, Scots, Scottish Gaelic, Cree, and Ojibwe. Some French words have also been incorporated into its lexicon. This language flourished at and around the Red River Settlement (modern day location of Winnipeg, Manitoba) by the mid to late 1800s. Bungi is now virtually extinct, as its features are being abandoned in favor of standard English. Cree has also been incorporated into another mixed language within Canada, Nehipwat, which is a blending of Cree with Assiniboine. Nehipwat is found only in a few southern Saskatchewan reserves and is now nearing extinction. Nothing is known of its structure.", "The social and legal status of Cree varies across Canada. Cree is one of the eleven official languages of the Northwest Territories, but is only spoken by a small number of people there in the area around the town of Fort Smith. It is also one of two principal languages of the regional government of Eeyou Istchee/Baie-James Territory in Northern Quebec, the other being French.", "Cree has about 117,000 documented speakers today. They are still a minority language given the dominance of English and French in Canada. There are programs in place to maintain and revitalize the language, though. In the Quebec James Bay Cree community, a resolution was put into action in 1988 that made Cree the language of education in primary schools and eventually elementary schools. The Mistissini council decided to require their employees to learn Cree syllabics in 1991. The Cree School Board now has their annual report available in both English and Cree. There is a push to increase the availability of Cree stations on the radio. In 2013, free Cree language electronic books for beginners became available for Alberta language teachers. The Government of the Northwest Territories releases an annual report on First Nations languages. The 2016–2017 report features successes they have had in revitalizing and supporting and projects they are working on. For example, they released a Medicinal Plant Guide that had information in both Cree and English. An important part of making the guide was input from the elders. Another accomplishment was the dubbing of a movie in Cree. They are working on broadcasting a radio station that \"will give listeners music and a voice for our languages\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Usage.", "History.", "Writing systems.", "1873–1938.", "Previous systems.", "Phonology.", "Consonants.", "Vowels.", "Word accent.", "Dialects.", "Morphology.", "Nouns and adjectives.", "Verbs.", "Vowel harmony.", "Exceptions.", "Word order." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "Chuvash is the native language of the Chuvash people and an official language of Chuvashia. It is spoken by 1,640,000 persons in Russia and another 34,000 in other countries. 86% of ethnic Chuvash and 8% of the people of other ethnicities living in Chuvashia claimed knowledge of Chuvash language during the 2002 census. Despite that, and although Chuvash is taught at schools and sometimes used in the media, it is considered endangered, because Russian dominates in most spheres of life, and few children learning the language are likely to become active users. A fairly significant production and publication of literature in Chuvash still continues. According to UNESCO's \"Index Translationum\", at least 202 books translated from Chuvash were published in other languages (mostly Russian) since ca. 1979. However, as with most other languages of the former USSR, most of the translation activity took place before the dissolution of the USSR: out of the 202 translations, 170 books were published in the USSR, and just 17, in the post-1991 Russia (mostly, in the 1990s). A similar situation takes place with the translation of books from other languages (mostly Russian) into Chuvash (the total of 175 titles published since ca. 1979, but just 18 of them in post-1991 Russia).", "Chuvash is the most distinctive of the Turkic languages and cannot be understood by speakers of other Turkic tongues. Chuvash is classified, alongside the extinct language Bulgar, as the only remaining member of the Oghuric branch of the Turkic language family. Since the surviving literary records for the non-Chuvash members of Oghuric are scant, the exact position of Chuvash within the Oghuric family cannot be determined. The Oghuric branch is distinguished from the rest of the Turkic family (the Common Turkic languages) by two sound changes: \"r\" corresponding to Common Turkic \"z\", and \"l\" corresponding to Common Turkic \"ş\". Chuvash is so divergent from the main body of Turkic languages that scholars formerly considered Chuvash to be a Turkified Finno-Ugric (Uralic language). However, the first scientific fieldwork description of Chuvash, by August Ahlqvist in 1856, allowed researchers to establish its proper affiliation.", "", "The modern Chuvash alphabet was devised in 1873 by school inspector Ivan Yakovlevich Yakovlev. In 1938, the alphabet underwent significant modification which brought it to its current form.", "The most ancient writing system, known as the Old Turkic alphabet, disappeared after the Volga Bulgars converted to Islam. Later, the Arabic script was adopted. After the Mongol invasion, writing degraded. After Peter the Great's reforms Chuvash elites disappeared, blacksmiths and some other crafts were prohibited for non-Russian nations, the Chuvash were educated in Russian, while writing in runes recurred with simple folks.", "", "The consonants are the following (the corresponding Cyrillic letters are in brackets): The stops, sibilants and affricates are voiceless and fortes but become lenes (sounding similar to voiced) in intervocalic position and after liquids, nasals and semi-vowels. Аннепе sounds like \"annebe\", but кушакпа sounds like \"kuzhakpa\". However, geminate consonants do not undergo this lenition. Furthermore, the voiced consonants occurring in Russian are used in modern Russian-language loans. Consonants also become palatalized before and after front vowels.", "According to Krueger (1961), the Chuvash vowel system is as follows (the precise IPA symbols are chosen based on his description since he uses a different transcription). András Róna-Tas (1997) provides a somewhat different description, also with a partly idiosyncratic transcription. The following table is based on his version, with additional information from Petrov (2001). Again, the IPA symbols are not directly taken from the works so they could be inaccurate. The vowels ӑ and ӗ are described as reduced, thereby differing in quantity from the rest. In unstressed positions, they often resemble a schwa or tend to be dropped altogether in fast speech. At times, especially when stressed, they may be somewhat rounded and sound similar to and. Additionally, (о) occurs in loanwords from Russian where the syllable is unstressed in Russian.", "The usual rule given in grammars of Chuvash is that the last full (non-reduced) vowel of the word is stressed; if there are no full vowels, the first vowel is stressed. Reduced vowels that precede or follow a stressed full vowel are extremely short and non-prominent. One scholar, Dobrovolsky, however, hypothesises that there is in fact no stress in disyllabic words in which both vowels are reduced.", "There are two dialects of Chuvash: The literary language is based on both the Lower and Upper dialects. Both Tatar and the neighbouring Uralic languages such as Mari have influenced the Chuvash language, as have Russian, Mongolian, Arabic and Persian, which have all added many words to the Chuvash lexicon.", "As characteristic of all Turkic languages, Chuvash is an agglutinative language and as such, has an abundance of suffixes but no native prefixes or prepositions, apart from the partly reduplicative intensive prefix, such as in: шурӑ - \"white\", шап-шурӑ - \"snow-white\", хура - \"black\", хуп-хура - \"jet black\", такӑр - \"flat\", так-такӑр - \"absolutely flat\", тулли - \"full\", тӑп-тулли - \"chock full\" (compare to Turkish beyaz - \"white\", bem-beyaz \"snow-white\", kara - \"black\", kap-kara - \"jet black\", düz - \"flat\", dümdüz - \"absolutely flat\", dolu - \"full\", dopdolu - \"chock full\"). One word can have many suffixes, which can also be used to create new words like creating a verb from a noun or a noun from a verbal root. See Vocabulary below. It can also indicate the grammatical function of the word.", "Chuvash nouns can take endings indicating the person of a possessor. They can take case-endings. There are six noun cases in the Chuvash declension system: Grammatical case: Plural: Also: Adjective: Verb: Taking кун (day) as an example: Possession is expressed by means of constructions based on verbs meaning \"to exist\" and \"not to exist\" (\"пур\" and \"ҫук\"). For example, to say, \"My cat had no shoes\": which literally translates as \"cat-mine-of foot-cover(of)-plural-his non-existent-was.\"", "Chuvash verbs exhibit person and can be made negative or impotential; they can also be made potential. Finally, Chuvash verbs exhibit various distinctions of tense mood, and aspect: a verb can be progressive, necessitative, aorist, future, inferential, present, past, conditional, imperative or optative.", "Vowel harmony is the principle by which a native Chuvash word generally incorporates either exclusively back or hard vowels (а, ӑ, у, ы) and exclusively front or soft vowels (е, ӗ, ӳ, и). As such, a notation for a Chuvash suffix such as -тен means either -тан or -тен, whichever promotes vowel harmony; a notation such as -тпӗр means either -тпӑр, -тпӗр, again with vowel harmony constituting the deciding factor. Chuvash has two classes of vowels: \"front\" and \"back\" (see the table above). Vowel harmony states that words may not contain both front and back vowels. Therefore, most grammatical suffixes come in front and back forms, e.g. Шупашкарта \"in Cheboksary\" but килте \"at home\". Two vowels cannot occur in succession.", "Compound words are considered separate words with respect to vowel harmony: vowels do not have to harmonize between members of the compound (so forms like сӗтел|пукан \"furniture\" are permissible). In addition, vowel harmony does not apply for loanwords and some invariant suffixes (such as -ӗ); there are also a few native Chuvash words that do not follow the rule (such as анне \"mother\"). In such words suffixes harmonize with the final vowel; thus Аннепе \"with the mother\".", "Word order in Chuvash is generally subject–object–verb." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Domestication.", "Training.", "Shoeing.", "Uses and comparison to horses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Oxen are thought to have first been harnessed and put to work around 4000 BC.", "Working oxen are taught to respond to the signals of the \"teamster\", \"bullocky\" or \"ox-driver\". These signals are given by verbal command and body language, reinforced by a goad, whip or a long pole (which also serves as a measure of length: see rod). In pre-industrial times, most teamsters were known for their loud voices and forthright language. Verbal commands for draft animals vary widely throughout the world. In North America, the most common commands are: In the New England tradition, young castrated cattle selected for draft are known as \"working steers\" and are painstakingly trained from a young age. Their teamster makes or buys as many as a dozen yokes of different sizes for each animal as it grows. The steers are normally considered fully trained at the age of four and only then become known as oxen. A tradition in south eastern England was to use oxen (often Sussex cattle) as dual-purpose animals: for draft and beef. A plowing team of eight oxen normally consisted of four pairs aged a year apart. Each year, a pair of steers of about three years of age would be bought for the team and trained with the older animals. The pair would be kept for about four years, then sold at about seven years old to be fattened for beef – thus covering much of the cost of buying that year's new pair. Use of oxen for plowing survived in some areas of England (such as the South Downs) until the early twentieth century. Pairs of oxen were always hitched the same way round, and they were often given paired names. In southern England it was traditional to call the near-side (left) ox of a pair by a single-syllable name and the off-side (right) one by a longer one (for example: Lark and Linnet, Turk and Tiger). Ox trainers favor larger animals for their ability to do more work. Oxen are therefore usually of larger breeds, and are usually males because they are generally larger. Females can also be trained as oxen, but as well as being smaller, are often more valued for producing calves and milk. Bulls are also used in many parts of the world, especially Asia and Africa.", "Working oxen usually require shoes, although in England not all working oxen were shod. Since their hooves are cloven, two shoes are required for each hoof, as opposed to a single horseshoe. Ox shoes are usually of approximately half-moon or banana shape, either with or without caulkins, and are fitted in symmetrical pairs to the hooves. Unlike horses, oxen are not easily able to balance on three legs while a farrier shoes the fourth. In England, shoeing was accomplished by throwing the ox to the ground and lashing all four feet to a heavy wooden tripod until the shoeing was complete. A similar technique was used in Serbia and, in a simpler form, in India, where it is still practiced. In Italy, where oxen may be very large, shoeing is accomplished using a massive framework of beams in which the animal can be partly or completely lifted from the ground by slings passed under the body; the feet are then lashed to lateral beams or held with a rope while the shoes are fitted. Such devices were made of wood in the past, but may today be of metal. Similar devices are found in France, Austria, Germany, Spain, Canada and the United States, where they may be called ox slings, ox presses or shoeing stalls. The system was sometimes adopted in England also, where the device was called a crush or trevis; one example is recorded in the Vale of Pewsey. The shoeing of an ox partly lifted in a sling is the subject of John Singer Sargent's painting \"Shoeing the Ox\", while \"A Smith Shoeing an Ox\" by Karel Dujardin shows an ox being shod standing, tied to a post by the horns and balanced by supporting the raised hoof.", "Oxen can pull heavier loads, and pull for a longer period of time than horses depending on weather conditions. On the other hand, they are also slower than horses, which has both advantages and disadvantages; their pulling style is steadier, but they cannot cover as much ground in a given period of time. For agricultural purposes, oxen are more suitable for heavy tasks such as breaking sod or plowing in wet, heavy, or clay-filled soil. When hauling freight, oxen can move very heavy loads in a slow and steady fashion. They are at a disadvantage compared to horses when it is necessary to pull a plow or load of freight relatively quickly. For millennia, oxen also could pull heavier loads because of the use of the yoke, which was designed to work best with the neck and shoulder anatomy of cattle. Until the invention of the horse collar, which allowed the horse to engage the pushing power of its hindquarters in moving a load, horses could not pull with their full strength because the yoke was incompatible with their anatomy (yokes press on their chest, inhibiting their breathing). Well-trained oxen are also considered less excitable than horses." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Scope of listing.", "Development.", "Monetizing.", "Human-edited web directories.", "Bid for Position directories." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "During the early development of the web, there was a list of webservers edited by Tim Berners-Lee and hosted on the CERN webserver. One historical snapshot from 1992 remains. He also created the World Wide Web Virtual Library, which is the oldest web directory.", "Most of the directories are general in on scope and list websites across a wide range of categories, regions and languages. But some niche directories focus on restricted regions, single languages, or specialist sectors. One type of niche directory with a large number of sites in existence is the shopping directory. Shopping directories specialize in the listing of retail e-commerce sites. Examples of well-known general web directories are Yahoo! Directory (shut down at the end of 2014) and DMOZ (shut down on March 14, 2017). DMOZ was significant due to its extensive categorization and large number of listings and its free availability for use by other directories and search engines. However, a debate over the quality of directories and databases still continues, as search engines use ODP's content without real integration, and some experiment using clustering.", "There have been many attempts to make building web directories easier, such as using automated submission of related links by script, or any number of available PHP portals and programs. Recently, social software techniques have spawned new efforts of categorization, with Amazon.com adding tagging to their product pages.", "Directories have various features in their listings, often depending upon the price paid for inclusion:", "A human-edited directory is created and maintained by editors who add links based on the policies particular to that directory. Human-edited directories are often targeted by SEOs on the basis that links from reputable sources will improve rankings in the major search engines. Some directories may prevent search engines from rating a displayed link by using redirects, nofollow attributes, or other techniques. Many human-edited directories, including DMOZ, World Wide Web Virtual Library, Business.com and Jasmine Directory, are edited by volunteers, who are often experts in particular categories. These directories are sometimes criticized due to long delays in approving submissions, or for rigid organizational structures and disputes among volunteer editors. In response to these criticisms, some volunteer-edited directories have adopted wiki technology, to allow broader community participation in editing the directory (at the risk of introducing lower-quality, less objective entries). Another direction taken by some web directories is the paid for inclusion model. This method enables the directory to offer timely inclusion for submissions and generally fewer listings as a result of the paid model. They often offer additional listing options to further enhance listings, including features listings and additional links to inner pages of the listed website. These options typically have an additional fee associated but offer significant help and visibility to sites and/or their inside pages. Today submission of websites to web directories is considered a common SEO (search engine optimization) technique to get back-links for the submitted website. One distinctive feature of 'directory submission' is that it cannot be fully automated like search engine submissions. Manual directory submission is a tedious and time-consuming job and is often outsourced by webmasters.", "Bid for Position directories, also known as bidding web directories, are paid-for-inclusion web directories where the listings of websites in the directory are ordered according to their bid amount. They are special in that the more a person pays, the higher up the list of websites in the directory they go. With the higher listing, the website becomes more visible and increases the chances that visitors who browse the directory will click on the listing." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Brands." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "1689 – Firearms The drillingwork at the waterfalls in Husqvarna, southern Sweden, was the first large plant. The state-owned rifle factory had some 1,000 employees at the beginning of the 18th century. The company was spun off from Husqvarna Vapenfabriks Aktiebolag in 1959. Shotguns were produced for 300 years, the last in 1989. 1872 – Sewing machines When demand declined, it turned out that the machinery for production of rifles was well-suited for producing sewing machines. The operation was divested in 1997 and Husqvarna-branded sewing machines are now produced by the VSM Group. 1874 – Kitchen equipment in cast iron Husqvarna started a foundry to produce details for sewing machines, a large part being the base frames. Soon the assortment was broadened to include such products as kitchen equipment in cast iron and later on stoves and ovens. 1896 – Bicycles Bicycle production began in the Huskvarna factory. Several patents were registered. The last bicycle was produced in 1962. 1903 – Motorcycles The first motorcycle, which could reach the impressive speed of 4–5 km/hour, was produced in 1903. Starting in the 1930s, Husqvarna's lightweight engines helped make some successful track racing and motocross bikes. Husqvarna's first titles in Motocross World Championship came in 1959 and 1960. The operation was divested in 1987 and is since 2013 part of the KTM family. 1919 – Lawn mowers When Husqvarna acquired Norrahammars Bruk in 1918, the product range expanded to heating boilers and lawn mowers. The first test with a lawn mower powered by an engine was done in 1947. 1959 – Chainsaws As demand for bicycles, mopeds and motorcycles declined, forestry became increasingly important. The expertise in engines was utilized in new areas and the first chainsaw was produced in 1959. 1968 – Power cutters A saw rebuilt to a power cutter in 1968 was the starting point of what today is the business area Husqvarna Construction. 1978 – Electrolux acquired Husqvarna. 1986 – The motorcycle division was sold to Cagiva. 1995 – Robotic lawn mowers The world's first solar powered robotic lawn mower was launched. Sales of robotic mowers did not flourish until 15 years later. 1999 – Husqvarna acquired Yazoo/Kees Husqvarna acquired Nebraska-based lawn mower manufacturer Yazoo/Kees. 2006 – On its own feet The company was spun off by Electrolux. 2007 – Acquisitions of strong brands The acquisition of Gardena in 2007 made the Husqvarna Group the European leader in consumer watering products. Acquiring Zenoah brought a strong brand and geographical expansion in Japan. 2008 – Expanded presence in China The acquisition of Jenn Feng and the construction of a new plant for chainsaws and other handheld products gave expanded presence in Asia. 2009 – Demolition robot Husqvarna launched its first remote-controlled demolition robot. 2013 – Chainsaw chains The decision was made to invest in a new production facility for chainsaw chains in Huskvarna. Ongoing – Husqvarna developed and sold snowblowers, which were unable to reach \"automated robot\" status in comparison to the robotic lawnmower line. 2017 – Floor grinding and polishing Acquired HTC Sweden AB, the leading manufacturer of floor grinding machines and related diamond tooling, along with its France, Germany, UK and USA subsidiaries. 2018 – E-Bikes (Licensing) Electro-Bicycles offered by Pexco GmbH, Schweinfurt, Germany, founded by the Puello family (former executive of \"Haibike\") and Stefan Pierer, CEO of KTM Industries AG (KTM motorcycles). Include motors by Shimano. 2019 – Celebrations Husqvarna group are celebrating 330 years of innovation, as well as 60 years as a chainsaw manufacture.", "Husqvarna owns several brands: Over the years, Husqvarna has manufactured products for retailers, including Sears. Most of these products have a model number that begins with \"917\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Characterizations.", "Basic properties.", "Diagonals.", "Inradius.", "Area.", "Dual properties.", "Cartesian equation.", "Other properties.", "As the faces of a polyhedron." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The word \"rhombus\" comes from Greek (\"rhombos\"), meaning something that spins, which derives from the verb ῥέμβω (\"rhembō\"), meaning \"to turn round and round.\" The word was used both by Euclid and Archimedes, who used the term \"solid rhombus\" for a bicone, two right circular cones sharing a common base. The surface we refer to as \"rhombus\" today is a cross section of the bicone on a plane through the apexes of the two cones.", "A simple (non-self-intersecting) quadrilateral is a rhombus if and only if it is any one of the following:", "Every rhombus has two diagonals connecting pairs of opposite vertices, and two pairs of parallel sides. Using congruent triangles, one can prove that the rhombus is symmetric across each of these diagonals. It follows that any rhombus has the following properties: The first property implies that every rhombus is a parallelogram. A rhombus therefore has all of the properties of a parallelogram: for example, opposite sides are parallel; adjacent angles are supplementary; the two diagonals bisect one another; any line through the midpoint bisects the area; and the sum of the squares of the sides equals the sum of the squares of the diagonals (the parallelogram law). Thus denoting the common side as \"a\" and the diagonals as \"p\" and \"q\", in every rhombus Not every parallelogram is a rhombus, though any parallelogram with perpendicular diagonals (the second property) is a rhombus. In general, any quadrilateral with perpendicular diagonals, one of which is a line of symmetry, is a kite. Every rhombus is a kite, and any quadrilateral that is both a kite and parallelogram is a rhombus. A rhombus is a tangential quadrilateral. That is, it has an inscribed circle that is tangent to all four sides.", "The length of the diagonals \"p = AC\" and \"q = BD\" can be expressed in terms of the rhombus side \"a\" and one vertex angle \"α\" as and These formulas are a direct consequence of the law of cosines.", "The inradius (the radius of a circle inscribed in the rhombus), denoted by, can be expressed in terms of the diagonals and as or in terms of the side length and any vertex angle or as", "As for all parallelograms, the area \"K\" of a rhombus is the product of its base and its height (\"h\"). The base is simply any side length \"a\": The area can also be expressed as the base squared times the sine of any angle: or in terms of the height and a vertex angle: or as half the product of the diagonals \"p\", \"q\": or as the semiperimeter times the radius of the circle inscribed in the rhombus (inradius): Another way, in common with parallelograms, is to consider two adjacent sides as vectors, forming a bivector, so the area is the magnitude of the bivector (the magnitude of the vector product of the two vectors), which is the determinant of the two vectors' Cartesian coordinates: \"K\" = \"x\"\"y\" – \"x\"\"y\".", "The dual polygon of a rhombus is a rectangle:", "The sides of a rhombus centered at the origin, with diagonals each falling on an axis, consist of all points (\"x, y\") satisfying The vertices are at formula_12 and formula_13 This is a special case of the superellipse, with exponent 1.", "", "A rhombohedron (also called a rhombic hexahedron) is a three-dimensional figure like a cuboid (also called a rectangular parallelepiped), except that its 3 pairs of parallel faces are up to 3 types of rhombi instead of rectangles. The rhombic dodecahedron is a convex polyhedron with 12 congruent rhombi as its faces. The rhombic triacontahedron is a convex polyhedron with 30 golden rhombi (rhombi whose diagonals are in the golden ratio) as its faces. The great rhombic triacontahedron is a nonconvex isohedral, isotoxal polyhedron with 30 intersecting rhombic faces. The rhombic hexecontahedron is a stellation of the rhombic triacontahedron. It is nonconvex with 60 golden rhombic faces with icosahedral symmetry. The rhombic enneacontahedron is a polyhedron composed of 90 rhombic faces, with three, five, or six rhombi meeting at each vertex. It has 60 broad rhombi and 30 slim ones. The trapezo-rhombic dodecahedron is a convex polyhedron with 6 rhombic and 6 trapezoidal faces. The rhombic icosahedron is a polyhedron composed of 20 rhombic faces, of which three, four, or five meet at each vertex. It has 10 faces on the polar axis with 10 faces following the equator." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Chesapeake & Ohio design study.", "TurboTrain.", "Production and use.", "US service.", "Canadian service." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "A series of design studies carried out by Chesapeake and Ohio Railway in the 1950s used the second-generation Talgo design for their car suspensions. The suspension arms for each neighboring pair of cars were attached to a common bogie (\"truck\") between them, as opposed to having a pair of separate bogies for each car. The bogies rode the common curve between the two cars, centered by traction springs that centered the axle between adjoining car bodies. TurboTrain cars are lower than conventional cars, to lower the center of gravity in relation to the swinging point at the top of the arms. The arms included air springs to smooth out the motion, although it still felt \"odd\" while the train navigated short turns in switchyards and stations. Like the earlier articulated trains, this meant that train lengths would be difficult to change. Their solution to this problem was to modify the power cars (engines) to allow the trains to be coupled end-to-end. Since articulated trains required \"special\" cars at either end anyway (to fill in the otherwise missing bogie), the C&O was double-ended, with a power car at each end. The power cars were organized with their two diesel engines on either side of the train, and the operators cabin in a \"pod\" on top. This left enough room for a passageway to run between the engines and under the pod to the nose of the car, where a coupling and doors were hidden behind a pair of movable clamshell covers. That way the train could be attached front-to-end with another, providing some of the flexibility in train lengths that coupled cars offered, while still being as lightweight as a normal articulated design.", "C&O's early work went undeveloped until the 1960s. At that time two major forces began operating that would re-invent the concept as the TurboTrain; one was the US Department of Transportation's desire to update train service in the US as a result of the High Speed Ground Transportation Act of 1965, the other was CN Rail's desire to update their passenger service with the ending of \"pooled service\" (with CP Rail) between Toronto and Montreal. United Aircraft (UAC) purchased the C&O patents to enter into the DOT's Northeast Corridor Demonstration Project. The TurboTrain was designed by personnel of the Corporate Systems Center Division (CSC) of UAC, at Farmington, Connecticut. The design was similar to the original C&O version, but modified to use turbine power instead of diesel. The chosen engines were a modified version of the Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6 (also a UAC division) known as the ST6, downrated from. The PT6 uses a \"free turbine\" that acts as a torque coupler, so the new design did not require a transmission and was able to drive the powered wheels directly. The power cars had three engine bays on either side of the car and could mount engines in pairs for two to six turbines, depending on the needs of the carrier. Another ST6 drove an alternator to provide 'hotel' electrical power for the train. Each power car had a fuel capacity of. The turbine engines were smaller and lighter ( with accessories) than the diesels they replaced, so the original power cars ended up being much larger than needed. Instead of a major redesign, UAC re-arranged the interior of the existing layout. The control room \"pod\" on top was lengthened to produce a viewing area with seating, and additional seating was added along the main level as well. This produced the Power Dome Cars (PDC) that were long (tip of nose to trailing articulated axle, while the Intermediate Cars (IC) were long (axle to axle), considerably shorter than the -long conventional passenger cars of this period. The ability to connect trains together remained largely unchanged, although the routing of the internal passage changed slightly to rise up into the observation area of the pod, then back down under the control room and from there to the nose. This particular design, with the control cabs on top and couplers hidden behind doorways on the front, is similar to that of the NS Intercity Materieel used in the Netherlands. The Turbotrains were evaluated by multiple journalists in the Canadian press as having \"rail noise that substantially exceeds that of standard equipment\" and having poor riding characteristics, especially on curves, with one journalist stating that \"the single-axle articulation in practice negotiates curves in a series of short jerks rather than the smooth flowing motion promised in press releases\". The single-axle bogies on the Turbotrain were very mechanically complex and the suspension arms were \"telescopic arms which were in essence ball-bearing screw actuators; the suspension of the inside-bearing powered bogies was \"especially complex\" and attached to the turbines via \"an intricate web of mechanical couplings and shafts\".", "", "Two Turbotrains (DOT1 and DOT2) were built at the Pullman Works in Chicago. High-speed testing of the trains was performed from a base at Fields Point in Providence, Rhode Island, using track between Route 128 near Boston and Westerly, Rhode Island (track segments along this section, to this day, are the only areas where Amtrak operates Acela revenue service at 150 mph). The maiden voyage of the Turbotrain from Chicago to points east occurred on August 1, 1967. In a competition with a GE powered Metroliner on Penn Central's main-line between Trenton and New Brunswick, New Jersey on December 20, 1967, one of the TurboTrains reached. This remains the world speed record for gas turbine-powered rail vehicles. On January 1, 1968, the TurboTrain program was transferred from CSC to Sikorsky Aircraft Division (SA) of UAC. The United States Department of Transportation leased both trainsets and contracted with the New Haven Railroad to operate them. The New Haven had been in bankruptcy since July 2, 1961; on January 1, 1969, it was absorbed into the Penn Central Railroad, which inherited the contract. On April 8, 1969, Penn Central placed the equipment in service on the Northeast Corridor between Boston and New York City. The three-car sets carried 144 people and operated at a maximum speed of. The TurboTrains were equipped with third rail shoes for operation into Grand Central Terminal. In their first year of operation the trains' on-time performance approached 90 percent. They covered the in three hours and 39 minutes. After railroad bankruptcies and amid threats of more, the National Railroad Passenger Corporation (Amtrak) took over passenger service for most U.S. railroads, including the Penn Central, on May 1, 1971. Amtrak continued Turbotrain service between Boston and New York, switching to Pennsylvania Station as its New York terminal. It also briefly ran Turbotrains elsewhere. In September 1976, Amtrak ceased revenue runs of Turbotrain trainsets and moved them to the Field's Point Maintenance Yard in Providence, Rhode Island pending any possible sales to CN. An additional attempt was made to sell the units to the Illinois Central, but the poor mechanical condition of the trainsets caused the deal to fall through.", "In May 1966, Canadian National Railways ordered five seven-car TurboTrains for the Montreal-Toronto service. They planned to operate the trains in tandem, connecting two trains together into a larger fourteen-car arrangement with a total capacity of 644 passengers. The Canadian trains were built by Montreal Locomotive Works, with their ST6 engines supplied by UAC's Canadian division (now Pratt & Whitney Canada) in Longueuil, Quebec. The Canadian Turbotrains were originally planned to have been in service by the summer of 1967, but technical difficulties with the trainsets delayed passenger service entry until December 12, 1969; the primary failures concerned the auxiliary equipment and caused the power on the trains to go out. CN and their ad agency wanted to promote the new service as an entirely new form of transit, so they dropped the \"train\" from the name. In CN's marketing literature the train was referred to simply as the \"Turbo\", although it retained the full TurboTrain name in CN's own documentation and communication with UAC. A goal of CN's marketing campaign was to get the train into service for Expo 67, and the Turbo was rushed through its trials. It was late for Expo, a disappointment to all involved, but the hectic pace did not let up and it was cleared for service after only one year of testing – most trains go through six to seven years of testing before entering service. The Turbo's first demonstration run in December 1968, included a large press contingent. An hour into its debut run, the Turbo collided with a truck at a highway crossing near Kingston. Despite the concerns that lightweight trains like the Turbo would be dangerous in collisions, the train remained upright and largely undamaged. Large beams just behind the nose, designed for this purpose, absorbed the impact of the collision and limited the damage to the fiberglass clamshell doors and underlying metal. The train was returned from repairs within a week. No one was killed, though this event has been cited as a main deterrent to Canada's efforts to develop modern passenger rail. Initial commercial service started soon after. On its first westbound run the Turbo attained 10 minutes outside of Dorval. During speed runs on April 22, 1976, it achieved near Gananoque, the Canadian record to this day. However, in regular passenger service the Turbotrains were limited to 95 mph (153 km/hr) in Canada because of the Canadian route's numerous grade-crossings, estimated at 240 public highway grade-crossings and 700 agricultural or private crossings between Montreal and Toronto. Technical problems, including brake systems freezing in winter, required a suspension of service in early January 1969. Service resumed in May 1970; however, technical problems again caused the Canadian National to withdraw all Turbotrains from service again in February 1971. At this point, the CN management publicly expressed great dissatisfaction with these trainsets, with one vice-president claiming, \"the trains never did measure up to the original contract and they haven't yet\"; the manufacturer United Aircraft Company publicly claimed that CN suspended Turbotrain service for relatively minor technical problems. Railroad analysts, including Geoffrey Freeman Allen (editor of Jane's World Railways), noted that the Turbotrains employed too many advanced, derived technologies which had been packed in \"without extended practical evaluation in railroad conditions. From transmission to suspension to auxiliaries, far too many vital components seemed to have been translated straight from the drawing board to the series production line. During the \"downtime\" CN changed their plans, and in 1971 a rebuild program began, converting the five seven-car sets to three nine-car sets. Several minor changes were added. The engine exhaust fouled the roof windows of the power car, so these were plated over, and a grill was added to the front of the engines just behind the clamshell doors. The remaining power and passenger cars were sold to Amtrak as two 4-car sets. One of those sets sideswiped a freight train on a test run in July 1973 and three of the cars were written off. The sale of the surviving Power Dome Coach car was cancelled, and it stood spare until a sister unit caught fire and burned in September 1975. The three rebuilt 9-car sets entered service for CN in late 1973. CN ran the Turbos from Toronto-Montreal-Toronto with stops at Dorval, Kingston and Guildwood on the Quebec City-Windsor Corridor. Original train numbers were Train 62 which left Toronto at 12:45 p.m. and arrived in Montreal at 4:44 p.m. Train 63 left Montreal at 12:45 p.m. and arrived in Toronto at 4:44 p.m. (Both were daily trains.) Train 68 left Toronto at 6:10 p.m. and arrived in Montreal at 10:14 p.m., while Train 69 left Montreal at 6:10 p.m. and arrived in Toronto at 10:14 p.m. (The evening trains did not run on Saturdays.) The trip took 3 hours and 59 minutes downtown-to-downtown on trains 62 and 63, while the evening trains were slightly slower, taking four hours and four minutes to complete the run. Turbo service was about a full hour faster than CN's previous express trains, the \"Rapido\". However, even the runs made by the Turbotrains in the late 1970s still fell substantially short of their intended 120 mph design speed; the fastest average speed for the Turbotrain in regular scheduled Canadian passenger service was an intermediate booking was from Kingston to Guildwood (102 minutes for the 145.2 miles between the two cities nonstop at an average speed of 85.4 mph (137.4 km/hr). By 1974, after substantial modifications of the gearbox device and pendular suspension, and reinforcement of the sound insulation, the Turbotrains finally took up untroubled service. CN operated the Turbos until 1978, when their passenger operations were taken over by Via Rail, who continued the service. One of the three remaining trains developed an oil leak and caught fire on the afternoon run from Montréal to Toronto on May 29, 1979. It was stopped west of Morrisburg. It took some time for the fire engines to arrive as they were forced to drive on the track bed. The power car and two coaches were totally destroyed. There were no injuries, although a rapid disembarkation was needed. The train was eventually towed back to the Turcot yard in Montréal and remained there for several years, covered by tarpaulins. The Turbo's final run was on October 31, 1982, when they were replaced by the all-Canadian LRC trainsets from Bombardier Transportation, which employed conventional diesel-electric locomotives. Although they had an early reputation for unreliability, according to CN's records, the rebuilt TurboTrains had an availability rate of over 97% for their careers with CN and Via. The LRC suffered from similar teething problems, notably with the tilt system locking the cars in a tilted position. The withdrawal of the Turboliners was also precipitated by the rise in oil prices during the 1973 oil embargo and the following years, which destroyed \"one of gas turbine traction's prime advantages, fuel cost economy\". None of the UAC TurboTrains were preserved." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mythology.", "Hesiod's description and contrast to Dike.", "Aeschylean description.", "Family.", "Horae: the Hours.", "Moirai: the Fates.", "Cult." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "The personification of abstract concepts is characteristic of the Greeks. The ability of the goddess Themis to foresee the future enabled her to become one of the Oracles of Delphi, which in turn led to her establishment as the goddess of divine justice. Some classical representations of Themis showed her holding a sword, believed to represent her ability to cut fact from fiction; to her there was no middle ground (depictions of Lady Justice wearing a blindfold are modern and not classical). Themis built the Oracle at Delphi and was herself oracular. According to another legend, Themis received the Oracle at Delphi from Gaia and later gave it to Phoebe. When Themis is disregarded, Nemesis brings just and wrathful retribution; thus Themis shared the \"Nemesion\" temple at Rhamnous. Themis is not wrathful: she, \"of the lovely cheeks\", was the first to offer Hera a cup when she returned to Olympus distraught over threats from Zeus. Themis presided over the proper relation between man and woman, the basis of the rightly ordered family (the family was seen as the pillar of the deme), and judges were often referred to as \"themistopóloi\" (the servants of Themis). Such was also the basis for order upon Olympus. Even Hera addressed her as \"Lady Themis\". The name of Themis might be substituted for Adrasteia in telling of the birth of Zeus on Crete. Themis was present at Delos to witness the birth of Apollo. According to Ovid, it was Themis rather than Zeus who told Deucalion to throw the bones of \"his Mother\" over his shoulder to create a new race of humankind after the deluge.", "Themis occurred in Hesiod's \"Theogony\" as the first recorded appearance of \"Justice\" as a divine personage. Drawing not only on the socio-religious consciousness of his time but also on many of the earlier cult-religions, Hesiod described the forces of the universe as cosmic divinities. Hesiod portrayed temporal justice, Dike, as the daughter of Zeus and Themis. Dike executed the law of judgments and sentencing and, together with her mother Themis, she carried out the final decisions of Moirai. For Hesiod, Justice is at the center of religious and moral life who, independently of Zeus, is the embodiment of divine will. This personification of Dike stands in contrast to justice viewed as custom or law and as retribution or sentence.", "In the play \"Prometheus Bound\", traditionally attributed to Aeschylus, Themis is the mother of Prometheus, and gave him foreknowledge of what was to come. It is said by Prometheus that she is called many names, including Gaéa.", "In Greek mythology, Hesiod mentions Themis among the six sons and six daughters of Gaia and Uranus (Earth and Sky). Among these Titans of primordial myth, few were venerated at specific sanctuaries in classical times. The only consort for Themis mentioned in the sources below is Zeus. One of her few children was called Natura, the Greek goddess of the forest.", "With Zeus she more certainly bore the Horae, those embodiments of the right moment, the rightness of order unfolding in time. \"First generation:\" \"Second generation:\"", "Followers of Zeus claimed that it was with him that Themis produced the Moirai, three Fates. A fragment of Pindar, however, tells that the Moirai were already present at the nuptials of Zeus and Themis; that in fact the Moirai rose with Themis from the springs of Okeanos the encircling world-ocean and accompanied her up the bright sun-path to meet Zeus at Mount Olympus. To compliment Pindar, Hesiod also tells us in the Theogony that the Moirai were born from Nyx who lay with no one.", "Themis had several temples in Greece, though they are not described in any great detail by ancient authors. She had temples at the oracular shrine of Zeus at Dodona, at Tanagra, in Athens, and a Temple of Themis Ikhnaia in Phthiotis, Thessalia. Pausanias describe her sanctuary in Thebes in somewhat more detail than what was normally the case and it may therefore have been of more importance: Themis also had an altar in Olympia: \"On what is called the Stomion (Mouth) the altar to Themis has been built.\" Themis was sometimes depicted in the sanctuaries of other gods and may have shared temples with them occasionally, and she is mentioned to have shared a temple with Aphrodite in Epidauros: \"Within the grove [of the sanctuary of Asklepios (Asclepius) at Epidauros] are a temple of Artemis, an image of Epione, a sanctuary of Aphrodite and Themis, a race-course.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology and modern names.", "Geography.", "Fauna.", "History and prehistory.", "World Heritage site.", "Geology.", "Seismic activity.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The name comes from the two words \"al\" that means \"gold/reddish/yellowish\" in Mongolic language and the \"-tai\" word that means \"mountain\" in Turkic languages too; thus, literally, the \"Golden Mountain\". That matches their old Chinese name, literally \"Gold Mountain\". Also, the word \"altın/altun/al\" which means \"gold\" is cognate word for Turkic and Mongolic languages. The mountains are called \"Altain nuruu\" () in Khalkha Mongolian, \"altai-yin niruɣu\" in Chakhar Mongolian, and \"Altay tuular\" () in the Altay language. They are also called or in Kazakh; \"Altay dağları\" in Turkish; \"Altajskije gory\" () in Russian; \"Altay Taghliri\" ( or ) in Uyghur; \"ā'ěrtài shānmài\" in Chinese ( simplified, traditional, or in Xiao'erjing); and \"Arteː shanmeː\" () in Dungan.", "In the north of the region is the Sailughem Mountains, also known as \"Kolyvan Altai\", which stretch northeast from 49° N and 86° E towards the western extremity of the Sayan Mountains in 51° 60' N and 89° E. Their mean elevation is 1,500 to 1,750 m. The snow-line runs at 2,000 m on the northern side and at 2,400 m on the southern, and above it the rugged peaks tower some 1,000 m higher. Mountain passes across the range are few and difficult, the chief being the Ulan-daban at 2,827 m (2,879 m according to Kozlov), and the Chapchan-daban, at 3,217 m, in the south and north respectively. On the east and southeast this range is flanked by the great plateau of Mongolia, the transition being effected gradually by means of several minor plateaus, such as Ukok (2,380 m) with Pazyryk Valley, Chuya (1,830 m), Kendykty (2,500 m), Kak (2,520 m), (2,590 m), and (2,410 m). This region is studded with large lakes, e.g. Uvs 720 m above sea level, Khyargas, Dorgon and Khar 1,170 m, and traversed by various mountain ranges, of which the principal are the Tannu-Ola Mountains, running roughly parallel with the Sayan Mountains as far east as the Kosso-gol, and the Khan Khökhii mountains, also stretching west and east. The north western and northern slopes of the Sailughem Mountains are extremely steep and difficult to access. On this side lies the highest summit of the range, the double-headed Belukha, whose summits reach 4,506 and 4,440 m respectively, and give origin to several glaciers (30 square kilometers in aggregate area, as of 1911). Altaians call it Kadyn Bazhy, but is also called Uch-Sumer. The second highest peak of the range is in Mongolian part named Khüiten Peak. This massive peak reaches 4374 m. Numerous spurs, striking in all directions from the Sailughem mountains, fill up the space between that range and the lowlands of Tomsk. Such are the Chuya Alps, having an average elevation of 2,700 m, with summits from 3,500 to 3,700 m, and at least ten glaciers on their northern slope; the Katun Alps, which have a mean elevation of about 3,000 m and are mostly snow-clad; the Kholzun range; the Korgon 1,900 to 2,300 m, Talitskand Selitsk ranges; the Tigeretsk Alps. Several secondary plateaus of lower elevations are also distinguished by geographers, The Katun Valley begins as a wild gorge on the south-west slope of Belukha; then, after a big bend, the river (600 km long) pierces the Katun Alps, and enters a wider valley, lying at an elevation of 600 to 1,100 m, which it follows until it emerges from the Altai highlands to join the Biya in a most picturesque region. The Katun and the Biya together form the Ob. The next valley is that of the Charysh, which has the Korgon and Tigeretsk Alps on one side and the Talitsk and Bashalatsk Alps on the other. This, too, is very fertile. The Altai, seen from this valley, presents the most romantic scenes, including the small but deep Kolyvan Lake (altitude 360 m), which is surrounded by fantastic granite domes and towers. Farther west the valleys of the Uba, the Ulba and the Bukhtarma open south-westwards towards the Irtysh. The lower part of the first, like the lower valley of the Charysh, is thickly populated; in the valley of the Ulba is the Riddersk mine, at the foot of the Ivanovsk Peak (2,060 m), clothed with alpine meadows. The valley of the Bukhtarma, which has a length of 320 km, also has its origin at the foot of the Belukha and the Kuitun peaks, and as it falls some 1,500 m in about 300 km, from an alpine plateau at an elevation of 1,900 m to the Bukhtarma fortress (345 m), it offers the most striking contrasts of landscape and vegetation. Its upper parts abound in glaciers, the best known of which is the Berel, which comes down from the Byelukha. On the northern side of the range which separates the upper Bukhtarma from the upper Katun is the Katun glacier, which after two ice-falls widens out to 700 to 900 metres. From a grotto in this glacier bursts tumultuously the Katun river. The middle and lower parts of the Bukhtarma valley have been colonized since the 18th century by runaway Russian peasants, serfs, and religious schismatics (Raskolniks), who created a free republic there on Chinese territory; and after this part of the valley was annexed to Russia in 1869, it was rapidly colonized. The high valleys farther north, on the same western face of the Sailughem range, are but little known, their only visitors being Kyrgyz shepherds. Those of Bashkaus, Chulyshman, and Chulcha, all three leading to the alpine lake of Teletskoye (length, 80 km; maximum width, 5 km; elevation, 520 m; area, 230.8 square kilometers; maximum depth, 310 m; mean depth, 200 m), are inhabited by Telengit people. The shores of the lake rise almost sheer to over 1,800 m. From this lake issues the Biya, which joins the Katun at Biysk, and then meanders through the prairies of the north-west of the Altai. Farther north the Altai highlands are continued in the Kuznetsk district, which has a slightly different geological aspect, but still belongs to the Altai system. But the Abakan River, which rises on the western shoulder of the Sayan mountains, belongs to the system of the Yenisei. The Kuznetsk Ala-tau range, on the left bank of the Abakan, runs north-east into the government of Yeniseisk, while a complexus of mountains (Chukchut, Salair, Abakan) fills up the country northwards towards the Trans-Siberian Railway and westwards towards the Ob. The Ek-tagh or Mongolian Altai, which separates the Khovd basin on the north from the Irtysh basin on the south, is a true border-range, in that it rises in a steep and lofty escarpment from the Dzungarian depression (470–900 m), but descends on the north by a relatively short slope to the plateau (1,150 to 1,680 m) of north-western Mongolia. East of 94° E the range is continued by a double series of mountain chains, all of which exhibit less sharply marked orographical features and are at considerably lower elevations. The slopes of the constituent chains of the system are inhabited principally by nomadic Kyrgyz. The five highest mountains of the Altai are:", "The Altai mountains are home to a diverse fauna, because of its different habitats, like steppes, northern taigas and alpine vegetation. Steep slopes are home to the Siberian ibex (\"Capra sibirica\"), whereas the rare argali (\"Ovis ammon\") is found on more gentle slopes. Deer are represented by five species: Altai wapiti (\"Cervus elaphus sibiricus\"), moose (\"Alces alces\"), forest reindeer (\"Rangifer tarandus valentinae\"), Siberian musk deer (\"Moschus moschiferus\"), and Siberian roe deer (\"Capreolus pygargus\"). Moose and reindeer however, are restricted to the northern parts of the mountain range. The wild boar (\"Sus scrofa\") is found in the lower foothills and surrounding lowlands. Until recently, the Mongolian gazelle (\"Procapra gutturosa\") was found in the Russian Altai mountains, more specifically in the Chuya River steppe close to the Mongolian border. Large predators are represented by snow leopards (\"Panthera uncia\", syn. \"Uncia uncia\"), wolves (\"Canis lupus\"), lynx (\"Lynx lynx\"), and brown bears (\"Ursus arctos\"), in the northern parts also by the wolverine (\"Gulo gulo\"). The Tien Shan dhole (\"Cuon alpinus hesperius\") (a northwestern subspecies of the Asiatic wild dog) also lives there. Until the 20th century, the Caspian tiger (\"Panthera tigris virgata\") was found in the southern parts of the Altai mountains, where it reached Lake Zaisan and the Black Irtysh. Single individuals were also shot further north, for example close to Barnaul. Closely related to the Caspian tiger is the extant Amur tiger, which has the taxonomic name \"Panthera tigris altaica\". The wisent was present in the Altai mountains until the Middle Ages, perhaps even until the 18th century. Today, there is a small herd in a nursery in the Altai Republic.", "The Altai mountains have retained a remarkably stable climate changing little since the last ice age. In addition the mix of mammals has remained largely the same, with a few exceptions such as extinct mammoths, making it one of the few places on earth to retain an ice age fauna. The Altai mountains were home to the Denisovan branch of hominids who were contemporaries of Neanderthals and of \"Homo sapiens\" (modern humans), descended from Hominids who reached Asia earlier than modern humans. The Denisova hominin, dated to 40,000 years ago, was discovered in the Denisova Cave of the Altai mountains in southern Siberia in 2008. Knowledge of the Denisovan humans derives primarily from DNA evidence and artifacts, as no complete skeletons have yet been recovered. DNA evidence has been unusually well preserved because of the low average temperature in the Denisova caves. Neanderthal bones and tools made by \"Homo sapiens\" have also been found in the Denisova Cave, making it the only place in the world where all three hominids are known to have lived. A dog-like canid from 33,000 years ago was found in the Razboinichya Cave. DNA analysis published in 2013 affirmed that it was more closely related to modern dogs than to wolves. The Altai Mountains have been identified as being the point of origin of a cultural enigma termed the Seima-Turbino Phenomenon which arose during the Bronze Age around the start of the 2nd millennium BC and led to a rapid and massive migration of peoples from the region into distant parts of Europe and Asia.", "A vast area of 16,178 km—Altai and Katun Natural Reserves, Lake Teletskoye, Mount Belukha, and the Ukok Plateau—comprises a natural UNESCO World Heritage Site entitled Golden Mountains of Altai. As stated in the UNESCO description of the site, \"the region represents the most complete sequence of altitudinal vegetation zones in central Siberia, from steppe, forest-steppe, mixed forest, subalpine vegetation to alpine vegetation\". While making its decision, UNESCO also cited Russian Altai's importance for preservation of the globally endangered mammals, such as snow leopard and the Altai argali. Siberian ibex also live in these mountains. The Uvs Nuur basin is also a protected site. Violations of the protection status of Argali sheep and other species have been alleged, together with accusations of corruption, in the Altaigate Scandal. The incident arose from the death of several Russian VIPs in a helicopter crash early in 2009, purportedly on a poaching excursion.", "The Siberian Altai represents the northernmost region affected by the tectonic collision of India into Asia. Massive fault systems run through the area, including the Kurai fault zone and the recently identified Tashanta fault zone. These fault systems are typically thrusts or right lateral strike-slip faults, some of which are tectonically active. Rock types in the mountains are typically granites and metamorphic schists, and some are highly sheared near to fault zones.", "Although earthquakes are generally rare occurrences, on 27 September 2003 a very large earthquake measuring M 7.3 occurred in the Chuya Basin area to the south of the Altai region. This earthquake and its aftershocks devastated much of the region, causing $10.6 million in damage (USGS) and wiping out the village of Beltir.", "Authorities cited:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gold bracteates from the Migration Period.", "Motifs.", "Typology.", "Corpus.", "Early medieval bracteates." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Gold bracteates commonly denote a certain type of jewelry, made mainly in the 5th to 7th century AD, represented by numerous gold specimens. Bead-rimmed and fitted with a loop, most were intended to be worn suspended by a string around the neck, supposedly as an amulet. The gold for the bracteates came from coins paid as peace money by the Roman Empire to their Northern Germanic neighbors.", "Many of the bracteates feature ruler portraits of Germanic kings with characteristic hair that is plaited back and depictions of figures from Germanic mythology influenced to varying extents by Roman coinage while others feature entirely new motifs. The motifs are commonly those of Germanic mythology and some are believed to be Germanic pagan icons giving protection or for divination. Often depicted is a figure with a horse, birds and sometimes a spear – that some scholars interpret as a representation of the Germanic god Wodan – and aspects of the figure that would later appear in 13th century depictions as Odin such as the Poetic Edda. For this reason the bracteates are a target of iconographic studies by scholars interested in Germanic religion. Several bracteates also feature runic alphabet inscriptions (a total of 133 inscriptions on bracteates are known, amounting to more than a third of the entire Elder Futhark corpus). Numerous Bracteates feature swastikas as a common motif.", "The typology for bracteates divides them into several letter-named categories, a system introduced in an 1855 treatise by the Danish numismatist Christian Jürgensen Thomsen named \"Om Guldbracteaterne og Bracteaternes tidligste Brug som Mynt\" and finally defined formally by the Swedish numismatist Oscar Montelius in his 1869 treatise \"Från jernåldern\":", "More than 1,000 Migration Period bracteates of type A-, B-, C-, D-, and F are known in total (Heizmann & Axboe 2011). Of these, 135 (ca. 11%) bear Elder Futhark inscriptions which are often very short; the most notable inscriptions are found on the Seeland-II-C (offering traveling protection to the one who wears it), Vadstena (giving a listing of the Elder Futhark combined with a potential magical inscription) and Tjurkö (featuring an inscription in scaldic verse) bracteates. To these can be added the ca. 270 E-bracteates (Gaimster 1998), which belong to the Vendel Period and thus are slightly later than the other types. They were produced only on Gotland, and while the earlier bracteates (apart from a few English pieces) all were made from gold, many E-bracteates were made from silver or bronze. The German historian Karl Hauck, Danish archaeologist Morten Axboe and German runologist Klaus Düwel have worked since the 1960s to create a complete corpus of the early Germanic bracteates from the migration period, complete with large scale photographs and drawings. This has been published in three volumes in German named \"Die Goldbrakteaten der Völkerwanderungszeit. Ikonographischer Katalog\". A catalogue supplement is included in Heizmann & Axboe 2011.", "Silver bracteates (in German \"Brakteat\", also called \"hollow pennies\": \"Hohlpfennige\") are different from the migration period bracteates. They were the predominant regional coinage type minted in German-speaking areas (with the exception of Rhineland, Westphalia and the Middle Rhine region) beginning at around 1130 in Saxony and Thuringia and lasted well into the 14th century. From a currency point of view, bracteates were a typical \"regional penny\" currency of the time. Medieval silver bracteates are one-sided, embossed pennies from thin silver sheet, with a diameter of 22 to 45 mm. The coin image appears in a high relief, while the back remains hollow. The large area left much room for artistic representations. Usual were three denominations, a two-penny (\"Blaffert\") with elaborate image, a one-penny (\"Hohlpfennig\") with coarse image and hollow coins worth half a penny (\"Scherf\"). The bracteates were usually called back regularly, about once or twice a year, and must be exchanged for new coins (\"Renovatio Monetae\"). For example, receiving three new coins for four old coins. The withheld 4th coin was called strike money and was often the only tax revenue of the coin mint-master. This system worked like a demurrage: People wouldn't hoard their coins, because they lost their value. So, this money was used more as a medium of exchange than for storing value. This increased the velocity of money and stimulated the economy. This disruption disturbed the business interests of all those who were involved in the then money economy, namely the merchants who dominated in the German city leagues. The city leagues then introduced from 1413 a so-called \"Ewiger Pfennig\" (eternal penny). The last bracteates were \"traveller bracteates\", embossed medallions worn as a pendant, that served as a type of presence mark for pilgrims and were in use until the 17th century. In some cantons of Switzerland, bracteate-like rappen, heller, and angster were produced during the 18th century." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Course.", "History.", "Navigation.", "Head of navigation to Liebenwalde.", "Liebenwalde to Spandau.", "Spandau to Plaue.", "Plaue to Havelberg.", "Gallery." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The source of the Havel is located in the Mecklenburg Lake District, between Lake Müritz and the city of Neubrandenburg. There is no obvious visible source in the form of a spring, but the river originates in the lakes in the Diekenbruch near Ankershagen, close to and south-east of the watershed between the North and Baltic seas. From there the river initially flows southward, eventually joining the Elbe, which in turn flows into the North Sea. Every river north-east of it flows to the Baltic Sea. The river enters Brandenburg near the town of Fürstenberg. In its upper course and between Berlin and Brandenburg an der Havel the river forms several lakes. The Havel's main tributary is the Spree, which joins the Havel in Spandau, a western borough of Berlin, and is longer and delivers more water than the Havel itself above the confluence. The second largest tributary is the Rhin, named in the Middle Ages by settlers from the lower Rhine. At the southern end of the Ruppiner See, weirs can distribute the waters of the Rhin either east- or westwards, rejoining the Havel in two places apart along a straight line, and more than apart along the course of the river. The region around and north of the middle Havel is called the Havelland. It consists of sandy hills, often called \"Ländchen\", and low marshes, called \"luche\". A few kilometres of the river before its confluence with the Elbe near Havelberg are in the state of Saxony-Anhalt. Due to its minimal gradient it is susceptible to high waters in the Elbe. Unless in extreme floods, if the dike of the Elbe is submerged, the discharge of the Havel is improved by the \"Gnevsdorfer Vorfluter\" (something like \"Gnevsdorfer outfall\"). By this canal, the mouth of the Havel, that naturally would be near Havelberg, is placed 11 km downstream. As the course of the Elbe has a higher gradient than the Havel, the water level of the Havel in Havelberg can be kept 1.4 meters below the Elbe (at the junction of the traverse communicating canal, protected by a lock). Towns along the river include: Fürstenberg, Zehdenick, Oranienburg, Berlin, Potsdam, Werder, Ketzin, Brandenburg, Premnitz, Rathenow and Havelberg.", "In earlier Greek or Latin sources, such as Tacitus' Germania, the name of the river was also written as \"Habola, Habula, Havela\". The river name Havel is related to German \"Haff, habe, hafen\", MHG \"Hafen\" meaning port, harbor). The Slavic people who later moved into the Havel area were referred to in German sources as Heveller (occasionally as Havolane).", "The Havel is navigable from the Mecklenburg Lake District to its confluence with the Elbe. Whilst its upper reaches carry little other than leisure traffic, further downstream it provides an important link in the German commercial waterway network, carrying traffic from the Rhine and the North Sea to Berlin and Poland. From a navigation perspective, the Havel can be split into four sections with somewhat different characteristics and different administrative arrangements.", "The Havel is navigable to canoes and similar small craft from close to its source. Motor craft are prohibited above the first lock at, which links the Useriner See to the Großer Labussee. The stretch of the river between this lock and the junction with the Oder–Havel Canal is administered as part of the Obere–Havel–Wasserstraße, along with various connecting canals and waterways. From Zwenzow downstream to Liebenwalde is a distance of. In this distance the navigation passes through the lakes of Großer Labussee, Woblitzsee, Wangnitzsee, Großer Priepertsee, Ellbogensee, Ziernsee, Röblinsee, Baalensee, Schwedtsee and Stolpsee. It also descends through the locks at Wesenberg, Steinhavelmühle, Fürstenberg, Bredereiche, Regow, Zaaren, Schorfheide, Zehdenick, Bischofswerder and Liebenwalde. The Woblitzsee also gives access to the Kammer Canal, which allows vessels to reach Neustrelitz. The Ellbogensee links to the Müritz–Havel–Wasserstraße, which proceeds deeper into the Mecklenburg Lake District, eventually connecting with the Müritz–Elde–Wasserstraße. Other connected waterways are the, the and the Wentow Gewässer.", "The stretch of the river between the junction with the Oder–Havel Canal near Liebenwalde and the confluence with the Spree at Spandau is administered as part of the Havel–Oder–Wasserstraße, which also includes the Oder-Havel Canal. This stretch of the river forms part of the main inland waterway route from Germany to Poland and carries significant commercial traffic. This stretch of the river is long, and the river descends through two locks at and Spandau. At Hennigsdorf, downstream of Liebenwalde, the Havel Canal joins the river on the west bank. This canal connects to Paretz, on the Havel downstream, and was built in the 1950s to allow East German vessels to avoid the stretch of the river under the political control of West Berlin. Some further downstream, the Berlin-Spandau Ship Canal joins the river on the east bank, providing a connection to central Berlin without passing through the lock at Spandau. A car ferry crosses the river between Hakenfelde and Konradshöhe, in the Berlin boroughs of Spandau and Reinickendorf respectively. The last of this stretch of the river, from Hennigsdorf, passes through a series of interconnected lakes, including the large Tegeler See. The river enters Berlin before Spandau, having formed the boundary for the previous. During the partition of Germany, this formed the border between East Germany and West Berlin, and border control points were established for vessels navigating the river.", "The stretch of the river between the confluence with the Spree at Spandau and the junction with the Elbe–Havel Canal at Plaue is administered as part of the Lower Havel–Waterway, which also includes the stretch of river downstream to the confluence with the Elbe. Between Spandau and Plaue, the river forms part of the main inland waterway route from the Rhine and the west of Germany, and from Hamburg and the North Sea ports, to both Berlin and Poland. It thus carries a considerable amount of commercial traffic. South of Spandau, the river widens into a wide lake, including a large arm known as the Großer Wannsee, which due to its proximity to Berlin can be very busy with leisure craft. The island of Pfaueninsel is also a feature of this stretch of the river. Several of Berlin's ferries cross these waters, carrying passengers and tourists. The Teltow Canal joins the river from the east via the Griebnitzsee just before the city reaches the city of Potsdam, providing an alternative route to the Oder–Spree Canal avoiding central Berlin. The Griebnitz Canal provides a short cut for smaller vessels from the Griebnitzsee to the Großer Wannsee. At Potsdam the navigation splits into two channels. The Havel, here known as the Potsdamer Havel, takes a route south-west through Potsdam and the Templiner See to the Schwielowsee, then north-west to Paretz, whilst the Sacrow–Paretz Canal takes a shorter route due east to Paretz, saving some compared to the Potsdamer Havel. The Potsdamer Havel is crossed by the Kiewitt Ferry in Potsdam itself, and by the Caputh Ferry at the entrance to the Schweilowsee. At Paretz the two channels join up again, as does the Havel Canal from further upstream. Just downstream of Paretz, the river is crossed by the Ketzin Cable Ferry. At Brandenburg an der Havel, the navigation again splits into two routes. Commercial shipping descends through a lock into the Silo Canal that passes to the north of the city centre. Leisure craft pass through the centre of the city, using the short Brandenburg City Canal, a smaller lock, and a stretch of the river. Both routes rejoin in the linked lakes of Breitling See and Plauer See, which leads up to Plaue.", "Like the preceding stretch of the river, the stretch from Plaue to the confluence with the Elbe at Havelberg is administered as part of the Lower Havel–Waterway. Unlike the previous stretch, this stretch carries considerably less commercial traffic. Vessels heading to or from the Rhine and the west of Germany take the Elbe–Havel Canal at Plaue. Whilst the lower reaches of the Havel provide the most direct route to Hamburg and the North Sea ports, variable water levels in the Elbe affect those in the lower Havel, and together these can restrict navigation. A less direct, but more reliable route is available via the Elbe–Havel Canal, the Magdeburg Water Bridge, the Mittelland Canal and the Elbe Lateral Canal. This stretch of the river descends through locks at Bahnitz, Rathenow, Grütz, Garz and Havelberg. At Rathenow there are two channels, each with a lock. North of Plaue, the river is crossed by the Pritzerbe Ferry.", "<BR" ] }